THE  STANDARD 
DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 

HISTORY,  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  BIOG- 
RAPHY, GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ART,  GOV- 
ERNMENT, POLITICS,  INDUSTRY,  INVENTION, 
COMMERCE,  SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  NATURAL 
HISTORY,   STATISTICS   AND   MISCELLANY 


EDITED   BY 

HENRY   W.  RUOFF,  M.  A.,  D.  C.   L., 

Editor  of  "Century  Book  of  Facts,"  "Universal  Manual  of 

Ready  Reference,"  "Leaders  of  Men,"  "The  Capitals 

of  the  World,"  "Masters  of  Achievement,"  Etc. 


THE   FRONTIER  PRESS  COMPANY 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
1911 


AS5 


Copyright,  1908, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER  PRESS  COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1909, 
BY  THE   FRONTIER   PRESS  COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1910, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER  PRESS  COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1911, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER   PRESS  COMPANY. 


AU  rights  reserved. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


IN  the  year  1900,  the  editor  of  this  volume  presented  to  the  public  a  more  or 
less  comprehensive  book  of  general  information — THE  CENTURY  BOOK 
OF  FACTS  —  which  has  since  found  a  place  in  upward  of  half  a  million 
American  homes.  This  immense  circulation  would  seem  to  be  conclusive  that  a 
work  of  this  type  meets  with  the  intelligent  approval  of  a  large  contingent  of  the 
book-buying  public.  There  is  additional  evidence,  however,  that  the  demand  for 
comprehensive,  concise,  reliable,  up-to-date,  books  of  reference  and  instruction, 
in  almost  every  department  of  knowledge,  is  becoming  more  insistent.  And  it 
is  in  consequence  of  this  demand,  as  well  as  the  desire  of  the  editor  to  enlarge 
and  improve  and  standardize  his  original  plan,  that  the  present  work  has  been 
prepared. 

The  present  work  has  been  built  entirely  anew,  guided  by  the  defects  and 
limitations  of  other  books  of  reference,  to  be  sure,  but  chiefly  in  the  light  of  the 
advances  of  the  past  eight  years.  It  is  divided  into  Ten  Books,  covering  the 
entire  range  of  general  knowledge,  so  classified  as  to  bring  to  the  reader  or  con- 
suiter  the  essentials  of  many  diverse  subjects  in  the  most  direct  and  expeditious 
manner.  Numerous  tabulations  have  been  introduced  which  in  themselves  will 
be  found  valuable  substitutes  for  volumes,  even,  along  the  same  lines. 

The  aim  has  been  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  needs  of  all  classes  of  readers — to 
the  home,  to  the  school,  to  the  office,  to  the  library.  Live,  practical,  every-day 
information,  touching  the  manifold  interests  of  the  day,  has  been  given  a  place 
alongside  the  previously  recorded  facts  of  history,  literature,  science,  industry 
biography,  and  achievement.  The  past  has  been  linked  with  the  present  in 
such  fashion  as  to  make  the  survey  of  the  world's  progress  at  once  complete  and 
concise. 

Many  hundreds  of  volumes  have  been  laid  under  tribute  to  complete  the 
present  work,  and  much  valuable  assistance  has  been  rendered  by  many  persons 
throughout  the  entire  country,  both  by  suggestion  and  contribution.  To  Miss 
Susan  F.  Chase,  M.  A.,  Pd.  D.,  and  Miss  Helen  L.  Dunston,  of  the  Buffalo  State 
Normal  School,  in  particular,  the  credit  is  due  for  the  best  features  in  the  depart- 
ments of  Literature  and  Language,  respectively. 

While  an  earnest  effort  has  been  made  to  attain  a  minimum  of  error  in 
the  succeeding  pages,  it  is  too  much  to  expect  that  all  errors  and  inconsistencies 
have  been  removed.  In  so  vast  an  array  of  facts  some  error  is  inevitable. 
This  is  due  to  a  multitude  of  causes, —  chief  of  which  is  the  absence  of  agree- 
ment among  the  very  highest  so-called  authorities  and  the  lack  of  uniformity 
in  many  statistical  tabulations.  We  shall  welcome,  therefore,  any  intelligent 
criticism  that  will  enable  us  to  give  to  this  work  the  greatest  possible  accuracy 
and  usefulness. 

223781 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


FIRST  BOOK 
HISTORY 

DICTIONARY  OF  HISTORY  —  Concise  Histories  op  Countries  and  States:  Alabama  — 
Argentine  Republic  —  Arkansas  —  Austria-Hungary  —  Belgium  —  Brazil  —  Cali- 
fornia —  Canada  —  Chile  —  China  —  Colorado  —  Connecticut  —  Cuba  —  Delaware 

—  Denmark  —  Florida  —  France  —  Georgia  —  German  Empire  —  Great  Britain  — 
Greece  —  Idaho  —  Illinois  —  Indiana  —  Iowa  —  Italy  —  Japan  —  Kansas  —  Ken- 
tucky —  Maine  —  Maryland  —  Massachusetts  — ■  Mexico  —  Michigan  —  Minnesota  — 
Mississippi  —  Missouri  —  Montana  —  Nebraska  —  Netherlands  —  Nevada  —  New 
Hampshire  —  New  Jersey  —  New  York  —  North  Carolina  —  North  Dakota  — 
Norway  —  Ohio  —  Oklahoma  —  Oregon  —  Pennsylvania  —  Persia  —  Portugal  — 
Rhode  Island  —  Rome  —  Russia  —  Servia  —  South  Carolina  —  South  Dakota  — 
Spain  —  Sweden  —  Switzerland  —  Tennessee  —  Texas  — ■  Turkey  —  United  States  — 
Utah  —  Vermont  —  Virginia  —  Washington  —  West  Virginia  —  Wisconsin  —  Wyom- 
ing—EVENTS  OF  HUMAN  PROGRESS  —  GREAT  BATTLES  —  GREAT  WARS  — 
IMPORTANT  TREATIES  —  OUTLINES  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  —  BISHOPS 
AND  POPES  OF  ROME  —  RUINS  —  RULERS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS, 
PAST  AND  PRESENT  —  HISTORICAL  ALLUSIONS  AND  TABULATIONS. 

SECOND   BOOK 
LANGUAGE 

The  English  Language  —  Use  op  Capital  Letters  —  Punctuation  —  Right  Use  of  Words 

—  Figures  op  Speech  —  Synonyms  —  Letter  Writing  —  Words  and  Phrases  from  the 
Classic  and  Modern  Languages  —  Abbreviations  —  Mispronounced  Words  —  Forms 
of  English  Composition  —  Travels  —  Memoirs  —  Biography  —  History  —  News  — ■ 
Fiction  —  Short  Story  —  Parables  — ■  Allegories  —  Description  —  Exposition  — 
Essays  —  Editorials  —  Reviews  —  Criticisms  —  Argument  —  Addresses  —  Lectures 

—  Orations  —  Sermons. 

THIRD    BOOK 
LITERATURE 

Preliminary  View  of  Literature  —  Oriental  Literature  —  Literature  of  India  — 
Persia  —  China  —  The  Hebrews  —  Egypt  —  Phenicia  —  Assyrl^  —  Arabia  —  Greece 

—  Rome  —  Scandinavia  —  Germany  —  France  —  Italy  —  Spain  —  Russia  —  England 

—  America  —  List  of  Books  for  Children's  Library  —  Family  Libraries  —  Books 
AND  Authors,  Classified  —  Famous  Poems,  Authors  and  First  Lines  —  Pen  Names 
of  Noted  Writers  —  Mythology  -—  Names  in  Fiction,  Literary  Plots,  and  Allusions 

FOURTH   BOOK 
BIOGRAPHY 

Great  Men  and  Women  op  the  Past  —  Great  Men  and  Women  op  the  Present  —  Authors 

—  Statesmen  —  Warriors  —  Rulers  —  Jurists  —  Lawyers  —  Physicians  —  Scien- 
tists —  Educators  —  Sculptors  —  Painters  —  Architects  —  Preachers  —  Invent- 
ors —  Discoverers  —  Patriots  —  Editors  —  Philanthropists  —  Actors  —  Musicians 

—  Financiers  —  Religious  Leaders  —  Philosophers  —  Mathematicians  —  Astron- 
omers —  Artisans  —  Orators  —  Engineers  —  Merchants  —  Geniuses  —  Savants  — 
and  Others. 

FIFTH   BOOK 

GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 

Selected  Topics  in  Physical,  Descriptive,  and  Political  Geography  —  Continents  — 
Oceans  —  Rivers  —  Mountains  —  Lakes  —  Countries  —  States  —  Cities  —  Battle- 
fields —  Castles  —  Cathedrals  —  Churches  —  Monuments  —  Obelisks  —  Palaces  — 
Shrines  —  Museums  —  Art  Galleries  —  Historic  Buildings  —  Historic  Ruins  — 
Fashionable  Resorts  —  Architectural  Structures  —  Theaters  —  Tabulations. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS  6 

SIXTH    BOOK 
GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 

Government  of  the  Principal  Countries  of  the  World  —  Government  of  the  States  of 
THE  Union  —  Government  of  Territories  and  Insular  Possessions  —  Government 
of  Cities  —  Abyssinia  —  Afghanistan  —  Alabama  —  Argentine  Republic  —  Arizona 

—  Arkansas  —  Austria-Hungary  —  Belgium  —  Bolivia  —  Brazil  —  Bulgaria  —  Cali- 
fornia — •  Chile  —  China  —  Colombia  —  Colorado  —  Connecticut  —  Corea  —  Cuba 

—  Delaware  — •  Denmark  —  District  of  Columbia  —  Dominican  Republic  — Ecua- 
dor —  England  —  Florida  —  France  —  Georgia  —  Germany  —  Great  Britain 
AND   Ireland  —  Greece  —  Hayti  —  Idaho  —  Illinois  —  India,  Empire  of  —  Indiana 

—  Iowa  — ■  Ireland  —  Italy  —  Japan  —  Kansas  —  Kentucky  —  Liberia  —  Louisi- 
ana — -  Maine  —  Maryland  —  Massachusetts  —  Mexico  —  Montana  —  Montenegro  — 
Morocco  —  Nebraska  —  Netherlands  —  Nevada  —  New  Hampshire  —  New  Jersey  — 
New  Mexico  —  New  York  —  New  Zealand  —  North  Carolina  —  North  Dakota  — 
Norway  —  Ohio  —  Oklahoma  —  Oman  —  Oregon  —  Panama  —  Paraguay  —  Pennsyl- 
vania —  Persia  —  Peru  —  Portugal  —  Prussia  —  Rhode  Island  —  Rumania  —  Rus- 
sia —  Scotland  —  Servia  —  Siam  —  South  Carolina  —  South  Dakota  —  Spain  — 
Sweden  —  Switzerland  —  Tennessee  —  Texas  —  Turkey  —  United  States  of 
America  —  Uruguay  —  Utah  —  Venezuela  —  Vermont  —  Virginia  —  Washington  — 
West  Virginia  —  Wisconsin  —  Wyoming  —  Zanzibar  —  Tabulations  and  Statistics. 


SEVENTH    BOOK 
INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 

Agriculture  —  Banks  —  Building  —  Commerce  — ■  Commercial  Products  —  Finance  — • 
Fisheries  —  Forestry  —  Imports  and  Exports  —  Insurance  —  Inventions  —  Iron 
AND  Steel  —  Labor  Organizations  —  Live  Stock  Industry  —  Manufactures  — 
Merchant  Marine  —  Mining  —  Money  —  Occupations  —  Railroads  —  Transporta- 
tion —  Trusts  —  World  Marts  —  World's  Staples  —  Tabulations  and  Statistics. 


EIGHTH    BOOK 
SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 

Branches  of  Human  Knowledge  —  Colleges  and  Universities  —  Educational  Systems 
and  Topics  —  Fine  Arts  —  Learned  Societies  —  Music  —  Painting  — •  Religions  and 
Religious  Denominations  —  Sculpture  —  Topics  in  Physical  Science,  Medical 
Science,  Biological  Science,  Electrical  and  Mechanical  Science  —  Scientific, 
Educational,  and  Religious  Statistics. 


NINTH    BOOK 
NATURAL  HISTORY 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM:  Birds,  Insects,  Mammals,  Reptiles  —  MINERAL  KINGDOM: 
Coals  and  Clays,  Gases,  Fossils,  Liquids,  Metals,  Precious  Stones,  Rocks,  Soils  — 
VEGETABLE  KINGDOM :  Cereals  and  Bulbs,  Grasses,  Flowers,  Forests,  Fruits  — 
CURIOSITIES  AND  WONDERS.  . 


TENTH   BOOK 
MISCELLANY 

Amusements  —  Weights  and  Measures  —  Names  and  Name  Origins  —  Vital  Statistics  — 
Births,  Deaths,  Crimes  —  Fraternal  Organizations  —  Disasters  and  Calamities, 
Fires,  Floods,  Earthquakes,  Pestilences  —  Burial  and  Mourning  Customs  —  Holi- 
days—  Weather  Signals  —  Poisons  —  Popular  Names  of  Cities  —  Miscellaneous 
Facts  and  Figures. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

Henry  Woldmar  Ruoff,  the  well-known  American  journalist 
and  author,  and  the  editor  of  The  Standard  Dictionary  of  Facts, 
was  born  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at 
Indiana  University  in  1890.  After  two  years  of  post-graduate 
study  in  history,  philosophy,  and  comparative  religions  at 
Harvard,  he  spent  two  years  in  economics,  politics,  and  com- 
parative jurisprudence  at  Columbian  (now  George  Washington) 
University,  securing  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  Law  in  1901, 
and  supplementing  his  education  at  Oxford,  the  University  of 
Berlin,  and  ficole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques,  Paris.  In 
1S92-93,  he  was  an  instructor  in  psychology,  logic,  and  ethics  at 
Pennsylvania  State  College.  In  1904,  Dr.  Ruoff  became  an 
associate  editor  of  the  American  Spectator,  in  1906  of  Ridgway's, 
and  during  1907  he  acted  as  editor  of  the  Nashville  Tenncssean. 
He  has  traveled  very  extensively  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
and  is  a  member  of  the  National  Geographical  Society,  and  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science.  Dr. 
Ruoff  is  probably  the  leading  and  best  known  editor  of  reference 
books,  among  his  works  being  The  Century  Book  of  Facts; 
Leaders  of  Men;  The  Capitals  of  the  World;  Syllabus  of  American 
Politics,  and  Masters  of  Achievement,  as  well  as  the  present  volume. 
His  books  have  come  to  be  appreciated  as  models  of  compre- 
hensiveness, accuracy  and  breadth  of  view,  with  the  result  that 
their  combined  sale  has  reached  a  total  of  over  one  million 
copies.  The  constantly  increasing  demand  bears  witness  that 
the  eagerness  with  which  they  are  accepted  is  only  equalled  by 
the  satisfaction  with  which  they  are  used. 

The  Publishers. 


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HISTORY 


Abdication  is  the  act  of  giving  up  an  of- 
fice. It  is  sometimes  compulsory^  and  some- 
times the  result  of  vexation  and  disappointment. 
The  following  monarchs  have  abdicated : 

Abdul  Hamid  II.  (forced) 1909 

Amadeus  1.  (duke  of  Aosla)  of  Spain 1873 

Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  (tmiH) 1849 

Charles  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia 1802 

Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (forced) 1808 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany, 1556 

Charles  X.  of  France  (forced) 1830 

Christina  of  Sweden 1654 

Diocletian  and  Maximian, 305,  308 

Emperor  of  Corea 1907 

FeUpe  V.  of  Spain 1724 

Ferdinand  of  Austria 1848 

Francis  II.  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (forced), 1860 

James  II.  of  England  (forced) 1689 

Louis  Bonaparte  of  Holland .1810 

Louis  Philippe  of  France  (forced) 1848 

Ludwig  of  Bavaria  (forced) 1848 

Manuel  II.  of  Portugal  (forced) 1910 

Matilda  (Lady  of  England) 1154 

Milan  of  Servia, 1889 

Napoleon  I.  of  France  (forced) 1814 

Napoleon  III.  of  France  (forced) 1870 

Oscar  II.  of  Sweden 1907 

Otho  of  Greece  (forced) 1862 

Pedro  II.  of  Brazil  (forced) 1889 

Poniatowski  of  Poland  (forced), 1795 

Richard  II.  of  England  (forced) 1399 

Stanislaus  Leszczinski  (forced) 1735 

Victor  Amadeus  of  Sardinia 1730 

Victor  Emmanuel, 1821 

Several  dethroned  without  even  the  mocking  show 
of  abdication,  like  Edward  II.  of  England  (1327); 
Henry  VI.  of  England  (1471);  Emperor  of  Corea  (1907); 
Abdul  Hamid  II..  Manuel  II..  etc. 

Abyssinia.  The  oldest  accounts  of  the 
Abyssinians  are  full  of  fables,  but  seem  sufficient 
to  prove  that  they  attained  some  degree  of  civili- 
zation even  in  remote  antiquity.  Christianity 
was  introduced  about  the  middle  of  the  Fourth 
Century,  and  soon  prevailed  extensively.  Axum 
was  at  that  time  the  capital.  Two  centuries 
later  the  Abyssinians  were  powerful  enough  to 
invade  Arabia,  and  conquer  part  of  Yemen. 
In  the  Tenth  Century  a  Jewish  Princess  over- 
threw the  reigning  dynasty,  the  surviving  repre- 
sentative of  which  fled  to  Shoa.  After  three 
centuries  of  confusion  the  empire  was  restored 
under  Icon  Amlac,  and  some  progress  was  made 
in  improvement.  Early  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury the  Abyssinians  entered  into  close  relations 
with  the  Portuguese.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  Portuguese  missionaries  the  royal  family 
adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  the  old 
Coptic  Chyrch  was  formally  united  to  the  See 
of  Rome.  The  people  and  ecclesiastics  obsti- 
nately resisted  the  innovation ;  the  emperor  gave 
way;  and  ultimately,  in  1632,  the  Romish 
priests  were  expelled  or  put  to  death.  Though 
Christianity  is  still  the  professed  religion  of 
Abyssinia,  it  exists  only  in  its  lowest  form,  and 
is  little  more  than  ceremonial.  The  Church  is 
national  and  independent,  but  the  visible  head, 
or  Abuna  ("our  father"),  is  ordained  by  the  Cop- 
tic Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  The  doctrines  of 
the  Abyssinian  coincide  with  those  of  the  Coptic 
Church,  especially  in  the  monophysite  heresy; 
but  several  peculiar  rites  are  observed,  including 


the  rite  of  circumcision  and  observance  of  the 
Mosaic  laws  respecting  food,  etc.;  love-feasts, 
and  adult  baptism.  The  oldest  Abyssinian 
churches  are  hewn  out  of  rocks.  The  modern 
churches  are  mostly  round  or  conical  buildings, 
thatched  with  straw  and  surrounded  by  pillars 
of  cedar.  Statues  and  bas-reliefs  are  not  toler- 
ated in  churches,  but  paintings  are  numerous. 
In  1860,  King  Theodore  (born  1818,  crowned 
1855)  felt  himself  insulted  by  the  British  Con- 
sul, whom  he  imprisoned  with  some  missionaries. 
A  large  English  force  under  Lord  Napier  then 
came  to  Abyssinia  and  captured  the  strong 
fortress  of  Magdala  in  April,  1868.  On  this 
Theodore  committed  suicide.  After  an  interval 
of  anarchy  Prince  Kassai  assumed  power  as 
Johannes  II.,  in  1872.  He  died  in  1889,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Menelek  II.  Abyssinia  then 
practically  became  an  Italian  protectorate. 
During  1895  a  war  prevailed  between  Abyssinia 
and  Italy,  which  was  closed  in  1896.  In  1906, 
an  agreement  between  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy,  as  to  their  interests  in  Abyssinia,  was 
concluded.  In  1907,  a  decree  was  issued  by 
Menelek  II.  announcing  the  formation  of  a  cabi- 
net on  European  lines. 

Abyssinian  War,  TJie.  Between  the 
British  and  Theodore,  King  of  Abyssinia.  This 
expedition  (for  the  release  of  missionaries,  Cap- 
tain Crawford,  and  others)  was  under  Sir  R. 
Napier,  who  joined  the  army  at  Senafe,  January, 
1868.  Colonel  Phayre  defeated  Theodore  at 
Magdala,  10th  of  April,  which  was  bombarded 
and  taken  on  13th  of  April.  The  return  of 
the  British  army  commenced  18th  of  April, 
1868. 

Aclifiean  League,  Tiie.  A  confeder- 
acy of  the  twelve  towns  of  Achsea.  It  was  dis- 
solved by  Alexander  the  Great,  but  reorganized 
B.  C.  280,  and  again  dissolved  B.  C.  147.  The 
second  of  these  leagues,  founded  at  Megalopolis, 
contained  all  the  chief  cities  of  Peloponnesus. 
It  contended  with  the  Macedonians  and  the  Ro- 
mans for  the  liberty  of  Greece ;  but,  being  beaten 
at  Scarphea  by  Metellus,  and  at  Leucopgtra  by 
Mummius,  it  dissolved  soon  after  the  taking  of 
Corinth. 

The  twelve  cities  of  Acha>a,  in  Ionia,  were 
founded  by  the  Heraclldae. 

Aciisean  War,  Tiie.  Roman  am- 
bassadors at  Corinth  enjoin  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Achaean  League  and  are  insulted  (B.  C. 
147).  Kritolaos,  general  of  the  league,  at  once 
besieged  Heracleia  (B.  C.  146),  but  was  defeated 
at  Scarphea  by  Metellus,  and  slew  himself. 
Diseos,  successor  of  Kritolaos,  was  defeated  at 
Leucopgtra  by  Mummius  (B.  C.  146);  Corinth 
was  then  destroyed ;  and  all  Greece  was  erected 
into  a  Roman  Province,  September,  146. 

Actiac  War,  The.  This  arose  out  of 
the  rupture  between  Octavian  and  Antony,  two 
of  the  Triumvirs  (B.  C.  33.)  Octavian  declared 
war  against  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  and  de- 


10 


•THE  aTANblARb   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


feated  Antony/A  A!>*iii?^v"  ^d." Sepberribc;',  p.-C. 
31.  Both  Cleopatra  and  Antony  killed  'them- 
selves. Alexandria  was  taken  by  Octavian, 
August  30th  (B.  C.  33),  and  Egypt  was  made  a 
Roman  Province,  B.  C.  30. 

^^tollan  Confederacy,  The,  B.  C. 
323,  called  into  existence  by  the  Lamian  War. 
The  states  used  to  assemble  annually  in  the 
autumn  at  Thermum,  and  the  assembly  was 
called  the  Pansetolicon.  B.  C.  189.  the  ^tolian 
states  were  subjected  to  the  Romans. 

The  object  of  the  Lamian  War  was  (on  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great)  to  liberate  Greece 
from  Macedonia.  The  Athenians  were  the  prin- 
cipal insurgents,  but  were  defeated  in  322  at 
Cranon,  by  Antipater. 

^Etolian  League,  The.  ^tolia  joined 
the  Greek  confederates  in  the  Lamian  War, 
B.  C.  313,  but  the  ^tolian  I^eague  rose  into  no 
great  prominence  till  the  Macedonian  War  (B.  C. 
214),  when  Sparta  joined  it,  and  it  became  the 
antagonist  of  the  Achaean  League,  which  sided 
with  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.  It  was  the  unwise 
poUcy  of  the  ^tolian  League  which  made  Rome 
master  of  Greece. 

Afghanistan.  The  history  of  Afghanis- 
tan belongs  almost  to  modem  times.  The  col- 
lective name  of  the  country  itself  is  of  modern 
and  external  origin  (Persian).  In  1738,  the  coun- 
try was  conquered  by  the  Persians  under  Nadir 
Shah.  On  his  death,  in  1747,  Ahmed  Shah,  one 
of  his  generals,  obtained  the  sovereignty  of 
Afghanistan,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  dy- 
nasty which  lasted  about  eighty  years.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  Dost  Mohammed,  the  ruler  of 
Cabul,  had  acquired  a  preponderating  influence 
in  the  country.  On  account  of  his  dealings  with 
the  Russians  the  British  resolved  to  dethrone 
him  and  restore  Shah  Shuja,  a  former  ruler.  In 
April,  1839,  a  British  army  under  Sir  John 
Keane,  entered  Afghanistan,  occupied  Cabul, 
and  placed  Shah  Shuja  on  the  throne,  a  force  of 
8,000  being  left  to  support  the  new  sovereign. 
SirW.  MacNaghten  remained  as  envoy  at  Cabul, 
with  Sir  Alexander  Burnes  as  assistant  envoy. 
The  Afghans  soon  organized  a  wide-spread  in- 
surrection, which  came  to  a  head  on  November 
2,  1841,  when  Burnes  and  a  number  of  British 
officers,  besides  women  and  children,  were  mur- 
dered, MacNaghten  being  murdered  not  long 
after.  The  other  British  leaders  now  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Afghans,  at  whose  head  was 
Akbar,  son  of  Dost  Mohammed,  agreeing  to 
withdraw  the  forces  from  the  country,  while  the 
Afghans  were  to  furnish  them  with  provisions 
and  escort  them  on  their  way.  On  January  6, 
1842,  the  British  left  Cabul  and  began  their  most 
disastrous  retreat.  The  cold  was  intense,  they 
had  almost  no  food  —  for  the  treacherous 
Afghans  did  not  fulfill  their  promises  —  and  day 
after  day  they  were  assailed  by  bodies  of  the 
enemy.  By  the  13th,  20,000  persons,  including 
camp-followers,  women,  and  children,  were  de- 
stroyed. Some  were  kept  as  prisoners,  but  only 
one  man,  Dr.  Brydon,  reached  Jelalabad,  which, 
as  well  as  Kandahar,  was  still  held  by  British 
troops.  In  a  few  months  General  Pollock,  with 
a  fresh  army  from  India,  retook  Cabul  and  soon 
finished  the  war.  Shah  Shuja  having  been  as- 
sassinated. Dost  Mohammed  again  obtained  the 


throne  of  Cabul,  and  acquired  extensive  power  in 
Afghanistan.  He  joined  with  the  Sikhs  against 
the  British,  but  afterward  made  an  offensive 
and  defensive  alliance  with  the  latter.  He  died 
in  1863,  having  nominated  his  son  Shere  Ali  his 
successor.  Shere  Ali  entered  into  friendly  re- 
lations with  the  British,  but  in  1878,  having  re- 
pulsed a  British  envoy  and  refused  to  receive  a 
British  mission  (a  Russian  mission  being  mean- 
time at  his  court),  war  was  declared  against  him, 
and  the  British  troops  entered  Afghanistan. 
They  met  with  comparatively  little  resistance, 
the  ameer  fled  to  Turkestan,  where  he  soon  after 
died;  and  his  son  Yakoob  Khan  having  suc- 
ceeded him  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  British 
(at  Gandamak,  May,  1879),  in  which  a  certain 
extension  of  the  British  frontier,  the  control  by 
Britain  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Afghanistan, 
and  the  residence  of  a  British  envoy  in  Cabul, 
were  the  chief  stipulations.  The  members  of  the 
mission  were  again  treacherously  attacked  and 
slain,  and  troops  were  again  sent  into  the  coun- 
try. Cabul  was  again  occupied,  and  Kandahar 
and  Ghazni  were  also  relieved;  while  Yakoob 
Khan  was  sent  to  imprisonment  in  India.  In 
1880,  Abdur-Rahman,  a  grandson  of  Dost  Mo- 
hammed, was  recognized  by  Britain  as  emir  of 
the  country,  and  has  .since  been  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  British,  by  whom  he  is  subsidized. 
Encroachments  by  the  Russians  on  territory 
claimed  by  Afghanistan  almost  brought  about 
a  rupture  between  Britain  and  Russia  in  1885, 
and  led  to  the  delimitation  of  the  frontier  of 
Afghanistan  on  the  side  next  the  territory  now 
occupied  by  Russia.  In  1897,  a  punitive  ex- 
pedition was  again  sent  against  the  tribes  around 
the  Khyber  Pass,  who  disregarded  their  pledges. 
In  1905,  the  Ameer  ratified  a  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  agreeing  to  accept  the  advice  of  the  Brit- 
ish Government  in  regard  to  his  foreign  relations, 
and  was  guaranteed  against  unprovoked  ag- 
gressions on  his  dominions. 

Afghan  War,  The.  A  diplomatic  con- 
test between  France  and  Russia  induced  Dost 
Mohammed  of  Cabul  to  invite  the  friendship  of 
Great  Britain  in  1836.  This  led  to  a  diplomatic 
contest  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  re- 
specting Afghanistan.  Dost  Mohammed  joined 
Persia,  and  war  was  proclaimed  against  him  at 
Simla  by  Lord  Auckland,  Governor-General  of 
India,  October  1,  1838.  Dost  Mohammed  gave 
himself  up  at  Cabul  to  Sir  W.  MacNaghten,  No- 
vember 3,  1840;  but  his  son  Akbar  Khan  com- 
pletely outwitted  General  Elphinstone  and  the 
envoy.  Sir  William  MacNaghten,  both  of  whom 
were  treacherously  put  to  death.  Negotiations 
for  quitting  Cabul  were  purposely  delayed  till 
winter  had  set  in;  and  then  the  whole  Brit- 
ish force,  which,  with  women  and  children 
amounted  to  20,000  souls,  were  as  treacherously 
destroyed  in  the  Khyber  Pass,  1842. 

African  War,  The.  The  first  African 
War  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  for  the 
restoration  of  Hiempsal  to  the  throne  of  Nu- 
mantia.  Ahenobarbus,  the  leader  of  the  Marian 
party  in  Africa,  had  dethroned  him,  but  Cneius 
Pompey  slew  Ahenobarbus,  and  restored  Hiemp- 
sal, B.  C.  81. 

The  second  African  War  was  between  Caesar 
and  Scipio,  B.  C.  46.     Caesar  defeated  the  party 


HISTORY 


11 


of  Pompey  at  Thapsus,  in  Africa,  and  thus  put 
an  end  to  the  Civil  War. 

The  third  African  War  was  undertaken  by  the 
Romans  against  Tacfarlnas,  a  Numidian,  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  Tacfarlnas,  having  collected 
a  large  gang  of  freebooters,  defied  for  some  years 
the  Roman  arms  in  Numidia,  but  was  ultimately 
overthrown  and  slain  by  Dolabella,  A.  D. 
17-24. 

The  fourth  African  War  was  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Vandals  in  Africa.  The  Vandals  under 
Genseric  took  possession  of  the  Roman  dominions 
in  Africa,  and  continued  masters  for  105  years 
(A.  D.  429-534).  Belisarius  was  sent  into  Africa 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian  to  win  back  the  Afri- 
can dominions,  and  he  utterly  overthrew  the 
Vandals,  took  Carthage  in  533,  and  returned  to 
Rome  in  triumph  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  fol- 
lowing, A.  D.  534. 

Agrarian  Agitation,  B.  C.  480.  The 
great  Roman  agrarian  agitation  was  set  on  foot 
by  Spurius  Cassius,  who  had  been  three  times 
consul.  To  win  popular  favor,  he  told  the  peo- 
ple that  the  Senate  ought  to  give  an  account  of 
the  land  taken  from  the  Volsci,  which  ought  to 
have  been  equally  divided  amongst  the  whole 
people  irrespective  of  rank.  The  Senate,  to  allay 
the  popular  clamor,  promised  to  give  the  matter 
their  best  consideration,  but  arrested  Cassius 
and  hurled  him  from  the  Tarpeian  Rock.  Things 
went  on  till  B.  C.  464,  when  Herdonius,  the  Sa- 
bine, got  possession  of  the  capital.  Then  the 
Senate  promised  to  pass  an  agrarian  law,  if  the 
people  would  eject  the  invaders.  The  invaders 
were  expelled,  but  it  was  not  till  B.  C.  365  that 
Licinius  Stolo,  the  plebeian  tribune,  got  a  law 
passed  making  it  penal  for  anyone  to  hold  more 
than  500  acres  of  the  public  lands. 

Alabama.  The  name,  derived  from  the 
Indians,  denotes  "Here  we  rest."  Originally  a 
part  of  Georgia,  the  country  included  in  Alabama 
and  Mississippi  was  organized  as  a  Territory  in 
1798.  In  1812,  that  part  of  Florida,  then  belong- 
ing to  Spain,  lying  between  the  Perdido  and 
Pearl  rivers  on  the  Gulf  Coast,  was  seized  by 
the  United  States  troops  and  annexed  to  the 
Territory.  Alabama  remained  a  Territory  after 
the  western  portion  was  admitted  as  a  State 
under  the  name  of  Mississippi,  and  was  itself 


admitted  as  a  State  in  1819.  On  January  11, 
1861,  the  Ordinance  of  Secession  was  adopted 
by  the  Secession  Convention,  and  on  February 
a  provisional  congress  met  at  Montgomery  and 
organized  the  Government  of  the  Confederate 
States.  Jefferson  Davis  was  inaugurated  Presi- 
dent of  the  Confederacy  at  Montgomery,  Febru- 
ary 18,  1861,  and  the  government  seat  was 
moved  from  Montgomery  to  Richmond  in  July, 
1861.  Mobile  was  finally  captured  by  the  Fed- 
erals, April  12,  1865,  and  on  May  4th  the  State 
was  included  in  the  surrender  made  by  General 
Richard  Taylor.  After  the  Confederate  sur- 
render, the  State  passed  under  the  phases  of  pro- 
visional and  military  government  until  1868, 
when  it  was  regularly  reconstituted  as  a  State 
in  the  Union.  In  1901,  a  Constitutional  Con- 
vention, called  to  regulate  negro  suffrage,  was  in 
session  from  May  21st  to  September  2d  at  Mont- 
gomery. On  November  11,  1901,  the  new  con- 
stitution was  ratified  by  popular  vote.  In  1907, 
a  notable  effort  was  made  by  Governor  Comer 
opposing  federal  interference  in  the  regulation 
of  the  railroads  of  the  State. 

Alamo,  Tiie,  a  mission  church  at  San 
Antonio,  in  what  is  now  Bexar  County,  Texas, 
converted  into  a  fort.  In  1836  it  was  occupied 
by  about  150  of  the  revolutionists  in  the  Texan 
War  of  Independence.  Though  attacked  by 
4,000  Mexicans  under  Santa  Ana,  the  Texans  held 
it  from  February  23d  to  March  6th,  when  Santa 
Ana  took  it  by  storm.  All  but  seven  of  the  gar- 
rison perished,  six  of  these  being  murdered  after 
their  surrender,  and  one  man  escaping  to  report 
the  affair.  In  this  garrison  were  the  celebrated 
David  Crockett,  and  Colonel  James  Bowie,  in- 
ventor of  the  bowie-knife.  The  memory  of  this 
massacre  became  an  incitement  to  the  Texans 
in  subsequent  encounters,  and  "  Remember  the 
Alamo!"  became  a  war-cry  in  their  struggle  for 
freedom. 

Alemanni,  a  confederacy  of  tribes  which 
appeared  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  in  the  Third 
Century,  and  for  long  gave  no  small  trouble  to 
Rome,  but  whose  incursions  were  arrested,  first 
by  Maximinus,  and  finally  by  Clovis  in  496,  who 
made  them  subject  to  the  Franks,  hence  the 
modern  names  in  French  for  Germany  and  the 
Germans. 


AMERICAN    BATTLES,   TABULATED 

Naval  engagements  are  indicated  by  italics;     *  means  that  it  was  a  drawn  battle;      t  means  a  general  estimate. 


Name  op  Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

Date 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

July      2,  1898 
Feb.    11,  1865 

Aguadores  (including  July  1st),     .    . 

Spanish 

Conf. 

Conf. 
-  Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

U.  S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.  S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

0 
6t 
4 
2 
142 
0 
5 
2 
0 
8 
4 
1 

2,6i6 

12 

9t 
25 

0 
352 

2 
20 

2 

0 
16 

8 

3 

9,4i6  • 

10 

31 

0 

0 

338 

3 

11 
8 
2 

32 
6 
0 

1,842 

30 
160 

May      5,  1864 

0 

Oct.     27,  1864 
Oct.       5,  1864 

Albemarle 

AUatoona 

0 

704 

Nov.    13,  1776 

Alfred-tra7isports, 

10 

May    28,  1781 
Jan.     29,  1814 

Alliance-squadron 

30 

14t 

March  2,  1815 
Oct.       2,  1863 
Aug.    12,  1776 
Marchl7,  1813 
Sept.   16.  1862 
Sept.   17,  1862 

America-Elizabeth 

Anderson's  Cross-Roads 

Andrea  Doria-Racehorse, 

Antelope-Zephyr 

Antietam  (continued), 

Antietam  (ended), 

13 

41 

3 

2 

9,399 

12 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


AMERICAN   BATTLES,  TABULATED  — Continued 


Date 


April 

9. 

1865 

Aug. 

14. 

1813 

July 

15, 

1862 

Jan. 

10, 

1863 

Jan. 

11. 

1S63 

Oct. 

12, 

1863 

Oct. 

13, 

1863 

Oct. 

9, 

1779 

July 

14, 

1813 

Sept. 
July 

23. 

1864 

22, 

1864 

Aug. 

3. 

1812 

Aug. 

3, 

1804 

Aug. 

7, 

1804 

Nov. 

29, 

1813 

Marchie, 

1865 

Feb. 

1, 

1864 

Oct. 

21, 

1861 

Keh. 

4, 

18«3 

Aug. 

5, 

1862 

Oct. 

4, 

1863 

Aug. 

27, 

1863 

Jan. 

29, 

1863 

June 

24, 

1813 

Nov. 

6, 

1861 

Nov. 

7, 

1861 

Aug. 

16, 

1777 

MarchlS, 

1865 

MarchlS, 

1865 

May 

26, 

1864 

May 

27, 

1864 

May 

28, 

1864 

May 

29, 

1864 

.May 

30, 

1864 

June 

9, 

1863 

Jan. 

11, 

1865 

July 

26, 

1864 

Oct. 

24, 

1864 

Oct. 

25, 

1864 

June 

25, 

1876 

May 

17, 

1863 

Aug. 

24, 

1814 

Feb. 

13, 

1862 

Oct. 

10, 

1863 

Sept. 

8. 

1862 

April 

3, 

1780 

June 

3, 

1776 

Sept. 

23, 

1779 

Oct. 

12. 

1800 

March31. 

1865 

Sept. 

11, 

1777 

June 

10, 

1864 

April 

29, 

1862 

Oct. 

14, 

1863 

Aug. 

4, 

1812 

Oct. 

19, 

1863 

l-'eb. 

22, 

1847 

Feb. 

23 

1847 

July 

21, 

1861 

Aug. 

29. 

1862 

Aug. 

30 

1862 

June 

17 

1775 

July 

1 

1863 

July 

7 

1862 

Oct. 

7 

1812 

Aug. 

16 

1780 

June 

11 

1898 

June 

12 

1898 

June 

13 

1898 

June 

14 

1898 

Nov. 

16 

1863 

Jan. 

27 

1814 

April 

23 

1864 

April 

13 

1813 

March   1 

1813 

Nov. 

20 

18.56 

Nov. 

21 

18.56 

Nov. 

22 

18.56 

April 

26 

1863 

Jan. 

14 

1863 

July 

7 

1777 

Aug. 

19 

1780 

Oct. 

19 

1864 

Aug. 

8 

1862 

Name  of  Battle 


Appomattox 

Argus-Pelican,  ....<.... 

Arkansas, 

Arkansas  Post  (continued),  .  . 
Arkansas  Post  (ended),  .... 
Arrow  Rock  (continued),    .    .    . 

Arrow  Rock  (ended), 

Assault  on  Savannah, 

Asp,  attack  on  the, 

Athens,  Ala 

Atlanta,  Hood's  first  sortie,  .  . 
Atlas-Planter  and  Pursuit,  .    .    . 

Attack  on  Tripoli 

Attack  on  Tripoli, 

Autosse ; 

Averysboro, 

Bachelor's  Creek, 

Ball's  Bluff 

Batesville 

Baton  Rouge 

Baxter's  Springs 

Bayou  Metea, 

Bear  River 

Beaver  Dam 

Belmont  (continued) 

Belmont  (ended) 

Bennington 

Bentonville  (continued),     .    .    . 

Bentonville  (ended), 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued), 
Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued), 
Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued), 
Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued), 
Bermuda  Hundreds  (ended),.    . 

Beverly  Ford 

Beverly,  W.  Va., 

Big  Creek, 

Big  Blue  (continued), 

Big  Blue  (ended),   *. 

Big  Horn 

Black  River 

Bladensburg 

Blooming  Gap, 

Blue  Springs, 

Boat  attack  on  Charleston,   .    .    . 

Boats-Black  Snake 

Boats-tender  to  Nautilus,  .  .  . 
Bonhomme  Richard-Serapis,   .    . 

Boston-Berceau, 

Boydton  and  White  Oak  Road, 

Brandywine, 

Brice's  Cross-Roads,  Miss.,     .    . 

Bridgeport,  Ala 

Bristow  Station, 

Brownstown, 

Buckland's  Mills 

Buena  Vista  (continued),   .    .    . 

Buena  Vista  (ended) 

Bull  Run 

Bull  Run  No.  2  (continued),  .  . 
Bull  Run  No.  2  (ended),     .    .    . 

Bunker  Hill 

Cabin  Creek 

Cache  Swamp 

Caledonia  and  Detroit-boats,    .    . 

Camden 

Camp  McCalla  (continued),  .  . 
Camp  McCalla  (continued),  .  . 
Camp  McCalla  (continued),  .  . 
Camp  McCalla  (ended),  .... 

Campbell  Station, 

Camp  Defiance 

Cane  River 

Canonnier-Medusa 

Canonnier-Warspitc, 

Canton  Forts  (continued),  .  .  . 
Canton  Forts  (continued),  .    .    . 

Canton  Forts  (ended), 

Cape  Girardeau, 

Carney's  Bridge 

Castletown 

Catawba  Fords 

Cedar  Creek 

Cedar  Mountain  (continued).     . 


Victor 

CASUALTIES 

Opponent 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

203 

297 

189 

386 

English 

Eng. 

6 

17 

2 

5 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

18 

50 

10 

15 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

6 

25 

lot 

30t 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

129 

831 

60 

78 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

43 

162 

84 

205 

English 

Eng. 

68 

173 

18 

37 

English 

Eng. 

4 

6 

10 

21 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

0 

0 

12 

18 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

499 

2,142 

1,162 

7,337 

English 

U.S. 

2 

5 

2 

4 

Tripoli  tan 

* 

1 

13 

60 

70 

Tripolitan 

* 

22 

6 

50t 

80t 

Indians 

u.  s. 

11 

54 

204 

0 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

77 

477 

86 

632 

Conf. 

Conf. 

24 

77 

13 

22 

Conf. 

Conf. 

223 

226 

58 

242 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

2 

4 

5t 

7t 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

99 

203 

125 

234 

Conf. 

Conf. 

80 

21 

12 

32 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

2 

8 

11 

31 

Indians 

u.  s. 

12 

49 

224 

8 

English 

Eng. 

25 

50t 

30t 

34 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

90 

i73' 

231 

682 

English 

u.  s. 

30 

41 

59 

81 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

191 

1,108 

267 

1.381 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

201 

998 

864 

2,136 

Conf. 

Conf. 

156 

289 

253 

354 

Conf. 

Conf. 

5 

20 

3 

6 

Conf. 

u.-s. 

18 

32 

48 

102 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

41 

62 

78 

135 

Indians 

Ind. 

261 

0 

81 

126 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

29 

242 

40 

186 

English 

Eng. 

30 

42 

183 

297 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

0 

2 

13 

26 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

33 

62 

48 

94 

Conf. 

Conf. 

23 

57 

0 

2 

English 

u.  s. 

0 

2 

3 

5 

English 

u.  s. 

1 

3 

4 

18 

English 

u.  s. 

49 

67 

49 

.     68 

French 

u.  s. 

4 

11 

4 

17 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

177 

1,134 

236 

998 

EngUsh 

Eng. 

289 

568 

98 

398 

Conf. 

Conf. 

223 

394 

124 

582 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

3 

8 

31 

42 

Conf. 

* 

50 

150 

150 

250 

English 

Eng. 

17 

30 

0 

0 

Conf. 

Conf. 

8 

23 

4 

31 

Mexican 

U.  S. 

Mexican 

u.  s. 

267 

456 

568 

1,241 

Conf. 

Conf. 

481 

1,011 

362 

1,390 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

798 

4,023 

1,090 

6,154 

English 

Eng. 

145 

304 

359 

695 

Conf. 

u.  S. 

8 

15 

42 

108 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

8 

45 

110 

150 

English 

U.S. 

1 

5 

10 

English 

Eng. 

94 

281 

80 

245 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.  s. 

Spanish 

u.  s. 

6 

11 

60t 

140t 

Conf. 

Conf. 

112 

186 

136 

214 

Indians 

u.  s. 

17 

132 

37 

0 

Conf. 

U.S. 

98 

152 

108 

164 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

4 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

1 

Chinese 

U.S. 

Chinese 

U.S. 

Chinese 

u.  s. 

12 

28 

400 

540 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

6 

J? 

22 

43 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

7 

14 

36 

English 

Eng. 

211 

583 

35 

144 

English 

Eng. 

U.S. 

162 

281 

2 

21 

Conf. 

688 

3,516 

961 

3,239 

Conf. 

Conf. 

HISTORY 


13 


AMERICAN   BATTLES, 

TABULATED  —  Continued 

Name  of  Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

Datk 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Aup.      9,  1862 
April   18,  1847 
May     16,  1863 
April  30,  1863 
May       1.  1863 
May      2,  1863 
May      3,  1863 
May      4,  1863 
Sept.    13.  1847 

Cedar  Mountain  (ended) 

Cerro  Gordo. 

Conf. 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Mexican 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Mexican 
English 
English 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Port'guese 
English 
English 
English 
English 
French 
French 
English 
English 
English 
Mexican 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

U.  S. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 

* 

Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.S. 
* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.S. 
U.  S. 
U.S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 

* 
Eng. 

u.  S. 
U.S. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

* 

* 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

* 

* 

* 
Eng. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u,  s. 

Conf. 
U.S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.  S. 

450 

63 

426 

l',.5i2 
116 

1 
5 

"so 

47 
14 

1,644 

3 

60 

102 

131 

126 

38 

19 

10 

18 

8 

1,905 

1 

2 

] 

49 

11 

2 

14 

7 

9 

4 

20 

11 

1 

'sis 

0 

12 

115 

0 

125 

16 

1 

232 
0 
4 
0 
8 
6 

■39 
1 
0 
4 
3 
1 

16 
422 

41 

38 

13 
1 

88 
2 

20 
3 

660 
368    • 
1,842 

9',5i8 

671 

4 

8 

'456 

4,529 
99 
36 

9,262 
5 
244 
237 
876 
585 

62 

73 

14 

22 

26 

10,576 

3. 

8 

2 
34 
19 

3 
25 

7 
25 
10 
40 
54 

3 

l',8i2 

3 

60 

418 

0 

498 

98 

3 

1,062 

0 

16 

9 

31 

8 

■396 

3 

0 

7 

8 

3 
60 
2,380 
79 
64 
42 

6 
356 

2 
75 

4 

223 

loot 

486 

I'.ns 
i,ooot 

3 
15 

'261 

.... 

850 
24 
42 

6,660 

33 

199 

22 

l.OOOt 
248 
21 
22 
30 
32 
18 

364 
10 
10 
14 
74 
25 
29 
50 
15 
60 
35 

700 

20 

1 

l',423 

0 

120 

98 

75t 

29 

22 

2 

249 
•     4 

18 

18 

46 

lot 

'112 

0 

1 

3 

6 

85 

150 

514 

82 

4 

6 

30 

120 

4 

220t 

92 

1,060 
oOOt 

Champion  Hills 

Chancellorsville  (continued) 

Chancellorsville  (continued) 

Chancellorsville  (continued) 

Chancellorsville  (continued),  .... 
Chancellorsville  (ended) 

1,954 

10,563 
2,000 

June      4 
Feb.    25 
July      6 
July      8 
July    10 
Nov.    23 

Nov,    24 
Nov.    25 
June      1 
Dec.      7 

1782 
1815 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1863 

1863 
1863 
1813 
1777 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1847 
1814 
1813 
1847 
1864 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1862 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1813 
1814 
1782 
1775 
1781 
1799 
1800 
1812 
1812 
1815 
1847 
1814 
1813 
1862 
1862 
1812 
1781 
1862 
1813 
1862 
1863 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1812 
1813 
1776 
1847 
1805 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1813 
1814 
1812 
1813 
1863 
1863 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1864 
1813 
1898 
1862 
1814 
1780 

Charming  Sally-Revenge, 

Chasseur-St.  Lawrence, 

Chattahoochee  (continued) 

Chattahoochee  (continued) 

Chattahoochee  (ended) 

Chattanooga,  including  Orchard  Knob, 
Lookout  Mountain,  and  Missionary 
Ridge  (continued) 

Chattanooga,  etc.  (continued),  .    .    . 

Chattanooga,  etc.  (ended),      .... 

Chesapeake-Shannon, 

Chestnut  Hill, 

6 
23 

'462 

2,i56 
59 
64 

Sept.   18 
Sept.   19 
Sept.  20 
Feb.    27 

Chickamauga  (continued) 

Chickamauga  (continued) 

Chickamauga  (ended) 

Chihuahua, 

io',666 

67 

July      5 
Nov.    11 
Aug.    20 
May      9 
Dec.      5 

Chippewa 

Chrysler's  Fields 

Churubusco 

Cloyd's  M'tain  and  New  River  Bridge, 

328 

147 

3,000t 

652 

32 

June      5 
April   16 
Dec.       9 

Columbia,  Ark., 

Columbus,  Ala., 

Col.  Matthews, 

81 
50 
68 

.4pril     4 

C!ol.  Goodins; 

39 

June      2 
June      3 
Jan.     14 

Cold  Harbor  (continued) 

Cold  Harbor  (ended) 

Comet-frigate, 

1,336 
14 

Aug.      3 

Comoeta  Creek, 

20 

Dec.       1 

April  21 
Sept.     6 

Commerce-brig  and  schooners 

Concord  and  retreat 

24 

199 

31 

Feb.      9 
Feb.      2 
Aug.    19 
Dec.    29 
Feb.    20 
Aug.    19 
Oct.     19 
Feb.    23 

Constellation-Insurgent 

Constellation-Vengeance 

Constitution-Guerriere, 

Constitution-Java, 

Constitution-Cyane  and  Levant, .    .    . 

Contreras 

Cook's  Mills, 

41 

110 

63 

101 

42 

2,200 

60 

2 

Oct.       3 
Oct.       4 
Feb.    29 
Jan.     17 

Corinth  (continued) 

Corinth  (ended) 

Courier- Andromache , 

5,692 

1 

199 

Sept.   14 

Crampton  Gap, . 

342 

June    22 
June      8 

Craney  Island 

Cross  Kevs 

125t 
302 

Aug.      1 
Feb.    21 

Culpepper  Court-House, 

Cumberland,  Md., 

104 
8 

Feb.      5 
Feb.      6 
Feb.      7 
July    11 

Dabney's  Mills  (continued),   .... 
Dabney's  Mills  (continued),   .... 

Dabney's  Mills  (ended;i 

Decatur-Commercf 

'75i 
7 

Aug.      5 
June    17 
Sept.     9 

Decatur-Dominica 

Defense-transports 

Del  Rsy 

45 

30t 

89 

April  27 
Dec.      6 
Dec.      8 
Dec.      9 
April   15 
Aug.    22 
Sept.     2 

Derne, 

Deveraux's  Neck  (continued),   .    .    . 
Deveraux's  Neck  (continued),    .    .    . 

Deveraux's  Neck  (ended), 

Diligent-squadron, 

Diomede-Upton 

Dolphin-two  ships 

Turkish 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Indians 
Spanish 

Conf. 
Indians 
English 

20t 

'228 
1 
2 
8 

Jan.     25 
June   28 

Dolphin-squadron 

Donaldsonville 

9 
114 

Feb.      3 
May    15 
Nov.      6 

Dover,  Col.  Harding, 

Drury's  Bluff, 

400 

1,086 

158 

May      5 

18 

Aug.    23 
Dec.    23 
July       1 

Duvall's  Bluff 

Econochaca, 

El  Caney 

33 

0 

400 

Feb.    10 

Elizabeth  City 

10 

Jan.     22 
Nov.   20 

Emucfau, 

Ennoree  Ford, 

0 
102 

14 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


AMERICAN  BATTLES,  TABULATED  —  Continued 


Date 


Jan.  24 
Sept.  5 
Aug.  1 
Aug.  13 
March  28, 
Sept.  8 
July  28 
Oct.  27 
Oct.  28 
July  13 
Feb.  26 
Feb.  28 
Aug.  5 
Oct.  7 
April  18 
April  1 
April  9 
May  20, 
Sept.  15 
Sept.  27 
Feb.  15 
Aug.  15 
Sept.  17 
March  12 
Dec.  24 
Dec.  25 
Jan.  13 
Jan.  14 
Jan.  15 
May  27 
April  2 
Sept.  5 
Aug.  28, 
Feb 

April  25 
March  3 
May  5 
Oct.  6 
June  28 
March  1 1 
March  12 
March  13 
March  14 
March  16 
May  10 
April  12 
April  11 
Oct.  17 
Aug.  6 
July  27 
March25 
Aug.  2 
July  18 
April  17 
Dec.  18 
Jan.  6 
April  10 
Nov.  30 
Dec.  11 
Dec.  12 
Dec.  13 
Jan.  18, 
Jan.  22 
May  23 
June  27 
Jan. 

Sept.  7 
Aug.  26 
June   4 
Jan.  16 
Sept.  21 
Feb.  18 
Oct.   4, 
July 
July 
July 
April 
Nov. 
Sept.  25 
Nov.  2 
April  29 
Dec.  15 
Nov.  17 
June  17 


,  1814 
,  1813 
,  1801 
,  1812 
,  1814 
,  1781 
,  1864 
,  1864 
,  1864 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1862 
,  1864 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1865 
,  1865 
,  1863 
,  1814 
,  1864 
,  1862 
,  1814 
,  1814 
,1864 
,  1864 
,  1864 
,  1865 
,  1865 
,  1865 
,  1813 
,  1865 
,  1812 
,  1861 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1863 
,  1813 
,  1777 
,  1776 
,1863 
,1863 
,1863 
,1863 
,1863 
,  1862 
,  1864 
,  1863 
,  1862 
,  1777 
,  1864 
,  1865 
,  1813 
,  1863 
,  1864 
,  1862 
,  1813 
,  1863 
,  1864 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1813 
,  1813 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1863 
,  1813 
,  1814 
,  1780 
,  1864 
,  1777 
,  1815 
,  1777 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1776 
,  1813 
,  1812 
,  1813 
,  1863 
,  1775 
,  1847 
,  1815 


Name  of  Battle 


Epotachopco 

Knterprise-Boxer 

Enterprise-Tripoli, 

Essex- Alert, 

Essex-Phoebe  and  Cherub,    .    .    . 

Eutaw  Springs 

Ezra  Chapel 

Fair  Oaks  (continued),    .    .    .    . 

Fair  Oaks  (ended) 

Falling  Waters, 

Falmouth, 

Farragut  at  Vicksburg,     .    .    .    . 

Farragut  in  Mobile 

Farmington, 

Fayetteville, 

Five  Forks 

Fort  Blakely 

Fort  Blunt 

Fort  Bowyer, 

Fort  Davidson, 

Fort  Donelson, 

Fort  Erie 

Fort  Erie  (sortie) 

Fort  De  Russey, 

Fort  Fisher  (continued), .    .    .    . 

Fort  Fisher  (continued) 

Fort  Fisher  (continued) , .  .  .  . 
Fort  Fisher  (continued) , .    .    .    . 

Fort  Fisher  (ended) 

Fort  George, 

Fort  Greggs  and  Alexander,  .    . 

Fort  Harrison 

Fort  Hatteras 

Fort  Henry, 

Fort  Macon, 

Fort  McAllister, 

Fort  Meigs, 

Forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton, 

Fort  Moultrie, 

Fort  Pemberlon  (continued),  .  . 
Fort  Pemberton  (continued),  .  . 
Fort  Pemberton  (continued),  .  . 
Fort  Pemberton  (continued),  .    . 

Fort  Pemberton  (ended) 

Fort  Pillow 

Fort  Pillow, 

Fort  Pulaski 

Fort  Ridgeley, 

Fort  Schuyler 

Fort  Smith 

Fort  Stedman 

Fort  Stephenson 

Fort  Wagner 

Fort  Wessels, 

Foster's  Expedition  (ended),.    . 

Fox-Lapwing, 

Franklin 

Franklin,  Tenn 

Fredericksburg  (continued),  .  . 
Fredericksburg  (continued),  .  . 
Fredericksburg  (ended),  .    .    .    . 

Frenchtown, 

Frenchtown  No.  2, 

Front  Royal, 

Gaines  Mill, 

Galveston 

Gen.  Armstrong-Queen 

Gen  Armstrong-British  boats,  .    . 

Gen.  Pickering-Achilles 

Gen.  Sturgis,  . 

Gen.  Wayne, 

George  Little-Granicua, 

Germantown, 

Gettysburg  (continued),.    .    .    . 

Gettysburg  (continued) 

Gettysburg  (ended) 

Glasgow, 

Globe-packets, 

Globe-Sir  Simon  Clark 

Governor  Tompkins-Mary  Ann,. 

Grand  Gulf 

Great  Bridge 

Guaymas 

Gu£rriere-Mashouda, 


Victor 

CASUALTIES 

Opponent 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Indians 

U.S. 

40 

60 

200t 

0 

English 

U.  S. 

2 

10 

4 

17 

Tripoli  tan 

u.  s. 

0 

0 

20 

30 

English 

U.S. 

0 

0 

0 

3 

Enghsh 

Eng. 

58 

66 

5 

10 

English 

u.  s. 

130 

349 

85 

402 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

99 

601 

864 

3,778 

Conf. 

* 

Conf. 

* 

120 

783 

150 

301 

Conf. 

U.S. 

25 

80 

125 

354 

Conf. 

Conf. 

5t 

8t 

6 

8 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

15 

30 

0 

0 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

145 

170 

12 

20 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

8 

16 

22 

37 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

4 

26 

17 

36 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

124 

706 

450 

750 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

113 

516 

242 

874 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

12 

38 

25 

37 

English 

u.  s. 

4 

5 

32 

40 

Conf. 

Conf. 

47 

154 

245 

756 

Conf. 

u.  S. 

560 

746 

466 

1,534 

English 

U.S. 

17 

56 

222 

309 

English 

U.  S. 

79 

216 

110 

250 

Conf. 

U.S. 

18 

29 

14 

33 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

20 

63 

3 

55 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

184 

749 

150 

249 

English 

U.S. 

39 

121 

108 

163 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

198 

304 

249 

353 

Indians 

u.  s. 

2 

2 

8 

20 

Conf. 

U.S. 

0 

0 

4 

25 

Conf. 

U.S. 

17 

27 

5 

11 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

0 

3 

7 

18 

Conf. 

Conf. 

0 

1 

0 

1 

English 

u.  s. 

64 

124 

30t 

60t 

English 

Eng. 

84 

166 

62 

141 

English 

u.  s. 

11 

26 

68 

437 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

■  ■  ■ , 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

7 

19 

3t 

8t 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

0 

4 

2 

1 

Conf. 

Conf. 

348 

52 

19 

61 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1 

3 

1 

7 

Indians 

U,  S. 

1 

6 

44 

108 

English 

Eng. 

120 

268 

86 

204 

Conf. 

Conf. 

10 

15 

12 

19 

Conf. 

U.  s. 

68 

337 

134 

698 

English 

U.  s. 

1 

7 

50 

101 

Conf. 

Conf. 

624 

876 

26 

74 

Conf. 

Conf. 

20 

31 

29 

42 

Conf. 

U.  s. 

90 

478 

201 

538 

English 

U.S. 

1 

3 

14 

8 

Conf. 

U.S. 

17 

20 

79 

163 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

189 

1,033 

1,141 

5,113 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1,152 

9,101 

505 

4,061 

English 

U.  S. 

12 

55 

30t 

50t 

English 

Eng. 

357 

64 

150 

155 

Conf. 

Conf. 

32 

122 

0 

13 

Conf. 

Conf. 

3,000 

4,600 

2,000 

4,000 

Conf. 

Conf. 

17 

20t 

26 

117 

English 

U.S. 

0 

1 

10 

19 

English 

u.  s. 

2 

7 

137 

107 

English 

U.S. 

1 

3 

8 

12 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

8 

32 

16 

49 

English 

Eng. 

94 

162 

2 

5 

English 

Eng. 

2 

6 

0 

1 

English 

Eng. 

189 

542 

98 

402 

Conf. 

U.S. 

.... 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

2,834 

13,709 

4,000 

14,000 

English 

Eng. 

10 

14 

1 

3 

English 

u.  s. 

8 

18 

9 

18 

English 

u.  s. 

2 

1 

4 

4 

English 

u.  s. 

0 

0 

1 

4 

Conf. 

Conf. 

19 

57 

8 

16 

English 

U.S. 

0 

0 

24 

81 

Mexican 

u.  s. 

0 

0 

12 

18 

Algerine 

u.  s. 

3 

11 

12 

18 

HISTORY 


15 


AMERICAN   BATTLES, 

TABULATED  —  Continued 

Date 

Namk  of  Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Marc 
May 
May 

May 
Sept. 

til5 

21 

11 

27 

16 

13 

5 

1 

7 

10 

27 

11 

il6 

22 

9 

4 

i21 

5 

22 

17 

18 

25, 

30 

17 

20 

30 

17 

24, 

i23 

i27 

14, 

4, 

8, 

15 

24, 

16, 

il9 

4 

7, 

7, 

19, 

12 

14 

16 

6, 

1, 

25, 

30 

31 

1 

31 

19 

10 

30 

3 

i23, 

7 

14 

6 

17 

29 

i30, 

3 

14 

11 

11 

10 

28 

24 

21 

5 

22 

7 

23 

19 

20 

17 

12 

12 

10 

17 

27 

14 

17 

1781 
1863 
1777 
1862 
1776 
1863 
1862 
1864 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1863 
1779 
1812 
1780 
1863 
1864 
1779 
1812 
1813 
1813 
1781 
1779 
1781 
1862 
1864 
1863 
1813 
1815 
1814 
1779 
1862 
1782 
1779 
1863 
1776 
1776 
1804 
1863 
1862 
1862 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1781 
1779 
1779 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1812 
1864 
1864 
1862 
1815 
1862 
1780 
1862 
1862 
1863 
1863 
1814 
1776 
1814 
1776 
1814 
1813 
1813 
1898 
1863 
1862 
1776 
1864 
1862 
1775 
1777 
1776 
1861 
1864 
1863 
1862 
,  1776 
1813 
1864 

Guilford  Court-House, 

Gum  Swamp, 

English 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
Indians 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
Indians 
English 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

English 

English 

Tripolitan 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
,    English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
Spanish 

Conf. 

Qonf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Eng. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

* 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 

* 
Conf. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.  S. 

* 

u.  s 

Eng. 
U.S. 
Eng. 

u.  s. 

U.  S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

* 
* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
* 

Eng. 
Trip 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.  s. 
U.S. 
Eng. 
Eng. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

* 

U.S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

* 

u.  s. 

Eng. 

u.  s. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

* 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

U.S. 

* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Conf. 

123 

3 

3 

53 

7 

80 

15 

8 

48 

7 

56 

2 

3 

0 

2 

98 

1 

1 

0 

1 

0 

52 

6 

3 

3 

66 

17 

1 

1 

26 

0 

1 

4 

0 

1 

2 

0 

13 

3 

19 

144 

88 

37 

24 

37 

18 

1 

222 

"6 

0 

1 

13 

24 

1 

103 

28 

90 

28 

24 

24 

8 

0 

6 

30 

52 

27 

10 

16 

140 

4 

1 

36 

11 

7 

3 

2 

42 

0 

22 

12 

62 

8 

314 

8 

5 

344 

8 

120 

32 

24 

102 

69 

1,047 

6 

5 

7 

4 

152 

3 

3 

7 

3 

0 

141 

16 

1 

4 

645 

60 

4 

11 

106 

4 

3 

11 

1 

1 

6 

3 

0 

18 

32 

598 

765 

228 

76 

81 

12 

3 

978 

l,i49 

0 

2 

54 

80 

4 

441 

60 

478 

60 

72 

68 

66 

2 

35 

50 

58 

96 

17 

50 

22 

8 

3 

61 

52 

9 

10 

2 

108 

0 

59 

18 

188 

10 

231 

4 

14 

198 

2 

0 
20 
16 
35 
18 
247 

0 
13 

2 

31 

205 

5 

3 

3 

0 
61 
38 

6 

4 

2 

18 
153 

5 

10 

557 

3 

2 
20 

8 

2 

3 

2 
20 

0 

1 
385 
71 
64 
48 
21 

7 

3 
842 

'498 
0 
9 
0 

22 
3 

80 
168 

71 
180 

18 
259 

11 
3 

17 

15 

84 

41 

12 

28 
3 
3 
2 

12 

49 
0 
2 
5t 

33 
164 

31 
3 

61 
2 

318 
16 
18 

Hanover  Court-House,    ....... 

732 
20 

0 

June 
Oct. 

Harrisonburg 

Harrison 

50 
46 

Dec. 

Hartsville 

115 

74 

Oct 

763 

Jan. 
Marcl 

Hatteras- Alabama, 

Hazard- Active, 

1 
20 

Feb. 

July 

July 

Marcl 

April 

July 

Feb. 

Nov. 

Hazard-Caledonia, 

Hazard-Duff, 

11 
64 

Helena, 

Henderson's  Hill 

Hibemia-brig  of  war 

Highflyer-Caledonia, 

Highflyer-Poictiers, 

604 
18 
9 
9 
0 
0 

Hobkirk's  Hill 

104 

July 
Feb. 

Holker-brig, 

20 
7 

Dee. 

Holly  Springs,                    

21 

Nov. 
July 

Honey  Hill,  S.  C 

114 
378 

Feb. 

Hornet-Peacock, 

33 

28 

Horseshoe  Bend, 

0 

April 

Jan. 

April 

Nov. 

Feb. 

Hunter-armed  ship 

Huntersville,  Va 

Hyder  Ally-Gen.  Monk 

Impertinent-Harlem 

Indianola, 

6 
4 
33 
3 
5 

8 

Marcl 

Industry-brig 

6 

Sept. 

30 

April 
April 

Ironclads  at  Charleston 

Island  No.  10 

3 
3 

Sept. 
July 

luka, 

692 
504 

May 

Jackson,     

392 

July 

James  Island 

152 

July 
Nov. 

Jamestown  Island, 

49 
9 

July 

Jason-privateer 

6 

April 
Aug. 
Sept. 
Tnly 

Jenkins  Ferry, 

Jonesboro,  Ga.  (continued),    .... 
Jonesboro  (ended) 

1,458 

1,562 
3 

June 
June 
Jan. 

Kearsarge- Alabama 

Kellar's  Bridge, 

Kelly's  Stores,      

21 

0 

28 

Dec. 
Marc 
Oct. 

Kemp-merchantmen  (armed) 

Kernstown 

King's  Mountain 

8 
342 

284 

Dec. 

Kingston 

268 

Aug. 

Kirksville, 

498 

Nov. 
Nov. 
Marc 

Knoxville 

Knoxville, 

La  Colle  Mill,    . 

64 

432 

47 

June 
Dec. 

Lady  W ashington-barges, 

Lake  Borgne 

11 

77 

Oct. 

Lake  Champlain 

26 

Sept. 

Lake  Champlain, 

110 

Sept. 

Lake  Erie 

94 

Sept. 

Lake  Ontario 

20 

June 

124 

Aug. 

14 

July 

Lebanon 

4 

Nov. 

Lee-ship, 

8 

Julv 

25 

May 
April 

Lewisburg, 

Lexington, 

76 
0 

Sept. 

Lexington- Alert 

3 

April 
Sept. 
April 
Sept. 

Lexington-Edward 

Lexington,  Mo., 

Lexington,  Red  River 

Little  Rock 

8t 
65 
341 
45 

Aug. 
Aug. 

London,  Ky 

Long  Island, 

8 
257 

h'e.b. 

Lottery-hoots, 

4 

June 

Lynchburg  (continued) 

16 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


AMERICAN  BATTLES, 

TABULATED  —  Continued 

Date 

Name  of  Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

June 
Aug. 
Sept. 
July 

18,  1864 
9.  1812 

30,  1863 
1,  1862 
4,  1862 

24,  1863 
27,  1862 

1,  1898 

13,  1898 
12,  1898 

4,  1812 

25,  1864 

16,  1864 
20,  1779 

23,  1864 

24,  1864 

2,  1777 

17,  1812 

27,  1861 

8,  1862 
20,  1863 

26,  1862 

6,  1862 
1  8,  1862 

7,  1862 

12,  1863 

7,  1863 

19,  1862 

28,  1863 

3,  1863 

14,  1780 
1  9,  1862 

28,  1778 

9,  1864 
24,  1846 

6,  1812 
14,  1776 
30,  1814 

5,  1813 
16,  1776 

14,  1862 

13,  1862 

30,  1862 

31,  1862 

1,  1863 

2,  1863 

15,  1864 

16,  1864 
13.  1814 
12,  1863 

23,  1814 
28,  1814 

3,  1863 

19,  1863 
15,  1847 

1 14, 1862 

24,  1862 
26,  1863 

6,  1781 

28,  1864 

29,  1864 

30,  1864 
15,  1864 

1,  1815 

8,  1815 
23,  1862 
29,  1779 
28,  1812 

25,  1814 

18,  1781 
28,  1812 

31,  1799 

26,  1864 

27,  1864 

25,  1862 
31,  1863 

4,  1812 
10,  1863 

20,  1864 

26,  1863 

27,  1863 

19,  1864 
6.  1814 

Lynchburg  (ended) 

Maguaga, 

Major  Montgomery 

Malvern  Hill 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Spanish 
Spanish 
Spanish 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
Indians 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

(>)nf. 
English 

Conf. 
Mexican 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 
Indians 
English 
English 
English 
English 
Picaroons 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

English 

Conf. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
U.S. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.  S. 
Ctonf. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 

Eng. 

U.S. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 
Conf. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.  S. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 
Conf. 
Eng. 

u.  s. 

* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 
Eng. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  S. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
Eng. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.S. 
Conf. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

99 

18 

14 

2,860 

6 

30 

14 

0 

8 

0 

0 

98 

9 

0 

342 

3 

11 

1 

80 

0 

149 

10 

250 

3 

1 

154 

39 

99 

0 

26 

0 

72 

90 

142 

4 

0 

0 

7 

48 

15 

33 

1,533 

399 

24 

151 

24 

7 

26 

2 

0 

102 

3 

1 

88 

'3'98 

120 

11 

4 

37 

8 

8 

171 

48 

3 

0 

223 

51 

23 

0 

5 

193 

653 
6 

503 

58 

40 

3,500 

8 

59 

28 

7 

40 

0 

0 

142 

18 

3 

"836 

5 

26 

4 

176 

0 

224 

4 

301 

8 

4 

223 

207 

398 

0 

73 

1 

160 

579 

364 

13 

3 

3 

22 

101 

22 

62 

7,245 

1,74  i 

139 

349 

113 

8 

124 

8 

7 

432 

5 

12 

34 

2,63  i 

563 
23 
13 

147 
22 
12 

572 

107 
8 
0 

1,460 

401 

24 

0 

7 

1,175 

3'7i9 
38 

47 

50 

0 

3,023 

10 

41 

11 

318 

■  iot 

0 

126 

32 

2 

"26 

6 

39 

0 

71 

4 

156 

20t 

8 

11 

18 

148 

192 

121 

8 

3 

0 

294 

78 

200t 

6 

13 

13 

80 

252 

29 

47 

1^384 

684 

80 

88 

99 
120 

58 

12 

20t 

50 
4 

22 

86 

■399    . 

96 

20 
700 

12 

12 

14 
201 

24 
7 

65 

304 
60 

0 

3 

4 
150 

1,632 
70 

157 

75 

2 

4,077 

Aug. 
July 
Aug. 
May 
Aug. 
Aug. 
Nov. 
April 

Malvern  No.  2 

18 

79 

Manassas  Junction 

Manila, 

16 
298 

Mamanillo 

Marengo- Leonidas 

Mark's  Mills 

(?) 
1 
394 

Marksville 

64 

Aug. 
July 
July 
Dec. 
Dec. 

7 

Martinsburg  (continued) 

Martinsburg  (ended),  . 

Maasachuseita-Lawnadale 

Massasinewa 

152 
13 
0 
0 

May 

McDowell's 

390 

McMinnville 

8 

236 

30t 

Marcl 

Merrimac  in  Hampton  Roads,     .    .    . 
Middle  Creek 

11 
32 

32 

June 

Milliken's  Bend 

294 

Jan. 

Nov. 

Feb. 

April 

Marcl 

June 

July 

Sept. 

Dec. 

Feb 

Mill  Spring  (Logan  Cross  Roads),.    . 

Mine  Run  (ended), 

Mingo  Swamp 

Monk's  Corner 

Monitor- Merrimac, 

Monmouth, 

Monocacy 

Monterey 

Montgomery,  armed-ship 

Moore's  Creek 

132 

432 

20 

6 

2 

170 

322 

450 

21 

22 

20 

Oct. 

Moravian  towns 

101 

Nov. 
Sept. 
Jnfv 

Mount  Washington, 

Mumfordsville, 

448 

31 

103 

Dec. 
Dec, 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Sept. 
July 
Dec. 
Dec. 

Murfreesboro  (continued) 

Murfreesboro  (continued) 

Murfreesboro  (continued) 

Murfreesboro  (ended) 

Nashville  (continued) 

Nashville  (ended) 

Near  Baltimore 

6,892 

3,62! 
301 

Near  Donaldsonville, 

Near  New  Orleans 

Near  New  Orleans 

126 
230 
149 

Nov, 

Near  Opelousas 

298 

July 
June 

Near  Pomeroy, 

Near  Tabasco, 

41 
30t 

Marcl 

New  Berne 

152 

May 
Jnlv 

New  Bridge 

15 
43 

Sept. 

New  London 

142 

Sept. 
Sept. 
Sept. 
May 
Jan. 

New  Market  Heights  (continued),     . 
New  Market  Heights  (continued),     . 
New  Market  Heights  (ended^,    .    .    . 

New  Market,  Pa., 

New  Orleans 

1,60  i 
306 
30 1 

Jan. 

New  Orleans, 

1,400 

April 

New  Orleans, 

40 

Aug. 
Nov. 
July 
June 

Newtown, 

Niagara  batteries 

Niagara  (Lundy's  Lane) 

Ninety-six 

34 

30 

559 

61 

Sept. 
Oct. 

Nonesuch-privateer 

Norfolk-Picaroons 

16 
70 

May 
May 
June 
Jan. 

North  Anna  (continued) 

North  Anna  (ended) 

Oak  Grove,  near  Richmond 

Off  Charleston 

l',5i3 

300 

0 

Oct. 

Ogdensburg, 

6 

Feb 

Old  River 

7 

Feb 

Olustee 

350 

Nov. 

Nov. 
Sept. 

Operations  at  Mine  Run,  Va.  (contin- 
ued),   

Operations  at  Mine  Run  (continued), 
Opequan 

3,868 

May 

Oswego 

165 

HISTORY 


17 


AMERICAN  BATTLES,  TABULATED  — Continued 


Date 


May  8, 
Dec.  31, 
Feb.  2, 
Aug.  18, 
Nov.  5, 
April  29, 
June  30, 
March  6, 
March  7, 
March  8, 
July  20, 
April  22, 
Oct.  8, 
April  2, 
June  19, 
June  20, 
June  30, 
July    31, 


Aug.  31 
Oct.  30 
Feb.  16 
Oct.  20 
June  5 
■Ian.  5 
Oct.  25 
Aug.  13 
April  6 
April  7 
Sept.  11 
April  8 
April  9 
April  20 
Oct.  22 
Oct.  23 
May  1 
March  13 
June  14 
May  27 
June  9 
Nov.  7 
April  10 
Dec.  7 
Sept.  30 
Oct.  1 
June  23 
Jan.  15 
Oct.  9 
Jan.  3 
Dec.  4 
Jan.  9 
May  7 
May  15 
Feb.  7 
Dec.  31 
Oct.  13 
Sept.  3 
March  7 
April  24 
Oct.  16 
May  5 
Nov.  7 
May  12 
Aug.  25 
Oct.  22 
Jan.  14 
April  7 
April  26 
May  13 
May  9 
March29 
Aug.  30 
Feb.  8 
Feb.  12 
Nov.  6 
Sept.  16 
Dee.  19 
April  8 
Sept.  8 
Jan.  21 
July  6 
May  29 
April     6 


1846 
1862 
1864 
1779 
1812 
1814 
1815 
1862 
1862 
1862 
1864 
1847 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 


1864 
1864 
1804 
1863 
1864 
1781 
1863 
1863 
1862 
1862 
1814 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1862 
1862 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1862 
1861 
1863 
1862 
1864 
1864 
1812 
1815 
1814 
1777 
1781 
1779 
1779 
1847 
1832 
1775 
1812 
1777 
1778 
1778 
1776 
1813 
1863 
1863 
1864 
1777 
1865 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1847 
1813 
1862 
1862 
1864 
1863 
1812 
1776 
1864 
1863 
1863 
1776 
1813 
1865 


Name  of  Battle 


Palo  Alto 

Parker's  Cross-Roads, 

Paterson  Creek 

Paulus  Hook 

Paul  Jones-Hassan,.    ...'.... 

Peacock-Epervier, 

Peacock-Navtilus, 

I'ea  Ridge  (continued) 

Pea  Ridge  (continued) 

Pea  Ridge  (ended), 

Peach  Tree  Creek, 

Perote 

Perrjrville, 

Petersburg 

Petersburg  (from  June  15),    .    .    .    . 

Petersburg  (continued  to  June  30),  . 

Petersburg  (ended), 

Petersburg  (from  July  1,  exclusive  of 
losses  at  the  Crater  and  Deep  Bot- 
tom)  

Petersburg  (August  1  to  August  31), 

Petersburg  (September  l-October  30) 

Philadelphia  Ungate), 

Philadelphia,  Tenn., 

Piedmont 

Pilgrim- Mary, 

Pine  Bluff 

Pineville 

Pittsburgh  Landing  (continued),  .    . 

Pittsburgh  Landing  (ended),.    .    .    . 

Plattsburg, 

Pleasant  Hill  (continued) 

Pleasant  Hill  (ended) 

Plymouth 

Pocotaligo  (continued), 

Pocotaligo  (ended) 

Port  Gibson 

Port  Hudson 

Port  Hudson ' .    .    .    . 

Port  Hudson 

Port  Republic, 

Port  Royal 

Prairie  d'Anne, 

Prairie  Grove,  .- 

Preble's  Farm  (continued) 

Preble's  Farm  (ended) 

President-Belvidere 

President-Endymion 

Prince  de  Neuchatel-Endymion,  .    .    . 

Princeton, 

Prosperity-privateer 

Protector-Admiral  Duff 

■Providence-Diligent 

Puebla 

Qualla  Battoo, 

Quebec 

Queenstown 

Raleigh-Druid 

Randolph-Yarmouth 

Ranger-Drake 

Ranger-privateer,  .    .    .    ." 

Rapids  of  Miami 

Rappahannock  Station 

Raymond, 

Ream's  Station, 

Red  Bank, 

Red  Hill ; 

Red  River, 

Red  River 

Resaca 

Resaca  de  la  Palma 

Revenge-Narcissus, 

Richmond,  Ky., 

Roanoke  Island, 

Rock  House, 

Rogersville, 

Rossie-Princess  Amelia, 

Rover-Afnca,     .    .    .    .    ■ 

Sabine  (5ross-Roads,     ....... 

Sabine  Pass, 

Sabine  Pass 

Sachem-privateer , 

Sackett's  Harbor 

Sailor's  Creek 


Opponent 


Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 


Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Tripolitans 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
'    Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
Mexican 
Malays 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Mexican 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 


Victor 


U.S. 
U.S. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 
U.S. 

U.  S. 

U.S. 


u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

U.S. 
U.S. 
Eng. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
U.  S. 
Eng. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 
Eng. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 
U.  S. 
U.  S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 


CASUALTIES 


United  States 


Killed    Wo'nd'd 


4 

23 
0 
2 
0 
0 
0 


203 
301 
0 
916 
298 
1,298 

112 


419 

87 

170 

0 

26 

130 

4 

17 

3 

1735 
37 

"99 

41 

'  84 

130 

8 

250 

263 

67 

8 

8 

167 

141 

3 

24 

7 

31 

3 

1 

4 

18 

2 

18 

90 

1 

311 

2 

3 

80 

149 

69 

127 

11 

7 

23 

17 

598 

39 

0 

199 

47 

3 

5 

0 

0 

199 

17 

1 

1 

21 

166 


42 
139 
3t 
3 
1 
2 
0 


972 
1,411 
3 
2.943 
2,565 
7,474 

'506 


2,076 

484 

822 

1 

73 

650 

16 

40 

18 

7,882 
62 

'688 
59 

'i52 

718 

7 

680 

1,549 

361 

23 

15 

798 

'788 
19 
56 
23 
64 
8 
3 

10 

62 

11 

42 

160 

2 

0 

6 

11 

101 

250 

341 

546 

21 

27 

39 

31 

2,147 

83 

3 

689 

198 

5 

12 

8 

3 

893 

19 

3 

3 

84 

1,014 


Opponents 


Killed  Wo'nd'd 


102 
48 
4 
6 
1 
8 
6 


1,040 
880 
0 
980 
341 
984 

'801 


799 

101 

240 

lOOf 

34 

633 

13 

39 

28 

l',i28 
50 

'348 
125 

"14 

144 

0 

188 

110 

104 

11 

18 

164 

'214 

2 

11 

33 

49 

4 

140 

8 

83 

120t 

1 

50 

6 

5 

18 

16 

15 

80 

103 

289 

142 

14 

45 

28 

861 

160 

0 

153 

25 

15 

3 

3 

23 

486 

0 

0 

2 

29 

268 


127 

152 

6t 

12 

1 

15 

8 


3,638 
3,916 
4 
1,520 
3,092 
6,721 

1,4  i  7 


4,023 

605 

761 

0 

62 

2,337 

22 

111 

92 

8,612 


1,654 
174 

'162 

832 

0 

364 

173 

796 

48 

36 

817 

'686 

22 

14 

37 

151 

9 

3 

19 

142 

200t 

8 

101 

26 

12 

24 

24 

45 

160 

720 

1,211 

258 

36 

88 

61 

1,949 

228 

1 

248 

30 

23 1 

24 

0 

0 

1,024 

0 

2 

6 

101 

2,032 


18 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


AMERICAN  BATTLES,  TABULATED  —  Continued 


Date 


Name  of  Battle 


Feb. 

3. 

1865 

Dec. 

21, 

1779 

Jan. 

12, 

1S4S 

April 

30, 

1814 

Jan. 

s, 

1847 

July 

1, 

1898 

July 

2, 

1898 

July 

3, 

1898 

Feb. 

IB. 

1847 

Nov. 

21, 

1847 

Jnlv 

10, 

1898 

July 

11, 

1898 

July 

12, 

1898 

June 

22, 

189« 

Oct. 

7, 

1777 

Dec. 

22. 

1778 

Oct. 

«, 

1780 

Dec. 

10, 

1812 

April 

30, 

1814 

Nov. 

10. 

1813 

Oct. 

3, 

1814 

Dec. 

29, 

1778 

Oct. 

8. 

1779 

Jan. 

10, 

1865 

June 

16, 

1862 

April 

2, 

1865 

May 

31, 

1862 

June 

27, 

1S63 

July 

15, 

1863 

May 

12, 

1780 

May 

3, 

1863 

Aug. 

18. 

1864 

Aug. 

19, 

1864 

Aug. 

20, 

1864 

Aug. 

21, 

1864 

March  30 

1863 

April 

19, 

1864 

April 

20, 

1862 

Sept. 

14, 

1862 

March  26 

1865 

July 

3, 

1898 

May 

«, 

1864 

May 

9, 

1864 

May 

11, 

1864 

May 

18, 

1864 

Jan. 

8, 

1863 

March  5, 

1863 

June 

17. 

1863 

Dec. 

2fi, 

1781 

Sept. 

19, 

1777 

June 

28, 

1779 

Aug. 

11, 

1814 

June 

ft, 

1813 

Jan. 

23, 

1813 

July 

29, 

1863 

Aug. 

18, 

1864 

July 

16, 

1779 

April 

28, 

1863 

Jan. 

28, 

1815 

Jan. 

20 

1864 

May 

9 

1864 

May 

10 

1864 

Oct. 

26 

1846 

Nov. 

9 

1813 

Nov. 

3 

1813 

June 

30 

1847 

March  4 

1863 

March  5 

1863 

July 

4 

1863 

May 

10 

1775 

Nov. 

7 

1811 

Nov. 

12 

1813 

Feb. 

20 

1865 

Dec. 

25 

1776 

June 

11 

1864 

June 

12 

1864 

Aug. 

7 

1781 

June 

2 

1780 

April 

9 

1777 

Feb. 

22 

1864 

July 

15 

1864 

April 

18 

1847 

June 

13 

1776 

Sakelhatchie 

Sally-transports 

San  Bias 

Sandy  Creek, 

San  Gabriel, 

San  Juan  (continued), 

San  Juan  (continued) 

San  Juan  (ended), 

San  Jose, 

San  Josf' 

Santiago  (continued), 

Santiago  (continued) 

Santiago  (ended) 

Santiago  forts  bombarded, 

Saratoga, 

Saratoga-Chance 

Saratoga-Molly, 

Saratoga-Morgiana 

Saucy  Jack-Pelham, 

Saucy  Jack-Sherbroke, 

Saucy  Jack-troop  ship,     ...... 

Savannah 

Savannah 

Scottsboro, 

Secessionville, 

Selma, 

Seven  Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks 

Shelbyville 

Shepardstown 

Siege  of  Charleston  (ended) 

Siege  of  Suffolk,  N.  C.  (ended),  .  .    . 

Six-Mile  House  (continued) 

Six-Mile  House  (continued),  .... 
Six-Mile  House  (continued),  .... 

Six-Mile  House  (ended) 

Somerset, :    .    .    . 

Southfield- Albemarle, 

South  Mills  or  Camden 

South  Mountain, 

Spanish  Fort  (to  April  8) 

Spanish  squadron  destroyed  off  Santiago 
Spottsylvania  (continued),     .... 

Spottsylvania  (continued) 

Spottsylvania  (ended) 

Spottsylvania  (continued),     .... 

Springfield, 

Spring  Hill 

St.  Charles 

St.  James-ship  (armed) 

Stillwater, 

Stone  Ferry 

Stonington 

Stony  Creek, 

Stony  Creek, 

Stony  Lake 

Strawberry  Plains,  etc 

Stony  Point 

Streight's  Raid  (to  May  3) 

Surprise-Star 

Sturgis'  Raid  (January  16-28),.    .    . 

Swift  Creek  (continued) 

Swift  Creek  (ended), 

Tabasco, 

Talladega, 

Talluschatches, 

Tamultay, 

Thompson's  Station  (continued),  .    . 
Thompson's  Station  (ended),     .    .    . 

Tibb's  Bend 

Ticonderoga, 

Tippecanoe ', 

Tom-Townsend 

Town  Creek '...'. 

Trenton 

Trevilian  Station  (continued),   .    '.    . 

Trevilian  Station  (ended), 

Trumbull-Iris 

Trumbull-Watt '.'.'. 

Trumbull-transports,     . 

Tunnel  Hill \    ,    \ 

Tupelo,  Harrisonburg,  and  Old  "Town 

Creek, 

Tuspan, '.'.'.'.'. 

Tyrannicide-Dispatch.  ....'..'. 


Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

United  States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Killed 

Wo'nd'd 

Conf. 

U.S. 

18 

70 

20 

80 

English 

* 

5 

12 

6 

11 

Mexican 

U.  S. 

0 

2 

3 

8 

English 

U.S. 

1 

3 

13 

28 

Mexican 

U.S. 

2 

9 

70 

150 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.S. 

151 

1,007 

204 

1,340 

Mexican 

U.S. 

3 

8 

13 

30t 

Mexican 

U.S. 

0 

3 

8 

20 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.S. 

Spanish 

U.  S. 

2 

13 

0 

0 

Spanish 

* 

1 

11 

(?) 

(?) 

English 

U.S. 

32 

61 

98 

156 

English 

U.S. 

4 

9 

5 

13 

English 

U.S. 

2 

4 

6 

10 

English 

U.S. 

3 

7 

2 

5 

English 

U.S. 

2 

9 

4 

11 

English 

U.S. 

0 

3 

2 

5 

English 

u.  s. 

8 

15 

3 

2 

English 

Eng. 

28 

69 

7 

19 

English 

Eng. 

98 

136 

20 

35 

Conf. 

U.S. 

1 

8 

14 

32 

Conf. 

Conf. 

137 

438 

63 

141 

Conf. 

U.S. 

153 

347 

198 

409 

Conf. 

♦ 

891 

3,627 

1,987 

2,233 

Conf. 

U.S. 

143 

361 

164 

344 

Conf. 

* 

22 

78 

34 

66 

English 

Eng. 

92 

142 

76 

189 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

15 

94 

898 

1,202 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

212 

1,155 

862 

3,138 

Conf. 

U.S. 

11 

38 

24 

73 

Conf. 

Conf. 

2 

12 

0 

0 

Conf. 

U.S. 

15 

98 

12 

67 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

312 

1,234 

224 

860 

Conf. 

U.S. 

99 

695 

152 

401 

Spanish 

U.S. 

1 

1 

342 

461 

Conf. 

U.S. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

U.S. 

3,288 

19,278 

3,342 

20,187 

Conf. 

U.S. 

2,031 

7,956 

1,7.52 

7,248 

Conf. 

U.S. 

14 

145 

23 

164 

Conf. 

Conf. 

8 

14 

1 

4 

Conf. 

U.  S. 

136 

20 

6 

8 

English 

* 

1 

4 

3 

8 

English 

U.S. 

98 

252 

161 

328 

English 

Eng. 

51 

99 

31 

63 

English 

U.S. 

1 

5 

21 

55 

English 

Eng. 

17 

38 

20t 

30 

Indians 

Ind. 

400 

0 

0 

0 

Indians 

U.  S. 

12 

42 

32 

98 

Conf. 

U.S. 

401 

1,754 

338 

762 

English 

U.S. 

20 

70 

63 

31 

Conf. 

U.S. 

12 

69 

0 

0 

English 

U.S. 

0 

0 

1 

1 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

6 

17 

30 

62 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

90 

401 

124 

376 

Mexican 

u.  s. 

0 

0 

4 

10 

Indians 

U.S. 

15 

86 

299 

0 

Indians 

u.  s. 

5 

41 

186 

0 

Mexican 

u.  s. 

6 

53 

42 

103 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

99 

301 

152 

453 

Conf. 

U.S. 

6 

23 

280 

687 

English  . 
Indians 

U.S. 

U.S. 

37 

151 

120 

180 

English 

U.S. 

0 

2 

8 

13 

Conf. 

U.S. 

5t 

8t 

8t 

18t 

English 

U.S. 

2 

4 

17 

78 

Conf. 

u.  s.   . 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

85 

490 

124 

582 

English 

Eng. 

5 

11 

0 

3 

English 

*  ■ 

19 

20 

39 

52 

English 

u.  s. 

7 

8 

9 

14 

Conf. 

U.S. 

150t 

200t 

sot 

180 

Conf. 

U.S. 

85 

563 

184 

516 

Mexican 

U.S. 

3 

11 

25 

34 

English 

U.S. 

1 

2 

2 

5 

HISTORY 


19 


AMERICAN   BATTLES,  TABULATED  ^Continued 


Date 


March29 
Jan.  5 
Jan.  30 
Jan.  26 
Oct.  25 
June  21 
Nov.  19 
Feb.  28 
March20 
Oct.  lo 
Sept.  18 
March24 
April  16 
May  19 
May  22 
May  25 
Dec.  27 
Dec.  28 
July  4 
Sept.  1 
Oct.  6 
Oct.  18 
June  28 
Oct.  27 
Oct.  28 
Oct.  29 
May  15 
June  17 
June  2.'? 
May  7 
June  29 
Oct.  25 
June  27 
Sept.  3 
Aug.  26 
March  8 
March  9 
March  10 
May  5 
May 

May  7 
Nov.  14 
May  5 
Feb.  8 
Aug.  10 
June  30, 
March  22 
May  25 
June  14 
June  15 
Feb.  19 
Sept.  22 
July 

July  16 
July  18 
Aug 

May  19 
April  27 
April  18 
Oct.     19 


.  1779 

,  1813 
,  1864 
,  1813 
,  1812 
,  1863 
,  1847 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1779 
,  1778 
,  1847 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1863 
,  1814 
,  1782 
,  1812 
,  1814 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1780 
,  1863 
,  1864 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1776 
,  1864 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1865 
,  1865 
,  1865 
,  1864 
,  1864 
,  1864 
,  1813 
,  1862 
,  1865 
,  1861 
,  1864 
,1865 
,  1862 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1862 
,  1862 
,  1778 
,  1863 
,  1863 
,  1812 
,  1864 
,  1813 
,  1814 
,  1781 


Name  of  Battlk 


Tyrannicide-Revenge, 

UUor-hoais, 

Underwriter, 

Union-Iris 

United  States- Macedonian,  .    .    .    . 

Upperville, 

Urias, 

Van  Buren,  Ark , 

Vaughfp  Hill 

Vengeance-Defiance,  . 

Vengeance-Harriet 

Vera  Cruz, 

Vicksbiirg, 

Vicksburg  (continued  to  May  22), 
Vicksburg  (continued  to  May  25), 

Vicksburg  (ended),  . 

Vicksburg  assault  (continued),  . 
Vicksburg  assault  (ended),     .    .    , 

Vicksburg  (ended), 

Wasp-Avon, 

Wasp-packet, 

Wasp- Frolic, 

Wasp-Reindeer 

Wauhatchie  (continued),  ... 
Wauhatchie  (continued),     ... 

Wauhatchie  (ended) 

Waxhaws, 

Weehawken- Atlanta, 

Weldon  Railroad, 

West  Point 

White  Oak  Swamp, 

White  Plains 

White  River 

Whitestone  Hill 

White  Sulphur  Springs 

Wilcox's  Bridge  (continued),  .  . 
Wilcox's  Bridge  (continued),  .  . 
Wilcox's  Bridge  (ended),  .  .  . 
Wilderness  (continued),  .... 
Wilderne.ss  (continued),  .... 

Wilderness  (ended) 

Wile  Renard-ship, 

Williamsburg,    ........ 

Williston  Station, 

Wilson  Creek, 

Wilson's  Raid  (June  22-30),  .  . 
Wilson's  Raid  (to  April  24),  .    . 

Winchester, 

Winchester  (continued),.    .    .    . 

Winchester  (ended) 

Winion,  N.  C 

Wood  Lake 

Wyoming,  or  Fort  Forty,  .  .  . 
Wyoming- Japanese  batteries,  .    . 

Wytheville, 

Yankee-Royal  Bounty, 

Yellow  Bayou, 

York 

York-Lord  Somers 

Yorktown  (ended) 


Opponent 


English 
English 

Conf. 
English 
English 

Conf. 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
Mexican 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 
Indians 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

Conf. 
Indians 
English 
Japanese 

Conf. 
English 

Conf. 
English 
English 
English 


Victor 


U.  S. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 
Eng. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.S. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
Conf. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Eng. 

U.  S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

* 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

U.S. 

u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 
u.  s. 

Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 

* 

u.  s. 

Eng. 

u.  s. 

Conf. 

u.  s. 

U.S. 
U.  S. 

U.S. 


CASUALTIES 


United  States 


Killed    Wo'nd'd 


0 
0 
9 
1 
5 

30 
0 
0 

23 
3 
1 

11 
0 


1,848 

724 

545 

2 

3 

5 

11 


76 

250 

0 

604 

84 

34 

24 

52 

8 

63 


80 


2,309 

6 

456 

2 

223 

76 

99 

38 

'203 

0 

8 

225 

6 

21 

0 

42 

66 

0 

8 


8 
2 

20 
3 
7 

70 
0 
3 

33 
5 
3 

56 
3 


2,378 

990 

3,688 

1 

10 

5 

15 


339 

130 

0 

2,494 

110 
42 
66 

148 
23 

144 


12,188 

40 

1,400 

3 

721 

265 

598 

154 

397 

0 

24 

0 

4 

62 

2 

108 

203 

0 

16 


Opponents 


Killed      Wo'nd'd 


11 
1 
6 
0 

36 

50 
8 
2 

63 

4 

3 

981 

7 


1,420 

'  63 
25 
10 
4 
15 
25 


153 

5 

0 

156 

3 

65 

89 

162 

194 

42 


132 


1,956 

82 

351 

3 

331 

48 

352 

68 

50 
1 

84 

2 

100 

3 

2 

74 

loot 

6 
199 


22 

7 

32 

2 

68 

100 

12 

5 

241 

11 

8 

2,000t 

18 


2,151 

134 
20 
32 
17 
47 
42 


208 
14 
8 

344 
lot 
86 

144 

341 
42 
75 


643 


10,444 

0 

1,403 

6 

764 

252 

1,231 

329 

81 
4 

138 
8 

200 
8 
7 

158 

302 
12 

353 


Arabia.  The  history  of  Arabia  before  the 
time  of  Mohammed  is  involved  in  mystery. 
The  aborigines  of  Arabia  were  probably  Cush- 
ites,  most  of  whom  passed  over  into  Abyssinia. 
A  few.  however,  remained,  who  inhabited  the 
west  coasts.  Subsequently  another  Semitic 
race,  descended  from  Abraham,  settled  in  the 
land.  The  oldest  Arabian  tribes  are  now  ex- 
tinct, and  only  a  traditional  memory  even  of 
their  names  exists;  but  the  Semitic  chiefs, 
Joktan,  or  Kohtan,  and  Ishmael,  are  generally 
considered  to  be  the  fathers  of  the  present  in- 
habitants. Christianity  found  an  early  entrance 
into  Arabia.  The  Jews,  in  considerable  num- 
bers, migrated  into  Arabia  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  and  made  many  proselytes.  The 
great  diversity  of  creeds  in  the  penmsula  was 


favorable  to  the  introduction  of  the  doctrine  of 
Mohammed,  which  forms  the  grand  epoch  in 
Arabian  history,  and  brings  it  into  close  connec- 
tion with  the  general  history  of  civilization. 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  the  people  of  Arabia 
became  united,  and  powerful  enough  to  erect 
new  empires  in  the  three  quarters  of  the  world. 
The  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  from  the  time  of 
Mohammed  to  the  fall  of  the  caliphate  of  Bag- 
dad in  1258,  or  even  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  from  Spain  in  1492,  is  an  important 
period  in  the  history  of  civilization.  But  the 
movements  which  had  such  great  effect  on  the 
destinies  of  other  nations  produced  but  little 
change  in  the  interior  of  Arabia;  and  after  the 
brilliant  career  of  conquest  was  ended  the  penin- 
sula was  left  in  an  exhausted  condition.     Then 


20 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS 


followed  the  subjugation  of  Yemen  by  the  Turks 
in  the  Sixteenth  Century;  their  expulsion  in 
the  Seventeenth  Century;  the  dominion  of  the 
Portuguese  over  Muscat,  1508-1659;  the  con- 
quests of  Oman  and  the  temporary  victories 
gained  by  the  Persians  at  the  close  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century;  and,  lastly,  the  appearance  of 
the  Wahabees  (1770),  whose  moral  influence  is 
still  felt.  The  latter  took  an  important  part  in 
the  political  affairs  of  Arabia,  but  their  progress 
was  interrupted  by  Mehemet  Ali,  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt,  who  subjugated  the  coast-country  of 
Hedjaz,  with  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Yemen, 
and  in  1818  gained  a  decisive  advantage  through 
the  victory  of  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  subsequent 
events  of  the  year  1840,  in  Syria,  compelled 
Mehemet,  howeyer,  to  concentrate  his  forces 
and  to  resign  all  claims  upon  the  territories 
lying  beyond  the  Red  Sea.  Politically,  Hedjaz, 
Yemen,  and  El  Hasa  are  really  three  Turkish 

Erovinces;  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  is  in  Egyptian 
ands;  England  exercises  much  influence  in 
Hadramaut  through  her  possession  of  Aden; 
the  Sultan  of  Oman  is  practically  independent, 
and  in  alliance  with  England;  Nejd,  the  seat  of 
the  once  powerful  Wahabee  state,  may  be  said 
to  be  independent,  though  the  Emir  of  Shomer, 
or  Shammer,  its  most  powerful  potentate,  pays 
a  small  annual  tribute  to  the  Sherif  of  Mecca, 
in  recognition  of  Turkish  supremacy. 

Arc  no  n  i&r'kon).  One  of  the  chief  magis- 
trates of  the  city  and  commonwealth  of  Athens. 
At  first  the  Archon  succeeded  to  the  kings,  and 
had  regal  power.  Their  authority  was  then 
divided  among  nine,  and  was  made  annual.  In 
the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  archonship  was 
merely  titular  and  honorary. 

Argentine  Republic.  In  1515,  Juan 
Diaz  da  Solis,  while  searching  for  a  passage  into 
the  Great  South  Sea  newly  seen  by  Balboa, 
entered  the  Rio  de  La  Plata.  In  1526,  Sebastian 
Cabot,  son  of  the  discoverer  of  Newfoundland, 
penetrated  nearly  to  the  confluence  of  the  Parana 
and  the  Paraguay,  being  arrested  by  the  rapids, 
which  afterwards  gave  name  to  Corrientes.  In 
1535,  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded,  to  command, 
though  indirectly,  the  most  practicable  channel 
of  the  only  outlet  of  the  country,  a  city,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  its  own  colony  of  Monte 
Video,  on  the  opposite  bank,  has  virtually 
monopolized  the  history  of  a  region  equal  in 
extent  to  Western  Europe.  Gradually  other 
cities  were  planted,  partly  by  colonists  from 
Spain,  and  partlv  by  adventurers  from  Peru, 
each  city  generally  giving  its  own  name  to  its 
own  province.  The  chief  staples  of  the  country 
—  horses  and  cattle  —  had  been  largely  intro- 
duced before  1552.  Down  to  1775,  the  basin 
of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  was  a  dependency  of  the 
viceroyalty  of  Lima.  In  that  year,  however, 
was  erected  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
which,  to  the  basin  in  question,  added  Bolivia, 
under  the  name  of  Upper  Peru,  thus  embracing 
the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon,  and  also  most 
of  the  plateau  of  Titicaca.  The  year  1806 
ushered  in  a  new  order  of  things.  Spain,  as  an 
ally  of  France,  being  then  at  war  with  England, 
both  Buenos  Ayres  and  Monte  Video  were  occu- 
pied by  the  English  —  a  change  which,  brief  as 
was  its  duration,  virtually  sowed  the  seeds  of 


revolution.  The  colonists  had  felt  the  incon- 
venience of  belonging  to  a  state  which  left  them, 
in  a  great  measure,  to  defend  themselves;  they 
had  successfully  tried  their  strength  against  a 
foe  more  powerful  than  their  own  masters;  and 
they  had  been  encouraged  not  less  by  the  say- 
ings, than  by  the  doings,  of  their  invaders  to 
assert  their  independence.  These  influences 
were,  in  fact,  instantaneously  exemplified.  The 
triumphant  militia,  after  deposing  and  expelling 
the  legitimate  viceroy  for  cowardice,  elected  in 
his  stead  the  French  officer  who  had  led  them  to 
victory.  Thus  had  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres  become  peculiarly  ripe  for  taking  its  share 
in  the  outbreak,  which  Napoleon's  dethrone- 
ment of  the  Bourbons,  in  the  spring  of  1808, 
almost  immediately  occasioned  throughout  Span- 
ish America.  The  constituents  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  did  not,  however,  submit  to  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Joseph  Bonaparte  when  he  was 
shuffled  on  to  the  Spanish  throne  to  replace 
Ferdinand  VII.  In  1810,  they  organized  a  gov- 
ernment in  the  name  of  the  latter  monarch. 
This  arrangement,  which  lasted  only  for  a  short 
and  inglorious  period,  ended,  like  a  great  many 
others,  in  utter  confusion.  In  1816,  a  General 
Congress  declared  the  independence  of  the 
"United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  La  Plata";  but 
those  provinces,  in  1827,  returned  once  more  to 
a  state  of  isolation.  In  1831,  Buenos  Ayres, 
Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  and  Santa  F4,  sometimes 
classed  as  the  coast  or  riverine  states,  entered 
into  a  federal  compact,  and  invited  the  others 
to  form  a  voluntary  alliance  with  them.  This 
Argentine  Confederation  led  to  little  but  anarchy 
till  1835,  when  General  Rosas  was  elected  cap- 
tain-general or  governor  of  it,  with  all  but 
absolute  power.  He  secured  quiet  and  order  for  a 
time;  but  the  great  aim  of  his  policy,  both 
warlike  and  commercial,  being  to  achieve  the 
supremacy  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  struggles  with 
this  end  in  view,  to  which  he  was  goaded  on 
also  by  personal  ambition  and  reckless  daring, 
led  to  his  ultimate  overthrow  in  1851.  Buenos 
Ayres,  refusing  to  submit  to  Urquiza,  the  next 
governor  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  declared 
itself  independent  in  1854;  but  was  compelled 
by  a  signal  defeat  at  Cepeda  in  1859  to  reenter 
the  confederation.  Continuing  restless,  how- 
ever, another  war,  in  which  its  army  was  ably 
led  by  General  Mitre,  placed  that  province  in 
the  position  of  supremacy  which  it  still  holds. 
In  1865,  the  Argentine  Republic  became  in- 
volved along  with  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  a 
war  against  Paraguay,  which  ended  only  with 
the  death  of  Lopez,  President  of  Paraguay,  in 
1870,  and  which  accomplished  little  in  the  inter- 
est or  to  the  credit  of  (he  Argentine  Republic. 
In  1881,  the  Argentine  Republic,  in  conjunction 
with  Chile,  came  into  possession  of  Patagonia 
and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  A  financial  crisis  in  1890 
did  much  to  temporarily  retard  the  industrial 
progress  of  the  republic.  In  1906-07,  immigra- 
tion was  encouraged  on  an  extensive  scale,  and 
railroad  building  received  a  renewed  impetus. 

Arlcansas.  The  name,  derived  from  the 
Indian,  signifies  "smoky  water,"  with  a  French 
prefix  meaning  "bow."  The  State  was  origin- 
ally a  portion  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  pur- 
chased from  the  French  in   1803.     When  the 


HISTORY 


21 


State  of  Louisiana  was  admitted,  in  1812,  the 
remaining  portion  was  organized  as  Missouri 
Territory,  which  name  it  held  till  1819,  when 
Missouri  formed  a  State  Constitution,  and  Ar- 
kansas became  a  Territory  under  its  present 
name.  It  became  a  State  in  1836.  The  people 
passed  the  ordinance  of  secession  on  May  6,  1861. 
During  the  late  Civil  War  the  principal  battles 
fought  within  the  State  boundaries  were  Pea 
Ridge,  Prairie  Grove,  Arkansas  Post,  and  Hel- 
ena. Arkansas  was  temporarily  reorganized  as 
a  State  in  the  Union  in  1864,  but  it  was  rele- 
gated to  military  government  under  the  recon- 
struction acts  of  1867.  The  new  constitution 
was  adopted  in  1868,  and  the  State  resumed 
permanent  federal  relations.  In  1903,  charges 
were  preferred  against  Governor  Jeff  Davis, 
alleging  gross  official  misconduct.  In  the  fol- 
lowing election  he  received  full  vindication. 

Armada.  A  Spanish  word,  signifying  gen- 
erally an  armed  force,  but  applied  specially  to 
the  great  naval  expedition  sent  out  against 
England  by  Philip  of  Spain,  A.  D.  1588.  The 
object  of  the  expedition  was  to  strike  a  decisive 
blow  at  the  Protestant  interest.  The  expedition 
had  been  long  in  preparation,  and  consisted  of 
no  fewer  than  132  vessels,  chiefly  galleons,  which 
carried,  besides  8,000  sailors  and  the  galley- 
slaves,  an  army  of  20,000  men.  These  were 
destined  for  the  coast  of  Flanders,  where  Alex- 
ander Farnese,  Prince  of  Parma,  was  to  embark 
with  35,000  men  in  addition.  The  news  of  these 
hostile  preparations  aroused  all  the  enthusiasm 
of  England.  Her  navy,  which  had  been  reduced 
to  thirty-six  ships,  was  rapidly  increased  until 
191  vessels  were  ready  for  sea.  These  were 
placed  under  the  command  of  Lord  Howard  of 
Effingham,  under  whom  served  Drake,  Hawkins, 
Frobisher,  and  others.  The  command  of  the 
army  was  given  to  the  Earl  of  Leicester.  The 
main  body  of  the  ships  was  stationed  off  Ply- 
mouth, while  a  squadron,  under  Lord  Seymour, 
was  ordered  to  cruise  off  the  coast  of  Flanders. 
The  Armada  set  out  from  the  Tagus  on  the  29th 
of  May.  On  the  19th  of  July,  the  fleet  (which 
had  been  delayed  by  storms)  was  observed  en- 
tering the  Channel.  On  the  23d,  there  was  a 
whole  day's  fighting  off  Portland;  and  the  25th 
saw  a  siihilar  scene  with  a  similar  result  —  the 
capture  or  crippling  of  Spanish  ships  —  off  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  On  the  27th,  the  fleet  anchored 
off  Calais.  Two  nights  later,  eight  small  vessels, 
daubed  with  pitch  and  resin,  and  filled  with 
explosive  substances,  were  drifted  down  with 
the  tide  towards  the  floating  castles,  and  were 
set  on  fire.  In  the  panic  which  the  fire  and  the 
frequent  crashes  struck  through  the  Spanish 
fleet,  "many  vessels  cut  their  cables  and  cleared 
off  from  the  shore,  while  others  were  disabled 
or  seriously  injured.  Next  morning  the  scattered 
vessels  of  the  Armada  fell  an  easy  prey 
to  the  English  ships,  which,  being  much  smaller 
in  size  than  those  of  the  Spaniards,  had  all  along 
been  more  easily  manoeuvred.  Four  thousand 
Spaniards  were  killed.  Many  of  their  vessels 
were  either  taken,  sunk,  or  driven  ashore.  The 
rest  fled  northward  at  the  bidding  of  their  ad- 
miral, who  saw  no  way  home  but  round  the 
northern  coast  of  Scotland;  and,  at  the  end  of 
September,  fifty-three  weather-beaten  and  muti- 


lated ships,  all  that  remained  of  "The  Invin- 
cible Armada,"  were  brought  to  an  anchor  in 
Santander  Bay. 

Assembly.  The  four  great  legislative 
bodies  which  succeeded  each  other  during  the 
period  of  the  first  French  revolution  are  usually 
termed:  (1)  The  National  or  Constituent  Asserh- 
bly,  commenced  June  17,  1789,  by  the  resolution 
of  the  deputies  of  the  communes  in  the  States- 
General,  constituting  themselves  a  national  as- 
sembly, to  which  the  deputies  of  the  nobles  and 
clergy  afterwards  adhered;  termed  Constituent 
Assembly  from  having  framed  a  constitution; 
dissolved  on  the  acceptance  of  the  constitution 
by  the  king,  September  30,  1791.  (2)  The  Legis- 
lative Assembly  It  commenced  its  sittings  Octo- 
ber 1,  1791;  suspended  the  royal  authority  by 
its  decree  of  August  10,  1792;  and  was  dissolved 
September  21,  1792.  (3)  The  Convention.  It 
commenced  its  sittings  September  21,  1792, 
with  a  proclamation  of  the  Republic;  was  dis- 
solved 4  Brumaire,  fourth  year  of  the  Repub- 
lic (October  26,  1795).  (4)  Two-thirds  of  this 
assembly  were  then  included  in  the  new  body 
of  the  Corps  Legislatif,  which  commenced  its 
sittings  October  27,  1795,  forming  the  Council 
of  the  Five  Hundred  (des  Cinq-Cents),  and  the 
Council  of  the  Ancients  (des  Anciens),  250  in 
number.  The  latter  body  named  the  Directory. 
This  assembly  subsisted  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  Directory  by  Bonaparte,  17  Brumaire,  eighth 
year  of  the  Republic  (November  10,  1799).  The 
term  Assemblee  Nationale  was  revived  by  the 
legislative  body  under  the  second  Republic, 
Mav,  1848;   and  under  the  third  Republic,  1870. 

Assyria  (ds-slr're-ah).  The  name  of  the 
first  great  empire  of  antiquity  recorded  in  Holy 
Writ.  Assyria  Proper  was  a  region  east  of  the 
Tigris,  including  Nineveh,  and  derived  its  name 
from  Asshur,  the  second  son  of  Shem.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  comprised  the  modern  pashalics 
of  Van  and  Diarbekr,  with  Pensarmenia,  includ- 
ing at  least  part  of  Azerbijan;  corresponding 
pretty  exactly  to  modern  Kurdistan.  The  first 
empire  of  Assyria  was  founded  by  Belus,  B.  C. 
1993.  Ninus,  son  of  Belus  (1968-1916),  and  his 
widow,  Semiramis  (1916-1874),  were  its  most 
famous  monarchs.  The  last  of  their  successors, 
Sardanapalus,  infamous  for  his  luxury  and  volup- 
tuousness, was  dethroned  by  his  subjects,  and 
burned  himself  in  his  palace,  with  his  eunuchs, 
concubines,  and  all  his  treasures,  about  820  B.C. 
The  empire  was  then  divided  into  Media,  Assyria, 
and  Babylonia.  Salmanassar,  or  Shalmaneser, 
conquered  Judea  about  724  B.  C.  The  second 
empire  of  Assyria  finished  with  Nabopolassar, 
who  united  Assyria  to  Babylonia,  B.  C.  625. 
Assyria, with  Babylonia,  was  conquered  by  Cyrus, 
B.  C.  538,  and  became  a  province  of  Persia. 

Augur  (au'gUr).  A  public  officer  appointed 
to  interpret  the  will  of  the  gods,  as  expressed  by 
signs  or  omens,  for  national  or  individual  guid- 
ance. Their  office  was  one  of  great  importance 
in  the  state,  as  no  enterprises  or  ceremonies  were 
performed  unless  they  declared  the  omens  fa- 
vorable. Accordingly,  the  members  of  their  col- 
lege were  always  elected  from  the  most  honorable 
citizens.  Their  divinations  were  called  auguries 
or  auspices,  between  which  there  is  sometimes  a 
distinction  made;    the  latter  meaning  such  as 


22 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


were  derived  from  the  inspection  of  birds,  the 
former  being  extended  to  all  omens  or  prodigies 
whatever.  The  Augurs  bore  a  staff  or  wand  as 
the  ensign  of  their  authority.  From  B.  C.  300 
to  Sylla's  time,  the  College  of  Augurs  consisted 
of  nme.  They  were  then  increased  to  fifteen. 
Julius  Caesar  added  another.  Their  office  was 
suppressed,  390  A.  D. 

Aulic  Council.  One  of  the  two  supreme 
courts  of  the  old  Germanic,  or  Holy  Roman, 
Empire,  the  other  being  the  Imperial- Chamber. 
The  nomination  of  the  Aulic  Coimcillors  be- 
longed to  the  emperor,  and  each  new  emperor 
made  a  new  appomtment.  The  Council,  which 
was  called  into  existence  in  1501  by  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  ultimately  attained  to  great 
authority,  and  was  held  to  be  equal  in  dignity 
to  the  Imperial  Chamber.  At  the  extinction  of 
the  old  Germanic  Empire,  by  the  renunciation 
of  Francis  II.,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  under  the  protection 
of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  in  1806,  the  Aulic 
Council  ceased  to  exist. 

Austria -Hungary.  The  history  of  Aus- 
tria is  the  history  of  the  House  of  Habsburg. 
When  Rudolph  of  Habsburg  became  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  Ottokar,  Kmg  of  Bohemia  and 
Duke  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carinthia,  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  the  emperor 
succeeded  in  dispossessing  him  of  his  fiefs  (1278), 
and  subsequently  conferred  them,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  electors  of  the  German  Empire,  on 
his  son  (1282).  Thus  the  dynasty  of  Habsburg 
was  founded.  In  the  first  half  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Austria  was  elected 
King  of  Hungary  by  one  party,  while  John 
Zapolya  of  Transylvania  was  chosen  by  another. 
After  several  wars,  in  which  John  was  supported 
by  the  Turks,  Ferdinand  finally  came  out  vic- 
torious and  united  Hungary  to  Austria.  Thus 
possessed  of  a  large  territory,  fertile  and  densely 
peopled,  and  regularly  elected  emperors  of  Ger- 
many, the  House  of  Habsburg  was,  for  several 
centuries,  the  richest  and  most  powerful  family 
in  Europ)e.  But  humiliations  came,  thick  and 
heavy,  with  Napoleon.  Driven  out  of  Germany, 
the  Emperor  Francis  assumed,  August  11,  1804, 
for  himself  and  his  successors,  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Austria.  But,  besides  Germany,  he 
also  lost  his  possessions  in  Italy,  and  was  com- 

Kletely  shut  out  from  the  sea.  After  the  fall  of 
fapoleon,  Austria  was  restored  to  its  former 
size,  and  under  the  administration  of  Metternich 
it  also  regained  its  former  prestige  in  European 
politics.  But  it  was  internally  weak,  and  its 
weakness  became  surprisingly  apparent,  first  by 
the  revolution  of  1848,  when  only  the  support 
of  Russia  prevented  the  whole  fabric  from  falling 
to  pieces,  and  then  after  the  battle  of  Sadowa, 
1866,  when,  for  the  second  time,  it  was  driven 
out  of  Germany,  and  lost  its  hold  on  Italy.  Since 
that  time  the  Austrian  Government  has  been 
principally  occupied  with  the  internal  recon- 
struction of  the  empire,  and  it  is  now  consti- 
tuted as  a  double  state  —  Austria  and  Hungary 
—  each  with  a  representation  of  its  own,  out  of 
which  is  formed  a  common  representation,  in 
which  all  common  affairs,  army  and  navy,  for- 
eign policy,  etc.,  are  treated.  In  1878,  the 
aoministration  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  was 


fiven  to  Austria-Hungary.  In  1882,  the  dual 
ingdom  entered  into  the  triple  alliance  with 
Germany  and  Italy.  An  anti-Semitic  agitation 
assumed  vast  proportions  in  1895,  and  resulted 
in  the  Czechs  carrying  the  Bohemian  Diet. 
More  internal  unrest  has  recently  been  displayed 
in  Austria-Hungary  than  in  any  other  nation  of 
Europe,  Turkey  excepted.  In  1907-08,  socialist 
demonstrations  in  favor  of  universal  suffrage 
were  frequent  and  impressive.  In  1909,  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  became  absolute  possessions. 

Battles  (The  fifteen  decisive),  according  to 
Professor  Creasy:  (1)  Mardthon  (B.  C.  490),  in 
which  the  Greeks,  under  MiltiSdSs,  defeated 
Darius,  the  Persian,  and  turned  the  tide  of 
Asiatic  invasion.  (2)  Syraciise  (B.  C.  413),  in 
which  the  Athenian  power  was  broken,  and  the 
extension  of  Greek  domination  was  prevented. 
(3)  Arbela  (B.  C.  331),  by  which  Alexander 
overthrew  Darius,  and  introduced  European 
habits  into  Asia.  (4)  Metaurus  (B.  C.  207),  in 
which  the  Romans  defeated  Hannibal,  and  Car- 
thage was  brought  to  ruin.  (5)  Armin'itis 
(A.  D.  9),  in  which  the  Gauls  overthrew  the 
Romans  under  Varus,  and  established  their  in- 
dependence. (6)  Chdlons  (A.  D.  451),  in  which 
Attila,  "the  Scourge  of  God,"  was  defeated  by 
Aetius,  and  Europe  saved  from  utter  devasta- 
tion. (7)  Tours  (A.  D.  732),  in  which  Charles 
Martel  overthrew  the  Saracens,  and  broke  from 
Europe  the  Mohammedan  yoke.  (8)  Hastings 
(A.  D.  1066),  by  which  William  of  Normandy 
became  possessed  of  the  English  Crown.  (9) 
Orleans  (A.  D.  1429),  by  which  Jeanne  d'Arc 
raised  the  siege  of  the  city,  and  secured  the 
independence  of  France.  (10)  Armada  (The), 
(A.  D.  1588),  which  crushed  the  hopes  of  Spain 
and  of  the  papacy  in  England.  (11)  Blenheim 
(A.  D.  1704),  in  which  Marlborough,  by  the 
defeat  of  Tallard,  broke  the  ambitious  schemes 
of  Louis  XIV.  (12)  Pultowa  (A.  D.  1709),  in 
which  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  defeated  by 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  the  stability  of 
the  Muscovite  Empire  was  established.  (13) 
Saratoga  (A.  D.  1777),  in  which  General  Gates 
defeated  Burgoyne,  and  virtually  decided  the 
fate  of  the  American  Revolution.  (14)  Valmy 
(A.  D.  1792),  in  which  the  allied  armies, 
under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  were  defeated 
by  the  French  revolutionists,  and  the  Revolu- 
tion was  suffered  to  go  on.  (15)  Waterloo 
(A.  D.  1815),  in  which  Wellington  defeated 
Napoleon,  and  rescued  Europe  from  French 
domination. 

Belgium.  The  territory  now  known  as 
Belgium  originally  formed  only  a  section  of  that 
known  to  Caesar  as  the  territory  of  the  Belgae, 
extending  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine  to 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  to  the  ocean. 
This  district  continued  under  Roman  sway  till 
the  decline  of  the  empire;  subsequently  formed 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Clovis;  and  then  of  that 
of  Charlemagne,  whose  ancestors  belonged  to 
Landen  and  Herstal  on  the  confines  of  the  Ar- 
dennes. After  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire 
of  Charlemagne,  Belgium  formed  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Lotharingia  under  Charlemagne's 
grandson,  Lothaire;  Artois  and  Flanders,  howr 
ever,  belonging  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Verdun. 


HISTORY 


23 


For  more  than  a  century  this  kingdom  was 
contended  for  by  the  kings  of  France  and  the> 
emperors  of  Germany.  In  953,  it  was  conferred 
by  the  Emperor  Otto  upon  Bruno,  archbishop 
of  Cologne,  who  assumed  the  title  of  archduke, 
and  divided  it  into  two  duchies:  Upper  and 
Lower  Lorraine.  In  the  frequent  struggles 
which  took  place  during  the  Eleventh  Century, 
Luxemburg,  Namur,  Hainaut,  and  Liege  usu- 
ally sided  with  France,  while  Brabarit,  Holland, 
and  Flanders  commonly  took  the  side  of  Ger- 
many. The  contest  between  the  civic  and  in- 
dustrial organizations  and  feudalism,  which 
went  on  through  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth 
Centuries,  and  in  which  Flanders  bore  a  leading 
part,  was  temporarily  closed  by  the*  defeat  of 
the  Ghentese  under  Van  Artevelde  in  1382. 
In  1384,  Flanders  and  Artois  fell  to  the  House 
of  Burgundy,  which,  in  less  than  a  century, 
acquired  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold  at  Nancy,  in  his 
attempt  to  raise  the  duchy  into  a  kingdom 
(1477),  was  followed  by  the  succession  and  mar- 
riage of  his  daughter,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  by 
which  the  Netherlands  became  an  Austrian  pos- 
session. With  the  accession,  however,  of  the 
Austrian  House  of  Habsburg  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  the  Netherlands,  after  a  brief  period  of 
prosperity,  attended  by  the  spread  of  the  re- 
formed religion,  became  the  scene  of  increas- 
ingly severe  persecution  under  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Driven  to  rebellion,  the 
seven  northern  states  under  William  of  Orange, 
the  Silent,  succeeded  in  establishing  their  inde- 
pendence, but  the  southern  portion,  or  Belgium, 
continued  under  the  Spanish  yoke. 

From  1598  to  1621,  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
were  transferred  as  an  independent  kingdom  to 
the  Austrian  branch  of  the  family  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  II.,  with  the 
Archduke  Albert  of  Austria.  He  died  childless, 
however,  and  they  reverted  to  Spain.  After 
being  twice  conquered  by  Louis  XIV.,  con- 
quered again  by  Marlborough,  coveted  by  all 
the  powers,  deprived  of  territory  on  the  one 
side  by  Holland  and  on  the  other  by  France, 
the  Southern  Netherlands  were  at  length  in 
1714,  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  again  placed 
under  the  dominion  of  Austria,  with  the  name 
of  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  During  the  Aus- 
trian war  of  succession  the  French,  under  Saxe, 
conquered  nearly  the  wliole  country,  but  re- 
stored it  in  1748  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63)  did  not  affect 
Belgium,  and  in  that  period,  and  during  the 
peace  which  followed,  she  regained  much  of  her 


Erosperity  under  Maria  Theresa  and  Charles  of 
orraine.  On  the  succession  of  Joseph  II.,  the 
"philosophic  emperor,"  a  serious  insurrection 
occurred,  the  Austrian  army  being  defeated  at 
Turnhout,  and  the  provinces  forming  them- 
selves into  an  independent  state  as  United  Bel- 
gium (1790).  They  had  scarcely  been  subdued 
again  by  Austria  before  they  were  conquered 
by  the  revolutionary  armies  of  France,  and  the 
country  divided  into  French  departments,  the 
Austrian  rule  being  practically  closed  by  the 
battle  of  Fleurus  (1794),  and  the  French  posses- 
sion confirmed  by  the  treaties  of  Campo  Formio 
(1797)  and  Lun^ville  (1801). 

In  1815,  Belgium  was  united  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  to  Holland,  Jaoth  countries  together 
now  forming  one  state,  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands.  This  union  lasted  till  1830,  when 
a  revolt  broke  out  among  the  Belgians,  and  soon 
attained  such  dimensions  that  the  Dutch  troopn 
were  unable  to  repress  it.  A  convention  of  the 
great  powers  assembled  in  London,  favored  the 
separation  of  the  two  countries,  and  drew  up  a 
treaty  to  regulate  it;  the  National  Congress  of 
Belgium  offering  the  crown,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  England,  to  Leopold,  Prince  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  who  acceded  to  it  under  the  title  of 
Leopold  I.,  on  July  21,  1831.  In  November  of 
the  same  year,  the  five  powers  guaranteed  the 
crown  to  him  by  the  treaty  of  London,  and  the 
remaining  difficulties  with  Holland  were  settled 
in  1839,  when  the  Dutch  claims  to  territory  in 
Limburg  and  Luxemburg  were  withdrawn.  The 
reign  of  Leopold  was  for  Belgium  a  prosperous 
period  of  thirty-four  years.  Leopold  II.  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1865.  In  recent  years  the 
chief  feature  of  Belgian  politics  has  been  a  keen 
struggle  between  the  clerical  and  the  liberal 
party.  Till  1878  the  clerical  party  maintained 
the  upper  hand,  but  to  a  large  extent  by  corrup- 
tion at  the  elections.  In  1877,  a  bill  was  passed 
to  put  down  corruption,  and  to  increase  the 
number  of  town  deputies  to  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives;  and  at  the  next  elections,  in 
June,  1878,  the  Liberals  gained  a  majority,  which 
they  lost  in  1884.  In  1885,  on  the  constitution 
by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 
in  which  Leopold  II.  had  shown  an  active  inter- 
est, he  was  invited  to  become  its  sovereign. 

The  Congo  Free  State  passed  under  the 
suzerainty  of  Belgium  in  1890,  and  in  the  years 
following  the  indignation  of  the  civilized  world 
was  aroused  by  the  reported  atrocities  under 
Leopold's  rule.  Finally,  in  1908,  the  Congo  Free 
State  was  annexed  to  Belgium.  In  1909,  Leopold 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Albert  I. 


BISHOPS  AND 

POPES   OF  ROME 

Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 

St.  Peter 

First  Century 
A.  D.          A.  D. 

41              67 

67             79 

79-91 
91-100 

Second  Century 
100-109 
about         109-119 
119-128 

Linus 

Cletus  or  Anacletus,  .... 
Clement 

Evaristus 

Alexander  I 

Sixtus  I 

24 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


BISHOPS  AND  POPES  OF  ROME  — Continued 

Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 

Telesphorus 

Hyginu8, 

A.  D.        A.  D. 

128           139 
139           142 
142           157 
157           168 
168           176 
177           190 
190           202 
202           217 

Third  Century 

217           222 
222           230 
230           235 

235  236 

236  250 
251           253 

253  254 

254  257 
257           258 
259           268 
269           274 
275           283 
283           296 

Fourth  Century 

296           304 
304           309 
309 

310           314 
.     314           335 
336 

337           352 
352           366 
366           384 
384           398 
398           401 

Fifth  Century 
401           417 

417  418 

418  422 
422           432 
432           440     ' 
440           461 
461            468 
468           483 
483            492 
492            496 
496           498 

Sixth  Century 

498           614 
614            523 
623            626 
626           530 
530           532 
532           535 

635  536 

636  637 
537           666 
555           561 
660           674 

675  579 
679           590 

Seventh  Century 
590           B04 
604           606 
607 

608           615 
616           618 
619           625 
626           638 
638           640 
640           642 
642           649 
649           653 
654           657 
667           672 
672           676 

676  678 
678           681 
682           683 

684  686 

685  686 

686  687 

Greek. 

Syrian. 

Greek. 

Greek. 

Victor  I                        .... 

African. 

Zephyrinus, 

Urban  I.          

Roman. 

Roman. 

Greek. 

Probably  Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Sixtus  II 

Roman. 

Greek. 

Roman. 

Eutychianus, 

Uncertain. 

Roman. 

* 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Sylvester  I 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Native  of  Albano. 

Greek. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Sixtus  III «.      •    . 

Roman. 

Leo  I.,  "  The  Great,"    .    .    . 

Roman. 

Simplicius, 

Native  of  Tibur. 

Felix  II., 

Gelasius, 

Roman. 

Anastasius  II 

Roman. 

Symmachus, 

Native  of  Sardinia. 

Native  of  Frusino. 

John  I., 

Tuscan. 

Felix  III 

Native  of  Beneventum. 

Boniface  II 

Roman. 

Agapetus  I 

Roman. 

Sylyerius, 

Native  of  Campania. 

Peiagius  I., 

Roman. 

John  III 

Benedict  I 

Roman. 

Peiagius  II 

Roman. 

Gregory  I.,  "The  Great,  "     . 

Roman. 

Sabinianus 

Tuscany. 

Boniface  III 

Roman. 

Boniface  IV 

Native  of  Abruzzi. 

Deusdedit 

Boniface  V 

Honorius, 

Native  of  Capua. 

Severinus 

Roman. 

John  IV 

Theodore,    ........ 

Greek. 

Native  of  Tudertum. 

Eugenius  I 

Roman. 

Vitaliamis 

Native  of  Signia. 

Adeodatus, 

Roman. 

Donus  I., 

Roman. 

Agatho 

Leo  II 

Benedict  II., 

Roman. 

John  v.,       .        . 

Native  of  Syria. 

Conon,     

Native  of  Thrace. 

HISTORY 


25 


BISHOPS  AND  POPES  OF  ROME  — Continued 

Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 

Eighth  Century 
A.  D.       A.  D. 
687           701 
701           70.5 
705           707 
708 

708           715 
715           731 
731            741 
741           752 
752           757 
757           767 
768           772 
772           795 

Ninth  Century 
795           816 

816  817 

817  824 
824           827 
827 

827           844 
844           847 
847           855 
855           858 
858           867 
867           872 
872           882 
882           884 

884  885 

885  891 
891           896 
896 

896           897 

897 

897 

898           900 

Tenth  Century 

900           903 

903 

904           911 

911           913 

913  914 

914  929 
929 

929           931 
931           936 
936           939 
939           942 
942           946 
946           955 
955           964 

965 

965           972 

973  974 

974  983 
983           984 

985           996 

Eleventh  Century 

996           999 

999         1003 

1003 

1003         1009 

1009         1012 
1012          1024 
1024          1033 
1033          1045 

1045  1046 

1046  1047 
1048 

1048         1054 
1054         1057 

1057  1058 

1058  1061 
1061          1073 
1073         1085 
1086         1087 
1088         1099 

Twelfth  Century 
1099         1118 
1118         1119 

Native  of  Palermo. 

Native  of  Greece. 

T^Vir.     VTT 

Greek. 

Sisinnius ■    . 

Constantinus  I 

Gregory  II 

Gregory  III., 

Zachary 

Syrian. 

Roman. 

Syrian. 

Greek. 

Paul  I               

Roman. 

Steven 'ill., 

Sicilian. 

Roman. 

Leo  III                         .... 

Roman. 

Steven  IV 

Eugenius  II 

Gregory  IV., 

Leo  IV 

Nicholas  I., 

Adrian  II 

John  VIII 

Adrian  III 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Bishop  of  Parto. 

Steven  VI 

Theodore  II 

Roman. 

Native  of  Tiber. 

Benedict  IV 

Roman. 

Native  of  Ardea. 

Sergius  III., 

Roman. 

Native  of  Sabina. 

John  X.,  .                         ... 

Roman. 

Leo  VI 

Native  of  Rome. 

John  XI 

Roman. 

Steven  VIII 

Roman. 

Agapetus  II 

JoTin  XII 

Ottaviano  Conti.    He  was  the 
first  who  changed  his  name 
on  his  elevation. 

Roman. 

John  XIII. 

Roman. 

Benedict  VI.,  . 

(Conti) 

Roman. 

John  XIV 

John  XV., 

(Boniface  VII.,  Franco,  anti- 
pope.) 

Roman. 

Sylvester  II 

Bruno. 

Gerbert, 

Native  of  Auvergne. 

John  XVIII.,  .    . 

Philagathus. 

Roman. 

Sergius  IV 

John  XIX 

Gregory  VI 

Fasio 

Sylvester 

Giovanni  Braziano 

Roman. 

Native  of  Tusculum. 
Roman. 

Damascus  II 

Leo  IX.. 

Pappo. 

Bishop  of  Toul. 
Bishop  of  Eichstadt. 
Abbot  of  Monte  Casino. 
Native  of  Burgundy. 

Victor  II 

Steven  IX., 

Nicholas  II 

Gebhard 

Frederick, 

Native  of  Milan. 

Gregory  VII 

Hildebrand, 

Native  of  Tuscany. 
Native  of  Beneventum. 

Urban  II.,* 

Otho  or  Endes, 

Native  of  France. 
Native  of  Tuscany. 

Gelasius, 

26 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


BISHOPS  AND  POPES  OF  ROME  — Continued 


Pontiff 


Pontificate 


Surname 


Nationality 


Calixtus  II.,    . 
Honorius  II.,  . 
Innocent  II.,  . 
Celestine  II.,   . 
Lucius  II.,  .    . 
Eugenius  III., 
Anastasius  IV., 
Adrian  IV., 
Alexander  III., 
Lucius  III.,     . 
Urban  III.,     . 
Gregory  VIII., 
Clement  III.,  . 
Celestine  III., 

Innocent  III., 
Honorius  III., 
Gregory  IX.,  . 
Celestine  IV., 
Innocent  IV., 
Alexander  IV., 
Urban  IV.,  .   . 

Clement  IV.,   . 

Gregory  X.,    . 
Innocent  V.,    . 
Adrian  V.,   .   . 
John  XXL,     . 
Nicholas  III., 
Martin  IV., 
Honorius  IV., 
Nicholas  IV., 
Celestine  V.,    . 
Boniface  VII I., 

Benedict  XL, 
Clement  V.,     . 

JohnXXIL,   . 

Benedict  XII.. 
Clement  VI.,   . 

Innocent  VI.,  . 
Urban  V.,  .  . 
Gregory  XL,  . 
Urban  VI.,  . 
Boniface  IX., . 

Innocent  VII., 
Gregory  XII., 
Martin  V.,  .  . 
Eugenius  IV., 
Nicholas  V.,  . 
Calixtus  III.,  . 

Pius  II 

Paul  II 

Sixtus  IV.,  .    . 
Innocent  VUL, 
Alexander  VI., 

PiusIIL,     .    . 

Julius  XL,  .  . 
Leo  X..    ,    .    . 

Adrian  VI.,  . 
Clement  VII., 
Paul  III.,  .  . 
Julius  III.,  .  . 
Marcellus,  .  . 
Paul  IV.,  .  . 
Pius  IV.,     .    . 

Pius  V 

Gregory  XII I. , 
Sextus  v.,  .  . 
Urban  VII.,  . 
Gregory  XIV., 
Innocent  IX., 
Clement  VIII., 


A.  D. 
1119 
1124 
1130 
1143 
1144 
1145 
1153 
1154 
1169 
1181 
1185 
1187 
1187 
1191 


A.  D. 

1124 
1130 
1143 
1144 
1145 
1153 
1154 
1159 
1181 
1185 
1187 

1191 
1198 


Thirteenth  Century 

1198  1216 

1216  1227 

1227  1241 

1241 

1243  1254 

1254  1261 

1261  1264 


1265 


1268 
1276 


1271 
1276 
1276 

1276  1277 

1277  1281 
1281  1285 
1285  1288 
1288  1292 
1294 

1294    1303 


Fourteenth  Century 

1304 
1314 


1303 
1305 


1316 


1334 
1342 


1334 


1342 
1352 


1352  1362 

1362  1370 

1370  1378 

1378  1389 

1389  1404 


Fifteenth  Century 

1406 
1415 
1431 
1447 
1455 
1458 
1464 
1471 
1484 
1492 
1503 


1404 
1406 
1415 
1431 
1447 
1455 
1458 
1464 
1471 
1484 
1492 


Sixteenth  Century 
1503 


1503 
1513 

1521 
1523 
1534 
1549 
1555 
1555 
1559 
1565 
1572 
1585 
1590 
1590 
1591 
1591 


1513 
1521 

1523 
1534 
1549 
1555 

1559 
1565 
1572 
1585 
1590 

1591 

1605 


Cardinal  Lamberti 

Nicholas  Breakpeare,  .    .    . 
Cardinal  Orlando  Bandinello, 

Cardinal  Ubaldo, 

Uberto  Crivelli 

Paul,  I    '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.    [ 
Cardinal  Hyacinthua,  .    .    . 


Cardinal  Lotharius,  .... 

Cardinal  Savelli 

Cardinal  Hugo 

Sinibaldo  Fieschi 

Cardinal  Rinaldo  Conti,  .    . 
James,  Patriarch  of  Jerusa- 
lem,      

Guy, 

Tebaldo  Visconti 

Cardinal  Peter, 

Ottobono  Fieschi,     .... 

Cardinal  Orsini, 

Cardinal  Simon  de  Brie,  .    . 
Cardinal  James  Sevelli,    .    . 

Cardinal  Jerome 

Pietro  da  Morrone 

Cardinal  Benedetto  Gaetani, 


Cardinal  Nicholas,    .... 
Bertrand,  removed  Papal  See 

to  Avignon,   . 
James,    .... 


James  Fournier, 
Pet^r  Roger,  .   . 


Steven  Aubert, .    . 
William  Grimoard, 
Peter  Roger,  .   .\, 
Bartolomew  Prignano, 
Peter  Tomacelli,   .    .    . 


Cosmo  Migliorati,     .... 

Angelo  Corrari 

Otho  Colonna, 

Gabriel  Condulmero,    .    .    . 

Cardinal  Thomas 

Alfonso  Borgia 

.ffineas  Sylvius  Piccolomini, 

Peter  Barbo 

Francis  della  Rovere,  .    .    . 

Gian  Battista  Cibo 

Rodrigo  Lenzoli  Borgia,  .    . 


Francis  Todeschini  Piccolo- 
mini,  

Julian  della  Rovere. 
Giovanni  de  Medici,     .    .    . 

Guilio  de  Medici 

Alessandro  Farnese,  .  .  . 
Giovan  Maria  Giocci,  .    .    . 

Cardinal  Cervini, 

Gianpietro  Caraffa,  .... 
Giovanni  Angelo  Medichino, 

Michelo  Chislieri 

Hugo  Buoncampagni,  .  .  . 
Felice  Peretti  of  Montaito, 
Gian  Battista  Castagna,  .   . 

Nicola  Sfrondati 

Gian  Antonio  Facchinetti,  . 
Ippolito  Aldobrandino,   .    .  . 


Native  of  Burgundy. 

Bishop  of  Ostia. 

Roman. 

Tuscan. 

Native  of  Bologna. 

Native  of  Pisa. 

Roman. 

Englishman. 

Native  of  Sienna. 

Native  of  Lucca. 

Archbishop  of  Milan. 

Native  of  Beneventum. 

Bishop  of  Praenesie. 

Roman. 


Native  of  Signia. 
Roman. 

Native  of  Anagui. 
Native  of  Milan. 
Native  of  Genoa. 
Native  of  Anaqui. 

Frenchman. 

Native  of  St.  Gilles,    in 

Languedoc. 
Native  of  Placenzi. 
Native  of  Tarentaise. 
Native  of  Genoa. 
Native  of  Lisbon. 
Native  of  Rome. 
Frenchman. 
Roman. 

Native  of  Ascoli. 
Native  of  Abruzzi. 
Native  of  Anagui. 


Native  of  Treviso. 

Native  of  Bordeaux. 
Native  of  Cahoras  in 

France. 
Frenchman. 
Native  of  Limoges  in 

France. 
Native  of  Limoges. 
Frenchman. 
Frenchman. 
Neapolitan. 
Of  Naples. 


Native  of  Sulmona. 

Native  of  Venice. 

Roman. 

Venetian. 

Native  of  Sargana. 

Spaniard. 

Native  of  Siena. 

Native  of  Venice. 

Genoese. 

Genoese. 

Spaniard. 


Genoese. 

Son  of  Lorenzo,  the  Mag- 
nificent. 
Native  of  Utrecht. 
Nephew  of  Lorenzo. 
Roman. 
Roman. 

Native  of  Montepulciano. 
Neapolitan. 
Native  of  Milan. 
Native  of  Alessandria. 
Native  of  Bologna. 
Native  of  March  Ancona. 
Genoese. 
Native  of  Milan. 
Native  of  Bologna. 
Native  of  Fano. 


HISTORY 


27 


BISHOPS  AND  POPES  OF  ROME  — Continued 


Pontiff 


Pontificate 


Surname 


Nationalitt 


Leo  XI 

PaulV 

Gregory  XV.,  . 
Urban  VIII.,  .  . 
Innocent  X.,  .  . 
Alexander  VII.,  . 
Clement  IX.,  .  . 
Clement  X.,  .  . 
Innocent  XL, 
Alexander  VIIL, 
Innocent  XII.,    . 

Clement  XL,  .  . 
Innocent  XllL,  . 
Benedict  XIII. ,  . 
Clement  XII.,  . 
Benedict  XIV.,  . 
Clement  XIII. ,  . 
elemental  v.,  . 
Pius  VI 

Pius  VII 

Leo  XII 

Pius  VIIL,  .  . 
Gregory  XVI.,  . 
Pius  IX 

Leo  XIII 

Pius  X 


Seventeenth 
A.  D. 
1605 
1605 
1621 
1623 
1644 
1655 
1667 
1669 
1676 
1689 
1691 


Century 
A.  D. 

1621 
1623 
1644 
1655 
1667 
1669 
1676 
1689 
1691 
1700 


Eighteenth  Century 

1700  1721 

1721  1724 

1724  1730 

1730  1740 

1740  1758 

1758  1769 

1769  1775 

1775  1799 

Nineteenth  Century 

1800  1823 

1823  1829 

1829  1830 

1830  1846 
1846  1878 


Alessandro  de  Medici,  . 
Camillo  Borghese,  .  . 
Alessandro  Ludovici,  . 
Maffeo  Barberini, .  .  . 
Gian  Battista  Pamfili, 

Fabio  Chigi, 

Guilio  Rospigliosi,  .  . 
Emilio  Attieri,  .  .  .  . 
Benedetto  Odescalchi, 
Pietro  Ottobani,  .  .  . 
Antonio  Pignatelli,  .    . 


Gian  Francesco  Albani, 
Michael  Angelo  Conti, . 
Vincenzo  Maria  Orsini, 
Lorenzo  Corsini,  .  .  . 
Prospero  Lambertini,  . 
Carlo  Rezzonico,  .  .  . 
Gian  Vencenzo  Ganganelli 
Angelo  Braschi 


1878 
1903 


1903 


Gregario  Barnaba  Chiara- 
monti, 

Annibale  della  Genga, .    .    . 

Cardinal  Castigliani,     .    .    . 

Mauro  Cappellari,     .... 

Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-Fer- 
retti, 

Gioacchino  Pecci 

Guiseppe  Sarto 


Native  of  Florence. 
Native  of  Rome. 
Native  of  Bologna. 
Florentine. 
Roman. 

Native  of  Siena. 
Native  of  Pistoia. 
Native  of  Rome. 
Native  of  Como. 
Native  of  Venice. 
Native  of  Naples. 


Native  of  Urbino. 
Native  of  Rome. 
Native  of  Rome. 
Native  of  Florence. 
Native  of  Bologna. 
Native  of  Venice. 
Born  near  Rimini. 
Native  of  Cesena. 


Native  of  Cesena. 
Native  of  Romagna. 
Native  of  Cingoli. 
Native  of  Belluno. 

Native  of  Sinigaglia. 
Native  of  Carpinetto. 
Venice. 


Blue  Laws.     The  code  of  1660,  a  compila-  ! 
tion  of  the  earliest  laws  and  customs  of  Connec-  j 
ticut.     It  is  almost  verbally  copied  from  the  j 
Mosaic  Law.     After  the  restoration  of  Charles  ; 
II.  "Presbyterian  true  blue"  became  a  term  of 
derision  applied  to  anything  which  smattered 
of  Puritanism,  and  "blue  laws"  simply  meant 
puritanical   laws,    or   laws   with   a   blue   tinge. 
These  laws  inflicted  the  penalty  of  death  for 
worshiping  any  god  but  the  God  of  the  Bible; 
for  speaking  disrespectfully  of  the  Bible,  Christ, 
or  the   Holy  Ghost;     for   witchcraft,   adultery, 
theft,  false-swearing,  and  disobedience  to  par- 
ents.    Said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by  the  Rev. 
Samuel   Peters,   but  generally  supposed  to  be 
apocryphal. 

Boer  War,  The.  The  reinforcing  of  the 
British  troops  in  South  Africa,  along  the  borders 
of  the  Transvaal  Republic,  together  with  differ- 
ences on  the  franchise  question,  coupled  with 
grim  recollections  of  former  armed  clashes  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  sturdy,  patriotic 
Boers,  all  tended  to  hasten  the  conflict  of  1899- 
1900,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  in  the  world's 
history.  As  an  effort  to  avert  war,  a  conference 
was  held  May  31,  1899,  between  Sir  Alfred 
Milner,  Governor  of  Cape  Colony,  and  the  Presi- 
dents of  the  Dutch  Republics  at  Bloemfontein, 
in  which  terms  for  the  adjustment  of  the  claims 
of  the  Outlanders  were  discussed,  but  no  agree- 
ment was  reached.  Between  June  1  and  Octo- 
ber 10,  negotiations  proceeded  between  the  gov- 
ernments of  Great  Britain  and  the  Transvaal, 
while  the  legislature  of  the  latter  adopted  fran- 
chise laws  which  were  not  acceptable  to  Great 
Britain.  In  the  meantime,  both  countries  made 
energetic  preparations  for  war,  and  the  Orange 
Free  State  announced  that  in  case  of  hostilities 
it  would  support  the  Transvaal. 


On  October  10th,  the  Transvaal  sent  to  the 
British  Government  an  ultimatum  demanding: 
That  all  points  of  mutual  difference  be  regulated 
by  friendly  recourse  to  arbitration  or  by  what- 
ever amicable  way  might  be  agreed  upon  by 
the  governments  concerned;  that  all  British 
troops  on  the  border  of  the  Transvaal  Republic 
should  be  instantly  withdrawn;  that  Great 
Britain  should  withdraw  all  reinforcements  of 
troops  landed  in  South  Africa  since  June  1, 
1899,  with  assurance  that  during  further  nego- 
tiations the  Republic  would  not  attack  any 
British  possessions,  and  that  upon  compliance 
with  the  ultimatum  the  Republic  would  be  pre- 

Eared  to  withdraw  from  the  borders  the  armed 
urghers  of  the  Transvaal ;  that  the  British  troops 
then  on  the  high  seas  should  not  be  landed  m 
any  part  of  Africa;  that  an  answer  to  the  ulti- 
matum be  received  by  the  Republic  not  later 
than  5  o'clock  P.  M.  on  October  11th;  that  an 
unsatisfactory  answer  would  be  regarded  by  the 
Republic  as  a  formal  declaration  of  war  by 
Great  Britain,  as  would  also  be  a  further  move- 
ment, of  British  troops  in  a  nearer  direction  to 
the  Republic's  borders. 

On  October  12,  1899,  the  reply  of  the  British 
having  been  unsatisfactory,  the  Transvaal  Boers 
invaded  Natal,  advancing  toward  Newcastle, 
which  was  defended  by  the  British  general* 
White  and  Symons.  The  British  evacuated 
Newcastle  and  fell  back  on  Ladysmith,  where, 
on  October  13th,  there  was  a  strong  British 
force.  On  October  20th,  the  Boers  begun  the 
siege  of  Kimberley,  and  on  the  same  day  in 
Natal  was  fought  the  battle  of  Dundee,  in  which 
the  British  repulsed  the  Boers,  suffering  a  loss  of 
215  in  killed  and  wounded.  On  October  21st, 
General  French  captured  the  Boers'  position  at 
Elandslaagte  after  a  hard  battle,  with  a  British 


28 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY    OF   FACTS 


loss  of  257  killed  and  wounded.  General  White 
repulsed  a  Free  State  force  at  Rietfontein,  near 
Ladysmith,  October  24th.  Five  days  later  the 
Boers  began  the  siege  of  Ladysmith.  On  Octo- 
ber 30th,  in  a  sortie  near  Ladysmith,  the  British 
were  entrapped  and  defeated,  and  the  Boers 
captured  870  prisoners.  Communication  with 
Ladysmith  was  cut  off  by  the  Boers  on  Novem- 
ber 2d,  and  the  next  day  the  British  evacuated 
Colenso,  in  Natal.  The  Boers  shelled  Mafeking 
November  6th,  but  were  repulsed  in  an  attack 
on  the  British  position.  The  first  British  trans- 
port carrying  reinforcements  reached  Cape  Town 
on  November  9th,  and  proceeded  to  Durban. 
The  Boers  wrecked  a  British  armoi^eH^ train  near 
Eastcourt,  Natal,  on  November  16th,  capturing 
fifty-six  prisoners,  including  Winston  Churchill. 
On  November  23d,  near  Gras.  Pan,  Lord  Me- 
thuen  attacked  the  Boers  and  drove  them  from 
their  position,  and  on  November  26th  the  British 
won  a  sanguinary  victory  at  Modder  River.  A 
series  of  Boer  successes  then  followed.  On  De- 
cember 10th,  the  British,  under  General  Gatacre, 
were  led  into  a  Boer  ambuscade  near  Stormberg 
Junction  and  lost  1,000  men,  including  672  cap- 
tured, while  on  the  same  and  following  day 
Lord  Methuen  failed  to  take  the  Boer  position 
at  Spytfontein  after  desperate  fighting  and 
heavy  losses,  General  Wauchope  being  killed. 
On  December  15th,  General  Buller  was  severely 
defeated  while  attemptmg  to  force  the  Tugela 
River,  near  Colenso,  he  losing  1,000  men  and 
eleven  guns.  The  British  losses  to  this  date 
were  7,630  men  killed,  wounded,  and  missing, 
and  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world  was 
riveted  upon  the  war.  After  BuUer's  signal 
defeat,  Field  Marshal  Lord  Roberts  was  ordered, 
December  18th,  to  South  Africa,  to  take  com- 
mand of  military  operations,  with  Lord  Kitch- 
ener as  chief  of  staff,  and  with  a  reinforcement 
of  100,000  men. 

General  French  captured  Colesburg  on  New 
Year's  Day,  1900.  On  January  6th,  Roberts 
and  Kitchener  arrived  in  South  Africa,  and  on 
the  same  date  the  Boers  were  repulsed  with 
heavy  loss  in  an  attack  on  Ladysmith.  On 
January  23-25th,  occurred  some  of  the  most 
desperate  and  famous  fighting  of  the  war,  when 
a  British  storming  party  under  General  Warren 
captured  Spion  Kop,  but,  after  heavy  losses, 
withdrew.  General  Buller  made  a  third  attempt 
to  relieve  Ladysmith,  but  failed,  February  9th, 
and  Lord  Roberts  began  an  invasion  of  the 
Orange  Free  State  on  February  12th.  General 
French  relieved  Kimberley  on  February  15th. 
On  February  22-27th  there  was  severe  fighting 
between  Roberts  and  Cronje,  terminating  with 
the  capitulation  of  the  latter,  with  4,600  men 
and  six  guns.  Lord  Dundonald  entered  Lady- 
smith on  February  28th,  and  General  Gatacre 
occupied  Stormberg  on  March  5th.  On  March 
7th,  Lord  Roberts  turned  the  Boer  position  near 
Modder  River  and  advanced  triumphantly  on 
Bloemfontein,  capital  of  the  Orange  Free  State, 
which  surrendered  to  the  British  on  March  13th. 
The  Boer  Commander-in-Chief,  General  Joubert, 
died  on  March  27th,  and  Colonel  de  Villebois 
Mareuil,  French  officer  with  the  Boers,  was 
killed  in  a  skirmish  on  April  5th.  General 
Cronje  and  the  other  Boer  prisoners  were  sent 


to  St.  Helena,  where  they  arrived  April  14th, 
and  the  demoralization  of  the  Boers  seemingly 
begun.  On  April  20th,  Mr.  Pettigrew,  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  introduced  a  resolution  of 
sympathy  with  the  Boers,  but  it  was  voted 
down,  29  to  20.  On  May  3d,  Lord  Roberts 
began  his  advance  on  Pretoria. 

The  Boers  now  turned  to  the  United  States 
and  Europe  for  intervention,  but  the  United 
States  was  the  only  government  in  the  world 
of  all  those  approached  by  the  South  African 
Republic  which  tendered  its  good  offices  to 
either  of  the  combatants  in  the  interest  of  the 
cessation  of  hostilities. 

So  the  war  continued.  On  May  10th,  the 
British  crossed  the  Zand  River  and  occupied 
Kroonstad,  and  on  May  15th,  General  Buller 
occupied  Dundee.  The  Boer  envoys  to  the 
United  States  reached  New  York  on  May  16th, 
the  day  that  Mafeking  was  relieved,  after  a 
siege  of  217  days.  President  McKinley  received 
the  envoys  unofficially,  but  they  were  officially 
informed  by  Secretary  of  State  Hay  that  the 
United  States  could  not  intervene  in  the  war. 
The  end  of  the  struggle  was  not  yet,  however, 
in  sight.  On  May  28th,  Lord  Roberts  pro- 
claimed the  annexation  of  the  Orange  Free  State 
to  the  British  Empire.  The  British  entered 
Johannesburg  on  May  30th,  and  on  the  same 
day  President  Kruger  retired  from  Pretoria, 
which  city  surrendered  on  June  5th  to  the  Brit- 
ish army.  General  Prinsloo  and  3,348  Boers 
surrendered  at  Naauwpoort,  and  Harrismith 
surrendered  to  General  Macdonald  on  August 
4th.  Several  conspirators  against  the  life  of 
Lord  Roberts  were  tried  at  Pretoria  August  17th, 
and  their  leader  was  executed.  Machadodorp, 
Kruger's  new  capital,  was  occupied  by  General 
Buller  August  28th.  On  September  1st,  the 
Transvaal  was  proclaimed  a  part  of  the  British 
Enipire  by  Lord  Roberts.  Guerilla  warfare, 
which  had  begun  July  1st,  was  now  general  in 
i  the  Transvaal,  and  the  Boer  Generals  DeWet 
and  Botha  continued  to  harass  the  British  by 
sporadic  raids.  Ex-President  Kruger,  aband- 
oning the  Transvaal,  began  his  journey  to  Eu- 
rope September  12th.  He  arrived  at  Marseilles 
on  November  22d,  and  had  an  ovation  from 
the  French  people,  the  demonstrations  of  wel- 
come continuing  through  his  journey  to  Paris, 
while  the  National  French  Assembly  adopted 
resolutions  of  sympathy.  On  November  30th, 
the  supreme  military  command  in  South  Africa 
was  turned  over  to  Lord  Kitchener  by  Lord 
Roberts,  who  departed  for  home,  sailmg  for 
England  from  Cape  Town  on  December  12th. 
In  the  meantime,  the  German  Government  inti- 
mated to  Mr.  Kruger  on  December  1st,  that  a 
visit  by  him  to  Berlin  would  be  inopportune. 
Queen  Wilhelmina  of  the  Netherlands,  on  the 
contrary,  welcomed  Mr.  Kruger  at  a  dinner  on 
December  15th.  The  British  met  with  a  severe 
reverse  at  Nooltgedacht  December  13th,  Colonel 
Legge  being  killed.  On  December  14th,  Sir 
Alfred  Milner  was  appointed  Administrator  of 
the  Orange  River  and  Transvaal  colonies,  and 
the  year  closed  with  both  sides  grimly  deter- 
mined to  continue  the  terrible  warfare  to  a 
definite  conclusion. 

The    first   battle   of    1901    was   at    Lindley, 


HISTORY 


29 


Orange  River  Colony,  where  forty  British  officers 
and  men  were  killed  or  wounded.  On  January 
7th,  the  British  position  along  Delagoa  Bay 
Railway  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the 
Boers,  who  were  also  driven  back  on  January 
17th  near  Standerton,  when  they  attacked  a 
British  column  under  General  Colville.  On 
January  18th,  New  Zealand  troops  and  Bushmen, 
under  Colonel  Gray,  routed  800  Boers  near 
Veutersburg.  On  January  30th,  the  Bloem- 
fontein-Ladybrand  line  was  crossed  by  DeWet 
near  Israel's  Poort,  and  the  Boers  captured  the 
British  post  at  Modderfontein,  in  the  Transvaal, 
on  February  3d,  at  about  which  time  the  British 
War  Office  decided  to  reinforce  Kitchener  with 
30,000  additional  mounted  troops.  General 
Smith-Dorrien  was  attacked  by  Louis  Botha 
with  2,000  men  at  Orange  Camp  February  6th, 
but  repulsed  him.  On  the  same  date  the  Boers 
cut  the  Delagoa  Bay  Railroad,  near  Lorenzo 
Marques;  ten  days  later  DeWet  crossed  the 
railroad  at  Bariman's  Siding  and  was  engaged 
by  Crabbe  and  an  armored  train,  and  on  Feb- 
ruary 19th  the  Boers  blew  up  a  supply  train  at 
Clip  River.  Four  severe  Boer  reverses  then 
followed  in  quick  succession.  The  Boers,  5,000 
strong,  were  defeated  by  General  French  at  Piet 
Retief,  February  22d ;  DeWet's  force  was  scat- 
tered by  Colonel  Plummer  at  Disselfontein, 
Orange  River,  February  23d;  General  French 
captured  300  Boers,  ammunition  cattle,  and, 
supplies  at  Middleburg,  February  26th;  Lord 
Kitchener  drove  DeWet  north  of  the  Orange 
River,  with  a  loss  of  280  men  captured,  March 
1st.  Lord  Kitchener  then  granted  General 
Botha  a  seven  days'  armistice  to  make  commu- 
nication with  other  Boer  leaders,  after  which 
truce  hostilities  were  resumed.  The  Boers  cap- 
tured a  British  supply  train  near  Viaklaagte 
March  22d,  but  were  defeated  three  days  later 
near  Vryheid  by  General  French.  On  March 
27th,  Fourie's  commando  and  Bruce  Hamilton's 
command  held  a  running  fight  for  twenty  miles. 
Commandants  Prinsloo  and  Englebrecht  surren- 
dered to  the  British  March  30th,  and  the  British 
reoccupied  Pietersburg  on  April  9th,  on  which 
date  the  Boers  captured  seventy-five  men  of  the 
Fifth  Infantry  and  Imperial  Yeomanry.  Gen- 
eral Botha,  on  April  10th,  renewed  negotiations 
for  peace.  Sir  Alfred  Milner,  returning  home 
from  South  Africa,  was  received  by  the  kmg  and 
created  a  peer  May  21st.  The  Boers,  again  for 
a  time,  rejoiced  over  successes.  They  attacked 
and  partially  destroyed  the  convoy  of  General 
Plummer's  column  May  25th;  captured  a  Brit- 
ish post  of  forty-one  men  near  Maraisburg,  May 
27th,  and  attacked  General  Dixon's  brigade  of 
the  Seventh  Yeomanry  near  Vlakfontein,  May 
29th,  causing  a  heavy  British  loss.  On  June  3d, 
an  attack  by  700  Boers  under  Scheeper  upon 
Willomore,  Cape  Colony,  was  repulsed  after  a 
nine  hours'  fight.  The  British  and  Boers  lost 
heavily  in  an  engagement  between  Elliot  and 
DeWet  near  Reitz,  June  6th,  and  on  the  same 
day  Colonel  Wilson,  with  240  men,  routed  400 
Boers  under  Bever,  near  Warm  Baths.  The  Boers 
captured  200  members  of  the  Victoria  Mounted 
Rifles  at  Steenkoolsprint,  June  12th,  and  the 
Midland  Mounted  Rifles  were  overpowered  by 
Commandant  Malan  at  Waterkloof,  June  20th. 


President  Schalk-Burger,  of  the  South  African 
Republic,  and  President  Steyn,  of  Orange  Free 
State,  issued  a  proclamation  for  "no  peace  with- 
out independence,"  June  20th,  and  on  August 
7th,  Lord  Kitchener  issued  a  proclamation  of 
banishment  against  all  Boers  in  South  Africa 
not  surrendering  by  September  15th.  In  the 
meantime,  General  Benson  repulsed  the  Boers 
in  a  mountain  pass  near  Dullstroem,  and,  though 
the  inevitable  end  of  the  warfare  was  becoming 
daily  more  apparent,  fighting  was  continued. 
Fifty  of  General  French's  scouts  were  captured 
in  Cape  Colony  August  16th;  three  officers  and 
sixty-five  British,  north  of  Ladybrand,  were 
captured  August  21st;  the  Boers  attacked  a 
convoy  near  Kooipopje  and  killed  nine  men  of 
the  Seventy-fourth  Yeomanry,  wounding  twenty- 
three,  on  August  24th;  Colonel  Vandeleur  and 
nine  men  were  killed  and  seventeen  wounded  by 
the  blowing  up  of  a  train  in  the  Transvaal, 
August  31st;  Von  Tonder  and  Delarey  engaged 
General  Methuen  in  the  Great  Maries  valley, 
September  8th.  Then,  on  September  16th,  the 
British  troops  captured  Lotter's  entire  command 
south  of  Pietersburg,  and  on  the  following  day 
the  Boers  partially  evened  matters  by  ambush- 
ing and  capturing  three  companies  of  British 
mounted  infantry  under  Major  Gough,  near 
Scheeper's  Nek,  and  also  by  capturing  a  company 
of  mounted  British  infantry  and  two  guns  at 
Vlakfontein,  September  20th.  Two  Boer  com- 
mandos were  captured  September  21st,  near 
Adenburg,  and  Colonel  the  Hon.  A.  Murray  and 
Captain  Murray,  his  adjutant,  were  killed  in  a 
fight  with  Krintzsinger,  who  crossed  the  Orange 
River.  On  September  29th,  Commandant  De- 
larey attacked  Colonel  Kekewich's  camp  at 
Moedwill,  with  loss  on  both  sides. 

Martial  law  was  declared  throughout  Cape 
Colony  on  October  9th.  The  following  day 
General  Sir  Redvers  Buller  admitted,  in  a  speech, 
that  he  advised  the  surrender  of  Ladysmith, 
and  was  severely  criticised  for  his  utterances. 
Commander  Scheeper  was  captured  October  12th, 
and  Captain  Bellew  and  four  others  were  killed 
in  a  fight,  October  16th,  at  Twenty-four  Streams. 
On  November  1st,  in  a  heavy  Boer  attack  on 
Colonel  Benson's  column  near  Brakenlaagte,  the 
British  lost  twenty-five  officers  and  214  men  in 
killed  and  wounded.  During  the  next  sixty 
days  numerous  small  skirmishes  were  reported, 
and  during  the  first  three  months  of  1902  the 
war  was  more  or  less  of  a  desultory  character, 
negotiations  for  peace  between  the  Boer  leaders 
and  the  British  Government  beginning  on  March 
23d,  the  latest  notable  Boer  accomplishment 
having  been  the  capture  of  General  Methuen 
and  200  men,  forty-one  British  being  killed,  on 
March  11th. 

On  May  31,  1902,  Lord  Kitchener  announced 
that  a  peace  treaty  had  been  signed  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  Boers,  Commandant-Gen- 
eral Louis  Botha,  assisted  by  General  Delarey 
and  Chief  Commandant  DeWet,  acting  for  the 
Boers. 

Bohemia.  The  Boii,  from  whom  Bohemia 
derives  its  name,  settled  in  the  country  in  the 
Second  Century  B.  C,  but  were  expelled  by  the 
Marcomanni  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.     The  victors  themselves  soon  gave  place  to 


30 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


others,  and  as  early  as  the  Fifth  Century  A.  D. 
we  find  Bohemia  peopled  by  the  Czechs,  a  Slavic 
race.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  Ninth  Century, 
Swatopluk,  the  King  of  Moravia,  subjugated 
Bohemia  and  introduced  Christianity.  After 
his  death,  the  Dukes  of  Prague,  who,  in  1061, 
had  the  title  of  king  conferred  on  them  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.,  ruled  the  country  as  a 
state  in  the  German  Empire,  until  1306,  when 
the  last  of  the  dynasty  was  assassinated.  From 
1310  to  1437,  Bohemia  was  ruled  by  kings  of  the 
House  of  Luxembourg.  In  the  time  of  Wenzel 
IV.  (Wenceslas),  a  reformation  of  religion  took 
place  under  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague. 
After  the  death  of  Wenzel  IV.,  the  imprudent 
measures  adopted  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund 
excited  in  Bohemia  a  war  of  sixteen  years'  dura- 
tion, which  ended  in  making  Bohemia  an  elective 
kingdom.  In  1458,  the  shrewd  and  able  Protest- 
ant noble,  George  von  Podiebrad,  ascended  the 
throne.  His  successor,  Ladislaus  (1471-1516), 
was  elected  (1490)  to  the  throne  of  Hungary, 
and  removed  the  royal  residence  to  Ofen,  where 
also  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  (1516-26), 
resided.  After  his  death  in  battle  against  the 
Turks  at  Mohacz  (1526),  Bohemia  and  Hungary 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria, 
who  had  married  Louis'  sister.  From  that  time 
the  history  of  Bohemia  merges  into  the  history 
of  Austria. 

Boil.  A  Celtic  people,  who  emigrated  from 
Transalpine  Gaul  into  Italy,  where  they  occupied 
the  old  seat  of  the  Umbrians,  between  the  Po 
and  the  Apennines.  In  B.  C.  283,  the  Boii  were 
defeated  by  the  Romans  at  the  Vadimonian 
Lake,  and  thereafter  prolonged  through  numer- 
ous campaigns,  especially  in  support  of  Hannibal, 
but  sometimes  single-handed,  their  resistance  to 
the  Roman  arms,  till  their  complete  defeat  by 
Scipio  Nasica,  B.  C.  191.  They  were  subse- 
quently compelled  to  recross  the  Alps,  and 
dwelt  for  more  than  a  century  in  a  part  of 
modern  Bohemia  (which  derives  its  name  from 
them),  but  were  ultimately  exterminated  by  the 
Dacians. 

Bonaparte's  [Egyptian  Campaign 
(1799).  Alexandria  fell  into  his  hands;  he  won 
the  great  battle  of  the  Pyramids ;  completed  the 
subjugation  of  Egypt;  passed  into  Syria,  made 
himself  master  of  Gaza  and  JafTa ;  won  the  battle 
of  Mount  Tabor;  returned  to  Egypt,  attacked 
the  Turks  at  Aboukir,  and  utterly  destroyed 
their  whole  army,  June  25,  1799. 

Bonaparte's  Forty  Days  Cam- 
paign. He  left  Paris  May  6,  1800;  marched 
over  the  Alps,  and  reached  Aosta  May  23d;  he 
entered  Milan  June  2d ;  won  the  battle  of  Monte- 
bello  over  the  Austrians,  June  9th,  and  the  great 
battle  of  Marengo,  June  14th;  returned  to  Paris, 
July  2d.  The  forty  da.ys  count  from  his  arrival 
at  Aosta,  May  23d,  to  his  return  to  Paris,  July  2d. 

Bonaparte's  Italian  Campaign 
(1796-97).  He  was  27  years  of  age.  April  11th, 
he  defeated  Beaulieu,  the  Austrian  general,  at 
Montenotte,  in  Sardinia;  April  14th,  he  won  the 
battle  of  Millesimo;  April  15th,  he  won  the  bat- 
tle of  Dego;  April  22d,  he  won  a  victory  over 
the  Piedmontese  at  Mondovi;  May  10th,  he  de- 
feated the  Austrian  general,  Beaulieu, .  at  the 
Bridge  of  Lodi,  and  entered  Milan;    June  19th, 


he  occupied  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Ancona; 
August  3d,  he  defeated  the  Austrian  general, 
Wiirmser,  at  Lonato;  August  5th,  he  defeated 
the  same  general  at  Castighone ;  September  8th, 
he  defeated  him  again  at  Bassano;  November 
17th,  he  won  the  great  battle  of  ArcOla  over 
Alvinzi,  the  Austrian  general;  January  14,  1797, 
he  won  the  battle  of  Rivoli  over  Alvinzi  and 
Wiirmser;  January  15th,  he  won  a  battle  at  the 
faubourg  of  St.  George,  near  Mantua;  January 
16th,  he  won  a  battle  near  the  palace  called  The 
Favorite;  March  16th,  he  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians, led  by  the  Archduke  Karl,  at  Taglia- 
mento;  October  17th,  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio,  and  in  December  he  returned  to  France. 
He  had  won  fifteen  battles;  added  Savoy  and 
Nice  to  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy; 
had  obtained  vast  money  compensations,  and 
returned  to  France  laden  with  treasures  of  art. 

Boxer  Rebellion,  The.  The  causes  of 
the  Boxer  outbreak  in  China  were  cumulative. 
For  three  years  prior  to  the  enforced  occupation 
of  China  by  the  powers,  in  1900,  a  number  of 
acts  of  foreign  countries  had  a  disquieting  effect 
upon  the  empire.  Since  1898,  Russia  had  taken 
Port  Arthur  and  the  adjacent  harbor  of  Talien- 
wan.  Germany  had  leased  Kiaochau  and  gained 
great  concessions  in  the  province  of  Shang  Tung. 
France  had  suggested  privileges  in  portions  of 
Chinese  territory  adjacent  to  the  French  posses- 
sions of  Tonquin.  Great  Britain,  to  cap  the 
climax,  had  obtained  from  China  a  lease  of 
Wei-Hai-Wei,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili,  opposite  Port  Arthur,  and  thus  com- 
manded the  entrance  to  the  gulf  and  the  water 
approach  to  Peking.  Many  Chinese  were  re- 
sentful of  these  encroachments  by  foreigners, 
but  the  Dowager  Empress  did  not  oppose  them, 
and  hence  she  was  bitterly  arraigned  by  her 
people. 

The  leader  of  this  opposition  was  Prince  Tuan, 
the  sixth  son  of  the  Emperor  Kwang-Su's  grand- 
father. Prince  Tuan  had  long  been  an  athlete 
and  had  a  following  of  many  athletic  young 
men  in  the  kingdom,  who,  because  of  their 
ability  in  sports,  were  known  as  boxers,  a  name 
which  Tuan's  recruits  adopted.  Tuan  pro- 
claimed his  nine-year-old  son  heir  presumptive 
to  the  throne.  The  emperor,  then  but  a  figure- 
head, dominated  by  the  Dowager  Empress,  had 
little  popular  support.  The  Boxers  revolted, 
massacred  missionaries  at  many  interior  points 
of  the  empire,  and  finally  made  a  concerted 
attack  upon  the  foreign  legations  in  Peking,  in 
which  movement  the  imperial  troops  eventually 
participated. 

The  Chinese  Tsung-li-Yamen,  the  equivalent 
to  a  responsible  government  ministry  in  Europe, 
was  in  sentiment  hostile  to  foreigners,  and 
hence  either  would  not,  or  could  not,  protect 
the  legations  or  escort  them  safely  from  the 
country.  The  civilized  world  received  distress- 
ing reports  of  massacres  and  outrages,  and  was 
for  several  weeks  in  suspense  as  to  the  fate  of 
the  foreign  ministers  in  China,  their  families, 
legation  attaches,  and  converted  Chinese  under 
foreign  protection.  The  offended  powers  de- 
cided upon  concerted  action  and  hurried  vessels 
and  troops  to  the  ports  nearest  to  the  danger 
points.     Upon  Chinese  resistance  to  the  landing 


HISTORY 


31 


of  marines  at  Taku,  the  forts  were  shelled  by  all 
the  allies  except  Americans,  and  on  June  17th, 
while  the  Chinese  shelled  the  allies'  fleet,  the 
allied  troops  landed  and  captured  the  Taku 
forts,  after  a  sanguinary  conflict.  On  June  18th 
the  Ninth  United  States  Regiment  was  ordered 
from  Manila  to  China,  other  troops  following. 
On  June  20th,  German  fury  and  general  inter- 
national indignation  was  aroused  when  Baron 
von  Ketteler,  the  German  Minister,  while  pro- 
ceeding on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  the  Tsung- 
li-Yamen  in  Peking,  was  beset  by  Chinese  sol- 
diers and  butchered.  On  the  same  day  an  allied 
expedition  under  Vice-Admiral  Seymour,  of  the 
British  Navy,  began  a  march  upon  Peking  for 
the  relief  of  the  British  legationers.  Such  count- 
less hordes  of  Chinese  opposed  him  that  he  was 
obliged  to  turn  back,  suffering  casualties  of  374. 
The  allied  warships  shelled  Tien-tsin  on  June 
21st,  and  the  combined  forces,  two  days  later, 
occupied  the  foreign  quarters  of  that  city.  The 
Chinese,  on  June  23d,  requested  an  armistice 
through-  Minister  Wu  at  Washington.  The 
United  States  promptly  replied  that  free  com- 
munication must  first  be  allowed  with  the  lega- 
tions, and  on  July  4th,  Secretary  of  State  Hay 
outlined  to  the  powers  the  American  policy. 

On  July  13- 14th,  occurred  one  of  the  noted 
conflicts  of  history,  when  the  allied  forces 
stormed  the  Chinese  port  of  Tien-tsin,  which 
they  captured  with  a  loss  of  800  killed  and 
wounded.  Colonel  E.  H.  Liscum,  commanding 
the  United  States  contingent,  was  among  the 
slain.  On  July  19th,  the  Emperor  of  China 
appealed  to  President  McKinley  for  peace.  The 
advance  of  the  allies  upon  Peking  began  August 
4ti},  under  command  of  Field  Marshal  von  Wal- 
den-ee,  of  the  German  army,  who  was  unani- 
mously selected  to  command  the  allied  forces. 

The  first  news  from  the  beleaguered  foreigners 
reached  the  United  States  in  the  form  of  a  cipher 
message  from  Minister  Conger.  It  read:  "Still 
besieged.  Situation  more  precarious.  Chinese 
Government  insisting  on  our  leaving  Peking, 
which  would  be  certain  death.  Rifle  firing 
upon  us  daily  by  imperial  troops.  Have  abun- 
dant courage,  but  little  ammunition  or  provisions. 
Two  progressive  Yamen  ministers  beheaded. 
All  connected  with  the  legation  of  the  United 
States  well  at  present  moment."  The  receipt 
of  this  message  caused  intense  excitement 
throughout  the  United  States,  for,  though  it 
broke  the  long  suspense,  it  added  to  public  fury 
and  anxiety.  On  August  8th,  Li  Hung  Chang 
was  appointed  Envoy  Plenipotentiary  to  pro- 
pose to  the  several  powers  for  the  immediate 
cessation  of  hostile  demonstrations.  On  August 
'4th,  Peking  was  captured  by  the  allied  forces 
.1  the  Americans,  British,  Germans,  French, 
Austrians,  Italians,  and  Japanese.  The  American 
troops  were  the  first  to  enter  the  city,  and  Cap- 
tain Reilly  was  the  first  victim.  The  emperor  and 
empress  had  fled.  The  legationers  were  prompt- 
ly relieved  and  told  thrilling  stories  of  their 
danger  and  distress  during  the  long  siege.  The 
Chinese,  on  August  16th,  asked  for  an  armistice, 
which  was  refused.  Li  Hung  Chang's  appeal 
was  rejected  by  the  United  States,  and  China 
was  informed  that  the  demands  of  this  Govern- 
ment must  be   complied   with.     At   the   same 


time  General  Chaffee  was  given  full  power  to 
act.  The  American  refugees  from  Peking 
reached  Tien-tsin  safely  on  August  25th. 

On  November  19th,  the  negotiations  between 
the  allies  and  the  Chinese  authorities  for  terms 
of  peace  ai  d  compensation,  which  were  begun 
when  the  r  :ies  took  full  possession  of  Peking, 
had  progressed  so  far  that  the  German  Imperial 
Chancellor  in  the  Reichstag  announced  that  the 
allies  had  unanimously  agreed  upon  the  follow- 
ing as  their  demands  upon  China: 

First.  China  shall  erect  a  monument  to  Baron  von 
Ketteler  on  the  site  where  he  was  murdered  and  send  an 
Imperial  Prince  to  Germany  to  convey  an  apology.  She 
shall  inflict  the  death  penalty  upon  eleven  princes  and 
officials  already  named,  and  suspend  provincial  exami- 
nations for  five  years  where  the  outrages  occurred. 

Second.  In  future  all  officials  failing  to  prevent  anti- 
foreign  outrages  within  their  jurisdiction  shall  be  dis- 
missed and  punished. 

Third.  Indemnity  shall  be  paid  to  states,  corpora- 
tions and  individuals.  The  Tsung-li-Yamen  shall  be 
abolished  and  its  functions  vested  in  a  Foreign  Minister. 
Rational  intercourse  shall  be  permitted  with  the  em- 
peror, as  in  civilized  countries. 

Fourth.  The  forts  at  Taku  and  other  forts  on  the 
coast  of  Chili  shall  be  razed,  and  the  importation  of 
arms  and  war  material  prohibited. 

Fifth.  Permanent  legation  guards  shall  be  main- 
tained, and  also  guards  of  communication  between 
Peking  and  the  sea. 

Sixth.  Imperial  proclamations  shall  be  posted  for 
two  years  throughout  the  empire  suppressing  Boxers. 

Seventh.  Indemnity  is  to  include  compensation  for 
Chinese  who  suffered  by  being  employed  by  foreigners, 
but  not  compensation  for  native  Christians. 

Eighth.  China  shall  erect  expiatory  monuments  in 
every  foreign  or  international  burial  ground  where  the 
graves  have  been  profaned. 

Ninth.  The  Chinese  Government  shall  undertake 
to  enter  upon  negotiations  for  such  changes  in  existing 
treaties  regarding  trade  and  navigation  as  the  foreign 
governments  deem  advisable,  and  with  reference  to 
other  matters  having  in  view  the  facilitation  of  commer- 
cial relations. 

In  December,  1900,  the  Chinese  authorities 
had  accepted  all  the  foregoing  conditions  im- 
posed by  the  allies,  and  the  preliminary  note  of 
the  demands  of  the  powers  was  signed  by  Li 
Hung  Chang  and  Prince  Ching.  Peking  was 
evacuated  by  the  American  cavalry  and  artillery 
May  5th,  and  General  Chaffee  embarked  for  the 
Philippines  May  18th.  The  powers,  on  May  9th, 
demanded  of  China  a  formal  indemnity  of  450,- 
000,000  taels  (about  $300,000,000),  which  was 
agreed  to  by  China,  and  the  powers,  on  July  26th, 
formally  accepted  China's  offer  to  pay  the  sum 
named  on  time  at  4^  per  cent,  interest.  Prince 
Chun,  at  Berlin,  September  4th,  formally  apolo- 
gized to  Emperor  William  for  the  insult  to  Ger- 
man honor  in  the  murder  of  Baron  von  Ketteler. 
On  September  17th,  the  American  and  Japanese 
troops  in  Peking  handed  oyer  the  Forbidden 
City  to  the  Chinese. 

Brazil.  It  was  only  in  1531  that  the  Portu- 
guese, busy  as  they  were  in  India,  here  planted 
their  first  settlement.  In  1578,  Brazil  fell  with 
Portugal,  under  the  power  of  Spain,  and  became 
a  prey  to  the  Dutch;  and,  though  Portugal 
regained  its  own  independence  in  1640,  it  was 
not  until  1654  that  Brazil  was  entirely  recovered 
from  the  Hollanders.  In  1807,  the  royal  family 
of  Portugal  fled  to  Brazil;  in  1815,  the  colony 
was  declared  "a  kingdom";  and  the  Portu- 
guese court  having  returned  to  Europe  in  1821, 
a  national  congress  assembled  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
and  on  May  13,  1822,  Dom  Pedro,  eldest  son  of 
King  JoSo  VI.  of  Portugal,  was  chosen  "Per- 


32 


THE   STANDARD  piCTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


petual  Defender"  of  Brazil.  He  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  the  country  on  September  7, 
1822,  and  was  chosen  "Constitutional  Emperor 
and  Perpetual  Defender"  on  October  12th,  fol- 
lowing. In  1831,  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
only  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  who  reigned  until 
November  15,  1889,  when  he  was  dethroned, 
exiled,  and  Brazil  declared  a  republic  under  the 
title  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil.  A  new  con- 
stitution was  adopted  in  1891,  and  Fonseca 
elected  first  president.  Admirals  Mello  and  Da 
Gama  rebelled,  1893.  Rio  de  Janeiro  several 
times  bombarded.  In  1906-07,  Brazil  took  the 
lead  in  an  effort  to  reach  a  better  under- 
standing among  the  countries  of  North  and 
South  America.  A  great  demonstration  was 
given  by  the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  1908, 
to  the  United  States  Pacific  squadron.  A 
mutiny  in  the  navy  in  1910,  in  which  the 
warships  were  seized,  was  met  by  granting 
the  demands  of  the  crews  for  better  pay  and 
treatment. 

Brunswick,  The  House  of.  The  Duchy 
of  Brunswick,  in  Lower  Saxony,  was  conquered  by 
Charlemagne,  and  governed  afterward  by  counts 
and  dukes.  Albert-Azzo,  Marquis  of  Italy,  and 
Lord  of  Este,  died  in  1097,  and  left  by  his  wife, 
Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of  Guelph,  Duke  of  Ca- 
rinthia  in  Bavaria),  a  son,  Guelph,  who  was  in- 
vited into  Germany  by  Imitza,  his  mother-in- 
law,  and  invested  with  all  the  possessions  of  his 
wife's  stepfather,  Guelph  of  Bavaria.  His  de- 
scendant, Henry  the  Lion,  married  Maud, 
daughter  of  Henry  11.  of  England,  and  is  always 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  Brunswick 
family.  His  dominions  were  very  extensive; 
but,  having  refused  to  assist  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  in  a  war  against  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.,  through  the  emperor's  resentment  he 
was  proscribed  at  the  Diet  at  Wurtzburg,  in 
1180.  The  Duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to 
Otho,  from  whom  is  descended  the  family  of 
Bavaria;  the  Duchy  of  Saxony  to  Bernard 
Ascanius,  founder  of  the  House  of  Anhalt;  and 
his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On 
this  he  retired  to  England;  but,  at  the  inter- 
cession of  Henry  II.,  Brunswick  and  Luneburg 
were  restored  to  him.  The  House  of  Brunswick, 
in  1409,  divided  into  several  branches.  Bruns- 
wick was  included  by  Napoleon  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  in  1806,  but  was  restored  to  the 
duke  in  1815. 

Buccaneers.  A  celebrated  association  of 
piratical  adventurers,  who,  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  quarter  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  to  the  end  of  the  Seventeenth,  main- 
tained themselves  in  the  Caribbean  seas,  at  first 
by  systematic  reprisals  on  the  Spaniards,  latterly 
by  a  less  justifiable  and  indiscriminate  piracy. 
Tne  name  is  derived  from  the  Caribbee  boucan,  a 
term  for  preserved  meat,  smoke-dried  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner.  The  Buccaneers  were  also  some- 
times called  "Brethren  of  the  Coast."  The  arro- 
gant assumption  by  the  Spaniards  of  a  divine 
right  —  sanctioned  by  the  pope's  bull  —  to  the 
whole  New  World  was  not,  of  course,  to  be 
tolerated  by  the  enterprising  mariners  of  Eng- 
land and  France;  and  the  enormous  cruelties 
practiced  by  them  upon  all  foreign  interlopers, 
of  which  the  history  of  that  time  is  full,  natur- 


ally led  to  an  association  for  mutual  defense 
among  the  adventurers  of  all  other  nations,  but 
particularly  among  the  English  and  French. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  the  policy  were 
close  mutual  alliance,  and  war  with  all  that 
were  Spanish.  The  center  of  their  predatory 
life  was  Tortuga.  Their  last  great  exploit  was 
the  capture  of  Carthagena,  1697. 

Bull  Bun,  or  Bull's  Run.  A  stream  in 
Virginia,  dividing  Fairfax  and  Prince  William 
counties,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State, 
and  flowing  into  the  Occoquan  River,  fourteen 
miles  from  the  Potomac.  On  its  banks  were 
fought  two  of  the  most  memorable  battles  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  After  a  series  of  heavy  skir- 
mishes, July  16-19,  1861,  the  Union  army,  under 
General  McDowell,  was  on  the  21st  utterly 
routed  by  the  Confederates,  under  the  command 
of  Generals  Beauregard  and  J.  E.  Johnston. 
The  Union  loss  was  about  3,000  men,  while  that 
of  the  Confederates  was  estimated  at  nearly 
2,000  men.  The  former  lost,  in  addition,  twenty- 
seven  guns,  besides  an  immense  quantity  of 
small  arms,  ammunition,  stores,  provisions,  and 
accoutrements.  On  August  30,  1862,  another 
great  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  Union 
forces,  commanded  by  General  Pope,  and  the 
Confederates,  under  Generals  Lee,  Longstreet, 
and  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  when  the  former 
were  again  defeated  with  heavy  loss.  The  three 
battles  of  Groveton,  Bull's  Run,  and  Chantilly, 
fought  in  three  successive  days,  cost  the  Union 
cause  about  20,000  men  in  killed,  wounded, 
missing,  and  prisoners,  thirty  guns,  and  30,000 
small  arms.  The  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  is 
sometimes  known  as  the  Battle  of  Manassas. 

Bunker's  Hill,  Battle  of.  A  famous 
engagement  between  American  and  British 
troops,  June  17,  1775.  The  former  were  com- 
manded by  Colonel  Prescott  and  General  Put- 
nam, and  the  latter  by  General  Howe.  The 
British  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  1,054; 
that  of  the  Americans,  450.  Although  the  latter 
were  driven  from  their  position  after  their  pow- 
der was  exhausted,  and  the  victory  remained 
with  the  British,  the  moral  effect  of  this  first 
battle  on  the  Americans,  and  the  heavy  loss  to 
the  enemy,  made  it  equivalent  to  a  victory  for 
the  Contmentals.  On  the  ground  where  the 
hottest  of  the  battle  was  fought  a  granite  obelisk, 
221  feet  in  height,  has  been  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$100,000,  raised  by  popular  subscriptions.  The 
corner  stone  was  laid  by  General  La  Fayette, 
when  on  his  visit  to  this  country  in  1825;  it 
was  completed  July,  1842,  and,  on  the  occasion 
of  its  dedication,  Daniel  Webster  delivered  his 
famous  oration,  generally  regarded  as  his  best 
effort. 

Burmati.  The  Burmese  Empire  was  found- 
ed in  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  by 
Alompra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  dynasty, 
which  fell  in  the  person  of  King  Theebaw  in 
1886.  In  1824,  the  British  commenced  hostil- 
ities against  Burmah,  and  captured  Rangoon  on 
May  11th.  Successive  victories  led  to  the  cession 
of  Arracan  in  1826.  In  1852,  further  complica- 
tions resulted  in  the  cession  of  Pegu  to  the  Brit- 
ish Indian  Empire.  In  1885,  King  Theebaw, 
relying  upon  French  assistance,  interfered  with 
a  British  trading  company.     The  British  Gov- 


HISTORY 


33 


ernment  took  up  the  case,  and  demanded  of  the 
Burmese  monarch  security  for  his  future  good 
behavior".  Theebaw  rejected  these  demands, 
whereupon  the  queen  declared  war  on  November 
10th.  On  November  28th,  General  Prendergast 
entered  Mandalay,  the  Burmese  capital.  The 
king  surrendered  on  the  following  day,  and  was 
immediately  deported  to  British  territory.  The 
government  was  thenceforth  administered  by  a 
British  resident,  and  on  December  31,  1885, 
Burmah  was  formally  annexed  to  British  India, 
thus  closing  the  history  of  Burmah  as  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom. 

Cade's  Kebellion.  In  June,  1450,  Jack 
Cade,  an  Irishman  who  called  himself  Mortimer, 
with  15,000  or  20,000  armed  men  of  Kent, 
marched  on  London,  and  encamped  at  Black- 
heath,  whence  he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with 
the  citizens,  many  of  whom  were  favorable  to  his 
enterprise.  The  court  sent  to  inquire  why  the 
good  men  of  Kent  had  left  their  homes.  Cade, 
in  a  paper  entitled  "The  Complaint  of  the  Com- 
mons of  Kent,"  replied  that  the  people  were 
robbed  of  their  goods  for  the  king's  use;  that 
the  men  of  Kent  were  especially  ill-treated  and 
overtaxed,  and  that  the  free  election  of  knights 
of  their  shire  had  been  hindered.  The  court 
sent  its  answer  in  the  form  of  an  army,  before 
which  Cade  retreated  to  Sevenoaks,  where  he 
awaited  the  attack  of  a  detachment,  which  he 
defeated.  The  royal  army  now  objected  to 
fight  against  their  countrymen;  the  court  made 
some  concessions,  and  Cade  entered  London  on 
the  3d  of  July.  For  two  days  he  maintained 
the  strictest  order;  but  he  forced  the  mayor 
and  judges  to  pass  judgment  upon  Lord  Say, 
one  of  the  king's  hated  favorites,  whose  head 
Cade's  men  immediately  cut  off  in  Cheapside. 
A  promise  of  pardon  now  sowed  dissension 
among  his  followers,  who  dispersed,  and  a  price 
was  set  upon  Cade's  head.  He  attempted  to 
reach  the  Sussex  coast,  but  was  followed  by  an 
esquire,  named  Alexander  Iden,  who  fought  and 
killed  him  July  11th.  His  head  was  stuck  upon 
London  Bridge  as  a  terror  to  traitors,  1450. 

Calendar.  A  systematic  division  of  time 
into  years,  months,  weeks,  and  days,  or  a  register 
of  these  or  similar  divisions.  The  present  cal- 
endar was  adopted  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  the 
Julian,  or  old  Roman  calendar,  having  become 
grossly  erroneous. 

Luigi  Lilio  Ghiraldi,  frequently  called  Aloysius 
Lilius,  a  physician  of  Verona,  projected  a  plan 
for  amending  the  calendar,  which,  after  his 
death,  was  presented  by  his  brother  to  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  To  carry  it  into  execution,  the 
pope  assembled  a  number  of  prelates  and  learned 
men.  In  1577,  the  proposed  change  was  adopted 
by  all  the  Catholic  princes;  and  in  1582,  Gregory 
issued  a  brief  abolishing  the  Julian  calendar  in 
all  Catholic  countries,  and  introducing  in  its 
stead  the  one  now  in  use,  under  the  name  of  the 
Gregorian  or  reformed  calendar,  or  the  "new 
style,"  as  the  other  was  now  called  the  "old 
style."  The  amendment  ordered  was  this:  Ten 
days  were  to  be  dropped  after  the  4th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1582,  and  the  15th  was  reckoned  immediately 
after  the  4th.  Every  100th  year,  which,  by  the 
old  style  was  to  have  been  a  leap  year,  was  now 
to  be  a  common  year,  the  fourth  excepted;  that 


is,  1600  was  to  remain  a  leap  year,  but  1700, 
1800,  1900  to  be  of  the  common  length,  and 
2000  a  leap  year  again.  In  this  calendar  the 
length  of  the  solar  year  was  taken  to  be  365 
days,  5  hours,  49  minutes,  and  12  seconds,  the 
difference  between  which  and  subsequent  ob- 
servations is  immaterial.  In  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  the  amendment 
was  introduced  according  to  the  pope's  instruc- 
tions. In  France,  the  ten  days  were  dropped 
in  December,  the  10th  being  called  the  20th. 
In  Catholic  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands,  the  change  was  introduced  in  the 
following  year;  in  Poland,  in  1586;  in  Hungary, 
in  1587.  Protestant  Germany,  Holland,  and 
Denmark  accepted  it  in  1700,  and  Switzerland 
in  1701.  In  the  German  Empire  a  difference 
still  remained  for  a  considerable  time  as  to  the 
period  for  observing  Easter.  In  England  the 
Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  1752,  in 
accordance  with  an  act  of  Parliament  passed 
the  previous  year,  the  day  after  the  2d  of  Sep- 
tember becoming  the  14th.  Sweden  followed  in 
1753.  The  change  adopted  in  the  English  cal- 
endar in  1752  embraced  another  point.  There 
had  been  previous  to  this  time,  various  periods 
fixed  for  the  commencement  of  the  year  in 
various  countries  of  Europe.  In  France,  from 
the  time  of  Charles  IX.,  the  year  was  reckoned 
to  begin  from  the  1st  of  January;  this  was  also 
the  popular  reckoning  in  England,  but  the  legal 
and  ecclesiastical  year  began  on  March  25th. 
The  1st  of  January  was  now  adopted  as  the 
beginning  of  the  legal  year,  and  it  was  customary 
for  some  time  to  give  two  dates  for  the  period 
intervening  between  January  1st  and  March 
25th,  that  of  the  old  and  that  of  the  new  year, 
as  January  175%.  Russia  alone  retains  the 
old  style,  which  now  differs  twelve  days  from 
the  new. 

California.  The  name,  signifying  "hot 
furnace,"  is  derived  from  the  Spanish.  Though 
discovered  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1578,  it  was 
first  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1768,  at  San 
Diego.  Lower  California,  however,  was  settled 
by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  1683.  Spanish 
power  was  overthrown  by  the  Mexican  Revolu- 
tion of  1822.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  which 
followed  the  Mexican  War,  California  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  for  $15,000,000  in  1847. 
At  this  time  the  white  population  amounted  to 
only  15,000.  In  February,  1848,  gold  was  dis- 
covered by  Colonel  Sutter,  a  verification  of 
Humboldt's  prophecy  more  than  a  dozen  years 
before.  The  emigration  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  was  unparalleled,  soon  increasing  the  pop- 
ulation to  a  quarter  of  a  million.  The  State 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  September  9,  1850. 

The  history  of  the  Chinese  in  Cahfornia  has 
been  more  remarkable  than  that  of  any  other 
foreign  element.  By  1860,  the  number  of  Chi- 
nese had  reached  34,933;  by  1870,  49,310;  and 
by  1880,  75,218.  A  plebiscitum  was  taken,  and 
the  people  of  California  voted  with  remarkable 
unanimity  in  favor  of  the  restriction  of  Chinese 
immigration.  In  1882,  Congress  passed  the 
restriction  law  which,  by  successive  renewals, 
has  been  kept  in  force  till  the  present  time. 
The  Chinese  population  of  California,  by  1890, 
had  declined  to  71,006;   and  by  1900,  to  45,753. 


34 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


In  1900,  the  Japanese  numbered  10,151,  and 
within  the  last  five  years  they  have  become 
much  more  numerous.  They  have  largely  taken 
the  place  formerly  held  by  the  Chinese  as  agri- 
cultural laborers  and  domestic  servants,  and 
quite  recently  there  has  commenced  a  new  agi- 
tation in  favor  of  the  exclusion  of  all  Asiatic 
immigration. 

In  1906,  the  State  suffered  from  one  of  the 
most  destructive  earthquakes  of  modern  times. 
Upward  of  half  a  billion  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty was  destroyed  and  many  lives  lost. 

Caliph,  Kalif ,  or  Khalif  {K&'-Uf).  The 
chief  sacerdotal  dignity  among  the  Saracens  or 
Mohammedans,  vested  with  absolute  authority 
in  all  matters  relating  both  to  religion  and  politi- 
cal affairs.  The  government  of  the  original 
caliphs  continued  from  the  death  of  Mohammed 
till  the  655th  year  of  the  Hegira,  that  is,  from 
A.  p.  632  to  1277.  The  Fatimite  caliphs  of 
Africa  and  the  Ommiad  sovereigns  of  Spain, 
each  professed  to  be  the  only  legitimate  succes- 
sors of  Mohammed,  in  opposition  to  the  Abbas- 
side  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  which  latter  caliphate 
reached  its  zenith  of  power  and  splendor  under 
Haroun-al-Raschid,  in  the  Ninth  Century.  The 
title  is  now  one  assumed  by  the  Turkish  Sultans, 
as  successors  to  the  Prophet,  and  also  by  the 
Persian  Sophis,  as  successors  of  Ali. 

Campus  Martius  (Lat.,  The  field  of  Mars). 
In  ancient  times,  a  field  by  the  side  of  the  Tiber, 
where  the  Roman  youth  practiced  themselves 
in  warlike  exercises.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Mars,  the  ^od  of  war,  and  a  temple  of  that  deity 
stood  on  it.  During  the  earlier  days  of  the 
Roman  Republic,  it  was  also  made  use  of  as  a 
place  for  holding  the  comitia,  or  assemblies  of 
the  people;  and,  in  after  times,  it  was  adorned 
with  a  great  number  of  fine  statues.  It  consti- 
tutes the  principal  part  of  the  modern  city  of 
Rome. 

Canada.  In  1534,  Jacques  Cartier,  a 
French  navigator,  entering  the  St.  Lawrence  on 
the  festival  of  the  saint  of  that  title,  took  nomi- 
nal possession  of  North  America  in  the  name  of 
his  king, .  Francis  I.  In  1608,  Quebec  was 
founded  by  De  Champlain;  and  here,  fifteen 
years  later,  he  built  Fort  St.  Louis,  from  which 
stronghold  France  ruled  for  150  years  a  vast 
region  extending  eastward  to  Acadia  (now 
Nova  Scotia),  westward  to  Lake  Superior,  and 
ultimately  down  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  Florida 
and  Louisiana.  The  Recollet  and  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries traversed  the  country  in  all  directions, 
and  underwent  incredible  hardships  in  their  zeal 
for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians.  These  fearless 
priests  were  the  pioneers  of  civilization  in  the 
far  West,  and  to  one  of  the  most  intrepid  — 
Lasalle  —  is  due  the  discovery  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.  In  1670,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Prince 
Rupert  and  his  company,  known  ever  since  as 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  the  perpetual  ex- 
clusive right  of  trading  in  the  territory  watered 
by  all  the  streams  flowing  into  Hudson's  Bay. 
Garrisoned  forts  were  now  raised  at  suitable 
points,  and  the  bitter  enmity  between  the  French 
and  the  English  traders  frequently  led  to  bloody 
struggles,  in  which  sometimes  the  Indians  also 
took  a  part.  The  most  warlike  native  tribe  was 
that  of  the  Iroquois,  who  were  persistent  ene- 


mies of  the  French,  while  the  peaceful  Hurons 
were  steady  allies.  Meanwhile,  the  wars  on  the 
American  continent  followed  the  course  of  the 
wars  in  Europe,  until  the  long  struggle  between 
France  and  England  for  the  supremacy  in  Amer- 
ica came  to  a  close  on  the  "  Plains  of  Abraham," 
in  1759,  when  General  Wolfe  defeated  Montcalm. 
This  victory  opened  the  gates  of  Quebec.  The 
capitulation  of  Montreal  next  year  brought  to  a 
close  the  era  of  French  dominion  in  Canada. 
The  people  of  the  conquered  country  were  se- 
cured, by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  agreed  to,  in 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion ;  and  peace  was 
concluded  between  Britain  and  France,  *  1763, 
when  Canada  was  formally  ceded  to  England, 
and  Louisiana  to  Spain.  In  the  same  year  a 
small  portion  of  the  recently  acquired  territory 
was,  by  royal  proclamation,  organized  under 
English  laws.  In  1774,  the  new  province  was 
extended  by  parliamentary  enactment,  and  that 
under  French  laws,  down  the  Ohio  to  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Mississippi,  and  up  the  latter 
stream  to  its  source.  Finally,  Canada  receded 
to  its  present  limits  in  1783,  giving  up  to  the 
American  Republic,  at  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  the  sites  of  six  States:  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 
In  1791,  Canada  was  divided  under  separate 
legislatures  into  two  sections  —  the  eastern  re- 
taining French  institutions,  and  the  western 
receiving  those  of  England;  and  these  sections, 
again,  after  political  discontent  had  in  each 
ripened  into  armed  insurrection,  were  reunited 
for  legislative  purposes  in  1841. 

In  1867,  March  28,  the  British  North  America 
act  for  confederation  of  the  colonies  passed  the 
imperial  parliament.  It  united  Upper  Canada, 
or  Ontario,  Lower  Canada,  or  Quebec,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia,  into  one  territory, 
to  be  named  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  New- 
foundland declared  against  joining  the  confed- 
eration, but  with  that  exception  all  the  British 
territory  north  of  the  United  States  was  grad- 
ually included  within  the  Dominion  —  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company  territory  by  pupchase  in  1868, 
British  Columbia  in  1871,  Prince  Edward  Island 
in  1873.  In  1870,  an  insurrection  of  the  Red 
River  settlers,  who  were  under  apprehensions  as 
to  how  their  titles  to  their  lands  might  be  affected 
by  the  cession  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's 
rights,  took  place  under  the  leadership  of  Louis 
Riel,  and  had  to  be  suppressed  by  a  military 
expedition  under  Colonel  (now  Viscount)  Wolse- 
ley.  To  reassure  the  settlers,  a  part  of  the  newly- 
purchased  territory  was  erected  into  an  inde- 
pendent province  under  the  name  of  Manitoba, 
the  unorganized  territory  beyond  receiving  the 
name  of  the  Northwestern  Territory.  In  1871, 
the  Washington  Treaty  arranged  that  the  fish- 
eries of  both  Canada  and  the  United  States 
should  be  open  to  each  country  for  the  next 
twelve  years,  Canada  receiving  a  compensation, 
afterwards  fixed  at  five  and  a  half  million  dollars, 
for  the  superior  value  of  its  fisheries.  In  1884, 
considerable  disaffection  was  caused  amongst 
the  half-breeds  and  Indians  in  the  Saskatchewan 
and  Assiniboine  districts,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  valid  titles  to  their  lands. 
The  discontent  at  length  took  shape  in  an  insur- 
rection, which  Louis  Riel  was  invited  to  head. 


HISTORY 


35 


The  rebels  seized  the  government  stdres  at  Duck 
Lake  and  induced  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  to 
cooperate  with  them,  with  the  result  that  a 
massacre  of  settlers  took  place  at  Frog's  Lake. 
Within  a  few  months  an  expedition  under  Gen- 
eral Middleton,  who  had  under  his  command 
several  thousand  volunteers,  suppressed  the 
rebellion.  Only  the  leaders  were  arrested.  Riel 
was  tried  and  executed  at  Regina  on  July  28, 
1885.  On  November  7th,  of  the  same  year,  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  completed,  being 
opened  for  through  traffic  the  following  year. 
After  1883,  when  the  Washington  Treaty  ex- 
pired, disputes  between  the  American  and  Can- 
adian fishermen  became  frequent,  and  several 
American  fishing  vessels  were  seized  on  the  Brit- 
ish North  American  coasts,  and  others  prevented 
from  buying  bait.  For  the  adjustment  of  the 
difTerences  connected  with  the  fisheries  a  joint 
British  and  American  commission  was  insti- 
tuted in  1887.  A  treaty  was  signed  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1888,  but  was  rejected  by  the  United 
States  Senate.  In  1887,  also,  an  arbitration 
board  was  appointed  to  settle  a  dispute  with  the 
United  States  concerning  the  Behring  Sea  seal 
fisheries,  and  ten  years  later  made  an  award  in 
favor  of  the  Canadian's  claims.  Later  on,  an- 
other commission,  sitting  in  London  (1903), 
decided  the  Alaskan  boundary  controversy  in 
favor  of  the  United  States. 

In  September,  1907,  a  serious  riot,  directed 
against  the  Japanese  and  Chinese,  broke  out  in 
Vancouver,  largely  organized  by  the  American 
labor  agitators,  but  supported  by  the  local 
rowdies  of  the  city.  The  Dominion  authorities 
at  once  suppressed  the  outbreak. 

In  1910,  the  Newfoundland  fisheries  contro- 
versy was  very  satisfactorily  arbitrated  at  the 
Hague.  In  the  same  year  the  great  eucharist 
congress  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was 
held  at  Montreal. 

Carthage  (called  Carthago  by  the  Romans, 
and  by  the  Greeks,  Karchedon).  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 
situated  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  on  a  penin- 
sula in  what  is  now  the  state  of  Tunis.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Phenicians  of  Tyre,  about  100 
years  before  the  building  of  Rome,  or,  according 
to  tradition,  853  B.  C.  The  builder  of  the  city 
was  said  to  be  Dido.  It  became  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  kingdom;  maintained  three  wars 
against  Rome,  which  are  usually  called  the  three 
Punic  Wars ;  and  in  the  third  of  these  wars  was 
totally  destroyed  by  Scipio  iEmilianus,  146  B.  C. 
The  greatness  of  the  city  at  this  time  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  it  took  seventeen  days 
to  burn.  It  is  said  to  have  been  twenty-three 
miles  in  circumference,  and  to  have  contained 
within  its  walls  a  population  of  700,000.  Caesar 
afterwards  planted  a  colony  on  the  site,  which 
he  called  Colonia  Carthago.  It  became  again 
the  first  city  in  Africa,  and  occupied  an  impor- 
tant part  in  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  civil  his- 
tory. It  was  taken  by  the  Vandals,  A.  D.  439; 
was  retaken  by  Belisarius,  A.  D.  533;  and  was 
finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D.  698. 
Of  this  once  splendid  city  there  are  now  almost 
absolutely  no  remains.  The  Cathedral  of  Pisa 
is  said  to  have  been  built  out  of  the  ruins  of 
Carthage. 


Charter  Oak,  a  tree  which  formerly 
stood  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  the  hollow  trunk 
of  which  the  colonial  charter  is  said  to  have 
been  hidden.  The  story  is  that  when  Governor 
Andros  went  to  Hartford  in  1687,  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  the  charter,  the  debate  in  the 
Assembly  over  his  demand  was  prolonged  until 
darkness  set  in,  when  the  lights  were  suddenly 
extinguished,  and  a  patriot,  Captain  Wadsworth, 
escaped  with  the  document  and  hid  it  in  the  oak. 
The  venerable  tree  was  preserved  with  great  care 
until  1856,  when  it  was  blown  down  in  a  storm. 

C  hile.  Chile  originally  belonged  to  the  Incas 
of  Peru,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  Span- 
iards under  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  in  1535. 
From  this  period  Chile  continued  a  colony  of 
Spain  till  1810,  when  a  revolution  commenced, 
which  terminated  in  1817  in  the  independence 
of  Chile.  Several  internal  commotions  have 
since  occurred;  but  the  country  has  been  free 
from  these  compared  with  other  South  American 
States.  A  war  begun  with  Spain,  in  1865,  led 
to  the  blockade  of  the  coast  by  the  Spanish 
fleet,  and  the  bombardment  of  Valparaiso,  in 
1866.  In  1879,  a  war  broke  out  with  Bolivia 
and  Peru,  in  reference  to  the  rights  of  Chile  in 
the  mineral  district  of  Atacama.  This  war  was 
virtually  finished  in  1881,  and  the  victorious 
Chileans  gained  a  large  accession  of  territory 
from  both  Bolivia  and  Peru.  In  1891,  an  in- 
surrection, headed  by  influential  members  of 
Congress,  caused  by  dissatisfaction  with  President 
Balmaceda's  administration,  was  successful  and 
resulted  in  his  overthrow.  In  1907,  a  number 
of  labor  disturbances  in  the  mining  regions 
called  for  armed  intervention. 

China.  The  early  history  of  the  Chinese  is 
shrouded  in  fable,  but  it  is  certain  that  civiliza- 
tion had  advanced  much  among  them  when  it 
was  only  beginning  to  dawn  on  the  nations  of 
Europe.  The  Chow  dynasty,  which  was  founded 
by  Woo-wang  and  lasted  from  about  1100  B.  C. 
to  258  B.  C,  is  perhaps  the  earliest  that  can  be 
regarded  as  historic,  and  even  of  it  not  much 
more  is  historic  than  the  name.  Under  Ling- 
wang,  one  of  the  sovereigns  of  this  dynasty, 
Confucius  is  said  to  have  been  born,  some  time 
in  the  Sixth  Century  B.  C.  During  the  latter 
half  of  the  period,  during  which  this  line  of 
sovereigns  held  sway,  there  appear  to  have  been 
a  number  of  rival  kings  in  China,  who  lived  in 
strife  with  one  another.  Chow-siang,  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  Tsin  dynasty,  from  which 
China  takes  its  name,  gained  the  superiority  over 
his  rivals,  and  died  in  251  B.  C.  His  great- 
grandson,  a  national  hero  of  the  Chinese,  was 
the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  "Hoang"  (em- 
peror), and  called  himself  Che-Hoang-ti.  He 
ruled  over  an  empire  nearly  conterminous  with 
modern  China  proper.  In  his  reign,  the  great 
wall,  which  was  designed  as  a  protection 
against  marauding  Tartars,  was  begun  about  214 
B.  C.  Buddhism  was  introduced  in  65  A.  D. 
Subsequently,  the  empire  broke  up  into  three 
or  more  states,  and  a  long  period  of  confusion 
and  weak  government  ensued.  In  960,  a  strong 
ruler  managed  to  consolidate  the  empire,  but 
the  attacks  of  the  Tartars  were  now  causing 
much  trouble.  In  the  Thirteenth  Century  the 
Mongols,  under  Jenghis  Khan  and  his  son,  Ogdai, 


36 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


conquered  China,  and  in  1259,  the  celebrated 
Kublai  Khan,  a  nephew  of  the  latter,  ascended 
the  throne  and  founded  the  Mongol  dynasty. 
His  ninth  descendant  was  driven  from  the 
throne,  and  a  native  dynasty,  called  Ming,  again 
succeeded  in  1368,  in  the  person  of  Hungwu.  A 
long  period  of  peace  ensued,  but  was  broken 
about  1618,  when  the  Manchus  gained  the  as- 
cendency, and  after  a  war  of  twenty-seven  years, 
founded  the  existing  Tartar  dynasty  in  the  per- 
son of  Tungchi,  establishing  their  capital  in  the 
northern  city  of  Peking,  which  was  nearer  their 
native  country  and  resources  than  the  old  capital 
Nanking.  The  earliest  authentic  accounts  of 
China,  published  in  Europe,  are  those  of  Marco 
Polo,  wno  visited  the  country  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century.  The  first  British  intercourse  was  at- 
tempted under  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1596,  and  a 
trade  was  subsequently  established  by  the  East 
India  Company,  but  no  direct  intercourse  be- 
tween the  governments  took  place  till  the  em- 
bassy of  Lord  Macartney,  in  1792.  A  second 
embassy  in  1816,  by  Lord  Amherst,  was  treated 
with  insolence;  and,  subsequently,  the  treat- 
ment of  British  merchants  became  such  that  a 
collision  was  inevitable.  In  1840,  the  British, 
on  being  refused  redress  for  injuries,  partly  real 
and  partly  alleged,  proceeded  to  hostilities,  and 
after  scattering,  almost  without  a  struggle,  every 
force  which  was  opposed  to  them,  were  prepar- 
ing to  lay  siege  to  Nanking,  when  the  Chinese 
found  it  necessary  to  sue  for  peace.  A  treaty 
was  then  concluded  (1842),  bv  which  the  five 
ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-chow-foo,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai  were  opened  to  British  merchants, 
the  island  of  Hong-Kong  ceded  to  the  British  in 
perpetuity,  and  the  payment  of  21,000,000  dol- 
lars agreed  to  be  made  by  the  Chinese.  In  1850, 
an  insurrection,  headed  by  Hung-seu-tseuan,  or 
Tien-te,  broke  out  in  the  provinces  adjoining 
Canton,  with  the  object  of  expelling  the  Manchu 
dynasty  from  the  throne,  as  well  as  of  restoring 
the  ancient  national  religion  of  Shan-ti,  and  of 
making  Tien-te  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty, 
which  he  called  that  of  Tai-ping,  or  Universal 
Peace.  After  a  long  period  of  civil  war,  the 
Tai-ping  rebellion  was  at  length  suppressed  in 
1865,  chiefly  by  the  exertions  of  General  Gordon 
and  other  British  and  American  officers  at  the 
head  of  the  Chinese  army.  In  October,  1856, 
the  crew  of  a  vessel  belonging  to  Hong-Kong 
were  seized  by  the  Chinese.  The  men  were 
afterwards  brought  back,  but  all  reparation  or 
apology  was  refused.  In  consequence  of  this,  a 
war  with  China  commenced,  in  which  the  French 
took  part  with  the  British.  Peking  had  to  be 
taken  (in  1860)  before  the  Chinese  Government 
finally  gave  way,  and  granted  a  treaty  securing 
important  privileges  to  the  allies.  The  child 
emperor,  Tsaitien,  succeeded  in  1875,  but  only 
assumed  the  reigns  of  government  in  1887,  on 
reaching  the  age  of  sixteen.  War  was  declared 
between  China  and  Japan  on  July  31,  1894. 
Japan,  by  a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  both  on 
land  and  sea,  brought  the  war  to  an  end  in 
April,  1895.  Corea  was  declared  independent, 
Formosa  ceded  to  Japan,  and  China  was  forced 
to  pay  a  very  large  war  indemnity.  The  follow- 
ing succinct  statement  of  recent  progress  in 
China   was    lately   made   by  a  missionary  who 


has  labored  in  that  country  since  1863:  "Who 
among  us,  ten  years  ago,  would  have  dared  to 
imagine  that  to-day  China  would  have  (1)  a 
national  fleet;  (2)  the  telegraph  radiating  to  the 
most  distant  provinces;  (3)  government  colleges 
for  engineering,  navigation,  military  tactics, 
electricity,  and  medicine;  (4)  the  Kai-ping  mines 
supplying  steamers  and  the  north  ports  with 
excellent  and  cheap  coal."  During  1898,  both 
Russia  and  Germany  had  taken  possession  of 
certain  provinces  of  China.  In  1900,  the  Boxers 
rose  against  the  foreigners,  attacked  the  lega- 
tions in  Peking,  murdered  the  German  and  other 
attaches,  a  number  of  the  missionaries  and 
native  converts,  and  destroyed  the  stations.  A 
punitive  war  by  the  powers  followed;  indem- 
nity and  future  guarantees  and  punishment  of 
the  principals  were  demanded,  and  subsequently 
paid. 

In  1903,  insurrection  and  rebellion  kept  sev- 
eral provinces  in  a  state  of  disturbance  during 
a  greater  part  of  the  year.  That  in  Kwang 
Si  assumed  the  most  alarming  proportions,  and 
lasted  from  January  until  May.  Rebels  in 
North  China  proclaimed  Pu  Chun,  Prince 
Tuan's  son,  as  emperor,  but  the  movement 
was  quickly  suppressed.  As  a  result  of  the 
rebellion  in  the  Province  of  Kwang  Si,  the 
country  was  desolated  and  a  serious  famine 
threatened.  It  was  reported  that  1,000,000  per- 
sons were  starving,  and  that  men  were  selling 
their  wives  and  children  in  order  to  get  food. 
A  complete  crop  failure  in  the  region  around 
Peking  threatened  to  bring  about  the  same  con- 
ditions there.  In  1907-'08,  edicts  were  issued 
looking  to  the  extension  of  self-government  in 
the  cities,  and  a  larger  degree  of  civil  liberty. 

A  grand  council  was  instituted  by  the  emperor, 
and  in  1910  in  response  to  popular  demands  he, 
through  the  council,  announced  the  establish- 
ment of  representative  government  in  1913. 

Cisalpine  Republic.  A  former  political 
division  of  Italy,  embracing  portions  of  Mantua, 
the  Milanese,  the  Valteline,  Venetia  west  and 
south  of  the  Adige,  Modena,  and  the  northern 
Pontifical  States.  Inaugurated  by  Napoleon  I. 
in  1797,  it  was  named  the  Italian  Republic  in 
1802,  and  three  years  later  constituted  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  Italian  Kingdom. 

Cispadane  Republic  (sis' pah-dan).  One 
of  the  embryo  states  —  the  other  being  the  so- 
called  Transpadane  Republic  —  initiated  by  Na- 
poleon I.,  1796;  they  were  composed  of  Italian 
territory  reconquered  from  the  Austrians,  etc., 
and,  in  1797,  became  absorbed  in  the  Cisalpine 
Republic,  q.  v.:  so  termed  frohi  being  on  that 
side  of  the  river  Po  (Padus)  nearest  to  Rome. 

Colorado.  Colorado  was  first  organized 
as  a  territory  in  1861,  from  parts  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah.  A  portion 
of  it  was  derived  from  the  Louisiana  purchase 
of  1803,  and  a  part  from  the  Mexican  cession  of 
1848.  This  region  was  first  settled  by  Coronado 
in  1540.  It  was  thoroughly  explored  by  expe- 
ditions sent  out  by  the  government,  under 
Major  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  in  1806;  under  Colonel 
S.  H.  Long,  in  1820;  and  under  Colonel  J.  C. 
Fremont,  in  1842-44.  The  first  American  set- 
tlements were  made  by  mining  parties  in  1858- 
59,  since  which  time  Colorado  ha^  become  even 


HISTORY 


37 


more  prolific  than  California  in  its  yield  of  the 
precious  metals.  The  State  was  admitted  Aug- 
ust 1,  1876.  The  famous  Leadville  mines  were 
opened  in  1879,  and  the  same  year  saw  the  Ute 
uprising.  In  1891  the  Cripple  Creek  gold  dis- 
coveries were  made.  In  1894  the  legislature 
passed  a  bill,  making  equal  suffrage  for  men  and 
women  a  law. 

Committee  of  Public  Safety.  A  com- 
mittee of  nine  created  by  the  French  Conven- 
tion, April  6,  1793,  to  concentrate  the  power  of 
the  executive,  "the  conscience  of  Marat,  who 
could  see  salvation  in  one  thing  only,  in  the  fall 
of  260,000  aristocrats'  heads."  It  was  notable, 
therefore,  for  its  excesses  in  that  line;  was  not 
suppressed  till  October  19,  1796,  on  the  advent 
of  the  Directory  to  power. 

Confederation  of  tiie  Riiine.  Dur- 
ing the  war  of  1805,  so  disastrous  for  Austria, 
several  German  princes,  too  weak  to  remain 
neutral,  were  forced  to  ally  themselves  with 
France.  The  first  to  do  so  were  the  Electors  of 
Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg,  who,  in  recompense 
of  their  services,  were  elevated  to  the  dignity  of 
kings  by  the  Peace  of  Presburg,  December  26, 
1805.  Some  months  after  (May  28,  1806),  the 
archchancellor  of  the  empire  announced  at  the 
Diet  that  he  had  chosen  as  his  coadjutor  and 
successor  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  uncle  of  Napoleon, 
a  thing  entirely  contrary  to  the  constitution  of 
the  Germanic  Empire.  Finally,  at  Paris,  on 
the  12th  of  July,  1806,  sixteen  German  princes 
formally  signed  an  act  of  confederation,  dissolv- 
ing their  connection  with  the  Germanic  Empire, 
and  allying  themselves  with  France.  These  six- 
teen princes  were:  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wiirtemberg,  the  arch-chancellor,  the  Elector  of 
Baden,  the  new  Duke  of  Cleves  and  Berg  (Joac- 
him Murat),  the  Landgraf  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
the  princes  of  Nassau-Usingen,  Nassau-Weilburg 
Hohenzollern-Hechingen,  Hohenzollern-Sigmar- 
ingen,  Salm-Salm,  Salm-Kyrburg,  the  Duke  of 
Arenberg,  the  princes  of  Isenburg-Birstein  and 
Lichtenstein,  and  the  Count  of  Leyen. 

Connecticut.  One  of  the  thirteen  original 
States.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the  Indian, 
and  signifies  "Long  River."  The  territory, 
originally  claimed  by  the  Dutch  of  New  Nether- 
lands by  right  of  prior  exploration,  was  finally 
acquired  by  the  English  under  a  patent  granted 
to  Lords  Say  and  Sele,  and  Brooke  and  asso- 
ciates, in  1631.  Permanent  settlements  were 
made,  1633-36,  by  colonists  from  Massachusetts, 
at  Hartford,  Windsor,  and  Wethersfield.  In  1638, 
New  Haven  was  settled  by  a  distinguished  com- 
pany of  emigrants  from  England.  The  first 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1639,  being  the  first 
time  in  history  when  a  government  was  organ- 
ized and  defined  by  a  written  constitution.  Its 
leading  features  were  afterward  copied  in  the 
constitutions  of  the  other  States  and  of  the 
United  States,  and  it  was  the  basis  of  the  charter 
of  1662.  The  attempt  to  revoke  and  supersede 
this  charter  by  James  II.  through  his  representa- 
tive. Sir  Edmund  Andros,  in  1687,  led  to  what 
might  be  called  the  first  colonial  act  of  rebellion 
against  royal  authority.  During  the  Revolution 
no  State  furnished  so  large  a  proportionate  body  of 
soldiers  to  the  Continental  army.  During  the  Civil 
War,  54,882  men  were  furnished  by  the  State. 


Consul.  The  title  of  the  two  chief  magis- 
trates of  Rome,  whose  power  was  in  a  certain 
degree  absolute,  but  who  were  chosen  only  for 
one  year;  they  were  instituted  B.  C.  509.  The 
authority  of  the  two  consuls  were  equal;  yet 
the  Valerian  law  gave  the  right  of  priority  to 
the  elder,  and  the  Julian  law  to  him  who  had  the 
greater  number  of  children;  and  this  one  was 
generally  called  Consul  major  or  prior.  In  the 
first  ages  of  the  republic,  they  were  elected  from 
patrician  families;  but  in  the  year  of  Rome, 
388,  the  people  obtained  the  privilege  of  electing 
one  of  the  consuls  from  their  own  body,  and 
sometimes  both  were  plebians.  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  in  91,  the  office  of  consul 
became  merely  honorary;  the  last  holder  of  the 
dignity  at  Rome  was  Decimus  Theodorus  Pauli- 
nus,  A.  D.  536;  at  Constantinople,  Flavins 
Basilius  Junius,  541. 

Consulate.  A  trio  of  three  persons,  to 
whom,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  French  Direct- 
ory in  1799,  the  provisional  government  was 
intrusted.  Napoleon,  Cambac^res,  and  Lebrun, 
were  elected  as  first,  second,  and  third  consul, 
respectively,  with  different  degrees  of  authority, 
1800;  but  the  influence  of  the  first  becoming 
gradually  augmented,  the  transition  to  imperial 
dignity  became  easy  to  him.  On  August  4, 
1802,  he  was  made  consul  for  life;  and  on  May 
18,  1804,  the  title  of  emperor  was  substituted  for 
that  of  consul. 

Continental  System.  A  plan  devised 
by  Napoleon  to  exclude  Britain  from  all  inter- 
course with  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  began 
with  the  decree  of  Berlin  of  November  21,  1806, 
by  which  the  British  Islands  were  declared  to 
be  in  a  state  of  blockade;  all  commerce,  inter- 
course, and  correspondence  were  prohibited; 
every  Britain  found  in  France,  or  a  country  occu- 
pied by  French  troops,  was  declared  a  prisoner 
of  war;  all  property  belonging  to  Britons,  fair 
prize,  and  all  trade  in  goods  from  Britain  or 
British  colonies  entirely  prohibited.  Britain  re- 
plied by  orders  in  council  prohibiting  trade  with 
French  ports,  and  declaring  all  harbors  of  France 
and  her  allies  subjected  to  the  same  restrictions 
as  if  they  were  closely  blockaded.  Further  de- 
crees on  the  part  of  France,  of  a  still  more 
stringent  kind,  declared  all  vessels  of  whatever 
flag,  which  had  been  searched  by  a  British 
vessel  or  paid  duty  to  Britain,  denationalized, 
and  directed  the  burning  of  all  British  goods, 
etc.  These  decrees  caused  great  annoyance, 
and  gave  rise  to  much  smuggling,  till  annulled 
at  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  1814. 

Convention,  National.  A  revolution- 
ary convention  in  France,  which,  on  September 
20,  1792,  succeeded  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
proclaimed  the  republic,  condemned  the  king 
to  death,  succeeded  in  crushing  the  royalists  of 
La  Vendee  and  the  south,  in  defeating  all  Europe 
leagued  against  France,  and  in  founding  institu- 
tions of  benefit  to  France  to  this  day.  It  was 
dissolved  on  October  26,  1795,  to  make  way 
for  the  Directory. 

Corea  or  Itorea.  The  seeds  of  Chris- 
tianity were  sown  in  Corea  in  1592,  by  the 
invading  army,  composed  chiefly  of  Christian 
converts  of  the  Japanese  usurper,  Tiacosama. 
Hamel,  a  Dutch  sailor,  was  wrecked  here  and 


38 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


detained  for  thirteen  years;  from  his  narrative 
it  was  that,  till  very  recently,  most  of  our  scanty 
knowledge  of  Corea  was  obtained.  In  1784, 
Jesuit  missionaries  found  their  way  into  Corea 
and  had  great  success  among  the  people.  From 
1835  till  1860,  several  intrepid  and  devoted 
French  missionaries  contrived  to  find  shelter, 
and,  in  spite  of  incessant  persecutions,  the 
Christian  community  continued  rather  to  in- 
crease, rising  in  1852  to  11,000  souls.  The 
massacre  of  nine  missionaries,  in  1866,  led  to  an 
invasion  of  Corea  by  a  small  French  force,  but 
without  success.  Nor  did  two  successive  Ameri- 
can expeditions,  provoked  by  attack  on  an 
American  vessel,  succeed  in  breaking  down  the 
barriers  that  separated  the  Coreans  from  the 
rest  of  the  world.  The  pseudonym  of  "Hermit 
Nation"  has  attached  to  Corea,  not  because  of 
vast  deserts  and  deadly  jungles  which  interposed 
as  physical  barriers  to  constitute  the  Nile  sources 
a  region  of  myths  and  mysteries  —  for  Corea, 
situated  in  the  open  sea,  had  none  of  these  to 
bar  ingress  —  but  because  of  a  persistent  policy 
of  isolation  which,  consecrated  by  time,  became 
in  fact,  a  sort  of  Corean  religion.  To  be  let 
alone  by  the  So  Yang  Saram  ("men  from  the 
Western  Ocean"),  this  was  the  policy  of  govern- 
ment until  our  own  day.  About  1881,  however, 
Corea  made  a  treaty  with  Japan,  and,  later  on, 
through  Admiral  Shufeldt,  U.  S.  N.,  with  the 
United  States — followed  by  others  with  Eng- 
land, Russia,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  After 
Japan's  victory  over  China,  in  1895,  Corea  was 
made  independent.  In  1907,  Corea  practically 
passed  under  a  Japanese  protectorate  and,  in 
1910,  was  annexed  to  that  empire. 

Covenanters.  In  Scottish  history,  the 
name  given  to  the  party  which  struggled  for 
religious  liberty  from  1637  on  to  the  revolution; 
but  more  especially  applied  to  the  insurgents 
who  took  up  arms  in  defense  of  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  church  government.  The  Presbyterian 
ministers  who  refused  to  acknowledge  the  bish- 
ops were  ejected  from  their  parishes  and  gath- 
ered around  them  crowds  of  their  people  on  the 
hillsides  to  attend  their  ministrations.  The 
first  outbreaks  took  place  in  the  hill  country  on 
the  borders  of  Ayr  and  Lanark  shires.  The 
murder  of  Archbishop  Sharp,  on  Magus  Moor, 
and  a  skirmish  near  there  alarmed  the  govern- 
ment, who  sent  troops  to  put  down  the  insur- 
gents, who  had  increased  in  number  rapidly. 
The  two  armies  met  at  Bothwell  Bridge,  when  the 
Covenanters  were  totally  defeated,  June  22, 1679. 

In  consequence  of  the  rebellious  protest,  called 
the  "Sandquhar  Declaration,"  put  forth  in  1680, 
by  Cameron,  Cargill,  and  others,  as  representing 
the  more  irreconcilable  of  the  Covenanters,  and 
a  subsequent  proclamation  in  1684,  the  govern- 
ment proceeded  to  more  severe  measures.  An 
oath  was  now  required  of  all  who  would  free 
themselves  of  suspicion  of  complicity  with  the 
Covenanters;  and  the  dragoons,  who  were  sent 
out  to  hunt  down  the  rebels,  were  empowered 
to  kill  anyone  who  refused  to  take  the  oath. 
After  the  accession  of  William,  some  of  the  ex- 
treme Covenanters  refused  to  acknowledge  him, 
owing  to  his  acceptance  of  Episcopacy  in  Eng- 
land, and  formed  the  earliest  dissenting  sect  in 
Scotland. 


Crimean  War.  In  1854,  the  Crimea  be- 
came the  theater  of  a  sanguinary  war,  under- 
taken by  England,  France,  Turkey,  and  Sardinia 
in  support  of  the  integrity  of  the  sultan's  power 
and  to  check  the  growing  ascendency  of  Russia 
on  the  Black  Sea.  The  allies  landed  near 
Eupatoria,  and  defeated  the  Russians  at  the 
River  Alma,  September  20,  1854;  at  Balaklava, 
October  25th;  at  Inkerman,  November  5th;  at 
the  River  Tchernaya,  August  16,  1855.  The 
siege  of  Sebastopol  continued  from  October  9, 
1854,  to  September  8,  1855,  when  the  important 
fortresses  known  as  the  Malakoff  and  the  Redan 
were  stormed  by  the  French  and  English,  and 
the  Russians  evacuated  the  city.  An  armistice 
was  concluded  February  26,  1856,  and  peace 
was  proclaimed  in  April  of  the  same  year.  The 
British  loss,  during  the  war,  was  nearly  24,000,- 
of  which  number,  however,  16,500  died  of  dis- 
ease and  privation.  The  French  lost  about 
63,500.  The  Russian  loss  was  estimated  at 
500,000. 

Crusades  (Lat.  crux,  a  cross).  The  name 
given  to  the  religious  wars  which  were  carried 
on  during  the  middle  ages  between  the  Christian 
nations  of  Western  Europe  and  the  Mohamme- 
dans of  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia. 
Originally,  the  object  of  the  Crusades  was  to 
obtain  free  access  for  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  but  they  afterwards  developed  into 
a  contest  for  the  possession  of  Jerusalem  itself. 
The  Crusades  lasted  for  nearly  two  centuries. 
They  are  usually  divided  into  eight,  as  follows: 
First  (1096-1100),  led  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
and  preached  up  by  Peter  the  Hermit;  second 
(1147-1149),  lecl  by  Louis  VII.  and  the  Emperor 
Konrad,  at  the  instigation  of  St.  Bernard ;  third 
(1189-1193),  led  against  Saladin,  the  Sultan  of 
Syria  and  Egypt,  by  Richard  the  Lion-hearted 
of  England  and  Philip  Augustus  of  France; 
fourth  (1202-1204),  led  by  Baldwin  of  Flanders 
and  the  Doge  of  Venice;  fifth  (1217),  led  by 
John  Brienne,  titular  sovereign  of  Jerusalem; 
sixth  (1228-1229),  led  by  Frederick  II.  of  Ger- 
many; seventh  and  eighth  (1248-1254  and  1268- 
1270),  to  satisfy  the  religious  scruples  of  Louis 
IX.-  of  France.  Although  the  Crusades  did  not 
accomplish  their  main  object,  and  the  "Holy 
City"  remained  finally  in  the  hands  of  the 
"Infidels,"  they  yet  called  forth  an  amount  of 
enterprise  that  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  modern  civilization.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  cost  many  millions  of  lives,  and  the  deeds 
that  were  done  during  the  Crusades  in  the  sacred 
name  of  Christ  would  be  altogether  repugnant 
to  all  modem  ideas  of  religion  or  even  of  human- 
ity. The  name  Crusades  was  derived  from  the 
symbol  of  the  cross,  which  the  warriors  engaged 
in  them  wore  over  their  armor. 

Cuba,  spoken  of  as  the  "Queen  of  the  An- 
tilles," was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492, 
the  discoverer  calling  it  "the  most  beautiful 
land  that  eyes  ever  beheld."  It  was  first  settled 
by  Spaniards  at  Baracoa  in  1511.  Havana, 
first  settled  in  1519,  was.  reduced  to  ashes  by 
the  French  in  1538,  and  again  in  1554.  For 
about  one  and  a  half  centuries,  Cuba  was_  in 
constant  danger  from  French,  Dutch,  English, 
and  West  Indian  filibusters.  In  1762,  the  Eng- 
lish,   under    Lord    Albemarle,    took    Havana, 


HISTORY 


39 


which,  however,  was  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  next 
year  restored  to  Spain.  From  1789  to  1845, 
the  island  was  a  vast  slave-trading  center. 
Negro  insurrections  occurred  in  1845  and  1848. 
In  the  latter  year  the  United  States  offered 
$100,000,000  to  Spain  for  the  island.  Rebel- 
lions against  Spanish  rule  broke  out  in  1849 
and  in  1868.  They  were  put  down  after  long 
campaigns;  another  insurrection,  begun  in  1895, 
gained  formidable  proportions  by  1898.  The 
United  States  battleship  "Maine,"  while  on  a 
friendly  visit,  was  blown  up  in  Havana  harbor, 
February  15,  1898,  and  on  April  19th,  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  adopted  resolutions 
declaring  Cuba  independent.  War  with  Spain 
began  at  once.  Cervera's  Spanish  fleet  was 
destroyed  at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  July  3d,  and 
Santiago  and  its  large  army  were  surrendered 
on  July  17th.  The  leading  military  events  of 
the  war,  so  far  as  Cuba  was  concerned,  were  the 
fights  at  El  Caney  and  San  Juan,  the  battle  at 
Santiago,  and  the  destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet. 
A  Constitutional  Convention  assembled  in 
November,  1900,  and  adopted  a  constitution 
providing  for  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, with  a  president,  vice-president,  senate, 
and  house  of  representatives.  Thereupon,  the 
United  States  Congress  authorized  the  transfer 
of  the  government  to  the  people  of  Cuba  on 
condition  that:  (1)  No  treaty  should  be  made 
with  any  other  foreign  power  impairing  the 
independence  of  Cuba,  or  allowing  military  or 
naval  occupation  of  the  island;  (2)  the  United 
States  should  have  the  right  to  intervene  for 
the  discharge  of  her  obligations  under  the  Treaty 
of  Paris;  (3)  the  United  States  should  have 
certain  naval  stations  (at  Bahia  Honda  and 
Guantanamo).  These  conditions  were  included 
in  the  Law  of  Constitution,  and  confirmed  in 
the  permanent  treaty  between  Cuba  and  the 
United  States,  which  was  signed  in  May,  1903. 

The  formal  transfer  of  the  government  to  the 
Cuban  authorities  took  place  on  May  20,  1902. 
Tomas  Estrada  Palma  was  elected  first  presi- 
dent, and  Luis  Esteves,  vice-president.  An 
insurrection  broke  out  in  August,  1906,  and  led 
to  American  intervention  and  the  appointment 
of  Hon.  Charles  E.  Magoon  as  provisional 
governor.  Cuban  Government  again  became 
independent  in  1909,  with  Jose  Gomez  as 
President. 

Czar,  Tsar,  Tzar  (zahr),  [Russ.  tsar]. 
The  Sclavonic  form  of  Ccesar,  the  title  assumed 
by  the  emperors  of  Russia,  borne  first  by  Ivan  II. 
in  1579,  as  Czar  of  Muscovy.  The  eldest  son  of 
the  czar  was  called  Czarovicz,  or,  as  we  usually 
write  it,  Czarovitsch,  or  Cesarowitch;  but  this 
appellation  was  discontinued  after .  the  murder 
of  Alexis,  the  son  of  Peter  the  Great,  until 
revived  by  Paul  I.  in  1799,  in  favor  of  his  second 
son,  Constantine.  The  consort  of  the  czar  is 
termed  czarina. 

Decemviri  (de-sem've-re).  A  body  of  men 
who  were  elected  by  the  patricians,  B.  C.  451, 
for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  a  body  of  laws, 
founded  on  the  most  approved  institutions  of 
Greece.  They  compiled  a  code,  which  they  in- 
scribed on  ten  tables,  and  stated  that  their 
labors  were  not  yet  complete.  Next  year, 
therefore,  another  body  of  ten,  which  probably 


included  some  of  the  patricians,  was  appointed 
with  the  same  powers;  and  these  added  two 
more  tables,  altogether  making  the  famous 
Twelve  Tables,  which  were,  from  that  time,  the 
foundation  of  all  Roman  law.  The  second  body 
of  decemvirs  attempted  to  prolong  their  period 
of  office,  committed  some  acts  of  violence,  and 
altogether  gave  such  dissatisfaction,  that  they 
were  dissolved.  The  traditionary  history  of  the 
decemviri  is,  however,  very  doubtful.  There 
were  other  decemvirs,  who  were  appointed  for 
judicial  and  other  purposes. 

Defenestration  of  Prague,  The 
(May  23,  1618).  That  is,  the  ejection  out  of  win- 
dows by  the  Bohemians.  The  Bohemians  had 
two  Protestant  churches,  one  in  the  diocese  of 
Prague,  and  the  other  in  the  territory  of  the 
abbot  of  Braunau.  The  Archbishop  of  Prague 
and  the  abbot  pulled  down  these  reformed 
churches,  and  when  the  Protestants  remonstrated 
they  were  told  it  was  the  king's  pleasure.  So 
Count  Thurn  of  Bohemia  headed  a  deputation, 
which  went  to  the  royal  castle  of  Prague  to  lay 
their  grievance  before  the  king.  Being  admitted 
into  the  council  hall,  they  were  so  insolently 
received  that  they  threw  two  of  the  councillors 
and  the  king's  private  secretary  out  of  the  win- 
dows into  the  moat.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Delaware.  Though  the  State  was  first 
discovered  by  the  Dutch  in  1609,  Lord  Delaware, 
Governor  of  Virginia,  who  visited  it  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  afterward  gave  name  to  it,  claimed 
it  on  behalf  of  England.  In  1637,  colonies  were 
planted  near  Wilmington  by  the  Swedish  East 
India  Company,  which  brought  on  a  conflict 
with  the  Dutch  and  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Swedes  in  1655.  When  New  Netherlands  was 
conquered  by  the  English,  this  territory  went 
with  it.  William  Penn,  having  received  the 
Pennsylvania  grant,  secured,  also,  from  the  Duke 
of  York  rights  over  Delaware  by  patent,  and 
until  the  Revolution  the  territory  was  governed 
under  the  same  proprietary.  In  1776,  the  people 
declared  themselves  an  independent  State,  and 
as  such  fought  in  the  Continental  ranks.  Dela- 
ware was  the  first  State  to  ratify  the  Federal 
Constitution,  and  its  own  constitution,  adopted 
in   1792,  still  forms  the  fundamental  law. 

Deluge.  The  Deluge  was  threatened  in  the 
year  of  the  world  1536,  and  began  December  7, 

1656,  and  continued  377  days.  (Genesis  vi,  vii, 
viii).     The  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  May  6, 

1657,  and  Noah  left  the  ark  December  18th, 
following.  The  year  corresponds  with  that  of 
2348  B.  C.  The  following  are  the  epochs  of  the 
Deluge,  according  to  Dr.  Hales: 

B.  C.  B.  C. 


Septuagint,  . 

.  3246 

Clinton, .... 

.  2482 

Jackson,   .    . 

.  3170 

Play  fair,    .    .    . 

.  2352 

Hales,   .    .    . 

.  3155 

Usher  and  E.Bible,  2348 

Josephus, .    . 

.  3146 

Marsham,  .    .    . 

.  2344 

Persian,    .    . 

.  3103 

Petavius,  .    .    . 

.  2329 

Hindoo,    .    . 

.  3102 

Strauchius,    .    . 

.  2293 

Samaritan,  . 

.2998 

Hebrew,     .    .    . 

.   2288 

Howard,  .    . 

.2698 

Vulgar  Jewish, . 

.   2104 

In  the  reign  of  Ogyges,  King  of  Attica,  1764 
B.  C,  a  deluge  so  inundated  Attica  that  it  lay 
waste  for  nearly  200  years.  Buffon  thinks  that 
the  Hebrew  and  Grecian  deluges  were  the  same, 


40 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


and  arose  from  the  Atlantic  and  Bosporus  burst- 
ing into  the  Valley  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  deluge  of  Deucalion  in  Thessaly  is  placed 
1503  B.  C.  according  to  Eusebius.  It  was  often 
confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the  general 
flood  but  considered  to  be  merely  a  local  inun- 
dation occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the 
River  Pineus  whose  course  was  stopped  by  an 
earthquake  between  the  Mounts  Olympus  and 
Ossa.  Deucalion,  who  then  reigned  in  Thessaly, 
with  his  wife  Pyrrha  and  some  of  their  subjects, 
are  stated  to  have  saved  themselves  by  climbing 
up  Mount  Parnassus. 

Denmark.  The  Kymri  were  the  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia  and  made 
themselves  formidable  to  the  Romans  100  years 
B.  C.  To  them  succeeded  the  Goths  who, 
under  their  mythical  leader,  Odin,  established 
their  rule  over  the  Scandinavian  lands.  Odin's 
son,  Skjold,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first 
ruler  of  Denmark;  but  the  little  that  is  known 
of  Danish  history  in  these  remote  ages  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  country  was  split  up  into 
many  small  territories,  whose  inhabitants  lived 
by  piracy.  The  people  were  divided  into 
"Bonder  "  and  "Traelle,"  freemen  and  bondmen. 
The  former  busied  themselves  with  war  and 
"  Vikingetog,"  or  piracy,  and  the  government 
of  the  land;  while  to  the  latter  were  left  the 
peaceful  pursuits  of  hunting,  fishing,  and  tilling 
the  soil.  The  mission  of  Ansgarius  the  Apostle 
of  the  North  to  South  Jutland,  in  826,  when  he 
baptized  Harald  Klack,  one  of  the  Smaa  Kongar, 
or  the  little  kings  of  Denmark,  was  the  means 
of  first  opening  the  Danish  territories  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  more  civilized  nations.  The 
country  was  soon  torn  by  civil  dissensions  be- 
tween the  adherents  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
faith.  Gorm  the  Old,  the  first  authentic  King 
of  Denmark,  the  bitter  enemy  of  Christianity, 
died  in  935,  after  having  subjugated  the  several 
territories  to  his  sway;  and,  although  his  death 
gave  fresh  vigor  to  the  diffusion  of  the  new 
faith,  paganism  kept  its  ground  for  200  years 
longer,  and  numbered  among  its  adherents  many 
of  those  half-mythical  heroes,  whose  deeds  are 
celebrated  in  the  Eddas  and  the  Kaempeviser  of 
the  Middle  Ages.     The  success  that  attended  the 

f>iratical  incursions  of  the  Northmen  drew  them 
rom  their  own  homes;  and,  while  Gorm's 
descendants,  Svend  and  Knud,  were  reigning  in 
England,  Denmark  was  left  a  prey  to  anarchy. 
On  the  extinction  of  Knud's  dynasty,  in  1042, 
his  sister's  son,  Svend  Estridsen,  ascended  the 
throne.  Internal  dissensions  and  external  wars 
weakened  the  country,  and  the  introduction  of  a 
feudal  system  raised  up  a  powerful  nobility  and 
ground  down  the  once  free  people  to  a  condition 
of  oppressed  serfage.  Valdemar  I.,  by  the  help 
of  his  great  minister.  Axel  Hvide,  known  in 
history  as  Bishop  Absalon,  subjugated  the 
Wends  of  Riigen  and  Pomerania,  and  forced 
them,  in  1168,  to  renounce  the  faith  of  their 
god,  Svantevit,  and  accept  Christianity.  During 
the  time  of  Knud  VI.,  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  reign  of  Valdemar  II. —  sons  of  Valdemar  I. 
—  the  conquest  of  Denmark  extended  so  far 
into  German  and  Wendic  lands  that  the  Baltic 
was  little  more  than  an  inland  Danish  sea.  The 
jealousy  of  the  German  princes  and  the  treachery 


of  his  vassals  combined  to  rob  Valdemar  II.  of 
these  briUiant  family  conquests.  His  death,  in 
1241,  was  followed  by  a  century  of  anarchy  and 
inglorious  decadence  of  the  authority  of  the 
crown,  during  which  the  kingdom  was  brought 
to  the  brink  of  annihilation  under  the  vicious 
rule  of  his  sons  and  grandsons.  Under  his 
great-grandson,  Valdemar  III.,  the  last  of  the 
Estridsen  line,  Denmark  made  a  quick  but 
transient  recovery  of  the  conquests  of  the  older 
Valdemars,  and  the  national  laws  were  collected 
into  a  well-digested,  comprehensive  code.  From 
his  death,  in  1375,  till  1412,  his  daughter,  the 
great  Margaret,  first  as  regent  for  her  only  and 
early  lost  son,  Olaf,  and  later  as  sole  monarch, 
ruled,  not  only  Denmark,  but,  in  course  of  time, 
also  Sweden  and  Norway,  with  such  consummate 
tact,  and  with  so  light  yet  firm  a  hand,  that,  for 
once  in  the  course  of  their  history,  the  three 
rival  Scandinavian  kingdoms  were  content  to 
act  in  harmony.  Margaret's  successor,  Erick, 
the  son  of  her  niece,  for  whose  sake  she  had 
blended  the  three  sovereignties  into  one,  undid 
her  glorious  work  with  fatal  rapidity,  and  after 
an  inglorious  war  of  twenty-five  years  with  his 
vassals,  the  Counts-dukes  of  Schleswick-Holstein, 
he  lost  the  allegiance  and  the  crowns  of  his  triple 
kingdom,  and  ended  his  disastrous  existence  in 
misery  and  obscurity.  After  the  short  reign  of 
his  nephew,  Christopher  of  Bavaria,  the  Danes, 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1448,  again  exer- 
cised their  long-dormant  right  of  election  to  the 
throne,  and  chose  for  their  king  Christian  of 
Oldenburg,  a  descendant  of  the  old  royal  family 
through  his  maternal  ancestress,  Rikissa,  the 
great-granddaughter  of  Valdemar  II.  Christian 
I.,  the  father  of  the  Oldenburg  line,  which  con- 
tinued unbroken  till  the  death  of  the  late  King 
of  Denmark,  Frederick  VII.,  in  1863,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Schleswick-Holstein  troubles, 
which,  after  maturing  for  centuries,  have  ended 
in  our  own  day  in  dismembering  the  Danish 
monarchy.  The  insane  tyranny  of  the  other- 
wise able  and  enlightened  Christian  II.  cost  him 
his  throne.  Christian  III.,  in  whose  reign  the 
Reformation  was  established,  united  the  Schles- 
wick-Holstein duchies  in  perpetuity  to  the 
Crown  in  1533.  Frederick  II.,  who  increased 
the  embarrassments  connected  with  the  crown 
appanages,  by  making  additional  partitions  in 
favor  of  his  brother  (the  founder  of  the  Holstein- 
Sonderburg  family),  was  succeeded  by  Christian 
IV.,  1588,  who  was  the  ablest  of  Danish  rulers. 
His  liberal  policy  was,  however,  cramped  by  the 
nobles,  by  whose  supineness  Denmark  lost  all 
the  possessions  she  had  hitherto  retained  in 
Sweden.  The  national  abasement  which  fol- 
lowed led,  in  1660,  under  Christian's  son,  Fred- 
erick III.,  to  the  rising  of  the  people  against  the 
nobles,  and  their  surrender  into  the  hands  of 
the  king  of  the  supreme  power.  For  the  next 
100  years  the  peasantry  were  kept  in  serfage 
and  the  middle  classes  depressed.  The  abolition 
of  serfage  was  begun  by  Christian  VII.  in  1767; 
it  was  extended  to  the  duchies  in  1804.  The 
reign  of  Christian's  son,  Frederick  VI.,  brought 
the  country  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Frederick  VII.  half  his  subjects  were  in 
open  rebellion  against  him.  The  liberal  consti- 
tution granted  by  the  king  fully  satisfied  his 


HISTORY 


41 


subjects  in  Denmark  proper,  but  the  disaffection 
still  smoldered  in  the  duchies.  On  the  death, 
in  1863,  of  Frederick  VII.,  Prince  Christian 
of  Schleswick-Holstein-Gliicksborg  ascended  the 
throne  under  the  title  of  Christian  IX.  In  1906, 
on  the  death  of  the  latter.  King  Frederick  VIII. 
succeeded  his  father. 

Deposed  Kings  of  England.  (I)  Be- 
fore the  Conquest:  Sigebert  of  Wessex,  A.  D.  755; 
Alcred  of  Northumbria,  774;  Ethelred  I.,  779; 
Eardwulf  and  Ethel wulf,  857;  Edwy,  957; 
Ethelred  II.,  1013;  Hardicanute,  son  of  Canute, 
1037.  (2)  Since  the  Conquest:  Edward  II.,  1327; 
Richard  II.,  1399;  Henry  VI.,  1460;  James  II., 
1688.  Euphemistically  called  his  "abdication," 
Charles  I.  was  not  only  deposed  but  tried  for 
treason  against  his  parliament  and  beheaded; 
Charles  II.  was  not  exactly  deposed,  but  he  was 
kept  from  the  crown  during  the  Commonwealth. 
The  most  absolute  and  tyrannical  of  British 
sovereigns  have  been  the  Welsh  and  Scotch 
dj'nasties,  but  Wales  and  Scotland  are  eminently 
democratic.  The  Stuarts  claimed  the  "right 
divine"  of  kings,  but  James  I.  and  Charles  II. 
did  no  honor  to  the  claim. 

Deposed  Kings  of  France.  Louis 
XVI.,  like  Charles  I.,  was  not  only  deposed  but 
executed,  1793;  Napoleon  I.  (emperor)  was  twice 
deposed,  1814,  1815;  Charles  X.  (1830).  like 
James  II.,  is  said  to  have  "abdicated";  Louis- 
Philippe  (1848),  also  said  to  have  "abdicated"; 
Napoleon  III.,  1872. 

Dictator  {dik-td'tUr).  A  magistrate  ap- 
pointed in  times  of  exigency  and  peril,  and  in- 
vested with  extraordinary  powers.  They  acted 
as  generals-in-chief  of  the  army,  and  could 
declare  war  or  make  peace  at  their  pleasure. 
They  were  originally  selected  from  the  patrician 
order,  the  first  having  been  Titus  Laertius,  B.  C. 
501.  In  B.  C.  356,  however,  the  office  of  dic- 
tator was  thrown  open  to  the  plebeians,  and 
Marcius  Rutilus,  one  of  that  class,  received  the 
appointment.  For  the  space  of  400  years  this 
office  was  regarded  with  veneration,  till  Sylla 
and  Csesar,  by  becoming  perpetual  dictator, 
converted  it  into  an  engine  of  tyranny,  and 
rendered  the  very  name  odious.  Hence,  it 
became  extinguished  by  decree  of  Mark  Antony, 
B.  C.  44. 

Directory,  The.  "Le  Directoire,"  the 
executive  of  the  Constitution  of  Year  III. 
(October  27,  1795  — November  9,  1799).  The 
legislature  consisted  of  two  houses,  the  Council 
of  Elders  and  the  Council  of  500.  The  number 
of  the  directors  was  five,  named  by  the  two 
councils,  and  they  were  elected  for  five  years, 
without  power  of  reelection.  They  appointed 
the  ministers  and  les  g^n^raux-en-chef.  Abol- 
ished by  Napoleon  in  November,  1799. 

The  military  glory  of  France  was  never  greater 
than  in  the  Directory.  It  had  for  its  command- 
ers, Bonaparte,  Kleber,  Desaix,  Massena,  and 
Moreau. 

District  of  Columbia.  The  region  of 
the  Potomac  River  was  originally  a  favorite 
camping  and  fishing  ground  of  several  Indian 
tribes  who  lived  in  its  vicinity,  and  was  called 
by  them  the  "River  ot  Swans."  As  early  as 
1660,  a  portion  of  the  tract  was  purchased  by 
an  Englishman  named  Pope,   who  named  the 


whole  tract  Rome,  a  stream  running  through  it 
the  Tiber,  and  the  principal  eminence,  on  which 
the  capitol  now  stands,  Capitoline  Hill,  and 
signed  all  his  letters  and  documients  "The  Pope 
of  Rome."  Some  thirty  years  prior  to  this,  the 
Potomac  had  bepn  explored  as  far  as  Little  Falls, 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
by  an  Indian  trader  named  William  Fleet,  with 
whom  Leonard  Calvert  treated,  1634.  The 
Colonial  Congress,  for  a  number  of  years  follow- 
ing its  organization,  had  no  permanent  seat. 
The  session  of  1783  was  begun  in  Philadelphia, 
but,  being  disturbed  by  a  riotous  demand  of  the 
soldiers  for  their  overdue  pay,  Congress  ad- 
journed first  to  Princeton,  thence  to  Annapolis, 
and,  subsequently,  to  New  York.  The  question 
of  a  permanent  seat  of  government,  to  be  en- 
tirely under  federal  authority,  which  had  been 
broached  several  times,  was  then  considered  to 
be  urgent;  and  when  the  proposed  Federal  Con- 
stitution was  being  drafted  (1787)  a  clause  was 
inserted  in  Art.  I,  Sec.  8,  establishing  the  power 
of  Congress  to  exercise  exclusive  legislation  over 
such  a  district  as  might  subsequently  be  ceded 
to  the  government  by  particular  States  for  a 
seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 
As  soon  as  the  intention  of  Congress  to  select  a 
site  was  known,  the  State  of  Maryland  ceded 
sixty  square  miles  on  one  side  of  the  river,  and 
the  State  of  Virginia  forty  square  miles  on  the 
other,  to  constitute  the  federal  district.  The 
site  of  the  national  capital  was  selected  in  1790, 
and  the  first  stone  to  mark  the  boundaries  of 
the  District  of  Columbia  was  set  at  Jones'  Point, 
below  Alexandria,  April  15,  1791.  The  com- 
missioners appointed  to  lay  out  the  district 
agreed  that  it  should  be  called  "The  Territory 
of  Columbia,"  and  the  federal  city  "The  City 
of  Washington."  The  city  was  laid  out  in 
accordance  with  the  plans  of  Major  L'Enfant, 
a  French  officer  and  engineer  who  had  been 
wounded  at  Savannah,  and  who  was  one  of 
Washington's  favorite  officers.  Public  buildings 
were  erected,  and  official  possession  was  taken, 
1800,  when  Congress  removed  from  Philadelphia 
and  began  holding  its  sessions  there.  Subse- 
quently, the  whole  territory  was  styled  the 
District  of  Columbia,  in  memory  of  Christopher 
Columbus.  In  1846,  the  area  of  100  square 
miles  was  reduced  to  sixty-four  square  miles  by 
retrocession  to  Virginia  of  the  section  previously 
included  within  the  bounds  of  that  State.  Pre- 
vious to  1871,  legislative  power  was  exercised 
directly  by  Congress.  An  act  adopted  that  year 
established  a  territorial  form  of  government, 
and  gave  the  citizens  representation  in  Congress 
for  the  first  time.  The  charters  of  Georgetown, 
incorporated  December  25,  1789,  and  Washing- 
ton, mcorporated  May  3,  1802,  were  repealed 
by  the  act,  though  both  were  allowed  to  bear 
the  name  of  "city,"  and  the  corporations  of  the 
cities  as  well  as  that  of  Washington  County, 
were  merged  into  the  new  government.  Alex- 
ander R.  Shepherd  became  president  of  the 
Citizens'  Reform  Association,  1870,  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Public  Works  under  the 
new  government,  1871,  and  governor  of  the 
district,  1873.  In  1874,  the  territorial  govern- 
ment was  abolished,  and  since  then  all  the  public 
affairs  of  the  district  have  been  managed  by  a 


42 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


board   of   three   commissioners   acting   directly 
under  the  legislation  of  Congress. 
Divine    Biglit    of    Kings,  The.     A 

Seventeenth  Centurv  dogma,  implying  the  be- 
lief that  kings  hold  their  office  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, and  are  the  earthly  representatives  of 
Deity.  So  they  are  in  a  theocracy  like  Judaea 
and  the  popedom.  The  dogma  was  sanctioned 
in  the  book  of  the  Canons  of  Convocation,  1604; 
but  in  the  Bill  of  Rights,  1689,  the  right  of  the 
people  to  depose  the  monarch,  to  change  the 
order  of  succession,  and  to  confer  the  throne 
on  whom  they  think  proper  is  distinctly  set 
forth. 

Dominican  Republic,  or  Santo 
Domingo.  A  state  formed  by  the  Spanish, 
or  eastern  section  of  Hayti.  Spain,  in  1697,  sur- 
rendered to  France,  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick, 
the  western  part  of  the  island,  retaining  the 
remainder  down  to  1795.  In  the  year  last  men- 
tioned, however,  the  Spanish  portion  became 
nominally  French.  In  1814,  the  West  having 
vindicated  its  independence,  France  formally 
relinquished,  in  favor  of  Spain,  all  claim  to  the 
East.  In  1822,  the  colony,  in  imitation  of  the 
continental  possessions,  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
the  mother-country,  to  link  itself,  more  or  less 
closely,  with  its  African  neighbors.  But  in  or 
about  1843,  it  assumed  a  separate  standing  as 
the  Dominican  Republic,  the  anarchy  of  which 
it  exchanged  in  1861  for  the  despotism  of  its 
former  masters.  In  1863,  it  again  revolted,  and 
Spain  gave  up  the  possession,  and  the  republic 
has  since  mamtained  a  troubled  existence.  In 
1907,  a  treaty  between  the  Dominican  Republic 
and  the  United  States  was  ratified,  under  which 
the  latter  will  collect  the  customs  revenues, 
assist  the  Dominican  Government  to  maintain 
peace,  and  act  as  intermediary  between  the 
republic  and  its  foreign  creditors. 

Dorr  Rebellion.  In  1840,  Connecticut 
and  Rhode  Island  were  the  only  States  that 
were  still  governed  by  their  colonial  charters. 
The  charter  of  the  latter  State,  imposing,  as  it 
did,  a  property  qualification  so  high  as  to  dis- 
franchise two-thirds  of  the  citizens,  was  ex- 
tremely unpopular.  A  proposition  of  Thomas 
W.  Dorr,  of  Providence,  to  extend  the  franchise 
was  voted  down.  Dorr  then  took  to  agkation, 
and  finally  a  convention  prepared  a  constitution 
and  submitted  it  to  a  popular  vote.  Its  sup- 
porters claimed  a  majority  for  it,  which  its  op- 
ponents, known  as  the  law  and  order  party, 
denied.  Nevertheless,  in  1842,  the  constitution 
was  proclaimed  to  be  in  force.  An  election  was 
held  under  it,  only  the  suffrage  party  partici- 
pating. Dorr  was  elected  governor.  The  suf- 
frage legislature  assembled  at  Providence  with 
Thomas  W.  Dorr  as  governor;  the  charter 
legislature  at  Newport,  with  Samuel  W.  King 
as  governor.  After  transacting  some  business 
the  suffrage  legislature  adjourned.  The  charter 
legislature  authorized  the  governor  to  take 
energetic  steps,  and  an  appeal  for  aid  was  made 
to  the  National  Government.  The  suffragists 
attempted  armed  resistance,  but  were  dispersed. 
Dorr  fled,  but  soon  returned  and  gave  himself  up. 
He  was  convicted  of  high  treason  in  1844,  and 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  was  par- 
doned in  1847,  and  in  1852  was  restored  to  his 


civil  rights.  The  charter  party  soon  after  the 
rebellion  proposed  a  new  constitution,  largely 
extending  the  suffrage,  which  was  carried  and 
went  into  effect  in  May,  1843. 

Druids.  The  priests  of  the  Celts  of  Gaul 
and  Britain.  According  to  Julius  Caesar,  they 
possessed  the  greatest  authority  among  the  Cel- 
tic nations.  They  had  some  knowledge  of 
geometry,  natural  philosophy,  etc.,  superin- 
tended the  affairs  of  religion  and  morality,  and 
performed  the  office  of  judges.  They  had  a 
common  superior,  who  was  elected  by  a  majority 
of  votes  from  their  own  number,  and  who  en- 
joyed his  dignity  for  life.  They  took  unusual 
care  to  fence  themselves  round  with  mysteries, 
and  it  is  probable  that  they  cherished  doctrines 
unknown  to  the  common  people;  but  that  they 
had  a  great  secret  philosophy  which  was  handed 
down  by  oral  tradition  is  very  unlikely.  Of 
their  religious  doctrines  little  is  known.  Human 
sacrifice  was  one  of  their  characteristic  rites,  the 
victims  being  usually  prisoners  of  war. 

Eastern  Empire.  Commenced  under 
Valens,  A.  D.  364,  and  ended  in  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Constantine  XIII.,  the  last  Christian 
emperor,  in  1453.  Mahomet  II.  resolved  to 
dethrone  him  and  possess  himself  of  Constan- 
tinople; he  laid  siege  to  that  city  both  by  sea 
and  land,  and  took  it  by  assault  after  it  had 
held  out  fifty-eight  days.  The  unfortunate 
emperor,  seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches, 
threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and 
was  cut  to  pieces;  the  children  of  the  imperial 
house  were  massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the 
women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the  con- 
queror; and  thus  terminated  the  dynasty  of 
the  Constantines,  and  commenced  the  present 
empire  of  Turkey,  May  29,  1453. 

Ecuador.  After  the  conquest  of  the  Inca 
dominions,  the  Kingdom  of  Quito  was  made  a 
presidency  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru,  and  re- 
mained under  Spanish  rule  from  1533  to  1822. 
In  1809,  it  revolted,  and  after  many  fruitless 
struggles  achieved  its  independence  by  the  battle 
of  Pichincha,  May  22,  1822.  The  territory  was 
incorporated  into  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  on 
the  clisruption  of  which,  in  1831,  it  became  an 
independent  republic  under  the  name  of  Ecuador. 
But  a  series  of  civil  wars  ensued,  lasting  almost 
without  intermission  for  more  than  twenty  years. 
From  1852  to  1858,  desultory  hostilities  existed 
with  Peru.  War  was  declared  against  New 
Granada,  November  20,  1863,  and  the  Ecua- 
dorian army  was  routed.  In  August,  1868,  a 
very  destructive  earthquake  occurred.  In  1869, 
Garcia  Moreno,  the  head  of  the  clerical  party, 
overthrew  the  government.  He  was  assassi- 
nated in  1875,  and  Dr.  Antonio  Borrero,  the 
candidate  of  the  non-official  party,  was  elected 
president.  A  constitution  was  adopted  and  a 
president  elected,  and  until  1884  the  republic 
enjoyed  a  reasonably  peaceable  government.  In 
1884,  another  constitution  was  formed,  which, 
with  modifications,  in  1887  and  1897,  has  since 
been  in  force. 

Edict  of  Nantes  {n&nts,  Fr.  nSnt).  This 
was  the  celebrated  edict  by  which  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  toleration  to  his  Protestant  sub- 
jects, in  1598.  Itwasrevokedby LouisXIV.,Octo- 
ber  24,  1685.     This  bad  and  unjust  policy  lost  to 


HISTORY 


43 


France  800,000  Protestants,  and  gave  to  England 
(part  of  these)  50,000  industrious  artisans.  Some 
thousands,  who  brought  with  them  the  art  of 
manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalfields,  where 
their  descendants  yet  remain:^  others  planted 
"themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's,  and  pursued 
the  art  of  making  crystal  glasses,  and  various 
fine  works  in  which  they  excelled;  among  these, 
jewelry,  then  little  understood  in  England. 
Egypt.     The    Egyptians    are    the    earliest 

Eeople  known  to  us  as  a  nation.  When  Abra- 
am  entered  the  Delta  from  Canaan,  they  had 
been  long  enjoying  the  advantages  of  a  settled 
government.  They  had  built  cities,  invented 
hieroglyphic    signs,    and    improved    them    into 

B liable  writing,  and  almost  into  an  alphabet, 
ley  had  invented  records,  and  wrote  their 
kings'  names  and  actions  on  the  massive  temples 
which  they  raised.  The  arrangement  of  Egyp- 
tian chronology  is  still  a  much-disputed  point 
amongst  scholars.  A  list  of  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
arranged  in  thirty  dynasties,  was  given  by  the 
Priest  Manetho  (about  250  B.  C),  and  this 
division  is  still  used.  His  list,  however,  is  in  a 
very  corrupt  condition  and  his  method  is  not 
strictly  chronological.  Hence,  in  the  various 
systems  of  chronology  adopted  by  Egyptolo- 
gists the  dates  assigned  to  Mena  (or  Menes) 
vary  from,  5702  to  2440  B.  C.  According  to 
tradition,  Mena  formed  the  old  Empire  of  Egypt 
and  founded  its  capital  Memphis.  The  Fourth 
Dynasty  is  distinguished  as  the  "Pyramid  Dy- 
nasty." Three  of  its  kings,  Khufu,  Khafra,  and 
Menkaura  (according  to  Herodotus,  Cheops, 
Chephren,  and  Mykerinos),  built  the  largest 
pyramids.  The  date  assigned  to  these  kings  in 
the  chronology  of  Lepsius  is  2800-2700.  About 
2400  the  government  of  the  empire  seems  to 
have  been  transferred  from  Memphis  to  Thebes, 
and  with  the  beginning  of  Dynasty  Twelve,  the 
Theban  line  was  firmly  established.  The  chief 
princes  of  this  dynasty  are  Amenemhat  I. 
(2380),  who  seems  to  have  extended  the  power 
of  Egypt  over  a  part  of  Nubia;  Usurtasan  I., 
who  made  further  conquests  in  this  direction; 
and  Amenemhat  III.  (2179),  who  constructed 
Lake  Meri  (Moeris),  a  large  reservoir  for  regu- 
lating the  water  supply  of  the  Nile.  About 
2100,  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Hyksos,  or 
shepherd  kings,  who  invaded  Egypt  from  the 
east  and  established  their  capital  at  Tanis 
(Zoan).  The  Theban  princes  seem,  however,  to 
have  preserved  a  state  of  semi-independence, 
and  at  last  a  revolt  commenced  which  ended 
by  the  shepherd  kings  being  completely  driven 
out  of  Egypt  by  King  Aahmes  (Amasis)  of 
Thebes  (about  1600),  the  first  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty.  With  Aahmes  and  the  expulsion  of 
the  shepherd  kings  began  the  reigns  of  those 
great  Theban  kings  who  built  the  magnificent 
temples  and  palaces  at  Thebes.  The  kings  of 
the  other  parts  of  Egypt  sank  to  the  rank  of 
sovereign  priests.  Thutmes  (or  Thothmosis  II.) 
added  Memphis  to  his  dominions  by  his  marriage 
with  Queen  Nitocris.  Under  Thutmes  III.  and 
his  successors  there  were  successful  expeditions 
against  the  Syrians  and  the  Ethiopians.  Amen- 
hotep  III.  set  up  his  two  gigantic  statues  in  the 
plain  of  Thebes,  one  of  which  the  Greeks  called 
the  musical  statue  of  Memnon.     The  Rames- 


sides  form  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  They  com- 
mence with  Ramses  I.,  who  seems  to  have  been 
of  Lower  Egyptian  extraction.  His  grandson, 
the  great  Ramses  II.,  or  Sesostris,  was  successful 
against  the  neighboring  Arabs,  and  covered 
Egypt  with  magnificent  buildings.  Ramses  II. 
was  probably  the  Pharaoh  who  oppressed  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  exodus  may  have  occurred 
under  his  successor,  Meneptah,  or  Merenptah. 
Under  the  later  Ramessides  the  Egyptian  Em- 
pire began  to  decay.  A  new  dynasty,  Twenty- 
first,  came  to  the  throne  with  King  Hirhor.  The 
seat  of  their  power  was  Tanis  in  the  Delta. 
During  this  period  a  great  number  of  foreigners, 
Libyans  as  well  as  Asiatics,  established  them- 
selves in  Egypt.  About  961,  Sheshenk  I.,  the 
Shishak  of  the  Bible,  of  a  Shemite  family  from 
Bubastis,  established  a  new  dynasty  (Twenty- 
second).  He  attempted  to  restore  Egyptian 
rule  in  the  East,  and  conquered  and  plundered 
Jerusalem.  After  his  death,  Egypt  was  torn  by 
civil  wars,  and  eventually  the  Ethiopians  under 
Shabak  (Sabako)  conquered  it  (Twenty-fifth 
Dynasty).  For  a  time  it  was  subject  alternately 
to  Ethiopian  and  Assyrian  princes,  but  in  the 
Seventh  Century  the  kings  of  Sais  once  more 
restored  its  independence  and  prosperity  to 
Egypt.  Psamethik  I.  (Psammetichus)  warred 
successfully  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  King  Nekho 
(610-594)  defeated  Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  but 
his  further  progress  was  checked  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. His  sailors  circumnavigated  Africa. 
Uahbra  (the  Greek  Apries,  the  Hophrah  of  the 
Bible) ;  and  Aahmes  II.  (Greek  Amasis)  followed. 
About  523,  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  overran 
Egypt  and  made  it  a  Persian  province.  During 
the  reign  of  Cambyses  the  Egyptians  suffered 
much  oppression.  After  the  Persian  defeat  at 
Marathon,  the  Egyptians  rose  and  recovered 
their  independence  for  a  short  time,  but  were 
again  subdued,  and,  in  spite  of  two  other  revolts, 
Egypt  remained  a  Persian  province  till  Persia 
itself  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.  C.  332.  Egypt  now  became  a  Greek  state, 
many  Greeks  having  been  already  settled  in  the 
country,  and  the '  Egyptians  were  treated  as  an 
inferior  race.  Alexandria  was  founded  as  the 
new  Greek  capital.  On  Alexander's  death,  his 
general,  Ptolemy,  took  possession  of  the  throne 
and  became  the  first  of  a  Greek  Dynasty  that 
for  three  hundred  years  made  Egypt  one  of  the 
chief  kingdoms  of  the  world.  The  Ptolemies 
were  magnificent  patrons  of  letters  and  arts. 
Theocritus,  Callimachus,  Euclid  the  geometri- 
cian, the  astronomers  Eratosthenes  and  Aratus, 
etc.,  flourished  under  their  rule.  But  while  the 
Alexandrian  Greeks  managed  to  keep  down  the 
native  Egyptians,  they  were  themselves  sinking 
under  the  Romans.  Ptolemy  Auletes  went  to 
Rome  to  ask  help  against  his  subjects,  and  the 
famous  Cleopatra  maintained  her  power  only 
through  her  personal  influence  with  Julius  Caesar 
and  Mark  Antony.  On  the  defeat  of  Mark 
Antony  by  Augustus,  B.  C.  30,  Egypt  became 
a  province  of  Rome.  It  was  still  a  Greek  state, 
and  Alexandria  was  the  cliief  seat  of  Greek 
learning  and  science.  On  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity the  old  Egyptian  doctrines  lost  their 
sway.  Now  arose  in  Alexandria  the  Christian 
catechetical  school,  which  produced  Clemens  and 


44 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Origen.  The  sects  of  Gnostics  united  astrology  ■ 
and  magic  with  religion.  The  school  of  Alex- 
andrian Platonics  produced  Plotinus  and  Proclus. 
Monasteries  were  built  all  over  Egypt ;  Christian 
monks  took  the  place  of  the  pagan  hermits,  and 
the  Bible  was  translated  into  Coptic. 

On  the  division  of  the  great  Roman  Empire 
(A.  D.  364),  in  the  time  of  Theodosius,  into  the 
Western  and  Eastern  Empires,  Egypt  became  a 
province  of  the  latter,  and  sank  deeper  and 
deeper  in  barbarism  and  weakness.  It  was  con- 
quered in  640  A.  D.  by  the  Saracens  under  Caliph 
Omar.  As  a  province  of  the  caliphs  it  was  under 
the  government  of  the  celebrated  Abbasides  — 
Harun-al-Rashid  and  Al-Mamun  —  and  that  of 
the  heroic  Sultan  Saladin.  The  last  dynasty 
was,  however,  overthrown  by  the  Mamelukes 
(1250);  and  the  Mamelukes  in  their  turn  were 
conquered  by  the  Turks  (1516-17).  The  Mame- 
lukes made  repeated  attempts  to  cast  off  the 
Turkish  yoke,  and  had  virtually  done  so  by  the 
end  of  last  century,  when  the  French  conquered 
Egypt  and  held  it  till  1801,  when  they  were 
driven  out  by  the  British  under  Abercromby 
and  Hutchinson. 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  a  Turkish 
force  under  Mehemet  Ali  Bey  took  possession  of 
the  country.  Mehemet  Ali  was  made  pasha, 
and  being  a  man  of  great  ability,  administered 
the  country  vigorously  and  greatly  extended 
the  Egyptian  territories.  At  length  he  broke 
with  the  Porte,  and  after  gaining  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Ottoman  troops  in  Syria,  in  1839, 
he  was  acknowledged  by  the  sultan  as  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  with  the  right  of  succession  in  his 
family.  Mehemet  Ali  died  in  1849,  having  sur- 
vived his  son  Ibrahim,  who  died  in  1848.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Abbas,  who, 
dying  in  1854,  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle.  Said, 
son  of  Mehemet.  Under  his  rule  railways  were 
opened,  and  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal  com- 
menced. After  Said's  death,  Ismail  Pasha,  a 
grandson  of  Mehemet  Ali,  obtained  the  govern- 
ment in  1863.  His  administration  was  vigorous 
but  exceedingly  extravagant,  and  brought  the 
finances  of  the  country  into  disorder.  In  1866, 
he  obtained  a  firman  from  the  sultan,  granting 
him  the  title  of  khedive.  In  1879  he  was  forced 
to  abdicate  under  pressure  of  the  British  and 
French  governments,  and  was  replaced  by  his 
son,  Tewfik.  In  1882  the  "national  party" 
under  Arabi  Pasha  revolted  and  forced  the 
khedive  to  fiee.  On  July  11th,  a  British  fleet 
bombarded  Alexandria  and  restored  the  khedive, 
and  at  Tel-el-Kebir  Arabi's  forces  were  totally 
crushed  on  September  13th.  A  rebellion  in  the 
Soudan,  under  the  leadership  of  Mohammed 
Ahmed,  the  so-called  mahdi,  now  gave  the  gov- 
ernment trouble.  In  1883  the  mahdi's  forces 
annihilated  an  Egyptian  force  under  Hicks 
Pasha  in  Kordofan.  British  troops  were  now 
despatched  to  Suakin  and  inflicted  two  severe 
defeats  on  the  mahdi's  followers  there.  But 
the  British  cabinet  had  resolved  to  abandon  the 
Soudan;  and  General  Gordon,  already  famous 
for  his  work  in  this  district,  was  sent  to  effect 
the  safe  withdrawal  of  the  garrisons  (1884).  By 
this  time,  however,  the  mahdi's  forces  were  strong 
enough  to  shut  the  general  up  in  Khartoum. 
For  nearly  a  year  he  held  the  town,  but  perished 


(January,  1885)  before  the  relief  expedition 
under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  could  reach  him. 
Since  then  the  Anglo-Egyptian  troops  have 
reoccupied  it.  Prince  Abbas  succeeded  as  khe- 
dive in  1892  —  the  British  still  retaining  control. 
The  predominant  position  of  Great  Britain  in 
Egypt  was  formally  recognized  by  France  under 
the  Anglo-French  Agreement  of  1904. 

El  Caney  (el-cd'-na),  a  fortified  town  of 
Cuba;  on  the  main  road,  four  miles  northeast 
of  Santiago.  During  the  Spanish-American 
war  it  was  the  scene  of  a  decided  American  vic- 
tory. At  6  A.  M.  on  July  1,  1898,  Captain  Cap- 
ron's  battery  of  four  guns  opened  fire  on  El 
Caney  from  an  elevation  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
distant.  The  guns  were  not  heavy  enough  to 
destroy  the  enemy's  works,  and  at  eight  o'clock 
General  Lawton's  infantry  of  Chaffee's  brigade, 
consisting  of  the  7th,  12th,  and  17th  United 
States  Infantry,  assaulted  and  captured  the  hill 
with  many  prisoners.  In  1901  the  United  States 
Government  purchased  the  battlefield  and  ap- 
proaches for  a  public  reservation. 

Electors,  The,  or  Kurflirsts,  of 
Germany,  German  princes  who  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  disposing  of  the  imperial  crown, 
ranked  next  the  emperor,  and  were  originally 
six  in  number,  but  grew  to  eight,  and  finally 
nine ;  three  were  ecclesiastical  —  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Mayence,  Cologne,  and  Treves,  and 
three  secular  —  the  Electors  of  Saxony,  the 
Palatinate,  and  Bohemia,  to  which  were  added 
at  successive  periods  the  Electors  of  Branden- 
burg, of  Bavaria,  and  Hanover. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  a 
proclamation  providing  for  the  emancipation 
of  the  slaves  in  certain  parts  of  the  Confederate 
States,  issued  as  a  war  measure  by  President 
Lincoln,  January  1,  1863.  The  number  of  slaves 
emancipated  by  this  proclamation  was,  taking 
the  census  of  1860  as  a  basis,  as  follows: 

Alabama, 435,080 

Arkansas, 111,115 

Florida, 61,745 

Georgia, 462,198 

Louisiana 247,715 

Mississippi, 436,631 

North  Carolina, 331,059 

South  Carolina, 402,046 

Texas, 182,566 

Virginia, ' 450,000 

Total,      3,120,515 

The  number  of  slaves  not  affected  by  its  pro- 
visions was  about  832,000.  The  full  text  of  the 
proclamation  is  as  follows: 

Whereas,  on  the  twenty-second  day  of  September, 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-two,  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
containing,  among  other  things,  the  following,  to-wit: 

That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all 
persons  held  as  slaves  within  any  State,  or  designated 
part  of  State,  the  people  whereof  shall  be  in  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforth  and 
forever  free,  and  the  Executive  Government  of  the 
United  States  including  the  military  and  naval  oflScers 
thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain  the  ireedom  of  such 
persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  per- 
sons, or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for 
their  actual  freedom. 

That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January 
aforesaid,  by  proclamation,  designate  the  States  and 
parts  of  States,  if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof  shall 


HISTORY 


45 


be  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  and  the  fact 
that  any  State,  or  the  people  thereof,  shall,  on  that  day, 
be,  in  good  faith,  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  by  members  chosen  thereto  at  elections 
wherein  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters  of  such  State 
shall  laave  participated,  shall,  in  the  absence  of  strong 
countervailing  testimony  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence 
that  such  State  and  the  people  thereof  are  not  then  in 
rebellion  against  the  United  States. 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the 
United  States,  by  virtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested  as 
Commander-in-chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United 
States  in  time  of  actual  armed  rebellion  against  the 
authority  and  Government  of  the  United  States,  and  as 
a  fit  and  necessary  war  measure  for  suppressing  said 
rebellion,  do  on  this  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three, 
and  in  accordance  with  my  purpose  so  to  do,  publicly 
proclaim  for  the  full  period  of  one  hundred  days  from  the 
day  of  the  first  above-mentioned  order,  and  designate, 
as  the  States  and  parts  of  States  wherein  the  people 
thereof  respectively  are  this  day  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  the  following,  to-wit:  Arkansas,  Texas, 
Louisiana  (except  the  parishes  of  St.  Barnard,  Plaque- 
mines, Jefferson,  St.  John,  St.  Charles,  St.  James,  Ascen- 
sion, Assumption,  Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche,  St.  Mary, 
St.  Martin,  and  Orleans,  including  the  City  of  New 
Orleans),  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia  (except  the  forty- 
eight  counties  designated  as  West  Virginia,  and  also  the 
counties  of  Berkeley,  Accomac,  Northampton,  Elizabeth 
City,  York,  Princess  Anne,  and  Norfolk,  including  the 
cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth),  and  which  excepted 
parts  are,  for  the  present,  left  precisely  as  if  this  procla- 
mation were  not  issued. 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose  afore- 
said, I  do  order  and  declare  that  all  persons  held  as 
slaves  within  said  designated  States  and  parts  of  States 
are,  and  henceforth  shall  be,  free;  and  that  the  Execu- 
tive Government  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
military  and  naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recognize 
and  maintain  the  freedom  of  said  persons. 

And  I  hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  so  declared  to  be 
free  to  abstain  from  all  violence,  unless  in  necessary  self- 
defense,  and  I  recommend  to  them  that,  in  all  cases, 
when  allowed,  they  labor  faithfully  for  reasonable  wages. 

And  I  further  declare  and  make  known,  that  such  per- 
sons, of  suitable  condition,  will  be  received  into  the 
armed  service  of  the  United  States,  to  garrison  forts, 
positions,  stations,  and  other  places,  and  to  man  vessels 
of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of 
justice,  warranted  by  the  Constitution,  upon  military 
necessity,  I  invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  mankind 
and  the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty  God. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  name, 
and  caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

[L.  S.l     Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,   this  first 
day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  and  of  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  the  eighty-seventh. 
By  the  President  Abraham  Lincoln. 

William  H.  Seward, 

Secretary  of  Stale. 

Eingland.  The  history  of  England  proper 
begins  when  it  ceased  to  be  a  Roman  possession. 
On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  forces,  about 
the  beginning  'of  the  Fifth  Century  A.  D.,  the 
South  Britons,  or  inhabitants  of  what  is  now 
called  England,  were  no  longer  able  to  withstand 
the  attacks  of  their  ferocious  northern  neighbors, 
the  Scots  and  Picts.  They  applied  for  assistance 
to  Aetius,  but  the  Roman  general  was  too  much 
occupied  in  the  struggle  with  Attila  to  attend  to 
their  petition.  In  their  distress  they  appear  to 
have  sought  the  aid  of  the  Saxons;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  Anglo-Saxon  narratives  three  ships, 
containing  1,600  men,  were  dispatched  to  their 
help  under  the  command  of  the  brothers  Heng- 
est  and  Horsa.  Vortigern,  a  duke  or  prince  of 
the  Britons,  assigned  them  the  isle  of  Thanet 
for  habitation,  and,  marching  against  the  north- 
ern foe,  they  obtained  a  complete  victory.  The 
date  assigned  to  these  events  by  the  later  Anglo- 
Saxon  chronicles  is  449  A.  D.,  the  narratives 
asserting  further  that  the  Saxons,  finding  the 


land  desirable,  turned  their  arms  against  the 
Britons,  and,  reinforced  by  new  bands,  conquered 
first  Kent  and  ultimately  the  larger  part  of  the 
island.  Whatever  the  credibility  of  the  story 
of  Vortigern,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  middle  of 
the  Fifth  Century  the  occasional  Teutonic  incur- 
sions gave  place  to  persistent  invasion  with  a 
view  to  settlement.  These  Teutonic  invaders 
were  Low  German  tribes  from  the  country  about 
the  mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser,  the  three 
most  prominent  being  the  Angles,  the  Saxons, 
and  the  Jutes.  Of  these,  the  Jutes  were  the  first 
to  form  a  settlement,  taking  possession  of  part  of 
Kent,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  etc. ;  but  the  larger  con- 
quests of  the  Saxons  in  the  south  and  the  Angles 
in  the  north  gave  to  these  tribes  the  leading  place 
in  the  kingdom.  The  struggle  continued  150 
years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  the  whole 
southern  part  of  Britain,  with  the  exception  of 
Strathclyde,  Wales,  and  West  Wales  (Cornwall), 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Teutonic  tribes.  This 
conquered  territory  was  divided  among  a  number 
of  small  states  or  petty  chieftaincies,  seven  of 
the  most  conspicuous  of  which  are  often  spoken 
oi  as  the  Heptarchy.  These  were:  (1)  The  King- 
dom of  Kent;  founded  by  Hengest  in  455; 
ended  in  823.  (2)  Kingdom  of  South  Saxons, 
containing  Sussex  and  Surrey;  founded  by  Ella 
in  477;  ended  in  689.  (3)  Kingdom  of  East 
Angles,  containing  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge, 
Ely  (Isle  of);  founded  by  Uffa  in  571  or  575; 
ended  in  792.  (4)  Kingdom  of  West  Saxons, 
containing  Devon,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Wilts, 
Hants,  Berks,  and  part  of  Cornwall ;  founded  by 
Cedric  519;  swallowed  up  the  rest  in  827.  (5) 
Kingdom  of  Northumbria,  containing  York, 
Durham,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Northum- 
berland, and  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  to  the 
Firth  of  Forth ;  founded  by  Ida  547 ;  absorbed 
by  Wessex  in  827.  (6)  Kingdom  of  East  Saxons, 
containing  Essex,  Middlesex,  Hertford  (part); 
founded  by  Erchew  in  527 ;  ended  in  823.  (7) 
Kingdom  of  Mercia,  containing  Gloucester, 
Hereford,  Worcester,  Warwick,  Leicester,  Rut- 
land, Northampton,  Lincoln,  Huntingdon,  Bed- 
ford, Buckingham,  Oxford,  Stafford,  Derby, 
Salop,  Nottingham,  Chester,  Hertford  (part); 
founded  by  Cridda  about  584 ;  absorbed  by  Wes- 
sex in  827.  Each  state  was,  in  its  turn,  annexed 
to  more  powerful  neighbors;  and  at  length,  in 
827,  Egbert,  by  his  valor  and  superior  capacity, 
united  in  his  own  person  the  sovereignty  of  what 
had  formerly  been  seven  kingdoms,  and  the  whole 
came  to  be  called  England,  that  is  Angle-land. 

While  this  work  of  conquest  and  of  intertribal 
strife  had  been  in  progress  towards  the  establish- 
ment of  a  united  kingdom,  certain  important 
changes  had  occurred.  The  conquest  had  been 
the  slow  expulsion  of  a  Christian  race  by  a  purely 
heathen  race,  and  the  country  had  returned  to 
something  of  its  old  isolation  with  regard  to  the 
rest  of  Europe.  But  before  the  close  of  the  Sixth 
Century  Christianity  had  secured  a  footing  in  the 
southeast  of  the  island.  Ethelbert,  king  of 
Kent  and  suzerain  over  the  kingdoms  south  of 
the  Humber,  married  a  Christian  wife.  Bertha, 
daughter  of  Charibert  of  Soissons,  and  this  event 
indirectly  led  to  the  coming  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  conversion  of  Kent,  Essex,  and  East  Anglia 
was  followed  by  that  of  Northumberland  and 


46 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


then  by  that  of  Mercia,  of  Wessex,  of  Sussex, 
and  lastly  of  Wight,  the  contest  between  the 
two  religions  being  at  its  height  in  the  Seventh 
Century.  The  legal  and  political  changes  imme- 
diately consequent  upon  the  adoption  of  Christi- 
anity were  not  great,  but  there  resulted  a  more 
intimate  relation  with  Europe  and  the  older 
civilizations,  the  introduction  of. new  learning 
and  culture,  the  formation  of  a  written  liter- 
ature, and  the  fusion  of  the  tribes  and  petty 
kingdoms  into  a  closer  and  more  lasting  unity 
than  that  which  could  have  been  otherwise 
secured. 

The  kingdom,  however,  was  still  kept  in  a 
state  of  disturbance  by  the  attacks  of  the  Danes, 
who  had  made  repeated  incursions  during  the 
whole  of  the  Saxon  period,  and  about  half  a 
century  after  the  unification  of  the  kingdom 
became  for  the  moment  masters  of  nearly  the 
whole  of  England.  But  the  genius  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  who  had  ascended  tlie  throne  in  871, 
speedily  reversed  matters  by  the  defeat  of  the 
Danes  at  Ethandune  (878).  Guthrum,  their 
king,  embraced  Christianity,  became  the  vassal 
of  the  Saxon  king,  and  retired  to  a  strip  of 
land  on  the  east  coast  including  Northum- 
bria  and  called  the  Danelagh.  The  two  im- 
mediate successors  of  Alfred,  Edward  (901- 
925) and  Athelstan  (925-940),  the  son  and  grand- 
son of  Alfred,  both  vigorous  and  able  rulers,  had 
each  in  turn  to  direct  his  arms  against  these  set- 
tlers of  the  Danelagh.  The  reigns  of  the  next 
five  kings,  Edmund,  Edred,  Edwy,  Edgar,  and 
Edward  the  Martyr,  are  chiefly  remarkable  on 
account  of  the  conspicuous  place  occupied  in 
them  by  Dunstan,  who  was  counsellor  to  Ed- 
mund, minister  of  Edred,  treasurer  under  Edwy, 
and  supreme  during  the  reigns  of  Edgar  and  his 
successor.  It  was  possibly  due  to  his  policy 
that  from  the  time  of  Athelstan  till  after  the 
death  of  Edward  the  Martyr  (978  or  979)  the 
country  had  comparative  rest  from  the  Danes. 
During  the  Tenth  Century  many  changes  had 
taken  place  in  the  Teutonic  constitution.  Feu- 
dalism was  already  taking  root;  the  king's 
authority  had  increased ;  the  folkland  was  being 
taken  over  as  the  king's  personal  property;  the 
nobles  by  birth,  or  ealdormen,  were  becoming  of 
less  importance  in  administration  than  the  nobil- 
ity of  thegns,  the  officers  of  the  king's  court. 
Ethelred  (978-1016),  who  succeeded  Edward, 
was  a  minor,  the  government  was  feebly  con- 
ducted, and  no  united  action  being  taken  against 
the  Danes,  their  incursions  became  more  frequent 
and  destructive.  Animosities  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Danes  who  had  settled  among  them 
became  daily  more  violent,  and  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  the  latter  took  place  in  1002.  The  fol- 
owing  year  Sweyn  invaded  the  kingdom  with  a 

f)owerful  army  and  assumed  the  crown  of  Eng- 
and.  Ethelred  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  Normandy;  and  though  he  afterwards  re- 
turned, he  found  in  Canute  an  adversary  no  less 
formidable  than  Sweyn.  Ethelred  left  his  king- 
dom in  1016  to  his  son  Edmund,  who  displayed 
great  valor,  but  was  compelled  to  divide  his 
kingdom  with  Canute;  and  when  he  was  assas- 
sinated in  1017,  the  Danes  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  whole. 

Canute  (Knut),  who  espoused  the  widow  of 


Ethelred,  that  he  might  reconcile  his  new  sub- 
jects, obtained  the  name  of  Great,  not  only  on 
account  of  his  personal  qualities,  but  from  the 
extent  of  his  dominions,  being  master  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway  as  well  as  England.  In  1035 
he  died,  and  in  England  was  followed  by  two 
other  Danish  kings,  Harold  and  Hardicanute, 
whose  joint  reigns  lasted  till  1042,  after  which 
the  English  line  was  again  restored  in  the  person 
of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Edward  was  a  weak 
prince,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  had 
far  less  real  power  than  his  brother-in-law  Har- 
old, son  of  the  great  earl  Godwin.  On  Edward's 
death  in  1066  Harold  accordingly  obtained  the 
crown.  He  found,  however,  a  formidable  oppo- 
nent in  the  second-cousin  of  Edward,  William  of 
Normandy,  who  instigated  the  Danes  to  invade 
the  northern  counties,  while  he,  with  60,000  men, 
landed  in  the  south.  Harold  vanquished  the 
Danes,  and  hastening  southward  met  the  Nor- 
mans near  Hastings,  at  Senlac,  afterwards  called 
Battle.  Harold  and  his  two  brothers  fell  (Octo- 
ber 14, 1066),  and  William  (1066-87)  immediately 
claimed  the  government  as  lawful  King  of 
England,  being  subsequently  known  as  William 
I.,  the  Conqueror.  For  some  time  he  conducted 
the  government  with  great  moderation;  but 
being  obliged  to  reward  those  who  had  assisted 
him,  he  bestowed  the  chief  offices  of  the  govern- 
ment upon  Normans,  and  divided  among  them 
a  great  part  of  the  country.  The  revolts  of  the 
native  English  which  followed  were  quickly 
crushed,  continental  feudalism  in  a  modified 
form  was  established,  and  the  English  Church 
reorganized  under  Lanfranc  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury. 

At  his  death,  in  1087,  William  II.,  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  Rufus,  the  conqueror's 
second  son,  obtained  the  crown,  Robert,  the 
eldest  son,  receiving  the  duchy  of  Normandy. 
In  1 100,  when  William  II.  was  accidently  killed 
in  the  New  Forest,  Robert  was  again  cheated 
of  his  throne  by  his  younger  brother  Henry 
(Henry  I.),  who  in  1106  even  wrested  from  him 
the  duchy  of  Normandy.  Henry's  power  being 
secured,  he  entered  into  a  dispute  with  Anselm 
the  primate,  and  with  the  pope,  concerning  the 
right  of  granting  investure  to  the  clergy.  He 
supported  his  quarrel  with  firmness,  and  brought 
it  to  a  not  unfavorable  issue.  His  reign  was 
also  marked  by  the  Suppression  of  the  greater 
Norman  nobles  in  England,  whose  power  (like 
that  of  many  continental  feudatories)  threatened 
to  overshadow  that  of  the  king,  and  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  class  of  lesser  nobles.  In  1135  he 
died  in  Normandy,  leaving  behind  him  only  a 
daughter,  Matilda. 

By  the  wall  of  Henry  I.  his  daughter  Maud  or 
Matilda,  wife  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Count  of 
Anjou,  and  frequently  styled  the  Empress 
Matilda,  because  she  had  first  been  married  to 
Henry  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  declared 
his  successor.  But  Stephen,  son  of  the  Count  of 
Blois,  and  of  Adela,  daughter  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  raised  an  army  in  Normandy,  landed 
in  England,  and  declared  himself  king.  After 
years  of  civil  war  and  bloodshed  an  amicable 
arrangement  was  brought  about,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  Stephen  should  continue  to 
reign  during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  but  that 


HISTORY 


47 


he  should  be  succeeded  by  Henry,  son  of  Matilda 
and  the  Count  of  Anjou.  Stephen  died  in  1 154, 
and  Henry  Plantagenet  ascended  the  throne 
with  the  title  of  Henry  II.,  being  the  first  of  the 
Plantagenet  or  Angevin  kings.  A  larger  domin- 
ion was  vniited  under  his  sway  than  had  been 
held  by  any  previous  sovereign  of  England,  for 
at  the  time  when  he  became  King  of  England  he 
was  already  in  the  possession  of  Anjou,  Nor- 
mandy, and  Aquitaine. 

Henry  II.  found  far  less  difficulty  in  restrain- 
ing the  license  of  his  barons  than  in  abridging 
the  exorbitant  privileges  of  the  clergy,  who 
claimed  exemption  not  only  from  the  taxes  of 
the  state,  but  also  from  its  penal  enactments, 
and  who  were  supported  in  their  demands  by  the 
primate  Becket.  The  king's  wishes  were  formu- 
lated in  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (1164), 
which  were  first  accepted  and  then  repudiated 
by  the  primate.  The  assassination  of  Becket, 
however,  placed  the  king  at  a  disadvantage  in 
the  struggle,  and  after  his  conquest  of  Ireland 
(1171)  he  submitted  to  the  Church,  and  did  pen- 
ance at  Becket's  tomb.  Henry  was  the  first  who 
placed  the  common  people  of  England  in  a  situ- 
ation which  led  to  their  having  a  share  in  the 
government.  The  system  of  frank-pledge  was 
revived,  trial  by  jury  was  instituted  by  the  Assize 
of  Clarendon,  and  the  Eyre  courts  were  made 
permanent  by  the  Assize  of  Nottingham.  To 
curb  the  power  of  the  nobles  he  granted  charters 
to  towns,  freeing  them  from  all  sybjection  to  any 
but  himself,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  a  new 
order  in  society. 

Richard  I.,  called  Coeur  de  Lion,  who  in  1189 
succeeded  to  his  father,  Henry  II.,  spent  most  of 
his  reign  away  from  England.  Having  gone  to 
Palestine  to  join  in  the  third  crusade  he  proved 
himself  an  intrepid  soldier.  Returning  homewards 
in  disguise  through  Germany,  he  was  made  pris- 
oner by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  but  was  ran- 
somed by  his  subjects.  In  the  meantime  John, 
his  brother,  had  aspired  to  the  crown,  and  hoped, 
by  the  assistance  of  the  French,  to  exclude  Rich- 
ard from  his  right.  Richard's  presence  for  a 
time  restored  matters  to  some  appearance  of 
order;  but  having  undertaken  an  expedition 
against  France,  he  received  a  mortal  wound  at 
the  siege  of  Chalons,  in  1199. 

John  was  at  once  recognized  as  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  secured  possession  of  Normandy;  but 
Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine  acknowledged  the 
claim  of  Arthur,  son  of  Goeffrey,  second  son  of 
Henry  II.  On  the  death  of  Arthur,  while  in 
John's  power,  these  four  French  provinces  were 
at  once  lost  to  England.  John's  opposition  to 
the  pope  in  electing  a  successor  to  the  See  of  Can- 
terbury in  1205  led  to  the  kingdom  being  placed 
under  an  interdict;  and  the  nation  being  in  a 
disturbed  condition,  he  was  at  last  compelled  to 
received  Stephen  Langton  as  archbishop,  and  to 
accept  his  kingdom  as  a  fief  of  the  papacy  (1213). 
His  exactions  and  misgovernment  had  equally 
embroiled  him  with  the  nobles.  In  1213  they 
refused  to  follow  him  to  France,  and  on  his  return, 
defeated,  they  at  once  took  measures  to  secure 
their  own  privileges  and  abridge  the  prerogatives 
of  the  crown.  King  and  barons  met  at  Runny- 
mede,  and  on  June  15,  1215,  the  Great  Charter 
(Magna  Charta)  was  signed.    It  was  speedily  de- 


clared null  and  void  by  the  pope,  and  war  broke 
out  between  John  and  the  barons,  who  were  aided 
by  the  French  king.  In  1216,  -however,  John 
died,  and  his  turbulent  reign  was  succeeded  by 
the  almost  equally  turbulent  reign  of  Henry  III. 
During  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  the  abilities  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
was  regent  until  1219,  retained  the  kingdom  in 
tranquillity;  but  when,  in  1227,  Henry  assumed 
the  reins  of  government  he  showed  himself 
incapable  of  managing  them.  The  Charter  was 
three  times  reissued  in  a  modified  form,  and  new 
privileges  were  added  to  it,  but  the  king  took  no 

{)ains  to  observe  its  provisions.  The  struggle, 
ong  maintained  in  the  great  council  (hencefor- 
ward called  Parliament)  over  money  grants  and 
other  grievances  reached  an  acute  stage  in  1263, 
when  civil  war  broke  out.  Simon  de  Montfort 
who  had  laid  the  foundations  of  the  house  of 
Commons  by  summoning  representatives  of  the 
shire  communities  to  the  Mad  Parliament  of 
1258,  had  by  this  time  engrossed  the  sole  power. 
He  defeated  the  king  and  his  son  Edward  at 
Lewes  in  1264,  and  in  his  famous  parliament  of 
1265  still  further  widened  the  privileges  of  the 
people  by  summoning  to  it  burgesses  as  well  as 
knights  of  the  shire.  The  escape  of  Prince 
Edward,  however,  was  followed  by  the  battle  of 
Evesham  (1265),  at  which  Earl  Simon  was  de- 
feated and  slain,  and  the  rest  of  the  reign  was 
undisturbed. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  III.,  in  1272,  Edward  I. 
succeeded  without  opposition.  From  1276  to 
1284  he  was  largely  occupied  in  the  conquest  and 
annexation  of  Wales,  which  had  become  practi- 
cally independent  during  the  barons'  wars.  In 
1292  Balliol,  whom  Edward  had  decided  to  be 
rightful  heir  to  the  Scottish  throne,  did  homage 
for  the  fief  to  the  English  king;  but  when,  in 
1294,  war  broke  out  with  France,  Scotland  also 
declared  war.  The  Scots  were  defeated  at  Dun- 
bar (1296),  and  the  country  placed  under  an  Eng- 
lish regent;  but  the  revolt  under  Wallace  (1297) 
was  followed  by  that  of  Bruce  (1306),  and  the 
Scots  remained  unsubdued.  The  reign  of 
Edward  was  distinguised  by  many  legal  and  leg- 
islative reforms,  such  as  the  separation  of  the 
old  king's  court  into  the  Court  of  Exchequer, 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  and  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  the  passage  of  the  Statute  of  Mortmain, 
etc.  In  1295  the  first  perfect  parliament  was 
summoned,  the  clergy  and  barons  by  special 
writ,  the  commons  by  writ  to  the  sheriffs  direct- 
ing the  election  of  two  knights  from  each  shire, 
two  citizens  from  each  city,  two  burghers  from 
each  borough.  Two  years  later  the  imposition 
of  taxation  without  consent  of  parliament  was 
forbidden  by  a  special  act  (De  Tallagio  non  Con- 
cedendo).  The  great  aim  of  Edward,  however, 
to  include  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  in  one 
kingdom  proved  a  failure,  and  he  died  in  1307 
marching  against  Robert  Bruce. 

The  reign  of  his  son,  Edward  II.,  was  unfor- 
tunate to  himself  and  to  his  kingdom.  He  made  a 
feeble  attempt  to  carry  out  his  father's  last  and 
earnest  request  to  prosecute  the  war  with  Scot- 
land, but  the  English  were  almost  constantly 
unfortunate;  and  at  length,  at  Bannockburn 
(1314),  they  received  a  defeat  from  Robert 
Bruce  which  ensured  the  independence  of  Scot- 


48 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


land.  The  king  soon  proved  incapable  of  regu- 
lating the  lawless  conduct  of  his  barons;  and 
his  wife,  a  woman  of  bold,  intriguing  disposition, 
joined  in  the  confederacy  against  him,  which 
resulted  in  his  imprisonment  and  death  in  1327. 

The  reign  of  Edward  III.  was  as  brilliant  as 
that  of  his  father  had  been  the  reverse.  The 
main  projects  of  the  third  Edward  were  directed 
against  France,  the  crown  of  which  he  claimed 
in  1328  in  virtue  of  his  mother,  the  daughter  of 
King  Philip.  The  victory  won  by  Edward  III. 
at  Crecy  (1346),  the  capture  of  Calais  (1347), 
and  the  victory  of  Poitiers  (1356),  ultimately 
led  to  the  Peace  of  Bretigny  in  1360,  by  which 
Edward  III.  received  all  the  west  of  France 
on  condition  of  renouncing  his  claim  to  the 
French  throne.  Before  the  close  of  his  reign, 
however,  these  advantages  were  all  lost  again, 
save  a  few  principal  towns  on  the  coast. 

Edward  III.  was  succeeded  in   1377  by  his 

frandson  Richard  II.,  son  of  Edward  the  Black 
'rince.  The  people  of  England  now  began  to 
show,  though  in  a  turbulent  manner,  that  they 
had  acquired  just  notions  of  government.  In 
1380  an  unjust  and  oppressive  poll-tax  brought 
their  grievances  to  a  head,  and  100,000  men 
under  Wat  Tyler,  marched  toward  London 
(1381).  Wat  Tyler  was  killed  while  conferring 
with  the  king,  and  the  prudence  and  courage  of 
Richard  appeased  the  insurgents.  Despite  his 
conduct  on  this  occasion  Richard  was  deficient  in 
the  vigor  necessary  to  curb  the  lawlessness  of 
the  nobles.  In  1398  he  banished  his  cousin, 
Henry  Bolingbroke ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  lat- 
ter's  father,  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  unjustly  ap- 
propriated his  cousin's  patrimony.  To  avenge 
the  injustice  Bolingbroke  landed  in  England 
during  the  king's  absence  in  Ireland,  and  at  the 
head  of  60,000  malcontents  compelled  Richard 
to  surrender.  He  was  confined  in  the  Tower, 
and  despite  the  superior  claims  of  Edmund  Morti- 
mer, Earl  of  March,  Henry  was  appointed  king 
(1399),  the  first  of  the  House  of  Lancaster. 
Richard  was,  in  all  probability,  murdered  early 
in  1400. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
now  Henry  IV.,  acquired  the  crown  rendered  his 
reign  extremely  turbulent,  but  the  vigor  of 
his  administration  quelled  every  insurrections 
The  most  important — that  of  the  Percies  of 
Northumberland,  Owen  Glendower,  and  Douglas 
of  Scotland — was  crushed  by  the  battle  of  Shrews- 
bury (1403).  During  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the 
clergy  of  England  first  began  the  practice  of 
burning  heretics  under  the  act  de  hceretico  com- 
burendo,  passed  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign. 
The  act  was  chiefly  directed  against  the  Lollards, 
as  the  followers  of  Wickliffe  now  came  to  be 
called.  Henry  died  in  1413,  leaving  his  crown 
to  his  son,  Henry  V.,  who  revived  the  claim  of 
Edward  III.  to  the  throne  of  France  in  1415, 
and  invaded  that  country  at  the  head  of  30,000 
men.  The  disjointed  councils  of  the  French 
rendered  their  country  an  easy  prey ;  the  victory 
of  Agin  court  was  gained  in  1415 ;  and  after  a  sec- 
ond campaign  a  peace  was  concluded  at  Troyes 
in  1420,  by  which  Henry  received  the  hand  of 
Katherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  France  during  the  reign  of  his 
father-in-law,  and  declared  heir  to  his  throne  on 


his  death.  The  two  kings,  however,  died  within 
a  few  weeks  of  each  other  in  1422,  and  the  infant 
son  of  Henry  thus  became  King  of  England  (as 
Henry  VI.)  and  France  at  the  age  of  nine 
months. 

England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  was 
subjected,  in  the  first  place,  to  all  the  confusion 
incident  to  a  long  minority,  and  afterwards  to 
all  the  misery  of  a  civil  war.  Henry  allowed 
himself  to  be  managed  by  anyone  who  had  the 
courage  to  assume  the  conduct  of  his  affairs,  and 
the  influence  of  his  wife,  Margaret  of  Anjou,  a 
woman  of  uncommon  capacity,  was  of  no  advan- 
tage either  to  himself  or  the  realm.  In  France 
(1422-1453)  the  English  forces  lost  ground,  and 
were  finally  expelled  by  the  celebrated  Joan  of 
Arc,  Calais  alone  being  retained.  The  rebellion 
of  Jack  Cade  in  1450  was  suppressed,  only  to  be 
succeeded  by  more  serious  trouble.  In  that 
year  Richard,  duke  of  York,  the  father  of  Edward, 
afterwards  Edward  IV.,  began  to  advance  his 
pretentions  to  the  throne  which  had  been  so  long 
usurped  by  the  house  of  Lancaster.  His  claim 
was  founded  on  his  descent  from  the  third  son  of 
Edward  III.,  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  who  was 
his  great-great-grandfather  on  the  mother's  side, 
while  Henry  was  the  great-grandson  on  the  fa- 
ther's side  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster, 
the  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  Richard  of  York 
was  also  grandson  on  the  father's  side  of  Edmund, 
fifth  son  of  Edward  III.  The  wars  which  result- 
ed, called  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  from  the  fact 
that  a  red  rose  was  the  badge  of  the  house  of 
Lancaster  and  a  white  one  that  of  the  house  of 
York,  lasted  for  thirty  years,  from  the  first  battle 
of  St.  Albans,  May  22,  1455,  to  the  battle  of 
Bosworth,  August  22,  1485.  Henry  VI.  was 
twice  driven  from  the  throne  (in  1461  and  1471) 
by  Edward  of  York,  whose  father  had  previously 
been  killed  in  battle  in  1460.  Edward  of  York 
reigned  as  Edward  IV.  from  1461  till  his  death  in 
1483,  with  a  brief  interval  in  1471;  and  was 
succeeded  by  two  other  sovereigns  of  the  house  of 
York,  first  his  son  Edward  V.,  who  reigned  for 
eleven  weeks  in  1483;  and  then  by  his  brother 
Richard  III.,  who  reigned  from  1483  till  1485, 
when  he  was  defeated  and  slain  on  Bosworth 
field  by  Henry  Tudor,  of  the  house  of  Lancaster, 
who  then  became  Henry  VII. 

Henry  VII.  was  at  this  time  the  representative 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  in  order  at  once  to 
strengthen  his  own  title,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the 
rivalry  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster, he  married,  in  1486,  Elizabeth,  the  sister 
of  Edward  V.  and  heiress  of  the  house  of  York. 
His  reign  was  disturbed  by  insurrections  attend- 
ing the  impostures  of  Lambert  Simnel  (1487), 
who  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, brother  of  Edward  IV.,  and  of  Perkin 
Warbeck  (1488),  who  affirmed  that  he  was  the 
Duke  of  York,  younger  brother  of  Edward  V. ; 
but  neither  of  these  attained  any  magnitude. 
The  king's  worst  fault  was  the  avarice  which  led 
hipi  to  employ  in  schemes  of  extortion  such 
instruments  as  Empson  and  Dudley.  His  admin- 
istration throughout  did  much  to  increase  the 
royal  power  and  to  establish  order  and  prosper- 
ity.    He  died  in  1509. 

The  authority  of  the  English  crown,  which 
had  been  so  much  extended  by  Henry  VII., 


HISTORY 


49 


was  by  his  son  Henry  VIII.  exerted  in  a  tyran- 
nical and  capricious  manner.  The  most  impor- 
tant event  of  the  reign  was  undoubtedly  the 
Reformation;  though  it  had  its  origin  rather 
in  Henry's  caprice  and  in  the  casual  situation 
of  his  private  affairs  than  in  his  conviction  of  the 
necessity  of  a  reformation  in  religion,  or  in  the 
solidity  of  reasoning  employed  by  the  reformers. 
Henry  had  been  espoused  to  Catharine  of  Spain, 
who  was  first  married  to  his  elder  brother 
Arthur,  a  prince  who  died  young.  Henry  became 
disgusted  with  his  queen,  and  enamored  of  one 
of  her  maids  of  honor,  Anne  Boleyn.  He  had 
recourse,  therefore,  to  the  pope  to  dissolve  a 
marriage  which  had  at  first  been  rendered  legal 
only  by  a  dispensation  from  the  pontiff;  but 
failing  in  his  desires  he  broke  away  entirely  from 
the  Holy  See,  and  in  1534  got  himself  recog- 
nized by  act  of  parliament  as  the  head  of  the 
English  Church.  He  died  in  1547^  He  was 
married  six  times,  and  left  three  children,  each 
of  whom  reigned  in  turn.  These  were:  Mary, 
by  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon;  Eliza- 
beth, by  his  second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn;  and 
Edward,  by  his  third  wife,  Jane  Seymour.  Ed- 
ward, who  reigned  first,  with  the  title  of  Edward 
VI.,  was  nine  years  of  age  at  the  time  of 
his  succession,  and  died  in  1553,  when  he  was 
only  sixteen.  His  short  reign,  or  rather  the 
reign  of  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  afterwards  Duke  of 
Somerset,  who  was  appointed  regent,  was  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  the  success  which  attended 
the  measures  of  the  reformers,  who  acquired  great 
part  of  the  power  formerly  engrossed  by  the 
Catholics.  The  intrigues  of  Dudley,  Duke  of 
Northumberland,  during  the  reign  of  Edward, 
caused  Lady  Jane  Grey  to  be  declared  his  suc- 
cessor; but  her  reign,  if  it  could  be  called  such, 
lasted  only  a  few  days.  Mary,  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.,  was  placed  upon  the  throne,  and 
Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  were  both 
executed.  Mary,  a  zealous  Catholic,  seems  to 
have  wished  for  the  crown  chiefly  to  aid  in 
reestablishing  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Polit- 
ical motives  had  induced  Philip  of  Spain  to 
accept  of  her  as  a  spouse;  but  she  could  never 
prevail  on  her  subjects  to  allow  him  any  share  of 
power.     She  died  in  1558. 

Elizabeth,  who  succeeded  her  sister  Mary, 
was  attached  to  the  Protestant  faith,  and  found 
little  difficulty  in  establishing  it  in  England. 
Having  concluded  peace  with  France  (1559), 
Elizabeth  set  herself  to  promote  the  confu- 
sion which  prevailed  in  Scotland,  to  which 
her  cousin  Mary  had  returned  from  France  as 
queen  in  1561.  In  this  she  was  so  far  success- 
ful that  Mary  placed  herself  in  her  power  (1568), 
and  after  many  years  imprisonment  was  sent  to 
the  scaffold  (1587).  As  the  most  powerful 
Protestant  nation,  and  as  a  rival  to  Spain  in  the 
New  World,  it  was  natural  that  England  should 
become  involved  in  difficulties  with  that  country. 
The  dispersion  of  the  Armada  by  the  EngUsh 
fleet  under  Howard,  Drake,  and  Hawkins  was 
the  most  brilliant  event  of  a  struggle  which 
abounded  in  minor  feats  of  valor.  In  Eliza- 
beth's reign  London  became  the  center  of  the 
world'9  trade,  the  extension  of  British  com- 
mercial enterprise  being  coincident  with  the 
ruin  of  Antwerp  in  1585.     The  parliament  was 


increased  by  the  creation  of  sixty-two  new  bor- 
oughs, and  its  members  were  exempted  from 
arrest.  In  literature  not  less  than  in  politics 
and  in  commerce  the  same  full  life  displayed  it- 
self, and  England  began  definitely  to  assume  the 
characteristics  which  distinguish  her  from  the 
other  European  nations  of  to-day. 

To  Elizabeth  succeeded  (in  1603)  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  and  I.  of  England,  son  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  and  Darnley.  His  accession  to  the 
crown  of  England  in  addition  to  that  of  Scotland 
did  much  to  unite  the  two  nations,  though  a 
certain  smoldering  animosity  still  lingered.  His 
dissimulation,  however,  ended  in  his  satisfying 
neither  of  the  contending  ecclesiastical  parties — 
the  Puritans  or  the  Catholics;  and  his  absurd 
insistance  on  his  divine  right  made  his  reign  a 
continuous  struggle  between  the  prerogative  of 
the  crown  and  the  freedom  of  the  people.  His 
extravagance  kept  him  in  constant  disputes 
with  the  parliament,  who  would  not  grant  him  the 
sums  he  demanded,  and  compelled  him  to  resort 
to  monopolies,  loans,  benevolences,  and  other 
illegal  methods.  The  nation  at  large,  however, 
continued  to  prosper  through  the  whole  of  this 
inglorious  reign.  His  son,  Charles  I.,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1625,  inherited  the  same  exalted 
ideas  of  royal  prerogative,  and  his  marriage  with 
a  Catholic,  his  arbitrary  rule,  and  illegal  methods 
of  raising  money,  provoked  bitter  hostility. 
Under  the  guidance  of  Laud  and  Strafford  things 
went  from  bad  to  worse.  Civil  war  broke  out 
in  1642  between  the  king's  party  and  that  of  the 
parliament,  and,  the  latter  proving  victorious, 
in  1649  the  king  was  beheaded. 

A  commonwealth  or  republican  government 
was  now  established,  in  which  the  most  promi- 
nent figure  was  Oliver  Cromwell.  Mutinies  in 
the  army  among  Fifth-monarchists  and  Level- 
lers were  subdued  by  Cromwell  and  Fairfax,  and 
Cromwell  in  a  series  of  masterly  movements 
subjugated  Ireland  and  gained  the  important 
battles  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  At  sea  Blake 
had  destroyed  the  Royalist  fleet  under  Rupert, 
and  was  engaged  in  an  honorable  struggle  with 
the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp.  But  within  the 
governing  body  matters  had  come  to  a  deadlock. 
A  dissolution  was  necessary,  yet  parliament 
shrank  from  dissolving  itself,  and  in  the  mean- 
time the  reformof  the  law,  a  settlement  with  regard 
to  the  Church,  and  other  important  matters 
remained  untouched.  In  April,  1653,  Cromwell 
cut  the  knot  by  forcibly  ejecting  the  members 
and  putting  the  keys  of  the  house  in  his  pocket. 
From  this  time  he  was  practically  head  of  the 
government,  which  was  vested  in  a  council  of 
thirteen.  A  parliament — the  Little  or  Bare- 
bones  Parliament — was  summoned  and  in 
December  of  the  same  year  Cromwell  was  in- 
stalled Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  With  more 
than  the  power  of  a  king,  he  succeeded  in  dona- 
inating  the  confusion  at  home  and  made  the 
country  feared  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Cromwell  died  in  1658,  and  the  brief  and  feeble 
protectorate  of  his  son  Richard  followed. 

There  was  now  a  widespread  feeling  that  the 
country  would  be  better  under  the  old  form  of 
government,  and  Charles  II.,  son  of  Charles  I., 
was  called  to  the  throne  by  the  Restoration  of 


50 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


1660.  He  took  complete  advantage  of  the  popu- 
lar reaction  from  the  narrowness  and  intolerance 
of  Puritanism,  and  even  latterly  endeavored  to 
carry  it  to  the  extreme  of  establishing  the  Cath- 
olic religion.  The  promises  of  religious  freedom 
made  by  him  before  the  Restoration  in  the  Dec- 
laration of  Breda  were  broken  by  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts,  and  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity, 
which  drove  two  thousand  clergymen  from  the 
Church  and  created  the  great  dissenting  move- 
ment of  modern  times.  The  Conventicle  and 
Five-mile  Acts  followed,  and  the  "  Drunken  Parli- 
ament" restored  Episcopacy  in  Scotland.  At 
one  time  even  civil  war  seemed  again  imminent. 
The  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press 
(1679)  and  the  reaffirmation  of  the  habeas 
corpus  principle  are  the  most  praiseworthy  inci- 
dents of  the  reign. 

As  Charles  II.  left  no  legitimate  issue,  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  succeeded  him  as 
James  II.  (1685-88).  An  invasion  by  an  ille- 
gitimate son  of  Charles,  the  Duke  of  Monmouth, 
who  claimed  the  throne,  was  suppressed,  and 
the  king's  arbitrary  rule  was  supported  by  the 
wholesale  butcheries  of  such  instruments  as 
Kirke  and  Jeffreys.  The  king's  zealous  coun- 
tenance of  Roman  Catholicism  and  his  attempts 
to  force  the  Church  and  the  universities  to  sub- 
mission provoked  a  storm  of  opposition.  Seven 
E relates  were  brought  to  trial  for  seditious  libel, 
ut  were  acquitted  amidst  general  rejoicings. 
The  whole  nation  was  prepared  to  welcome  any 
deliverance,  and  in  1688  William  of  Orange,  hus- 
band of  James's  daughter  Mary,  landed  in  Tor- 
bay.  James  fled  to  France,  and  a  convention 
summoned  by  William  settled  the  crown  upon 
him,  he  thus  becoming  William  III.  Annexed 
to  this  settlement  was  a  Declaration  of  Rights 
circumscribing  the  royal  prerogative  by  depriv- 
ing him  of  the  right  to  exercise  dispensing  power, 
or  to  exact  money,  or  maintain  an  army  with- 
out the  assent  of  parliament.  This  placed 
henceforward  the  right  of  the  British  sovereign 
to  the  throne  upon  a  purely  statutory  basis.  A 
toleration  act,  passed  in  1689,  released  dissent 
from  many  penalties.  An  armed  opposition  to 
William  lasted  for  a  short  time  in  Scotland,  but 
ceased  with  the  fall  of  Viscount  Dundee,  the 
leader  of  James's  adherents;  and  though  the 
struggle  was  prolonged  in  Ireland,  it  was  brought 
to  a  close  before  the  end  of  1691.  The  following 
year  saw  the  origination  of  the  national  debt,  the 
exchequer  having  been  drained  by  the  heavy 
military  expenditure.  A  bill  for  triennial  parli- 
aments was  passed  in  1694,  the  year  in  which  I 
Queen  Mary  died.  For  a  moment  after  her  death  I 
William's  popularity  was  in  danger,  but  his  suc- 
cesses at  Namur  and  elsewhere,  and  the  obvious 
exhaustion  of  France,  once  more  confirmed  his 
power.  The  treaty  of  Ryswick  followed  in 
1697,  and  the  death  of  James  II.  in  exile  in  1701 
removed  a  not  unimportant  source  of  danger. 
Early  in  the  following  year  William  also  died, 
and  by  the  act  of  settlement  Anne  succeeded  him. 
The  closing  act  of  William's  reign  had  been  the 
formation  of  the  grand  alliance  between  England, 
Holland,  and  the  German  Empire,  and  the  new 
queen's  rule  opened  with  the  brilliant  successes 
of  Marlborough  at  Blenheim  (1704)  and  Ramil- 
lies  (1706).     Throughout  the  earlier  part  of  her 


reign  the  Marlboroughs  practically  ruled  the 
kingdom,  the  duke's  wife,  Sarah  Jennings,  being 
the  queen's  most  intimate  friend  and  adviser. 
In  1707  the  history  of  England  becomes  the  his- 
tory of  Britain,  the  Act  of  Union  passed  in  that 
year  binding  the  parliaments  and  realms  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  into  a  single  and  more  power- 
ful whole. 

The  measure  which  declared  the  parliaments 
of  England  and  Scotland  united,  and  the  two 
countries  one  kingdom,  known  as  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  was  passed,  after 
violent  opposition,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne, 
1st  of  May,  1707.  This  union,  however,  much  it 
was  opposed  by  the  prejudices  and  interest  of 
particular  men  or  classes  at  the  time,  has  con- 
tributed very  much  to  the  prosperity  of  both 
countries.  The  Grand  Alliance,  which  it  had 
been  the  aim  of  William's  later  years  to  form 
between  Holland,  Austria,  and  England  against 
the  threatening  growth  of  French  power,  now 
held  the  field  against  the  armies  of  France,  and 
the  victories  of  Marlborough  at  Blenheim  and 
Ramillies,  and  the  taking  of  Gibraltar  and  Bar- 
celona, ended  in  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713, 
by  which  the  British  right  of  sovereignty  over 
Hudson's  Bay,  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia, 
Minorca,  and  Gibraltar  was  acknowledged,  and 
the  foundation  of  Britain's  imperial  and  colonial 
power  securely  laid.  The  remainder  of  Anne's 
reign  was  distracted  by  the  never-ending  alter- 
cations of  domestic  parties.  She  died  on  the 
1st  of  August,  1714;  and  with  her  ended  the 
line  of  the  Stuarts,  who  had  held  the  scepter  of 
England  1 12,  and  that  of  Scotland  343  years. 

At  her  death,  George  I.,  elector  of  Hanover, 
maternally  descended  from  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  James  I.,  according  to  the  Act  of  Settlement, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Britain.  The  Whigs 
under  this  prince  regained  that  superiority  in  the 
national  councils  of  which  they  had  long  been 
deprived,  and  this,  along  with  the  suspension  of 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  and  some  other  extreme 
precautionary  measures,  increased  the  irritation 
of  the  Tory  and  Stuart  party.  In  1715  the  Earl 
of  Mar  in  Scotland  and  the  Earl  of  Derwent- 
water  in  England  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion 
and  proclaimed  the  Chevalier  St.  George  (the 
Old  Pretender)  king.  But  the  insurrection, 
feebly  supported  by  the  people,  was  soon  sup- 
pressed. In  1716  the  Septennial  Act  was  passed, 
making  parliament  of  seven  instead  of  three 
years  duration.  In  1720  occurred  the  extra- 
ordinary growth  and  collapse  of  the  South  Sea 
Company.  From  this  date  till  1742  the  govern- 
ment was  virtually  in  the  hands  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  the  first,  we  might  say,  of  modern 
premiers,  governing  the  cabinet  and  chiefly 
responsible  for  its  doings.  Walpole  had  great 
sagacity,  prudence,  and  business  ability,  and 
could  manage  dexterously  the  king,  the  parlia- 
ment, and  the  people  alike.  It  is  true  tnat  in 
the  case  of  the  parliament  he  achieved  this  by 
undue  influence  in  elections  and  a  scandalous 
use  of  bribery.  But  the  power  he  thus  acquired 
was  generally  wisely  used.  The  failure  of  the 
war  with  Spain  into  which  he  had  reluctantly 
entered  drove  him  from  office,  and  in  1742  his 
long  ministry  came  to  an  end.  In  1743,  George 
II.,    frightened    at    the    dangers    to    Hanover, 


HISTORY 


51 


dragged  Britain  into  the  wars  between  France, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  regarding  tiie  succession 
of  the  Emperor  Charles.  George  himself  fought 
at  the  head  of  his  troops  at  Detti;igen  (1743), 
where  he  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
French,  which  was  balanced,  however,  later  on 
by  the  defeat  at  Fontenoy  (1745). 

A  fresh  attempt  was  now  made  to  restore  the 
Stuart  family  to  the  throne  of  Britain.  Charles 
Edward,  son  of  tlie  Old  Pretender,  having  been 
furnished  by  France  with  a  small  supply  of 
money  and  arms,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Loch- 
aber,  in  the  Western  Highlands,  in  1745,  and 
was  joined  by  a  considerable  number  of  the 
people.  Marching  southwards  with  1,500  High- 
landers, his  forces  increasing  as  he  advanced,  he 
entered  Edinburgh  without  opposition ;  and  hav- 
ing defeated  Sir  John  Cope  near  Prestonpans  he 
marched  into  England.  He  now  took  Carlisle, 
and  advanced  through  Lancaster,  Preston,  and 
Manchester,  to  Derby,  within  100  miles  of  Lon- 
don ;  but  finding  himself  disappointed  of  expect- 
ed succors  from  France,  and  the  English  Tories, 
contrary  to  his  expectations,  keeping  aloof,  he 
commenced  his  retreat  into  Scotland,  closely 
pursued  by  the  king's  troops,  whom  he  again 
defeated  at  Falkirk.  With  this  victory  his  good 
fortune  terminated.  The  Duke  of  Cumberland 
having  arrived  from  the  continent  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  forces  which  were  destined  to 
check  the  rebels;  and  the  armies  having  met  at 
CuUoden,  near  Inverness,  Charles  was  completely 
defeated.  After  lurking  for  six  months  amidst 
the  wilds  of  Invernesshire,  he  at  length,  with 
much  difficulty,  escaped  to  France. 

The  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  which  still 
continued  and  which  was  the  cause  of  the  hostili- 
ties between  the  French  and  British  in  India  as 
well  as  elsewhere,  was  terminated  by  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  During  most  of  this 
period  Pelham  and  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  New- 
castle, had  been  the  ruling  ministers,  and  in  their 
hands  the  art  of  government  had  reached  a  low 
level  both  as  regards  morality  and  ability.  In 
1752,  the  New  Style  of  reckoning  time  was  intro- 
duced, and  the  Old  Style  being  eleven  days  behind, 
the  3d  of  September,  1752,  was  called  the  14th. 
At  the  same  time  the  1st  of  January  was  fixed  as 
the  opening  day  of  the  year,  instead  of  the  25th 
of  March. 

Soon  after,  the  French,  uneasy  at  the  growing 
colonial  power  of  Britain,  made  a  determined 
effort  against  the  British  Colonies  and  possessions 
in  North  America  and  the  East  Indies,  and  at 
first  the  British  met  with  several  disasters  in 
America.  In  1756  the  Seven  Years'  War  broke 
out,  Austria  and  France  being  allied  on  the  one 
side,  and  Prussia  and  England  on  the  other,  and 
ill  success  attended  the  British  arms  in  Europe 
also.  Fortunately,  a  great  war  minister,  William 
Pitt,  now  took  the  helm  of  the  state.  In  1758 
the  British  made  themselves  masters  of  several 
French  settlements  in  North  America,  while  the 
attack  made  by  Wolfe  on  Quebec  in  1759  was 
completely  successful,  and  gave  Britain  the  whole 
of  Canada.  The  same  year  the  British  and  their 
allies  defeated  the  French  at  Minden  in  Prussia. 
In  the  East  Indies  the  French  were  even  less 
successful  than  in  America.  Clive's  victory  at 
Plassey    (1757)    and    Coote's    at    Wandewash 


(1760)  secured  the  British  empire  in  the  east, 
and  together  with  the  naval  feats  of  Hawke  and 
Boscawen  made  England  the  greatest  of  mari- 
time and  colonial  powers. 

On  the  accession  of  George  III.  in  1760  hostili- 
ties were  still  carried  on,  generally  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  French  as  far  as  the  theater  of  war  in 
Germany  was  concerned,  but  still  more  to  their 
loss  in  the  other  quarters  of  the  world  where  they 
were  engaged  with  the  British  in  a  struggle  for 
supremacy,  and  this  notwithstanding  that  Spain 
had  now  joined  her  forces  to  those  of  France.  At 
length  the  success  of  the  British  arms  induced 
France  and  Spain  to  accede  to  terms,  and  the 
war  ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763.  The 
French  relinquished  nearly  all  their  possessions 
in  North  America ;  Minorca  was  restored  to  Brit- 
ain ;  in  the  East  Indies  they  got  back  their  fac- 
tories and  settlements,  on  condition  that  they 
should  maintain  neither  forts  nor  troops  in  Ben- 
gal ;  Cuba  and  Manila  were  resigned  to  the  Span- 
iards. In  Europe  everything  was  restored  to  the 
status  quo. 

The  expenses  of  this  war,  which  had  been 
undertaken  partly  for  the  defense  of  the  Ameri- 
can Colonies,  had  added  upwards  of  £72,000,000 
to  the  national  debt.  It  seemed  to  the  British 
people  to  be  just  that  the  Americans  should  be 
taxed  to  assist  in  the  payment  of  the  interest. 
The  Americans  did  not  deny  the  justice,  but 
replied  that  if  they  were  to  be  taxed  they  had  a 
right  to  be  represented  in  parliament,  in  order 
that,  like  other  British  subjects,  they  might  be 
taxed  only  in  consequence  of  their  own  consent. 
Grenville,  then  the  prime-minister,  stood  to  his 
purpose,  however,  and  introduced  a  bill  for 
imposing  certain  stamp  duties  on  the  American 
Colonies.  The  Americans  protested  and  resisted, 
and  partly  by  the  influence  of  the  great  Pitt, 
who  had  steadily  opposed  the  measure,  the  bill 
was  withdrawn.  On  the  illness  of  Pitt,  now 
Lord  Chatham,  in  1767,  Townshend  became 
premier,  and  again  revived  the  project  of  taxing 
the  Americans  by  imposing  duties  on  tea;  and 
in  1770,  Lord  North,  as  his  successor,  set  himself 
to  carry  it  out.  The  result  was  that  in  1775 
the  Colonies  were  declared  in  a  state  of  rebellion 
and  a  war  began,  in  which  both  France  and  Spain 
joined  the  revolted  Colonies,  and  of  which  the 
result  was  the  recognition  of  the  independence 
of  the  United  States.  On  the  American  side  of 
this  struggle  the  great  name  is. that  of  George 
Washington.  On  the  British  side  the  war  was 
unskillfuUy  conducted,  and  though  they  gained 
some  successes  these  were  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  such  blows  as  the  capitulation  of 
Burgoyne  with  nearly  6,000  men  at  Saratoga 
(1777),  and  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  with 
7,000  (1781).  Against  their  European  foes  the 
British  could  show  such  successes  as  that  of 
Admiral  Rodney  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  (1780); 
the  brilliant  defense  of  Gibraltar  by  General 
Eliott  (1779-82);  and  Admiral  Rodney's  victory 
over  the  French  fleet  in  the  West  Indies  (1782). 
The  war  closed  with  the  Peace  of  Versailles  in 
1783.  Britain  finally  acquired  several  West 
Indian  Islands;  Spain  got  Florida  and  Minorca, 
France  Pondicherry  and  Chandernagore  in  India. 
The  struggle  had  added  over  £100,000,000  to 
the  British  national  debt. 


62 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


From  178^  to  1801  the  government  of  Britain 
was  directed  by  William  Pitt,  the  younger  son 
of  Lord  Chatham,  who  when  only  twenty-four 
years  of  age  was  placed  as  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  affairs 
of  Ireland  and  India,  and  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings,  were  among  the  first  subjects 
which  occupied  the  attention  of  Pitt's  ministry. 
In  1782,  the  Irish  had  been  able  to  extort  from 
Britain,  then  engaged  in  her  struggle  with  the 
American  Colonies,  the  right  to  establish  an  inde- 
pendent parliament,  so  that  from  this  year  there 
were  two  independent  governments  in  the  British 
Isles  till  1800,  when  Pitt,  who  had  in  the  interval 
had  experienced  some  of  the  difficulties  arising 
out  of  two  coordinate  legislatures,  contrived  once 
more  to  unite  them. 

In  1789,  the  French  Revolution  was  begun. 
For  a  time  there  was  considerable  sympathy  in 
England  with  this  movement;  but  as  the  rev- 
lutionaries  proceeded  to  extreme  measures  there 
was  a  reaction  in  English  feeling,  of  which  Ed- 
mund Burke  became  the  great  exponent,  and 
the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  gave  rise  to  diplo- 
matic measures,  which  finally  terminated  in  the 
National  Convention  declaring  war  against  Brit- 
ain, on  the  1st  of  February,  1793.  At  first  Brit- 
ain cooperated  with  Prussia,  Austria,  etc., 
against  France,  and  successes  were  gained  both 
by  sea  and  land;  but  latterly  on  the  Continent 
the  armies  of  the  French  Republic  were  every- 
where triumphant,  and  in  1797  Britain  stood 
alone  in  the  conflict,  and  indeed  soon  found  an 
EuTopean  coalition  formed  against  her.  The 
war  was  now  largely  maritime,  and  the  naval 
successes  of  Jervis  off  St.  Vincent  and  Duncan 
off  Camperdown  were  followed  (when  Bonaparte 
led  an  expedition  to  Egypt,  having  India  as  its 
ultimate  object)  by  the  victories  of  Nelson  in 
Aboukir  Bay,  and  Abercromby  at  Alexandria. 
In  1798,  a  rebellion  in  Ireland  had  to  be  crushed. 
Peace  was  made  in  1802  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens, 
only  to  be  broken  by  another  declaration  of  war  in 
1803,  as  the  ambitious  projects  of  Napoleon 
became  evident.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Pitt 
(who  died  in  1806)  in  the  way  of  forming  and 
supporting  with  funds  a  new  coalition  against 
France,  the  military  genius  of  Napoleon  swept 
away  all  opposition  on  land,  though  the  naval 
victory  of  Trafalgar  (1805)  established  England's 
supremacy  on  the  seas.  Napoleon,  who  had 
assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French  in 
1805,  and  was  now  virtually  the  ruler  of  Europe, 
put  forth  his  Berlin  decrees  (1807),  probibiting 
all  commerce  with  Great  Britain  wherever  his 
power  reached,  set  his  brother  Joseph  on  the 
throne  of  Spain,  and  occupied  Portugal.  But 
the  spirit  of  resistance  had  now  taken  deep  root 
in  the  British  people,  and  in  1808  troops  were 
sent  into  Spain  under  Sir  John  Moore,  and  a  year 
later  Wellington,  then  General  Wellesley,  landed 
in  Portugal.  Then  began  that  famous  series  of 
successful  operations  (the  Peninsular  War)  which 
drove  back  the  French  into  their  own  country, 
and  powerfully  contributed  to  undermine  the 
immense  fabric  of  Napoleon's  conquests.  The 
other  chief  European  powers  having  united, 
Paris  was  occupied  in  1814,  Napoleon  was  de- 
posed and  exiled  to  Elba,  and  Louis  XVIII. 
placed  on  the  throne  of  France.     Escaping  in 


1815,  Napoleon  appeared  once  more  in  the  field 
with  a  large  army.  Wellington  and  Blucher 
hastened  to  oppose  him,  and  at  Waterloo  Na- 
poleon's long  career  of  conquest  ended  in  a  crush- 
ing defeat.  The  restoration  of  Louis  followed, 
and  Napoleon  was  sent  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena. 
Of  her  conquests  Britain  retained  Tobago,  St. 
Lucia,  Mauritius,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Dem- 
erara,  Essequibo,  Berbice,  Heligoland,  and  Malta. 
Ceylon  and  Trinidad  had  been  gained  in  1802, 
and  Britain  emerged  from  this  long  struggle 
with  a  very  great  increase  of  territorial  posses- 
sions and  political  importance. 

After  the  termination  of  the  wars  with  Napo- 
leon many  things  concurred  to  make  a  troublous 
era  in  the  home  administration.  The  new  bur- 
den of  debt  which  the  wars  had  left  on  the  nation, 
the  bad  harvests  of  1816  and  1817,  a  succession 
of  governments  which  had  no  idea  but  that  of 
absolute  resistance  to  all  reforms,  etc. ;  all  these 
contributed  to  increase  discontent.  The  result 
was  a  strong  Radical  agitation,  accompanied 
often  by  serious'  riots  throughout  the  country, 
more  especially  in  the  large  towns,  and  loud 
demands  for  reform  in  parliament  and  the  system 
of  representation.  The  death  of  George  III.  and 
accession  of  George  IV.  in  1820  made  little 
change  in  this  respect.  From  1822  a  succes- 
sion of  able  statesmen,  Canning,  Peel,  and 
Lord  Grey,  gave  the  government  a  more  liberal 
turn,  and  did  much  to  satisfy  the  popular 
demands.  The  Catholics  were  admitted  to 
parliament;  the  severity  of  the  old  restric- 
tions on  commerce  was  relaxed;  and  in  the 
face  of  a  determined  opposition  Earl  Grey  car- 
ried the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  (two  years  after 
the  accession  of  William  IV.),  which  gave 
large  manufacturing  towns  a  voting  power  in 
some  proportion  to  their  importance,  and  prac- 
tically transferred  the  center  of  political  power 
from  the  aristocratic  to  the  middle  classes. 
The  next  great  public  measure  was  the  aboli- 
tion of  negro  slavery  in  every  British  posses- 
sion in  1834. 

William  IV.  died  June  20,  1837,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Victoria.  The  year  following  is  nota- 
ble as  that  in  which  the  Chartists  began  their 
movement  for  reform,  which  continued  more  or 
less  active,  with  popular  assemblies,  presenta- 
tions of  monster  petitions,  and  occasional  tu- 
mults, till  1848,  when  it  was  without  much  trouble 
suppressed.  The  same  years  saw  the  struggle 
of  the  Anti-Com-law  League,  of  which  Cobden 
and  Bright  were  the  chiefs,  and  which  were 
finally  successful ;  Sir  Robert  Peel,  the  leader  of 
the  Tory  party,  himself  proposing  the  repeal  of 
the  com  duties  (1846).  The  principle  of  free- 
trade  had  further  victories  in  the  repeal  of  the 
navigation  laws,  and  in  the  large  abolition  of 
duties  made  during  Lord  Aberdeen's  ministry 
(1853). 

In  1852-53,  dissension  arose  between  Russia 
and  Turkey  regarding  the  rights  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  Churches  to  preferable  access  to  the 
"holy  places"  in  Palestine.  The  Emperor  of 
Russia,  resenting  concessions  made  to  French 
devotees,  sent  Prince  Menschikoff  to  Constanti- 
nople to  demand  redress,  and  not  being  satisfied, 
war  was  declared,  June  26,  1853.  On  the  plea 
that  it  was  impossible  to  leave  Russia  a  free  hand 


HISTORY 


53 


in  dealing  with  Turkey,  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain formed  an  alliance  against  Russia,  March  28, 
1854.  The  invasion  of  the  Crimea  followed ;  sev- 
eral important  battles  (Alma,  Balaclava,  Inker- 
man)  took  place,  resulting  in  favor  of  the  allies, 
till  at  length  Sebastopol  fell  (1855),  and  peace 
was  signed  the  following  year  at  Paris.  Russia 
ceded  a  part  of  Bessarabia  to  Turkey,  and  con- 
sented to  the  free  navigation  of  the  Danube  and 
the  neutrality  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Immediately  after  the  Crimean  War  came  the 
mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  in  India.  Seventy  thou- 
sand British  troops  were  required  to  suppress 
the  rebellion.  In  1858,  the  sovereignty  over  the 
British  possessions  was  transferred  by  parlia- 
ment from  the  East  India  Company  to  the 
Crown.  Wars  with  China  (1858  and  1860), 
during  which  Canton  was  bombarded  and  Pekin 
taken  by  the  united  forces  of  France  and  Britain, 
opened  up  five  new  Chinese  ports  to  trade. 
The  American  Civil  War  seriously  interfered 
with  the  cotton-trade  in  Lancashire,  causing 
widespread  distress.  The  Fenian  movement 
(1861-7),  whose  object  was  the  separation  of 
Ireland  from  the  United  Kingdom,  occasioned 
some  excitement. 

Parliamentary  reform  was  attempted  by  sev- 
eral governments  without  success,  un+il  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Earl  of  Derby  in  1867  passed  a 
measure  establishing  the  principle  of  household 
■  suffrage.  This  year  also  saw  the  passing  of  the 
act  by  which  the  Dominion  of  Canada  was  con- 
stituted. In  1867,  the  Abyssinian  expedition 
set  out,  and  effected  its  object  —  the  relief  of 
English  captives  —  in  the  spring  of  1868.  In  the 
same  year  Lord  Derby  was  succeeded  by  Mr. 
Disraeli  as  leader  of  the  Conservative  party, 
then  in  office.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  a  gen- 
eral election  put  the  Liberals  in  power.  In  1869, 
Mr.  Gladstone's  administration  passed  a  bill  for 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  In 
1870,  an  Irish  Land  Law  Bill,  for  the  regulation 
of  the  relations  between  landlord  and  tenant, 
became  law;  and  an  act  of  parliament  estab- 
lishing a  national  system  of  education  for  Eng- 
land was  passed.  In  1871,  the  purchase  of 
commissions  in  the  army  was  abolished.  Next 
followed  the  Ballot  Act  and  the  Scotch  Educa- 
tion Act.  Early  in  1874,  Mr.  Gladstone  dis- 
solved Parliament,  and  a  large  Conservative 
majority  being  returned,  Mr.  Disraeli  (after- 
wards Earl  of  Beaconsfield)  again  became  pre- 
mier. The  Ashantee  War,  begun  the  previous 
year,  was  brought  to  a  successful  termination 
early  in  1874.  Tn  1876,  the  title  of  Empress  of 
India  was  added  to  the  titles  of  the  queen.  Dur- 
ing the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-78  Britain 
remained  neutral,  but  took  an  important  part  in 
the  settlement  effected  by  the  Berlin  Congress, 
and  acquired  from  Turkey  the  right  to  occupy 
and  administer  Cyprus.  Then  followed  a  war  in 
Afghanistan,  a  war  with  the  Kaffirs  of  Zululand, 
and  a  brief  war  with  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal. 

A  new  parliament  was  returned  in  1880  with 
a  large  Liberal  majority,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  once 
more  became  premier.  This  parliament  passed 
a  land-act  for  Ireland  (1881),  an  act  for  putting 
down  crime  in  Ireland  (1882),  a  reform  act  equal- 
izing the  borough  and  county  franchise  (1884), 
and  a  redistribution  of   seats  act  (1885)  —  all 


important.  The  intervention  of  Britain  in  Egyp- 
tian affairs  led  to  the  bombardment  of  Alexan- 
dria by  the  British  fleet  (July,  1882)  and  the  send- 
ing of  an  army  into  Egypt  to  quell  the  rebellion 
headed  by  Arabi  Pasha;  the  rising  under  the 
Mahdi  in  the  Soudan  caused  British  troops  tobe 
despatched  to  Suakim,  and  another  force  to  be 
sent  by  way  of  the  Nile  (in  the  autumn  of 
1884)  to  relieve  General  Gordon  at  Khartoum, 
an  object  which  it  was  too  late  to  accomplish. 
A  new  parliament  was  elected  in  the  end  of  1885, 
and  for  a  brief  period  Lord  Salisbury  was  premier 
as  he  had  latterly  been  in  the  preceding  parlia- 
ment, but  in  February,  1886,  he  made  way  for 
Mr.  Gladstone.  On  March  29th,  Mr.  Gladstone 
gave  notice  of  his  intention  to  introduce  a  bill 
which  would  establish  a  separate  Irish  legisla- 
tive body,  and  withdraw  the  Irish  members 
from  the  Imperial  Parliament.  A  determined 
opposition  was  organized,  and  a  section  of  the 
Liberal  party,  headed  by  men  mostly  old  col- 
leagues of  Mr.  Gladstone,  operated  with  the 
Conservatives  and  succeeded  in  throwing  out 
the  bill  on  its  second  reading.  The  result  was 
a  general  election,  in  which  the  Unionists,  or 
those  opposed  to  the  bill,  had  a  great  majority. 
The  Conservative  party  assumed  office,  with 
the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  as  head.  A  criminal 
law  amendment  act  for  Ireland  (1887),  and  a 
local  government  act  for  England  (1888),  were 
passed.  In  1887,  the  jubilee  of  the  Queen  was 
celebrated.  The  elections  in  1892  resulted  in  a 
Liberal  victory  and  Mr.  Gladstone  became  again 
premier.  In  1893,  Lord  Salisbury  was  returned 
to  power.  October  11,  1899,  war  was  declared 
by  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free 
State,  the  aim  being  the  destruction  of  the 
British  paramountcy  in  South  Africa;  this  led 
to  the  annexation  of  those  states  by  the  British, 
after  a  fierce  contest,  in  1900.  In  1900,  a  new 
parliament  was  elected,  with  a  slightly  increased 
Conservative  majority.  Victoria  died  January 
22,  1901,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edward  VII. 

In  1902,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  with 
A.  J.  Balfour  as  premier.  The  Balfour  ministry 
was  succeeded  in  1905  by  that  of  Sir  Henry 
Campbell-Bannerman,  which,  in  turn,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Asquith  ministry  in  1908.  The 
visit  of  King  Edward  to  Germany  in  1906,  and 
of  Emperor  William  to  England  in  1907,  did 
much  to  secure  an  amicable  understanding 
between  those  two  powers.  The  complete 
autonomy  of  Australia  was  recognized  in  1907. 
In  1908,  the  Old  Age  Pensions  act  was  passed. 
The  rejection  by  the  Lords  of  important  meas- 
ures of  social  and  industrial  reform  proposed  by 
the  government  led,  however,  to  demands  for 
the  curtailment  of  the  powers  of  the  Upper 
House.  Parliament  was  finally  prorogued  in 
January,  1910,  and  in  the  new  election  the 
Liberals  were  returned  with  one  vote  over  the 
Unionists,  their  opponents.  The  death  of 
Edward,  on  May  16th,  interrupted  the  political 
warring  of  the  parties  only  temporarily,  and 
George  V.  finally  dissolved  Parliament  in 
November  and  summoned  a  new  Parliament 
(elected  in  December)  which  met  in  January, 
1911,  in  which  the  Liberals  were  again  returned. 
The  past  two  years  have  also  witnessed  increased 
and  violent  agitation  by  women  suffragists. 


54 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


EVENTS   OF  HUMAN   PROGRESS 

I.     FROM    THE    CREATION    TO    THE    BIRTH    OF    CHRIST— B.  C. 

II.     FROM    THE    BIRTH    OF    CHRIST    TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME  —  A.  D. 

Dates  and  events  at  the  dawn  of  history  are  involved  in  much  doubt.  At  best  they  are  mere  approxima- 
tions and  must  be  interpreted  in  that  Hght.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  places  the  Creation  B.  C.  4700;  the 
Septuagint,  5872;  Josephus,  4658;  the  Talmudists,  5344;  Scaliger,  3950;  Petavius,  3984;  and  Dr.  Hales,  5411. 
The  Hebrew  account  is  followed  by  Usher,  and  is  here  followed  as  the  most  generally  accepted  standard. 


B.C. 

FROM    THE    CREATION    TO    THE    DELUGE  — 1656  TEARS 

4004 

Creation  of  the  World. 
Fall  of  Man. 
Birth  of  Cain. 

3875 

Death  of  Abel,   the  first 

subject  of 

• 

death. 

Cain  builds  a  city,  which  he  calls 

According    to   Usher,  the 

3874 

Seth  born,  third  son  of  Adam. 

Enoch. 

antediluvian  period  was  al- 

3769 

Enos  born. 

He  introduces  use  of  weights  and 
measures. 

most  as  long  as  that  since 
the  birth  of  Christ.     Of  the 

3679 

Cainan  born. 

Polygamy  introduced. 

progress    of    knowledge   and 

3609 

Mahalaleel  born. 

Jabal,  the  first  to  build  a  tent  for 

the  arts  during  that    period 

3544 

Jared  born. 

habitation,  and  to  use  cattle  for 

nothing    is    known    beyond 

purposes  of  husbandry. 

what  is  recited  in  the  adja- 

3382 

Enoch  born. 

Jubal  invented  the  harp  and  the 

cent  column,      except      that 

3317 

Methuselah  born. 

organ,  first  stringed  and  wind 

ship-building,   caulking,  and 

3130 

Lamech  born. 

instruments. 

the   use   of   pitch,   or  paint. 

Tubal-Cain  discovered  the  mode 

simple  measures,  and  of  doors 

3074 

Death  of  Adam  at  age  of  930  years. 

of    preparing   and  using  iron. 

and   windows,   were   known. 

3017 

Enoch  translated. 

brass,  and  other  metals. 

They  imply,  in  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  use  of  man,  other 

2948 

Noah  born. 

Naamah  introduced  the  arts  of 

spinning  and  weaving. 

arts,  and  a  considerable  ad- 

2468 

Building  of  the  Ark  begur 

. 

vance  in  science  and  mechan- 

2348 
2347 

The  Deluge. 

ics. 

FROM    THE    DELUGE    TO    TI3IE    OF    MOSES 

Arts  of  Civilization 

The  Hebrews 

Asia 

Africa  and  Europe 

Wine    made    by     Noah 

2347.  Dispersion   of   the 

2356.  Yaou  extends 

from  the  grape. 

descendants  of 
Noah. 

Those  of  Shem  prob- 
ably in  Asia,  of  Ham 
in  Africa,  and  of  Ja- 
phet  in  Europe. 

the  Empire  of 
China. 

2247 

Bricks    made,    and    ce- 
ment   used     to    unite 
them. 

2247.  Building     of     the 

Tower  of  Babel. 
2245.  Babylon     founded 

2234 

Astronomical       observa- 

by  Nimrod,    son   of 

tions  begun  at  Baby- 

Cush and  grandson     2207.  China.     First 

lon. 

of  Ham. 

imperial  dynasty 

2188.  Misraim  (Menes), 

Nineveh  founded 

of  Hia  begins. 

the  son  of  Ham, 

by  Ashur,  son  of 

Fohi  (probably 

builds  Memphis,  in 

Shem. 

Noah)  is  men- 
tioned as  the 
first  Chinese 
Monarch. 
2124.  Belus  reigns  in 

Egypt,  and  begins 
the  Egyptian  mon- 
archy. 

2122 

Athotes,   son   of   Menes, 
invents  hieroglyphics. 

Babylon. 

2111.  Thebes  founded 

2100 

Sculpture    and    painting 
employed  to  commem- 
orate  the   exploits   of 
Osymandyas. 

by  Busiris. 
2100.  Osymandyas,  the 
first  warlike  king, 
passes  into  Asia  and 
conquers  Bactria. 

2095 

Pyramids  and  canals  in 
Egypt.  Geometry  used. 

2069.  Ninus,  son  of 
Belus,  reigns  in 
Nineveh. 

2059.  Ninus  estab- 
lishes the  Assy- 
rian Empire. 

2017.  Semiramis  en- 

2089. Sicyon,  the  first 
Kingdom  of  Greece, 
founded  by  Egialus, 
or  Inachus. 

2085.  Egypt  conquered 
by  the  shepherd 
kings  of  Phenicia; 
who  hold  it  260 
years. 

2048.  Colony  of  Pheni- 
cians  land  in  Ire- 
land (?). 

2042.  Uramus  arrives  in 
Greece. 

1998 

Ching  Hong  teaches  the 

larges  and  embel- 

Chinese the  art  of  hus- 

1996. Abraham  born. 

lishes  Babylon, 

bandry,    and    how    to 

and  makes  it  the 

make  bread  from  wheat 

seat  of  empire. 

and  wine  from  rice. 

1975.  Semiramis  in- 
vades Lybia, 
Ethiopia,  and 
India. 

HISTORY 


55 


B.  C. 


FROM   THE   DELUGE   TO   TIME   OP   MOSES 


B.  C. 


Arts  of  Civilization 


Tlie  Hebrews 


Asia 


Africa  and  Europe 


1920 


1891 


1822 


1588 
1582 


1580 


1506 
1494 


Gold  and  silver  first  men- 
tioned as  money. 


Letters     first     used 
Egypt  by  Syphoas. 


Memnon      invents      the 
Egyptian  alphabet. 


Atlas,   the  astronomer. 
The    chronology    of    the 

Arundelian  marbles 

begins. 
The  cymbal  used  at  the 

feasts  of  Cybele. 


The    flute    invented    by 
Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian. 

Ericthoneus  teaches  the 
Athenians  husbandry. 


1921.  The  call  of  Abra- 
ham. 

1897.  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah destroyed. 

1896.  Isaac  born. 


1836.  Jacob    and    Esau 

born. 
1824.  Abraham  dies, 

aged  172'. 

1729.  Joseph  sold   into 

Egypt. 
1715.  Is  made  governor 

under  Pharaoh. 

1699.  Death  of  Jacob. 
1635.  Death  of  Joseph. 


1577.  Israelites     perse- 
cuted in  Egypt. 
1574.  Aaron  born. 
1571.  Moses  born. 


1937.  The  Arabs 
seize  Nineveh. 


1766.  The  second 
Chinese  Imperial 
dynasty  begins. 


1491.  God  sends  Moses 
to  Egypt  to  deliver 
the  Israelites. 

The  Ten  Plagues 
in  Egypt. 

The  Exodus  of 
the  Israelites  from 
Egypt. 


1546.  Troy  founded 
by  Scamander. 
The  Chinese. 
Dark  Ages. 

1500.  Northern  In- 
dia invaded  and 
conquered  by  the 
Aryans  between 
this  date  and 
lOOfi. 


1938.  Lake  Moeris  con- 
structed. 


1856.  Inachus  plants  a 
colony  in  Argos. 


1710.  Colony  of  Arca- 
dians emigrate  into 
Italy. 

1618.  Sesostris  reigns  in 
Egypt. 


1556.  Rameses-Miamun 
reigns  in  Egypt. 

1556.  Athens  founded  by 
Cecrops. 

1520.  Corinth  founded. 

1516.  Sparta  founded. 

1507.  Areopagus  estab- 
lished in  Athens. 


1493.  Thebes,  in  Boeo- 
tia,  founded  by  Cad. 
mus,  a  Phenician, 
who  introduces  the 
alphabet  into  Greece. 


FROM   TIME    OF   MOSES   TO   TIME    OF    CYRUS  — B.  C. 


1490 
1486 


1370 


1263 


Arts  of  Civilization 


t 
Crockery  made  by 

Egyptians   and 

Greeks. 
Ericthoneus  introduces 

first  chariot. 


Bucklers  used  in  single 
combat. 

Music  and  poetry  cul- 
tivated in  Greece. 


Temple  of  Apollo  at 

Delphi  built. 
Jason  leads  first  naval 

expedition  on  record. 


The  Hebrews 


1491.  Moses  gives  the  law  at 
Mt.  Sinai. 


1453.  Death  of  Aaron. 
1451.  Death  of  Moses. 

Joshua  conquers  Canaan 


1343.  Eglon,  King  of  Moab,  en- 
slaves Israel. 


1305.  Israel  subdued  by  King 
of  Canaan. 

1285.  Deborah  and  Barak  de- 
feat the  Canaanites. 

1249.  Gideon  conquers  the 
Midianites. 


Asia  and  Africa 


1491.  Pharaoh  and 
his  army 
drowned  in  the 
Red  Sea. 

1485.  Egyptus  reigns 
and  gives  name 
to  the  country. 


1449.  Ericthoneus 
reigns  in  Troy. 


1376.  Sethos  reigns 

in  Egypt. 
1374.  Troas,  King  of 

Troy. 


1322.  Rameses  II. 
(Sesostris)  con- 
quers Ethiopia. 

1314.  Ilus,  son  of 
Troas,  founds 
Ilium. 

1252.  Second  Assy- 
rian dynasty. 


Europe 


1457.  Kingdom  of 
Mycene  founded. 

1453.  First  Olympic 
games  at  Elis. 

1400.  Minos  reigns 
in  Crete. 

1397.  Corinth  be- 
comes a  king- 
dom under  Sisy- 
phus. 

1356.  Eleusinian 
mysteries  insti- 
tuted by  Eumol- 
pus. 


1266.  CEdipus,  King 

of  Thebes. 
1263.  Argonautio 

Expedition  of 

Jason. 


66 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACT9 


B.C. 

FROM 

TIME   OF   MOSES   TO   TIME   OF   CYRUS  — B.  C. 

1240 

Arts  of  Civilization 

The  Hebrews 

Asia  and  Africa 

Europe 

The  axe,  wedge,  wim- 

1240. Troy  taken  by 

ble,  and  lever,  also 

the  Argonauts. 

1239.   Latinus  reigns 

masts  and  sails  for 

in  Italy. 

ships,  invented  by 

1235.  Theseus 

Daedalus  of  Athens. 

1233.  Carthage 

founded  by   the 
Tyrians. 

reigns  in  Athens 
for  30  years. 
1225.  First  Theban 

1224 

Game  of  backgammon 
invented  by  Palame- 

1220.   Priam,  King  of 

War. 

des  of  Greece. 

Troy. 
1194.  The  Trojan 

1216.  Second  The- 
ban War. 

1213.  Helen  of  Troy 
carried  off  by 

1161.  Israel  enslaved  by  the 

War  begins. 

Theseus,    mar- 

Philistines. 

1140.  Tiglath-Pile- 

ries  Menelaus. 

Samson  born. 

ser  real  founder 

1136.  Samson  slays  1,000 

of  the  Assyrian 

PhiUstines. 

Empire 

1124.  Troy  taken. 
1123.  Chow  dynasty 

1152.  Alba  Longa 
built  by  As- 
canius. 

1124.  .lEolian  migra- 
tion. 

1116.  Samuel,  last  Judge  of 

begins  in  China. 

Thebes,  capi- 

1115 

Mariner's  compass 
known  in  China. 

Israel. 

tal  of  BcEotia, 
founded. 
1104.  Return  of  the 

1100 

Dictionary  of  Chinese 

Heraclidce. 

completed  by  Pa- 

1095.  Saul  becomes  King  of 

End  of  King- 

out-she. 

Israel. 
1085.  David  born. 

1055.  Death  of  Saul;  accession 

of  David. 
1048.  David  King  of  all  Israel. 

1042.  The  Ark  removed  to 

Jerusalem. 
1036.  Revolt  of  Absalom. 
1033.  Solomon  born. 
1016.  Death  of  David. 

1044.  Ionian  emi- 
grants settle  in 
Asia  Minor. 

dom  of  Mycene. 

1070.  Heremon,  of 
Gallicia,  con- 
quers Ireland. 

1060.  Athens  gov- 
erned by 
Archons. 

1015 

Minos  gives  Crete  his 
code  of  laws. 

1015.  Solomon  annointed 

ICing. 
1012.  Solomon  begins  the 

Temple. 
1004.  Dedication  of  Temple. 

1000 

Solomon  extends  his 
commerce  to  India, 
via  Red  Sea,  and  to 
the  shores  of  the  At- 
lantic, via  Straits  of 
Gibraltar;  builds  Pal- 
myra,  Baalbec,   and 
other  cities. 

1000.  Solomon  and 
Hiram,  King  of 
Tyre,  form  an  al- 
liance ;  also  Solo- 
mon and  Pha- 
raoh. 
986.  Utica  built. 

Samos  built. 

976.  Capys  reigns 
in  Alba  Longa. 

975.  Death  of  Solomon. 

Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

Two  kingd 

oms  formed. 

Israel 

Judah 

975.  Jero- 

916 

The  Rhodians  begin 
navigation  laws. 

971.  Shishak, 
King  of 
Egypt,  takes 
Jerusalem. 

boam  estab- 
lishes idola- 
try. 

918.  Ahaband 
Jezebel. 

901.  The  Syri- 
ans besiege 
Samaria. 

896.  Elijah 
translated 
to  heaven. 

971.  Shishak  (Se- 
sostus  of  Egypt) 
plunders  Jerusa- 
lem. 
Homer  born  (?). 

935.  Bacchus, 

King  of  Corinth. 

895.  Tiberinus, 
King  of  Alba, 

886 

Homer's  poems 

brought  into  Greece. 

888.  Philis- 
tines plun- 
der Jerusa- 

drowned in  the 
river  Albula, 
which  is  thence 

lem. 

called  the  Tiber. 

884 

Lycurgus  reforms  the 

884.  Usurpa- 
tion and 

884.  Jehu, 

constitution  of 

King. 

Sparta. 

death  of  At- 

869 

Gold  and  silver  coined 
by  Phidon,  ruler  of 

haUah. 

864.  Romulus, 
King  of  Alba 

Argos. 

840.  Jehoash 
defeats 
King  Ben- 
hadad  of 

825.  Dynasty  of 
the  Tanites  in 
Egypt. 

820.  Arbaces, 

Longa. 

Syria. 

King  of  Assyria. 

HISTORY 


57 


B.  C. 

FROM    TIME   OF   MOSES   TO   TIME   OF   CYRUS  — B.  C. 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Judah 

Israel 

Asia  and  Africa 

Europe 

814.  The  Kingdom 

797.  Ardyssus,  first 

of  Macedon 

786 

Corinthians  employ  tri- 
remes or  vessels  with 
three  banks  of  oars. 

King  of  Lydia. 

founded  by 
Caramus. 

772 

Sculpture  first  men- 
tioned among  the 

770.  Pul  in- 

Egyptian arts. 

vades  Israel, 

769.  Syracuse 

and  is  bribed 

767.  Sardanapalus, 

founded  by 

to  depart. 

King  of  Nineveh. 
Media  subjected 
to  Assyria. 

747.  Era  of  Na- 
bonazzar,  Assy- 
rian Empire  de- 

Archias of 
Corinth. 

753.  Building  of 
Rome. 

750.  Sabine  War. 

747.  Union  of  Ro- 
mans and  Sa- 

bines. 

741.  Pekah, 

stroyed. 

743.  First  Messin- 

King  of  Is- 

ian War. 

rael,  be- 

737. Sebacon  in- 

sieges Jeru- 

vades Egypt. 

salem,  120,- 

736.  Tiglath-pil- 

000  of  his 

eser  conquers 

men  slain. 

Syria  and  part 

726.  Heze- 

of  Israel. 

kiah  abol- 

721 

First  eclipse  of  the 

ishes   idola- 

721. Samaria 

721.  Shalmanezer. 

^ 

moon  observed  by 

try. 

taken  by  the 

Kingof  Nineveh, 

the  Chaldeans  at 

Assyrians ; 

takes  Samaria 

Babylon. 

717.  Heze- 

Tribes  car- 

and carries  the 

Religion  of  Buddha  in- 

kiah, King. 

ried  into 

Ten  Tribes  into 

716.  Romulus  re- 

troduced in  India. 

Hebrews 

captivity. 

captivity. 

puted  murdered. 

717.  Sennachar 

ib.  King  of  Nineveh. 

712.  Sennach- 

arib  invades 

710 

Roman  Calendar  re- 
formed; year  divided 
into  12  months  in- 
stead of  10  as  before. 

Judah. 
711.  His  army 
(185,000) 
destroyed  by 
pestilence. 

710.  Media  bee 

omes  a  kingdom. 

685 

Iambic  verse  intro- 

696. Manas- 

685.  Second  Mes- 

duced. 

seh,  King. 

sinian  War. 

680 

Chess  invented. 

680.  Babylon  a 

nd  Nineveh  are  united 

under  Esarh 

laddon. 

678.  Argseus,  first 

/ 

677.  Manas- 

King  of  Macedon. 

660 

Attempt  to  discover  the 
primitive  language  of 
mankind. 

seh,  carried 
to  Babylon, 
is  afterward 

Babylonia 

648.  Saracus,  I 

1. 
Cing 

Egypt 

660.  Psammet- 

672.  Tullius  Hos- 
tilius.  King  of 

640 

Spherical  form  of  the 
earth  and  true  cause 
of  lunar  eclipses 
taught  by  Thales, 
who  also  discovered 
the  electricity  of 

restored. 

of  Babylon  a 
Nineveh. 

nd 

icus.  King 
of  Egypt. 
Memphis 

Rome. 
664.  First  sea- 
fight  on  record 

becomes  the 
capital. 

—  between  the 
Corinthians 
and  Corcyreans. 

621 

amber. 
Draconian  code  form- 

• 

612.  Nineveh  a 
second  time 

658.  Byzantium 
founded. 

610 

ulated. 
Pharaoh-Necho  begins 
a  canal  between  the 
Mediterranean  and 
Red  Sea.    Many  lives 
lost  in  the  attempt. 
He  also  sent  out  a 
Phenician  fleet  which 
circumnavigated 

606.  Conquest 
of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

destroyed. 
606.  Nebuchad 
zar  defeats  > 
of  Egypt,  ii 
vades  Judea 
takes  Jerusa 

lez- 
'echo 
1- 
and 
lem. 

610.  Pharaoh- 
Necho,  King 
of  Egypt. 

600.  Psammis, 
King  of 
Egypt. 

640.  Latins  con- 
quered by  the 
Romans. 

Philip  I., 
King  of  Macedon. 

616.  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  King  of 

Africa. 

591.  Ezekiel 
prophesies 
in  Chaldea. 

604.  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  Kinj 
of  Babylon. 

599.  Birth  of  C 

yins. 

• 

Roriie. 
602.  Illyria  con- 
quered by 
Macedon. 

594 

Solon's  code  supersedes 

594.  Pharaoh- 

594.     Solon,  Archon 

that  of  Draco  in 

589.  Invades 

Hophra, 

of  Athens. 

Athens. 

588.  Captivity 
of  Judah 
completed. 

Jerusalem 
destroyed 
and  the 
Temple 
burnt. 

Phenicia. 

King  of 
Egypt. 

581.  Egypt  in- 
vaded by 
Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

578 

Money  coined  at  Rome 
by  Servius  Tullius. 

579.  Jews  car- 
ried to 
Babylon. 

578.  Servius  Tullius, 
King  of  Rome. 

58 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


B.  C. 

FROM    TIME    OF    MOSES    TO    TIME    OF    CYRUS  — B.  C. 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Persia 

Babylonia 

Egypt 

Europe 

572.  Takes  Tyre. 

, 

569.  Amasis, 

668 

School  of  sculpture 

King  of 

opened  at  Athens. 

Egypt,  makes 
alliance  with 
Greece. 
536.  Pythagorus 

567.  Conquest  of 
the  Etrurians 
by  Rome. 

565.   First  census 

562 

First  comedy  acted  at 

562.  Croesus, 

visits  Egypt. 

of  Rome; 

Athens. 

King  of  Lydia, 

84,700  citizens. 

Dials  invented  by 

560.  Cyrus,  King 

subjects  Asia 

Anaximander  of 

of  Persia. 

Minor. 

539.  The  Phocians 

Miletus. 

548.  Cyrus  con- 

einigrate to 

540 

Corinthian  order-of 

quers  Lydia. 

Gaul  and  build 

architecture  invent- 

538. Takes  Baby 

-    538.  Babylon 

Massilia  (now 

ed  by  Calimaehus. 

Ion. 

taken  by 

Marseilles). 

535 

Thespis  performs  first 
tragedy  at  Athens. 

Cyrus,  the 

535.  Made  tribu- 

Persian. 

tary  by 

Cyrus. 

536.  Persian  Empire  founded  by 

Cyrus,  composed  of  Assyria, 

Media,  and  Persia. 

Captivity  of  the  Jews  ended. 

. 

535.  Temple  rebuilt  at  Jerusalem. 

529.   Death  of  Cyrus;   Cambyses, 

528.  Thrace  comes 

King  of  Persia. 

into  view. 

FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CYRUS    TO    THE    DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER  — B.  C. 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Persia 

Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome,  Etc. 

530.  Cadiz  built 

527 

First  public  li- 

527. Pisistratus 

by  the  Car- 

brary founded 

525.  Cambyses  con- 

dies, after  seiz- 

thaginians. 

at  Athens 

quers  Egypt 
and  makes  it  a 
Persian  prov- 
ince. 

Psammeticus, 
last  King  of 
Egypt. 
522.  Darius  I., 

ing  Athens. 

522 

Confucius,  the 

Chinese  philos- 

King of  Persia. 

510.  Followers  of 

opher. 

Pisistratus  ex- 

509 

Abolition  of  regal 

pelled;  Democ- 

509.    The  Tar- 

government  at 

508.  Darius  con- 

racy established 

quins  ex- 

Rome, and  es- 

quers India. 

at  Athens. 

pelled  from 
Rome. 

tablishment  of  _ 

a  Republic  at 

Brutus  and 

Rome. 

CoUatinus 
first  Consuls. 
507.  The  Capitol 

500 

Phenician  letters 

500.  The  lonians 

497.  Alexander 
I.,  King. 

finished. 

carried  to  Ire- 

revolt and  burn 

land  from 

Sardis. 

494.  Tribunes  of 

Spain. 

the  people 

The  Temple  of 

chosen. 

Minerva  built. 

491.  Coriolanus 

490.  Darius  sends 

490.  Battle  of  Mara- 

banished. 

an  army  of  500,- 

thon. 

000  into  Greece. 

487.  Egypt  revolts 

48,3 

Etrurians  excel  in 

—  is  subdued  by 

483.  Aristides  ban- 

music, drama, 

Xerxes. 

ished. 

and  architec- 

486. Xerxes,  King 

ture. 

of  Persia. 
481.  Expedition  of 

Xerxes  into 

480.   Battle  of  Ther- 

480.  Carthagini- 

Greece; destroys 

mopylse. 

ans  defeated. 

Athens. 

Battle  of  Sala- 
mis  and  defeat  of 
Persians. 

Hamilcar 
killed  in  battle. 

479.  Returns  de- 

479.  Battle  of 

feated. 

Platea ;     Persian 
fleet  destroyed 
at  Mycale. 
476.  Themistocles 
rebuilds  Athens. 

465.  Xerxes  assas- 

465. Third  Messini- 

sinated.     Artax- 

an  War. 

erxes  I.,  King. 

461.  Pericles  im- 

460 

Voyage  of  the 

presses  himself 

460.  Cincinnatus, 

Carthaginians 

456.  Esther. 

upon  Greek  af- 

Consul. 

to  Britain  for 

fairs. 

tin. 

449.  Persians  de- 
feated at  Sala- 

mis. 

1                                   1 

HISTORY 


59 


B.  C. 

FROM   THE 

DEATH    OF   CYRUS   TO   THE   DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER  — B.  C. 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Persia 

Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome,  Etc. 

457.  Long  walls  of 

Athens  begun. 

456.  Cincinnatus, 

Dictator. 
451.  Laws  of 

445.  Jerusalem  re- 

the 12  tables. 

441 

The  battering 

built  by    Nehe- 

ram  invented. 

miah. 
440.  Siege  of  Samos 
by  Pericles. 

431.  Peloponnesian 
War. 

429.  Death  of  Peri- 
cles, having  gov- 
erned Athens  40 
years. 

416.  War  with  Sici- 

413. Archelaus, 

413.  Egypt  re- 

ly. 

"Patron  of 
Learning," 

gains  inde- 
pendence. 

411.  Athens  gov-  • 

seizes  the 

411.     Roman 

erned  by  the 

throne. 

famine. 

"400." 

Alliance  of  Spar- 

ta with  Persia. 

401.  Cyrus  the 

408.  Capture  of 

Younger  defeat- 

Byzantium. 

407.  Carthagin- 

ed.    Retreat  of 

ians  War  on 

the  10,000  under 

Sicily. 

Xenophon. 
400.  Delhi  founded. ' 

400.  Return  of  the 

399 

Catapults  invent- 
ed by  Diony- 

10,000. 

399.  Archelaus 
murdered. 

siua. 

392.  The  Illy- 
rians  invade 

390.     Rome  de- 
stroyed by 

387.  Greek  cities  of 

Macedonia, 

the  Gauls. 

380 

Treatise  on  conic 

Asia  made  tribu- 

and possess 

376.  War  be- 

sections by 

tary  to  Persia. 

the  throne. 

tween  patrici- 

Aristseus. 

t 

ans  and  ple- 
bians.   Lucius 
Sextus  first 

368 

A  celestial  globe 

370.  Predominance 

plebian  con- 

brought into 

of  Thebes. 

sul. 

Greece  from 

371.  Curule 

Egypt. 

magistrates 

360 

Philippics  of  De- 

360. War  of  the 

360.  Philip  II., 

appointed. 

mosthenes  de- 

Allies  against 

King;   he  in- 

369. Military 

.   livered. 

Athens. 

stitutes  the 

tribunes  abol- 

Decline of  Gre- 

Macedonian 

ished. 

cian  republics. 

phalanx;  de- 
feats the 
Athenians. 

356.  Second  Sacred 

356.  Philip  II. 

War. 

conquers 
Thrace  and 
lUyria. 

Birth  of  Alex- 
ander the 

343 

Aristotle  writes 

Great. 

343.  Samnian 

his  philosophi- 

344. Aristotle  visits 

344.  Philip  subdues 

War,  contin- 

cal works. 

Mitylene. 

Sparta. 
339.  War  with 

341.  War 

against  the 
Athenians. 
Siege  of  By- 
zantium. 

ued  53  years. 

340.  War  with 
the  Latins. 

338.  Royal  family 
destroyed  with 

Macedonia. 

338.  Philip 

master  of 

poison. 

Greece. 

338.  Athenians 
and  Thebans 
defeated  at 
Chaeronea. 

337.  First 

plebian  ptse- 
tor. 

336 

Eclipses  calcu- 

336. Darius  III., 

336.  Philip  slain. 

336.  Philip  as- 

lated by  Calip- 

King. 

sassinated  by 

pus,  the  Athen- 

Pausanius; 

ian. 

- 

Alexander 
III.,  sur- 
named  the 
Great,  suc- 
ceeds to  the 
throne. 

60 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


B.C. 

FROM   THE   DEATH   OF   CYRUS   TO   THE   DEATH   OF  ALEXANDER  — B.  C. 

335 

Arts  of 
CiTilizatlon 

Persia 

Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome,  Etc. 

Caustic  art  in- 

335. Greeks  con- 

335. Enters 

vented. 

334.  Alexander  the 
Great  invades 
Persia.    (See  un- 

quered by  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 
Thebes  destroy- 
ed. 

Greece,  con- 
quers Greeks, 
and  succeeds 
to  head  of 
army  against 
Persians. 
334.  Invades 
Persia. 
Defeats 

der  Macedonia.) 

Darius  at 

332.  Caledonian 

331.  Darius  III. 

Granicus. 

monarchy 
(Scotland) 
founded  by 

murdered.  Alex- 
ander founds  the 

Grecian  or  Mace- 

~ 

Fergus  I. 

donian  mon- 

333. Battle  of  Issus. 

'       Roman  treaty 

archy. 

Battle  of  Arbela. 

332.  Egypt  conquered  by  Alexander, 
and  Alexandria  built. 

with  Alex- 
ander the 
Great. 

330.  ^schines,  the  o 

rator.  banished. 

328 

Voyage  of  Near- 

327.  Alexander  invades  India. 

327.  Second 

chus  from  the 

325.  Demosthenes  banishedi 

323.  Ptolemy  I.  restores  the  independence  of  Egypt. 

Alexander  the  Great  dies  in  Babylonia.     The  Grecian 

Samnite  War. 

Indies  to  the 

Euphrates. 

cities  revolt  from  Macedonia,  and  in  321   Antipater  be- 

comes Regent  of  Greece.     Persia  was  reconquered   from 

the  Greeks,  and  remained  tributary  to  Parthia  till  about 

A.  D.  250. 

FROM    THE    DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT    TO    THE    BIRTH 

OF    CHRIST  — B.   C. 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Rome,  Etc. 

Macedonia 

Greece 

Syria,  Judea 

Egypt, 
Cartilage 

321.  Roman 

army  sur- 
rencfers  to 

319.  Poly- 

sperchon 

the  Sam- 

succeeds 

nites. 

Antipater, 

320 

First  work  on 

320.  Sam- 

and  pro- 

320. Ptolemy 

mechanics 

nites  de- 

claims lib- 

I. carries 

written  by 

feated  at 

erty  to  the 

100,000 

Aristotle. 

Luceria. 

Grecian 
cities. 

■lews  into 
Egypt. 

317 

Commerce  of 

317.  Syra- 

317. Cassan- 

317.  Deme- 

Macedon 

cuse  and 

der  as- 

trius Pha- 

with    India, 

Sicily 

sumes  the 

lerius  gov- 

through 

usurped 

throne  of 

erns  Ath- 

Egypt. 

by  Agath- 
ocles. 

Macedon. 

ens. 
315.  Cassan- 
der 

rebuilds 
Thebes. 

312 

The  Appian 

312.  War 

312.  P.vrrhus 

312.  Seleucus  I.  retakes 

Way  con- 

with the 

II.,  great- 

Babylon. 

> 

structed. 

Etruscans. 

est  hero  of 

310 

Aqueducts 
and  baths  in 
Rome. 

his  time. 
306.  Democ- 
racy es- 

tablished   1  301.  Battle  of  Ipsus, 

301.  Phenicia 

at  Athens 

Alexander's  empire 

united  to 

300 

Euclid,  the 

by  Deme- 

divided anew  into 

Egypt. 

celebrated 

trius. 

four  parts:    Syria, 

300.  Golden 

mathemati- 

Macedon, Greece, 

Age  of  the 

cian. 

296.  Philip 
IV 

294.  Deme- 
trius mur- 
ders Alex- 

Egypt. 

Ptolemies. 

293 

Sun-dial  erect- 
ed at  Rome, 
and  time 
divided  into 
hours. 

Fabius  intro- 

ander and 
siezes 
throne  of 
Macedon. 

290 

291.  Seleucus  founds 

duces  paint- 
ing at  Rome. 

286.  Law  of 
Horten- 

286.  Lysima- 
chus,  King 

Antioch,  Edessa, 
and  Laodicea. 

283.  Death  of 

The   Colossus 

sius,  by 

of  Thrace, 

Soter. 

of  Rhodes 

which  the 

subjects 

built  by 

decrees  of 

Mace- 

Chares. 

the  people 
had  the 
force  of 
those  of 
the  senate. 

donia. 

HISTORY 

61 

B.C. 

FROM 

THE   DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER   THE   GREAT   TO    THE   BIRTH 

OF    CHRIST  — B.  C. 

285 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Rome,  Etc. 

Macedonia 

Greece 

Syria,  Judea 

Egypt, 
Carthage 

Dionysius 

287.  Lysi- 

285.  The  Scythians  in- 

founds the 

machus 

vade  Bosphorus. 

solar  year. 

reigns. 

283.  Ptolemy 

to  consist 

Philadel- 

of  365  days. 

• 

phus.  King 

5  hours,  and 

of  Egypt. 

49  minutes. 

284 

The  Septua- 
gint  begun 
at  Alexan- 
dria. 

284.  The 
Achaean 
Republic. 

283 

The  Pharos 
built  at 

281.  The  Tar- 

281.  Antiochus  Soter 

Alexandria 

en  tine 

279.  Irrup- 

succeeds Seleucus. 

first  light- 

War. 

tion  of  the 

house  on 

Gauls. 

record. 

277.  Reign  of 
Antigonus. 

274.  Pyrolius 
invades 
Mace- 
donia, de- 
feats An- 
tigonus, 
and  is 
proclaimed 
King. 

272.  Antigo- 
nus re- 
stored. 

268.  Second 

268.  Athens 

269.  Egypt 
first  sends 

267 

Ptolemy 

incursion 

taken  by 

embassa- 

makes a 

266  Rome 

of  the 

Antigonus. 

262.  Invasion  of  the 

dors  to 

canal  from 

mistress  of 

Gauls. 

Gauls. 

Rome. 

the  Nile  to 

all  Italy. 

the  Red  Sea. 

266 

Silver  money 
first  coined. 

264.  First 

250.  Parthia 

Punic  War. 

revolts 

255.  Athens 

246.  Antiochus  II. 

246.  Ptolemy 

from 

joins  the 

poisoned  by 

Eurgetes 

* 

241.  End  of 

Macedon. 

Acha?an 

his  wife. 

subdues 

first 

League. 

226.  Seleucus 

Syria. 

Punic  War. 

III.,  King  of  Syria. 

225.  The 

224 

Archimedes 
makes 

Gauls  re- 
pulsed in 
Italy. 

known  his  ' 

discoveries 

221.  Ptolemy 

in  mechan- 

Philopa- 
ter.  King. 

ics. 

220.  Philip 

220,  The  So- 

219 

Art  of  sur- 

219. Hanni- 

assists the 

cial  War 

219.   War  with 

gery  intro- 

bal takes 

Achseans. 

begins. 

Ptolemy. 

duced. 

Saguntum, 
and  crosses 
the  Alps. 

218.  Second 
Punic  War. 

Hanni- 
bal de- 
feats the 
Romans 
at  Ticinus 
and  Tre- 
bia. 

216.  Varro  at 
Cannae 
totally  de- 
feated by 
Hannibal. 

211.  Alliance 
of  Philip 
and  Han- 

211. Antiochus  the 
Great,  King  of  Syria. 

206 

Gold  coined 

206.  Cartha- 

nibal. 

206.  Spar- 

at Rome. 

ginians 
driven  out 
of  Spain. 
204.  Scipio 
carries  the 
war  into 
Africa. 

tans  de- 
feated at 
Man  tinea. 

205.  Ptolemy 
Epiphenes, 
Kmg. 

204.  Roman 

203.  Judea  conquered 

general 

by  Antiochus. 

Scipio  de- 
feats As- 
doubal 
and  Sy- 
phax  of 
Carthage. 
202.  End  of 

202 

Art  of  print- 

202. Hanni- 

ing known 
in  China. 

bal  defeat- 
ed at  bat- 
tle of  Za- 
ma.    End 

of  war. 

Second 

Punic 

War. 

62 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


B.C. 

FBOM 

THE   DEATH   OF  ALEXANDER  THE   GREAT   TO   THE   BIRTH              | 

OF   CHRIST  — B.  C. 

Arts  of 
CiTilizatton 

Rome,  Etc. 

Macedonia 

Greece 

Syria,  Judea 

Egypt, 
Carthage 

200.  Second 

Macedoni- 

199. Second 

198 

Books,  with 

an  War. 

War  with 

198.  Acha- 

198.  Jews  assist  Anti- 

198.  Egypt 

leaves  of 

Rome. 

ans  and 

ochus  in  expelling 

loses  her 

vellum,  in- 

• 

Spartans 

the  Egyptian  troops 

Syrian 

troduced  by 

join  the 

from  Jerusalem. 

posses- 

Attalus, 

Romans 

196.  Hannibal  joins 

sions. 

King  of  Per- 

against 

Antiochus. 

• 

gamus. 

188.  Syria  is 
made  a 
Roman 
province. 

179.  Reign  of 
Perseus. 

171.  Third 
War  with 
Rome. 

Macedon. 

190.  Scipio  Asiaticus 
defeats  Antiochus 
at  Magnesia. 

187.  Antiochus  killed. 
Syria  becomes  tem- 
porarily a  Roman 
province. 

Syria 

Judea 

185.  Seleu- 

181.  Plague 

cusIV., 

180.  Ptolemy 

at  Rome. 

King. 
172.  Antio- 
chus 

Philoma- 
ter.  King. 
174.  Cato's 

170 

Paper  invent- 
ed in  China. 

170.  Tiberius 

IV., 

170.  Jeru- 

embassy 

and  Caius 

King. 

salem 

to 

Gracchus. 

168.  Mace- 
don  be- 

Greatly 
hated 

plun- 
dered 

Carthage. 

167 

First  library 

167.  Census 

comes  a 

by  the 

by  An- 

opened in 

of  Rome, 

Roman 

-   Jews. 

tiochus 

Rome. 

327,000 
citizens. 

province. 

165.  Romans 

Epipha- 
nes. 

165.  Judas 

162 

Hipparchus 
fixes  the 
first  degree 
of  longitude 
and  latitude; 
founds  trig- 
onometry. 

enter 
Achaia. 

Macca- 
beus 
expels 
the 

Syrians. 
161.  Trea- 
ty with 

159 

Clepsydra  in- 
vented by 
Scipio  Nas- 
cia. 

155.  Romans  unsuccessful  in 
Spain. 

Rom- 
ans. 

152.  Massi- 
nissa  de- 
feats the 
Cartha- 
ginians. 

151.  Joint 
reign  of 

146 

Alexandria 
the  center 
of  commerce. 

149.  Third  Punic  War. 

Conquest  of  Carthage 
and  Corinth. 

Greece  annexed  to  the 
Roman  Empire. 

146.  Corinth 
destroyed 
by  the 
Romans. 
Greece 
becomes  a 

142.  Antio- 
chus 

Philo- 
mater  and 
Physcon 
in  Egypt. 
146.  Car- 
thage tak- 
en and 
destroyed 
by  the 
Romans. 

140 

Clock  wheels 
invented  by 
Ctesibius. 

Roman 
province 
under  the 

VI., 
King. 
134.  Inva- 

145. Ptolemy 
Physcon 
becomes 
sole  King 
of  Egypt. 

133 

Equestrian 
order  a  dis- 

133. Spain  becomes  a  Roman 
province. 

name 
Achaia. 

sion  of 
Judea. 

130 

tinct  class. 
Revival  of 
learning  in 
China. 

130.  Con- 
quered 
by  Par- 
thia. 

130.  John 
Hyr- 
canus 
delivers 

129.  Re- 

Judea 

129.  Physcon 

gained 

from 

driven 

by  De- 

Syria. 

from  his 

metrius 

throne  for 

II. 

cruelty. 

120 

Theory  of 
eclipses 
known  to 
Chinese. 

123.  Caius  Gracchus,  Tribune 

113.  First  great  migration   o 
nations. 

f   the   German 

128.  Pesti- 
lence in 
Egypt. 

123.  Car- 
thage 
rebuilt. 

116.  Ptolemy 
Lathyrus, 
King 
of  Egypt. 

HISTORY 


63 


B.C. 

FROM 

THE    DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT    TO    THE    BIRTH               | 

OF    CHRIST  — B.  C. 

1 

110 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Rome,  Etc. 

Syria 

Judea 

Egypt, 
Carthage 

First  sumptu- 

ary law  at 
Rome. 

104.  Teutoni  defeat  80,000  Romans  on  banks 

107.  Alex- 

of the  Rhone. 

105    War 

ander  I., 

99.  Birth  of  Julius  Ca>sar. 

with 
Egypt. 

King 

of  Egypt. 

98 

Roman 
schools  of 
oratory  on 

97.  Mith- 
ridates 
con- 

Greek mod- 

91. Social  War  in  Italy. 

quers 

els  insti- 

Capido- 

82.  Revolt 

tuted. 

88.  War  with  Pontus. 

cio. 

in  Upper 

86 

Libraries  of 

82.  Sylla  defeats  Marius  and  is  created  per- 

86. Takes 

Egypt. 
Thebes 

Athens  sent 

petual  dictator. 

Bythin- 

to Rome  by 

Plunder  of  the  temple  of  Delphi. 

ia. 

destroyed. 

Sylla. 

81.  Alex- 

79 

Posidoniua 

79.  Alex- 

ander II., 

calculates 

andra, 

King 

the  height 

Queen 

of  Egypt. 

of  the  at- 

of Jan- 

mosphere. 

75.  Bythinia  a  Roman  province. 

neus, 

74 

The  Romans 
possess  gold 
mines  in 

66.  De- 

governs 
Judea. 

Asia  Minor, 

65.  Syria  becomes  a  Roman  province. 

feated 

65.  Ptolemy 

Macedonia, 

Cicero. Consul. 

by 

Auletes, 

Sardinia, 

Pom- 

King. 

and  Gaul ; 

63.  Cataline's  conspiracy  detected  and  sup- 

pey, 

63.  Judea 

55.  Auletes 

and  silver 

pressed  by  Cicero. 

Syria 

a 

restored. 

mines  in 

passes 

Roman 

46.  The  Afri- 

Spain. 

under 

prov- 
mce. 

can  War. 

62 

Magnificent 

Rome. 

45.  Csesar 

houses  for 

rebuilds 

Roman 

60.  First  triumvirate  —  Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Csesar. 

Carthage. 

nobles 

43.  Cleopa- 

erected. 

tra  poisons 

Also  marble 

her 

theater  of 

brother 

Scaurus  to 

and  rules 

hold  30,000 

alone. 

55 

spectators. 
Iron  chain 

55.  Csesar  passes  the  Rhine,  defeats  the  Gen 

Tians  and  Gauls,  and  in- 

36.  Cleopa- 
tra ob- 

cables used 

vades  Britain. 

tains  from 

by  the  Ve- 

53. Crassus  defeated  and  killed  in  Parthia. 

Antony  a 

netians. 

51.  Csesar   completes   conquest  of  Gaul,    which  becomes   a   Roman 

grant  of 
Phenicia, 

50 

A  water  mill 

province. 

erected  on 

49.  Civil  War  between  Casar  and  Pompey.    Pompey  defeated ;  Csesar. 

Cyrene, 

the  Tiber  at 

Dictator. 

and 

Rome. 

48.  Battle  of   Pharsalia  —  Pompey   defeatec 
Pompey  in  Egypt. 

1   by   Cssar.     Death   of 

Cyprus. 
31.  Defeat 

47 

The  Alexan- 

47. Csesar  takes  Alexandria  and  conquers  Egypt. 

at  Actium. 

drian  library 

30.  Suicide 

burnt  — 

of  Antony 

400,000  vol- 

and Cleo- 

umes. 

patra. 

45 

Caesar  reforms 

30.  Egypt 

the  calendar 

44.  Csesar  assassinated  in  Roman  Senat«.     / 

intony  master  of  Rome. 

passes  to 

by  introduc- 

43. Second  triumvirate  —  Octavius  Csesar,  Marc  Antony,  and  Leoidus. 

Rome. 

ing  the  solar 

42.  Battle  of  Philippi;    defeat  and  death  of 

Brutus  and  Cassius. 

for  the  lunar 

32-31.  War  between   Antony  and  Octavius. 

By  the  battle  of  Ac- 

year. 

tium  (31),  Octavius  acquires  the  Empire. 

30 

Direct  trade 
of  Rome 
with  India. 

30.  Republic  of  Rome  becomes  a  monarchy 
4,100,000  citizens. 

.     Population  of  Rome, 

Silk  and 

linen  fac- 

tories in  the 
Empire. 
Treasures  of 

27 

27.  Titles  of  Augustus  and  Emperor  confer 

■ed  on  Octavius  for  ten 

Egyptian 

years. 

art  brought 

to  Rome. 

The  Pan- 

theon built. 

23.  Agrippa  subdues  all  Spain.     21.  Athens  fi 

nally  subjected  to  Rome. 

22 

Pantomimic 
dances  in- 
troduced on 
the  Roman 
stage. 

Aqueducts 

19 

19.  Death  of  Virgil.     18.  Parthians  defeated 

constructed 

by  Agrippa. 

64 


THE  STANDARD   DiCTICfNARY   OF  FACTS 


B.  C. 

FRO»I    THE    DEATH    OF   ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT   TO    THE    BIRTH 

OF    CHRIST  — B.  C. 

12 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Rome.  Etc. 

Roman   legi- 

ons distrib- 

uted over 

15.  Cantabria,  Auslria,  and    oth 

er  territory  conquered  by  Drusus,  is    added   to   the 

the  prov- 

Empire. 

inces  in 

fixed  camps 

13.  Augustus  assumes  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus.                                                            1 

■which  soon 

grew  into 

1 1 .  Germany  subdued  by  Germanicus.     5.  Varrus  appointed  Governor  of  Syria,  and  | 

cities  — 

Cyrenius  Governor  of  Judea. 

among 

10.  Egyptian  religion  displaces  national  religion.                                                                   | 

them  were 

Bonn  and 

Mayence. 

8 

Calendar  cor- 
rected by 
Augustus. 

4 

Birth  of  Je- 

4. Cymbelene,  King  of  Britain. 

sus,  at 

Advent  of  Christ,  four  years  before  the  so-called  Christian  Era.                                 1 

Bethlehem, 

3.  Death  of  Herod. 

. 

in  Judea. 

2.  Cscsar  confirms  the  will  of  Herod.                                                                                       1 

(According 

to  the 

chronology 

B.C. 

of  Usher.) 

A.  D. 

FROM    THE    CHRISTIAN   ERA    TO 

THE   FALL   OF   ROME  — A.  D.  1-476 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Development  of 
Ciirlstianlty 

The  Roman  Emipire 

1.  Caius  Cffisar  makes  peace  with  the  Parthians. 

Tiberius  returns  to  Rome. 

6.   Varrus,  encamped  on  the  Weser,  governs  lower 
Germany  like  a  Roman  province. 

8.  Jesus  reasons   with 

9 

Celsus  advances   the 

the  doctors. 

14.  Augustus  dies  at  Nola;    is  succeeded  by  Tibe- 

science cf  medicine. 

25.  Pontius  Pilate,  Gov- 
ernor of  Judea. 

rius  as  Emperor. 
19.  The  Jews  are  banished  from  Rome 

26 

The   Druids   in   Ger- 

26. John  the  Baptist 

26.  Thrace  becomes  a  Roman  province. 

many. 

begins  his  ministry. 
27.  Jesus  baptized  by   . 

John. 

29.  Twelve  Apostles 

sent  abroad. 

30.  Crucifixion  of  the 

30.  Agrippina  banished. 

Saviotir,  Friday,  April 

3,  at  3  P.  M. 

34.  St.   Paul  converted 

j         to  Christianity. 

37 

Appion  of  Alexan- 
dria writes  on 

37.  Tiberius  succeeded  by  Caligula,  noted  for  his 

40.  Disciples  first  called 

profligacy. 

grammar. 

Christians  at  Antioch. 
41.  Herod's  persecu- 

tions. 

48.  Census,  6.900,000. 

50 

Columella,  born  in    . 
Spain,  writes  on 
husbandry. 

50.  Paul  preaches  at 
Athens. 

59.  Paul  appeals  to 
Cspsar. 

54.  Nero,  Emperor;    a  profligate  and  tyrant. 

60.  Paul  imprisoned  in 
Rome. 

61.   Revolt  of  the  Britons  under  Queen  Boadicea. 

64 

Nero's  golden  palace 

64.   First  persecution  of 

64.  Nero  sets  fire  to  Rome;    accuses  Christians. 

built — of  great 

Christians  by  Nero. 

extient. 

Paul  visits  Jerusa- 
lem. 

66.  Jews  at  war  with 
Romans;    Paul   be- 
headed. 

70.  Destruction  of  Jeru- 

salem, by  Titus. 

77.  A  great  plague  at  Rome,  10,000  dying  in  one 

78 

The  Capitol  at  Rome 
rebuilt. 

day. 
79.  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  destroyed  by  Vesu- 

Circumnavigation 

vius. 

80 

of  Scotland. 
Paintings   executed 

80.   Agricola  governs  Britain,  reduces  Wales  and 

for  the  baths  of 

95.  Second   persecution 

enters  Caledonia. 

Titus;  the  group  of 

of  the  Christians   by 

the  Laocoon. 

Domitian. 

"HISTORY 


65 


A.  D. 


FROM   THE    CHRISTIAN  ERA  TO   THE    FALL   OF   ROME  — A.  D. 


Arts  of  Civilization 


Development  of 
Christianity 


The  Roman  Empire 


120 
132 


180 


215 


235 


274 


284 


290 


323 
330 


366 


The  Ulpian  library. 
Jurisprudence 
flourishes.     Forum 
built. 

Pillar  of  Trojan,  and 
Baths. 

Bridge  built  over  the 
Danube. 

Great   buildings   of 
Palmyra. 

The  Roman  mosaics. 

Ptolemy,  celebrated 
Egyptian   astrono- 
mer and  geogra- 
pher. 


Equestrian  statue  of 
Marcus  Aurelius. 


Caracalla  grants  right 
of  Roman  citizen- 
ship to  all  the 
provinces. 

Alexandrian  School 
of  Philosophy 
founded. 


Rome  surrounded 
with  a  wall. 


Diocletian's  Oriental 
form  of  govern- 
ment. ■  Diocletian's 
Baths. 

The  Gregorian  Code. 


Church  of  St.  Sophia 
erected  at  Constan- 
tinople. 

Constantinople  a  seat 
of  art  and  litera- 
ture. 


Forts  built  on  the 
Rhine. 


107.  Third  persecution 

by  Trajan. 
118.   Fourth   persecution 

by  Adrian. 


134.  Heresy  of  Marcion. 

150.  Canon  of  Scriptures 
fixed  about  this  time. 


202.  Fifth    persecution 
under  Severus. 


235.  Sixth    persecution 
under  Maximinus. 

250.  Seventh  persecution 
of  the  Christians. 


262.  Paul,  bishop  of  Sa- 
mosatia,  denies  the 
divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ. 


272.  Persecution     of 
Christians  under  Au- 
relian. 


283.  The  Jewish  Talmud 
composed. 

Religious  ceremo- 
nies multiplied. 

Pagan  rites  imitat- 
ed by  the  Christians. 

296.  Monks  in  Spain  and 

Egypt. 
303.  Persecution     under 

Diocletian. 

306.  Persecution  of 
Christians  stopped 
by  Constantius. 

325.  Council  of  Nice. 


337.  Eleventh  persecu- 
tion. 


373.  Bible  translated 
into  Gothic  language. 
Death  of  Athana- 


98.  Trajan,  Emperor;  Roman  Empire  at  its  greatest 
extent. 
100.  The  Huns  migrate  westward. 

117.  Hadrian,  Emperor;  makes  a  journey  through 
the  provinces;  visits  Britain  and  builds  there  a 
wall  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Firth;  builds  a  wall 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube. 


138.  Antoninus,  Emperor;  145-152,  defeats  the 
Moors,  Germans,  and  Dacians;  stops  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians. 

161.  Marcus  Aurelius,  Emperor;  169,  war  with 
Marcomanni. 

189.  The  Capitol  of  Rome  destroyed  by  lightning. 
The  Saracens  defeat  the  Romans. 

193.  Septimus  Severus,  Emperor.  A  vigorous  ruler. 
194,  besieges  Byzantium;  202,  persecutes  the 
Christians;  builds  the  wall  of  Severus  in  Britian; 
211,  dies  at  York,  in  Britain. 

223.  Artaxerxes  begins  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia. 

232.  Persian  War. 

241.  The  Franks  first  mentioned  in  history. 


251.  Confederacy  of  the  Franks  established  between 
the  Rhine  and  Elbe. 

The  Persians  victorious  in  Asia  Minor. 

256-69.  Goths  conduct  expeditions  into  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece. 

26L  Sapor,  the  Persian,  takes  Antioch,  Tarsus,  and 
Cffisarea. 

264.  Alliance  with  Odenatus,  King  of  Palmyra,  who 
is  succeeded  by  his  wife  Zenobia,  who  reigns 
with  the  titles  of  "Augusta"  and  "Queen  of  the 
East." 

268.  Claudius  II.  defeats  an  army  of  320,000  Goths. 

270.  Aurelian,  a  great  warrior,  becomes  Emperor; 
271,  defeats  the  Goths  and  Alemanni;  273,  re- 
duces Palmyra,  and  takes  Queen  Zenobia 
prisoner;  274,  Franks,  Spain,  and  Britain  re- 
duced to  obedience;  275,  Aurelian  killed  near 
Byzantium. 

277.  Probus,  Emperor;    280,  defeats  the  Persians. 

284.  Diocletian,  Emperor.  Sends  ambassadors  to 
China,  296. 


291.  The    Franks    master    Batavia    and    Flanders. 


304.  Diocletian  and  Maximian  resign  the  empire  to 

Constantius  and  Galerius. 
306.  Constantine  the  Great,  first  Christian  Emperor, 

defeats  the  Franks. 


331.  Constantine  orders  all  the  heathen  temples  to 

be  destroyed. 
337.  Death  of  Constantine,  and  the  accession  of  his 

three  sons  to  the  empire. 
364.  Death  of  Jovian,  and  the  accession  of  Valen- 

tinian    and  Valens,  under  whom  the  empire  is 

divided. 


Western  Empire 

364.  Valentinian,  Emperor. 
368.  The     Saxons     invade 

Britain,  but  are  defeated 

by  Theodosius. 
375.  Gains  victory  over  the 

Germans ;  succeeds  to  the 

Eastern   Empire   on    the 

death  of  Valens. 


Eastern  Empire 

364.  Valens,  Em- 
peror. 


376.  Hungary   (an- 
cient Pannonia) 
invaded  by  the 
Huns,  from  whom 
it  is  named. 


66 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

— ^ 

FROM   THE    CHRISTIAN   ERA 

TO   THE    FALL    OF    ROME  — A.  D. 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Development  of 
Christianity 

Western  Empire 

Eastern  Empire 

379.  Prerogatives  of  the 

379.  The   I-ombards   first 

379.  Theodosius    the 

Roman  See  much  en- 

leave   Scandinavia,    and 

Great  becomes  a 

larged. 

defeat  the  Vandals. 

zealous  supporter 

381.  Second    general 

of  Christianity. 

Council  of  Constanti- 

nople. 

384.  Symachus  pleads  in 

the  Roman  Senate  for 

388.  Theodosius  de- 

Paganism against  St. 

feats    Maximus. 
the  Tyrant  of  the 

Ambrose. 

392.    St.Chrysostom,  Pa- 

392. Theodosius     becomes 

Western  Empire. 

triarch  of  Constanti- 

sole Emperor  of  the  East 

nople. 

and  West. 

Complete   downfall   of 
Paganism. 
394.   Final     division   of   em- 

392 

Impulse  given  to  the 
aevelopment  of 

pire  between  the  sons  of 
Theodosius. 

mathematics  at 

401.  Europe  overrun  by  the 

Alexandria 

Visigoths. 

406.   Vandals  allowed  to 'Set- 
tle in  Spain  and  Gaul. 

410.  The  Goths  under  Alaric 
sack  and  burn  Rome. 

412.  Rise    of    the    Vandal 
power  in  Spain. 

413.  Burgundian    Kingdom 

408.  Theodosius  II., 
a  child.  Emperor. 

416.  The  Pelagian  heresy 
condemned. 

begun  in  Alsace. 

414.  Regency  of  the 

Emperor's  sister. 

Pulcheria. 

420.  The   Franks   form   a 

420.  Persian  War. 

kingdom,    under    Phara- 

mond,    on    the   lower 

Rhine. 

424.   Valentinian     III., 

425 

Theodosius  estab- 
lishes public  schools 
and  attempts  the 
restoration  of 

' 

Emperor. 
426.  Britain    evacuated    by 

the  Romans. 
428.  Romans     defeated     by 

learning. 

431.  Third  general  Coun- 

the   Franks    and    Goths. 

431.  Armenia  divided 

cil  at  Ephesus. 

Franks,    under    Clodion, 

by  the  Persians 

432.  St.  Patrick  preaches 

extend  their  conquests. 

and  Romans. 

the  gospel  in  Ireland. 

433.   Attila    forms    an    im- 

433.  A  great  part  of 

435 

Theodosian  Code 

435.  Nestorianism  pre- 

mense Empire  from  China 

Constantinople 

published. 

vails  in  the  East. 

443.  The  Manichapan 
books  burned  in 
Rome. 

447.  Eutyches  asserts  the 
existence  of  only  one 
nature  in  Jesus  Christ. 

to  the  Atlantic. 

439.  The    Vandals,    under 
Genseric,  form  Kingdom 
of  Africa,  take  Carthage 
and  plunder  Italy. 

441.  Roman    territories    in- 
vaded by  the  Huns,  Per- 
sians, and  Saxons. 

445.   Famous  embassy  from 
Britain    soliciting    aid 
against  the  Picts. 

448.  MerovcEus  I.,  first  King 
of  the  Merovingians. 

destroyed  by  fire. 
437.  Pannonia,    Dal- 
matia,  and  Nori- 
cum  gained  from 
the  Western  Em- 
pire. 

450.  Marcian,  Em- 

451. Fourth    general 

451.   Arrival    of    Saxons    in 

peror,   refuses   to 

Council  at  Chalcedon. 

Britain    under    Hengist 

pay  tribute  to  the 
Huns. 

and  Horsa. 

452.  City  of  Venice  founded. 

457.  War  with  the 

458.  Franks,  under  Childeric 

Goths. 

I.,  conquer  as  far  as  the 

461.  Peace  with  the 

465-476.  Oligarchy    of 

Loire  and  take  Paris. 

Goths. 

468 

The  principle  of  law 

the  bishops  of  Rome, 

468.  The    Visigoths    under 

, 

established  that  the 

Constantinople,  Alex- 

Eric establish  their  king- 

474. Zeno,  Emperor; 

accused     shall     be 

andria,  Antioch,  and 

dom  in  Spain. 

a  turbulent  reign 

tried  by  his  peers, 

Jerusalem. 

marked   by   de- 

or equals. 

The  Church  now 
begins  to  assume  a 
political   aspect. 

bauchery  and 

conspiracies. 

475.  Theodoric   be- 

476 

Odoacer's  sack  of 

476.  Odoacer,  King    of    the 

comes  chief  of  the 

Rome  changed  the 

Herulii,  takes  Rome,  and 

Ostrogoths    and 

course  of  events  in 

the  Western  Empire  ends 

invades  the  em- 

Europe.    The  form 

1228   years   after    the 

pire. 

of  the  old  Roman 

founding  of  the  city. 

government   re- 

Commencement of   the 

mained,  but  Italy, 

Kingdom  of  Italy  under 

ravaged  by  a  suc- 

Odoacer. 

cession    of    wars, 

plagues,  famines, 
and  every  form  of 

public  tyranny. 

was  almost  a  desert. 

HISTORY 


67 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE 

FALL    OF    ROME 

TO    THE    DIVISION    OF    THE  WESTERN 

EMPIRE  — A.  D.  476-841 

Arts  of  Civilization 

The  Eastern 
Empire 

Great  Britain 
and  Ireland 

Italy  and  tlie 
Cliurch 

France 

480.   An   earthquake 

destroys  greater 

481.  Clovis  I., 

part  of  Constanti- 

484. Christians 

founder  of  the 

nople. 

persecuted  by 
the  Vandals. 

French  mon- 
archy. 
485.  Battle  of  Sois- 
sons  gained  by 

486 

Rise  of  the  feudal 
system  in   France, 
under  Clevis. 

487.  The  Sax- 
ons defeated 
by  Prince 
Arthur. 

Clovis. 

491.  The  Green  and 

490.  Sussex  be- 

491. Clovis  sub- 

Blue factions. 

comes  a 

dues  Thuringia. 

493 

Theodorie  introduces 
Greelc  architecture 
into  Italy. 

502.  Invasions  by  the 

kingdom. 

1 

493.  Italy  con- 
quered   by 
Theodorie. 

Odoacer  put 
to  death. 

494.  The  Roman 
Pontiff  asserts 
his  supremacy. 

496.  Christianity 
introduced 

Persians. 

into  France. 

510.  Clovis  makes 

511 

The  Salic  law  in 

511.  Great  insurrec- 

Paris his  capi- 

France. 

tion  in  Constanti- 
nople. 

tal. 

614 

Use  of  the  burning 
glass  in  warfare. 

514.  Constantinople 
besieged  by  Vitali- 

516 

The   Christian   Era 
proposed  and  intro- 

anus, whose  fleet  is 
consumed  by  the 

duced    by    Diony- 

burning  glass  of 

sius,  a  monk. 

Proclus. 

518.  Justinian  I.  be- 
gins a  brilliant 
reign   over   the 
Eastern  or  Byzan- 
tine Empire. 

527.  Celebrated  Justi- 
nian code  of  laws. 

519.  Prince  Ar- 
thur defeat- 
ed by  Cer- 
dic,  who  be- 
gins the 
third  Saxon 

529 

The  schools  of  Athens 

529.  Belisarius,  the 

Kingdom  of 

529.  Order  of  the 

suppressed. 

famous  general, 

Wessex. 

Benedictine 

defeats  the  Per- 

530. Kingdom 

Monks  insti- 

sians. 

of  Essex. 

tuted  at  Monte 

532.  Burgundy 

534.  Defeats  the  Van- 

Cassino, near 

conquered  by 

dals  in  Africa. 

Naples. 

Childebert. 

535.  Subdues  Sicily. 

536.  Takes  Naples. 

_ 

536.  Ostrogoths 

537.  Takes  Rome. 

537.  Italy  con- 
quered by 
Belisarius,  for 
Justinian. 

539.  War,  famine, 

surrender 
"  their  posses- 
sions in  Gaul  to 
the  French 
King. 

540.  North    Africa, 

and  pestilence. 

Corsica,  and  Sar- 

542. Prince  Ar- 

Milan rav- 

dinia annexed  to 

thur  mur- 

aged by  the 

the  Eastern  Em- 

dered in 

Goths. 

pire. 

Cornwall. 

548.  The   Turkish 

551 

Manufacture   of   silk 
introduced    from 
China  into  Europe 

monarchy  founded 
in  Asia. 
554.  Italy   governed 

% 

by  monks 

by  Greek  E.xarchs. 

558.  A  plague  extends 
over  Europe  and 
Asia  and   lasts 

557.  Church  of  St. 
Germain  de 
Pres  built  at 
Paris. 

558.  Clotaire  I., 
King. 

559 

The  Saxon  laws  pro- 

559. Saxon 

mulgated.     The 

about  50  years. 

Heptarchy 

king's  authority 

begins. 

limited  by  the 

Wittenagemot. 

Three  orders:    the 

noble,  the  free,  and 

the  servile. 

568 

The  feudal  system 

568.  Italy  con- 

established in  Italy 

569.  The  Turks  first 

quered  by  the 

by  the  Lombards. 

recognized  as  a  na- 

Lombards. 

Written  laws  com- 

tion.    They  send 

piled  by  the  Visi- 

an embassy  to  Jus- 

goths in  Spain. 

tin  II.  and  form  an 
alliance. 

68 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE 

FALL   OF   ROME 

TO   THE   DIVISION,  OF   THE 

WESTERN 

EMPIRE  — A.  D.  476- 

S41 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Tlie  Eastern 
Empire 

Great  Britain 
and  Ireland 

Italy  and  tlie 
Cliurcli 

France 

575.  East  Ang- 

575.   First  monas- 

lia formed 

tery  built  in 

580 

Latin  language  ceases 

into  a 

Bavaria. 

583.  Clotaire  II., 

to  be  spoken  in 

kingdom. 

King. 

Italy,  and  super- 

whence the 

sedes  the  Gothic  in 

origin  of  the 

590.  Mass  intro- 

Spain. 

name   Eng- 
land. 
591.  Ethelbert, 

duced. 

597 

England  relapses  into 

King  of 

598.  St.  Augus- 

semi-barbarism, 

600.  Eastern  Empire 

Kent,  gains 

tine,  first  arch- 

after Saxon  con- 

spread over  Hun- 

the ascend- 

bishop of  Can- 

quest. 

gary,  Poland,  and 

ancy. 

terbury,  intro- 

The aristocracy  ac- 

Prussia, under  Ti- 

duces Chris- 

quire great  power 

berius  II. 

tianity  into 

in  France. 

602.   Invasion  of  the 

604.  St.   Paul's 

Britain. 

Rites   and    supersti- 

Persians. 

Church 

tions    increase    all 

founded  by 

over  Europe. 

Ethelbert  of 
Kent. 

610.  HeracHus  takes 

607.  Suprem- 

607. The  Pan- 

Constantinople, 

acy  of  the 

theon  of  Rome 

kills  Phocas,  the 

Pope  ac- 

dedicated to 

Emperor,  and 

knowledged. 

Christianity. 

makes   himself 

* 

King. 

612.  Mahomet  pub- 

lishes the  Koran. 

Syria    ravaged 

by  the  Arabs. 

614.  Jerusalem  taken 

617 

Ethelbert     publishes 

by  the  Persians. 

617.  St.  Peter's 

the  first  code  of  laws 

622.  The  Hegira,  or 

(now  West- 

625-40. Churches 

in  England. 

Mahomet's  flight 

minster  Ab- 

of Jerusalem, 

from  Mecca  to  Me- 

bey) found- 

Antioch. and 

628.  Dagobert  I. 

dina. 

ed  by  Sa- 

Alexandria 

builds  the 

632 

Islamism     and     the 

632.  Death  of  Ma- 

bert.    King 

lost  to  the 

Church  of  St. 

power  of    the   Ca- 
liphs established  in 

homet. 

of  Kent. 

Christian 

Denis,  the  sep- 

633. Omar,  Caliph, 

633.  Bretwold 

world  by  the 

ulture  of  the 

the   East.     In   the 

takes  Jerusalem," 

V.  embraces 

sweep  of 

French  kings. 

Caliphs  were  united 

which  is  held  by 

Christianity. 

Mohammedan- 

638. Kingdom  di- 

the highest  spiritual 

the  Saracens  463 

ism. 

vided  by  Clovis 

and  regal  authority. 

years. 
673.  Siege  of  Con- 

II. andSigebert, 
the  latter  King 

67'4 

Stone  buildings  and 
glass  come  into  use 
in  England. 

The  Anglo-Saxons 

stantinople  by  the 
Saracens,  whose 
fleet  is  destroyed 

of  Austrasia. 

by  the  Greek  fire 

advance  in  civiliza- 

of Callinicus. 

tion  and  power  by 
the  introduction  of 

680.  Kingdom  of  Bul- 

680. The  Sixth 

garia  founded 

general  Coun- 

Christianity. 

690.  The  name 

cil  called  at 

690.  Pepin  d'Her- 

In  France,  the  Teu- 

England 

Constanti- 

istal, King. 

tonic    language 

first  used 

nople. 

supersedes  the 

Latin. 

National    assemblies 

established   but 

confined  to  the  aris- 

tocracy. 

In  Persia  the  Magian 

religion  gives 

695.  Childebert, 

place  to  the 
Mohammedan. 

III.,  King  of 

Neustria. 

698 

Christianity  greatly 
extended  among 

698.  Carthage  de- 

698. Picts  adopt 

stroyed   by   the 

700.  Anglo- 

Christianity. 

700.   Aquitaine, 

the  German  nations 

Saracens,  and  the 

Saxon  Oc- 

Burgundy, and 

in   the   North  of 

north  coast  of  Af-  . 

tarchy. 

704.  The  first 

Provence  be- 

Europe;   but  al- 

rica subjugated. 

705.   Alfred  the 

province  given 

come   separate 

most  exterminated 

709.  All  Africa  sub- 

Wise in 

to  the  Pope, 

dukedoms. 

in  Africa  by  the 

dued  by  the  Sara- 

Northum- 

John  VI. 

714.  Charles  Mar- 

progress  of  Moham- 
medanism. 

cens. 

bria. 

tel,  Duke  of 

Austrasia. 

716 

The  art  of  making 
paper  introduced 
by  the  Arabs. 

716.  Leo  III.,  Em- 

725. Charles  Mar- 

peror. 

726.  The  Emperor 

tel  subdues  Ba- 

The Saracens 

727.  Ina,  King 

I^eo  forbids 

varia. 

invest   Constanti- 

of Wes.iex, 

image  worship 

nople,  by  land 

begins  col- 

and sea.     City 

lection  of 

saved  by  Greek 

Peter's 

fire. 

pence  to 
support  a 
college  at 

Rome. 

, 

HISTORY 


69 


A.  D. 


FROM    THE    FALL,    OF   ROME    TO    THE    DIVISION    OF    THE    WESTERN 
EMPIRE— A.  D.  476-841 


Arts  of  Civilization 


The  Eastern 
Empire 


Great  Britain 
and  Ireland 


Italy  and  the 
Church 


France 


740 


785 

788 
793 

800 


813 


828 


840 


Saracens  encourage 
learning.     Ignor- 
ance,   profligacy, 
and  misery  charac- 
terized the  age  pre- 
ceding Charle- 
magne. 


Golden  period  of 
learning  in  Arabia 
under  the  Caliph 
Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Pleadings  in  courts  of 
justice  first  prac- 
ticed. 

Foundation  of  schools 
in  monasteries  and 
cathedrals  by  Char- 
lemagne. 

Agriculture  and  hor- 
ticulture encour- 
aged  by   Charle- 
magne; both  flour- 
ish in  Spain  under 
the  Caliphs. 


Arabian  horses  intro- 
duced into  Spain. 


Transient   revival   of 
learning  under 
Charlemagne. 

The   reign   of   Caliph 
Mamun  the  golden 
epoch  of  Arabian 
literature. 


St.  Mark's  Church  at 
Venice  built. 


Feudal  system  in  its 
power. 


746.  Saracens  de- 
feated  by   Con- 
stantine  V. 


762.  Caliph  Almanzor 
builds  Bagdad  and 
makes  it  his  capi- 
tal. 

766.  Asia  Minor  rav- 
aged by  the  Turks. 

785.  Empire  invaded 
by  Haroun  al  Ras- 
chid, Caliph  of 
Bagdad. 


735.  Death  of 
the  vener- 
able Bcde. 


787.   First  re- 
corded in- 
vasion of  the 
Danes  —  the 
Sea  Kings 
and  Vikings. 


803.  The  Saracens 
ravage  Asia  Minor. 


813.  Egbert, 
King  of  Wes- 
sex,  defeats 
the  Britons. 


822.  Constantinople 
besieged  by  the 
Saracens.     The 
Bulgarians  raise 
the  siege. 

829.  Theophilus, 
Emperor. 


827.  The  seven 
kingdoms  of 
Heptarchy 
united  by 
Egbert  under 
the  name  of 
England  or 
the  land  of 
the  Angles. 
Invasion 
of  the  Danes 

838.  Ethelwolf, 
King. 

Kenneth, 
King  of  the 
Scots,  de- 
feats and  ex- 
tirpates the 
Picts,  and 
becomes  sole 
monarch  of 
Scotland. 


752.  The  Pope  de- 
thrones Chil- 
deric,  King  of 
France,  by  a 
papal  decree. 
Pope  Ste- 
phen III.  at 
war  with  the 
Lombards. 

755.   Beginning  of 
the  Pope's 
temporal 
power. 


787.  Seventh  gen- 
eral Council  of 
Nice. 


800.  The  Pope 
separates  from 
the  Eastern 
Empire  and 
becomes  Su- 
preme Bishop 
of  the  West- 
ern. 

Charlemagne 
reforms 
the  Church. 
Many  bishop- 
rics founded. 


817.  College  of 
Cardinals 
founded. 


824.  Christianity 
carried  to 
Denmark  and 
Sweden. 


732.  Defeats  the 
Saracens  at 
Tours. 


752.  End  of  Mero- 
vingian line  of 
French  kings. 
Pepin,  the 
Short,  first  of 
the  Carlovin- 
gian  line. 


764.  Extirpates 
the  Huns. 


791-96.  Estab- 
lishes the  mar- 
gravate  of  Aus- 
tria. 

800.  Charlemagne 
founds  the  New 
Western  Em- 
pire and  is 
crowned  at 
Rome  King  of 
Italy,  Germany 
and   France. 

802.  Receives  an 
embassy  from 
Haroun  al  Ras- 
chid. 

806.  Charlemagne 
divides  the  em- 
pire among  his 
sons,  only  one 
of  whom  sur- 
vived him  — ■ 
Louis  I. 

817.  Louis  I.  di- 
vides the  em- 
pire. 


841.  Another  di- 
vision of  the 
empire. 

Charles  I.,  King 
of  France; 
Louis  I.,  King 
of  Germany; 
Lothaire,  King 
of  Italy. 


70 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    DISSOLUTION    OF   THE    WESTERN   EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL          | 

OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE— A.  D.  841-1453 

841 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Church 

Eastern  Empire 

The  British  Isles 

Hereditary  nobility 
and  the  clergy 
dominant  in  mat- 

844. Ignatius,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople. 

844.  Decline  of  the  Cali- 

ters of  state. 

phate  begins.    Fre- 

Persecution of  the 

quent  wars  between 

Christians  in  Spain. 

the  Greeks  and  the 

846.  The  Saracens  de- 

Saracens. 

stroy  the  Venetian 

849.  Alfred  the  Great 

fleet  and  besiege 

born. 

Rome. 

850 

Roman  and  Ck)mmon 

850.  Christianity  propa- 
gated in  Denmark 

Law  introduced. 

and  Sweden. 

858.  Nicholas  I.  first 

Pope  to  be  crowned. 

■ 

860.  Schism  of  the 

Greeks  begins. 

864.  Bible  translated 

into  Slavonian. 

867.  Eighth  Council  at 

807.   Basil  inaugurates 

867.  The  Danes  con- 

Constantinople. 

the  Macedonian  dy- 

quer Northumber- 

• 

nasty. 

land. 

872 

Clocks  exported 
from  Venice. 

■ 

886.  Leo  VI.,  Emperor. 

872.   Alfred  the  Great 
defeats  the  Danes. 

890 

Oxford  University 

890.  Southern  Italy  sub- 

founded by  Alfred 

ject  to  the  Greek 
Empire. 

891.  Renewed  invasion 

the  Great. 

of  the  Danes. 

Trial  by  Jury;  fairs 

and  markets  in 

England. 

900 

England  divided  in- 
to counties,  hun- 

901. Edward  the  Elder 

dreds,  and  tithings. 

904.  Russian  expedition 

the  first  to  take  the 

County  courts  es- 

under Gleg  against 
Constantinople. 

title  of  "Rex  An- 

tablished. 

glorum." 

912.  The  Normans  in 

France  embrace 

Christianity. 

915 

University  of  Cam- 
bridge founded. 

921.  The  Bohemians 
adopt  Christianity. 

917.  Constantinople  be- 
sieged by  the  Bul- 
garians. 

919.  Romanus,  general 
of  the  fleet,  usurps 
the  empire  and 
places  his  son,  Con- 

916.  Agriculture  at  a 
low  ebb. 

929.  Eudes,  monk  of 

Cluni. 

stantine  VIII.,  on 
the  throne.    ■ 

937.   Romanus  gains  a 

g.34.  Athelstau,  King. 

939 

Cordova,  in  Spain, 
becomes  famous  as 
a  center  of  science, 
learning,  industry, 
and  commerce. 

naval  victory  over 
the  Russians. 

940 

Mints  established  in 
England. 

941 

The  figures  of  arith- 
metic brought  into 
Europe  by  the 
Saracens. 

945.  The  Empress  Helen 
usurps  the  throne. 

952.  Malcolm  I.,  King 

Linens  and  woolens 

955.  Baptism  of  Olga, 

of  Scotland. 

manufactured  in 

and  conversion  of 

955.  Dunstan,  Abbot  of 

Flanders. 

Russia  to  Christian- 
ity. 

Glastonbury,  rises 
to  great  power. 

HISTORY 


71 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE 

DISSOLUTION    OF    THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL. 

OF    THE    EASTERN   EMPIRE  — 

A.  D.  841-1453 

841 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

Charles  I.  (the 
Bald),  King. 

841.  Louis  I., 
King. 

842.  Ramiro  I. 
elected  King 
of  Oviedo. 

846.  The  Saracens 
destroy  the  Ve- 
netian fleet  and 
besiege  Rome. 

858 

Invasion  of  Louis 
the  German,  who 
is  defeated. 

856.   Louis  11.  es- 
tablishes his 
court  at  Pavia, 
and  rules  Italy. 

857.  Garcia 
Ximines 
founds  the 
Kingdom  of 
Navarre. 

862.  Ruric   the 

860.  Gorm  united 
Jutland  and  the 
Danish  Isles  and 
becomes  King  of 
Denmark. 

861.  Iceland  dis- 
covered. 

868 

I>orraine  annexed 
to  France. 

~ 

Norman, 
Grand  Duke 
ofNovgorod. 

885 

Paris  besieged  by 
the  Normans. 

879.  Louis  III. 
and  Carloman 
reign  jointly. 

887.  Arnold,  Em- 

873.  Sancho  Ini- 
go.  Count  of 
Navarre. 

875.  Harold,  first 
King  of  Norway. 

898 

Charles  III.,  King. 

890.   Arnold  takes 
Rome. 

899.  Invasion  of 
the  Hunga- 
rians. 

• 

889.  Arpad  lays  the 
foundation  of 
Hungary. 

912 

The  Normans,  un- 
der RoUa,  estab- 
lish themselves 
in  Normandy. 

912.  Conrad  I., 
Emperor. 

910.  Kingdom 
of  Leon 
founded  by 
Garcia. 

912.  Arabs  build 
the  splendid 
city  and  pal- 
ace of  Zehra. 

914.   Beginning 
of  the  heroic 
age  in  Spain. 

907.  Oleg  in- 
vades the 
Greek  Em- 
pire. 

901.  Republics  of 
Venice  and  Ge- 
noa founded. 

923 

Civil  Wars. 

- 

930.  Harold  VI.. 
first  Christian 
King  of  Den- 
mark. 

933.  Eric,  King  of 
Norway.    His 
cruelty  leads  to 
revolt  of  people. 

936 

Louis  IV.,  King. 

936.   Otho  the 
Great,  Emper- 
or. 

954 

Lothaire  I.  confers 
the  dukedoms  of 
Burgundy  and 
Aquitaine  on 
Hugh  the  Great. 

950.   Bohemia  an- 
nexed. 

940.  Ramiro, 
King  of  Leon, 
defeats  the 
Moors  at 
Simancus.. 

955.  Sancho  I., 
King  of  Leon. 

945.  Swatoslav, 
King  of  Rus- 
sia. 

72 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    DISSOLUTION    OF    THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL          1 

OF    THE   EASTERN   EMPIRE  — A,  D.  841-1453 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Church 

Eastern  Empire 

The  British  Isles 

959.  St.  Dunstan,  arch- 

959. Emperor  Romanus 

bishop  of  Canter- 

II. 

bury,  attempts  to 

reform  the  Church. 

982 

Dublin  a  trade  cen- 
ter. 

989.  Greek  Christianity 
propagated  in  Rus- 
sia by  Waldimir. 

985.  Danish  invasion 
under  Sweyn. 

993.  First  canonization 

of  saints. 

996.  War  with  Bul- 

697 

Venice  and  Genoa 
rise  to  great  im- 
portance in  com- 
merce. 

999.  Hungary  becomes 
a  fief  of  the  Church. 

garia. 

1000 

Firdusi,  the  Persian 
Homer,  flourished. 
(940?-1020.) 

. 

1002 

Paper  made  of  cotton 
rags. 

Churches  first  built 
in  the  Gothic  stjle, 
of  architecture. 

The  French  language 
begins  to  be  writ- 
ten. 

1002.  Massacre  of  the 
Danes  in  England. 

1003.  Scotland  ruled  by 
Malcolm  II. 

1013.  Danes,  under 

Sweyn,  become  mas-  , 
ters  of  England.           j 

1016.  Edmund  11.  fights 

Faint  impulse  given 
to  art  in  Italy. 

1018.  Bulgaria  again  re- 

six battles  with  Ca- 

duced to  a  Grecian 

nute,  King  of  the 

province. 

Danes,    with   whom 
he  divides  the  king- 

1054 

i 
1 
I 

Musical  scale  of  six 
notes  invented  by 
Guido  Aretius. 

1024.  John  XIX.,  Pope. 

1048.  Leo  IX..  the  first 
Pope  to  keep  an 
army. 

1042.  First  invasion  of 
the  Seljuk  Turks. 

1043.  The  Russians  in- 
vade Thrace  with 
100,000  men  and  are 
repulsed  by  the 
Greeks. 

dom. 
1027.   Brian  Boru,  sole 

Monarch  of  Ireland. 
1031.  Canute  subdues 

Scotland. 
1034.  Duncan,  King  of 

Scotland. 

1039.  Macbeth  murders 
Duncan,  and  usurps 
the  throne. 

1042.  The  Saxon  line  re- 
stored under  Edward 
the  Confessor. 

1051.  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  visits 

1054.  Excommunication 

10.54.  Theodora,  last  of 

England. 

of  the  Patriarch  of 

the  Macedonian  dy- 

1055 

First  age  of  scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Constantinople  and 

nasty. 

the  Greeks. 

1059.   Quarrel  between 

the  Popes  and  the 

German  Emperors. 

1062 

Surnames  first  used 

among  the  Eng- 
lish nobility. 

1066.  Pope  Alexander  II. 
deposes  Harold,  and 

1066.  Harold  II.,  King, 
killed  at  the  battle 

gives  England  to 

1067.  Emperor  Romanus 

of  Hastings. 

1068 

Shoeing  horses  intro- 

William the  Con- 

III. defeated  and 

William  the  Con- 

duced into  Eng- 

queror. 

taken  prisoner  by 

queror,  King.     End 

land. 

The  papacy  at  the 
height  of  its  power. 

the  Turks. 

of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
line. 

HISTORY 


73 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE 

DISSOLUTION    OF    THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL. 

OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE  — 

A.  D.  841-1453 

960 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

Hugh  Capet,  Duke 

of  France. 

964.  Italy  united 
to  the  Empire 
of  Germany. 

973.  St.  Stephen, 
first  hereditary 

Tuscany  be- 

976.. Hixem,  Ca- 

King of  Hungary. 

comes  a  Duke- 

liph of  Cor- 

Gives it  written 

dom. 

dova.  . 

laws. 

979.  Otho  at  war 

with  Lothaire. 

981.  Vladimir 
the  Great, 
the  first 
Christian 

985.  Sweyn  I.,  of 
Denmark,  in- 

986 

Louis  v.,  last  of  the 
Carlovingians. 

ruler. 

vades  England. 

988 

Hugh  Capet,  King, 
and  founder  of 
the  Capetian  line 
of  French  kings. 

996 

Robert  II.  succeeds 
his  father  on  the 
throne. 

1002.  Henry  II., 
Emperor. 

998.'  Division  of 
the  Moham- 
medan King- 
dom of  Cor- 
dova. 
1000.  Sancho  the 
Great,  King 
of  Navarre, 

1010 

Notre  Dame,  Paris, 
rebuilt. 

1024.  Conrad  II., 
first   of    the 
Franconian 
line. 

takes  the  title 
of  Emperor. 

1015.  Russia  di- 
vided among 
the  12  sons 
of  Vladimir. 

1016.  Canute  II., 
King  of  Den- 
mark. 

1019.  Norway  con- 
quered by  Ca- 
nute. 

Danish  as- 
cendancy. 

1031 

Henry  I.,  King. 

1032 

Burgundy  annexed. 

1039.  Henry  III. 
defeats  the  Bo- 
hemians and 
Hungarians. 

1035.  Ramiro  I., 
King  of  Ar- 
agon. 

1036.  Russia  re- 
united by 
Jaroslav. 

1046 

Dispute  between 
William  the  Con- 
queror and  Wil- 
liam of  Arques 
for  the  Duchy  of 

1053.  Henry  causes 
his  son,  Henry, 

Normandy. 

to  be  pro- 

1054. Russia  di- 

claimed King 

vided  a  sec- 

1055. The  Turks  re- 

of the  Romans. 

ond  time. 

duce  Bagdad  and 

This  title  was 

Civil  wars 

overturn  the  Em- 

applied for  sev- 
eral centuries 

and  great 
distress. 

pire  of  the  Ca- 
liphs. 

to  the  Emper- 

10.59. Ingo  I.,  first 

or's  eldest  son. 

1065.   Alphonzo, 
King  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon. 

Christian  King 

of  Sweden. 
1060.  Robert  Guis- 

card,  Duke  of 

Apulia. 
1065.  Jerusalem 

taken  by  the 

Saracens. 

1066 

William,  DuKe  of 
Normandy, 
claims  the  crown 

1067.  Polish  con- 
quests in  Russia. 

of  England  and 

1068.  Flight  of 

1068.  Olaf  III., 

wars  on  Harold 

Alphonzo  to 

King  of  Norway. 

to  obtain  it. 

Toledo. 

74 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   DISSOLUTION   OF   THE  WESTERN   EMPIRE   TO   THE   FALL 

OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE  — A.  D.  841-1453                                          | 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Church 

Eastern  Empire 

The  British  Isles 

1070.  Lanfranc,  Arch- 

1070.  Feudal  system 

bishop  of  Canter- 

introduced. 

bury. 

1073 

Booksellers  first 

1073.  Quarrel  of  Pope 
Gregory  VII.  (Hilde- 

heard  of. 

1074.  Syria  and  Palestine 

brand)  with  the 

subdued  by  Melek 

Emperor  Henry  IV. 

Shah. 

1075.  The  Pope  sends 

legates  to  the  various 

courts  of  Europe. 

1076.  Submission  of 

1076.  Rebellion  in 

Henry  IV.  to  the 

Normandy. 

Pope. 

1081.  Alexius  I.  (Comne- 

1084 

Rigid  poUce  system 
established  in  Eng- 

1084. Triumph  of  Henry 

nus),  Emperor.  Rob- 

IV. over  Gregory. 

ert  Guiseard  invades 

1087.  William  invades 

land. 

The  order  of  the 

the  empire  and   de- 

France and  is  killed 

U090 

Fortresses  at  New 

Carthusians  insti- 

feats Alexius. 

at  Nantes. 

Castle  and  Carlisle 

tuted  by  Bruno. 

After  the  capture 

1093.  Malcolm  III.,  of 

built. 

1095.  Peter  the  Hermit 
preaches  against  the 
Turks. 

of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Turks,  the  Christian 
pilgrims  are  insulted 
and  oppres.sed,  which 
gives  rise  to  the  Cru- 
sades —  the  great 

Scotland,  invades 
England,  and  is  slain 
near  Alnwick  Castle. 

struggle  between 

• 

1096.  The  First  Crusade. 

Christianity  and  Mo- 
hammedonism. 

Order,  learning, 
and   commerce   re- 
■  vive  in  the  last  quar- 
ter of  this  century, 
and  the  empire  is 
feared  or  respected 
by  the  nations  of 
Europe  and  Asia. 
1099.  Invasion  by  the 

1100 

William  of  Poitou, 

1100.  Study  of  theology 

Crusaders. 

1100.  Henry  I.,  King  of 

first  troubadour  of 

receives  new  im- 

1104. Battle  of  Acre. 

England,  unites  the 

note. 

pulse. 

1109.  Tripolis  taken  by 
Crusaders. 

Normans  and  Sax- 
ons. 
1107.   Henry  quarrels 
with  Anselm. 

1118 

Knights  Templar 

1118.  John  I.  reforms  the 

instituted. 

1123.  First  Lateran,  or 

manners  of  his  peo- 

1120 

Scholastic  philosophy 

ninth  General  Coun- 

ple. 

1124.   David  I.  promotes 

reaches  a  high 

cil. 

Tyre  taken  by 

civilization  in  Scot- 

point under  Abel- 

1127.  Pope  Honoriue  II. 

Crusaders. 

land. 

ard. 

makes  war  against 

Aristotle's  logic 

Roger,  King  of  Sici- 

comes into  repute. 

ly. 
1139.  Second  Lateran,  or 

1140 

Gratian  collects  the 

tenth  General  Coun- 

canon law. 

cil. 
1147.  The  Second  Cru- 

1143. Manuel  Comnenus, 
Emperor. 

1150 

Magnetic  needle 

sade. 

known  in  Italy. 

1154.  Pope  Adrian  IV., 
an  Englishman. 

1156.  Manuel  forms  the 

1154.  Henry  II.,  King  of 
England. 

1158 

Bank  of  Venice  es- 

design of  conquering 

1158-64.   Ascendancy  of 

tablished. 

1160.  Waldenses  and 

Italy  and  the  West, 

Thomas  a  Becket, 

Colleges  of  theology, 
philosophy,  ana 
law  at  Paris. 

Albigenses  begin  to 

but  fails. 

Archbishop  of  Can- 

appear. 

terbury. 

Woolen  manufac- 

tories established 

in  England. 

HISTORY 


75 


A.  D. 


1070 


FROM    THE    DISSOLUTION   OF    THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL 
OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE  — A.  D.  841-1453 


France 


Germany 


Rise  of  the  trouba- 
dours in 
Provence. 


1079 


1087 


1096 


Birth  of  Abelard. 


War  with  England. 
Robert,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  op- 
poses William 
Rufus. 


Many  French  no- 
blemen take  part 
in  the  First  Cru- 
sade. 


1108 


Abbe  Sugar,  minis- 
ter to  Louis  VI. 
of  France. 


1120 


1147 


Rivalry  between 
England  and 
France  begins. 


Louis  Vn.  joins  the 
Second  Crusadfe 


War  with  the 
English. 


1072.  Henry  IV. 
summoned  be- 
fore the  Pope 
for  selling  the 
investiture  of 
bishops;  treats 
the  mandate 
with  contempt. 

1073.  Summoned 
again. 

1076.   Henry  sends 
an  ambassador 
to  depose  the 
Pope,  and  is 
excommunicat- 
ed. Undergoes 
penance  and 
submission. 

1080.  Henry  de- 
grades the 
Pope  and 
triumphs. 


1093.  The  Popes 
continue  their 
struggle 
against  the 
empire. 


1109.  Henry  V.  en- 
ters   Italy, 
takes  the  Pope 
prisoner,  and 
compels  him 
to  crown  him. 

1114.   Henry  V. 
marries  Matil- 
da, of  England 

1125.   Lothaire  II. 
opposed  by 
Frederick,  and 
Conrad,  Duke 
of  Suabia. 

1141.   Dissensions 
of  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibelines. 

1152.   Frederick  I., 
Emperor  of 
Germany  and 
Italy. 

1158.  The  Emperor 
Frederick  re- 
ceives the  title 
of  King  of  Bo- 
hemia. 


Spain 


1076.  Time  of  the 
Cid. 


1085.  Toledo 
taken  from 
the  Moors  by 
the  Cid. 

1086.  Battle  of 
Zalacca. 


1094.  Pedro  I., 
King  of  Na- 
varre and  Ar- 
agon. 


1104.  Alphonzo 
I.,  King  of 
Navarre  and 
Aragon. 


1118.  Alphonzo 
captures  Sar- 


Russia 


U39.  Portugal 
becomes  a 
Kingdom  un- 
der Henry  of 
Besancon. 


1157.  Castile  and 
Leon  divided. 


1128.  Riga  on 
the  Baltic 
founded. 


1147.  Moscow 
founded. 


Lesser  Countries 


1070.  Bergen,  Nor- 
way, built. 


1084.  Bohemia  made 
a  kingdom  by 
Henry  IV.  of 
Germany. 


1090.  Sicily  taken 
from  the  Sara- 
cens by  Roger 
the  Norman. 


1105.  War  between 
Norway  and  the 
Wends. 


1119.  War  between 
Pisa  and  Genoa. 


1150.  Eric  X.,  King 
of  Sweden. 


1158.  Venice  a  great 
maritime  power. 


76 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    DISSOLUTION   OF   THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL. 

OF   THE    EASTERN   EMPIRE— A.  D.  841-1453 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Church 

Eastern  Empire 

The  British  Isles 

1167.  Rome  taken  by 

1168 

Colleges  of  law,  phi- 
losophy, and  the- 
ology at  Paris. 

Frederick  Barba- 
rossa. 

1178.  Renewed  activity 
of   the   Waldenses, 
forerunners  of  Pro- 
testantism. 

1179.  Third  Lateran,  or 
eleventh  General 
Council. 

» 

1172.  Henry  conquers 
Ireland. 

1189.  Richard  I.  engages 
in  the  Third  Crusade. 

1190 

The  Jews  become 

1190.  Tliird  Crusade. 

1190.  Iconium  taken  by 

the  principal  bank- 

Frederick Barba- 

1193.  John  attempts  to 

ers  of  the  world. 

1198.  Power  of  the  Pope 

rossa,  but  after- 

seize the  crown  in 

supreme  over  tem- 

wards restored. 

the  absence  of  Rich- 

poral matters. 

ard. 

1200 

University  of  Bo- 

1200. John,  King  of  Eng- 

logna has  10,000 

1202.  The  Fourth  Cru- 

land. 

students. 

sade.  Constantinople 

1204.  The  Crusaders 

1206 

University  of  Paris 
founded. 

taken. 

plunder  Constanti- 
nople. 

1209 

Period  of  the  trouba- 
dours in  France; 
the  minstrels  in 

England;  minne- 

1215.  Fourth  Lateran 

1215.  Magna  Charta 

singers  in  Ger- 

Council, against  the 

signed  at  Runny- 

many. 

Albigenses. 
1217.  Fifth  Crusade. 

mede. 
1216.  Henry  III.,  King. 

1222 

University  of  Padua 
founded. 

1228.  John  of  Brienne, 

King  of  Jerusalem, 

Emperor. 

1243.  Struggle  of  Pope 

Innocent  IV.  with 

1246.  Henry  marries 

1247 

First  war  fleet  in 
Spain. 

the  Emperor  Fred- 
eric. 

1 260.  Emperor  Michael 

Eleanor  of  Provence. 

1258.   Famous    parlia- 
ment at  Oxford. 

1261 

Parliament  estab- 

Palsologus recovers 

lished  in  England, 

126.5.  Dominion  of  Italy 
passes  to  the  Pope. 

Constantinople. 

1268.  The  Mongols  in- 
vade Asia  Minor  and 

1265.   First  regular  par- 
liament. 
Civil  War. 

1273 

First  patent  of  nobil- 
ity granted  in 

1 274.  Fourteenth  general 

take  Antioch. 

France. 

Council  at  Lyons. 

1276.  War  between  Eng- 

Literature and  science 

1281.  Othman  estab- 

land and  Wales. 

flourish  in  Spain 

lishes  an  independ- 

1283. England  and  Wales 

under  Alphonzo 

ent  rule  in  the  north 

united. 

the  Learned 

of  Asia  Minor. 

Robert  Bruce  and 

1285 

Institution  of  the 
three  great  courts 
of  law  in  England. 

John  Balliol  contend 
for  the  crown  of 
Scotland. 

Cimabue,  the  first  of 

1296.  Struggle  of  the 

1296.  Scotland  submits 

modern  painters  at 

Church  with  France. 

to  England. 

Florence. 

1299.  Othman  invades 
Nicomedia,  and  es- 
tablishes the  Otto- 
man Empire. 

1297.  Scotland  rebels. 
War  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland 
follows. 

HISTORY 


77 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE 

DISSOLUTION   OF   THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE    TO    THE    FAIX           | 

OF   THE    EASTERN   EMPIRE - 

-A.  D.  841-1453 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

1167.  Rome  taken 

1167.  League  of  the  ' 

1170 

Rise  of  the  Wal- 
denses. 

by  Frederick. 

1174.  Frederick's 
fourth  expedi- 
tion into  Italy. 

1176.  Defeated  at 
the  Battle  of 
Legnano. 

Italian  cities. 
1171.  Saladin,  Sultan 
of  Egypt,  ex- 
tends his  domin- 
ions.   Conquers 
Syria,  Assyria, 
and  Arabia. 

1183 

The  peace  of  Con- 

1183. Italy  inde- 

stance reestab- 

pendent  by 

1186.  Incursion 

1186.  Directs  all  his 

Hshes  the  inde- 

treaty of  Con- 

1188. Alphonzo 

of  Huns  and 

efforts  against 

pendence  of  the 

stance. 

IX.,  King  of 

Poles  into 

the  Crusaders. 

ItaUan  repubhcs. 

Leon. 

Russia. 

1190 

Phihp  Augustus' 

1190.  Henry  VI.. 

one  of  the  lead- 

Emperor and 

1 193.  Battle  of  As- 

ers  of  the  Third 

King  of  Italy. 

calon.    Saladin 

Crusade. 

defeated. 

Death  of  Sala- 
din. 

1204 

Normandy  reunit- 
ed to  France. 

1212.   Frederick 

1212.  The  Christ- 

1206. Genghis  Khan 
subdues  the 
North  of  China. 

II.,  Emperor. 

ians  gain  the 
Battle  of 
Navas  de  To- 
losa. 

1217.  Ferdinand, 
King  of  Cas- 

1213. Jurje  II. 

1216.  Tartaryover- 
'          run  by  Genghis 
Khan. 

tile. 

1224.  Mongolian 

1222.  Hungarian  lib- 

1223 

Louis  VIII.  con- 

invasion. 

erty  assured  by 

ducts  crusade 

known  as 

Charter  of  An- 

against the  Al- 

the  "Golden 

drew  II. 

bigenses. 

Horde." 

1226 

Louis  IX.,  King. 

1230.  Castile  and 

Leon  united 

1236.  Second 

1236.  Mongolian  in- 

by Ferdinand 

Mongolian 

vasion  of  Europe 

III.,  who 

invasion. 

under  Batu 

takes  large 

Moscow 

Khan. 

« 

territory 

burned. 

from  the 

1238.  Russian 

1243.  The  Hanse- 

Moors. 

independ- 

atic League. 

ence  over- 
thrown by 

1248 

Louis  IX.  leads  the 

the  Tartars. 

Seventh  Crusade. 

1250.  Conrad  IV., 

Khan  of 

Emperor. 

1253.  TheAlham- 
bra  founded. 

1266.  Henry  of 

Kiptchak, 
Grand  Duke. 

1259.  Kublai  Khan 
builds  Pekin  and 
makes  it  his 
capital. 

1267 

Burgundy  falls  to 
the  crown. 

Castile  a  Ro- 
man senator. 

1270 

Louis  IX.  sets  out 
on  the  last  Cru- 

1273. Rudolph, 

sade. 

Emperor, 

1274.  Crown  of 

1276 

France  at  war  with 

founds  House 

Navarre 

Castile. 

of  Habsburg. 

passes  to 
France. 

1290.  Khan  of 

1290.  Wenceslas, 

1291.  James  II., 

Kiptchak 

King  of  Bohemia, 

King  of  Ar- 

wields  strong 

takes  Cracow. 

agon. 

rule  in  Rus- 

1297 

Invasion  of 
Flanders. 

1298.  Adolphus, 
Emperor,  de- 
posed, and  Al- 
bert I.  en- 

sia. 

1299.  Foundation  of 
the  Ottoman 

Empire. 

throned. 

78 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FBOM   THE   DISSOLUTION  OF   THE  WESTERN   EMPIRE   TO   THE   FALL 

OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE  — A.  D.  841-1453 

1300 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Church 

Eastern  Empire 

Tile  British  Isles 

Rapid  advances  in 

1300.  Silverplate  used  in 

civilization  —  re- 

England. 

vival  of  ancient 

learning  —  im- 

provements in  the 

arts  and  sciences  — 

and  general  ex- 

pansion of  liberty. 

1302 

Mariner's  compass 
invented  at  Naples. 

1303 

University  Avignon. 

1303.  Papal  power  de- 
clines. 

1303.  Genoese  control 
trade  of  Black  Sea. 

1305 

University  Orleans. 

1309.  Seat  of  the  Popes 
transferred  to  Avig- 

1306. Robert  Bruce  pro- 

1307 

University  Perugia. 

non. 

claimed  King  of  Scot- 
land. War  with  Eng- 

1308 

University  Coimbra. 

land  continued. 

1311 

Governmental  re- 
forms extorted 
from  Edward  II. 
in  England. 

1311.  General  Council  at 
Vienna. 

1320.  Civil  War  in  the 
Eastern  Empire  be- 
tween the  Emperor 
and  his  son. 

1326 

Clocks  constructed 

1326.  Orkhan,  Sultan  of 

on  mathematical 

the  Turks,  makes 

1327.  Peace.     Independ- 

principles. 

1339.  Struggle  in  Rome 

"Prusa  his  capital. 

ence  of  Scotland. 

1338.  Struggle  for  the 
French  crown  be- 

1340 

Gunpowder  used  at 

between  the  Colonna 

gins;  lasts  120  years. 

battle  of  Cressy. 

and  the  Ursini. 

1346.   Battle  of  Cressy. 

1347 

Manufactures  and 
commerce  improve 
in  England. 

1347.  Democracy  in 

Rome  under  Rienzi, 
last  of  the  Tribunes. 

1354.  Rienzi  killed;  pa- 
pal dominion  re- 

1355. John  Palsologus, 

stored. 

Emperor. 

1356.  Edward,  the  Black 
Prince,  wins  the  bat- 
tle of  Poitiers. 

1361 

Parliament   in    Eng- 

1373. Treaty  with  Mu- 

land  receives  added 

rad,  the  Ottoman 

1376.  Death  of  the  Black 

powers. 

1378.  Schism  of  the 
West;  Pope  Urban 
VI.  acknowledged  in 
England;  Clement 
Vn.  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Scotland. 

Emperor. 

Prince. 

1384.  The  Scots,  assisted 
by  France,  invade 

1386 

Jan  Van  Eyck  in- 
vented oil  painting. 

1389.  Bajazet,  Sultan  of 
the  Turks. 

1402.  Bajazet  defeated 
and  made  prisoner 
by  Tamerlane,  at 
the  battle  of  Angora. 

1403.  Solymon  I.,  Sultan 

England. 

1399.  Henry  IV.,  King. 
House  of  Lancas- 
ter begins. 

of  the  Turks. 

1406.  James  I.,  King  of 
Scotland. 

1409 

University  of  Leipsic 
founded. 

1409.  The  Council  of 
Pisa. 

1414.  Council  of  Con- 
stance. 

1416.  Huss  and  Jerome 
burnt  for  heresy. 

1414.  Henry  V.  claims 
the  French  crown. 

1415.  Gains  the  battle  of 
Agincourt. 

1422.  Death  of  Henry  V. 

1425 

Arts  promoted  in 

1425.  Emperor  John  VII. 

Accession  of  Henry 

Italy. 

visits  Italy  to  ob- 
tain help  against  the 

VI. 

War  with  France. 

\ 

Turks. 

HISTORY 


79 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE 

DISSOLUTION   OP   THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE   TO   THE   FALL          \ 

OP   THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE - 

-A.  D.  841-1453 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

1300.  Dissensions 

1300.  Moscow 

in  the  Moor- 

made the 

ish  state. 

capital. 

1302 

First  convocation 
of  the  States- 
general  in  France. 

1304 

War  with  Flanders. 

1304.  Rise  of  the 
Swiss  towns. 

1306.  Rudolf  of 
Austria,  Em- 
peror. 

1308.  Henry  of 
Luxemburg, 
Emperor. 

General  in- 
surrection in 
Switzerland. 

1312.  Alphonzo 
XL,  King  of 
Castile  and 
Leon. 

1307.  Swiss  Republic 
founded. 

1315 

Edict  for  the  en- 
franchisement of 

1314.  Louis  of  Ba- 
varia and 

slaves. 

Frederick  of 

1318.  Finland  in- 

1316 

Philip  V.  succeeds 

Austria  con- 

vaded by 

1319.  The  Oligarchy 

by  virtue  of  the 

tend  for  the 

Russians. 

of  Venice  estab- 

Salic law,  now 

crown. 

lished. 

first  established. 

1322.  Frederick  of 

1326.  Tamerlane 

Austria  de- 

1327. Arrival  of 

born  at  Kesh, 

1332 

Revolt  of  the  Flem- 
ings. 

feated. 

200,000 
Moors  to  as- 

Tartary. 

1338 

War  with  England. 

sist  Granada. 

1346 

Normandy  overrun 

1340.  Moors  de- 

by Edward  of 

feated  at 

1353.  Establishment 

England. 

1355.  Promulgation 

Tarifa. 

of  the  Ottomans 

1356 

King  John  defeat- 
ed and  taken 

of  the  Golden 

in  Europe. 

Bull. 

1359.  Hungarian  con- 

prisoner at  Poi- 

quests on  the 

tiers.   Charles,  the 

Danube. 

Dauphin,  Regent. 

1360 

John  regains  his 
liberty.    Cedes 

1365,  War  be- 

much territory 

1378.  Wenceslas 

tween  Na- 

1369. Tamerlane 

to  England. 

(King  of  Bohe- 

varre and 

makes  Samar- 

mia),  Emperor. 

France. 

cand  the  capital 

1380 

Charles  VI.,  King. 

1380.  Tartar 

of  his  new  Em- 

Defeat of  the 

War.  Dimi- 

pire. 

Flemings  at  Ros- 

tri  Ivano- 

becq. 

vitch  checks 
them  at  the 
Don. 
1382.  Moscow 

• 

burned. 

1385.  War  between 
Austria  and 

1386 

Fruitless  attempt 
to  invade  Eng- 

1394. The  Emperor 

-  Switzerland. 

land. 

imprisoned 

1395.  Tamerlane 

at  Prague. 

invades  Rus- 

1399.  Invasion  of 

1400.  Robert, 

sia. 

India  by  Tamer- 

Count of  Pala-' 

Russia 

lane. 

tine,  Emperor. 

1407.  John  II., 
King  of  Cas- 

under the 
Mongol  Tar- 
tars until 
1462. 

1410 

Civil  War  between 
Orleans  and  Bur- 
gundy. 

1411.  Sigismund 
(King  of  Hun- 

tile. 

1415 

Defeat  by  the  Eng- 
lish at  Agincourt. 

gary),  Emper- 
or. 

. 

1416.  Alphonzo 
v..  King  of 

1419.  The  Hussite 
War  in  Bohemia. 

1422 

Henry  VI.  pro- 
claimed at  Paris 
King  of  France 
and  England. 

Aragon  and 
Sicily. 

• 

1427 

Orleans  besieged  by 

» 

the  English. 

80 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE   DISSOLUTION   OF   THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE    TO    THE    FALL 

OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE— A.  D.  841-1453 

Arts  of  Civilization 

Italy  and  the  Churcii 

Eastern  Empire 

The  British  Isles 

1429.  Schism  of  the  West 

ended. 

1434 

Invention  of  printing 
at  Mayence. 

1444.  Vladislas,  King  of 
Poland,  defeated  and 
killed  by  the  Turks. 

1444.  Truce  with  France. 
Marriage  of  Henry 
to  Margaret  of  Anjou. 

1447 

Library  of  the  Vati- 

can founded. 

1448.  Concordat  of  As- 

1448.  Constantine  XII., 

1450 

Flourishing  period  of 

chaffenberg,  by 

last  of  the  Greek 

1450.  Insurrection  of 

trade  in  Western 

which  the  liberties 

Emperors. 

Jack  Cade.    Wars  of 

Europe  —  particu- 

of the  German 

1453.  Siege  and  capture 

the  Roses.   Richard, 

larly  in  Flanders, 

Church  are  com- 

of Constantinople  by 

Duke  of  York, 

or  modern  Belgium 

promised. 

the  Turks,  ending 

claims  the  throne. 

the  Eastern  Empire. 

FROM    THE    FALL    OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE    TO    THE 

FALL  OF   NAPOLEON  — 1453-1815 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Italy  and  the 
Church 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

, 

1454.  Struggle 

1454.  Henry  IV. 

between  Cos- 

1455. Wars  of  the 

1462.  The  Emperor 

of  Castile, 

mo  de  Medici 

Roses  begin. 

besieged  in 

King  of 

and  the  aris- 

court at  Vi- 

Spain. 

tocracy. 
1458.  The  French 

enna. 

1460 

Wood  engraving  in- 
vented. 

rule  in  Genoa. 

1460.  James  III., 
King  of  Scotland. 

1461.  Edward  IV., 

1463.  Warof  Ven- 

King.    House  of 

1464 

Post-offices  in 
France  and  Eng- 

ice with  the 
Turks. 

York. 

land. 

1469.  Lorenzo  de 

1469.  Invasion  of 

1469.  Marriage 

1470 

Beerhard  invents 

Medici  suc- 

1470. Henry  VI.  re- 

the Turks. 

of  Ferdi- 

the pedal  to  the 

ceeds  Pietro 

stored  by  War- 

nand of  Ar- 

organ. 

at  Florence. 

wick. 

agon  with 

1471.  Increase  of 

1471.  Return  of  Ed- 

Isabella of 

1473 

Printed  musical 

the  power  of 

ward  IV.  Deaths 

Castile. 

notes.     Large 

the  Medici. 

of  Warwick  and 

library  founded 

Rise  of  learn- 

Henry VI. 

at  Ofen. 

ing. 

1475.  Edward  IV. 

1477 

Watches  made  at 

Sixtus  IV., 

invades  France. 

1477.  Marriage  of 

Nuremburg. 

Pope. 

Maximilian  and 

1479.  Union  of 

1480.  War  between 

Maria  of  Bur- 

Castile  and 

England  and 

gundy. 

Aragon. 

Scotland. 

1492.  Alexander 

1492.  Henry  VII.  in- 

1492. Conquest 

1493 

Printing  press  at 

VI.,  Pope. 

vades  France.   ,  ' 

1493.  Maximilian 

of  Granada. 

Copenhagen. 

I.,  Emperor. 

Discovery  of 

Era  of  discovery  in 

America  by 

the  New  World 

Columbus. 

begins. 

1500.  Partition  of 

1498.  Vasco  de 
Gama 

1502 

St.  Peter's  and 

Naples  be- 

reaches 

other  great 

tween  France 

India  via 

churches  built. 

and  Spain. 
1503.  Naples  an- 
nexed to  the 

Cape  of 

Good  Hope. 

1506.  Columbus 

Spanish 

1509.  Henry  VIII., 

dies  at  Val- 

crown. 

King. 

ladolid. 

Julius  II., 
Pope. 
1511.  Council  of 

1512.  War  with 

1512.  Maximilian 

Pisa. 

France. 

divides  the  em- 

1513. Pope  Leo 

1513.  Battle  of  Flod- 

pire  into  10  cir- 

X. patron  of 

den;  James  IV. 

cles. 

literature 

killed. 

•  and  the  arts. 

1515.  Wolsey,  chan- 

1516. Charles, 

1517 

Luther  and  the  Pro- 

cellor and  cardi- 

1517. Beginning  of 

King  of  all 

testant  Reforma- 

nal. 

the     Reforma- 

Spain and 

tion. 

tion. 

the  Nether- 

Hans Sachs  founds 

lands. 

the  German 

drama. 

• 

HISTORY 


81 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   DISSOLUTION   OF   THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE   TO   THE   FALL          | 

OF   THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE - 

-A.  D.  841-1453                                            | 

1429 

«           France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

Saved  by  Joan  of 

Arc. 
Charles  VII.  crown- 

, 

1430.  War  be- 

ed at  Rheims. 

tween  Cas- 

1431 

Joan  of  Arc  burned. 

1438.  House  of 

tile  and 
Granada. 

1437-38.  Rise  of  Por- 

Austria estab- 

1441. Kiptchak 

tugal. 

lished.    Albert 

Mongols  di- 

II. (King  of 

vide  Russia. 

Bohemia  and 

Hungary), 

Emperor. 

>. 

1446.  War  with 

Hungary. 

1452.  Civil  War 
in  Navarre, 

1450.  Kingdom  of 
Delhi  enlarged. 

1453 

End  of  the  French 

1453.  Austria  made 

in  which  Cas- 

1453. Poland's  inde- 

and English  wars. 

an  hereditary 

tile  and  Ar- 

pendence  con- 

Duchy by  Em- 

agon join. 

firmed  by  Diet 

peror  Freder- 

of Petrekin. 

ick  III. 

FROM    THE    FALL   O 

P    THE    EASTERN   EMPIRE    TO    THE 

FALL   Ol 

?    NAPOLEON  — 

1453-1815 

France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman  Empire 

Lesser  Countries 

' 

1454.  Poland  at 

war  with  the 

Teutonic  Or- 

der. 

1458.  Greece  sub- 

1458. Hungary  vig- 
orous under 

jected  to  the 

Turks. 

Mathias  Cor- 

1461 

Louis  XI.,  King. 

1462.  Ivan  the 
Great  takes 

1464.  War  with 

vin. 

the  title  of 

Hungary. 

1466.  Prussia  a  fief 

Czar. 

1470.  Sten  Sture, 

of  Poland. 
1468.  Uzun  Has- 
san, master  of 
Persia. 

1472.  Ivan  mar- 

Regent of 

ries  Sophia, 

Sweden. 

niece  of  the 

1475 

War  between  France 
and  Burgundy. 

Greek  Em- 
peror. 

1477 

Artois  and  Burgundy 

1479.  Great  in- 

united to  France. 

vasion  of  the 
Tartars. 

1480.  Otranto 
taken. 

1481.  Power  of 

1481.  John,  King 

1481.  Bajazet  II., 

1491 

Bretagne  united  to 

the  Tartars 

of  Denmark, 

Sultan. 

the   crown. 

annihilated. 

partially  ac- 
knowledged 

1485.  Mathias   of 
Hungary  takes 

in  Sweden. 

1493.  War  with 
Egypt,  Hun- 
gary, and  Ven- 
ice. 

Vienna. 
1492.  America  dis- 
covered by  Co- 
lumbus. 

1499 

Conquest  of  Milan. 

1505.  War  with 
Persia. 

1499.  Voyage  of 
Amerigo    Ves- 
pucci. 

1502.  Soufi  sole 
Sovereign  of 
Persia. 

1510 

Council  of  Tours. 

1510.  Renewed 

1506.  Poland  un- 

Tartar inva- 

1512. Selim  I.  de- 

der Sigismund 

sions. 

thrones  and 
puts  to  death 
his  father. 

the  Great. 
1511.  Cuba  con- 
quered. 

1513.  Christian 

1514.  Persians  de- 

1512. Florida    dis- 

II., King  of 

feated;  Kurdis- 

covered. 

Norway  and 

tan  added  to 

1513.   Discoveries 

1515 

Francis  I.  invades 

Denmark. 

the  empire. 

of  Balboa. 

Italy. 

1516.  Cairo  taken. 

1517.  First  patent 
granted   by 
Spain  for  the 
importation  of 
negroes  into 
America. 

82 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    FALL   OF    THE    EASTERN 

EMPIRE    TO    THE                             1 

FALL   OP   NAPOLEON— 1453-1815 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Italy  and  the 
Church 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

1519.  Charles  V., 

1519.  Conquest 

King  of  Spain. 

of  Mexico  by 

1521.  Diet  of 

Cortez. 

Worms. 

1522 

Circumnavigation 

1529.  Turks  invade 

of  the  globe  by 

1525.  Spanish  as- 

Germany. 

Magellan. 

cendancy  by 

Xavier  plants 

the  victory 

Christianity  in 

of  Pavia. 

1532.  The  King  mar- 

India. 

ries  AnneBoleyn. 

1530 

Jorgens  invents  the 

1535.  Henry  excom- 

spinning wheel 

1540.  Order  of 

municated  by  the 

1540.  Lisbon,  the 

for  flax. 

Jesuits 

Pope. 

market  of 

founded  by 

1543.   Invasion  of 

1543.   Alliance  with 

the  world. 

Loyola. 

France. 
1547.   Formal  estab- 

England 
against  France. 

1545 

Vasalius  makes  im- 

1545. Council  of 

lishment  of  Prot- 

portant contribu- 

Trent. 

estantism. 

tions  to  study  of 

Edward  VI., 

anatomy. 

King. 

1548 

Orange  trees  intro- 

1551. Treaty  of 

duced  into  Eu- 

1550. JuHus  III., 

Passau  secures 

rope. 

Pope. 

1553.  Mary,  Queen  of 
England. 

1554.  Lady  Jane 
Grey  executed. 

1555.  Persecution   of 
the  Protestants. 

1558.  Elizabeth, 

religious  liberty 
to  the  Protest- 
ants. 

1556.  Charles  V.  ab- 
dicates. 

1559 

Carriages  intro- 

1559. Termina- 

Queen. 

duced  into  Paris. 

tion  of 

Rise  of  the  Pu- 

1560 

Knives  first  made 

French  wars 

ritans. 

in  England. 

in  Italy. 

1564.  Maximilian 
II.,  Emperor. 

1564.  Acquisi- 
tion of  the 
Philippines. 

1567.  Duke  of 

1568.  Mary,  Queen  of 

Alva  Govern- 

1569. Florence  a 

Scots,  takes  ref- 

or of  the 

grand  duchy. 

uge  in  England. 

Nether- 
lands. 
1570.  War  with 

Turkey. 

1573 

Titian,  colorist 

Battle  of 

painter,  at  height 

1576.  Rudolph  II., 

Lepanto. 

1                                       «»^r 

of  fame. 

King  of  Bohe- 

1580. Portugal 

1584.  Raleigh's  col- 
ony in  Virginia. 

mia  and  Hun- 

passes under 

gary,  Emperor. 

Spanish  do- 

1585. Pope  Six- 
tus  V.  re- 

1585. War  with 

minion. 

1586 

Tobacco  introduced 

Spain. 

into  Europe. 

stores  the 

1588 

First  newspaper  in 

Vatican  li- 

1588. Spanish  Arma- 

1588. Defeat  of 

England. 

brary. 

da  destroyed. 

the  Spanish 

1590 

Telescopes  invent- 
ed by  Jansen,  a 

1592.  The  Rial  to 

Armada. 

German. 

and  Piazza  di 

1594.  Union  of 

Napier  invents   lo- 

San Marco 

1599.  Troubles  with 

Protestants  at 

garithms. 

built  at  Ven- 
ice. 

Ireland. 
1600.   English  East 
India  Company 

Heilbronn. 

• 

1602 

English  East  India 
Company  found- 
ed. 

chartered. 
1603.   Union  of  Eng- 
land and  Scot- 

1606 

Gilbert's   electrical 
discoveries. 

land. 
1607.  English  settle- 
ment at  James- 
town. 

1608.  Protestant 
union  under 

1609.  Leghorn 

Frederick    the 

1609.  Expulsion 

becomes  the 

Elector. 

of  the  Moors. 

1615 

Coffee  in  Venice. 

emporium  of 
the  Levant 
trade. 

1617.  Sir  Francis  Ba- 

1618 '" 

^Harvey  discovers 

1618.  Conspiracy 

con,  lord  chan- 

1618. Thirty  Years- 

the  circulation  of 

of  Bedmar  to 

cellor. 

War  begins. 

the  blood. 

subject  Ven- 

1620 

Thermometers  in- 

ice to  Spain. 

]  620.  Pilgrims  sail  in 

1620.  Massacre  of 

vented  by  Drebel. 

Mayflower. 

Prague. 

1621.  Dutch 

Negro  slavery  be- 

War. 

gins  in  Virginia. 

1625.  Charles  I., 

1625.  Naval  War 

1626 

Kepler's  laws  dis- 

1626. St.  Peer's 

King. 

ynth   Eng- 

covered. 

dedicated. 

1627.  War  with 

land. 

1628.  War  fol- 

France. 

1628.  Victories  of 

lowing  death 

Wallenstein. 

of  the  Duke 

Mantua. 

HISTORY 


83 


A.  D. 

FROM 

THE    FALL   OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE    TO 

THE 

FALL   OF    NAPOLEON  — 

1453-1816 

France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman  Empire 

Lesser  Countries 

1519.  Spaniards, 
under   Cortez, 

, 

, 

1520.  Christian, 

1520.  Soliman  the 

King  of  Swe- 

Magnificent, 

conquer  Mex- 

den. 

Sultan. 

ico. 

1521 

First  War  with 

1521.  Gustavus 

1521.  Belgrade  tak- 

Charles V. 

Vasa  throws 

en. 

1625 

Francis  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at 

off  the  Dan- 
ish yoke. 

Pavia. 

1523.  Gustavus 

1526.  Invasion  of 

1527 

Second  War  with 

Vasa,  King 

Hungary. 

Charles  V. 

of  Sweden. 

1529.  Invasion  of 

1532-44 

Struggle  for  posses- 

Union of 

Germany. 

sion  of  Italy. 

1533.  Ivan  the 

Calmar  dis- 

Siege of  Vi- 

1533. Cortez  con- 

Terrible, 

solved. 

enna. 

quers  Peru. 

Czar. 

1532.   Union  of 
Norway  and 
Denmark. 

1543.  First  stand- 

1535. Barbarossa 
siezes  Tunis. 

1545.  Mines  at  Po- 
tosi  discovered. 

1547 

Henry  II.,  King; 

ing  army  in 

1547.  Turks  invade 

Catherine  de 

Sweden. 

Persia. 

Medici,  Queen. 

1551.  Tripoli  taken. 

1552 

Fifth  War  with 
Charles  V. 

1554.  Siberia 
discovered. 

1552.  Invasion  of 
Hungary. 

1559.  Military 

1556.  Akbar  raises 
the  Indian  Em- 
pire to  its 
greatest  splen- 
dor. 

1560.  Eric  XIV., 

power  of  the 
Turks  at  its 

1564.  Coligny  sends 

King  of  Swe- 

a colony  of  Hu- 

den. 

greatest  height 

guenots  to 

1562 

Religious  liberty 
granted  to  the  Hu- 
guenots.    Hugue- 
not Wars. 

1571.  Russia  de- 

War be- 
tween Swe- 
den and  Den- 
mark. 
1570.  Peace  of 
Stettin. 

under  Soliman. 

1570.  War  with 
Venice. 

1571.  Battle  of  Le- 

Florida. 

1572 

Massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. 

vastated  by 
the  Tartars 

panto. 

1576 

The  Catholic  League. 

and  Moscow 

1577 

Sixth  Religious  War. 

burned. 
1578.  Alliance  of 

1578.  Alliance 

Sweden  and 

with  Poland. 

1579.  Beginning  of 
the  Republic 
of  Holland. 

Poland 

against  Rus- 

sia. 

1585.  Persia  ac- 

1588 

Revolt  of  Paris. 

1588.  Christian 

quires  great 

1589 

House  of  Bourbon  be- 

IV., King  of 

1589.  Revolt  of 

power   under 

gins  with  Henry 

Denmark. 

the  Janizaries. 

Abbas  the 

IV. 

Great. 

1590 

Siege  of  Paris  raised 
by  the  Spaniards. 

1595.  Power  in 
Hungary  de- 

1598 

Edict  of  Nantes — tol- 

1598. Borus  Go- 

clines;  revolt 

eration  granted  to 

dunov   be- 

of Wallachia. 

the  Protestants. 

gins  a  new 
dynasty. 

1604.  Charles 

1605.  Revolt  in 

1605.  Jehangir,  Mo- 

IX., King  of 

Syria. 

gul    Emperor 

Sweden. 

1606.  Commercial 

of  India,. 

1609.  Gustavus 

treaty  with 

1609.  First  English 

Adolphus, 

France  and 

envoy  of  the 

King  of  Swe- 

Holland. 

East  India 

1610 

Assassination  of 

den. 

Company  sent 

Henry  IV. 

1613.  Michael- 

1611.  War  be- 

to India. 

1614 

Last  assembly  of  the 

Fedorovitz, 

tween  Swe- 

States-general. 

Czar,  founds 
the  house  of 
Romanoff. 

den  and  Den- 
mark. 
1616.  Sweden 

1617.   Finland 

dominates 

1618.  Great  Per- 

ceded to 

the  North. 

sian  victory  at 

Sweden. 

Shibli. 

1624 

Ministry  of  Cardinal 

1620.  War  with  Po- 

Richelieu. 

land. 

1627 

War  with  Eagland 
over  '.he  Hugue- 
nots. 

84 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.D. 

FROM    THE    FALL   OF   THE    EASTERN 

EMPIRE    TO    THE 

FALL   OF   NAPOLEON  —  1453-1816 

Arts  of 
CivillBation 

Italy  and  the 
Church 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

1629.  Gustavus 

1630 

Gazettes  first  pub- 

Adolphus lands 

, 

lished  in  Venice. 

1631.  Influenceof 
France  in- 

in Germany. 
1632.  Battle  of 

1639 

Printing  in  America. 

creases. 

Lutzen. 

1639.  Lofsofthe 
Japanese 
trade. 

1640 

Manufacturing  in 

1640.   Frederick 

1640.  Portugal 

Sweden. 

1642.  Civil  War  and 

William  of 

regains  in- 

revolution. 

Prussia. 

dependence. 

1643 

Conde  and  Turenne 
the  greatest  gen- 

1646. Revolt  of 

erals  of  the  time. 

Naples  under 

1648.  Treaty   of 

Massaniello. 

1649.  Commonwealth 
under  Cromwell. 

1652.  War  with  Hol- 
land. 

1653.  Cromwell, 

Westphalia. 

1654 

Air  pumps  invented. 

Lord  Protector. 

1660.  Charles  II.. 
King. 

Stuarts  re- 
stored. 

1657.  Leopold  I., 
Emperor. 

1654.  Brazil  re- 
covered from 
the  Dutch. 

1655.  War  with 
England. 

1661.  Invasion 
of  Portugal. 

1666 

Canal  of  Languedoc 

1666.  Great  fire  in 

1665.  Tyrol  united 

built. 

London. 

to  Austria. 

1667 

Gobelin  tapestry 
manufactured  in 

1668.  Triple  alliance 

Paris. 

1669.  Candia 
taken  from 
Venice. 

1670.  War  be- 

of England,  Swe- 
den, and  Holland 
against  France. 

1671 

Foundation  of  the 

tween  Genoa 

Academy  of  Ar- 

and Savoy. 

1673.  War  of  Aus- 

1673. War  with 

chitecture  at 

tria  and 

France  to 

Paris. 

France. 

protect  Hol- 
land. 

1676.  Messina 

1676.  General  re- 

blockaded by 

1679.  Habeas  Corpus 

volt  of  the 

the  Dutch 

act  passed. 

Hungarians. 

and  Spanish 

1680.  Greater  part 

1681 

Museum  of  Natural 
History  founded 
in  London. 

fleets. 

of  Alsace  seized 
by  France. 
1683.  Siege  of  Vi- 

• 

1681 

Jardin  des  Plantes 

1685.  James  II., 

enna  by  the 

founded  at  Paris. 

King. 

Rise  of  the 
Whigs  and  To- 
ries. 

Turks. 
1686.  Buda   taken 
after  being 
held  by  the 
Turks  145 

1687 

The   earliest   tele- 

years. 
1687.  Joseph  I., 

graph    instru- 

1688. Revolution. 

King  of  Hun- 

ments invented. 

1689.   Alexander 

1689.  William  III., 

gary. 

1689.  Revolt   in 

VIIL,  Pope. 

King,  and  Mary 
II.,  Queen. 
War  with 
France. 

Catalonia  in 
favor  of 
France. 

1690 

White  paper  first 

1690.  Battle  of  the 

1690.  Joseph  I., 
elected   King 

made  in  England. 

Boyne. 

James  defeat- 

1691.  Incursion 

1692 

First  opera  in  Lon- 

of the  Romans. 

of  the 

don. 

ed,  returns  to 

French  into 

1693 

Bank  of  England 

1693.   Battle  of 

France. 

Aragon. 

founded. 

Marsaglia. 

1 697.  General  peace. 

1697.   Victories  of 
Prince  Eugene 
over  the  Sul- 
tan   Mustapha 
at  Zenta. 

1701.  War  of  the 

1701.  Hague  alli- 

njl.  Philip  v.. 

Spanish  succes- 

liance. 

King. 

1702.   French  vic- 

sion. 
1702.  Queen  Anne. 

1703 

Russian  newspaper 

tory  of  Luz- 

War  against 

established  at  St. 

zace  over  the 

France  and 

Petersburg. 

imperialists. 

Spain. 

Flourishing  period 

1704.  Gibraltar  taken 

J 

of  French  litera- 

by English. 

1705.  Barcelona 

ture.    . 

1706.  French 
driven  from 
Italy  by 
Prince  Eu- 

1     taken  by  the 
(      Allies. 

gene. 

HISTORY 


SSi 


A.  D. 

FROM 

THE    FALL,   OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE    TO 

THE 

FALL   OF    NAPOLEON  — 

1453-1815 

France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman  Empire 

Lesser  Countries 

1632.  War  with 

1632.  Christina, 

1638 

Invasion  of  Spain. 

Poland. 

Queen  of 

1634.  Murad  in- 

Poles ad- 

Sweden; Ox- 

vades  Persia. 

vance    to 

enstiern.  Re- 

1637. Troubles  on 

1639.  Great  naval 

1640 

Turin  taken  by  the 

Moscow. 

gent. 

the  Tartar 

victory  of  Van 

French. 

frontier. 
Bagdad 

Tromp,  of  Hol- 
land, over  the 

1643 

Louis  XIV.,   King. 

taken  by  the 

Spanish  fleet 

1645.  Peace  be- 

Turks. 

at  the  Downs. 

1648 

Wars  of  the  Fronde. 

tween  Swe- 

1645. War  with 

1640.  Madras,  In- 

1649 

Siege  of  Paris. 

den  and  Den- 
mark. 

Venice. 

dia,  founded. 

1653 

Mazarin  enters  Paris 

1653.  John  de  Witt, 

in  triumph. 

1654.   Russian 

Grand  Pension- 

victories in 

1657.  War  be- 

1657. Alliance  with 

ary  of  Holland. 

Poland. 

tween  Den- 
mark and 

Sweden  against 
Poland. 

1659 

Peace  of  the  Pyrenees. 

Sweden. 
1660.   Arts  and 

1666.  Sobieski,  Po- 

sciences 

1661.  War  with 

lish  general, 

flourish. 

Austria. 

1662.  Invasion  of 

Hungary. 

wins  great  vic- 
tory over  the 
Tartars. 

1667 

War  with  Spain. 

1671.  The  Cos- 

1672 

War  with  Holland. 

sacks  subju- 
gated. 

1672.  Invasion  of 
Poland. 

1674.  Sobieski, 

King  of  Poland. 

1678 

Peace  with  Holland 
and  Spain  restores 
tranquillity  to 
Europe. 

France  -the  most  for- 

1678.  First    War 
with  Russia. 

1680 

1680.  Diet  of 

midable  power  in 

1682.   Ivan  and 

Stockholm. 

1682.  War  with 

Europe. 

Peter,  Czars. 

Austria. 
1683..  Defeat  at  Vi- 

1685 

Revocation  of  the 

enna. 

Edict  of  Nantes. 

1686.  Russia  de- 
clares war. 

1687.  Revolution 
in  Constanti- 
nople, Soly- 
man  II.,  Sul- 
tan. 

1686.  Dekkan.  In- 
dia, conquered. 

1688 

War  of  the  Allies 

1690.  Recovery  of 

1692.  Mogul  power 

against  France. 

1689.  Peter  the 

1693.  The  King 

Belgrade  from 

at  its  height  in 

1697 

General  peace  of  Rys- 

Great,  Czar. 

of  Sweden 

the   Austrians. 

India. 

wick  between 

1692.   First  trade 

declared  ab- 

Jesuits  gain 

France  and  the 

with  China. 

solute. 

large  influence 

Allies. 

1699.  Charles 

1699.  Peace  of  Car- 

in  China. 

XII.  begins 

lowitz.  The  Ot- 

1695.  Brussels 

to  reign. 

toman  power 

bombarded  by 

Denmark, 

broken. 

the  French. 

Poland,  and 

Russia  form 

an  alliance 

against  Swe- 

den. 

1700.  Peter  the 

1700.  Defeat  of 

Great  wars 

the  Allies  at 

with  the 

Narva. 

Northern 

1702 

Invasion  of  Holland. 

Powers. 

1702-6.  Charles 

Revolt  of  the  Hugue- 

1703. St.  Peters- 

XII. sweeps 

1703.  Mustaphall. 

nots. 

burg  found- 

Poland  and 

deposed  by  the 

1704 

Defeat  at  Blenheim. 

ed. 

Russia. 

Janizaries. 

1704.  Stanislaus  I., 
King  of  Poland. 

86 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE   FALL   OF   THE    EASTERN 

EMPIRE    TO    THE 

FALL   OF   NAPOLEON— 1453-1815 

Arts  of 
ClTlllzation 

,  ^taly  and  the 
^       Church 

\y  Great  Britain 

-  Germany 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

1707.  All  Spanish 

1707.  Act  of  union  of 

possessions  in 

England  and 

Italy  aban- 

Scotland. 

doned. 

First  united 
parliament  of 
Great  Britain 
meets. 

1711.  Charles   VI., 

1709 

Prussic  acid  dis- 
covered. 

1713.  Peace  of 

Utrecht.     Eng- 

Emperor. 

1714 

Rise  of  commerce 

land   acquires 

in  Austria. 

large  American 

/ 

1715.  Siege  of 

possessions. 

Corfu  raised. 

MIS.  War  with 
/     Spain. 

1718.  Quadruple 

'  alliance  against 

. 

Spain. 

1719.  Sicily  in- 

/ 

V 

vaded  by  the 

Spanish. 

1721 

Inoculation  for 

1725.  Alliance  of 

1725.  Alliance 

small  po.x  intro- 

1727. George  II., 

Vienna,  Spain, 

with  Aus- 

duced. 

King  of  England. 

1739.  War  with 
Spain. 

and   Austria. 

tria. 

1728 

Behring  Strait  dis- 

/ 

covered. 

1730.  Clement 

mS.  War  of  the 

XII.,  Pope. 

Polish  succes- 

1734. Conquest 

sion. 

of  Sicily  and 

Vi740.  War  of  the 

Naples  by 

Don  Carlos. 

1740 

Irish  linen  manu- 

Austrian   suc- 

factories and 

1744.  Italy  in- 

cession. 

English  steel  and 
cutlery  factories 

vaded  by  the 

Maria   The- 

French and 

resa  succeeds 

flourish. 

Spaniards. 

1745.  Troubles  in 

to  the  hei^di- 
tary  States. 
174.5.   Francis  I., 

1746.   French  and 

Scotland. 

husband  of 

1746.  Ferdinand 

Spaniards 

1756.  Alliance  with 

Maria  Theresa, 

VI.,  King. 

1750 

Franklin's  discov- 

driven from 

Prussia. 

,/      Emperor. 
1756.  Seven  years' 

eries  in  electricity. 

Lombardy. 

1762.  War  with 

1761 

Potatoes  first 

Spain. 

war  —  .Austria 

planted  in  France. 

1763.  Peace  of  Paris. 
1775.  War  with  the 
American  Colo- 

and Prussia. 
n772.  Dismember- 
ment of  Po- 

1 

1767 

First  spinning  ma- 

nies. 

land. 

1767.  Jesuits  ex- 

chine in  England. 

1776.  British  army 

pelled  from 

1773.  Jesuits  ex- 

takes posscs.sion 

Spain. 

1774 

Spinning-jenny  in- 

pelled from 

of  New  York. 

v' 

vented  by  Ark- 

Rome. 

Hessians  hired 

1778.  War  of  the 

wright. 

for  service  in 

Bavarian  suc- 

Steam engines  im- 

America. 

cession.   Bava- 

proved by  Watt 

1781.  Surrender  of 

ria  seized  by 

and  Bolton. 

1782.  Pontine 

Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown. 
1783.  Treaty  of  Ver- 

Germany. 

1784 

First  American  ves- 

Marshes 

sailles. 

sel  in  China. 

drained. 

Independence 

Institution  for  the 

of  the  United 

deaf  and  dumb 

States  acknowl- 

17S8.  The  Emperor 

1788.  Charles 

at  Paris. 

edged. 

tries  to  control 

IV.,  King. 

1786 

Taylor's  system 

1786.  Impeachment 

the  universi- 

of stenography 
inventea. 

of  Warren  Hast- 

ties. 

ings. 

,4792.  War  with 

France. 

1793.  First  coalition 

1793.  First  coali- 

against France 

tion  against 

directed  by  Eng- 

France. 

land. 

/ 

1796-7.   Napo- 
leon's Italian 

1797.  Nelson  de- 

-1797. Napoleon  s 

stroys  French 

Austrian  cam- 

campaign. 

fleet  near  Alex- 
andria. 

paign. 

1Y98.  Roman  Re- 

1798. Second  coali- 

public pro- 
claimed by 

tion  against 

France. 

the  French. 

1800.  Union  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland. 

HISTORY 


87 


A.  D. 

FROM 

THE    FALL   OF    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRE    TO 

THE 

FALL   OF   NAPOLEON  — 

1453-1815 

France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman  Empire 

Lesser  Countries 

1707.  Revolt  of 

the  Cossack 

Mazeppa. 
1708.  Charles 

XII.  of  Swe- 

den invades 

Russia. 

1709.  Is  defeated 

1713 

Peace  of  Utrecht  — 
perpetual  separa- 
tion of  the  crown 
of  France  and 
Spain. 

at  Pultowa. 
1714.  Finland 
conquered. 

1715 

Louis  XV.,  King. 

1715.  Charles  re- 

1715. Treaty  of 

turns  to  Swe- 

1717. Turks  lose 

Antwerp   with 

den. 

Belgrade. 

Austria. 

1718 

The  Quadruple  Alli- 
ance against  Spain. 

1718.  Invades 
Norway  and 
is  killed  at 
the  siege  of 
Fredericshall. 

1720.  Peace  of 

1721.  Peter  as- 

Stockholm. 

1723.  Turks  and 

1723.  Christians  ex- 

1724 

Congress  of  Cambray. 

sumes  the 

Russians  at- 

pelled from 

title  "Em- 

tempt to  dis- 

China. 

peror  of  all 

member  Persia. 

the    Rus- 

sias." 

1725.  Catherine 

I.,  Queen. 

1726.  Alliance 

. 

with  Austria. 

1727.  Treaty 

with  China. 

1733 

The  Polish  succession 

1730.  Peter   II., 

1730.  Christian 

1733.  Frederick 

involves  France  in 

last  of  the 

VI.,  King   of 

1734.  Turks  driven 

Augustus  II., 

war. 

Romanoffs. 

Denmark. 

from  Persia  by 

King  of  Poland 

1740 

Tbe  Austrian  succes- 

Nadir Shah. 

1739.  India  invad- 

sion. 

1740.  Renewed  in- 

ed by  Nadir 

1741.  Swedes 

vasion  of  Tur- 

Shah,who takes 

driven  out  of 

key. 

Delhi. 

1744 

War  with  England 

Finland. 

1745.   Defeat  of 

1744.  Hostilities 

and  Austria. 

Turks  at  Kars. 

between  the 

1747 

War  with  Holland. 

French  and 
English  in  In- 
dia. 

1760 

Loss  of  all  Canada. 

1762.  Catherine 
II.  reigns. 

1768.   War  with 
the  Ottoman 

1756.  Calcutta 
taken  by  the 
Nabob  of  Ben- 
gal. 

1765.  Establish- 

1770 

Marriage  of  the 

Empire. 

ment  of  the 

dauphin  to  Marie 

1772.  Despotism 

English  in  In- 

Antoinette. 

re-estab- 
lished in  Swe- 
den by  Gus- 

dia. 
1766.  Power  of  the 
Mamelukes  re- 

1774 

Louis  XVI.,  King. 

1774.  Revolts  of 

tavus  III. 

vived  in  Egypt 
under,  Rodfvan 

1776 

Franklin  in  Paris. 

the  Cossacks. 

17Z8 

Alliance  with  Amer- 

1784. The  Crimea 

and  Ali  Bey. 

ica. 

ceded  to  Rus- 

1774. Warren  Hast- 

1780 

Rochambeau  sent  to 

sia. 

ings  first  gov- 

aid the  Americans. 

1787.  War  with 

1787.  Disastrous 

ernor-general 

the  Turks. 

war  with  Aus- 
tria and  Rus- 
sia. 

of  India. 
1776.  Lord  Pigot 
governor-gen- 
eral of  the  East 

J.789 

French  Revolution 

Indies. 

begins. 
Lafayette  commander 
of  the  national 
guards. 

^ 

1792 

War  with  Germany. 

1792.  Gustavus 

1794.  Polish  revolt 

France  declared  a  re- 

III.   assassi- 

at Cracow. 

public. 

nated. 

1793 

King  and  Queen  be- 
headed. 
Reign  of  Terror. 

Gustavus 
IV..  King. 

1795 

Napoleon  Bonaparte 
commands  the 
army. 

1796 

War  in  Italy. 

1796.  Unsuccess- 

, 

1797 

Napoleon  in  Austria. 

ful  war  with 

1797.  Swiss  revolu- 

1798 

Expedition  to  Egypt. 

Persia. 

1798.  War  with  the 

tion.     Helve- 

1799 

Swiss  campaign. 

French  in 

tian  Republic 
declared. 

1800 

Battle  of  Marengo. 

Egypt. 

88 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D.* 

FROM   THE   FALL   OF   THE   EASTERN   EMPIRE   TO   THE 

FALL   OF   NAPOLEON  —1453-1815 

1801 

Arts  of 
Civilization 

Italy  and  the 
Churcli 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

Iron  railways  in 

England. 

1802.  Napoleon 
President  of 

1803.  Successful  war 

the  Italian 

in  India. 

h804.  The  Emperor 

Republic. 
1805.  Napoleon 

of  Germany  as- 

1805. Napoleon  de- 

sumes the  title 

1805.  Battle  of 

crowned 

feated  at  Tra- 

of Emperor  of 

Trafalgar. 

King  of  Italy. 

falgar. 
1806.  Fourth  coali- 

Austria. 
Battle  of 

1807 

Fulton  invents  the 

tion  against 

Austerlitz. 

steamboat. 

France. 

Confedera- 

1808 

Lithography  in- 

1808. Rome  an- 

tion of  the 

1808.  Madrid 

vented. 

nexed  by 

Rhine. 

taken  by  the 

Napoleon  to 

:i809.  Peace  of  Vi- 

French. 

1810 

First  successful 

the  King- 

1810. War  with  Swe- 

enna. 

Joseph 

steamboat  built 

dom  of  Italy. 

den. 

Bonaparte, 

in  Europe, 

King. 

1812.  War  with  the 

1812.  Austria  in 

1812.  Battle  of 

United  States. 

alliance  with 

Salamanca. 

1814 

Steam  carriages  in 

1814.  Fall  of  Na- 

France against 

England.     Gas 

poleon. 

Russia. 

used  for  lighting 

Kingdom 

1313.  War  of  Ger- 

the streets  in 

ceases. 

man  independ- 

London. 

ence. 

1814.  Ferdinand 
VII.  re- 

1815 

Safety  lamp  in- 

1815. British  defeat- 

1815. German 

stored. 

vented  by  Davy. 

ed  at  New  Or- 
leans. 

Wellington  vic- 
torious at  Wa- 
terloo. 

The  Allies 
enter  Paris,  and 
Napoleon  is  ban- 
ished to  St.  He- 

League. 

Congress  of 
Vienna. 

1815 

lena. 

FROM   THE   FALL   OF   NAPOLEON   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME                       j 

Arts  of  Civilization 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Prussia 

Austria 

The  abolition  of  the 

slave  trade  by  the 

1816.  U.  S.  Bank  in- 

1816. Bombard- 

Congress of  Vienna. 

corporated. 

ment  of  Al- 

1817 

Public  schools  estab- 

1817. James  Monroe, 

giers.    The 

1817.  Population, 

lished  in  Russia. 

President. 

Dey  com- 
pelled to  abol- 

V' 

28.000,000. 

1818.  The  Zoll- 

1818.  Napoleon's 

ish  slavery. 

verein 

son  made 

1823.  The  Cann- 

formed. 

Duke  of 

1819 

The   steamship  "Sa- 

ing ministry. 

1819.  Death  of 

Reichstadt. 

vannah"  makes 

The  Ashan- 

Marshal 

the  first  trip  across 

tees  in  Africa 

Blucher. 

the  Atlantic. 

1821.  Monroe  reelect- 

defeated. 

1821.  Congress 

1822 

Hieroglyphics  deciph- 
ered by  Champo- 

ed. 

of  monarchs 

Missouri  com- 

at Laybach. 

lion. 

promise  bill 
passed. 

Insurrec- 
tion in  Mol- 

1824 

Inland  navigation 
stimulated  in  the 

1824.   Visit  of  Lafay- 

davia and 

ette. 

Wallachia. 

United  States. 

1826.  Erie  Canal 
opened. 

Protective 
tariff  enacted. 

1825 

Steam  navigation  on 

1825.  J.  Q.  Adams, 

the  Rhine. 

President. 

1828.  Wellington 

Vast  increase  in  peri- 

1829.  Andrew  Jack- 

ministry. 

odical  literature  in 

son,  President. 

Irish  disturb- 

England, France, 

ances. 

Germany,  United 

1830.  William 

States,  etc. 

1831.  Northeastern 

IV.,  King. 

1831.   Austria  in- 

1832 

Trades  unions  in  Eu- 

boundary be- 

Difficulties 

terferes  in 

rope. 

tween  the  U.  S. 
and  British  prov- 
inces established. 
1833.  President  Jack- 

with China. 

/ 

Italianaffairs. 

son  reelected. 

1834.  Robert 

1834.  Zollverein 

1835 

Slavery  abolished  in 

Bank  deposits 

Peel,  Pre- 

includes 

British  Colonies. 

removed  from 

mier.     DiflB- 

most  of  the 

1836 

Founding  of  the 

the  U.  S.  Bank. 

culties  in 

German 

1836.  Visit  of  the 

Smithsonian  Insti- 

Canada. 

States. 

Emperor  of  ^ 

tution. 

Russia. 

Luxor  obelisk  erected 

'. 

Ferdinand 

in  Paris. 

I.,  Emperor. 

ABDICATION— NAPOLEON  AT  FONTAINEBLEAU 


HISTORY 


89 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE    FALL,   OF   THE   EASTERN  EMPIRE 

TO   THE 

FALL   OP   NAPOLEON  — 1453-1815 

France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman  Empire 

Lesser  Countries 

1801.  Alexander, 

1801.   Denmark 

1802 

Napoleon  President 

Czar. 

and  Sweden 

of  the  Italian  Re- 

accede to  the 

1803.   Insurrection 

public. 

alliance  be- 

of Mamelukes 

War  with  England. 

tween  Eng- 

at Cairo. 

1804 

Napoleon  I.,  Emperor 
of  the  French. 

1804.  War  with 
Persia. 

land  and 
Russia. 

1805 

Battle  of  Austerlitz. 

1805.  Russia 
joins  the  co- 

1806. Louis  Napo- 
leon, King  of 

1807 

War  with  Russia. 

alition 

1807.  War  against 

Holland. 

Invasion  of  Portugal. 

against 

1808.  Finland  in- 

Russia and 

France. 

vaded  by  the 

England. 

1807.  Treaty  of 

Russians. 

1809 

Battle  of  Wagram. 

Tilsit. 

1809.  Charles 
XIII.,  King 

1809.  Russians  de- 
feated at  Silis- 

1810 

Continental  peace  ex- 
cept with  Spain. 

of  Sweden. 

tria. 

1812 

Russian  campaign. 

1812.   Invasion 

1812.  The  Poles  de- 

of Napoleon. 

1813.  Servia  invad- 

clared a  nation 

Moscow 

ed  by  Turkish 

by  Napoleon. 

burned. 

army. 

Diet  of  War- 

• 

saw. 

1814 

Allies  enter  Paris. 

1814.  Union  of 

1814.  Malta  falls  to 

American 

House  of  Bourbon  re- 

Sweden and 

England. 

war  with  Eng- 

•v 

stored. 

Norway  as 

land. 

^  1815 

Napoleon  returns 

1815.  The  Holy 

two  king- 

1815. William  I., 

from  Elba. 

Alliance 

doms  under 

King  of  the 

Hundred  days'  war. 

formed. 

one  monarch. 

Netherlands. 

Battle  of  Waterloo 

and  defeat  of  Na- 

poleon. 

Abdication  of  Napo- 

leon. 

FROM    THE    FALL    OF   NAPOLEON    TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

France 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

Italy  and  Greece 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

1815.   Union  of 

1815.  Kingdom 

1815.  Poland 

Portugal  and 

of  Two  Sici- 

united to 

1816.  Lord  Amherst's  un- 

Brazil under 

lies  restored. 

Russia. 

successful  mission  to 

John  VI. 

China. 

1817.  Slave 

1817.  The  Mahratta 

1818 

France  joins  in 
Holy  Alliance. 

trade  abol- 
ished. 

1819.  Establish- 

power completely 
overthrown  in  India 
by  the  British. 
1819.  Bolivar,  President 

1821 

Death  of  Napo- 

1821. Austrian 

ment  of  mili- 

of Colombia,  South 

leon  at  St. 

invasion  of 

tary  colonies. 

America. 

Helena. 

Italy. 

1822.  Greek  revo- 
lution. 

Liberty  of 
the  press  in 
Poland  nul- 
lified. 

Peru  and  Guate- 
mala independent. 

Brazil  independent. 
1822.  Iturbide,  Emperor 
of  Me.xico. 

1824 

Charles  X.,  Kinp. 

Declaration 
of  Independ- 

1830 

Algiers  taken  by 
the  French. 

ence. 
1825.  Death  of 

Revolution  and 

Ferdinand, 

1826.  Nicholas  I. 

1826.  Missolonghi  taken 

,    abdication  of 

after  reign  of 

crowned  at 

by  the  Turks. 

Charles  X. 

sixty-six 

Moscow.     • 

Louis  Philippe, 

years. 

War  against 

King. 

1830.  Salic 

1827.  Treaty  be- 
tween Russia 
and  Turkey 

Persia. 

1829.  Venezuela  inde- 
pendent. 

law  abol- 

respecting 

1830.  War  against 

1830.  Polish  struggles  for 

1 

ished. 

Greece. 

Poland. 

nationality. 

1831 

Abolition  of  hered- 

1833. Isabella 

1831.  Leopold  I.,  King 

itary  peerage 

II.,  Queen 

1832.    Kingdom 

1832.  Poland 

of  the  Belgians. 

in  France. 

of  Spain. 

Don  Carlos 
claims  the 
throne. 

of  Greece, 
founded. 

made  part  of 
empire. 

1834 

Death  of  Lafav- 
ette. 

Portugal  a 
constitu- 

1833. Santa  Ana,  Presi- 
dent of  Mexico. 

1836 

Insurrection  at- 
tempted by 
Louis  Napoleon 
at  Strasburg. 

tional  mon- 
archy. 
1834.  The  Carlist 
War. 

1836.  Decree  to  expel  all 
British  and  other  for- 
eigners from  China. 

90 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE    FALL  OF   NAPOLEON   TO   THE    PRESENT  TIME 

1837 

Arts  of  Civilization 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Prussia 

Austria 

Morse  patents  the 

1837.  Independence 

1837.  Victoria, 

telegraph  invented 

of  Texas  ac- 

Queen. 

1838.  Commer- 

by him  in  1832. 

knowledged. 

cial  treaty 

1840 

Wheatstone's  tele- 

Martin Van 

1840.  War  with 

1840.  Frederick 

withEngland. 

graph  patented  in 
England. 

Buren,  President. 

China  over 

William, 

the  opium 
trade. 
War  in 

King. 

Syria;  Great 

Britain  an 

ally  of  Aus- 

tria and  Tur- 
1841.  Chinese 

1841.  W.  H.  Harri- 

son, President. 

War  ended. 

Death  of  Harri- 

son and  succes- 

sion of  John  Ty- 
ler. 

1845.  Texas  annexed 

1844.  Daniel  0'- 

to  the  U.  S. 

Connell's 

1845 

Lord  Rosse's  tele- 

1845. Treaty  with 

trial. 

scope  completed. 

China. 

Sentence 

Gutta  percha  used. 

James  K.  Polk, 
President. 

1846.  War  with  Mex- 

reversed by 
the  House  of 
Lords. 
1846.   Repeal  of 
the  English 

ico. 

1846.  The  Oregon 

corn-laws. 

1847 

Great  canal  from 

Treaty  with 

1847.  Severe  fam- 

1847.  Austria 

Durance  to  Mar- 

Great Britain, 

ii>ein  Ireland. 

takes  posses- 

seilles completed. 
Railroad  building  in 

settling  the 

sion  of  Cra- 

Northwestern 

cow. 

Germany. 

boundary  of  the 

Sewing  machine  in- 

United States. 

vented  and  patent- 

1848 

ed. 
Girard  College  opened. 

1848.  Treaty  of  Gua- 

1848. Civil  War 

1^48.  Insurrec- 

1848. Revolution 

dalupe,  Hidalgo, 

in  Ireland. 

tion  in  Ber- 

in Hungary. 

ends  Mexican 

Habeas 

lin. 

Francis  Jo- 

war. 

Corpus  Act 

seph,  Em- 

Gold discov- 

suspended. 

peror. 

ered  in  California. 

Kossuth 

300,000  emi- 

, 

withdraws 

grants  arrive  this 

hia  army 

year. 

from  Vienna. 

1849 

Tubular  bridge  in  An- 

1849.  Zachary  Tay- 

1849. Mooltan  in 

1849.  The  King 

1849.  New  Con- 

glesea, England. 

lor,  President. 

India  taken. 

declines  the 

stitution  pro- 

Magnetic clock  in- 

Railroad from 

imperial 

mulgated.       ! 

vented  by  Dr. 

Boston  to  New 

crown. 

Locke  of  Cincinnati. 

York. 

f     Armistice 
between 
Prussia  and 
Denmark. 

1850 

Great  agitation  on 

1850.  Attempted  in- 

18.50. The  war  in 

1850.   Hanover 

slavery  in-  United 

vasion  of  Cuba 

Lahore 

withdraws 

States. 

by  filibusters. 

ended. 

from  the 

The  Pekin  "Monitor," 

Death  of  Presi- 

The Punjaub 

Prussian  al- 

a new  paper,  print- 
ed in  China. 

dent  Taylor;  Mil- 

annexed to 

liance. 

lard  Fillmore, 

the  British 

Hesse- 

Woman's  Rights  con- 

President. 

Crown. 

Darmstadt 

vention  at  Worces- 

Texas bound- 

Death of 

withdraws. 

ter,  Mass. 

ary  settled. 

Sir  Robert 

Treaty  of 

Fugitive  Slave 

Peel. 

peace  with 
Denmark. 

Law  passed. 

English 

forces  de- 

New Con- 

feated in 

stitution  for 

South  Africa 

Prussia. 

by  the  Kafirs. 

1851 

Daguerre  makes  im- 

1851. Erie  Railway 

1851.  Continu- 

1851. Louis  Kos- 

portant  contribu- 

opened. 

ance  of  the 

suth  sen- 

tions to  photog- 

Charleston Con- 

Kafir War. 

tenced  to 

raphy. 

vention. 

Kossuth 

death  at 

Railway  between  Mos- 

Vigilance com- 

visits Eng- 

Pesth. 

cow  and  St.  Peters- 

mittee organized 

land. 

burg  opened. 
Telegraphs  across  the 

in  California. 

1852 

Kossuth  arrives 

1852.  Emperor  of 

English  Channel. 

in  New  York. 

Austria  visits 
Emperor  of 
Prussia  at 

1853 

First  Norwegian  rail- 

1853. Franklin  Pierce, 

1853.  Kafir  War 

1853.  Plot  to 

Berlin. 

way  opened. 

President. 

ended. 

overthrow 

Perry's  expedition  to 

Gadsden  Pur- 

Queen Vic- 

the govern- 

Japan. 

chase. 

toria  visits 
Ireland. 

ment. 

1 

HISTORY 


91 


A.  D. 


FROM   THE   FALL   OF   NAPOLEON   TO    THE   PRESENT   TIME 


France 


1838 


Death  of  Talley- 
rand. 


1844 


WarwithMorocco. 


1848 


Abdication  of 
Louis  Philippe, 
and  a  reitublic 
proclaimed. 

Louis  Napoleon, 
President. 

Bloody  insurrec- 
tion in  Paris. 


1850 


Jerome  Bonaparte, 
Field-Marshal. 


Louis  Napoleon 
declared  Em- 
peror. 


Spain  and 
Portugal 


1837.  The  mon- 
asteries in 
Spain  dis- 
solved. 


1842.  Insurrec- 
tion in  Bar- 
celona. 


1846.  Marriage 
of  Isabella 
to  the  Duke 
of  Cadiz. 

Civil  War 
in  Portugal. 


Italy  and  Greece 


1843.  King  Otho 
of  Greece 
compelled  to 
accept  a  con- 
stitution. 


1848.  Rising  of 
the  great 
Italian  cities 
in  revolution. 

Italian  rev- 
olution. Ro- 
man republic 
overthrown. 

1849.  Catania, 
Syracuse, 
and  Palermo 
taken  by  as- 
sault. 

Mazzini's 
proclama- 
tion of  pro- 
visional gov- 
ernment. 

Victor  Em- 
manuel,King. 
Rome  sur- 
^ders  to  the 
nch;  Gari- 
"i  leaves 
Bour- 
rule  be- 


Vii 

—       man 

^gl^^Rc 

^^BBIffis. 


1851.  Death  of 
Godoy, 
"Prince  of 
Peace." 


Russia 


1838.  Smuggling 
carried  on 
extensively. 


1845.  Emperor 
visits  Eng- 
land. 


1849.  Aids  Austria 
in  subduing 
Hungary. 


1850.  Harbor  of 
Sebastopol 
completed. 


1853.  War  de- 
clared against 
Turkey. 


Lesser  Countries 


1839.  Turkey  at  war  vMh 
Egypt. 

1840.  William  I.  abdi- 
cates as  King  of  Hol- 
land. 


1842.  Insurrection  in  In- 
dia. 


1847.  Soulouque,  Presi- 
dent of  HaytL 


1848.  Holland  receives  a 
constitution. 

Insurrection  in 
Ceylon. 

Hungary  declared 
independent. 


1850.  Death  of  Emperor 
Tau-Kwang  of  China. 

Battle  of  Idstedt, 
Denmark. 


1851.  Discovery  of  gold 

in  Australia. 
1851.  Disturbances  in 

south  of  China. 


1852.  Buenos  Ayres 
taken  by  the  liberat- 
ing army. 

War  between  the 
Turks  and  Montene- 
gro. 

1853.  Turkish-Russian 
War. 


92 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   FALL   OF  NAPOLEON   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME 

Arts  of  Civilization 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Prussia 

Austria 

1854 

/ 

Commercial  treaty  be- 

1854. Treaty  with 

1854.  Crimean 

^854.  Treaty 

1854.  Alliance 

tween  United 

Japan. 

War. 

with  Austria, 

with  England 

• 

States    and  Japan. 

Kansas-Ne- 

Treaty of 

offensive  and 

and  France. 

First  railway  in  Bra- 

braska bill  passed. 

alliance  with 

defensive. 

zil. 

Ostend   Mani- 
festo issued. 

France. 

1855 

Panama  railway  com- 

1855. Panama  rail- 

1855. British  fleet 

pleted. 

road  completed. 

bombards 

Bessemer's  steel  pro- 

Troubles in 

and  partially 

cess  patented. 

Kansas. 

destroys  Can- 

.1856 

Submarine  telegraph 

ton,  China. 

1856.  Hungarians 
granted  am- 

laid from  Cape  Bre- 

ton to  Newfound- 

nesty. 

land. 

Dudley  Observatory 

inaugurated  at  Al- 

bany, N.  Y. 

1857 

Peabody  Institute 
founded  at  Balti- 

1857. Dred  Scott  de- 

1857. Rebellion 

cision. 

in  India  be- 

more. 

James  Buchan- 
an, President. 

Great  financial 
panic. 

gins.    King 
of  Delhi  pro- 
claimed Sov- 
ereign of  In- 
dia. 
1858.  Completion 

1858 

Great  Eastern  launch- 

ed at  London. 

of  the  Atlan- 

Laying of  the  Atlan- 

tic telegraph 

tic  telegraph. 

Boston  Public  Li- 
brary opened. 

Telegraph  communi- 

cable. 

1859 

1859.  John  Brown 

1859.  War  with 

cation  between  In- 

captures Harpers 

France  and 

dia  and  England. 

Ferry. 

Sardinia. 
Austrians 

1860.  South  Carolina 

1860.  Rebellion 

defeated  at 

passes  ordinance 

in  India  sub- 

Montebella. 

of  secession. 

dued. 

Neutrality 
proclaimed 
during  the 
.American 
Civil  War. 

Peace  after 
Battle  of  Sol- 
ferino. 

Death  of 
Prince  Met- 
ternich. 

1861 

International  exhibi- 

1861. Secession  of 

1861.  William  I., 

1861.  New  Con- 

tion at  Ix>ndon. 

Southern  States, 
and  establish- 
ment of  the  Con- 
federate States 
under  Jefferson 
Davis. 

King. 

stitution  for 
the  Austrian 
monarchy. 
Civil  and 
political 
rights  grant- 
ed Protest- 

Opening of  the 

Civil  War,  1861- 

ants. 

65. 

'l862.  Bismarck, 

1862.  Amnesty  to 

Abraham  Lin- 

Premier. 

political  of- 

1863 

Abolition  of  slavery 

coln,  President. 

J863.  King  re- 
\/     solves  to  gov- 

fenders  in 

in  the  United 

Hungary. 

States. 

^    em  without 

1864 

Convention  between 

\ 

/     parliament. 
/1864.  War  with 
Denmark. 

18C4.   Alliance 

France,  Brazil, 

1865.  Assassination 

1865.  Fenian  out-l 

with  Pnissia 

Italy,  Portugal,  and 

of  President  Lin- 

breaks in  Ire- 

against Den- 

Spain for  telegraph 

coln;  Andrew 

land. 

mark. 

to  America. 

Johnson,  Presi- 
dent. 

British  and 
French  gov- 

/ 

1866 

Atlantic  telegraph 

1866.  Civil  Rights 

ernments  re- 

1866. Prussia 

1866.  War  with 

successfully  com- 

bill passed. 

scind  their 

prepares  for 

Prussia  and 

pleted. 

Atlantic  tele- 

recognition of 

war  with 

Italy. 

' 

graph  completed. 

the  Confed- 
erate States 
of  America. 

Austria. 

Battle  of 
Sadowa. 

Hanover 
annexed. 

First  par- 
liament of 
the  German 
.     Confedera- 
^   tion. 

1867 

Great  Exposition  at 

1867.  General  am- 

1867. North  Ger- 

1867. .Autonomy 

Paris. 

nesty  proclama- 

man consti- 

for Hungary 

tion. 

tution  ac- 
cepted. 

announced. 
Emperor 
crowned 
King  of  Hun- 
gary. 

1868 

Suez  Canal  formally 
opened. 

1868.  Burlingame 
Treaty  with 
China. 

HISTORY 


93 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   FALL   OF   NAPOLEON 

TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME 

1854 

France 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

Italy  and  Greece 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

War  declared 

1854.  Military 

1854.  War  with 

against  Russia. 

insurrection 

under 

O'Donnell. 

France  and 
England. 
Siege  of  Se- 
bastopol. 
Battle  of 
Balaklava. 

1855.  Important 
concordat  be- 

1855. Death  of 

1855.  Santa  Ana  abdi- 

Nicholas I. 

cates  the  presidency 

tween  Italy 

Alexander 

of  Mexico. 

and  Austria. 

II.,  Emperor. 

1856 

Peace  with  Rus- 
sia. 

. 

1856.  Destruction 
*of  Sebasfopol 
docks. 

Evacua- 
tion of 
Crimea. 

1858.  Partial 
emancipa- 
tion of  the 
serfs. 

1857.  Mexican  constitu- 
tion promulgated. 

1858.  Massacre  of  Chris*- 
tians  in  Turkey. 

Suez  Railroad  com- 
pleted. 

1859 

War  with  Austria. 

1859.   War  with 
Morocco. 

1859.  War  with 
Austria. 

^       ■ 

1860 

Commercial  treaty 

1860.  Defeat  of 

1860.  Garibaldi 

with  England. 

the  Moors. 

lands  in  Sici- 
ly, and  as- 
sumes dic- 
tatorship. 

Sicily  and 
Naples  an- 
nexed to  Sar- 
dinia. 

1861.  Annexa- 

1861.  Victor  Em- 

1861. Canton  restored  to 

tion  of  St. 

manuel,  King 

the  Chinese  by  the 

Domingo. 

of  Italy. 

French  and  English. 

Interven- 

tion in  Mex- 

ico. 

1862 

Great  distress 

1862.  Garibaldi 

1862.  Nesselrode, 

caused  by  Amer- 

establishes a 

Chancellor. 

ican  Civil  War. 

provisional 

^ 

1863 

The  French  oc- 

government. 

1863.  Termina- 

cupy Mexico. 

Insurrec- 
tion in  Greece 

tion  of  Serf- 
dom. 

1864 

Maximilian  ac- 

1864. Rupture 

1864.   Florence 

1864.  Emigration 

1864.  Nankin,  China, 

cepts  Mexican 

with  Peru. 

made  the 

of  Caucasian 

taken  by  Gordon  for 

crown. 

capital  of 

tribes  into 

the  Imperialists. 

1865 

Death  of  Proud- 

1865.  Dispute 

Italy. 

Turkey. 

Valparaiso  bomr 

hon. 

with  Chile. 

Ionian 
Isles  made 
over  to 
Greece. 

barded  by  Spanish 
fleet. 

1866.  Military 

1866.  Austrian 

1866.  Inaugura- 

insurrection 

War.  Venetia 

tion  of  trial 

headed  by 

proclaimed 

by  jury. 

General 

a  part  of 

War  with 

Prim. 

Italy. 

Bokhara. 

1867 

Great  Exposition 

1867.  Death  of 

1867.  Garibaldi 

1867.  Russian 

1867.  City  of  Mexico 

in  Paris. 

Marshal 

and  the  Papal 

America  sold 

evacuated  by  French 

O'Donnell. 

States. 

to  the  United 
States. 

troops. 

Egypt  declared  by^ 
the  Sultan  to  be  a 
separate  sovereignty. 

Execution  of  Maxi- 
milian in  Mexico. 

1868.  Queen  de- 

posed. 

i>r^ 


94 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   FALL  OF   NAPOLEON   TO    THE    PRESENT   TIME 

1869 

Arts  of  Civilization 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Prussia 

Austria 

French  Atlantic  tele- 

1869. U.  S.  Grant, 

^ 

graph  completed. 

President. 

1870 

Railway  from  Cal- 

Union Pacific 

1870.  Irish  Land 

1870.  War  with 

1870.  Concordat 

cutta  to  Bombay. 

Railway  opened 
for  traffic. 

Act  passed. 

France. 

with  Rome 

Mount  Cenis  tunnel 

Battle  of 

suspended. 

completed. 

Se^an. 
187l|/King  of 
Prussia  pro- 
claimed Em- 

1871. New  Ger- 
man Empire 

recognized. 

peror  of  Ger- 

• 

many. 

Germany 

1871.  William  I., 

1873.  Payment  of 

Emperor. 

1873 

European  calendar 
introduced  into  Ja- 
pan. 

Alabama 
claims  to  the 
UnitedStates. 

1876 

Railway  open  be- 
tween Quebec  and 
Halifax. 

Centennial  Exposition 
at,  Philadelphia. 

1876.  Queen  Vic- 
toria pro- 
claimed Em- 
press of  India. 

1877 

Telephone  invented 

1877.  R.  B.  Hayes, 

1877.    Attempted 

by  Bell. 

President. 

assassination 

1878.  Occupation 

1881.  James  A.  Gar- 

of  Emperor. 

of  Bosnia. 

fifeld,  President. 

1882.  Attempt  on 

1882.  600th  an- 

1883 

First  electric  street 

President  Gar- 

life of  Queen 

niversary  of 

railway  in  United 

field  assassinated. 

Victoria. 

the  House  of 

States  at  Balti- 

July 2d;   Chester 

Habsburg. 

more. 

A.  Arthur,  Presi- 
dent. 

1885 

Revised  version  of  the 

1885.  Grover  Cleve- 

Old Testament  pub- 

land, President. 

1886.  Army  put 

lished. 

Apache  Indian 

on  war  foot- 

1887 

Great  railway  bridge 

War. 

1887.  Queen's  Ju- 

ing of  1,500,- 

at  Lachine,  Canada, 

bilee. 

000  men. 

completed. 

1888 

Typesetting  machines 
perfected. 

1888.  Accession 

1889.  Benjamin  Har- 

1889. Great  labor 

and  death  of 

1888 

Pasteur  discovers  cure 

rison,  President. 

strikes. 

Frederick 

for  hydrophobia. 

Johnstown 
flood. 

III.  William 
II.,  Emperor. 

1890 

Polygamy  abolished 

1890.  McKinley  Ta- 

1890.  Stanley  re- 

1890. Resigna- 

in Utah. 

rifif  bill  passed. 

turns  from 
Africa. 

tion  of  Bis- 
marck as 
/chancellor. 
V1B91.  Triple  Al- 
liance re- 

1891 

Canadian  Pacific  rail- 

1891. Renewal  of 

way  completed. 

Triple  Alli- 

/newed. 

ance. 

1893 

World's  parliament  of 

1893.  Grover  Cleve- 

1893. Behring 

t*»93.  Anti-Jesuit 

religions  at  Chicago. 

land,  President. 

Sea  arbitra- 

law repealed. 

Electrical  measure- 

Chinese Exclu- 

tion. 

/ 

ments  established. 

sion  bill  ap- 

1894. Manchester 

t894.  Commer- 

1894. Commercial 

proved. 

ship-canal 

cial  treaty 

treaty  with 

World's  Colum- 

opened. 

with  Russia. 

Russia  rati- 

bian Exposition 

New  par- 

fied. 

at  Chicago. 

liament 
house  open- 
ed. 
1895.  North  Sea 

1895 

Great  refracting  tele- 

1895. Anti-Sem- 

scope made  by 

and  Baltic 

itic  agitation. 

Clark  for  Lick  Ob- 

Canal 

servatory. 

opened. 

Discovery  of  Roent- 

Restric- 

gen Rays. 

tions  im- 
posed on 
/American 
/  insurance 
\l    companies. 
1896.  New  civil 

1896.  Archduke 

1897 

Universal  Postal  Con- 

1897. William  Mc- 

1897. Blackwell 

code  for  the 

Karl  Ludwig, 

gress  at  Washing- 

Kinley, Presi- 

tunnel 

empire  com- 

heir to  the 

ton. 

dent. 

opened.  The 

pleted. 

throne,  dies. 

Hawaii  an- 

Queen's Dia- 

/ 

Millenial 

nexed. 

mond  Jubilee 

Exposition  at 

celebrated. 

Buda  Pesth. 

1898 

Reform  edict  issued 

1898.  Destruction  of 

1898.  Death  of 

1898.  Death  of 

1898.  Assassina- 

in China. 

the  "Maine"  at 

Gladstone. 

Bismarck. 

tion  of  the 

Havanna. 

Irish  local 

Emperor 

Empress  by 

War  with  Spain. 

government 

visits  Con- 

an anarchist 

bill  passed. 

stantinople 

at  Geneva. 

Imperial 

and  Jerusa- 

penny-post- 

lem. 

age  goes  into 

efifect. 

HISTORY 


95 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    FALL 

DF   NAPOLEON 

TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1869 

France 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

Italy  and  Greece 

Russia 

Lesser  Countries 

New  Constitution 

1869.  Vatican 

promulgated. 

Council  open- 

1870 

War  declared 

1870.  Isabella 

ed  at  Rome. 

1870.  Fenian  raid  in  Can- 

against Prussia. 

II.  abdi- 

1870. Rome  is  an- 

ada. 

Battle  of  Sedan. 

cates.   Ama- 

nexed  to 

Surrender  of  Metz. 

deus.  King. 

Italy. 

1871 

Capitulation  of 

1871.   Sagas  ta. 

Declared 

1871.  Electric 

1871.  Military  revolt  in 

Paris. 

Prime  Min- 

the Capital 

telegraph  be- 

City of  Mexico  sup- 

Peace ratified. 

ister. 

of  Italy. 

tween  Russia 
and  Japan. 

pressed. 
1872.  Attempt  to  assassi- 

1873 

Marshal  Mac- 

1873.  Khiva  cap- 

nate the  Mikado  of 

Mahon,  Presi- 

tured. 

Japan. 

dent. 

1877.  Waragainst 

1874 

Death  of  Guizot. 

1874.   Alfonso 
XII..  King. 

Turkey. 

1874.  Insurrection  at 
Nagasaki,  Japan. 

1875.  Civil  War. 

1878.  Death  of 

1878.  Spread  of 

1878.  Montenegro,  Ser- 

1879 

Jules  Grevy, 

Victor  Em- 

Nihilism in 

via,  and  Roumania 

President. 

manuel  II. 

Humbert, 
King. 

Death  of 
Pius  IX. 

Leo  XIII., 
Pope. 
1882.   Death  of 

the  empire. 

1880.  Many  Ni- 
hilists im- 
prisoned and 
executed. 

1881.  Alexander 
II.  assassi- 
nated. 

independent. 

1883.  Sagasta 
again  min- 

Garibaldi. 

Ale.xander 
III.,  Em- 

1883. Opening  of  the  St. 
Gothard  Railway 

ister. 

peror. 

from  Milan  to  Lu- 

1885. War  with 

1885.  Ship  canal 

cerne. 

Abyssinia. 

from  St. 

1886.  Upper  Burmah  an- 
nexed to  British  In- 

Petersburg 

to  Cronstadt 

.    dia. 

opened. 

Trouble 

with  the  Af- 

ghans. 

1887 

Sadi  Carnot, 

1887.  Alliance 

1886.  Russia  in- 

President. 

1889.  Trial  by 

with  Austria- 

terferes  in 

jury  first 

Hungary  and 

Bulgaria. 

put  in  force. 

Germany 

1888.  Central 

1889.  New  constitution 

signed. 

Asian  rail- 

promulgated in  Ja- 

Crispi, 

way  opened. 

pan. 

1890 

War  with  Daho- 

1890.  Castileo, 

Prime  Min- 

1890-92.  Famine 

1890.  First  Japanese  par- 

mey. 

Premier. 

ister. 
1891.  Treaty 

til  rough  the 
empire. 

liament  opened. 

1892 

Panama  scandals. 

with  Great 

1893.   War  with 

Britain  rela- 

1893. Kruger,  President 

Morocco. 

tive  to  East 
Africa. 
Triple  Al- 

of the  Transvaal. 

1894 

President  Carnot 

1894.  Death  of 

1894.  War  between  China 

assassinated  at 

liance  re- 

Alexander 

and  Japan. 

Lyons. 

newed. 

III. 

1895.  Cecil  Rhodes  a 

M.  Casimir- 

1893.  Pope's  Ju- 

Nicholas 

power  in  South  Af- 

Perier, Presi- 

bilee at 

II.,  Czar. 

rica. 

dent. 

Rome. 

Federation  of  Aus- 

Capt. Dreyfus 

tralia  approved. 

tried  and  im- 

Congo State  an- 

prisoned. 

nexed  to  Belgium. 

1895 

President  Casimir- 

1896.  Peace  with 

1895.  Diplomatic 

1896.  Jamieson  raid  in 

Perier  resigns. 

Abyssinia. 

relations  with 

South  Africa. 

M.  Felix  Faure, 

1898.  Pope  offers 

Abyssinia. 

President. 

to  mediate 

Persecution 

Death  of  Pasteur. 

in  the  Cuban 
question. 

of  the  Jews. 

1896.  First  official 
census  of  the 
empire. 

1897.  Judicial  re- 

1897. Turko-GrecianWar. 

1897 

Ten-hour  law  for 

1897.   .\ssassina- 

form  in  Si- 

railway em- 

tion of  Pre- 

beria. 

ployees  passed. 

mierCanovas 

1898.  Port  Ar- 

1898. Hawaii  annexed  to 

del  Castileo. 

thur  leased 

the  United  States. 

Scheme  of 

from  China. 

Switzerland  votes 

Cuban  Au- 

to take  over  all  rail- 

tonomy ap- 

ways within  her  bor- 

1898 

Review  of  Drey- 

proved. 
1898.  Spanish- 

ders. 
Wilhelmina,  Queen 

fus  case  grant- 

American 

of  Holland. 

ed. 

War. 

Treaty  of 
Paris. 

96 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    FALL   OF   NAPOLEON   TO    THE    PRESENT   TIME 

1899 

Arts  of  Civilization 

United  States 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Austria 

The  "Open-door" 

1899.  Cuba  passes  in- 

1899. The  Boer 

policy  for  China 

to  American  pos- 

War in  South 

agreed  to. 

session. 

Africa. 

Jubilee  of  the  year 

Philippines  and 

1900  proclaimed 

Porto  Rico  ac- 

/ 

by  the  Pope. 

quired. 

iX 

1900 

Opening  of  the  Elbe 

1900.  Civil  govern- 

1900.   Field-Mar- 

1900. AboHtion 

1900.  Marriage  of 

and  Trove  Canal, 

me^lt  established 

shal  Roberts 

qf  the  Rom- 

the heir 

Germany. 

in  the  Philip- 

takes com- 

an Law 

apparent 

pines. 

mand  in 

throughout 

•Francis 

Chinese  trou- 

South  Africa. 

Germany. 

Ferdinand. 

bles.\ 

1901.  PanAAmerican 

1901.  Census  of 

1901.  Bicente- 

\ 

Exposition. 

Indian  Em- 

nary of  the 

Assasfynation 

pire. 

coronation  of 

of  McKibley. 

Death  of 

the  first  King 

TheodoteRoose- 

Victoria;  ac- 

of Prussia. 

velt,  Presjdent. 

cession  of 
Edward  VII. 

1902 

Marconi  wireless  sys- 

1902. Cuban  in\Je- 

1902.  The  Brit- 

1902. Prince 

1902.  Triple  Alli- 

tem established  on 

pendence  uhder 

ish-Japanese 

Henry  of 

ance  re- 

Italian warships. 

Piatt  Amend- 

Alliance 

Prussia  visits 

newed. 

ment.             \ 

signed. 

the  United 

The  lan- 

President   \ 

Boer  War 

States. 

guage  ques- 

recommends tne 

ended. 

tion  between 

purchase  of  thV 

Marquis  of 

Germany  and 

Panama  Canal. 

Salisbury  re- 
signs as  Pre- 
mier. 

Czechs. 

1903 

Completion  of  the  Pa- 

1903. Panama  Canal 

1903.  King  Ed- 

1903. New  tariff 

cific  Cable. 

treaty  signed 

ward  visits 

bill. 

Message  sent  around 

with  Colombia. 

the  King  of 

Visit  of  the 

the  world  in  twelve 

Commercial 

Italy. 

Czar  of  Rus- 

minutes. 

Treaty  with 
China  signed. 

Iri.sh  Land 
Bill  passed 

sia. 

Independence 

the  House  of 

/ 

of  Panama  rec- 

Parliament. 

ognized. 

1904 

New  York  subway 

1904.  Great  Balti- 

1904. Col.  Young- 

1904.  German 

1904.  Ultimatum 

opened. 

more  fire. 

husband  en- 

troops de- 

to the  Sultan 

Bill    introduced    in 

St.  Louis  Ex- 

ters Tibet. 

feated  in 

issued. 

France  for  separa- 

position opened. 

Africa^ 
190Aanterven- 

Great  rail- 

tion of  church  and 

way  strike. 

1905 

state. 
Gigantic  power  plants 
erected  at  Niagara 

1905.  Protocol  with 

1905.   Resigna- 

1905. Treaty  with 

Santo  Domingo. 

tion  of  Lord 

tion  of  Ger- 

Germany 

Falls. 

Curzon  as 

many  in 

ratified. 

Viceroy  of 

Moroccan 

Universal 

India. 

afTairs. 

The  new 
commercial 
treaties. 

Marriage 
of  the  Crown 
Prince. 

suffrage  on 
an  education- 
al basis  advo- 
cated by 
Minister  of 
the  Interior. 

1906 

The  Simplon  Tunnel 
opened. 

1906.  Rio  tat  Browns- 

1906. King  Ed- 

1906.  Propagan- 

1906. Prince 

ville,  Texas. 

ward  visits 

da  against 

Schillingfurst 

Pan-American  confer- 

The President 

Paris. 

Socialism. 

succeeds 

ence  meets  at  Rio 

visited  Panama. 

Baron 

de  Janerio. 

Great  earth- 

Gautch. 

Morrocan  conference 

quake  at  San 

at  Algeciras. 

Francisco. 

Wireless   telegraphy 

President  Palma 

conference  at  Ber- 
Un. 
The  "Lusitania" 

of  Cuba  resigns. 

1907 

1907.  Philippine 

1907.  King 

1907.  German 

1907.  Universal 

makes  her  first 

Assembly  opened. 

Edward  and 

Emperor 

Suffrage  Bill   ; 

voyage. 

Emperor 

visited 

passed.             i 

1908 

Discoveries  in  the 

1908.  Voyage  of  the 

Franz  Joseph 

London. 

1 

transmutation  of 

Pacific  fleet  to 

meet  at  Ischl. 

^ 

metals. 

Asiatic  waters. 

1909 

Great      progress     in 

1909.  Wm.  H.  Taft. 

1909.  Czar  visits 

1909.  Bosnia  and 

aeronautics. 

President. 

England. 

Herzegovina 

Discovery   of   North 

Tariff  revised. 

, 

acquired. 

Pole  announced. 

1910 

Earth  passed  through 

1910.  Newfoundland 

1910.  Edward 

1910.  Roosevelt, 

tail   of   Halley's 

fisheries  dispute 

VII.  died; 

as  private 

comet. 

settled  by  arbi- 

George V.  as- 

citizen, re- 

Woman's    suffrage 

tration  at  The 

cends  throne. 

viewed  Ger- 

agitation in  Eng- 

Hague. 

Attempt  to 

man  army. 

land. 

limit   power 

1911 

French  Institute  de- 

1911. Panama  libel 

of  Lords. 

clares  women 

suit  dismissed. 

New  elec- 

ineligible. 

tion  of  Com- 
monsordered. 

HISTORY 


97 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    FALL 

OF   NAPOLEON 

TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

France 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

Italy  and  Greece 

Russia' 

Lesser  Countries 

1899.  Death  of 

1899.  Czar  pro- 

1899. Venezuela-Guiana 

Premier 

poses  univer- 

boundary line  estab- 

Canovas of 

sal  peace. 

lished. 

Spain. 

1900.   Assassina- 
tion of  King 
Humbert. 

Victor  Em- 
manuel III., 
King. 

1900.  Outbreak  of  the 
Boxers  in  China. 

1901 

Diplomatic  rela- 

1901. Count 

1901.  Submission  of 

tions  with  Tur- 

Tolstoi 

China  to  the  allied 

key  suspended. 

excommuni- 
cated. 

powers. 

Federal  govern- 
ment inaugurated  in 
Australia. 

1902 

M.  Combes  forms 

1902.   Alfonso 

1902.  Venezuelan  claims 

a  new  French 

XIII..  King. 

pressed  by  England 

ministry. 

and  Germany. 

1903 

Dreyfus  case  re- 

1903. Death  of 

1903.  Peter  I.,  King  of 

opened. 

Pope  Leo 

Servia.       t 

President  Loubet 

XIII. 

visits  King  Ed- 

Pope Pius 

ward. 

X. 

1904 

Arbitration  treat- 

1904.  Death  of 

1904.  King  and 

1904.  War  with 

1904.  President  Diaz  of 

ies  with  Hol- 

Ex-Queen 

Queen  of 

Japan  over 

Mexico  reelected. 

land,  Spain, 

Isabella  at 

Italy  visit 

Manchuria 

Death  of  Paul  Kru- 

Sweden,  Nor- 

Paris. 

England. 

begun. 

ger,  in  Switzerland. 

way,  and  the 

United  State§. 

1905 

The  Moroccan  sit- 

1905. Attempted 

1905.  The  rail- 

1905. Railway 

1905.  Japan  captures 

uation  grows  in 

assassina- 

way bills 

strike  at  St. 

Port  Arthur.     End 

complexity. 

tion  of  the 

passed  in 
Italy. 

Petersburg, 

of  war. 

King  in 

Warsaw,  and 

Paris. 

Moscow. 

Constitu- 
tion granted 
by  Czar,  and 
the  Duma 
authorized. 

1906 

M.  Fallieres. 

1906.  King  Al- 

1906. Sonnino, 

1906.  The  Czar 

1906.  King  Christian  of 

President. 

fonso  mar- 

Premier. 

opened  the 

Denmark  died. 

The  Church  con- 

ried to 

Interna- 

first Russian 

Norway  and  Swe- 

troversy.    The 

Princess  Vic- 

tional Exhi- 

Duma. 

den  independent 

Pope's  ency- 

toria of  Eng- 

bition at 

Attempted 

kingdoms. 

clical. 

land. 

Milan. 

assassination 

Emperor  of  China 

M.  Sareien,  Pre- 

of Premier 

promises   constitu- 

mier. 

Stolypin. 

tional  government. 

First  Persian  par- 
liament opened. 

1907 

Wine  growers' 

1907.  King  and 

1907.  Italy  signs 

1907.  Third 

1907.  Abdication  of 

agitation. 

Queen  visit 

arbitration 

Russian 

Korean  Emperor.        ; 

French  occupation 

England. 

treaty  with 

Duma  con- 

Death of  Oscar  II.  i 

of  Morocco. 

1908.  Carlos 

assassinated. 
Manuel  II., 
King. 

Argentine. 

vened. 

of  Sweden. 

1909.   Abdication  of 
Abdul  Hamid  II. 

1910 

Great  railway 

1910.  Portugal 

1910.'  Cholera 

1910.   Japan  annexes 

strike    sup- 

becomes 

epidemic 

Corea. 

pressed    by 
Premier  Briand. 

republic. 

destroys 

Chinese  senate 

Theophile 

100,000. 

opened. 

Braga,  Presi- 

Death of 

dent. 

Leo  Tolstoi. 

1911 

Institute  rejects 
Madame  Curie. 

98 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


HISTORICAL  OUTLINE   OF   THE    NEW   WORLD 

I.     SEMI-HISTORICAL    PERIOD  — 500   TO    1400   A.  D. 
II.     PERIOD    OF   AUTHENTIC    HISTORY  — 1400   A.  D.  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 


A.  D. 
500 
503 
600 
861 
982 
985 

1000 


1492 

1493 

1494 
1497 

1498 

1499 

1500 

1502 

1504 

1511 

1512V| 

1513 

1517 

1519 


Pre-Toltec  period. 

Mexican  history  begins. 

Toltecs  established  throughout  Mexico. 

The  Norseman,  Nadodd,  discovers  Iceland. 

Eric  the  Red  discovers  and  names  Greenland. 

Bjarni  sights  land  at  Cape  Cod  or  Nantucket. 

Leif  Ericson  sails  for  Western  lands. 


1002.  Thorwald,  Leif's  brother,  visits  Vinland. 

1004.  Thorwald  killed  in  a  skirmish  with' the  natives. 

1005.  Thornfinn  Karlsefne  lands  in  Rhode  Island. 
1050.  End  of  Toltec  power  in  Mexico. 

1090.  Aztecs  begin  their  journey  toward  Mexico. 
1325.   Aztecs  found  the  City  of  Mexico. 
1349.  Esquimaux  appear  in  Greenland. 
1400.  Communication  with  Greenland  ceases. 


DISCOVERT,  EXPLORATION,  AND    CONQUEST   FROM    1492   TO    1600  A.  D. 


Columbus  sails  from  Palos,  Spain,  and  discovers 
Cuba. 

Columbus  sails  on  his  second  expedition. 

Cattle  first  brought  to  America. 

Columbus  discovers  Jamaica. 

John  Cabot  discovers  the  North  American  con- 
tinent. 

Columbus  sails  on  his  third  voyage. 

First  voyage  of  Amerigo  Vespuccius. 

Caspar  Cortereal  discovers  Labrador. 

Columbus  sails  on  his  fourth  voyage. 

Cape  Breton  discovered  by  French  fishermen. 

Velasquez  subjugates  Cuba;    Havana  founded. 

Florida  discovered  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon. 

The  "Pacific  Ocean  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Balboa, 

Fernando  de  Cordova  discovers  Mexico. 

Hernando  Cortez  lands  in  Mexico;  Panama  set- 
tled. 


1521.  Cortez  captures  the  City  of  Mexico;    Mexico 

constituted  a  Kingdom. 
1524.  Verrazzano  enters  the  Bay  of  New  York. 
1528.  Spaniards  land  in  Florida. - 

1534.  Jacques  Cartier  enters  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

1535.  Grijalva's  expedition  discovers  California. 
1540.   De  Soto  conquers  Louisiana. 

1562.  Jean  Ribault  explores  coast  of  Florida. 

1565.  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  founded  by  Menendez. 

1583.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  takes  possession  of  New- 
foundland. 

1584.  Raleigh's  first  expedition  lands  in  Virginia. 

1585.  John  Davis  discovers  Davis  Straits. 

1586.  Sir  Francis  Drake  visits  Roanoke  Inlet. 

1587.  Virginia    Dare,    first   English   child   born    in 
America. 

1602.  Bartholomew  Gosnold  discovers  Cape  Cod. 
1605.  De  Montf  takes  possession  of  Maine. 


FROM    THE   SETTLEMENT   OF   JAMESTOWN   TO   THE   DECLARATION   OF 
INDEPENDENCE  — 1607-1776 


1607 
1614 


1618 
1619 


1620 
1621 


1623 

1627 
1628 
1629 
1632 
1633 

1634 
1636 

1638 

1639 


British  America 


English  settlement  at  Jamestown. 
Captain  John  Smith  rescued  by  Poca- 
hontas. 
New  Amsterdam  settled  by  the  Dutch. 


Death  of  Powhatan,  Indian  chief. 
First  slaves  brought  to  Virginia  by  the 

Dutch. 
Mayflower  lands   at  Plymouth,  Mass. 

Peregrine    White,  first    white    child 

born  in  New  England. 
Death  of  John  Carver,  first  Governor  of 

Plymouth    Colony;     succeeded     by 

William  Bradford. 
Miles  Standish,  Captain. 
Treaty  between  Plymouth  Colony  and 

Massasoit. 

Cotton-seed  planted  in  Virginia. 
New  Hampshire  settled. 
Lord    Baltimore    founds    a    colony  at 

Ferryland,  Newfoundland. 
Swedes  and  Finns  settle  at  Cape  Henlo- 

Een. 
n  Endicott  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts. 

John  Winthrop  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts. 

Lord  Baltimore  receives   the  grant  of 
Maryland. 

Connecticut  settled  by  the  English. 

Wouter  Van  Twiller  Governor  of  New 
Amsterdam. 

Enghsh  Catholics  settle  at  St.  Mary's, 
Maryland. 

Roger  Williams  settles  Rhode  Island. 

Pequot  War  begins  in  Massachusetts. 

Swedes  settle  Delaware. 

John  Harvard  bequeaths  his  library  to 
found  a  college. 

New  Haven  settled. 

Printing  press  established  by  Stephen 
Daye  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

First  constitution  of  Connecticut. 


French  America 


1608.  Champlain  settles  Que- 
bec. 

1611.  French  Jesuits  settle  at 
Port  Royal. 

1615.  Indian  missions  estab- 
lished. 


1620.   Champlain  Governor  of 
Canada. 


1628.  Port    Royal    taken     by 
the  English. 

1629.  Sir    David    Kirke    cap- 
tures Quebec. 

1632.   Richelieu  obtains  resto- 
ration of  territory. 


1639.  Ursuline  Convent  estab- 
lished at  Quebec. 

1640.  The  French  attempt  a 
settlement  at  Green  Bay, 
Wisconsin. 


Spanish  America 


1610.  Leon,  Central  America, 
founded. 

1611.  Talamanca  Indians,  of 
Central  America,  mas- 
sacred by  the  Spanish. 


1620.  Buenos     Ayres     sepa- 
rated from  Asuncion. 


1630.  Spaniards  expel  the 
Dutch  from  Brazil. 

Alvarado  subdues  Cen- 
tral American  Indians. 

Hayti  seized  by  French 
buccaneers. 

1635-8.  French,  English,  and 
Dutch  make  numerous 
settlements  in  the  West 
Indies. 


1640.  Spanish  fleet  of  90  ves- 
sels arrives  off  coast  of 
Brazil. 


HISTORY 


99 


A.  U. 

FROM   THE   SETTLEMENT 

OF   JAMESTOWN    TO    THE    DECLARATION   OF 

INDEPENDENCE  —  1607-1776 

British  America 

French  America 

Spanish  America 

1641.  Montreal  founded. 

1642 

Sir  William    Berkeley    Governor    of 
Virginia. 

1643 

Swedes  settle  in  Pennsylvania. 

1645 

Free  schools  established  at  Roxbury, 
Mass. 

1647 

Peter   Stuyvesant,  Governor  of  New 
Amsterdam. 

1652 

Mint  established     in     Boston,     John 
Hull  mintmaster. 

1653 

North  Carolina  settled. 

1655 

Delaware  brought  under  Dutch  rule. 

1656 

Quakers  arrive  in  Boston. 

1659.  Laval,  first  Bishop  of  Que- 

bec. 

1661.  Dutch  give  up  Brazil. 

French  fur  traders  explore 

1663.  Spain  denies  the  right 
of  England  to  the  Prov- 

1664 

Fort   Amsterdam  surrendered  to  the 

Lake  Superior. 

English. 

ince  of  Carolina. 

1665 

Provincial    government    established 

1665.  St.  Augustine  pillaged 

in  Maine. 

1668.  Marquette  establishes  mis- 
sion at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

1669.  La  Salle  sails  down  the 
Ohio  to  the  Mississippi. 

by  English  buccaneers. 

1670 

South  Carolina  settled. 

1670.  Maine,  east  of  the  Penob- 

1671 

French  settle  in  Michigan. 

scot,  occupied  by  the  French. 
1672.  Count  de  Frontenac  Gov- 

1671. Danes      occupy      St. 

Thomas. 

ernor  of  Canada. 

1673 

New  York  and  New  Jersey  surren- 

1673. Marquette   and    Joliet   in 

dered  to  the  Dutch. 

Iowa. 

1675 

King  Philip's  War  in  Massachusetts. 

Fort  Frontenac  (Kingston, 

1676 

Nathaniel  Bacon's  rebellion  in  Virginia. 

Ont.)  built. 
1679.  French  at  Niagara  Falls. 

1681 

William   Penn    receives   charter  for 

Pennsylvania. 

1682.  La  Salle  descends  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  the  Arkansas,  and 

1683 

First  assembly  in  New  York  under 

names  the  valley  Louisiana. 

English  rule» 

1685.  French  in  Texas  under  La 

1685.  Dampier,  English  buc- 

Salle. 

caneer,  sacks  Leon. 

1689.  French    occupy     Hudson 

1690 

Colonial  Congress  called  in  New  York. 

Bay  territory. 

Iroquois  capture  Montreal 
and  Lachine. 
1691.  Acadia    retaken     by    the 

French. 

1693.  Gold  mining  begins  in 

1700 

Williamstown    made  capital  of   Vir- 

Brazil. 

1701 

ginia. 
Philadelphia  incorporated  as  a  city. 

1702.  Settlement  in  Alabama  on 
Mobile  River. 

1710.  Port   Royal   captured   by 

1710.  French  capture  Rio  de 

English  fleet. 

Janeiro. 

1718.  New  Orleans  founded. 

1719 

Scotch-Irish   settle   in   New   Hamp- 

1719. French  capture  Pensa- 

shire. 

cola. 
1722.  Pensacola  restored   to 
Spain. 

Treaty   between  Chil- 
eans and  Spanish. 

1729 

British  Government  formally  recog- 

1729. Massacre    of     French    at 

1729.  Spaniards        establish 

nizes  colony  of  Newfoundland. 

Natches  by  Indians. 

themselves    at     Monte- 

1732 

First  stage  between  Boston  and  New 
York. 

video. 

1739 

Richmond,  Va.,  founded  by  William 

Byrd. 

1740.  Governor    Oglethorpe 

1744 

Hostilities  with  the  Six  Indian  Nations. 

attacks  Florida. 

1745 

Louisburg  captured  by  New  England 

1745.  Louisburg  captured  by  the 

troops. 

British. 
1749.  Fort     Rouille      (Toronto) 
built. 

1752 

Franklin  experiments  with  electricity. 

1752.  Marquis  Duquesne,    Gov- 

1753 

Firsi  theater  opened  in  New  York. 

ernor  of  Canada. 

1754 

Convention  at  New  York  to  consider 
a  Colonial  Confederacy. 
French  and  Indian  War. 

1755 

Braddock  defeated  at  Ft.  Duquesne. 

1755.  French  defeat  Braddock. 

Battle  of  Lake  George. 

1758 

Fort    Frontenac    surrendered  to  the 

English. 

1758.  Jesuits  expelled    from 

1759 

Battle  of  Quebec  —  Wolfe  and  Mont- 

1759. Quebec  surrenders  to   the 

Brazil. 

calm  killed. 

English. 

1760 

Montreal  surrendered  to  the  British. 

1760.  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  last 

France  cedes  Canada  to  the  English. 

French  Governor  of  Canada. 

1762;  Spain  acquires  Louis- 

1762 

English  settle  in  New  Brunswick. 

1762.   Louisiana  ceded  to  Spain. 

iana  from  France. 
1763.  Florida  ceded  to  Great 

1763 

Pontiac's  War. 

1763.  Acadia  permanently  ceded 

Britain. 

Massacre  of  Wyoming. 

to  the  British. 

French  Guiana   colon- 
ized. 

100 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE   SETTLEMENT   OP   JAMESTOWN    TO    THE    DECLARATION   OF 

INDEPENDENCE  — 1607-1776 

1765 

British  America 

Canada 

Spanish  America 

Delegates  of  the  Colonies  assemble  in 

1764.  Population  of  Canada, 

New  York  to  resist  the  Stamp  Act. 

about  60,000. 

1766.  Large  colony  of  Aca- 
dians  arrive  in  Louisiana. 

1768.  Revolt  of  the  French 
against  Spanish  rule  in 
Louisiana. 

1770 

Boston  Massacre. 

1773 

Tea    thrown    overboard    in    Boston 
Harbor. 

1773.  Santiago,    Guatemala, 
destroyed  by  an   earth- 

1774 

The    Colonial     Congress     adopts    a 
Declaration  of  Rights. 

quake. 

1775 

Beginning     of     the     Revolutionary 

1775.  Gen.  Montgomery  captures 

1776.  Paraguay  placed  under 

War  with  the  Battle  of  Lexington. 

Montreal  and  St.  John. 

the  jurisdiction  of  Bue- 

Articles of  Union  and  Confederation 

Death  of  Montgomery  at 

nos  Ayres. 

adopted. 

Quebec  and  failure  of  Ameri- 

Buenos   Ayres    made 

Washington   appointed  commander- 

can  campaign. 

capital   of    the  viceroy- 

in-chief  of  the  American  forces. 

alty. 

1776 

First  Union  flag   unfurled  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

British  evacuate  Boston. 

Declaration     of     Independence      at 
Philadelphia. 

FROM    THE    DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE    TO    THE    ADOPTION 

1777 

OF   THE    CONSTITUTION  — 

1776-1789,  A.  D. 

United  States 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

Landing  of  Lafayette  at  Charleston. 

. 

Battle  of  Princeton. 

Battle  of  Brandywine. 

British  Army  occupies  Philadelphia. 

Surrender  of  Burgoyne. 

Articles  of  Confederation  adopted  by 

the  Thirteen  Colonies. 

1778 

Treaty  of  Alliance  with  France. 
Evacuation  of  Philadelphia  by  the 

British. 
Seventh  Continental  Congress  meets 

at  Philadelphia. 
Battle  of  Monmouth. 

1778.  Frederick 
Haldinand, 
Governor  of 
Canada. 

1779 

British  driven  from  South  Carolina. 

1779.  Library 

1779.  Baton  Rouge 

Stony  Point  captured  by  Wayne. 

founded  at 

captured  from 

Paul  Jones  gains  naval  victory  over 

Quebec. 

the  British. 

the  British  off  the  coast  of  Scot- 

land. 

1780 

Major  Andr^  hanged  as  a  spy. 

1780.  Coteau  du 

1780.  Insurrection  of 

Battle  of  Kings  Mountain,  S.  C. 

Sack  Canal 

Peruvians  under 

Benedict  Arnold  turns  traitor. 

built. 

Amaru. 

1781 

Americans  victorious  at  Cowpens. 
Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown. 
Bank  of  North  America  established 
at  Philadelphia. 

1781.  The  English 
Admiral  Rodney 
takes  possession 
of  Guiana. 

1782 

Holland  recognizes  the  independence 

of  the  United  States. 
British  evacuate  Charleston. 
French  army  embarks  from  Boston. 
Preliminary  articles  of  peace  signed 

at  Paris. 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Spain,  and  Rus- 

1783 

1783.  St.  John,  N. 

1783.  Limits  of 

1783.  Dutch  colonies 

sia  recognize  the  independence  of 

B.,  founded. 

Belize  defined. 

restored  to  Hol- 

the United  States. 

Kingston 

land. 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  with  Great 

founded. 

Britain. 

Eighth  Continental  Congress  meets 

at  Princeton,  N.  J. 

1784 

Congress    adopts   decimal    currency 

1784.  N.  E.  Loyal- 

1784. Island  of  St. 

system. 

ists  settle  in 

Bartholomew 

Tenth  Continental   Congress   meets 

Upper  Canada. 

transferred  to 

at  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Liberty  of 

Sweden. 

1785 

Thomas  Jefferson  appointed  Minis- 
ter   to    France;  John    Adams    to 

conscience  pro- 

claimed in 

Great  Britain. 

Newfoundland. 

1786 

Daniel   Shay's   rebellion   in   Massa- 
chusetts. 
United  States  Mint  authorized. 

1786.  Pacifications  of 
the  negroes  and 
tribes  in  Dutch 

1787 

Constitutional     convention     assem- 
bles at  Philadelphia. 
Last  Continental  Congress  adjourns. 

Guiana. 

1788 

1788.  King's  Col- 

lege, Windsor, 

Nova  Scotia, 

founded. 

HISTORY 


101 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    ADOPTION    OF    THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    UNITED    STATES, 

1789   A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1789 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

George  Washington,    President; 

1789.  Settlers  from 

1789.  Malaspina  ex- 

John Adams,  Vice-President. 

North  Carolina 

plores  the  coast 

First  Congress  meets  in  New  York. 

arrive  in  Louis- 

of South  Amer- 

First Tariff  bill  passed. 

iana. 

ica. 

Cabinet  departments  and  United 

States  Supreme   Court   organized. 

1790 

Indian  War  in  Northwest  Territory. 
Death  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 
First  mechanical  patent  issued. 
Census  enumeration  ordered. 

1791 

Anthracite  coal  discovered  in  Penn- 

1791. Canada  di- 

1791. Negroes  of 

sylvania. 

vided  into  Up- 

Hayti revolt 

Vermont  admitted  as  a  State. 

per  and  Lower. 

against  France. 

1792 

Corner  stone  of  White  House  laid. 
Kentucky  admitted. 

1793 

Whitney  invents  the  cotton-gin. 

Washington  receives  all  the  electoral 
votes  for  reelection. 

Corner  stone  of  United  States  Capi- 
tol laid  by  Washington. 

Political   parties   assume   names   of 
Republican  and  Federalist. 

Third  Congress  opens  at  Philadel- 

1793. Toronto 

founded.  Slav- 
ery  abolished 
in  Upper  Can- 
ada. 

phia. 

1794 

Foundations  of  United  States  Navy 
authorized. 

Whisky    insurrection    in     Pennsyl- 
vania. 

1794.  Jay's  Treaty 
relative  to  com- 
merce, naviga- 
tion, and 

1795 

Anti-rent  troubles  in  New  York. 

boundary. 

1795.  Maroon  War 

1796 

Tennessee  admitted. 

in  Jamaica. 

1796.  Guiana  again 

Washington  issues  his  "  Farewell  Ad- 

Sugar first 

in  British  posses- 

dress." 

produced  from 

sion. 

1797 

John   Adams,  President;   Thomas 

1797.  Sault  Ste. 

cane  in  Louisi- 

Jeflerson Vice-President. 

Marie  Canal 

ana. 

Special  session  of  Congress  to  con- 

begun. 

sider  relations  with  France. 

1798 

Alien  and  sedition  laws  passed. 
Commercial  intercourse  with  France 
suspended. 

1799 

General  post-office  established. 
Death  of  George  Washington. 

1800 

French  spoliation  claims  adjusted. 

1800.  The  Sault  Ste. 

1800.  Louisiana 

Capital  removed  from  Philadelphia 

Marie  Canal  in 

transferred  to 

to  Washington. 

Canada  com- 
pleted. 

France  by 
Spain. 

1801 

Thomas      Jefferson,      President; 

Aaron  Burr,  Vice-President. 
Congress  establishes  the  District  of 

1801.  Toussaint 
rOuverture 
founds  repub- 

Columbia. 

Uc  in  San  Do- 

1802. The  Dutch  re- 

Tripoli   declares    war    against    the 

mingo. 

sume  possession 

United  States. 

of  BritishGuiana. 

1803 

Louisiana  purchased  for  $15,000,000. 

1803.  Slavery  il- 

1803. French  quit 

1803.  British  Guiana 

Ohio  admitted. 

legal  in  Lower 

Hayti. 

finally  acquired. 

1804 

Vice-President  Burr  kills  Hamilton 
in  a  duel.  , 

Canada. 

1805 

Jefferson  re-elected;   George  Clin- 
ton, Vice-President. 

1807 

Embargo  Act  passed. 
Fulton's     steamboat,     "Clermont," 
steams  from  New  York  to  Albany. 

1807.  Slave  trade 
abolished  in 
Dutch  Guiana. 

1808.  Royal  family 
of  Portugal  ar- 
rived in  Brazil. 

1809 

James  Madison,  President: 
George  Clinton,  Vice-President. 

1809.  Steamer  "Ac- 

1809. Ecuador  at- 

commodation" 

tempts  to  throw 

Embargo  Act  repealed. 

arrived  at  Que- 
bec from  Mon- 
treal. 

off  the  Spanish 
yoke. 
1810.  Independence 

1811 

Trading  posts  first  established  among 

the  Indians. 
Battle  of  Tippecanoe  with  Indians. 
First  steamboat  on  the  Ohio. 

of  Argentine  Re- 
public begins. 

Independence 
of  Chile. 

1812 

Louisiana  admitted. 

1812.  Sir  George 

1812.  Spanish  con- 

1811. Paraguay  de- 

War declared  against  Great  Britain. 

Prevost,  Gov- 

stitution pro- 

clares its  inde- 

American vessel  "  Constitution  "  cap- 

ernor. 

mulgated  in 

pendence  of 

tures  the  British  "  Guerriere." 

Costa  Rica. 

Spain. 

American  vessel  "Wasp"   captures 
the  British  "  Frolic." 

Venezuela  pro- 
claims its  inde- 

American   vessel    "United    States" 

pendence;  war 

captures     the     British   "  Macedo- 

ensues for  ten 

nian." 

years. 

American  vessel  "  Constitution  "  cap- 

tures the  British  "Java." 

Canada  invaded. 

102 


THE-  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE   ADOPTION    OF   THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    UNITED   STATES,            | 

1789   A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1813 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

Commodore  Perry  captures  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  on  Lake  Erie. 

1813.  Chile  recon- 

quered by  Spain. 

Madison  re-elected:  Elbridge 

Gerry,  Vice-President. 

Toronto,  Canada,  captured. 

Battle  of  the  Thames. 

1814 

Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane. 

British  capture  and  burn  WashinR- 

ton. 
Hartford  Convention  to  oppose  war 

meets. 
Stonington,  Conn.,    bombarded    by 

British  fleet. 

1814.  Montevides 
captured  by  the 
revolutionary 
army  of  Buenos 
Ayres. 

1815 

Jackson  defeats  the  British  at  New 

Orleans. 
Treaty  of  Peace  with  Great  Britain 

ratified. 
Algerian  War. 

1815.  Brazil  becomes 
.  a  kingdom. 

1816 

U.  S.  Bank  chartered  by  Congress. 

The-  "  Ontario  "  first  steamboat    on 
Great  Lakes. 

Indiana  admitted. 

American  Colonization  Society  form- 
ed;  founds  Liberia. 

1816.  Argentine  de- 
clares its  separa- 
tion from  Spain. 

1817 

James  Monroe,  President;  Daniel 

1817.  Ottawa 

1817.  Unsuccessful 

1817.  Chileans  defeat 

D.  Tompkins,  Vice-President. 

founded. 

insurrection  in 

Spanish  and  gain 

Mississippi  admitted. 

First  bank 

Mexico. 

their  independ- 

First instruction  of  deaf  mutes  in 

note  issued  at 

ence. 

America  by  T.  H.  Gallaudet,  at 

Montreal. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Seminole  War. 

1818 

Illinois  admitted. 

Pensions  granted  Revolutionary  sol- 
diers. 
The  "Savannah,"  the  first  transat- 

1819 

lantic  steamship. 

W.  T.  G.  Morton  discovers  the  use 

of  ether  as  an  ana;sthetic. 

.Alabama  admitted. 

Florida    purchased    by   the    United 

States. 

Maine  separated  from  Massachusetts. 
Maine  admitted. 

1820 

1820.  Earl  of  Dal- 

1821 

Missouri  Compromise  Bill  passed. 

housie,  Gov- 

1821. Mexico  be- 

Missouri admitted. 

ernor. 

comes  inde- 

Liberia purchased. 

pendent  of 

Andrew  Jackson  appointed  Governor 

Spain. 

of  Florida. 

Costa  Rica 
independent. 

1822 

Independence     of     Spanish     South 

1822.  Mexico  an 

1822.  Brazil  declares 

American  States  recognized. 

empire  under 

its  independence. 

Gaslight  introduced  into  Boston. 

Iturbide. 

Costa  Rica 
united  to  Mex- 
ico. 

Pedro  I.,  Em- 
peror. 

Ecuador  inde- 
pendent. 

1823 

President     Monroe     proclaims     the 
"  Monroe  Doctrine." 

1823.  Federal  Re- 
public pro- 
claimed for 

1824 

Gen.  Lafayette  arrives  in  New  York. 

1824.  Bolivar,  Dic- 

Mexico. 

tator  of  Peru. 

1825 

John  Quincy  Adams,  President; 

Federation  of 

1825.  Argentine  con- 

John C.  Calhoun,  Vice-President. 

Central  Ameri- 

stitution decreed. 

Treaty  with  Russia  ratified. 

can  States. 

Upper  Peru  in- 

Erie Canal  finished. 

1826.   First  survey 
for  Nicaraguan 

dependent,  takes 
the  name  of  Bo- 
livia. 

Republic  of 
Central  America. 
1826.  Gen.  Sucre, 
President  of  Bo- 

1827 

First  railroad  in  United  States  built 
in  Massachusetts. 

. 

ship  canal. 

livia;  succeeded 
by  Bolivar. 

War  between 
Buenos  Ayres 
and  Brazil. 

1828 

Protective  Tariff  bill  passed. 

1828.  Ecuador  in- 
vaded by  Peru. 

Uruguay  inde- 
pendent. 

1829 

Andrew  Jacltson,  President;  John 

1829.  Welland 

1829.  Expulsion  of 

1829.   Venezuela  sep- 

C. Calhoun,  Vice-President. 

Canal  from 

Spaniards  from 

arates  from  Naw 

1830 

Great    speeches    of    Webster    and 

Port  Dalhousie 

Mexico  de- 

Grenada. 

Hayne  delivered  in  the  U.  S.  Sen- 

to Port  Robin- 

creed. 

1830.   Death  of  Boli- 

ate. 

son  completed. 

var.   Gen.  Flores 
first  President  of 
Ecuador. 

HISTORY 


103 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   ADOPTION 

OF   THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   UNITED   STATES, 

1789   A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1831 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanisli 
Nortli  America 

Spanish 
Soutti  America 

First    locomotive    built    in    United 

1831.  Revolution  in 

States. 

Brazil.     Abdica- 

Chloroform   discovered    by    Samuel 

tion  of  Don  Pe- 

Guthrie. 

dro. 

1832 

First  Democratic  National  Conven- 

1832. Newfound- 

^ 

1832.  Patagonia  vis- 

tion. 

land  obtains  a 

ited  by  Charles 

Black  Hawk  War. 

colonial  legis- 

Darwin, the  sci- 

Nullification in  South  Carolina. 

lature. 

entist. 

United  States  Bank  bill  vetoed  by 

the  President. 

1833 

Jackson    re-elected;     Martin    Van 

1833.  Constitu- 

1833. Santa  Ana, 

1833.  Chilean  consti- 

Buren, Vice-President. 

tional   govern- 

President of 

tution  formed. 

Bank  deposits  removed  from  the  Na- 

ment in  New- 

Mexico. 

tional  Bank. 

foundland. 

1834 

National  debt  extinguished. 
Whig  party  first  takes  its  name. 

1835 

Attempted  assassination  of  President 

Jackson. 
Seminole  War  begins. 

1835.  Texas  de- 
clares her  inde- 
pendence. 

1836 

Massacre  at  Alamo,  Texas. 

1836.  First  railway 

1836.  First  Con- 

Arkansas admitted. 

in  Canada 

gress  meets  in 

Sam  Houston,  first  president  of  Texas. 

opened. 

Costa  R,ica. 

1837 

Martin     Van     Buren,    President; 
Richard  M.  Johnson,    Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

Great  commercial  panic. 

Morse  system  of  telegraphy  invented. 

1837.  Papineau  and 
Mackenzie  re- 
bellion. 

1838 

"Great  Western  "  and  "  Sirius  "  cross 

1838.   Canadian  re- 

1838. Mexico  de- 

1838. Buenos  Ayres 

the  Atlantic. 

bellion  sup- 

clares war 

blockaded  by 

pressed. 

against  France. 
Slavery  abol- 
ished  in   Brit- 
ish West  In- 
dies. 

French  fleet. 

1839 

Vulcanized  rubber  patented  by  Good- 
year. 

1839.  Termination 
of  the  Mexican- 
French  War. 

1840 

Lieut.  Wilkes  discovers  Antarctic  con- 
tinent. 

1840.  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada 

1841 

William  H.  Harrison,  President; 
John  Tyler,  Vice-President. 

Harri-son  dies  April  4th;  Jolm  Tyler, 
President. 

Elias  Howe  patents  the  sewing  ma- 
chine. 

Failure  of  the  United  States  Bank. 

reunited. 

1842 

Dorr's  Rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 
Ashburton    Treaty    with    England 
signed. 

1843 

Bunker  Hill  Monument  dedicated. 

1843.  McGill    Uni- 

1845. England  and 

1844 

Texas  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

versity,    Mon- 

1844. Dominican 

France  blockade 

Morse  telegraph  completed  from  Bal- 

treal, opened. 

Republic  pro- 

Buenos Ayres, 

timore  to  Washington. 

claimed  in 

pending  Civil 

1845 

James  K.  Polk,  President;  George 
M.  Dallas,  Vice-President. 

Florida  admitted. 

United  States  Naval  Academy  estab- 
lished at  Annapolis. 

Texas  admitted. 

Petroleum  discovered  near  Pittsburg. 

- 

Hayti. 

War. 

Venezuela's  in- 
dependence rec- 
ognized by  Spain. 

1846 

Mexican  War  begins. 

1846.  EarlofCath- 

1846.  Gen.  Mcjia 

First  application   of    ether  by   Drs. 

cart.  Governor. 

of  Mexico  is- 

Jackson and  Morton. 

sues  proclama- 

Wilmot Proviso. 

tion  of  hostility 

Smithsonian    Institution  established 

to  the  United 

in  Washington. 

States.     War 

Iowa  admitted. 

with  United 
States. 

1847 

Salt  Lake  City  founded  by  the  Mor- 
mons- 

1847.  Mexico  se- 
questers church 
property  to 
raise  war  funds. 

Gen.  Quit- 
man, Military- 
Governor  of 
Citv  of  Mexico. 

1848 

Gold  discovered  near  Colonia,  Cal. 
Peace  signed  with  Mexico.     Acquisi- 
tion of  New  Mexico  and  California. 

1848.  Peace   be- 
tween United 
States  and 

Wisconsin  admitted. 

- 

Mexico. 

Corner  stone  of  Washington  Monu- 

ment laid. 

104 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   ADOPTION   OF   THE   CONSTITUTION 

OF   UNITED   STATES, 

1789  A.  D.,  TO 

THE    PRESENT 

TIME 

1849 

United  States  of  Americ?. 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 

South 

America 

Zachary  Taylor,  President;    Millard  Fill- 
more. Vice-President. 

Rush  of  gold  hunters  to  California  begins. 

1850 

Death  of  President  Taylor,  July  9th; 

1850.  Riots  in  Mon- 

1850. Cuba  in- 

1850. Steam- 

Millard Fillmore,  President. 

treal;  Parlia- 

vaded by 

ship  line 

California  admitted. 

ment  House 

American  fili- 

from 

Bulwer  Clayton  Treaty   with   Great   Britain 

burned. 

busters  under 

Brazil  to 

signed. 

Canadian 

Lopez. 

Europe 

Fugitive  Slave  Bill  passed. 

clergy  reserves 

inaugu- 

Clay Compromise  Bill  passed. 

abolished. 

rated. 

1851 

Great  fire  in  library  of  Congress. 

United  States  Mint  established  at  San  Fran- 

1851. Second  in- 

1852 

vasion  of 

1852.  Slave 

cisco. 

Cuba;  Lopez 

trade  sup- 

Deaths of  Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster. 

shot. 
Hayti  an 

pressed  in 
Brazil. 

1853 

Franklin   Pierce,    President;    Rufus   King, 

1853.  The  "  Gene- 

Empire under 

1853.  Civil 

Vice-President. 

va,"    first 

Solouque. 

War  in 

Walker's  filibustering  expedition. 

transatlantic 

Argen- 

Gadsden purchase. 

steamer,  arrives 
at  Quebec. 
1854.  First    petro- 
leum wells 

tine. 

1854 

Treaty  between  United  States  and  Japan. 

1854-60.  Central 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  approved. 
Ostend  Manifesto  issued. 

America  in- 

bored. 

vaded   by 

American  fili- 

busters under 

1855 

Completion  of  Panama  Railroad. 
Troubles  in  Kansas. 

First    agricultural    college    in    United    States 
established  at  Cleveland. 

1855.  Suspension 
Bridge  at  Ni- 
agara Falls 
opened. 

Walker. 

1856 

Civil  strife  in  Kansas. 

1856.  Grand  Trunk 

1856.  Ecuador 

First  Republican  National  Convention. 

Railroad 
opened. 

adopts 
French 

1857 

James  Buchanan.  President;  J.  C.  Bracken- 
ridge,  Vice-President. 

Allan  Steam- 

1857. New  Mexi- 

system of 

« 

ship  Line  es- 

can constitu- 

coinage, 

Dred  Scott  decision. 

tablished. 

tion  estab- 

weights. 

Great  financial  panic  in  United  States. 

lished. 

and  meas- 

First attempt  to  lay  transatlantic  cable. 

ures. 

1858 

Minnesota  admitted. 

1858.  Ottawa  made 

1858.  Mexican 

Second  treaty  with  China  signed. 

the  capital. 

constitution 

First  message  over  Atlantic  cable. 

Decimal  sys- 
tem of  coinage 
adopted. 

annulled  by 
Church  party. 

Civil  War 
in  Mexico. 

Hayti  a 
Republic. 

1859 

Oregon  admitted. 
John  Brown's  raid. 

1859.  Juarez  of 
Mexico  con- 
fiscates 
Church  prop- 
erty. 

1860.  Civil  War  in 

1860 

Morrill  high  tariff  bill  approved. 

1860.  Prince  of 

1860.   Revolu- 

South Carolina,  passes  ordinance  of  secession 

Wales  visits 

Mexico  be- 

tions and 

from  the  Union. 

Canada. 

tween  Zulo- 

insurrec- 

Abraham   Lincoln,    President;     Hannibal 

Victoria  rail- 

aga and 

tions  pre- 

Hamlin, Vice-President. 

road  bridge  at 

Montreal 

opened. 

Miramon. 

vail  in 
Uruguay 
for  next 
thirty 

1861 

Secession   of  Mississippi,   Florida,   Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Virginia,  North 

1861.  Gold  found 

1861.  Juarez,  Dic- 

years. 

in  Nova  Scotia. 

tator  of  Mex- 

Carolina, Arkansas,  and  Tennessee. 

ico. 

Attack  on  Fort  Sumter. 

Mexican 

Kansas  admitted. 

troubles  with 

Southern  States  form  a  confederacy. 

England, 

McClellan  appointed  commander-in-chief. 

France,  and 

Mason  and  Slidell  taken  from  British  vessel. 

Spain. 

Reunion  of 
St.  Domingo 

Confederate  States 

with  Spain. 

of  America 

1861.  Jefferson  Davis, 

Pre.sident;  A.  H. 

Stephens,  Vice- 

President. 

Battles  of  Bull 

Run. 

1862 

Fight    between    the 

1862.  Capture  of  Ft. 

1862.  Macdonald, 

1862.  England 

"  Merrimac  "  and 

Henry. 

Premier. 

and  Spain  dis- 

" Monitor." 

Grant  takes  Ft. 

approve  Mex- 

Slavery  abolished   in 

Donelson. 

ican  Mon- 

District of  Columbia. 

archy  for 
Maximilian. 

HISTORY 


105 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE   ADOPTION   OF   THE    CONSTITUTION   OF   UNITED   STATES, 

1789  A.  D.,  TO 

THE    PRESENT 

TIME 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 

South 

America 

Confederate  States 

of  America 

1862 

Treaty  with  Great  Brit- 
ain for  suppression  of 
slave  trade. 

1862.  Battle  of  Shi- 
loh. 

Capture  of 

Congress  passes  act  to 

New  Orleans  by 

prevent  polygamy  in 

Farragut  and 

the  Territories. 

Butler. 

Gen.  Jackson  captures 

Battle  of  Fair 

Harpers  Ferry. 

Oaks. 

Battle  of  South  Moun- 

Robert E.  Lee 

tain. 

in  command  of 

Battle  of  Antietam. 

Confederate   ar- 

Greenbacks first  issued. 

mies. 

Battles  before 
Richmond. 

Battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro. 

1863 

Emancipation    procla- 

1863. Battle  of  Chan- 

1863.  Mexico  oc- 

mation. 

cellorsville. 

cupied  by 

West  Virginia  admitted. 

Siege  of  Vicks- 

the  French 

Gen.  Meade  commander 

burg. 

under 

of  the  Army  of  the 

Battle  of  Chick- 

Bazaine. 

Potomac. 

amauga. 

Battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Battle  of  Look- 
out Mountain. 

1864 

U.  S.  Grant,  Lieutenant 

1864.  Grant's  Vir- 

1864. Confederates 

1864.  Maximilian, 

1864.  Hostili- 

General. 

ginia  campaign. 

in  Canada  plan 

Emperor  of 

ties   be- 

Fight between  "  Kear- 

Battle  of  Wil- 

raids. 

Mexico. 

tween 

sarge"    and    "Ala- 

derness. 

Paraguay 

bama." 

Bettle  of  Spott- 

and 

Fugitive  Slave  Law  re- 

sylvania C.  H. 

Brazil. 

pealed. 

Battle  of  Cold 

Ameri- 

Battle of  Monocacy. 

Harbor. 

can  Con- 

Premium on  gold,  285 

Atlanta  cam- 

gress at 

per  cent. 

paign. 

Lima, 

Nevada  admitted. 

Capture  of  Mo- 

Peru. 

President  calls  for  500,- 

bile. 

000  volunteers. 

Battle  of  Win- 

Grade of  Vice-Admiral 

chester. 

1865.  Argen- 

established. 

Sherman's 

tine  in- 

Additional call  for  300,- 

march  to  the  sea. 

vaded   by 

000  volunteers. 

Thomas  de- 
feats Hood  at 

Para- 
guans  un- 
der Lo- 

Nashville. 

1865 

Lincoln  re-elected; 

1865.  Confederate 

1865.  Confedera- 

1865. Maximilian 

pez. 

Andrew  Johnson, 

Congress  ad- 

tion rejected 

proclaims 

War  be- 

Vice-President. 

journs  sine  die. 

by  New  Bruns- 

Mexican- 

tween 

Peace  conference  at 

Richmond 

wick. 

French 

Brazil 

Hampton  Roads. 

evacuated  by 

War  ended. 

and  Uru- 

President Lincoln  shot 

Confederates. 

United 

guay. 

at  Ford's  Theater, 

Lee  surrenders 

States  pro- 

Treaty 

Washington,  April 

at  Appomattox, 
April  9th. 

tests  against 

between 

14th. 

French  occu- 

Brazil, 

Andrew  Johnson, 

Johnston,  Mor- 

pation of 

Uruguay. 

President;  April  15th. 

gan,  Taylor,  and 

Mexico. 

and  Ar- 

General amnesty  proc- 

Kirby-Smith sur- 

Insurrection 

gentine 

lamation. 

render. 

in  Jamaica. 

against 

Habeas  Corpus  restored 

Jefferson  Davis 

Para- 

in Northern  States. 

captured. 

guay. 

1866.  Invasion  of 
Canada  threat- 

1866. Napoleon 
III.  agrees 

Four 
years'  war 

1866 

Civil  Rights  Bill  passed 

over  President's  veto. 

ened  by  Feni- 

with United 

results. 

Fenian  raid  into  Canada 

ans. 

States  to 

Relig- 

Atlantic telegraph  comp 

ieted. 

Canadian 

withdraw 

ious  toler- 

Parliament 

French  troops 

ation  en- 

first meets  at 

from  Mexico. 

acted  in 

Ottawa. 

Chile. 

1867 

Nebraska  admitted. 

1867.  Dominion  of 

1867.  Maximilian, 

Chile  de- 

Alaska transferred  by  F 

ussia   to   the   United 

Canada  formed 

Miramon,  and 

clares  war 

States. 

by  union  of* 

Mejia  tried  in 

against 

Upper  and 

Mexico  and 

Spain. 

Lower  Canada, 

shot. 

1866.  Span- 
iards 

Nova  Scotia, 

Republic 

and  New 

re-established 

bombard 

Brunswick. 

in  Mexico. 

Valpara- 

Lord Monck, 

iso,  Chile. 

Viceroy  of 

Peru 

Canada. 

joins  Chile 

New  Parlia- 

in war 

' 

ment  at  Ot- 

against 

tawa. 

Spain. 

106 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    ADOPTION    OF    THE    CONSTITUTION   OF    UNITED   STATES,            | 

1789  A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1868 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

President  Johnson" impeached,  tried, 

1868.   Agitation 

1868.  Insurrection 

• 

and  acquitted. 

against  confed- 

of Creoles  in 

Southern  States  readmitted  to  rep- 

eration in  Nova 

Cuba  under 

resentation  in  Congress. 

Scotia. 

Cespedes. 

Burlingame  treaty  with  China  signed. 

Fenian  raid 

XIV.  Amendment  adopted. 

repelled. 

Sir  John 
Young,  Gov- 
ernor-General. 

1869 

U.  S.  Grant,   President;   Schuyler 

1869.  Newfound- 

1869. Filibusters 

1869.  Revolution  in 

Colfax,  Vice-President. 

land  refuses  to 

again  attack 

Ecuador. 

Union  Pacific  Railroad  opened  for 

join  the  Do- 

Cuba. 

traffic. 

minion. 

Financial  panic  in  New  York. 

Hudson  Bay 

Soldier's   monument  at   Gettysburg 

territory  pur- 

dedicated. 

chased  by  the 
Dominion. 

1870 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad  begun. 

1870.  Rupert's 

1870.  Continual  in- 

XV. Amendment  ratified. 

Land  made  the 
Province  of 
Manitoba. 

surrections  in 
Cuba. 

1871 

Legal  Tender  Act  decided  constitu- 

1871. British  Co- 

1871. Civil  War 

tional. 

lumbia  united 

and  insurrec- 

"Tweed Ring  "  in  New  York  exposed. 

to  the  Do- 

tions in  Mexico. 

Great  fire  in  Chicago. 

minion. 

District  of  Columbia  a  territorial  gov- 

Departure of 
last  battalion 

ernment. 

of   Royal 

troops. 

Uniformity 

of  currency  es- 

tablished. 

1872 

Geneva  award  of  $15,500,000  made 

to  the  United  States. 
Great  fire  in  Boston;    loss  $80,000,- 

OOO. 
Modoc  War  in  California. 

1872.  Lord  Duf- 
ferin,  Govern- 
or-General. 

1872 

Grant  re-elected;   Henry  Wilson, 

Vice-President. 

1873 

Credit  Mobilier  investigation  by  Con- 

1873. Prince  Ed- 

1873. Slavery  abol- 

1873. Treaty  be- 

gress. 

ward  Island 

ished  in  Porto 

tween  Argentine 

One  cent  postal  cards  issued. 

joins  the  Do- 

Rico. 

and  Brazil. 

Financial  panic  in  New  York. 

minion. 

1874.  Religious  or- 

Territorial government  in  District  of 

ders  suppressed 

Columbia  abolished. 

in  Me.xico. 

1875 

Act   authorizing   the   resumption  of 
specie  payments. 

1875.  Icelanders 
settle  in  North- 
west Territo- 
ries. 

1876 

Massacre  of  Custer's  troops  by  Sit- 

1876. Intercolonial 

1876.  Porfirio  Diaz, 

1876.   Venezuela  re- 

ting Bull. 

railroad  opened 

President  of 

nounces  papal 

Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadel- 

from Quebec  to 

Mexico. 

authority. 

phia. 

Halifax. 

Colorado  admitted. 

1877 

Electoral  Commission  appointed. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  President; 
William    A.    Wheeler,    Vice-Presi- 

1877. Great  fire  at 
St.  John,  New 
Brunswick. 

dent. 

Great  railroad  strike. 

"Molly  Maguires"  hanged  in  Penn- 

sylvania. 

War  with  the  Nez  Percis  Indians. 

Edison  announces  his  phonograph. 

1878 

Bland  Silver  Bill  passed  over  Presi- 

1878. Marquis  of 

1878.  Surrender  of 

dent's  veto. 

Lome,  Govern- 

insurgent gov- 

Electric lighting  introduced  by  Edi- 

or-General. 

ernment  in 

son. 

Cuba. 

1879 

United  States  Government  resumes 

1S79.   Industrial 

1879.  War  between 

specie  payment. 

Exhibition  at 

Chile  and  Peru 

Women  permitted  to  practice  before 
United  States  Courts. 

Ottawa. 

and  Bolivia. 

French  Atlantic  cable  laid. 

1880 

The  Kearney  agitation  in  California. 

1880.  Royal  Cana- 

1880. Manuel  Gon- 

1880. Buenos  Ayres 

dian  Academy 

zales,  President 

made  the  capital 

of  Arts  found- 
ed. 
1881.  Contract  for 

of  Mexico. 

of  Argentine. 

1881 

James     A.     Garfleld,     President; 

1881.  Lima  occupied 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  Vice-President. 

new  Pacific 

by  the  Chileans. 

President    Garfield    shot,  July    2d; 

railway  rati- 

Patagonia di- 

Chester A.   Arthur,   President,- 

fied. 

vided  by  Chile 

September  20th. 

and  Argentine. 

International  Cotton  Exposition  at 

* 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

HISTORY 


107 


A.  D. 

FROM    THE    ADOPTION 

OP   THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    UNITED    STATES, 

1789   A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1882 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

Star  Route  trials  begin. 

1882.  Northwest 

War  with,  the  Apache  Indians. 

Territory  be- 
yond Manitoba 
divided  into 
Assiniboia,  Sas- 
katchewan, Al- 
berta, and 
Athabaska. 

First  colony 
of  Russians  set- 
tle in  North- 
west Territory. 

1883 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad  completed. 

1883.  Conflicts  be- 

1883. Ancient  city 

1883.  Peruvians  de- 

Opening of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

tween  Catholics 

discovered  in 

feated  with  great 

and  Orange- 

Sonora, Mexico. 

loss  by  Chile. 

men  in  New- 

foundland. 

Standard 

time  adopted. 

1884 

Great  floods  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

1884.  Marquis  of 

1884.  Porfirio  Diaz, 

Financial  crises  in  New  York. 

Lansdowne, 
Governor-Gen- 
eral. 

President  of 
Mexico. 

1885 

Grover      Cleveland,      President; 

1885.  The  Riel  in- 

1885. Concessions 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  Vice-Presi- 

surrection in 

to  the  Nicara- 

dent. 

Northwest. 

gua  Canal  Com- 

Apache War  in  New  Mexico. 

pany  granted 

World's    Industrial    Exposition    at 

by  Nicaragua. 

New  Orleans. 

1886 

Railroad  strikes  and  anarchistic  riots. 

1886.  Fisheries  dis- 

1886. Slavery  abol- 

Silver certificates  authorized. 

pute  with 

ished  in  Cuba. 

Bartholdi's   Statue   of   Liberty   un- 

United States. 

veiled. 

Vancouver 
City  founded. 
1887.  Great  rail- 
way bridge  at 
Lachine  com- 
pleted. 

Anthracite 
coal  first  mined 
in  Canada. 

1888 

Chinese  immigration  prohibited. 

1888.  Lord  Stanley, 
Governor-Gen- 

1888. Slavery  totally 
abolished  in 

1889 

Benjamin  Harrison,  President; 
Levi  P.  Morton,  Vice-President. 

Johnstown  flood. 

Pan-American  Congress  meets  in 
Washington. 

North  and  South  Dakotas,  Washing- 
ton, and  Montana  admitted. 

eral. 

Brazil. 
1889.  Revolution  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro; 
emperor  ban- 
ished; republic 
declared. 
First  Brazilian 

Oklahoma  opened  for  settlement. 

Congress  meets. 

1890 

Idaho  and  Wyoming  admitted. 

1890.  Dominion 

1890.  Union  of  Cen- 

1890. Great  financial 

People's  Party  convenes  at  Topeka, 

Commons  pass- 

tral American 

,  crisis  in  Argen- 

Kan. 

ed  a  resolution 

States  formed. 

tine. 

McKinley  Tariff  goes  into  effect. 

of  loyalty  to 

Sioux  War;    Sitting  Bull  killed. 

Great  Britain. 

1891 

Massacre  of  Italians  in  New  Orleans. 

1891.  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Railway 
completed. 

First  Pacific 
mail  steamer 
arrives  at  Van- 
couver from 
Yokohama. 

St.  Clair  tun- 
nel connecting 
Canadian  and 
United  States 
railways  open- 
ed. 

1892.  Dominion 

1891.  Civil  War  in 
Chile. 

Mob  at  Valpa- 
raiso assaults 
United  States 
sailors. 

1892 

Behring  Sea  dispute  referred  to  arbi- 

1892. Revolutions 

tration. 

discriminates 
against  United 
States  in  use  of 
Welland  Canal. 

and  insurrections 
in  Brazil. 
1893.  Insurrections 
in  Argentine. 

1893 

Grover  Cleveland,  President;  Ad- 

1893.  Canal  tolls 

Naval  revolt 

lai  E.  Stevenson,   Vice-President. 

arranged  with 

in  Brazil,  led  by 

Columbian    Exposition    opened    at 

United  States. 

Admiral  de 

Chicago. 

Commercial 

Mello. 

World's    Parliament    of    Religions 

treaty  between 

meets  at  Chicago. 

France  and 

Chinese  Exclusion  bill  approved. 

Canada. 

Great    financial    depression.     Silver 

Earl  of  Aber- 

bill approved. 

deen,  Govern- 

or-General. 

108 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


A.  D. 

FROM   THE   ADOPTION 

OF   THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   UNITED   STATES, 

1789  A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

1894 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

Wilson  Tariff  bill  passed. 

1894.   Intercolonial 

1894.  Naval  scrim- 

Great railroad  strike  from  Ohio  to 

Congress  open- 

mage between 

Pacific  coast. 

ed  at  Ottawa. 

Admiral  da 

Coal  strike. 

Gama,  Brazilian 

Republic  of  Hawaii  recognized. 

insurgent,  and 

New  treaty  with  Japan. 

Admiral  Ben- 
ham,  United 
States  Navy. 
1895.  Chile  adopts 

1895 

Free  silver  movement  an  important 

1895.  First  Exhibi- 

1895. Renewed  in- 

issue. 

tion  in  North- 

surrections in 

the  gold  stand- 

Special message  of  the  President  on 

west  opened  at 

Cuba  against 

ard. 

the  Venezuelan  question. 

Regina. 

Spanish  rule. 

Cuba  de- 
mands auton- 
omy from 
Spain. 

Construction 
of  Panama  Canal 
in  progress  by 
the  French. 

1896 

Treaty  with  the  Choctaw  Indians. 

1896.  Sir  Charles 

1896.  Weyler  issues 

1896.  Revolt  of 

Tupper,  Pre- 

his famous  re- 

"  Fanatics  "  in 

mier. 

concentrado 

Brazil. 

Newfound- 

order in  Cuba. 

Chile  signs 

land  Govern- 

Uniform 

treaty  of  amity 

ment  purchases 

education  sys- 

with Bolivia. 

railway  system. 

tem  in  Mexico. 

Gold  mines  of 
great  value  dis- 
covered in  Peru. 

1897 

William     McKinley,     President; 
Garret  A.  Hobart,  Vice-President. 

1897.  School  ques- 

1897. Wevler  re- 
called from 

1897.   Venezuela  rati- 

tion settled  in 

fies  boundary 

Universal  Postal  Congress  meets  in 

Manitoba. 

Cuba  and 

treaty  with 

Washington. 

Commission 

Blanco  ap- 

Great Britain. 

Treaty    for    annexation    of    Hawaii 

for  Yukon  gold 

pointed  cap- 

signed. 

region  ap- 

tain-general. 

Extensive  strikes   among  coal  and 

pointed. 

Attempt  to 

iron  miners. 

British  Sci- 

assassinate 

Dingley  Tariff   bill  goea  into  eflfect. 

ence  Associa- 
tion meets  at 
Toronto. 

Joint  com- 
mission ap- 
pointed to  set- 
tle difficulties 
with  United 
States. 

President  Diaz 
of  Mexico. 

United 
States  of  Cen- 
tral America 
formed. 

1898 

City   government   of   Greater   New 

1898.  Great  influx 

1898.  Hostile   dem- 

1898. Argentine  pro- 

York inaugurated. 

of  miners  to 

onstrations  in 

vides  for  a  com- 

Destruction of  the  "Maine"  in  Ha- 

Yukon gold 

Havana 

plete  network  of 

vana  Harbor. 

region. 

against  Ameri- 

railways. 

War   with   Spain;     Congress   orders 

Earl  of  Minto, 

cans. 

forcible  intervention  in  Cuba. 

Governor-Gen- 

Battleship 

Admiral  Dewey  destroys  the  Span- 

eral. 

"Maine" 

ish  fleet  at  Manila. 

blown  up  at 

Naval  battle  at  Santiago;    destruc- 

Havana. 

tion  of  Cevera's  fleet. 

Invasion  of 

Miles  inva.des  Porto  Rico. 

Cuba  and  Por- 

Treaty of  Paris:    United  States  ac- 

to Rico  by 

quires     .sovereignty    over    Cuba, 

United  States. 

Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines. 

Completion 
of  great  Mexi- 
can drainage 
canal. 

1899 

Aguinaldo    foments    the    Philippine 

1899.  Adjournment 

1899.  Cuba  and 

1899.  Venezuelan 

War. 

of  the  Joint 

Porto  Rico 

boundary 

Appointment  of  the  First  Philippine 

High  Commis- 

pass to  United 

tribunal  meets 

Commission. 

sion. 

States  by 

in  Paris. 

General  Wood,  Governor  of  Cuba. 

Treaty  of  Paris. 

Spanish 
power  in  Amer- 

ica ceases. 

1900 

Civil  government  established  in  the 

1900.  Great  fire  in 

1900.  Cuba  consti- 

Philippines under  act  of  Congress. 

Ottawa. 

tutional  con- 

Galveston flood  and  hurricane. 

Parliament- 

vention meets. 

Civil  government  in  Alaska. 

ary  elections 

American  forces  sent  to  China  under 

sustain  the 

General  Chaffee. 

Liberal  minis- 
try in  power. 

1901 

McKinley    re-elected;     Theodore 

1901.  Population 

1901.  War  declared 

Roosevelt,  Vice-President. 

of  Canada, 

between 

Piatt  Amendment  relating  to  Cuban 

5.338,883. 

Venezuela  and 

independence  passed. 

Toronto  Ex- 

Colombia. 

President  McKinley  shot  at  Buffalo, 

hibition  open- 

N. Y.,  September  6th;  Theodore 

ed. 

Roosevelt,  President,  September 

14th. 

Cuban  autonomy  granted. 

HISTORY 


109 


A.  D. 
1902 

FROM    THE    ADOPTION 

OF    THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    UNITED    STATES, 

1789   A. 

D.,  TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME 

United  States  of  America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North  America 

Spanish 
South  America 

President  recommended  purchase  of 

1902.  Canadian- 

1902.  Revolution 

1902.  Gen.  Uribe. 

the  rights  of   the   Panama  Canal 

Australian 

in  San  Do- 

Colombian insur- 

Company for  $40,000,000. 

cable  laid. 

mingo. 

gent  leader 

Civil  government  established  in  the 

Reciprocity 

Eruption  of 

surrenders. 

Philippines  and  amnesty  granted 

treaty  between 

Mt.  Pelee,  St. 

End  of  revolu- 

pohtical prisoners. 

Newfoundland 

Pierre,  with 

tion  in  Venezuela. 

Decision  of  United  States  Supreme 

and  United 

30,000  people 

Court  in  Northern  Securities  case. 

States. 

destroyed. 

1903 

Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor 

1903.  University  of 

1903.   West  Indian 

1903.  The  republic  of 

created. 

Ottawa  found- 

hurricane 

Panama  pro- 

Pacific cable  completed. 

ed. 

destroyed 

claimed. 

Canal  treaty  with  Panama. 

$15,000,000  in 

Canal  treaty 

Cuban  Reciprocity  Treaty  ratified  by 

values  and 

with  United 

U.  S.  Senate. 

many  lives. 

States  ratified. 

Lieutenant-General  Miles  retired  from 

Colombian 

head  of  the  U.  S.  Army. 

Senate  rejected 
Panama  Canal 

.\laskan  boundary  tribunal  in  Lon- 

don decided  in  favor  of  the  United 

Treaty. 

States. 

1904 

Commercial  treaty  with  China. 

1904.  Earl  Grey, 

1904.  Venezuelan 

Arbitration'     treaty     with      France 

Governor-Gen- 

diplomatic diffi- 

signed. 

eral. 

culties  with 

Great  fire  in  Baltimore. 

Fire  in  To- 
ronto destroyed 
$10,000,000 
worth  of  prop- 
erty. 

United  States. 

1905 

Theodore    Roosevelt,    President; 
Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

President  advocates  control  of  rail- 
ways and  corporate  wealth. 

Arbitration  treaties  concluded  with 
Great    Britain,    Germany,    Italy, 
and  other  powers. 

190.5.  Decennial 
census  act. 

1906 

Destruction    of    San    Francisco    by 

1906.  British  pref- 

1906. Revolutions 

1906.  Pan-American 

earthquake  and  fire. 

erential  tariff 

in  Central 

conference  at 

Riot  at  Brownsville,  Texas. 

debated. 

America. 

Rio  de  Janeiro. 

President  Roosevelt  visits  Panama. 

Commission 

President 

Earthquake  at 

appointed  to 

Palma   resigns 

Valparaiso, 

investigate 

and  appeals  to 

Chile. 

life  insurance 

United    States 

in  Canada. 

for  intervention 
in  Cuba. 

1907 

Pure  Food  Law  became  effective. 

1907.  Riotous 

1907.  Tehuantepec 

1907.  Notable  im- 

Great floods  at  Pittsburg. 

demonstrations 

National  Rail- 

pulse given  to 

Jamestown    Exposition    opened    by 

against  Japa- 

way opened  by 

South  American 

President  Roosevelt. 

nese  at  Vancou- 

President Diaz 

trade  and 

Standard  Oil  Company  fined 

ver,  British 

of  Mexico. 

progress. 

$29,240,000. 

Columbia. 

Large  part  of 

Financial  stringency  in   New  York, 

Physical  and 

Kingston, 

and  many  bank  failures. 

military  train- 

Jamaica, de- 

Oklahoma admitted  as  a  State. 

ing  introduced 
into  schools  and 
colleges. 

stroyed  by 
earthquake. 

1908 

The  Aldrich  Currency  bill  introduced 

1908.   Tercentenary 

1908.  Nord    Alexis 

1908.  Labor  riot  at 

in  the  U.  S.  Senate. 

celebration 

overthrown  in 

Chilean  mines. 

held  at  Quebec. 

Hayti.     New 
government 
imder  Gen. 
Simon. 

Vast  Municipal 
improvements  in 
Rio  de  Janeiro. 

1909 

William   H.  Taft,   President; 

1909.  Unusual   im- 

1909.  Earthquakes 

1909:  Anarchist    up- 

James S.  Sherman,  Vice-President. 

migration  from 

destroy  10,000 

risings  in  Argen- 

Payne-Aldrich tariff. 

United  States. 

in  Mexico. 

tina  suppressed. 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposition  at 

Progress    in 

Meeting  of 

Seattle. 

railway  devel- 

Taft and  Diaz 

Peary  reported  discovery  of  North 

opment. 

at  El  Chamizal. 

Pole,  April  26. 

Roosevelt  visited  Africa. 

1910 

Insurgency  in  Congress. 

1910.  Death  of 

1910.  President 

1910.   Mutiny  of 

Roosevelt  returned  to  United  States. 

Goldwin  Smith. 

Diaz  re-elected. 

Brazilian  navy. 

Sweeping    Demecratic     victory    in 

Eucharist 

Revolution 

elections. 

congress  of 

under  Madero 

Commerce  Court  created. 

Roman  Catho- 

suppressed. 

Thirteenth  Census. 

lic    church   at 

Postal  Savings  Banks  established. 

Montreal. 

1911 

Tobacco    trust    trials    by   Supreme 
Court. 

• 

no 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Feudal  System.  The  name  generally 
given  to  the  system  of  land  tenure  and  social 
arrangements  which  prevailed  in  Europe  during 
the  period  commonly  known  as  the  Middle  Ages. 
Its  essence  lay  in  the  close  connection  which 
existed  under  it  between  social  status  and  the 
ownership  of  land.  The  man  who  held  land 
from  another  was  looked  upon  as  the  dependant 
and  subordinate  of  the  latter.  In  England  the 
system  was  not  unknown  under  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings,  but  it  received  its  complete  development 
only  at  the  Norman  Conquest.  The  death  of 
Harold  left  V/illiam  in  possession  of  vast  crown 
lands,  which  he  bestowed  upon  his  principal 
officers.  What  the  king  did  for  his  great  lords 
they  did  for  their  captains,  and  these,  again, 
for  their  vassals.  Counties  were  divided  into 
manors,  and  manors  into  farms;  and  in  the 
most  commanding  part  of  every  manor  a  strong 
castle  arose,  in  which  the  baron  ruled  all  but 
supreme,  surrounded  by  armed  retainers,  and 
having  always  at  his  call  the  franklins,  or  free- 
tenants,  who  held  the  lands  which  constituted 
his  estate.  Under  the  Feudal  System  both  spear 
and  plough  helped  to  pay  the  rent.  Knight 
Service  and  Socage  were  required  from  every 
tenant  —  the  former  obliging  him  to  serve,  at 
the  call  of  his  landlord,  for  so  many  days  each 
year  in  the  field  of  battle ;  the  latter  to  give  occa- 
sional days  of  labor  on  the  castle  grounds,  or  to 
send  fixed  supplies  of  such  things  as  beef  or  poul- 
try, meal  or  honey,  to  the  castle  larder.  Num- 
bers of  serfs,  called  Villeins,  tilled  little  patches 
of  ground  under  certain  conditions,  and  these 
were  held  nominally  to  be  freemen;  but  the 
lowest  class  of  serfs  took  rank  with  the  oxen 
and  the  swine  which  they  tended,  being,  like 
them,  the  property  of  the  master.  Under  this 
system,  Aids  nad  to  be  given  to  the  crown; 
and  also  various  Reliefs,  or  Fines,  which  were 
paid  by  an  incoming  heir  before  he  could  take 
possession  of  his  estate,  or  when  a  tenant  sold 
or  gave  any  part  of  his  lands  to  a  stranger. 
The  Feudal  System,  though  it  has  so  long 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  system  of  political  and 
social  relations,  still  survives  as  the  basis  of 
most  of  the  laws  relating  to  land;  and  the  laws 
both  of  escheat  and  copyhold,  as  they  at  present 
exist,  are  direct  outgrowths  of  the  Feudal  System. 

Fifth-monarchy  Men.  A  clique  of 
political  fanatics  who  sided  with  Cromwell  dur- 
mg  the  Protectorate.  They  derived  this  epi- 
thet from  their  entertaining  a  belief  that  Crom- 
well's accession  to  supreme  power  was  a  mani- 
festation of  the  advent  of  the  fifth  monarchy, 
in  which  the  Saviour  should  reign  with  the  saints 
on  earth  for  the  period  of  one  thousand  years. 

Florida.  The  name  Florida,  derived  from 
a  Spanish  word  meaning  "flowery,"  or  perhaps 
because  it  was  first  visited  on  "Pascua  Florida," 
or  Easter  Sunday,  was  originally  applied  to  a 
much  larger  region  than  the  present  State,  its 
boundaries  extending  to  the  Mississsippi,  and  on 
the  north  indefinitely.  It  was  first  discovered 
by  Ponce  de  Leon  in  1512,  who  landed  near  St. 
Augustine.  It  was  subsequently  visited  by 
other  Spanish  adventurers,  but  it  was  not  till 
1528  that  an  actual  attempt  at  colonization  was 
made  by  Panfilo  de  Narvaez,  who  had  received 
a  large  land  grant  from  Charles  V.     He  and  his 


colonists  were  exterminated  by  the  Indians. 
In  1539,  Fernando  de  Soto  explored  the  State, 
and  a  few  years  later  many  French  Huguenots 
sought  refuge  here.  They  were  massacred  by 
the  Spaniards.  Spain  had  no  permanent  foot- 
ing till  1565,  when  the  fort  was  built  at  St. 
Augustine.  Pensacola  was  settled  in  1696.  In 
1763,  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  English  in  ex- 
change for  Cuba,  but  by  the  treaty  of  1783  it 
was  retroceded  to  Spain.  A  portion  of  Florida 
was  seized  by  the  United  States  in  1803,  and  in 
1819,  Spain  formally  ceded  the  whole  province. 
Florida  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1845,  seceded 
January  10,  1861,  and  resumed  federal  relations, 
1868. 

Forum  (fo'rUm).  In  Roman  cities,  a  public 
place  where  causes  were  judicially  tried,  and 
orations  made  to  the  people.  It  was  a  large, 
open  parallelogram,  surrounded  by  porticos. 
There  were  six  of  these  forums,  viz :  the  Roma- 
num,  Julianum,  Augustum,  Palladium,  Traja- 
num,  and  Sallustii  forums.  .  The  chief  was  the 
Romanum,  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the 
forum.  In  it  was  the  rostrum,  or  pulpit,  where 
the  Roman  orators  pleaded  before  or  harangued 
the  people.  These  forums  were  styled  fora 
civilia,  in  distinction  from  another  description 
of  forum  serving  as  markets,  which  were  known 
as  fora  venalia. 

France.  Gallia  was  the  name  under  which 
France  was  designated  by  the  Romans,  who 
knew  little  of  the  country  till  the  time  of  Csesar, 
when  it  was  occupied  by  the  Aquitani,  Celtse, 
and  Belgae.  Under  Augustus,  Gaul  was  divided 
into  four  provinces,  which,  under  subsequent 
emperors,  were  dismembered,  and  subdivided 
into  seventeen.  In  the  Fifth  Century  it  fell 
completely  under  the  power  of  the  Visigoths, 
Burgundians,  and  Franks.  In  486  A.  D.,  Clovis, 
a  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks,  raised  himself  to 
supreme  power  in  the  North.  His  dynasty, 
known  as  the  Merovingian,  ended  in  the  person 
of  Childeric  III.,  who  was  deposed  752  A.  D. 
The  accession  of  Pepin  gave  new  vigor  to  the 
monarchy,  which,  under  his  son  and  successor, 
Charlemagne,  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West  in 
800  (768-814),  rose  to  the  rank  of  the  most 
powerful  empire  of  the  West.  With  him,  how- 
ever, this  vast  fabric  of  power  crumbled  to 
pieces,  and  his  weak  descendants  completed  the 
ruin  of  the  Prankish  Empire  by  the  dismember- 
ment of  its  various  parts  among  the  younger 
branches  of  the  Carlovingian  family.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  V.  the  Carlovingian  Dynasty 
was  replaced  by  that  of  Hugues,  Count  of  Paris, 
whose  son,  Hugh  Capet,  was  elected  king  by 
the  army,  and  consecrated  at  Rheims,  987  A.  D. 
At  this  period  the  greater  part  of  France  was 
held  by  almost  independent  lords.  Louis  le 
Gros  (1108-37)  was  the  first  ruler  who  succeeded 
in  combining  the  whole  under  his  scepter.  He 
promoted  the  establishment  of  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, abolished  serfdom  on  his  own  estates, 
secured  corporate  rights  to  the  cities  under  his 
jurisdiction,  gave  efficiency  to  the  central  author- 
ity of  the  crown,  carried  on  a  war  against  Henry 
I.  of  England;  and  when  the  latter  allied  him- 
self with  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  of  Germany 
against  France  he  brought  into  the  field  an  army 
of  200,000  men.     The  oriflamm^  is  said  to  have 


HISTORY 


111 


been  borne  aloft  for  the  first  time  on  this  occa- 
sion as  the  national  standard.  Louis  VII. 
(1137-80)  was  almost  incessantly  engaged  in 
war  with  Henry  II.  of  England.  His  son  and 
successor,  Pliilippe  Auguste  (1180-1223),  recov- 
ered Normandy,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  Poitou 
from  John  of  England.  He  took  an  active  per- 
sonal share  in  the  Crusades.  Philippe  was  the 
first  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
standing  army.  Many  noble  institutions  date 
their  origin  from  this  reign,  as  the  University  of 
Paris,  the  Louvre,  etc.  St.  Louis  IX.  effected 
many  modifications  in  the  fiscal  department, 
and,  before  his  departure  for  the  Crusades,  se- 
cured the  rights  of  the  Galilean  Church  by  special 
statute,  in  order  to  counteract  the  constantly 
increasing  assumptions  of  the  papal  power. 
Phihppe  IV.  (1285-1314),  surnamed  Le  Bel, 
acquired  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie  by 
marriage.  Charles  IV.  (Le  Bel)  (1321-28)  was 
the  last  direct  descendant  of  the  Capetian  line. 
Philippe  VI.,  the  first  of  the  House  of  Valois 
(1328-50),  succeeded  in  right  of  the  Salic  law. 
His  reign,  and  those  of  his  successors,  Jean 
(1350-64)  and  Charles  V.  {Le  Sage)  (1364-80), 
were  disturbed  by  constant  wars  with  Edward 
III.  of  England.  Hostilities  began  in  1339; 
in  1346  the  battle  of  Crecy  was  fought;  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  (1356)  Jean  was  made  captive; 
and  before  the  final  close,  after  the  death  of 
Edward  (1377),  the  state  was  reduced  to  bank- 
ruptcy. During  the  regency  for  the  minor, 
Charles  VI.  {Le' Bien  Aime)  (1380^1422),  the 
war  was  renewed  with  increased  vigor  on  the 
part  of  the  English  nation.  The  signal  victory 
won  by  the  English  at  Agincourt  in  1415  aided 
Henry  in  his  attempts  upon  the  throne.  But 
the  extraordinary  influence  exercised  over  her 
countrymen  by  the  Maid  of  Orleans  aided  in 
bringing  about  a  thorough  reaction,  and,  after 
a  period  of  murder,  rapine,  and  anarchy,  Charles 
VII.  {Le  Victorieux)  (1422-61)  was  crowned  at 
Rheims.  His  successor,  Louis  XL  (1461-83), 
succeeded  in  recovering  for  the  crown  the  terri- 
tories of  Maine,  Anjou,  and  Provence,  while  he 
made  himself  master  of  some  portions  of  the 
territories  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. Charles  VIII.  (1483-98),  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Anne  of  Brittany,  secured  that  pow- 
erful state.  With  him  ended  the  direct  male 
succession  of  the  House  of  Valois.  Louis  XII. 
(1498-1515)  {Le  Pere  du  Peuple)  was  the  only 
representative  of  the  Valois-Orleans  family; 
his  successor,  Francis  I.  (1547),  was  of  the 
Valois- AngouUme  branch.  The  defeat  of  Fran- 
cis at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525,  and  his  sub- 
sequent imprisonment  at  Madrid,  threw  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  into  the  greatest  disorder. 
In  the  reign  of  Henri  II.  began  the  persecutions 
of  the  Protestants.  Henri  III.  (1574-89)  was 
the  last  of  this  branch  of  the  Valois.  The  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew  (1572)  was  perpetrated 
under  the  direction  of  the  queen-mother,  Catha- 
rine de'  Medici,  and  the  confederation  of  the 
League,  at  the  head  of  which  were  the  Guises. 
The  wars  of  the  League,  which  were  carried  on 
by  the  latter  against  the  Bourbon  branches  of 
the  princes  of  the  blood-royal,  involved  the 
whole  nation  in  their  vortex.  The  succession  of 
Henri  IV.  of  Navarre  (1589-1610),  a  Bourbon 


prince,  descended  from  a  younger  son  of  St. 
Louis,  allayed  the  fury  of  these  religious  wars, 
but  his  recantation  of  Protestantism  in  favor  of 
Catholicism  disappointed  his  own  party.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIII.  (1610- 
43),  Cardinal  Richelieu,  under  the  nominal 
regency  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  the  queen-mother, 
ruled  with  a  firm  hand.  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
under  the  regency  of  the  queen-mother,  Anne  of 
Austria,  exerted  nearly  equal  power  for  some 
time  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643- 
1715).  The  wars  of  the  Fronde,  the  misconduct 
of  the  parliament,  and  the  humbling  of  the  no- 
bility gave  rise  to  another  civil  war,  but  with 
the  assumption  of  power  by  young  Louis  a  new 
era  commenced,  and  till  near  the  close  of  his 
long  reign  the  military  successes  of  the  French 
were  most  brilliant.  Louis  XV.  (1715-75)  suc- 
ceeded to  a  heritage  whose  glory  was  tarnished, 
and  whose  stability  was  shaken  to  its  very 
foundations  during  his  reign.  The  Peace  of 
Paris,  1763,  by  which  the  greater  portion  of  the 
colonial  possessions  of  France  were  given  up  to 
England,  terminated  an  inglorious  war,  in  which 
the  French  had  expended  1,350  millions  of 
francs.  In  1774  Louis  XVI.,  a  well-meaning, 
weak  prince,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  The 
American  war  of  freedom  had  disseminated 
republican  ideas  among  the  lower  orders,  while 
the  Assembly  of  the  Notables  had  discussed  and 
made  known  to  all  classes  the  incapacity  of  the 
government  and  the  wanton  prodigality  of  the 
court.  The  nobles  and  the  tiers  etat  were  alike 
clamorous  for  a  meeting  of  the  states,  the 
former  wishing  to  impose  new  taxes  on  the  na- 
tion, and  the  latter  determined  to  inaugurate 
a  thorough  and  systematic  reform.  After  much 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  court  the 
Etats  Generaux,  which  had  not  met  since  1614, 
assembled  at  Versailles  on  May  25,  1789.  The 
resistance  made  by  Louis  and  his  advisers  to 
the  reasonable  demands  of  the  deputies  on  the 
17th  of  June,  1789,  led  to  the  constitution  of  the 
National  Assembly.  The  consequence  was  the 
outbreak  of  insurrectionary  movements  at  Paris, 
where  blood  was  shed  on  the  12th  of  July.  On 
the  following  day  the  national  guard  was  con- 
voked, and  on  the  14th  the  people  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Bastile.  The  royal  princes  and  all 
the  nobles  who  could  escape  sought  safety  in 
flight.  The  royal  family,  having  attempted  in 
vain  to  follow  their  example,  tried  to  conciliate 
the  people  by  the  feigned  assumption  of  repub- 
lican sentiment;  but  on  the  5th  of  October  the 
rabble,  followed  by  numbers  of  the  national 
guard,  attacked  Versailles,  and  compelled  the 
king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  Paris,  whither 
the  Assembly  also  moved.  A  war  with  Austria 
was  begun  in  April,  1792;  and  the  defeat  of  the 
French  was  visited  on  Louis,  who  was  confined 
in  August  with  his  family  in  the  Temple.  In 
December  the  king  was  brought  to  trial.  On 
January  20,  1793,  sentence  of  death  was  passed 
upon  him,  and  on  the  following  day  he  was 
beheaded.  Marie  Antoinette,  the  widowed 
queen,  was  guillotined;  the  dauphin  and  his 
surviving  relatives  suffered  every  indignity  that 
malignity  could  devise.  A  reign  of  blood  and 
terror  succeeded.  The  brilliant  exploits  of  the 
young  general,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  in  Italy, 


11?! 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


turned  men's  thoughts  to  otlier  channels.  In 
1795,  a  general  amnesty  was  declared,  peace  was 
concluded  with  Prussia  and  Spain,  and  the  war 
was  carried  on  with  double  vigor  against  Aus- 
tria. The  Revolution  had  reached  a  turning- 
point.  A  Directory  was  formed  to  administer 
the  government,  which  was  now  conducted  in 
a  spirit  of  order  and  conciliation.  In  1797, 
Bonaparte  and  his  brother-commanders  were 
omnipotent  in  Italy.  Austria  was  compelled 
to  give  up  Belgium,  accede  to  peace  on  any 
terms,  and  recognize  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 
Under  the  pretext  of  attacking  England  a  fleet 
of  400  ships  and  an  army  of  36,000  picked  men 
were  equipped;  their  destination  proved,  how- 
ever, to  be  Egypt,  whither  the  Directory  sent 
Bonaparte;  but  the  young  general  resigned  the 
command  to  Kleber,  landed  in  France  in  1799, 
and  at  once  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  Direct- 
ory, and  securing  his  own  nomination  as  consul. 
In  1800,  a  new  constitution  was  promulgated, 
which  vested  the  sole  executive  power  in  Bona- 
parte. Having  resumed  his  military  duties,  he 
marched  an  army  over  the  Alps,  attacked  the 
Austrians  unawares,  and  decided  the  fate  of 
Italy  by  his  victory  at  Marengo.  In  1804,  on 
an  appeal  by  universal  suffrage  to  the  nation, 
Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  emperor.  By  his 
marriage  with  the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa, 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  Napoleon 
seemed  to  have  given  to  his  throne  the  prestige 
of  birth,  which  alone  it  had  lacked.  The  dis- 
astrous Russian  campaign,  in  which  his  noble 
army  was  lost  amid  the  rigors  of  a  northern 
winter,  was  soon  followed  by  the  falling  away  of 
his  allies  and  feudatories.  Napoleon  himself 
was  still  victorious  wherever  he  appeared  in 
person,  but  his  generals  were  beaten  in  numer-, 
ous  engagements ;  and  the  great' defeat  of  Leipsic 
compelled  the  French  to  retreat  beyond  the 
Rhine.  The  Swedes  brought  reinforcements  to 
his  enemies  on  the  eastern  frontier,  while  the 
English  pressed  on  from  the  west;  Paris,  in 
the  absence  of  the  emperor,  capitulated  after  a 
short  resistance,  March  30,  1814.  Napoleon 
retired  to  the  island  of  Elba.  On  the  3d  of 
May,  Louis  XVIII.  (the  brother  of  Louis  XVI.) 
made  his  entry  into  Paris.  On  March  1,  1815, 
Napoleon  left  Elba,  and  landed  in  France. 
Crowds  followed  him;  the  soldiers  flocked 
around  his  standard ;  the  Bourbons  fled,  and  he 
took  possession  of  their  lately  deserted  palaces. 
The  news  spread  terror  through  Europe ;  and  on 
the  25th  of  March  a  treaty  of  alliance  was  signed 
at  Vienna  between  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
England,  and  preparations  made  to  put  down 
the  movement  in  his  favor  and  restore  the 
Bourbon  dynasty.  At  first  the  old  prestige  of 
success  seemed  to  attend  Napoleon;  but  on  the 
18th  of  June  he  was  thoroughly  defeated  at 
Waterloo;  and,  having  placed  himself  under 
the  safeguard  of  the  English,  he  was  sent  to  the 
island  of  St.  Helena,  where,  on  May  5,  1821,  he 
breathed  his  last.  In  1824,  Louis  XVIII.  died 
without  direct  heirs,  and  his  brother,  the  Due 
d'Artois,  succeeded  to  the  throne  as  Charles  X. 
His  reign  was  abruptly  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  the  election  to  the  throne 
of  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  as  king,  by 
the  will  of  the  people.     Louis  Philippe  having 


abdicated  (February  24,  1848),  a  republic  was 
proclaimed,  under  a  provisional  government. 
Louis  Napoleon  was  elected  president  of  the 
republic  in  December,  1848;  but  by  the  famous 
coupe  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851,  he  violently 
set  aside  the  constitution,  and  assumed  dicta- 
torial powers;  and  a  year  after  was  raised,  by 
the  almost  unanimous  voice  of  the  nation,  to 
the  dignity  of  emperor  as  Napoleon  III.  The 
result  of  the  appeal  made  to  the  nation  in  1870, 
on  the  plea  of  securing  their  sanction  for  his 
policy,  was  not  what  he  had  anticipated.  The 
course  of  events  in  the  short  but  terrible  Franco- 
German  War  of  1870-71  electrified  Europe  by 
its  unexpected  character.  On  September  2, 
1870,  Napoleon,  with  90,000  men,  surrendered 
at  Sedan.  With  the  concurrence  of  Prussia, 
the  French  nation  next  elected  representatives 
to  provide  for  the  exigency.  A  republic  was 
proclaimed,  and  the  first  National  Assembly  met 
at  Bordeaux  in  February,  1871.  After  receiving 
the  resignation  of  the  Provisional  Government 
of  Defense,  the  Assembly  undertook  to  organize 
a  republican  government,  and  nominated  M. 
Thiers  President  of  the  French  Republic,  but 
with  the  condition  of  responsibility  to  the 
National  Assembly.  The  ex-Emperor  Napoleon 
died  in  1872,  at  Chiselhurst,  England,  where  he 
had  resided  with  his  family  since  his  liberation  in 
I  March,  1871.  In  1873,  M.  Thiers  resigned,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Marshal  MacMahon,  who  re- 
signed in  1879,  and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Gr^vy. 
In  1887,  Sadi-Carnot  was  chosen  president.  He 
was  assassinated  June  24,  1894.  His  successor 
was  M.  Casimir-Perier,  who  resigned  January  15, 
1895,  and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Frangois  F^lix 
Faure,  January  17,  1895.  President  Faure  was 
assassinated  in  1899,  and  his  successor  was  M. 
:  Loubet,  during  whose  administration  the  famous 
Dreyfus  case  was  reopened  and  disposed  of. 
M.  Armand  Fallieres  was  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency January  17,  1906,  in  succession  to  M. 
Loubet.  The  most  important  public  act  during 
his  incumbency  has  been  the  enforcement  of  the 
Separation  Law,  which  leaves  the  administration 
of  the  Church  of  France  in  its  own  hands,  rather 
than  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  Serious  disturb- 
I  ances  occurred  during  the  same  year  (1907)  in 
I  the  wine-growing  districts.  In  1910,  the  Seine 
I  flooded  Paris  for  a  week,  destroying  over  $200,- 
]  000,000  worth  of  property.  A  strike  of  the 
j  railway  and  electrical  workers'  unions  threatened 
the  very  existence  of  the  government,  but  was 
[  sternly  suppressed  by  Premier  Briand,  himself 
a  socialist. 

French  Revolution,  The  First. 
From  May  5,  1789,  to  July  27,  1794.  Chief 
Leaders  of  the  First  French  Revolution  :  Comte 
de  Mirabeau,  1789-1791;  Danton,  from  the 
death  of  Mirabeau  to  1793;  Robespierre,  from 
June,  1793,  to  July  27,  1794.  Next  to  these 
three  were  St.  Just,  Couthon,  Marat,  Carrier, 
Hubert,  Santerre,  Camille  Desmoulins,  Roland, 
and  his  wife,  Brissot,  Bemave,  Sieyes,  Barras, 
Tallien,  etc. 

Greed  Days  of  the  First  French  Revolution  : 
June  17,  1789,  the  Tiers  Etat  constituted  itself 
into  the  "National  Assembly";  June  20th,  the 
day  of  the  Jue  de  Paume,  when  the  Assembly 
took  an  oath  not  to  separate  till  it  had  given 


HISTORY 


113 


France  a  constitution;  July  14th,  Storming  of 
the  Bastille ;  October  5th  and  6th,  the  king  and 
National  Assembly  transferred  from  Versailles 
to  Paris.  This  closed  the  ancient  regime  of  the 
court.  June  20,  21,  1791,  flight  and  capture 
of  the  king,  queen,  and  royal  family.     June  20, 

1792,  attack  on  the  Tuileries  by  Santerre:  Au- 
gust 10th,  attack  on  the  Tuileries  and  downfall 
of  the  monarchy;  September  2d,  3d,  and  4th, 
massacre  of  the  state  prisoners.     January  21, 

1793,  Louis  XVI  guillotined;  May  31st,  com- 
mencement of  the  Reign  of  Terror;  June  2d,  the 
Girondists  proscribed;  October  16th,  Marie 
Antoinette  guillotined;  October  31st,  the  Giron- 
dists guillotined.  April  5th,  1794,  downfall  of 
Danton ;  July  27th,  downfall  of  Robespierre. 

Frisians  or  Frisii  (later  called  Frisones). 
An  ancient  Germanic  people,  who  inhabited  the 
extreme  northwest  of  Germany,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  Ems,  and  were  sub- 
jected to  the  Roman  power  under  Drusus.  They 
were  subdued  by  the  Franks,  and,  on  the  division 
of  the  Carlovingian  Empire,  their  country  was 
divided  into  West  Frisian  (West  Friesland)  and 
East  Frisian  (East  Friesland).  The  language 
of  the  Frisians  is  intermediate  between  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Old  Norse.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  old  Frisian  is  derived  from  certain 
collections  of  laws;  as  the  "Asegabuch,"  com- 
posed about  1200;  the  "  Brockmerbrief,"  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century;  the  "ffipnsiger  Domen," 
about  1300,  and  some  others. 

Fronde,  a  name  given  to  a  revolt  in  France 
opposed  to  the  Court  of  Anne  of  Austria  and 
Mazarin  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  ,  The 
war  which  arose,  and  which  was  due  to  the  des- 
potism of  Mazarin,  passed  through  two  phases; 
it  was  first  a  war  on  the  part  of  the  people  and 
the  parliament,  called  the  Old  Fronde,  which 
lasted  from  1648  till  1649,  and  then  a  war  on  the 

fjart  of  the  nobles,  called  the  New  Fronde,  which 
asted  till  1652,  when  the  revolt  was  crushed  by 
Turenne  to  the  triumph  of  the  royal  power. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  mimic  fights  with 
slings  in  which  the  boys  of  Paris  frequently  in- 
dulged, and  which  even  went  so  far  as  to  beat  back 
at  times  the  civic  guard  sent  to  suppress  them. 

Garde  Nationale,  a  guard  of  armed 
citizens  instituted  in  Paris,  July  13,  1789.  At 
first  it  numbered  48,000  men,  but  was  increased 
to  300,000  when  it  was  organized  throughout 
the  whole  country.  Marquis  de  Lafayette  was 
its  first  commander.  It  was  reorganized  by  the 
Directory  and  by  Napoleon,  and  again  under  the 
Bourbons  and  was  dissolved  in  1827.  Under 
Louis  Philippe  it  was  resuscitated  and  contrib- 
uted to  his  overthrow.  In  1 85 1 ,  the  national  guard 
was  again  reorganized,  but  in  1855  dissolved. 
In  1870,  the  national  guard  of  Paris  was  formed 
for  the  defense  of  the  city  against  the  Prussians. 
The  resistance  of  a  section  of  the  guard  to  .the 
decree  of  disarmament  led  to  the  communal 
war,  at  the  close  of  which  the  guard  was  de- 
clared' dissolved  by  the  National  Assembly  (1S71). 

Geneva  Convention,  a  convention 
signed  by  the  chief  Europeans  continental  powers 
in  1864,  providing  for  the  succor  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  in  war.  It  has  since  been  ratified  by 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Japan,  and 
about  forty  other  nations.     The  chief  provisions 


are:  (1)  The  neutrality  of  ambulances  and 
military  hospitals.  (2)  The  personnel  of  such 
ambulances  and  hospitals,  including  sanitary 
officers  and  naval  and  military  chaplains,  to  be 
benefited  by  the  neutrality.  (3)  The  inhabit- 
ants of  a  country,  rendering  help  to  the  sick  and 
wounded,  are  to  be  respected  and  free  from  cap- 
ture. (4)  No  distinction  to  be  made  between 
the  sick  and  wounded,  on  account  of  nationality. 
(5)  A  flag  and  uniform  to  be  adopted,  and  an 
armlet  for  the  personnel  of  ambulances  and  hos- 
pitals. The  flag  and  armlet  to  consist  of  a  red 
Greek  cross  on  a  white  ground.  The  Turks  use 
a  red  crescent  in  place  of  the  cross.  Other  pro- 
visions have  since  been  added  intended  to  miti- 
gate the  severity  of  naval  combat,  and  cover 
cases  of  capture  and  sinking  of  vessels.  To 
carry  out  the  terms  of  this  convention,  the  Inter- 
national Society  for  the  Aid  of  the  Sick  and 
Wounded  has  been  organized,  with  committees 
in  the  chief  towns  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Europe.  It  first  played  an  important  part  in 
the  Franco-German  War,  every  nation  sending 
its  contingent  of  ambulances,  surgeons,  etc.  In 
the  Spanish-American  War  the  Cuban  Central 
Relief  Committee  used  the  Red  Cross  Society 
as  an  agency  in  the  distribution  of  relief. 

Georgia.  Named  after  King  George  II. 
of  England.  Georgia  was  the  latest  settled  of 
the  thirteen  colonies,  which  first  formed  the 
United  States.  The  country  was  originally 
included  in  the  charter  of  Carolina.  In  1732 
the  territory  was  g"ranted  to  a  corporation, 
which  sent  out  the  first  colony  under  Sir  James 
Oglethorpe  the  same  year.  In  1733  Savannah 
was  founded.  General  Oglethorpe  commanded 
the  forces  of  Carolina  and  Georgia  in  the 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  St.  Augustine 
in  1739.  In  1752,  Georgia  became  a  royal 
government  under  regulations  similar  to  those 
of  the  other  colonies.  During  the  Revolution 
Georgia  was  overrun  by  the  British,  and 
Savannah  captured  in  1778.  The  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  was  ratified  January  2, 
1788.  The  State  seceded  January  19,  1861. 
The  principal  military  events  were  those  about 
Atlanta,  resulting  in  its  evacuation,  and  Sher- 
man's March  to  the  Sea,  all  in  1864.  Georgia 
was  formally  readmitted  to  the  Union  July  15, 
1870.  An  International  Cotton  Exposition  was 
held  at  Atlanta  in  1881,  which  gave  a  pronounced 
impulse  to  that  industry  in  the  South.  The 
State  enacted  a  law  in  prohibition  of  the  liquor 
traflic  in  1907. 

Germany.  After  the  gradual  retirement 
of  the  Romans  from  Germany  the  country 
became  divided  into  petty  states  and  govern- 
ments, where  the  influence  of  France  was  soon 
made  apparent  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine, 
asserting  supremacy  over  the  whole  of  the  west 
of  Germany.  Charlemagne,  extending  his  con- 
quests from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Alps,  and 
from  the  Rhine  to  Hungary,  laid  the  foundation 
of  that  long  line  of  emperors  and  kings  who 
occupied  the  German  throne  for  upward  of 
1,000  years.  On  the  extinction,  in  911,  of  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty,  the  archbishops,  bishops, 
and  abbots  arrogated  to  themselves  the  right 
of  electing  their  sovereign,  who  could  not,  how- 
ever, assume  the  imperial  title  till  he  was  crowned 


114 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF    FACTS 


by  the  pope.  At  this  period  there  were  in  Ger- 
many five  nations  —  the  Franks,  Saxons,  Bava- 
rians, Swabians,  and  Lorrainers.  Their  choice 
of  a  ruler  fell  upon  the  Count  of  Franconia,  who, 
under  tiie  title  of  Conrad  I.,  reigned  King  of 
Germany  from  911-18.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  who  gained  conquests 
over  the  Danes,  Slavs,  and  Magyars,  which  was 
confirmed  and  extended  by  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Otho  I.  (936-73),  who  carried  the  boun- 
daries of  the  empire  beyond  the  Elbe  and  Saale. 
In  1039-56  Henry  III.  extended  German 
supremacy  over  Hungary.  In  1125  the  male 
line  of  the  Franconian  dynasty  became  extinct 
by  the  death  of  Henry  V. ;  Lothaire  of  Saxony 
occupied  the  throne  till  11 38, 'when  the  reins  of 
power  were  assumed  by  Conrad  III.,  Duke  of 
Franconia,  in  whose  reign  the  civil  wars  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  began.  He  was  the 
first  of  the  Hohenstauffen  dynasty.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  famous  Frederick  I.,  sur- 
named  Barbarossa,  who,  with  the  flower  of  his 
chivalry,  perished  in  the  Crusades.:  In  1273 
Rudolf  I.,  the  first  of  the  Habsburg  line,  which 
still  reigns  in  Austria,  began  his  reign,  and 
restored  order  by  destroying  the  strongholds  of 
the  nobles.  For  the  next  200  years,  counting 
from  1292,  the  period  of  the  accession  of  Adolph- 
phus,  the  history  of  the  German  Empire  pre- 
sents few  features  of  interest.  I  In  1493  Maxi- 
mihan  I.,  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  III., 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  and  became,  consequently,  involved 
in  the  general  politics  of  Europe,  while  his 
opposition  to  the  reformed  faith  preached  by 
Luther  embittered  the  religious  differences 
which  marked  the  close  of  his  reign.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Charles  V.,  who,  although  opposed 
to  the  Reformation,  left  the  princes  of  Germany 
to  settle  their  religious  differences  among  them- 
selves, and  to  quell  the  insurrection  of  the  peas- 
ants in  1525,  which  threatened  to  undermine 
society.  He  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  brother 
Ferdinand  in  1556,  who  granted  entire  toleration 
to  the  Protestants.  Ferdinand's  reign  was  dis- 
turbed by  domestic  and  foreign  aggressions. 
Anarchy,  both  civil  and  religious,  now  obtained 
in  his  dominions  to  such  an  extent  as  to  culmi- 
nate in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  closed 
under  Ferdinand  III.  by  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia, 1648.  This  terrible  war  depopulated 
the  rural  districts  of  Germany,  destroyed  its 
commerce,  crippled  the  powers  of  the  emperors, 
burdened  the  people  with  taxes,  and  cut  up  the 
empire  into  a.  multitude  of  petty  states,  whose 
rulers  exercised  almost  absolute  power.  The 
male  line  of  the  Habsburg  dynasty  expired  with 
Charles  VI.,  1740.  The  reign  of  this  potentate 
and  that  of  his  predecessor,  Joseph  I.,  were 
signalized  by  the  victories  won  by  the  imperialist 
general,  Prince  Eugene,  and  Marlborough,  over 
the  French.  During  the  Seven  Years'  War 
Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia,  maintained  his 
character  for  skillful  generalship  at  the  expense 
of  Austria.  During  the  life-time  of  Maria  Theresa 
she  retained  her  authority  over  all  the  Christian 
states,  but  on  her  death  her  son,  Joseph  II.,  was 
little  more  than  nominal  sovereign.  In  1792 
Francis  II.  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Germany; 
in  1804  he  assumed  the  title  Francis  I.  Emperor 


of  Austria;  in  1806  he  resigned  the  German 
crown  and  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Austria,  having  suffered  a  series  of  defeats  by  the 
armies  of  the  French  Republic*  From  this 
period  till  1814-15  Germany  was  almost  wholly 
at  the  mercy  of  Napoleon,  who  deposed  the  estab- 
lished sovereigns,  and  dismembered  the  states 
in  the  interest  of  his  own  favorites.  Of  the  300 
states  into  which  the  empire  was  divided  there 
remained  only  forty  —  a  number  subsequently 
reduced  to  thirty-five.  The  Diet  was  now  reor- 
ganized by  all  the  allied  states  as  the  legislature 
and  executive  organ  of  the  Confederation.  The 
French  Revolution  of  1830  reacted  sufficiently 
to  constrain  the  rulers  of  some  of  the  German 
states  to  give  written  constitutions  to  their  sub- 
jects. This  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  people  as  a  whole,  so  that  in  1848,  by 
open  insurrectionary  movements  was  compelled 
the  convocation,  by  a  provisional  self-consti- 
tuted assembly,  of  a  national  congress  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people.  The  Archduke  John 
of  Austria  was  elected  vicar  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized government,  but  his  action  embarrassed 
the  progressive  tendencies  of  parhament  and 
dampened  the  hopes  of  the  progressionists.  The 
refusal  of  the  King  of  Prussia  to  accept  the 
imperial  crown  which  was  offered  him  by  the 
parliament  was  followed  by  a  provisional  regency 
of  the  empire;  but  as  there  was  no  cohesion 
among  the  members  of  the  parliament,  and  as 
Austria  had  been  shut  out  from  the  German 
Confederation  by  a  majority  of  one  vote,  the 
assembly  soon  lapsed  into  anarchy,  which  led  to 
its  dissolution.  In  1850  the  Diet  was  restored 
by  Austria  and  Prussia.  In  1859  the  whole 
federal  army  was  mobilized,  and  the  Prussian 
prince  regent  made  commander-in-chief.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  feeling  of  the  German 
people,  as  distinguished  from  the  princes  and 
Ijureaucracy,  has,  in  recent  times  at  least,  been 
in  favor  of  the  purely  German  Prussia  as  their 
leader  rather  than  Austria,  the  great  mass  of 
whose  population  are  Slavs  and  Magyars.  And 
when  the  Parliament  of  Frankfurt,  in  1850, 
offered  the  imperial  crown  to  the  King  of  Prussia, 
the  unity  of  Germany  might  have  been  secured 
without  bloodshed  had  the  monarch  been  resolute, 
or  had  he  had  a  Bismarck  for  his  adviser.  But 
that  opportunity  being  let  slip,  and  the  incubus 
of  the  Bund  being  restored,  it  became  apparent 
that  the  knot  must  be  cut  by  the  sword.  By  the 
treaty  of  Gastein,  Austria  and  Prussia  agreed  to 
a  joint  occupation  of  the  Elbe  duchies;  but  to 
prevent  collision  it  was  judged  prudent  that 
Austria  should  occupy  Holstein  and  Prussia 
Sleswick.  Already  a  difference  of  policy  had 
begun  to  show  itself;  Prussia  was  believed  to 
have  the  intention  of  annexing  the  duchies, 
while  Austria  began  to  favor  the  claims  of  Prince 
Frederick  of  Augustenburg,  and  wished  to  refer 
the  disposal  of  the  matter  to  the  Bund.  At  this 
crisis  England,  France,  and  Russia  invited  the 
disputants  to  a  conference.  Prussia  and  Italy 
readily  consented;  but  nothing  came  of  it, 
through  the  obstinate  pride  of  Austria,  who 
would  not  allow  her  position  in  Italy  to  be  even 
taken  into  consideration.  In  the  sitting  of  the 
German  Diet,  June  1,  1866,  Austria,  disregarding 
the  Convention  of  Gastein,   placed   the   whole 


HISTORY 


115 


matter  at  the  disposal  of  the  ^und,  and  then 
proceeded  to  convoke  the  states  of  Holstein 
"  to  assist  in  the  settlement  of  the  future  desti- 
nation of  the  duchy."  Prussia  protested 
against  this  as  an  insult  and  a  violation  of  treaty. 
The  Prussians  lost  no  time,  war  was  declared 
against  Austria,  and,  following  the  example  set 
by  Frederick  the  Great,  the  troops  immediately 
began  to  march  into  Bohemia,  invading  it  at 
no  less  than  three  several  points.  This  brief 
war  ended  in  the  utter  defeat  of  Austria,  and  also 
in  the  restoration  of  Venetia  to  Italy.  '.  In  1870 
the  famous  Franco-Prussian  War  opened,  to  the 
utter  humiliation  of  the  French  arms,  and  the 
cession  of  Alsace  and  German-Lorraine,  62,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  to  the  Germans, 
together  with  the  payment  of  5,000,000,000 
francs  as  additional  indemnity  for  the  expense 
of  the  war.  The  Germanic  Empire,  recon- 
structed in  1870,  as  a  result  of  this  fierce  con- 
flict, grew  out  of  the  North  German  Confeder- 
ation, established  in  1866,  by  treaties  between 
the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  governments  of 
Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse, 
ratified  by  the  Diet  of  north  Germany,  Decem- 
ber 10,  1870.  The  legislative  power  of  the 
empire  is  vested  in  a  Federal  Council  represent- 
ing the  twenty-five  states  of  which  the  Confed- 
eration is  composed.  Prussia  has  seventeen 
votes,  Bavaria  six,  Wiirtemberg  four,  Saxony 
four,  Baden  three,  Hesse  three,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  two,  Brunswick  two,  and  the  rest  of 
the  states  one  vote  each,  the  total  number  being 
fifty-eight.  The  executive  is  intrusted  to  the 
emperor  and  a  ministry  selected  by  him  and 
presided  over  by  the  chancellor  of  the  empire; 
ministers  are  responsible  to  the  emperor  only. 
On  January  18,  1871,  King  William  of  Prussia 
proclaimed  his  assumption  of  the  imperial  power 
for  himself  and  his  successors.  Whatever  spirit 
of  opposition  there  may  have  been  on  the  part 
of  the  antagonists  of  the  supremacy  of  Prussia 
was  smothered  in  the  general  acclamations  of 
triumph.  He  died  1888,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Frederick  William  (Frederic  III.),  who, 
however,  only  reigned  three  months,  dying  the 
same  year  of  a  throat  affection.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  William,  as  William  II.  The 
early  years  of  the  present  emperor's  reign  were 
marked  by  the  rise  of  the  Social  Democrats,  the 
formation  of  the  Triple  Alliance  (consisting  of 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy);  the 
acquisition,  since  1884,  of  foreign  dependencies 
and  spheres  of  influence,  and  the  retirement  of 
Bismarck  in  1890.  In  1908,  the  emperor  ac- 
quired a  royal  residence  in  the  island  of  Corfu, 
whose  climate  it  is  thought,  will  alleviate  a 
throat  trouble  to  which  his  majesty  has  been 
subject  for  some  years. 

Gettysburg,  Battle  of,  fought  July  1-3, 
1863,  between  the  Union  Army  under  General 
Meade,  and  the  Confederates  under  General 
Lee.  During  May  the  armies  lay  fronting  each 
other  upon  the  Rappahannock.  Early  in  June 
Lee  began  his  movement  for  the  invasion  of 
Pennsylvania,  crossing  the  Potomac  on  the  24th 
and  25th,  and  reaching  Chambersburg,  Pa.,  on 
the  27th.  General  Hooker,  then  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  moved  in  the  same 
general  direction,  but  on  the  28th  was  relieved, 


and  the  command  given  to  Meade.  In  order 
to  prevent  his  communications  from  being 
severed,  Lee  turned  back  toward  Gettysburg  to 
give  battle.  Meade  had  intended  to  give  battle  at 
a  spot  several  miles  from  Gettysburg,  near  which 
was,  however,  a  small  portion  of  his  army.  This 
came  into  collision  a  little  before  noon,  July  1st, 
with  the  advance  of  Lee,  and  was  forced  back, 
taking  up  a  strong  position  on  Cemetery  Hill, 
in  the  rear  of  Gettysburg.  Hancock,  who  had 
been  sent  forward  to  examine  the  position, 
reported  that  Gettysburg  was  the  place  at  which 
to  receive  the  Confederate  attack,  and  Meade 
hurried  his  whole  force  to  that  point.  The 
action  on  the  second  day,  July  2d,  began  about 
noon  with  an  attempt  made  by  Lee  to  seize 
Round  Top,  a  rocky  hill  from  which  the  Union 
position  could  be  enfiladed.  When  this  day's 
fighting  closed  Lee  was  convinced  that  he  had 
greatly  the  advantage,  and  he  resolved  to  press 
it  the  next  day.  On  the  morning  of  July  3d,  an 
attempt  was  made  upon  the  extreme  Union 
right,  but  repelled.  The  main  attack  on  the 
center  was  preluded  by  a  cannonade  from  150 
guns,  which  was  replied  to  by  eighty,  little 
injury  being  inflicted  by  either  side.  About 
noon  the  Union  fire  was  slackened  in  order  to 
cool  the  guns,  and  Lee,  thinking  that  the  batte- 
ries were  silenced,  launched  a  column  of  15,000 
or  18,000  against  the  Union  lines.  Some  of  this 
column  actually  surmounted  the  low  works,  and 
a  brief  hand-to-hand  fight  ensued.  But  the 
column  was  practically  annihilated,  only  a  small 
portion  escaping  death  or  capture.  The  forces 
on  each  side  were  probably  about  80,000,  though 
all  were  not  really  engaged.  No  official  report 
of  the  Confederate  loss  was  ever  published;  the 
best  estimates  put  it  at  about  18,000  killed  and 
wounded,  and  13,600  missing,  most  of  them 
prisoners.  The  Union  loss  was  23,187,  16,543 
of  whom  were  killed  and  wounded. 

Ghibellines  (gWel-lcnz).  The  name  of  a 
celebrated  political  faction  which  existed  in  Italy 
during  the  Thirteenth  Century  and  sprung  out  of 
the  disputed  succession  to  the  imperial  throne  of 
Germany,  vacated  in  1137  by  the  death  of 
Lothaire  II.  Conrad  of  Hohenstauflfen,  his 
elected  successor,  found  his  claim  disputed  by 
Henry  of  Guelph  (surnamed  the  Proud),  Duke 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria.  At  the  latter' s  death 
his  pretentions  became  personified  in  his  son 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  whose 
adherents  called  themselves  Guelphs  after  his 
patronymic,  in  distinction  from  the  Ghibellines, 
who  derived  their  cognomen  from  Conrad's 
lordship  of  Weiblingen,  1140.  Their  feud  after 
awhile  extended  to  Italy,  over  which  the  German 
emperors  claimed  supremacy,  against  the  popes: 
the  Guelphs  becoming  there  the  supporters  of 
the  latter,  This  strife  did  not  terminat°i  until 
the  French  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  in  1495. 

Girondists  (ji-ron'dists),  the  name  given 
to  the  moderate  Republicans  in  the  first  French 
Revolution.  The  name  was  derived  from  the 
department  of  Gironde,  which  chose  for  its  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Legislative  Assembly  five  men 
who  greatly  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
oratory,  and  who,  being  joined  by  Condorcet, 
Brissot,  and  the  moderate  Republicans  who  were 
the   adherents   of   Roland,    formed   a   powerful 


116 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Conservative  party.  They  fell  during  the  Reien 
of  Terror,  and  most  of  them  perished  on  the 
scaffold. 

Gladiators^  in  Ancient  Rome,  professional 
combatants,  who  fought  in  the  arena  for  the 
amusement  of  the  people.  They  were  at  first 
slaves,  prisoners,  or  convicts;  but  afterwards 
freemen  fought  in  the  arena,  either  for  hire  or 
from  choice.  When  a  gladiator  was  severely 
wounded,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  fight  any  longer, 
his  antagonist  stood  over  him  with  his  sword 
lifted,  and  looked  up  to  the  assembly  for  its  fiat. 
If  the  majority  turned  their  thumbs  downwards, 
that  was  the  signal  of  death.  The  practice  was 
defended,  even  by  Cicero,  as  serving  to  keep  up 
a  martial  spirit  and  a  contempt  of  death  among 
the  people.  Constantine  prohibited  gladiators' 
fights  by  an  edict  (A.  D.  325),  but  the  practice 
was  not  wholly  extinct  till  the  time  of  Theodoric 
(A.  D.  500). 

God's  Truce,  or  The  Truce  of  God. 
A  singular  institution  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
originated  in  a  council  assembled  at  Limoges  at 
the  end  of  the  Tenth  Century,  and  in  the  council 
of  Orleans,  1016.  It  consisted  in  the  suspension 
for  a  stated  time,  and  at  stated  seasons  and  festi- 
vals, of  that  right  of  private  feud  for  the  redress 
of  wrongs,  which,  under  certain  conditions,  was 
recognized  by  mediaeval  law  or  usage.  It  pre- 
vailed chiefly  in  France  and  the  German  Empire ; 
and  fell  gradually  into  disuse  when  the  right  of 
private  redress  was  restricted,  and  at  last  en- 
tirely abolished  by  laws. 

Goths.  A  powerful  German  people,  who 
originally  dwelt  on  the  Prussian  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  but  after- 
wards migrated  south.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  Third  Century  we  find  them  separated  into 
two  great  divisions,  the  Ostrogoths  or  Eastern 
Goths,  and  the  Visigoths  or  Western  Goths. 
The  former  were  settled  in  Mcesia  and  Pannonia, 
while  the  latter  remained  north  of  the  Danube. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Fifth  Century,  the  Visi- 
goths, under  their  King  Alaric,  invaded  Italy, 
and  took  and  plundered  Rome  (A.  D.  410).  A 
few  years  later  the;^  settled  in  the  southwest  of 
Gaul,  and  thence  invaded  Spain,  where  they 
founded  a  kingdom  which  lasted  for  more  than 
two  centuries.  Meantime,  the  Ostrogoths  ex- 
tended their  dominion  almost  up  to  the  gates  of 
Constantinople,  and,  under  their  King  Theodoric 
(A  D.  489)  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  of 
Italy.  Their  dominion  over  Italy  lasted,  how- 
ever, only  till  554,  when  it  was  overthrown  by 
Narses,  the  general  of  Justinian.  From  this 
time,  the  Goths  figure  no  longer  in  Western 
Europe,  except  in  Spain,  from  which  they  were 
finally  driven  by  the  Arabs.  But  their  name 
was  perpetuated  long  after  in  Scandinavia, 
where  a  Kingdom  of  Gothia  existed  till  1161, 
when  it  was  absorbed  in  that  of  Sweden.  Of 
Gothic  literature,  in  the  Gothic  language,  we 
have  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  by  Ulphi- 
las,  which  belongs  to  the  Fourth  Century,  and 
some  other  religious  writings  and  fragments. 

Greece.     Prior  to  the  first  recorded  Olym- 

Eiad,  B.  C.  776,  little  is  certain  in  Greek  history, 
ong  anterior  to  this  the  country  had  been  in- 
habited, but  fact  and  fable  are  so  mingled  in 
the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us  that  it 


is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the 
false,  ^tarting,  then,  from  the  period  above 
indicated,  we  shall  give  a  brief  resume  of  the 
chief  historic  events  up  to  the  conquest  of  Greece 
by  the  Turks  in  1456  A.  D.— Olympic  Games 
revived  at  Elis,  884  B.  C;  the  first  Olympiad 
dates  from  776  B.  C;  the  Messenian  Wars  oc- 
curred from  743-669;  the  first  sea-fight  on  rec- 
ord, between  the  Corinthians  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Corcyra,  664;  Byzantium  built,  657;  the 
seven  sages  of  Greece  (Solon,  Periander,  Pitta- 
cus,  Chilo,  Thales,  Cleobulus,  and  Bias)  flourished 
about  593;  Persian  conquests  in  Ionia  occurred 
in  544 ;  Sybaris  in  Magna  Grsecia  destroyed,  and 
100,000  Crotonians  under  Milo  defeat  300,000 
Sybarites,  508;  Sardis  burned  by  the  Greeks, 
which  causes  an  invasion  by  the  Persians,  504; 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  are  conquered,  496; 
Athens  and  Sparta  defy  the  Persians,  490;  the 
Persians  are  defeated  at  Marathon,  491;  Xerxes 
invades  Greece,  but  is  repulsed  at  Thermopylae 
by  Leonidas,  480;  battle  of  Salamis  occurs,  480; 
Mardonius  is  defeated  and  slain  at  Plataea,  and 
the  Persian  fleet  is  destroyed  at  Mycale,  479; 
battle  of  Eurymedon,  which  ends  the  Persian 
War,  466 ;  Athens  attempts  to  obtain  an  ascend- 
ency over  the  rest  of  Greece,  459;  the  first 
"sacred  war"  begun,  448;  Corinth  and  Corcyra 
involved  in  war,  435,  which  leads  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  lasting  from  431-404;  the  Athenian 
expedition  to  Syracuse  ends  disastrously,  415- 
413;  the  retreat  of  the  10,000  under  Xenophon 
occurs,  400;  Socrates  dies,  399;  great  sea-fight 
at  Cnidas,  394;  the  peace  of  Antalcid^s,  387; 
Thebes  arrives  at  the  height  of  its  power  in 
Greece  between  the  years  370-360;  the  battle 
of  Mantinea,  and  death  of  Epaminondas,  362; 
Philip  of  Macedon  reigns,  353;  the  sacred  war 
is  stopped  by  Philip,  who  captures  all  the  towns 
of  the  Phocseans,  348;  battle  of  Chaeroneia,  338; 
Alexander  enters  Greece,  conquers  the  Atheni- 
ans, and  destroys  Thebes,  335;  he  conquers 
the  Persian  Empire,  334-331;  Greece  invaded 
by  the  Gauls,  280;  they  are  defeated  at  Delphi, 
279;  and  finally  expelled,  277;  internal  feuds 
lead  to  interference  by  the  Romans,  200;  Mum- 
mius  conquers  Greece,  and  makes  it  a  Roman 
province,  147-146.  Under  Augustus  and  Had- 
rian Greece  was  prosperous,  122-133  A.  D.; 
Alaric  invades  Greece,  396;  it  is  plundered  and 
ravaged  by  the  Normans  from  Sicily,  1146; 
conquered  by  the  Latins,  1204;  the  Turks  under 
Mohammed  II.  conquer  Athens  and  part  of 
Greece,  1456;  thence,  till  1822,  the  country  was 
a  province  of  Turkey.  The  revolt  of  the  Greeks 
from  Turkish  rule  took  place  March  6,  1821, 
under  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  and  on  January  1, 
1822,  they  declared  their  independence.  In  1825, 
the  Turks  partially  reoccupied  the  country,  but 
were  finally  forced  to  evacuate  in  1828.  At  last, 
on  February  3,  1830,  a  protocol  of  the  allied 
powers  declared  the  independence  of  Greece, 
which  was  recognized  by  the  Porte  on  the  25th  of 
April,  of  this  year.  The  crown  was  offered  to 
Leopold,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  when  he  re- 
fused it,  to  Otho,  a  young  prince  of  Bavaria,  who 
was  proclaimed  king  of  the  Hellenes  at  Nauplia 
in  1832.  But  his  arbitrary  measures,  and  the 
preponderance  which  he  gave  to  Germans  in  the 
government,  made  him  unpopular,  and,  although 


HISTORY 


117 


after  a  rebellion  in  1843,  a  constitution  was  drawn 
up,  he  was  compelled  by  another  rebellion  in  1862 
to  abdicate.  A  provisional  government  was  then 
set  up  at  Athens,  and  the  National  Assembly 
offered  the  vacant  throne  in  succession  to  Prince 
Alfred  of  England  and  Prince  William  George  of 
Denmark.  The  latter  accepted  it,  and  on  March 
30,  1863,  was  proclaimed  as  King  George  I. 
In  1864,  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  had  hitherto 
formed  an  independent  republic  under  the 
protection  of  Britain,  were  annexed  to  Greece. 

From  the  first,  Greece  has  sought  an  oppor- 
tunity of  extending  its  frontier  northwards,  so 
as  to  include  the  large  Greek  population  in 
Thessaly  and  Epirus.  In  January,  1878,  after 
the  fall  of  Plevna,  Greek  troops  were  moved 
into  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  but  were  withdrawn 
on  the  remonstrance  of  Britain.  The  promises 
held  out  to  Greece  by  the  Berlin  Congress  were 
in  danger  of  being  withdrawn,  but  the  persist- 
ence of  Greece  led,  in  1881,  to  the  cession  to  her 
of  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epirus,  or  about  one- 
third  less  than  the  territory  promised  at  Berlin. 
The  situation,  however,  always  remained  some- 
what strained.  The  union  of  Eastern  Rumelia 
with  Bulgaria,  in  1885,  gave  rise  to  a  demand 
for  a  rectification  of  frontiers,  and  war  with 
Turkey  was  only  prevented  by  the  great  powers, 
who  enforced  the  reduction  of  the  Greek  army 
to  a  peace  footing  by  blockading  the  Greek  ports. 
The  same  occurred  in  1896,  when  war  was  de- 
clared against  Turkey  on  the  people  of  Crete 
demanding  their  right  to  become  a  portion  of 
Grecian  territory.  The  result  was  disastrous  to 
their  aspirations,  Turkey  pouring  troops  into 
Thessaly  and  defeating  the  Greek  troops.  The 
incompetency  of  the  Greek  generals  was  notori- 
ous in  the  nation.  Prince  George  of  Greece  being 
held  as  mainly  responsible.  In  1904,  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  kingdom  was  reorganized, 
providing  for  an  increased  army  and  new 
armament. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  The.  The  name  given 
to  a  conspiracy  projected  by  Guy  Fawkes  and 
some  revolutionary  associates  against  James 
I.  and  the  members  of  the  two  Houses  of 
Parliament,  with  a  design  to  their  destruction 
by  undermining  the  building  in  which  they  were 
expected  to  assemble,  placing  there  charges  of 
gunpowder,  and  firing  the  same,  November  5, 
1605.  The  plot,  however,  proved  abortive,  and 
the  conspirators  met  the  penalty  of  their  crime. 

Hanse  Towns.  "  The  name  given  to  cer- 
tain towns  in  Germany,  so  called  from  the 
Hanseatic  League,  which  was  forfiied  in  1241, 
for  the  protection  of  the  ports  against  the  piracies 
of  the  Swedes  and  Danes.  At  first  the  League 
consisted  only  of  towns  situated  on  the  coast  of 
the  Baltic;  but  it  became  so  powerful,  and 
exercised  so  many  privileges,  that  ultimately  it 
included  many  of  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 
The  League  consisted,  in  1370,  of  sixty-six  cities 
and  forty-four  confederate  towns.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  in  Germany  (1618-48)  broke  up 
the  association,  which  had  already  begun  to 
decline  in  the  preceding  century.  The  only 
towns  now  known  as  Hanse  Towns  are  Ham- 
burg, Li'ibeck,  and  Bremen;  and  in  their  case 
the  name  has  no  significance,  except  so  far  as 
it  indicates  that  they  are  still  free  cities. 


Habsburg,  or  Hapsburg  (properly 
Habichtsburg  or  Habsburg,  the  hawk's  castle). 
A  small  place  in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Aargau,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Aar.  The  castle  was  built 
about  1027  by  Bishop  Werner  of  Strassburg. 
Werner  II.,  who  died  in  1096,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  Count  of 
Habsburg.  After  the  death,  about  1232,  of 
Rudolf  II.,  the  family  divided  into  two  branches 
the  founder  of  one  of  which  was  Albert  IV. 
In  1273,  Rudolf,  son  of  Albert  IV.,  was  chosen 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  from  him  descended 
the  series  of  Austrian  monarchs,  all  of  the  Habs- 
burg male  line,  down  to  Charles  IV.  inclusive. 
After  that  the  dynasty,  by  the  marriage  of 
Maria  Theresa  to  Francis  Stephen  of  Lorraine, 
became  the  Habsburg-Lorraine.  Francis  II., 
the  third  of  this  line,  was  the  last  of  the  so-called 
"Holy  Roman  Emperors,"  this  old  title  being 
changed  by  him  for  that  of  Emperor  of  Austria. 
From  the  Emperor  Rudolf  was  also  descended 
a  Spanish  Dynasty  which  began  with  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.  (Charles  I.  of  Spain),  and 
terminated  with  Charles  II.  in  1700.  The  castle 
of  Habsburg  is  still  to  be  seen  on  the  Wulpels- 
berg.  In  1881  the  Austrians  proposed  to  pur- 
chase the  castle  of  Habsburg  and  give  it  as  a 
wedding  gift  to  the  Crown-prince  of  Austria; 
but  the  people  of  Aargau  refused  to  hear  of  the 
sale. 

Helvetil.  A  powe  -ful  Celtic  people,  who 
dwelt  in  what  is  now  the  west  of  Switzerland. 
Their  chief  town  was  Aveniicum.  About  58 
B.  C.  they  resolved,  on  the  advice  of  Orgetorix, 
one  of  their  chiefs,  to  migrate  from  their  country 
with  their  wives  and  children,  and  to  seek  a 
new  home  in  Gaul.  They  were,  however,  de- 
feated by  Caesar,  and  driven  back  into  their  own 
territories,  which  became  thenceforth  a  Roman 
colony.  In  the  commotions  that  followed  the 
death  of  Nero  (A.  D.  63)  they  were  almost 
extirpated. 

Holland.  Was  an  independent  country 
from  863  to  1433;  when  Philippe  of  Burgundy 
united  it  to  his  vast  estates.  In  1477,  Mary  of 
Burgundy  married  Maximilian,  and  Holland, 
with  many  other  estates,  was  united  to  Austria. 
After  Karl  V.  it  passed  into  the  Spanish  branch 
of  the  house,  and  in  1523,  under  the  influence  of 
Luther,  it  became  Protestant.  In  1579,  Holland 
united  with  six  other  provinces  in  the  "  Union  of 
Utrecht,"  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  be- 
came a  republic,  called  "The  Seven  Provinces," 
with  William  of  Orange  as  stadtholder.  In  1621, 
Holland  was  united  to  France.  In  1806,  it  was 
erected  into  the  Kingdom  of  Holland  by  Napo- 
leon I.  and  given  to  his  brother,  Louis  Bonarparte. 
In  1810,  it  was  again  united  to  France,  but  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  (1814)  it  was  united  to 
Belgium  and  formed  "The  Kingdom  of  the 
"Netherlands."  In  1830,  Holland  and  Belgium 
were  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  called  the 
"Kingdom  of  Holland"  and  the  "Kingdom  of 
Belgium";  the  King  of  Holland  still  calls  him- 
self the  "King  of  the  Netherlands."  See 
"Netherlands." 

Holy  Alliance.  The  name  given  to  S, 
treaty  between  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  ratified  in  Paris 
after  the  fall  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  (Septem- 


118 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


ber  26,  1815),  the  object  of  which  was  professedly 
to  pledge  the  respective  monarcKs  to  conduct 
their  relations  to  each  other  under  the  guidance 
of  Christian  principles,  but  really  to  pledge  each 
other  to  the  maintenance  of  their  respective 
dynasties.  By  the  terms  of  this  alliance,  no 
member  of  the  family  of  Napoleon  was  ever  to 
occupy  a  European  throne. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  The.  The 
western  part  of  the  old  Roman  Empire,  which 
was  severed  from  the  eastern  part  in  800,  and 
was  given  by  the  pope  to  Charlemagne,  who  was 
crowned  "Emperor  of  the  Romans."  When 
Charlemagne's  empire  was  divided,  Ludwig  the 
German  became  kaiser;  but  on  the  death 
of  Karl  the  Fat  the  title  fell  into  abeyance 
for  seventy  years.  In  962,  John  XII.  gave  the 
title  to  Otto  I.  the  Great,  and  changed  it  into 
"The  Holy  Roman  Empire."  Francis  II.  re- 
nounced the  titles  of  King  of  the  Romans  and 
Emperor  of  the  Romans  in  1806,  and  Napoleon 
added  the  Italian  states  to  France,  May,  1809. 

Home  Rule  League  (1870).  Projected 
by  Mr.  Butt,  who  stoutly  opposed  the  repeal  of 
the  Union,  but  agitated  for  an  Irish  parliament 
which  should  have  no  power  to  touch  upon 
imperial  matters,  but  should  be  empowered  to 
deal  with  matters  of  Ireland  of  a  purely  local 
character.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Butt,  in  1879, 
his  scheme  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Land 
League,  and  their  watchword,  "Ireland  for  the 
Irish,"  meant  separation  from  Great  Britain. 
The  term  Home  Rule  survived  the  death  of  Mr. 
Butt,  and  in  1866,  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  prime 
minister,  brought  in  a  bill  to  give  Ireland  Home 
Rule,  and  exclude  Irish  members  from  West- 
minster. The  measure  broke  up  the  great  Whig 
party  under  the  leadership  of  Lord  Hartington, 
supported  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  (a  Radical),  Mr. 
Goschen,  and  others,  who  called  themselves 
Unionists,  and  joined  the  great  Tory  party  under 
the  government  of  Lord  Salisbury. 

Huguenots.  A  name  formerly  given  to 
the  Protestants  in  France.  The  story  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  Huguenots  is  one  of  the  sad- 
dest in  history.  In  1561  they  took  up  arms 
against  their  persecutors;  and  the  struggle  con- 
tinued till  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  establishing  the 
rights  of  the  Protestants,  was  signed  by  Henry 
of  Navarre,  April  13,  1598.  The  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  in  which,  according  to  various 
authorities,  from  2,000  to  100,000  Huguenots 
were  murdered  throughout  the  kingdom  by 
secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  his  mother,  Catherine  de  Medici,  began 
on  the  night  of  August  24,  1572. 

Hundred  Years  War,  The  (1336- 
1453).  Between  England  and  France.  From 
Edward  III.  to  Joan  of  Arc.  The  origin  of  this 
long  war  was  Edward's  claim  to  the  Crown  of 
France.  Philippe  le  Bel  left  three  sons,  all  of 
whom  died  without  male  issue,  and  the  nearest 
male  heirs  were  Edward  III.  (who  was  the 
nephew  of  the  three  sons),  and  Philippe  de 
VaJois  (their  cousin).  The  flaw  in  Edward's 
claim  the  Salic  law,  which  passed  over  women, 
and  Edward  owed  his  blood  relationship  to  his 
mother.  Edward  maintained  that,  though  his 
mother  was  cut  off,  being  a  woman,  the  Salic 
law  could  not  apply  to  him,  being  a  man;    but 


Philippe  answered,  if  the  mother  was  cut  off, 
the  son  was  cut  off  also.  On  this  dispute  began 
the  war  which  lasted  above  a  century. 

Hungary.  The  Magyars,  an  Asiatic  people 
of  Turanian  race,  allied  to  the  Finns  and  the 
Turks,  dwelt  in  what  is  now  Southern  Russia 
before  they  descended  under  Arpdd  into  the 
plain  of  the  Danube,  towards  the  end  of  the 
Ninth  Century,  and  conquered  the  whole  of 
Hungary  and  Transylvania.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  Tenth  Century  their  invasions  and 
incursions  spread  terror  throughout  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy;  but  at  length  their  total 
defeat  by  Otho  I.  of  Germany  put  an  end  to 
their  maraudings,  and  under  their  native  dynasty 
of  Arpdds  they  settled  down  to  learn  agriculture 
and  the  arts  of  peace.  Stephen  I.  (997-1030) 
was  the  first  who  was  successful  in  extending 
Christianity  generally  amongst  the  Hungarians, 
and  was  rewarded  by  a  crown  from  Pope  Syl- 
vester II.  and  with  the  title  of  apostolic  king 
(1000).  Stephen  encouraged  learning  and  litera- 
ture, and  under  him  Latin  became  not  only  the 
official  language  of  the  government,  but  the 
vehicle  of  Hungarian  civilization,  which  it  un- 
fortunately continued  to  be  for  the  next  800 
years.  In  1089  King  Ladislaus  extended  the 
boundaries  of  Hungary  by  the  conquest  of 
Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and  King  Coloman  by 
that  of  Dalmatia  in  1102.  During  the  Twelfth 
Century  the  Hungarians  first  attained,  through 
French  connections,  a  certain  refinement  of  life 
and  manners.  About  the  middle  of  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  King  Bela  induced  many  Ger- 
mans to  settle  in  the  country  which  had  been 
depopulated  by  the  Mongol  invasions.  With 
Andrew  III.  (1290-1301)  the  male  fine  of  the 
Arpdd  Dynasty  became  extinct,  and  the  royal 
dignity  now  became  purely  elective  Charles 
Robert  of  Anjou  was  the  first  elected  (1309). 
Louis  I.  (1342-82)  added  Poland,  Red  Russia, 
Moldavia,  and  a  part  of  Servia,  to  his  kingdom. 
The  reign  of  Sigismund  (1387-1437),  who  was 
elected  Emperor  of  Germany,  is  interesting  from 
the  invasion  of  Hungary  by  the  Turks  (1391), 
and  the  war  with  the  Hussites.  Sigismund 
introduced  various  reforms,  and  founded  an 
academy  at  Buda.  Matthias  Corvinus  (1458- 
90),  combining  the  talents  of  a  diplomatist  and 
general,  was  equaHy  successful  against  his  ene- 
mies at  home  and  abroad,  and  is  even  yet  re- 
membered by  the  popular  mind  as  the  ideal  of 
a  just  and  firm  ruler.  He  founded  a  university 
at  Pressburg.  During  the  reigns  of  Ladislaus  II. 
(1490-1516)  and  Louis  II.  (1516-26)  the  rapacity 
of  the  magnates  and  domestic  troubles  brought 
the  power  of  Hungary  low,  and  the  battle  of 
Mohacs  (1526)  made  a  great  part  of  the  country 
a  Turkish  province  for  160  years.  The  rest  was 
left  in  dispute  between  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
and  John  Zapolya;  but  eventually,  by  the  help 
of  the  Protestants,  passed  to  the  former,  and  has 
since  remained  under  the  scepter  of  the  Habs- 
burgs.  In  1686  Leopold  I.  took  Buda  and 
recovered  most  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 
In  1724  Charles  VI.  secured  by  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  the  Hungarian  Crown  to  the  female 
descendants  of  the  House  of  Habsburg,  and  the 
loyalty  of  the  Hungarians  to  his  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  saved  the  dynasty  from  ruin.     Maria 


HISTORY 


119 


Theresa  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  Hun- 
gary by  the  promulgation  of  the  rural  code  called 
Urbarium,  and  by  the  formation  of  village 
schools.  On  the  advent  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, and  during  the  wars  which  ensued,  the 
Hungarians  once  more  played  a  prominent  part 
in  support  of  the  Habsburg  Crown.  Napoleon 
fell,  but  the  revolution  had  given  an  impetus  to 
ideas  of  national  and  popular  rights  which  the 
Hungarians,  long  stifled  under  the  Germanic 
traditions  and  tendencies  of  their  rulers,  were 
amongst  the  first  to  feel.  For  a  time  Francis  I. 
and  Metternich  stood  stiffly  out  against  all 
concessions,  and  tried  to  govern  by  pure  abso- 
lutism, but  ended  by  sununoning  in  1825  a  new 
diet.  The  diet  distinguished  itself  by  adopting 
the  Magyar  language  in  its  debates  instead  of 
the  Latin  to  which  it  had  been  accustomed. 
Succeeding  diets  in  1830  and  1832  made  new 
demands  in  the  direction  of  religious  equality, 
a  popular  suffrage,  and  abrogation  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  nobles.  The  Austrian  Government 
attempted  to  repress  the  Hungarian  national 
movement  by  imprisoning  Deak,  Kossuth,  and 
others  of  the  leaders.  The  struggle  continued 
till  1848,  when  the  French  Revolution  of  that 
year  gave  the  impulse  for  a  similar  rising  in 
Vienna.  Prince  Metternich  fled  to  London,  and 
the  Viennese  court  made  a  formal  concession  of 
all  important  demands ;  but  these  had  no  sooner 
been  granted  than  the  government  began  secretly 
to  work  against  their  being  put  in  operation. 
The  dependencies  of  the  Hungarian  Crown,  the 
Croats  and  the  Wallachiansof  Transylvania,  were 
privately  encouraged  to  revolt,  and  in  December 
of  the  same  year  an  Austrian  army  took  the 
field  with  the  avowed  object  of  annihilating  the 
independence  of  Hungary;  but  a  series  of 
pitched  battles  resulted  on  the  whole  so  much 
m  favor  of  the  Hungarians  that  Austria  was 
obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  Russia,  which  was 
at  once  granted.  After  a  heroic  struggle  the 
Hungarians  had  to  succumb.  The  nation  was 
reduced  to  the  position  of  a  province,  and  some 
of  the  greatest  statesmen  and  soldiers  of  Hungary 
perished  on  the  scaffold.  But  the  struggle  was 
continued  by  the  Hungarians  in  the  form  of  a 
constitutional  agitation,  and  at  last,  when  the 
battle  of  Sadowa,  in  1806,  separated  Austria 
from  Germany,  Austria,  left  face  to  face  with  a 
nation  almost  as  powerful  and  numerous  as 
itself,  felt  compelled  to  submit.  In  1867  a 
separate  constitution  and  administration  for 
Hungary  was  decreed,  and  on  June  8th  the 
emperor  and  empress  were  crowned  king  and 
queen  of  Hungary  with  the  utmost  pomp,  ac- 
cording to  the  ancient  ceremonies  of  a  Hunga- 
rian coronation.  The  dualism  of  the  Austrian 
Empire  was  thus  finally  constituted.  It  was 
indeed  but  the  partial  recognition  of  the  fact 
that  the  empire  was  a  heterogeneous  assemblage 
of  communities  differing  widely  in  race,  lan- 
guage, social  habits  and  customs,  and  bound 
together  only  by  the  accident  of  having  fallen 
to  the  House  of  Habsburg. 

Huns.  The  name  given  to  several  nomadic 
Scythian  tribes,  which  devastated  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  Fifth  Century.  They  inhabited 
the  plains  of  Tartary,  near  the  boundaries  of 
China,  many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era; 


and  they  were  known  to  the  Chinese  by  the  name 
of  Hiongun,  and  also  Han.  It  was  in  order  to 
jnit  a  stop  to  the  continual  aggressions  of  the 
Huns  that  the  great  wall  of  China  was  built; 
and  after  this  the  Huns  split  up  into  two  sepa- 
rate nations,  named  respectively  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  Huns.  The  first-mentioned 
of  these  gradually  went  west  to  the  Volga, 
where,  they  encountered  the  Alanni,  whom  they 
defeated.  Here  the  Huns  remained  for  about 
two  centuries;  but,  under  the  Emperor  Valens, 
they  crossed  the  Bosphorus;  afterward  invading 
Rome,  under  their  leader  Attila.  After  the 
death  of  Attila  the  Huns  broke  up  into  separate 
tribes,  and  were  driven  back  by  the  Goths 
beyond  the  Tanais.  The  Hungarians  of  the 
present  day  are  the  descendants  of  Huns,  who 
once  more  immigrated  into  Europe. 

Hussites  {hus'ltz).  The  followers  of  John 
Huss  {q.  v.),  who  avenged  his  death  by  one  of 
the  fiercest  and  most  sanguinary  civil  wars  ever 
known.  They  took  the  field  under  Ziska,  1418, 
gained  the  battle  of  Prague,  July  14,  1420,  and 
nearly  annihilated  the  Imperialists  at  Deutschs- 
brod,  January  8,  1422.  After  occupying  the 
whole  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  they  threatened 
Vienna,  and  in  1426  gained  the  victories  of 
Aussig  and  Mies.  The  Emperor  Sigismund  was 
at  length  too  glad  to  come  to  terms  with  the 
Hussites,  and  the  Treaty  of  Iglau,  in  1436,  ter- 
minated hostilities  between  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant for  the  time  being. 

Hyksos,  The,  or  Shepherd  Kings  of  Lower 
Egypt.  A  race  of  Arabs  which  invaded  ancient 
Egypt,  and  continued  dominant,  according  to 
Mangtho,  for  500  years,  but  according  to  others 
about  half  that  time  (B.  C.  1842-1591).  They 
formed  or  were  contemporary  with  the  Fifteenth, 
Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Dynasties  of  Upper 
Egypt.  Amosis  drove  them  out  and  established 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  in  Thebais,  contem- 
porary with  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth. 
They  were  driven  from  the  Thebais  by  Tot- 
mosis  or  Thotmosis,  but  continued  to  hold  cer- 
tain cantons  of  Egypt  long  afterwards.  It  is 
supposed  that  Abraham  went  to  Egypt  in  B.  C. 
1806,  while  the  Sixteenth  Dynasty  was  regnant; 
and  that  Joseph  was  viceroy  about  B.  C.  1713, 
in  the  same  dynasty. 

Idaho.  The  region  within  the  present  lim- 
its of  the  State  was  included  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  of  1803.  Idaho  was  included  first  in 
Oregon  and  subsequently  in  Washington.  The 
first  settlement  of  consequence  was  the  Coeur 
d'Alene  Mission,  which  was  established  in  1842. 
The  permanent  settlement  of  the  territory  did 
not  begin  until  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1860. 
Idaho  was  created  a  Territory  by  an  act  of 
Congress  March  3,  1863,  and  then  embraced 
the  present  State  of  Montana  and  nearly  all  of 
Wyoming.  It  was  admitted  to  statehood  July 
3,  1890. 

Illinois.  The  name  is  derived  from  that 
of  an  Indian  tribe,  Illini,  signifying  superior 
men.  First  explored  in  1673  by  Marquette,  and 
in  1679  by  La  Salle.  French  settlements  were 
formed  at  Crevecoeur,  Kaskaskia,  and  Cahokia 
in  1682.  With  the  subjugation  of  Canada,  in 
1763,  the  French  dominion  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi   became    English,     In    1783    Illinois    was 


120 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


ceded  to  the  United  States  by  England  and 
became  part  of  the  Northwest  Territory  in  1787. 
After  the  successive  severance  of  Ohio  in  1800, 
of  Indiana  in  1805,  and  of  Michigan  in  1809, 
the  remainder  of  the  Northwest  Territory  was 
reconstituted  as  lUinois  Territory,  then  embrac- 
ing Wisconsin  and  part  of  Minnesota.  On  De- 
cember 13,  1818,  Ilhnois  with  its  present  limits 
was  admitted  as  a  State,  being  the  eighth 
adopted  under  the  Federal  Constitution.  The 
early  history  was  an  unbroken  contest  with  the 
savages,  the  most  notable  incidents  being  the 
Fort  Dearborn  Massacre,  August  15,  1812,  and 
the  Black  Hawk  War,  1832  to  1844.  During 
the  last  half  century  Illinois  has  had  a  phenom- 
enal record  in  growth  and  progress. 

Incas.  A  Peruvian  Dynasty  (1130-1571) 
which  succeeded  the  Aymara  Dynasty,  and  was 
reigning  when  (in  1533)  Pizarro  conquered  Peru. 
The  Incas  called  themselves  descendants  of  the 
Sun.  The  first  Inca  was  Manco-Capac,  1130, 
and  his  successors  were  Sinchi-Roca,  Lloqui- 
Yupanqui,  Mayta-Capac,  Capac-Yupanqui,  Roca 
Yanuar-Huacac,  Viracocha,  Pachacutec,  Yapan- 
qui,  Tupac-Yupanqui,  Huayna-Capac,  Huascar, 
and  Atahualpa  (taken  prisoners  by  the  Span- 
iards and  put  to  death  in  1533).  Tupac-Amaru 
was  beheaded  in  1571. 

India>  The  country  was  entered  and  partly 
subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great.  About  126 
B.  C.  it  was  also  invaded  by  the  Tartars,  or 
Scythians  of  the  Greeks,  and  Sakasof  the  Hindus. 
From  the  Tenth  to  the  Twelfth  Century  of  the 
Christian  era  the  Mohammedans  overran  and 
conquered  considerable  portions  of  Hindustan, 
and  subsequently  the  Mogul  Empire  was  formed. 
In  1498,  India  was  first  visited  by  Vasco  de 
Gama,  and  later  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch 
established  settlements  on  the  peninsula,  but 
the  former  never  acquired  more  than  a  paltry 
territory  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  latter  a  few 
commercial  factories.  The  French  influence  in 
India,  at  one  time  considerable,  also  yielded  to 
the  superior  enterprise  of  the  British,  and  finally 
the  French  relinquished  the  field.  In  1625,  the 
first  English  settlement  was  made  by  a  company 
of  merchants  in  a  small  spot  of  the  Coromandel 
coast,  of  five  square  miles,  transferred  in  1653 
to  Madras.  A  short  time  previous  a  settlement 
had  also  been  obtained  at  Hooghly,  which  after- 
ward became  the  Calcutta  station.  In  1687, 
Bombay  was  erected  into  a  presidency.  In 
1773,  by  act  of  the  British  Legislature,  the  three 
provinces  were  placed  under  the  administration 
of  a  governor-general,  and  Calcutta  was  made 
the  seat  of  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  the 
presidenceis  of  Madras  and  Bombay  being  made 
subordinate  to  that  of  Bengal.  Hitherto  the 
affairs  of  India  had  been  managed  by  the  East 
India  Company,  but  in  1784  a  board  of  control 
was  appointed  by  the  government,  the  president 
of  which  became  secretary  of  state  for  India. 
From  the  year  1750,  when  the  warlike  acquisi- 
tion of  territory  commenced  under  Lord  Clive, 
a  succession  of  conquests,  almost  forced  upon 
the  British  contrary  to  their  inclinations, 
have  now  placed  nearly  all  India  under  their 
sway.  The  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  had  the  power  of  electing 
the  governor-general,  subject  to  the  approval 


of  the  government,  und  they  had  also  the 
power  of  his  recall.  The  company  also  held 
the  patronage  of  other  appointments  till  the 
expiry  of  the  act  in  1854;  but  in  1833  their 
exclusive  right  to  trade  was  abolished  in  favor 
of  free  trade. 

In  1858,  the  direct  sovereignty  of  India,  and 
the  powers  of  government  hitherto  vested  in 
the  East  Indian  Company,  were  vested  in  the 
British  Crown.  Lord  Canning  returned  to  Eng- 
land early  in  1862,  and  was  succeeded  by  thie 
Earl  of  Elgin,  who  died  in  1863.  Sir  John 
(afterwards  Lord)  Lawrence  was  governor-gen- 
eral from  1863  to  1868,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Earl  of  Mayo,  who  did  much  to  develop 
the  material  resources  of  the  country  by  remov- 
ing the  restrictions  upon  trade  between  the 
different  provinces,  and  constructing  roads, 
canals,  and  railways.  He  was  assassinated  by 
a  Mohammedan  fanatic  in  the  Andaman  Islands, 
February  8,  1872.  Lord  Northbrook  became 
viceroy  in  1872.  During  his  administration  a 
famine  in  Lower  Bengal,  successfully  obviated 
by  a  vast  organization  of  state  relief  (1874), 
the  dethronement  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda 
for  disloyalty  (1875),  and  the  tour  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  through  India  (1875-76),  were  the 
chief  events.  In  1876,  Lord  Lytton  was  ap- 
pointed viceroy,  and  on  January  1,  1877,  Queen 
Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  at 
Delhi.  In  1877-78,  another  disastrous  famine 
occurred,  and  despite  the  most  strenuous  efforts 
of  the  government  over  five  million  persons  are 
said  to  have  perished.  In  1878,  the  intrigues  of 
Shir  Ali,  amir  of  Afghanistan,  with  Russia,  led 
to  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  the  British. 
After  two  campaigns  Abdurrahman  Khan  was 
established  on  the  Afghan  throne  by  British 
arms.  In  1880,  Lord  Ripon  succeeded  as  vice- 
roy; being  followed  in  1884  by  Lord  Dufferin, 
who  annexed  Upper  Burmah,  1888.  Marquis 
of  Lansdowne,  1888.  Hon.  Geo.  N.  Curzon,  of 
Salisbury's  Cabinet,  was  appointed  Viceroy, 
1898,  and  in  August,  1905,  was  succeeded  by 
Lord  Minto.  In  1906,  the  twenty-second  Indian 
National  Congress  was  held  at  Calcutta  for  the 
purpose  of  discussing  the  political  wants  of  all 
races,  religions,  and  provinces  of  India 

Indiana.  Originally  settled  by  the  French 
at  Vincennes  in  1702,  but  little  is  known  of  its 
early  history.  In  1763,  it  became  a  British  pos- 
session, and  in  1783,  by  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  it  became  part  of  the  United  States. 
In  1789,  it  was  made  part  of  the  Northwest 
Territory,  this  term  bemg  applied  to  all  the 
public  domain  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  This 
region  was  much  devastated  from  1788  to  1791 
by  the  Indians,  but  their  defeat  in  the  latter 
year  gave  the  settlers  peace  for  a  time.  Indiana 
was  organized  territorially  July  4,  1800.  In 
1811,  an  Indian  war,  instigated  by  Tecumseh, 
broke  out,  but  the  power  of  the  savages  was 
broken  at  Tippecanoe.  Hostilities  did  not  en- 
tirely cease  till  1815.  The  State  was  admitted 
December  11,  1816.  In  1827,  the  Erie  Canal 
opened  an  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  West, 
and  the  national  road  was  commenced.  These 
stimulated  immigration,  and  the  new  State  grew 
rapidly.  A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1851,    calculated    especially    to    promote   great 


HISTORY 


121 


public  works.  A  free  banking  law  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  the  same  year. 

Iowa.  The  name  of  the  State,  originally 
applied  to  the  river  so  called,  is  derived  from 
the  Indian,  and  signifies  "beautiful  land."  It 
was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  acquired 
in  1803.  It  was  first  visited  by  a  Frenchman, 
who  gave  his  name,  Dubuque,  to  the  place 
where  he  settled  in  1788.  In  1834,  the  territory 
now  included  in  Iowa  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Michigan,  and  in  1836  under  that 
of  Wisconsin.  In  1838  Iowa  became  a  separate 
territory,  including  also  the  greater  part  of 
Minnesota  and  the  whole  of  Dakota.  The 
delimitation  of  the  State  occurred  when  it  was 
admitted  as  such  in  1846.  The  State  capital 
was  moved  from  Iowa  City  to  Des  Moines  in 
1857.  It  was  the  sixteenth  State  admitted 
under  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Ireland.  According  to  ancient  native 
legends,  Ireland  was  in  remote  times  peopled 
by  tribes  styled  Firbolgs  and  Danauns,  eventu- 
ally subdued  by  Milesians  or  Gaels,  who  acquired 
supremacy  in  the  island.  The  primitive  inhabit- 
ants of  Ireland  are  now  believed  to  have  been  of 
the  same  Indo-European  race  with  the  original 
population  of  Britain.  Although  Ireland,  styled 
lernis,  is  mentioned  in  a  Greek  poem  five  cen- 
turies B.  C,  and  by  the  names  of  Hibernia  and 
Juverna  by  various  foreign  pagan  writers,  little 
is  known  with  certainty  of  her  inhabitants  before 
the  Fourth  Century  after  Christ,  when,  under 
the  appellation  of  Scoti,  or  inhabitants  of  Scotia, 
they  became  formidable  by  their  descents  upon 
the  Roman  Province  of  Britain.  These  expedi- 
tions were  continued  and  extended  to  the  coasts 
of  Gaul  till  the  time  of  Laogaire  McNeill,  mon- 
arch of  Ireland,  430  A.  D.,  in  whose  reign  St. 
Patrick  attempted  the  conversion  of  the  natives: 
From  the  earliest  period  each  province  of  Ireland 
appears  to  have  had  its  own  king,  subject  to  the 
Ard-Righ,  or  monarch,  to  whom  the  central  dis- 
trict called  Meath  was  allotted  and  who  usually 
resided  at  Tara.  Each  clan  was  governed  by  a 
chief  selected  from  its  most  important  family, 
and  who  was  required  to  be  of  mature  age, 
capable  of  taking  the  field  efficiently  when 
occasion  required.  The  laws  were  peculiar  in 
their  nature,  dispensed  by  professional  jurists 
styled  Brehons,  who,  as  well  as  the  poets  and 
men  of  learning,  received  high  consideration,  and 
were  endowed  with  lands  and  important 
privileges.  Cromlechs,  or  stone  tombs  and 
structures,  composed  of  large  uncemented  stones, 
ascribed  to  the  pagan  Irish,  still  exist  in  various 
parts  of  Ireland;  lacustrine  habitations,  or 
stockaded  islands,  styled  Crannogs  or  Crannoges, 
in  inland  lakes,  also  appear  to  have  been  in  use 
there  from  early  ages.  It  is  remarkable  that  a 
greater  number  and  variety  of  antique  golden 
articles  of  remote  ages  have  been  found  in  Ireland 
than  in  any  other  part  of  northern  Europe ;  and 
the  majority  of  the  gold  antiquities  illustrative  of 
British  history  now  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum  are  Irish.  In  the  Sixth  Century  exten- 
sive monasteries  were  founded  in  Ireland,  in 
which  religion  and  learning  were  zealously  cul- 
tivated. From  these  establishments  numerous 
missionaries  issued  during  the  succeeding  cen- 
tury, carrying  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  under 


treat  difficulties  into  the  still  pagan  countries  of 
lurope,  whose  inhabitants  they  surprised  and 
impressed  by  their  self-devotion  and  asceticism. 
Among  the  eminent  native  Irish  of  these  times 
were  Columba,  or  Colum  Cille,  founder  of  the 
celebrated  monastery  of  lona;  Comgall,  who 
established  the  convent  of  Bangor,  in  the  County 
of  Down;  Ciaran  of  Clonmacnoise;  and  Adam- 
nan,  Abbot  of  lona  and  biographer  of  Columba. 
Of  the  Irish  missionaries  to  the  continent  the 
more  distinguished  were  Columbanus,  founder 
of  Bobio;  Gallus  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland; 
Dichuill,  patronized  by  Clotaire;  and  Ferghal, 
or  Virgilius,  the  evangelizer  of  Carinthia.  The 
progress  of  Irish  civilization  was  checked  by 
the  incursions  of  the  Scandinavians,  com- 
mencing towards  the  close  of  the  Eighth 
Century,  and  continued  for  upward  of  300 
years.  From  the  close  of  the  Eighth  to 
the  Twelfth  Century  Ireland,  although  har- 
assed by  the  Scandinavians,  produced  many 
writers  of  merit,  among  whom  were  iEngus,  the 
hagiographer ;  Cormac  McCullenan,  King  of 
Munster  and  Bishop  of  Cashel,  the  reputed 
author  of  Cormac' s  Glossary;  Cuan  O'Lochain; 
Gilla  Moduda;  Flan  of  Monasterboice ;  and 
Tighernach,  the  annalist.  Of  the  Irish  architec- 
ture of  the  period  examples  survive  at  Cashel. 
The  well-known  round  towers  of  Ireland  are 
believed  to  have  been  erected  about  this  era  as 
belfries,  and  to  serve  as  places  of  security  for 
ecclesiastics  during  disturbances.  But  this  is 
mere  surmise,  the  date  of  their  erection  having 
never  been  established  nor  their  use  satisfac- 
torily explained.  The  skill  of  the  Irish  musi- 
cians in  the  Twelfth  Century  is  attested  by  the 
enthusiastic  encomiums  bestowed  by  Giraldus 
Cambrensis  upon  their  performances.  The  first 
step  toward  an  Anglo-Norman  descent  upon 
Ireland  was  made  by  Henry  II.  in  1155.  The 
chief  Anglo-Norman  adventurers,  Fitz  Gislebert, 
Le  Gros,  De  Cogan,  De  Lacy,  and  De  Curci,  en- 
countered formidable  opposition  before  they 
succeeded  in  establishing  themselves  on  the 
lands  which  they  thus  invaded.  The  govern- 
ment was  committed  to  a  viceroy,  and  the 
Norman  legal  system  was  introduced  into 
such  parts  of  the  island  as  were  reduced  to 
obedience  to  England.  The  youthful  Prince 
John  was  sent  by  King  Henry  into  Ireland 
in  1184,  but  the  injudicious  conduct  of  his  coun- 
cil having  excited  disturbances  he  was  soon 
recalled  to  England.  The  country  was  wholly 
subdued  in  1210;  in  1315,  it  was  invaded  by 
Edward  Bruce,  who  was  crowned  king  1316,  and 
slain  1318.  In  1361,  the  heiress  of  Ulster, 
Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  married  the'English  Duke 
of  Clarence.  In  1394,  Richard  II.  landed  at 
Waterford  with  a  large  army,  and  gained  the 
adherence  of  the  people  by  his  munificence.  In 
1494  was  passed  Poyning's  Law,  making  the 
Irish  Parliament  subject  to  the  English  Council. 
In  1542,  Henry  VIII.  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
instead  of  lord  of  Ireland.  In  1534  Thomas 
Fitzgerald,  son  of  the  viceroy  of  Henry  VIII., 
revolted,  but  not  meeting  with  adequate  support 
from  his  Anglo-Irish  connections  he  was,  after  a 
short  time;  suppressed  and  executed.  Henry 
received  the  title  of  "King  of  Ireland"  in  1541, 
by  an  act  passed  by  the  Anglo-Irish  Parliament 


122 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


in  Dublin ;  and  about  the  same  period  some  of 
the  native  princes  were  induced  to  acknowledge 
him  as  their  sovereign,  and  to  accept  peerages. 
The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  met  little  favor 
either  with  the  descendants  of  the  old  English 
settlers  or  with  the  native  Irish.  The  attempts 
of  the  English  Government  in  Ireland  to  intro- 
duce the  Reformed  faith  and  English  institutions 
stirred  up  great  dissensions  in  Ireland.  The 
country  was  divided  into  shires  in  1569;  printing 
in  Irish  characters  introduced  by  Walsh,  Chan- 
cellor of  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin,  1571;  in  1601-02 
occurred  the  famous  insurrection  of  Tyrone, 
who  invited  the  Spaniards  to  assist  him,  but 
they  were  all  defeated  by  the  Lord  Deputy 
Mount  joy  in  the  latter  year.  In  consequence  of 
repeated  rebellions  511,465  acres  of  land  in  the 
Province  of  Ulster  became  forfeited  to  the 
English  Crown,  and  James  I.  divided  his  land 
among  such  of  his  English  and  Scottish  subjects 
as  chose  to  settle  there.  In  1641  occurred  More 
and  Maguire's  Rebellion,  which  was  an  endeavor 
to  expel  the  Protestant  settlers  in  Ulster,  many 
of  whom  are  believed  to  have  been  massacred. 
Between  the  years  1649-56,  Cromwell  and  his 
son-in-law.  General  I  re  ton,  reduced  the  whole 
island  to  subjection,  and  Ireland  was  compara- 
tively tranquil  until  the  Revolution.  At  the 
Revolution  the  native  Irish  generally  took  the 
part  of  James  II.,  the  English  and  Scotch 
"colonists"  of  William  and  Mary;  and  the  war 
was  kept  up  for  four  years  (1688-92).  From 
this  time  till  1778  history  records  little  beyond 
the  passing  of  penal  statutes  against  the  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1778,  Parliament  relaxed  the 
stringent  pressure  of  these  acts;  but  the  widely- 
spread  disaffection  which  they  caused  gave  birth 
to  numerous  societies,  resulting  in  the  rebellion 
of  1798,  which  was  not  suppressed  till  1800.  On 
January  1,  1801,  the  legislative  union  of  Great 
Britain  with  Ireland  was  consummated,  and 
from  his  period  the  history  of  the  country 
merges  in  that  of  Great  Britain.  In  1879,  Ireland 
suffered  severely  from  famine,  and  since  1880 
from  agrarian  and  "home  rule"  disturbances. 
The  latest  home  rule  bill  —  known  as  the 
Birrell  Bill  —  was  defeated  in  1907. 

Ironsides,  Cromwell's  troopers,  a  thousand 
strong,  and  raised  by  him  in  the  Eastern  counties 
of  England,  so-called  at  first  from  the  invinci- 
bility displayed  by  them  at  Marston  Moor ;  were 
selected  by  Cromwell  "as  men,"  he  says  "that 
had  the  fear  of  God  before  them,  and  made 
conscience  of  what  they  did.  .  .  .  They 
were  never  beaten,"  he  adds,  "and  wherever 
they  were  engaged  against  the  enemy,  they  beat 
continually." 

Israelites  (Hebrew  Yisreeli),  the  descend- 
ants of  Jacob,  "the  chosen  people."  The  twelve 
tribes  descended  from  Jacob's  children  were 
called  "  Israel "  in  Egypt,  and  throughout  the  Pen- 
tateuch, the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
and  Kings.  The  name  was  afterward  given  to 
the  larger  portion,  or  ten  northern  tribes,  after 
the  death  of  Saul,  a  distinction  that  obtained 
even  in  David's  time.  But  more  definitely 
was  the  name  applied  to  the  schismatical 
portion  of  the  nation,  including  all  the  tribes 
save  Judah,  Simeon,  and  Benjamin,  which 
set  up  a  separate  monarchy  in  Samaria  after  the 


death  of  Solomon.  After  the  exile  the  two 
branches  became  blended,  and  are  again  called 
by  the  old  name  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  But 
by  degrees  the  name  "Jews"  (q.  v.)  supplanted 
this  appellation,  especially  among  foreigners. 
The  history  of  the  Israelites,  especially  during 
the  early  periods,  is  inseparably  bound  up  with 
that  of  their  rulers,  patriarchs,  etc.,  as  Abraham, 
Jacob,  Moses,  Joshua,  the  Judges,  David,  Solo- 
mon, etc.,  to  all  of  which  the  reader  is  referred. 
The  following  is  a  short  summary  of  the  leading 
points  in  the  history  of  the  Israelites:  Abraham 
called,  B.  C.  1921;  Isaac  born,  1896;  Esau  and 
Jacob  born,  1837;  death  of  Abraham,  1822; 
Joseph  sold  into  Egypt,  1729;  Moses  born,  1571; 
institution  of  the  Passover  and  the  Exodus,  1491 ; 
promulgation  of  the  Law  from  Sinai,  1491;  the 
tabernacle  set  up,  1490;  Joshua  leads  the 
Israelites  into  Canaan,  1451;  the  first  bondage, 
1413;  the  second,  1343;  the  third,  1304;  the 
fourth,  1252;  the  fifth,  1206;  the  sixth,  1157; 
Sampson  slays  the  Philistines,  1136;  Samuel 
governs  as  Judge,  about  1120;  Samson  pulls 
down  the  temple  of  Dagon,  1117;  Saul  made 
king,  1095;  David  kills  Goliath,  about  1063; 
death  of  Saul  and  accession  of  David,  1055; 
David  captures  Jerusalem  and  makes  it  his 
capital,  1048;  Solomon  lays  the- foundations  of 
the  temple,  1012;  it  is  dedicated,  1004;  death 
of  Solomon  and  division  of  the  kingdom,  975. 

In  the  reign  of  Solomon  the  prophet  Ahijalti 
was  intrusted  with  the  announcement  to  Jero- 
boam that,  in  punishment  for  the  many  acts  of 
disobedience  to  the  divine  law,  and  particularly 
of  the  idolatry  so  extensively  practiced  by  Solo- 
mon, the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  would  be 
transferred  to  him.  This  breach  was  never 
healed.  A  spirit  of  disaffection  had  long  been 
rife,  even  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon, 
fostered  by  various  causes,  not  the  least  among 
which  was  the  burdensome  taxes  imposed  by  the 
latter  monarch  for  the  support  of  his  luxurious 
court  and  for  the  erection  of  his  numerous  build- 
ings. But  however  much  these  causes  may 
have  operated  to  create  a  breach  between  the 
North  and  South  districts  of  Palestine,  certain 
it  is  that  God  Himself  expressly  forbade  all  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  Rehoboam  or  his  succes- 
sors to  subdue  the  revolted  provinces,  and,  with 
slight  exceptions,  the  subsequent  history  of  the 
two  nations  still  more  widely  separated  them. 
The  precise  amount  of  territory  contained  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel  cannot  be  accurately  ascer- 
tained; it  was  approximately  as  nine  to  four 
compared  with  the  sister  Kingdom  of  Judah;  the 
ten  tribes  included  in  Israel,  it  is  supposed,  were 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (East  and  West),  Issa- 
char,  Zebulon,  Asher,  Naphtali,  Gad,  Reuben, 
and  part  of  Dan;  the  population  was  probably, 
at  the  separation,  about  4,000,000  It  was  not 
long  before  the  new  kingdom  showed  signs  of 
weakness.  It  developed  no  new  power,  which 
is  not  surprising  when  we  consider  that  it  was 
but  a  section  of  David's  Kingdom  shorn  of  many 
sources  of  strength.  "The  history  of  the  King- 
dom of  Israel  is,  therefore,  the  history  of  its 
decay  and  dissolution."  The  first  symptom  of 
decline  was  shown  in  the  emigration  of  many 
families  who  adhered  to  the  old  religion  of 
the  Israelites   back   to  Judah;     and    to  check 


HISTORY 


123 


this  Jeroboam  set  up  rival  sanctuaries  with 
visible  idols,  975  B.  C,  but  which  only  in- 
creased the  evil  he  wished  to  check.  As 
soon  as  the  golden  calves  were  set  up  the  priests 
and  Levites  flocked  back  to  Judah,  where  they 
were  warmly  received.  Jeroboam's  whole  policy 
aimed  singly  at  his  own  aggrandizement.  To 
supply  the  want  of  a  priesthood,  divine  in  its 
origm,  a  line  of  prophets  was  raised  up  remark- 
able for  their  purity  and  austerity.  Jeroboam 
reigned  twenty-two  years;  his  son  Nadab  was 
violently  cut  off  after  a  brief  reign  of  two  years, 
with  all  his  house,  and  so  ended  the  line  of  Jero- 
boam. The  fate  of  this  dynasty  was  but  a  type 
of  those  that  followed.  Domestic  famine,  the 
sword  of  the  foreigner,  and  internal  dissensions 
helped  the  tottering  kingdom  on  its  downward 
way,  and  only  one  brief  era  of  prosperity  oc- 
curred, under  the  sway  of  Jeroboam  II.,  who 
reigned  forty-two  years.  The  Syrian  invasion, 
under  Phul,  771  B.  C,  compelled  Menahem,  the 
King  of  Israel,  to  pay  heavy  tribute,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah  we  find  them  leading  many  of  the 
Israelites  into  captivity.  In  721  Samaria  was 
taken  by  Shalmaneser,  the  ten  tribes  were 
carried  into  captivity,  and  an  end  was  put  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel.  See  Jews  for  the  subse- 
quent history  of  the  chosen  people. 

Italy.  The  ancient  history  of  Italy  is  more 
conveniently  treated  under  Rome.  We,  there- 
fore, glance  at  more  modern  times,  after  the 
Western  Empire  had  fallen  before  a  mixed 
horde  of  barbarous  mercenaries,  chiefly  com- 
posed of  the  Heruli.  Under  the  Hohenstaufen 
dynasty,  Italy  enjoyed  an  interregnum  from 
foreign  rule  of  about  sixty  years,  which,  however, 
was  wasted  in  suicidal  conflicts  between  the 
two  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 
The  most  terrible  incident  of  this  period  was 
the  massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers.  Not- 
withstanding the  inveterate  internecine  feuds 
of  Italy,  it  was  a  period  of  great  splendor 
and  prosperity.  The  free  cities  or  republics 
of  Italy  rivaled  kingdoms  in  the  extent  and 
importance  of  their  commerce  and  manu- 
factures, the  advancement  of  art  and  science, 
the  magnificence  of  their  public  edifices  and 
monuments,  and  the  prodigious  individual 
and  national  wealth  to  which  they  attained. 
Unhappily,  a  spirit  of  rivalry  and  intolerance 
grew  up  during  this  period  of  mediaeval  splendor, 
and  in  the  arbitrary  attempts  of  these  states  to 
secure  supremacy  over  each  other  they  gradually 
worked  their  own  destruction.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  the  final  reconstitution  of  Italy  was 
decreed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  The 
accession  of  Pius  IX.,  in  1846,  seemed  the  inau- 
guration of  a  new  era  for  Italy.  A  general 
amnesty  was  followed  by  wise,  liberal  measures, 
which  were  also  adopted  by  Tuscany  and  Pied- 
mont, in  emulation  of  Rome.  By  a  simultane- 
ous outbreak  in  Sicily  and  Milan  in  January, 
the  great  revolution  of  1848  was  inaugurated 
in  Italy.  The  revolution  of  France  in  February 
imparted  a  strong  impulse  to  that  of  Italy,  and 
speedily  Naples,  Piedmont,  and  Rome  conceded 
constitutional  rights  to  the  popular  demands. 
The  Milanese  unanimously  revolted  against 
Austrian  rule  on  the  17th  of  March,  and  after 
five  days  of  heroic  fighting  the  Austrians  were 


expelled  from  the  city,  and  Radetsky,  with 
70,000  troops,  compelled  to  retreat  from  its  walls. 
On  the  29th,  Charles  Albert  entered  Lombardy, 
the  avowed  champion  of  Italian  independence 
and  the  leader  of  the  national  struggle.  In  the 
Congress  of  Paris,  at  the  close  of  the  Russian 
War  (1856),  Cavour  forcibly  exposed  the  un- 
avoidable dangers  of  a  continuance  of  Austrian 
and  papal  misrule.  He  strongly  urged  the 
expediency  of  a  withdrawal  of  French  and  Aus- 
trian troops  from  Rome  and  the  legations.  In 
the  beginning  of  1859,  Victor  Emmanuel  pro- 
claimed from  the  Sardinian  Parliament  his  in- 
tention of  actively  aiding  in  the  deliverance  of 
the  oppressed  Italian  population  from  the  yoke 
of  Austria.  The  victories  of  Magenta  and  Sol- 
ferino  were  quickly  followed  by  the  abrupt  and 
inconclusive  Peace  of  Villafranca,  July  11,  1859. 
On  the  18th  of  March,  Parma,  Modena,  and  the 
Emilian  provinces  were  incorporated  with  Sar- 
dinia, and  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  on  the 
22d.  On  the  17th  of  March,  the  law  by  which 
Victor  Emmanuel  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Italy  was  promulgated  amid  universal  rejoicing. 
On  the  6th  of  the  ensuing  May,  Garibaldi,  with 
about  1,000  volunteers,  set  sail  from  Genoa  for 
Sicily,  where  a  revolutionary  outbreak  had  taken 
place.  His  swift  and  comparatively  bloodless 
conquests  of  the  two  Sicilies  is  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  incidents  in  modern  history.  At 
the  close  of  the  German-Italian  War,  Venetia, 
on  the  3d  of  October,  1866,  became  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy  by  treaty  with  Austria. 
Turin,  the  chief  town  of  Piedmont,  was  the 
capital  from  1859  till  1865;  the  court  was  trans- 
ferred to  Florence  during  the  latter  year.  In 
1867,  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  from 
Rome.  The  last  detachment  left  the  pontifical 
territory  on  the  8th  of  August,  1870;  and  on 
the  20th  of  the  following  month  the  Italian 
troops,  under  General  Cadrona,  entered  Rome 
after  a  short  resistance  by  the  pontifical  troops, 
who  ceased  firing  at  the  request  of  the  pope. 
On  the  2d  of  October,  1870,  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
assumed  the  last  of  its  extensive  limits,  when 
the  whole  of  the  papal  states  were  absorbed  by 
it,  and  Rcfme  was  its  recognized  capital.  The 
last  seven  years  of  Victor  Emmanuel's  reign  were 
uneventful,  but  were  marked  by  the  further 
consolidation  and  progress  of  the  kingdom.  In 
1878,  Victor  Emmanuel  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Humbert  I.,  under  whom  the  general 
history  of  the  country  has  been  uneventful. 
Bank  scandals  drove  the  Giolitti  ministry  from 
office  in  1893,  and  Signor  Crispi  was  invited  by 
King  Humbert  to  form  a  new  cabinet.  In  1896, 
attempting  to  establish  a  protectorate  over 
Abyssmia,  the  Italians  were  defeated  with  ^reat 
loss,  and  Crispi  was  succeeded  by  Marquis  di 
Rudini.  Humbert  was  assassinated  July  29, 1900 ; 
succeeded  by  Victor  Emmanuel  III.  In  1907, 
the  King  and  Queen  of  England  were  received 
by  King  Victor  Emmanuel  at  Rome.  The 
centenary  of  Garibaldi  was  celebrated  through- 
out the  kingdom  on  July  4th  of  the  same  year. 

Jacobins,  the  members  of  a  political  club 
which  exercised  a  very  great  influence  during 
the  P>ench  Revolution.  It  was  originally 
called  the  Club  Breton,  and  was  formed  at  Ver- 
sailles, when  the  States  General  assembled  there 


124 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


in  1789.  It  then  consisted  exclusively  of  the 
members  of  the  States  General,  all  more  or  less 
liberal  or  revolutionary,  but  of  very  different 
shades  of  opinion.  On  the  removal  of  the  court 
and  national  assembly  to  Paris  this  club  began 
to  acquire  importance.  It  now  met  in  a  hall  of 
the  former  Jacobin  Convent  in  Paris,  whence  it 
received  the  name  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  which 
was  first  given  to  it  by  its  enemies,  the  name 
which  it  adopted  being  that  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  of  the  Constitution.  It  now  also  ad- 
mitted members  who  were  not  members  of  the 
National  Assembly,  and  held  regular  and  public 
sittings.  It  exercised  a  great  influence  over  the 
agitation,  of  which  the  chief  seat  and  focus  was 
in  the  capital,  and  this  influence  was  extended 
over  the  whole  country  by  affiliated  societies. 
Its  power  increased,  until  it  became  greater 
than  that  of  the  National  Assembly.  It  reached 
the  zenith  of  its  power  when  the  National  Con- 
vention met  in  September,  1792.  The  agitation 
for  the  death  of  the  king,  the  storm  which  de- 
stroyed the  Girondists,  the  excitement  of  the 
lowest  classes  against  the  bourgeoisie  or  middle 
classes,  and  the  reign  of  terror  over  all  France 
were  the  work  of  the  Jacobins.  But  the  over- 
throw of  Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor, 
1794,  gave  also  the  death  blow  to  the  Jacobin 
Club;  and  on  November  9,  1794,  the  Jacobin 
Club  closed.  The  term  Jacobin  is  often  em- 
ployed to  designate  persons  of  extreme  revolu- 
tionary sentiments. 

Janizaries  (Turkish,  Yetli-tcheri,  new 
soldiers),  an  Ottoman  infantry  force,  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  Roman  prfetorians,  part  of 
them  forming  the  guard  of  the  sultan.  They 
were  originally  organized  about  1330,  and  sub- 
sequently obtained  special  privileges,  which  in 
time  became  dangerously  great.  The  regular 
janizaries  once  amounted  to  60,000,  but  their 
numbers  were  afterwards  reduced  to  25,000. 
The  irregular  troops  amounted  to  300,000  or 
400,000.  Their  power  became  so  dangerous  and 
their  insurrections  so  frequent  that  several  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  were  made  to  reform  or  disband 
them.  At  various  times  sultans  had  been  de- 
posed, insulted,  and  murdered  by  the  insurgent 
janizaries.  At  last,  in  June,  1826,  they  rebelled 
on  account  of  a  proposal  to  form  a  new  militia, 
when  the  sultan,  Mahmoud  II.,  having  displayed 
the  flag  of  the  prophet,  and  being  supported  by 
their  aga  or  commander-in-chief,  defeated  the 
rebels  and  burned  their  barracks,  ^vhen  8,000  of 
them  perished  in  the  flames.  The  corps  was 
abolished,  and  a  curse  laid  upon  the  name.  As 
many  as  15,000  were  executed,  and  fully  20,000 
were  banished. 

Japan.  Although  Japan  has  passed  through 
the  successive  eras  of  tribal  government,  pure 
monarchy,  feudalism,  anarchy,  and  modern 
empire,  its  ruling  dynasty  boasts  of  forty-six 
centuries  of  unbroken  succession,  and  claims 
descent  from  Jimmu  Tenno,  first  mikado,  a 
fabulous  warrior,  whose  descent  from  the  sun 
goddess  is  a  matter  of  faith  with  the  Japanese, 
who  base  upon  it  their  claim  of  the  mikado's 
divinity.  The  empire  claims  to  have  had  a 
previous  existence  of  2,479  years;  but  its  history 
dates  from  Jimmu  667  B.  C,  and  from  his  death 
until  571  A.  D.  thirty-one  mikados  ruled;    the 


famous  Yamato  Dak6  and  Sujin  the  Civilizer 
belong  to  this  period.  Jingu  Kogo,  Empress  of 
Japan,  270  A.  D.,  conquered  Corea  in  person. 
In  552  A.  D,  Buddhism  was  introduced  into 
Japan,  and  thenceforth  became  a  potent  influ- 
ence in  the  formation  of  character.  About  this 
time  a  succession  of  infant  mikados  contributed 
to  loss  of  power  in  the  mikadoate,  and  to  the 
formation  of  noble  families,  who,  one  by  one, 
gained  ascendency,  and  ruled  the  mikados;  the 
feudal  system  began  its  existence,  and  feuds 
between  the  rival  families  were  constant.  The 
Fujiwarra  family  were  opposed  by  the  Suga- 
wara,  and  succeeded  by  the  Tairas  and  Mina- 
motos.  In  1 184,  Yoritomo  became  first  shogun, 
(a  term  meaning  general),  the  dual  system  of 
government,  which  ended  only  in  1867,  began, 
and  the  shogunate  monopolized  the  real  power 
of  the  nation,  of  which  the  mikado  was  nominal 
and  spiritual  head.  From  1199  to  1333  both 
the  mikadoate  and  the  shogunate  were  under 
the  power  of  the  Hojo  family,  who  set  up  and 
removed  rulers  at  their  own  pleasure;  but  they 
promoted  the  arts,  and  defeated  an  invasion  of 
the  Mongol  Tartars.  The  Ashi-Kaga  family 
next  came  into  power,  and  occasioned  a  fifty-six 
years'  war  between  the  northern  and  southern 
dynasties,  and  strengthened  feudalism  at  the 
time  when  all  Europe  was  throwing  off  its 
chains.  In  1536,  Hideyoshi  conquered  the 
Coreans,  and  brought  marine  architecture  to  a 
higher  state  of  perfection;  he  became  taiko, 
and  this  period  is  called  the  age  of  taiko.  In 
1542,  Europeans  landed  on  Tanigashima;  fire- 
arms were  introduced,  Portuguese  merchants 
were  attracted,  ard  in  1549,  Francis  Xavier 
landed,  and  with  an  interpreter  preached  Chris- 
tianity in  various  parts  of  the  empire;  he  paved 
the  way  for  the  success  of  others,  and  priests 
and  Jesuits  flocked  to  Japan,  when  a  total  of 
600,000  converts  was  recorded.  Wabunaga 
protected  the  Christians,  as  the  latter  persecuted 
the  Buddhists,  whom  he  hated ;  but  by  intrigues 
and  quarrels  among  themselves  the  priests 
alienated  the  support  of  the  shogun,  who  perse- 
cuted the  native  Christians.  The  Jesuits  stirred 
them  up  to  resistance,  and  after  a  brief  battle 
between  Hed^yori,  leader  of  the  Christians,  and 
ly^sayu;  during  which  100,000  men  perished, 
the  priests  were  exiled  from  Japan,  1615.  In 
1624  all  foreigners  except  the  Dutch  and  Chinese 
were  banished  from  Japan,  the  Japanese  were 
forbidden  to  leave  the  country,  and  all  larger 
vessels  were  destroyed.  In  1637  the  great  mas- 
sacre of  Christians  began,  the  twenty  or  less 
Dutch  traders  were  confined  to  the  island  of 
Deshima,  and  100  years'  intercourse  with  Chris- 
tian nations  resulted  only  in  the  adoption  of 
gunpowder,  fire-arms,  and  tobacco.  For  two 
centuries  and  a  half  after  lyesayu,  Japan  had 
peace;  feudalism  and  anarchy  were  perfected, 
and  the  Tokugawa  was  the  most  prominent  of  a 
number  of  families  who  divided  Japan;  the 
power  of  the  shogun  increased,  the  last  four 
rulers  of  the  shogunate  being  known  to  Euro- 
peans under  the  title  of  "Tycoon."  In  1853, 
Commodore  Perry,  with  a  fleet  of  American 
vessels,  arrived  at  Yeddo,  and  the  Perry  treaty 
with  the  United  States  was  concluded  by  him 
with  the  supreme  ruler  of  Japan.     This  usurpa- 


HISTORY 


125 


tion  of  authority  added  fuel  to  the  flames  just 
ready  to  burst  out  and  demolish  the  shogunate, 
and  after  a  brief  revolution  feudalism  was  over- 
thrown, the  tycoon  retired,  the  government  was 
changed  to  its  ancient  form,  the  mikado  became 
the  only  ruler  of  Japan,  and  the  empire  took  an 
important  place  in  the  family  of  nations.  This 
occurred  in  1868,  since  when  the  work  of  reform 
has  gone  on  rapidly,  the  United  States  and  its 
customs  having  served  as  models  for  many 
improvements.  The  United  States  opened 
Japan  to  the  world  after  the  failure  of  the  Por- 
tuguese, Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  Russians  to  do 
so.  Japan  has  grown  more  rapidly  in  one  gen- 
eration than  any  European  nation  in  a  century. 
The  Japanese  rapidly  became  converted  to  west- 
ern ideas,  both  political  and  social.  , 

In  July,  1894,  war  was  declared  with  China. 
The  Japanese  successes  brought  it  to  a  trium- 
phant end  in  April,  1895.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Shimonoseki  the  terms  of  peace  included  recog- 
nition of  Corean  independence,  which  had  been 
the  chief  cause  of  the  war,  the  cession  to  Japan 
of  Formosa  and  some  smaller  islands,  with  the 
peninsula  of  Liao-Tung,  including  Port  Arthur, 
a  large  war  indemnity,  and  a  very  great  relaxa- 
tion of  restrictions  on  foreign  industry  and 
commerce  in  China.  In  deference  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  powers,  Japan  abandoned  her 
claims  on  the  mainland  of  China,  but  increased 
the  indemnity.  In  1904,  war  with  Russia  was 
brought  about  in  consequence  of  the  Manchu- 
rian  situation,  and  continued  until  the  fall  of 
Port  Arthur  in  1905.  (See  Russo-Japanese 
War.)  The  protectorate  then  accepted  over 
Corea  was  ended  by  the  annexation  of  that 
nation  in  1910. 

Jews  (Heb.  Yehuda).  The  subjects  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  have  been  sometimes  called  Jews, 
as  distinct  from  the  seceding  ten  tribes,  who 
retained  the  name  of  Israel.  As  the  term  is 
now  used,  however,  the  history  of  the  Jews 
begins  with  the  return  of  the  remnant  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity in  consequence  of  the  Edict  of  Cyrus. 
Below  will  be  found  a  brief  resume  of  the  chief 
historical  events  in  the  history  of  the  Jews 
according  to  the  biblical  narrative.  According 
to  Eusebius,  the  Scripture  history  ends  in  442 
B.  C,  and  thenceforward  the  Roman  historians 
and  Josephus  furnish  the  best  accounts.  The 
Babylonish  Captivity. —  Daniel  prophesies  at 
Babylon,  B.  C.  603;  Obadiah  prophesies,  587; 
Daniel  interprets  the  handwriting  on  the  wall, 
538;  he  prophesies  the  speedy  return  from 
bondage  and  the  coming  of  a  Messiah,  538.  The 
Return  from  Captivity. —  Cyrus,  ruler  of  all  Asia, 
authorizes  the  return  of  the  Jews  and  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  536; 
Haggai  and  Zechariah  flourish,  520;  the  second 
Temple  finished,  515;  Ezra  arrives  in  Jerusalem 
to  correct  abuses,  458 ;  beginning  of  the  seventy 
weeks  of  years  predicted  by  Daniel,  being  490 
years  prior  to  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  457;  the 
waUs  of  Jerusalem  rebuilt,  445 ;  Malachi  flourishes, 
415.  The  Jews  under  the  Macedonian  Empire. — 
Alexander  the  Great  marches  against  Jerusalem 
to  besiege  it,  but  ultimately  goes  to  the  Temple 
and  offers  sacrifices  to  the  God  of  the  Jews,  332 ; 
Jerusalem   taken   by  Ptolemy   Soter  320;    the 


Scriptures  translated  (the  Septuagint  version) 
by  seventy-two  Jewish  scribes,  at  the  instance 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  277;  Antiochus  cap- 
tures Jerusalem,  sacks  the  Temple,  and  massa- 
cres 40,000  of  the  people,  170;  commencement 
of  the  government  of  the  Maccabees,  166;  a 
treaty,  the  first  in  Jewish  history,  made  with 
the  Romans,  161;  Judas  Hyrcanus  assumes  the 
title  of  "King  of  the  Jews,"  107;  Jerusalem 
captured  by  Pompey,  63.  The  Jews  under  the 
Roman  Empire. —  Antipater  made  ruler  of  Judea 
by  Julius  Csesar,  49;  Herod,  son  of  Antipater 
marries  Miriamne,  daughter  of  the  king,  42 
Herod  decreed  king  by  the  Roman  Senate,  40 
Jerusalem  captured  by  Herod  and  Sosius,  the 
Roman  general,  37 ;  Herod  rebuilds  the  Temple 
on  a  scale  of  greater  magnificence  than  ever 
before,  18;  Jesus  Christ,  the  long-looked-for 
Messiah,  born  four  years  before  1  A.  D.,  4  B.  C. ; 
Pontius  Pilate  procurator  of  Judea,  A.  D.  22; 
John  Baptist  commences  his  ministry,  25;  is 
beheaded,  27;  Christ's  ministry  and  miracles, 
27-29 ;  his  death  and  resurrection,  29 ;  the  Jews 
are  persecuted  for  refusing  to  worship  Caligula, 
38;  receive  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship,  41; 
Claudius  banishes  them  from  Rome,  50;  Titus 
captures  Jerusalem,  the  city  and  Temple  sacked 
and  burned,  and  1,000,000  Jews  perish,  70; 
Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  names  it  Elia  Capi- 
tolina,  and  erects  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  130; 
the  rebellion  of  Bar-cocheba,  135-36;  final  deso- 
lation of  Judea,  more  than  500,000  Jews  are 
slain  by  the  Romans,  they  are  banished  from 
Judea  by  an  edict  of  the  Roman  Emperor,  and 
are  forbidden  to  return  upon  pain  of  death,  136. 
From  this  time  the  nation  has  been  scattered 
among  all  other  nations.  From  the  latest  esti- 
mates (1907)  we  gather  the  following  figures  as 
to  the  number  of  Jews  in  the  world  at  the  present 
time: 

Africa, 392,482 

Asia, 347,410 

Australia, 17,403 

Austria-Hungary, 2,076,277 

Belgium, 4,000 

Denmark, 3,476 

France, 95,000 

Germany, 586,948 

Great  Britain, 220,304 

Greece, 8,350 

Holland, 103,988 

Italy, 35,617 

Palestine, 100,000 

Russia, 5,082,342 

Sweden  and  Norway, 4,554 

Switzerland, 12,264 

Turkey, 282,277 

United  States, 1,777,185 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  enough  Jews  not 
enumerated  in  the  above  table  to  swell  the  total 
to  11,600,000.  This  people  now  scattered  over 
the  globe  has  suffered  much  even  in  modern 
times  and  especially  in  Russia  at  the  hands  of 
the  oppressor.  In  America  only  have  the  Jews 
enjoyed  at  all  times  perfect  freedom  and  all  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  The  Jews  born  in  Eng- 
land stand  nearly  if  not  wholly  on  the  same 
footing  as  any  other  of  the  natives,  although 
this  result,  like  most  of  the  liberties  enjoyed  m 


126 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


that  country,  is  the  outcome  of  a  series  of  con- 
cessions from  the  Crown.  Full  emancipation 
was  granted  to  the  Jews  in  England  in  1858. 

Kansas,  derived  from  an  Indian  name 
meajiing  "smoky  water,"  was  visited  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1541;  afterward  by  the  French  in 
1719.  It  came  to  the  United  States  through 
the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  was  a  portion  of 
the  territory  which,  by  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise of  1820,  was  always  to  remain  untouched 
by  slavery.  When  the  territory  of  Kansas  was 
organized,  in  1854,  it  was  declared  by  Congress 
that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  abolished. 
This  led  to  the  Kansas  troubles,  which  lasted 
till  1859,  with  various  vicissitudes,  when  a  free 
constitution  was  adopted,  forever  prohibiting 
slavery.  This  imbroglio  played  an  important 
part  in  inflaming  the  passions  of  North  and 
South,  and  ripening  the  conditions  which  made 
our  late  Civil  War  inevitable.  Kansas  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1861.  During  the 
Civil  War  the  State  was  the  scene  of  irregular 
warfare,  known  as  "jay-hawking,"  carried  on 
by  Confederate  raiders  from  Missouri  and  Ar- 
kansas and  the  Unionists  who  opposed  them. 
The  only  battle  of  prominence  took  place  at 
Lawrence  on  August  21,  1863.  In  1880,  the 
constitution  was  amended,  prohibiting  the  liquor 
traffic. 

Kentucky.  The  name  Kan-tuck-kee  sig- 
nifies "darkened  bloody  ground,"  and  the  coun- 
try now  included  in  the  State  was  originally  the 
common  hunting-ground  for  the  Indian  tribes 
living  north  and  south  of  it.  The  first  white 
visit  was  that  of  John  Finley  and  others,  from 
North  Carolina,  in  1767.  Daniel  Boone  made  a 
permanent  settlement  in  1769.  Colonel  James 
Knox  planted  a  Virginian  colony  in  1770,  fol- 
lowed by  others  in  1773-74,  and  James  Harrod 
founded  Harrodsburg  in  1774.  The  irruption 
of  whites  was  met  by  the  Indians  in  a  series  of 
fierce  and  bloody  conflicts.  In  1775,  the  Chero- 
kees  ceded  the  country  to  Boone,  who  acted  as 
agent  for  Colonel  James  Henderson  and  his  com- 
pany. Kentucky  was  a  part  of  Virginia  till 
1790,  when  it  became  a  separate  Territory.  It 
was  admitted  as  a  State  into  the  Union  in  1792, 
being  the  second  admitted.  A  second  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  in  1800,  and  the  pjresent  one 
in  1850.  Kentucky  during  the  Civil  War  en- 
deavored to  hold  a  position  of  neutrality.  The 
chief  battles  fought  in  the  State  were  Mill  Spring, 
January  19,  1862,  and  Perryville,  October  8, 
1862.  In  1864,  martial  law  was  declared,  and 
civil  authority  was  not  restored  until  October, 
1865.  In  1900,  William  Gobel,.  contesting  can- 
didate for  governor,  was  assassinated,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  a  series  of  notable  trials. 

Khyber  Pass,  The.  Obtained  great 
notoriety  because  a  British  army  of  16,000  men 
was  here  annihilated  in  the  month  of  January, 
1842,  during  the  retreat  from  Kabul.  The  only 
persons  who  escaped  were  Dr.  Brydon  (a  regi- 
mental surgeon)  and  a  private  soldier.  In  1838, 
Lord  Auckland,  Governor-General  of  India, 
declared  war  against  the  Afghanistans  because 
their  ruler.  Dost  Mohammed,  had  unlawfully 
attacked  a  British  ally,  and  because  Dost  Mo- 
hammed had  usurped  the  throne  of  Shah  Sujah, 
who   was   under  British   protection.     On   July 


21st,  Shah  Sujah  was  restored  to  the  throne  of 
Kabul,  and  the  British  thought  the  matter  was 
ended.  This  was  a  grand  mistake,  for  at  the 
beginning  of  winter  Akbah  Khan,  the  son  of 
Dost  Mohammed,  attacked  the  British  army  in 
Kabul,  and  slew  several  of  the  officers.  A  capit- 
ulation was  made,  and  when  the  British  army 
were  in  the  Khyber  Pass  on  their  way  home 
they  were  cut  to  pieces.  With  women,  chil- 
dren, and  camp  followers,  20,000  were  slain  in 
the  Pass. 

Lake  Dwellings.  The  earliest  account 
of  lake  dwellings  is  to  be  found  in  Herodotus,  who 
describes  a  Thracian  tribe  living,  in  520  B.  C,  in 
a  small  mountain  lake  of  what  is  now  Rumelia. 
The  custom  of  constructing  these  habitations  has 
come  down  to  the  present  day.  The  fishermen 
of  Lake  Prasias,  near  Salonica,  still  inhabit 
wooden  cottages  built  over  the  water,  as  the 
Thracian  tribes  did,  and  in  the  East  Indies  the 
practice  of  building  lake  settlements  is  very  com- 
mon. 

The  lake  dwellings  proper  of  Switzerland  came 
to  light  during  the  winter  months  of  1853-54, 
when  the  water  of  the  lakes  fell  much  below  its 
ordinary  level.  Dr.  Keller,  who  first  described 
these  lake  dwellings,  says  that  the  main  plat- 
form was  made  of  round  timbers,  rarely  of  split 
boards,  covered  with  a  bed  of  mud;,  the  walls 
and  sides  were  in  great  measure  of  interlaced 
branches,  the  interstices  filled  with  moss,  and 
daubed  with  clay.  In  his  opinion,  all  the  evi- 
dence goes  to  show  that  they  were  rectangular 
in  shape.  It  is  probable  that  the  huts  were 
thatched,  and  the  parts  used  as  dormitories 
strewn  with  straw  or  hay. 

Also,  artificial  islands  found  principally  in  Ire- 
land, where  they  served  the  purpose  of  strong- 
holds. In  this  case  "  the  support  consisted  not 
of  piles  only,  but  of  a  solid  mass  of  mud,  stones, 
etc.,  with  layers  of  horizontal  and  perpendicular 
stakes,  the  latter  serving  less  as  a  support  than 
to  bind  the  mass  firmly  together."  They  are  of 
much  later  date  than  the  lake  dwelling  proper, 
some  being  depicted  in  Johnson's  "  Piatt  of  the 
County  Monaghan,"  a  map  of  the  escheated 
territories  made  for  the  English  Government  in 
1591. 

Lancaster,  the  name  of  a  royal  English 
house  which  flourished  in  two  lines  in  the  Thir- 
teenth, Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth  Centuries. 
The  first  commences  with  Edmund,  son  of  Henry 
III.  and  Eleanora  of  Provence,  and  brother  of 
Edward  I.  Thomas,  his  son  and  successor  in  the 
earldom,  cousin-german  to  Edward  II.,  headed  the 
confederacy  of  barons  against  Piers  Gaveston,  and 
finally  shared  the  responsibility  of  his  death  with 
Hereford  and  Arundel.  Henry  (previously  Earl  of 
Leicester),  brother  and  heir  of  Thomas,  joined 
the  conspiracy  of  Isabella  and  Mortimer  against 
Edward  II.,  and  received  the  king  into  his  cus- 
tody at  Kenilworth.  Henry,  his  son  (previously 
Earl  of  Derby),  after  vainly  endeavoring  to  make 
peace  with  John,  King  of  France,  under  the  medi- 
ation of  the  pope  at  Avignon,  was  sent  with  an 
army  into  Normandy,  and  took  part  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Poitiers  and  the  subsequent  French  wars. 
The  next  Duke  of  Lancaster  commences  a  new 
lineage,  that  of  the  princes  opposed  to  the  house 
of  York.     The  first  in  the  line  was  John  of  Gaunt. 


HISTORY 


127 


orGhent,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  His  name  is 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  English  history 
and  in  the  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Henry 
of  Hereford,  the  successor  of  John  of  Gaunt  in 
the  dukedom,  was  son  to  him  by  his  first  wife. 
He  claimed  the  crown  by  descent,  by  the  moth- 
er's side,  from  Edmund  the  first  earl,  who  was 
popularly  supposed  to  be  the  elder  brother  of 
Edward  I.,  and  to  have  been  deprived  of  the  suc- 
cession by  his  father  for  personal  reasons.  He 
became  king  by  deposing  Richard  II.,  1399,  and 
was  a  prince  of  great  ability  and  valor.  He 
reigned  as  Henry  IV.  till  his  death  in  1413,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  V.  The  son  of 
the  latter  also  inherited  the  crown  as  Henry  VI., 
and  in  his  reign  the  feuds  of  York  and  Lancaster 
broke  out,  which  ended  in  the  union  of  the  two 
houses  in  the  person  of  Henry  VII. 

Latin  Union,  Tlie,  a  combination  formed 
in  1865  by  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzer- 
land. These  countries  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment by  which  the  amount  of  silver  to  be  coined 
yearly  was  fixed  for  each  member  of  the  union. 
The  coinage  of  all  the  countries  was  of  like  charac- 
ter, and  to  be  received  without  discount  through- 
out the  union  on  public  and  private  account. 
Greece  joined  theunionin  1868,  Spain  in  1871,  and 
subsequently  Servia  and  Rumania  also  became 
members.  Some  of  the  South  American  States 
also  used  the  Latin  Union  coinage.  Spain  alone 
of  the  countries  of  the  union  coins  a  gold  piece 
not  used  by  the  others.  The  unit  of  coinage  in 
the  Latin  Union  is  the  franc;  it  has  different 
names  elsewhere,  as,  in  Italy  the  lira;  in  Servia, 
the  dinar;  in  Spain,  the  peseta;  but  the  value 
is  always  the  same.  It  is  the  most  widely  circu- 
lated coinage  system' in  Europe,  being  used  by 
about  148,000,000  people. 

Lexington,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  ten 
miles  northwest  of  Boston,  noted  as  the  scene  of 
the  first  fight  between  the  British  and  Americans 
in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  April  19,  1775. 
On  the  evening  of  April  18th,  General  Gage,  the 
British  commander  in  Boston,  sent  800  soldiers, 
under  Major  Pitcairn,  to  destroy  the  American 
supplies  at  Concord.  Paul  Revere,  of  Boston, 
escaping  their  sentinels,  galloped  out  to  Lexing- 
ton and  Concord  with  the  news,  so  when  the 
British  reached  Lexington  at  daybreak,  they 
found  about  seventy  Americans  waiting  for 
them  on  the  village  common.  Captain  John 
Parker,  their  commander,  ordered  them  not  to 
shoot  until  the  English  did.  Major  Pitcairn 
rode  forward  and  called  out:  " Disperse  ye  reb- 
els!" but  though  the  Americans  were  outnum- 
bered ten  to  one,  they  stood  firm.  Then  Pitcairn 
ordered  his  men, to  fire,  and  four  Americans  were 
killed  and  nine  wounded.  Some  shots  were 
fired  in  return,  and  three  English  soldiers  were 
wounded ;  but  after  that  the  Americans  retreated 
some  being-  killed  as  they  ran.  The  British 
marched  on  to  Concord,  but  meanwhile  the  whole 
country  was  aroused,  and  as  they  came  back, 
hundreds  of  Americans  attacked  them  from 
behind  the  houses  and  stone  walls  by  the  road- 
side. They  were  only  saved  from  destruction 
by  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  under  Lord 
Percy.  Though  not  a  very  great  battle,  this 
was  one  of  the  most  important  ones  that  ever 
was  fought.     As  soon  as  the  Americans  found 


that  the  war  had  really  begun,  hundreds  of  men 
hurried  to  the  army,  and  not  long  after  the  Brit- 
ish were  driven  out  of  Boston. 

Lepanto  (anciently  Naupactus,  now  called 
by  the  Greeks  Epakto),  a  small  town  of  Greece, 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishop ;  on  the  north  side  of  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Near  Lepanto 
took  place  the  celebrated  naval  battle  between 
the  Turks  on  the  one  side  and  the  papal  galleys 
and  those  of  the  Venetians  and  the  Spaniards 
on  the  other,  on  October  7,  1571,  in  which  the 
Christians,  commanded  by  Don  John  of  Austria, 
achieved  a  decisive  victory.  Of  the  Turks 
30,000  fell  or  were  taken  prisoners,  while  130 
Turkish  vessels  were  captured,  and  12,000 
Christian  slaves  liberated;  the  Christians  lost 
8,000  men  and  fifteen  galleys.  In  this  battle 
Cervantes  lost  an  arm.  The  town  became  Greek 
in  1829. 

Lollards,  The  (Idl'lardz}.  A  sect  of  early 
Reformers  in  Germany  and  England.  The  name 
was  given  in  the  first  place  to  a  class  of  persons 
in  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  who,  in 
the  Fourteenth  Century,  undertook  spiritual 
offices  in  behalf  of  the  sick  and  the  dead,  and 
were  greatly  beloved  by  the  people.  Later,  the 
term  was  conferred  opprobriously  upon  heretics 
and  schismatics  in  general,  more  particularly 
those  who  followed  the  teachings  of  John  Wick- 
liffe. 

Lombards.  A  German  people  of  the 
Suevic  family,  not  very  numerous,  but  of  dis- 
tinguished valor,  who  played  an  important  part 
in  the  early  history  of  Europe.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Longobardi,  Langobardi,  a  Latin- 
ized form  in  use  since  the  Twelfth  Century,  and 
was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  given  with 
reference  to  the  long  beards  of  this  people,  but 
is  now  derived  rather  from  a  word  parta,  or 
barte,  which  signifies  a  battle-ax.  About  the 
Fourth  Century  they  seem  to  have  begun  to 
leave  their  original  seats  (on  the  Lower  Elbe, 
where  the  Romans  seem  first  to  have  come  in 
contact  with  them  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era)  and  to  have  fought  their  way 
south  and  east  till  they  came  in  close  contact 
with  the  eastern  Roman  Empire  on  the  Danube ; 
adopted  an  Arian  form  of  Christianity,  and, 
after  having  been  for  some  time  tributary  to 
the  Heruli,  raised  themselves  upon  the  ruins  of 
their  power,  and  of  that  of  the  Gepidse,  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  Sixth  Century,  to  the 
position  of  masters  of  Pannonia,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  wealthy  and  powerful  nations 
in  that  part  of  the  world.  Under  their  king, 
Alboin,  they  invaded  and  conquered  the  north 
and  center  of  Italy  (568-569).  The  conversion 
of  the  Arian  Lombards  to  the  orthodox  faith 
was  brought  about  by  the  policy  of  Gregory  the 
Great  and  the  zeal  of  Theodolinda,wife  of  Autha- 
ria,  and  subsequently  of  his  successor,  Agilulf 
(590-615). 

Longobardi  (iQn-go-b&r'de).  A  German 
tribe,  of  supposed  Scandinavian  extraction, 
which  made  their  first  appearance  in  history 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  in  that  of 
Justinian  I.,  settled  in  Noricum  and  Pannonia. 
Led  by  their  chief,  Alboni,  they  successfully 
invaded  Italy  in  568,  and  there  founded  the 
Kingdom  of  Lombardy. 


128 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


LOST   CITIES 

*  The  cities  designated  by  asterisks  were  afterward  rebuilt  under  the  same  name. 


Cities 


Founded 


By  Whom 


Date 


Destroyed 


How 


By  Whom 


Date 


Abydos,  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Helles- 
pont; burned  by  Darius ;  conquered  by 
Philip  II.;  by  the  Romans  188  B.C.,     . 

Aegina,'*'  on  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
Greece;  subjected  by  Pheidon  748  B.C., 
captured  by  the  Athenians  455  B.  C. ; 
by  Pubhus  Sulpicius  210  B.  C 

Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  subjected  by  Pha- 
lans  570  B.  C. ;  destroyed  by  Cartha- 
ginians 406  B.  C. ;  captured  by  Romans 
262  B.  C. ;  again  destroyed  by  Cartha- 
ginians 255  B.  C, 

Alexandria,*  in  Egypt,  scene  of  a  fright- 
ful massacre  by  Ptolemy  Physcon  141 
B.C. ;  captured  by  Julius  Ca!sar  48  B.C. ; 
50,000  persons  killed  by  earthquake  .365 
A.  D.;  captured  by  Chosroes  II.  616 
A.  D. ;  by  Amrou  640  A.  D. ;  destroyed 
by  the  Turks  868  A.  D., 

Antloch,*  in  Syria;  conquered  by  Pom- 
pey  64  B.  C. ;  destroyed  by  Chosroes  I. 
641  A.  D. ;  captured  by  Chosroes  11.611 
A.  D. ;  Saracens  638  A.  D. ;  Turks  1084 
A.  D.;  Crusaders  1098  A.  D.;  de- 
stroyed by  Bibars,  Sultan  of  Egypt, 
1268  A.  D 

Argos,*  in  Greece,  under  Phidon  about 
750  B.  C.  leading  state  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus; lost  Cynuria  in  wars  with  Sparta 
550  B.  C. ;  fell  into  decay  after  defeat 
near  Tiryns  524  B.  C, 

Arsinoe,  in  Egypt,  not  far  from  Lake 
Moeris;  received  its  name  from  Ptole- 
my Philadelphus  in  honor  of  his  sister 
Arsinoe,  originally  called  Crocodipolis 
by  the  Greeks ;  the  ruins  are  near  Medi- 
net-el-Fayoom, 

Athens,*  in  Greece;  captured  by  Xerxes 
480  B.  C;  burnt  by  Mardonius  479 
B.C. ;  rebuilt  by  Themistocles  478  B.C. ; 
439  B.  C.  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity; 
taken  by  Lysander  404  B.  C. ;  walls  re- 
louilt  by  Conon  393  B.  C;  submits  to 
Alexander  the  Great  335  B.  C. ;  con- 
quered by  Cassander;  surrendered  to 
Antigonus  Gonatas  200  B.  C. ;  partly 
destroyed  by  Philip  of  Macedon  200 
B.C.;  subdued  by  the  Romans  146 
B.C. ;  walls  and  fortifications  destroyed 
by  Sulla  86  B.  C 

Baalbec*  or  Heliopolis,  in  Asia  Minor; 
sacked  by  the  Moslems  748  A.  D. ;  by 
Timour  Beg  1400  A.  D 

Babylon,  in  Asia;  captured  by  Tiglath- 
Pileser  1. 1130  B.C.;  by  Cyrus  538  B.C.; 
walls  destroyed  by  Darius  518  B.  C; 
taken  by  Alexander  III.  331  B.  C; 
by  Seleucus  Nicator  312  B.  C,  who  de- 
stroyed Babylon  to  build  Seleucia.  Ex- 
plored by  Rich,  Kerr  Porter,  Layanl, 
Frazer,  Chesney,  Botta,  Loftus,  and 
Rawlinson, 

Byzantium,  in  ancient  Thracia  (modern 
Turkey) ;  captured  successively  by  the 
Medes,  Athenians,  and  Spartans;  by 
the  Romans  73  A.  D.;  destroyed  by 
Severus  196  A.D.  It  was  refounded  324 
A.  D.  and  called  Constantinople,  .    .    . 

Carthage,  city  in  Africa;    captured  by 
Scipio  after  the  battle  of  Zama  201  B.C. 
burned    by  the    Romans    146   B.   C. 
rebuilt  as  a  Roman  colony  123  B.  C. 
captured  by  Genseric  439  A.  D.;    by 
Belisarius  533  A.  D.;    sacked  by  the 
Arabs  647  A.  D. ;  destroyed  by  Hassan 
698  A.  D 

Corinlh,  in  Greece;  captured  by  the 
Dorians  1074  B.  C;  by  the  Macedo- 
nians 338  B.  C. ;  by  Aratus  243  B.  C. ; 
Antigonus  Doson  223  B.  C. ;  destroyed 
by  L.  Mummius  146  B.  C. ;  rebuilt  by 
Julius  Csesar  46  B.  C. ;  sacked  by  Alaric 
396  A.  D 


Milesians. 


Dorians. 


Colony 
from  Gela. 


Alexander 
the  Great. 


Seleucus 
Nicator. 


Inachus. 


Pharaoh  in  the 
12th  Dynasty 
of  Manetho. 


715  B.  C. 


582  B.  C. 


332  B.  C. 


300  B.  C. 


1856  B.  C. 


2300  B.  C. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War  and 
Decay. 


Decay. 


Turks. 


Turks. 


Carthaginians. 


Turks. 


Chosroes  I.  and 
Bibars. 


1330  A.  D. 


1536  A.D. 


406  and 
205  B.  .C. 


868  A.  D. 


541  and 
1268  A.  D. 


524  B.  C. 


Cecrops. 


1558  B.C. 


Nimrod. 


Megarius 
under  Byzas. 


Dido 


Phenicians. 


2247  B.  C. 


667  B.  C 


878  B.  C. 


1520  B.  C. 


War. 
War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


Sulla. 
Timour  Beg. 


Seleucus 
Nicator. 


Severus. 


Romans  and 
Hassan. 


L.  Afummius 
and  Alaric. 


86  B.  C. 
1400  A.  D. 


312  B.  C. 


196  A.  D. 


146  B.  C. 

and 
698  A.  D. 


146  B.  C. 

and 
396  A.  D. 


HISTORY 


129 


LOST   CITIES  — Continued 


Cities 


Founded 


By  Whom 


Date 


Destroyed 


How 


By  WJiom 


Date 


Ctesiphon,  in  Assyria;  captured  by  Tra- 
jan 116  A.  D.;  by  Severus  198  A.  D.; 
destroyed  by  Omar  637  A.  D.,  .... 

Delphi,  in  Greece;  temple  burned  548 
B.  C,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Alcmaeonidse ; 

Elundered  by  the  Phocians  357  B.  C. ; 
y  Sulla  82  B.  C;  by  Nero  67  A.  D.; 
temple  suppressed  by  Theodosius  I.,   . 

Ephesus,  in  Asia  Minor;  burned  by  the 
Amazons  1141  B.  C;  rebuilt  by  the 
lonians  1045  B.  C;  captured  by 
Croesus  559  B.  C. ;  by  Cyrus  554  B.  C. ; 
destroyed  by  an  inundation  322  B.  C. ; 
rebuilt  300  B.  C;  nearly  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  17  A.  D., 

Herculaneum,  in  Italy;  its  foundation 
ascribed  to  Hercules;  partly  ruined  by 
an  earthquake  63  A.  D.;  completely 
buried  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  79 
A.  D.;  a  second  settlement  buried  by 
Vesuvius  472  A.  D.  Fragments  of 
statues  were  discovered  1709  A.  D.; 
theater  discovered  1738  A.  D 

Jerusalem,*  in  Palestine;  captured  by 
David  1049  B.  C;  sacked  by  the  Phi- 
listines and  Arabs  887  B.  C;  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar 586  B.  C;  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  170  B.  C;  captured  by 
Pompey  63  B.  C;  by  Herod  37  B.  C; 
destroyed  by  Titus  70  A.  D.,     .... 

Memphis,  in  Egypt;  partly  destroyed 
by  the  Persians  525  B.  C. ;  captured  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  171  B.  C. ;  re- 
stored by  Septimus  Severus  202  A.D.; 
decayed  under  the  Arabs  in  the  Seventh 
Century,  and  Cairo  built  from  its  ruins, 

Mycenae,  in  Greece;  destroyed  by  the 
Argives  468  B.  C. ;  explored  by  Dr. 
Schliemann,  who  discovered  tombs 
with  immense  treasures  in  1877  A.  D., 

Nineveh,  in  Assyria;  received  its  name 
from  Ninus  2182  B.  C;  destroyed 
by  Cyaxares  and  Nabopolassar  from 
625  to  606  B.  C.  Layard  began  explor- 
ing the  ruins  1840  A.  D., 

Numantia,  in  Spain,  destroyed  by 
Scipio  the  Younger  134  B.  C,  .    .    .    . 

Palmyra,  Syria;  submitted  to  Hadrian 
130  A.  D.;  destroyed  by  Aurelian  274 
A.  D.;  restored  by  Justinian  I.  527 
A.  D. ;  again  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
744  A.  D. ;  ruins  discovered  1691  A.  D. ; 
explored  by  Wood  and  Dawkins  1751 
A.  D 

Persepolis,  in  Persia;  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Jemshed;  burned  by 
Alexander  III.  331  B.  C 

Petra,  in  Arabia,  captured  by  the  Naba- 
thaeans  in  the  Fourth  Century  B.  C. ;  by 
Cornelius  Palma  106  A.  D.;  fell  into 
decay  and  is  not  mentioned  after  the 
Sixth  Century  A.  D.;  ruins  discovered 
by  Burckhardt  1812  A.  D 

Pompeii,  in  Italy;  date  of  its  founda- 
tion unknown ;  said  to  have  been  con- 
quered by  the  Samnites  440  B.  C. ;  cap- 
tured by  the  Romans  360  B.  C. ;  al- 
most destroyed  by  an  earthquake  63 
A.D. ;  completely  buried  by  an  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  79  A.  D.;  accidentally  dis- 
covered 1748  A.  D.;  excavations  com- 
menced 1755  A.  D., 

Saguntum,  in  Spain ;  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Greeks ;  burned 
by  its  citizens  before  surrendering  to 
Hannibal  218  B.  C,    ...;...    . 

Samaria,  in  Palestine;  captured  by 
Shalmaneser  IV.  721  B.  C;  by  Alex- 
ander III.  336-332  B.C.;  destroyed  by 
John  Hyrcanus  109  B.  C 

Sardis,  in  Asia  Minor;  captured  by  the 
Cimmerians  about  635  B.  C;  by  the 
Persians  554  B.  C;  burned  by  the 
Greeks  499  B.  C. ;  it  was  rebuilt ;  cap- 
tured by  Alexander  III.  334  B.  C;   by 


Amphictyons. 


1263  B.  C. 


Hercules. 


Menes 

or 

Misraim. 


Perseus. 


Ashur. 


Solomon. 
Jemshed. 


About 
1913  B.C. 


3890  B.  C 

or 
2188  B.C 

1431, 1313 

or 
1282  B. C 


About 
2245  B.  C. 


About 
1001  B.  C. 


Greeks. 
Omri. 


About 
925  B.  C. 


War. 


War  and 
Decay. 


Inundation 

and 
Earthquake. 


Vesuvius. 


War. 


War  and 
Decay. 


War. 
War. 


War. 
War. 

Decay. 


Omar. 


Titus. 


Argives. 


Cyaxares  and 
Nabopolassar. 


Scipio. 


Aurelian  and 
Saracens. 


Alexander. 


Fire. 


War. 


Earthquake 

and 

Vesuvius. . 


Citizens. 


John  Hyrcanus. 


637  A.  D. 


395  A.  D. 


322  B.  C. 

and 

17  A.  D. 


79  and 
472  A.  D. 


70  A.  D. 


600  to 
700  A.  D. 


468  B.  C. 


625  to 
606  B.  C. 


134  B.  C. 


274  to 
744  A.  D. 


331  B.  C. 


After 
600  A.  D. 


79  A.  D. 


218  B.  C. 


109  B.  C. 


130 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


LOST  CITIES  — Continued 


Founded 

Destroyed 

Cities 

By  Whom 

Date 

How 

By  Whom 

Date 

Seleucua  I.  283  B.  C;    by  Antiochus 

214  B.  C;    by  the  Romans  190  B.  C; 

destroyed  by  an  earthquake  14-37  A.D. 

under  Tiberius,  who   rebuilt  it;    cap- 

tured by  the  Turks  in  the  Eleventh 

Greeks 

499  B.  C. 

Century;      destroyed    by    Tamerlane 

War  and 

and 

and 

1402  A.  D 

Earthquake. 

Tamerlane. 

1402  A.  D. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  cities  of  Pales- 

tine;  destroyed,  according  to  the  bibli- 

cal account,  by  fire  from  heaven  1897 

B.  C 

Fire. 

1897  B.  C. 

Su'sa,  in  Persia;    mentioned  on  monu- 

ments 660  B.  C.;   captured  by  Alexan- 
der III.  331  B.  C;    by  Antigonus  315 

' 

B.  C;    by  the  Arabs  652  A.  D.;   after 

that  it  decayed ;  ruins  were  discovered 

After 

by  Williams  and  Loftus  1853  A.  D 

Decay. 

652  A.  D. 

Sybaris,  in  Greece;    destroyed  by  the 

Crotoniats  510  B.  C.  by  turning  the 

course  of  the  River  Crathis, 

Archseaus. 

720  B.  C. 

War. 

Crotoniats. 

510  B.  C. 

Thebes,  or  Luxor,  in  Egypt;   flourished 

from  1600-800  B.  C;   captured  by  the 
Persians    625    B.    C;     destroyed    by 

Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy  Lathyrus  86  B.  C 

Menes. 

2717  B.C. 

War. 

Lathyrus. 

86  B.  C. 

Troy,  or  Ilium,  in  Asia  Minor;  destroyed 

by  the  Greeks  about  1184  B.  C;    Dr. 

Schliemann     discovered     ruins,     1872 

A.  D. ;  which  he  considers  ancient  Troy, 

War. 

Greeks. 

1184  B.  C. 

Tyre,  in  Asia  Minor;   destroyed  by  Neb- 

uchadnezzar 572  B.  C. ;    rebuilt;    cap- 

Antigonus315  B.  C;  by  Antiochus  III. 

218  B.C.;  by  the  Crusaders  1128  A.D.; 

Nebuchad- 

572 B.  C. 

by  Chalid   1291    A.  D.;    destroyed   by 

About 

nezzar  and 

and 

the  Turks  1516  A.D 

2750  B.  C. 

War. 

Turks. 

1516  A.  D. 

Veil,  in  Italy;  destroyed  by  the  Romans 

after  ten  years'  siege  396  B.  C 

War. 

Romans. 

396  A.  D. 

Louisiana.  In  1541,  De  Soto  discovered 
the  Mississippi  and  in  1682  La  Salle  voyaged 
down  this  river  to  its  mouth,  naming  the  country 
Louisiana  and  taking  possession  of  it  in  the  name 
of  the  King  of  France.  In  1716,  Bienville  estab- 
lished Fort  Rosalie  in  the  Natchez  country  and 
in  1718  founded  New  Orleans.  In  1717,  the 
Mississippi  Company  was  formed  by  John  Law 
for  colonization  purposes,  and  in  1732  resigned 
its  claim  to  the  territory,  and  Louisiana  became 
a  royal  province.  In  1733,  the  first  settlement 
was  made  at  Baton  Rouge.  In  1750,  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton  was  begun  in  the  territory. 
In  1755,  Louisiana  received  a  large  increase  in 
population  from  the  Acadians,  who  were  driven 
from  their  homes  in  Canada.  By  a  secret  treaty 
in  1762,  France  ceded  Louisiana  to  Spain,  and 
in  1768  the  French  drove  the  first  Spanish  Gov- 
ernor, Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  from  the  colony. 
In  1800,  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  Napoleon  by 
Spain,  and  in  1803,  on  April  30th,  was  purchased 
from  France  by  the  United  States  for  60,000,000 
francs.  In  1806  and  1807,  Aaron  Burr's  scheme 
to  set  up  an  independent  nation  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  caused  much  disturbance  in  New  Orleans, 
and  in  1810  residents  of  eastern  Louisiana 
formed  the  Republic  of  West  Florida  in  an 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  Spanish  Government 
there.  The  district  was  taken  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  United  States  and  made  part  of 
Louisiana  during  the  same  year  after  some 
trouble. 

In  1812,  Louisiana  was  admitted  to  the  Union 
as  a  State,  with  boundaries  as  they  are  now. 
That  same  year  the  first  steam  vessels  on  the 


Mississippi  arrived  from  Pittsburg.  The  battle 
of  New  Orleans  between  the  British  and  Ameri- 
cans was  fought  January  8,  1815,  and  it  was 
the  last  battle  of  the  War  of  1812.  During  the 
period  from  1815  to  1860  there  was  continual 
industrial  activity  and  Louisiana  soon  became 
one  of  the  leading  agricultural  States.  In  1850, 
Baton  Rouge  became  the  seat  of  State  govern- 
ment. On  January  26,  1861,  Louisiana  passed 
the  Ordinance  of  Secession.  The  first  gun  cast 
for  the  Confederate  navy  was  made  at  Gretna, 
near  New  Orleans.  Port  Hudson,  the  last  Con- 
federate stronghold  on  the  Mississippi,  was  cap- 
tured by  General  Banks  July  8,  1853,  and  on 
May  26,  1865,  the  war  in  Louisiana  was  ended 
by  the  surrender  of  General  Kirby  Smith.  From 
1865  to  1874  a  period  of  carpetbag  government 
caused  many  disturbances,  and  on  September 
14,  1S74,  it  was  overthrown  and  a  representative 
government  established.  In  1884,  the  Industrial 
Cotton  Exhibition  was  opened  at  New  Orleans, 
celebrating  the  centennial  of  the  first  exporta- 
tion of  cotton  from  the  United  States.  In  1890, 
Chief  of  Police  David  C.  Hennessy,  of  New  Or- 
leans, was  killed  by  an  Italian  criminal.  In 
1891,  an  organized  band  of  citizens  killed  eleven 
Italian  prisoners  in  the  parish  prison  at  New 
Orleans. 

Lundy's  Lane,  a  locality  in  the  province 
of  Ontario,  near  the  Falls  of  Niagara.  Here, 
July  25,  1814,  an  obstinate  and  undecisive  en- 
gagement was  fought  between  an  American 
force,  numbering  3,000  men,  under  General 
Brown,  and  a  body  of  about  2,000  British  troops 
commanded  by  General  Drummond.     The  loss 


HISTORY 


131 


of  the  Americans  was  743  men ;  that  of  the  Brit- 
ish 878  men. 

Lutzen,  a  small  town  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  famous  for  two  great  battles 
fought  in  its  vicinity.  The  first,  a  brilliant 
victory  of  the  Swedes  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
took  place  November  16,  1632.  The  battle  on 
May  2,  1813,  was  fought  somewhat  farther  to 
the  south,  at  the  village  of  Grosgoschen.  It  was 
the  first  great  conflict  of  the  united  Russian  and 
Prussian  army  with  the  army  of  Napoleon  in 
that  decisive  campaign;  and  the  French  were 
left  in  possession  of  the  field. 

Maine.  Various  but  unsuccessful  attempts 
at  colonization  in  Maine  were  made  between 
the  years  1602  and  1620  by  both  the  French  and 
English.  In  1620,  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  as 
head  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  received  a 
patent  of  all  the  region  between  40°  and  48° 
north  latitude.  In  consequence  of  disputes 
afterward  with  the  Massachusetts  Colony,  the 
company  was  dissolved,  and  in  1639  Gorges 
received  a  formal  charter  of  the  region  between 
the  Piscataqua  and  Kennebec,  under  the  title 
of  Maine.  Internecine  quarrels  between  the 
different  settlements,  on  points  of  jurisdiction, 
caused  the  Massachusetts  Colony  in  1651  to  set 
up  a  claim  to  the  province  under  her  charter, 
and  parliament  sanctioned  it.  In  1677,  all 
claims  of  other  grantees  were  purchased.  From 
this  time  the  history  of  the  province  was  prac- 
tically merged  in  that  of  Massachusetts.  The 
final  separation  occurred  in  1820,  when  Maine 
was  admitted  to  the  Union,  being  the  tenth 
under  the  constitution.  In  1842,  the  boundary 
dispute  between  Maine  and  Great  Britain  was 
settled.  The  "Maine  Liquor  Law"  was  passed 
in  1851.  It  was  repealed  in  1856  and  passed 
again  in  1858,  being  made  a  part  of  the  Consti- 
tution in  1884.  The  death  penalty  was  abol- 
ished in  1876,  restored  in  1883,  and  again  abol- 
ished in  1887.  The  growth  of  the  wood-pulp 
and  paper-mill  industry  began  about  1880,  and 
in  1890  there  was  a  rapid  development  of  the 
lumber,  granite,  ice,  and  fishery  trades.  In 
1879-80  occurred  a  notable  contest  for  the 
governorship  between  the  Republicans  and 
Fusionists. 

Mamelukes  (m&m'a-lookz).  Originally, 
male  slaves  imported  from  Circassia  into  Egypt 
by  the  rulers  of  that  country.  They  were  in- 
structed in  military  exercises,  but  soon  exhibited 
a  spirit  of  insubordination,  assassinating  the 
Sultan,  Turan  Shah,  and,  in  1258,  appointing 
Ibegh,  one  of  their  own  number,  Sultan  of 
Egypt.  They  were  at  length  conquered  by 
Selim  I.,  and  Cairo,  their  capital,  was  taken  by 
storm,  after  they  governed  Egypt  263  years. 
During  the  French  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Napo- 
leon I.,  the  Mamelukes  formed  a  fine  body  of 
cavalry,  and  for  a  time  seriously  annoyed  the 
invaders,  though  many  afterwards  joined  them. 
In  1811,  Mehemet  Ali  annihilated  their  power 
by  treacherously  inveigling  and  destroying  470 
of  their  chief  leaders. 

Manila  Bay,  Battle  of.  A  remarkable 
engagement  between  the  American  Asiatic 
squadron,  under  command  of  Commodore  George 
Dewey,  and  a  Spanish  naval  force,  under  com- 
mand of  Admiral  Montojo,  supported  by  land 


batteries,  fought  on  May  1,  1898.  When  it 
became  evident,  in  March,  1898,  that  war  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Spain  was  inevit- 
able, Commodore  Dewey  began  to  mobilize  his 
vessels  in  the  harbor  of  Hong  Kong  preparatory 
to  striking  a  blow  at  the  Philippine  Islands  on 
the  breaking  out  of  hostilities.  By  April  1st, 
he  had  gathered  there  his  flagship,  the  "Olym- 
pia,"  a  steel  protected  cruiser;  the  "Boston," 
a  partially  protected  steel  cruiser;  the  "Raleigh," 
protected  steel  cruiser;  the  "Concord,"  steel 
gunboat;  and  the  "Petrel,"  steel  gunboat. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  month,  the  "Baltimore," 
a  steel  protected  cruiser  the  "Hugh  McCulloch," 
revenue  cutter,  and  two  newly-purchased  ships 
loaded  with  coal  and  other  supplies,  joined  the 
fleet.  Lying  in  Manila  Bay,  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  in  the  world,  was  a  Spanish 
squadron,  comprising,  the  "Reina  Christina," 
steel  cruiser;  "Castilla,"  wood  cruiser;  "Ve- 
lasco,"  iron  cruiser;  "Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa," 
iron  cruiser;  "Don  Juan  de  Austria,"  iron 
cruiser;  "Isla  de  Cuba,"  steel  protected  cruiser; 
"Isla  de  Luzon,"  steel  protected  cruiser;  "Gen- 
eral Lezo,"  gunboat;  "El  Cano,"  gunboat; 
"Isla  de  Mindanao,"  auxiliary  cruiser;  "Mar- 
ques del  Duero";  and  two  torpedo  boats.  It 
was  supposed  that  the  harbor  had  been  planted 
with  mines  and  torpedoes  and  supplied  with 
numerous  searchlights,  and  that  the  forts  on 
the  shore  had  been  strengthened  in  anticipation 
of  an  attack. 

The  United  States  squadron  entered  the  bay 
on  the  night  of  April  30th,  and  at  5  o'clock  on 
Sunday  morning,  May  1st,  opened  fire  on  the 
Spanish  squadron  and  the  forts.  Two  engage- 
ments were  fought,  and  during  the  brief  interval 
the  United  States  squadron  drew  off  to  the  east 
side  of  the  bay  to  enable  officers  and  men  to 
get  their  breakfast.  The  entire  battle  lasted 
less  than  two  hours.  The  Spanish  flagship, 
"Reina  Christina,"  was  completely  burned;  the 
"Castilla"  suffered  the  same  fate;  the  "Don 
Juan  de  Austria  "  was  blown  up  by  a  shell  from 
one  of  the  United  States  vessels;  one  or  more 
ships  were  burned;  and  the  entire  Spanish  fleet 
was  destroyed.  After  his  second  attack,  in 
which  he  destroyed  the  water  battery  at  Cavite, 
Commodore  Dewey  anchored  off  the  city  of 
Manila  and  sent  word  to  the  governor-general 
that  if  a  shot  was  fired  from  the  city  at  the  fleet, 
he  would  lay  Manila  in  ashes.  The  Spanish  loss 
was  about  2,000  officers  and  men.  The  United 
States  squadron  did  not  lose  a  ship  or  a  man. 
Two  vessels  were  damaged  in  theit  upper  works, 
and  eight  men  were  variously  injured. 

Maryland.  One  of  the  original  thirteen 
States,  it  was  named  after  the  mother  of  Charles 
II.  The  State  was  settled  by  Lord  Baltimore 
in  1632,  under  a  grant  from  Charles  II.  Puritan 
and  Virginian  colonies  disputed  the  authority 
of  the  proprietary  governors,  and  it  was  not  till 
1714,  after  many  broils  and  considerable  blood- 
shed, extending  over  three-quarters  of  a  century, 
that  the  rights  of  the  Calvert  family  were  finally 
settled.  In  1649,  the  Assembly  passed  an  act 
allowing  Christians  of  all  sects  the  public  exer- 
cise of  their  faith.  Baltimore  was  founded  in 
1730.  The  Virginia  boundary  was  adjusted  in 
1668,    that    of    Delaware    and    Pennsylvania, 


132 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


known  in  our  history  as  "Mason  and  Dixon's 
Line,"  in  1760.  A  republican  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1776.  The  "Maryland  Line"  was 
famous  in  the  Revolutionary  War  for  its  gal- 
lantry. The  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted 
in  1788.  In  the  War  of  1812,  Maryland  suffered 
much  from  Admiral  Cockburn's  fleet;  French- 
town,  Havre  de  Grace,  and  Frederick  were 
burned,  and  Fort  McHenry  unsuccessfully  bom- 
barded. The  only  important  battle  fought 
within  the  State  during  the  late  Civil  War  was 
that  of  Antietam,  in  September,  1862. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  This  line 
was  originally  the  parallel  of  latitude  39  degrees, 
43  minutes,  26.3  seconds  which  separates  Penn- 
sylvania from  Maryland.  It  received  its  name 
from  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  two 
English  mathematicians  and  astronomers,  who 
traced  the  greater  part  of  it  between  the  years 
1763  and  1767,  though  the  last  thirty-six  miles 
were  finished  by  others.  It  was  practically  the 
dividing  line  between  the  free  and  the  slave 
States  m  the  East.  During  the  discussion  in 
Congress  on  the  Missouri  Compromise,  John 
Randolph,  of  Roanoke,  Virginia,  made  free  use 
of  the  phrase,  and  thereafter  it  became  popular 
as  signifying  the  dividing  line  between  the  free 
and  slave  territory  throughout  the  country. 
The  boundary,  as  thus  extended  by  popular 
usage,  followed  the  Ohio  River  to  the  Mississippi, 
and  west  of  that  was  the  parallel  of  36  degrees, 
30  minutes,  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri, 
though  Missouri  itself  was  a  slave  State. 

Massachusetts  was  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  States.  Though  first  visited  by  the 
English  under  Bartholomew  Gosnold  in  1602, 
the  first  permanent  settlement  was  made  by  the 
Puritan  colony,  which  landed  from  the  "May- 
flower" at  Plymouth  in  1620.  The  expedition 
commanded  by  John  Endicott,  which  arrived 
in  1628,  acting  under  the  auspices  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Company,  which  had  received  a 
royal  charter,  gradually  planted  settlements  at 
Charlestown,  Boston,  Watertown,  Dorchester, 
Roxbury,  Salem,  Mystic,  Saugus  (Lynn),  and 
other  places.  The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts 
threatened  the  rights  of  the  colonists,  but  their 
charter  was  finally  confirmed  in  1662.  King 
Philip's  War  occurred  in  1675-76,  and  put  the 
colonists  in  great  peril.  In  1684,  the  Massachu- 
setts charter  was  declared  forfeited  to  the  CrowTi 
under  James  II.,  but  it  was  restored  at  the  acces- 
sion of  William  and  Mary.  In  1692,  the  colonies 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  Plymouth  were  con- 
solidated. Tfie  provmce  took  active  part  in  the 
various  French  and  Indian  wars,  and  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  expedition  which  captured 
Louisburg  in  1745.  The  Boston  Massacre  in 
1770,  the  destruction  of  the  tea  in  1773,  and  the 
Port  Bill  in  1774  were  important  incidents  pre- 
ceding the  Revolution.  At  Lexington  and  Con- 
cord, in  1775,  Massachusetts  made  the  final 
appeal  to  arms.  At  this  time  the  population  of 
the  province  was  352,000.  The  State  Constitu- 
tion, still  essentially  the  organic  law,  was  formed 
in  1780,  and  the  Federal  Constitution  was  rati- 
fied in  1788.  The  total  expenditures  of  the 
State  on  account  of  the  late  Civil  War  amounted 
to  $30,162,200. 

Mecklenburg  Declaration.  This  dec- 


laration was  adopted,  it  is  said,  in  May,  1775,  at 
a  midnight  meeting  of  representatives  of  the 
militia  of  Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina. 
It  declares  that  the  people  of  that  county  are 
free  and  independent  of  the  British  Crown,  and 
not  only  is  its  general  tenor  that  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  but  many  phrases  are 
word  for  word  as  they  appear  in  that  document. 
The  minutes  of  the  midnight  meeting  are  said 
to  have  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1800.  Whether 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  followed  the 
words  of  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  or  whether 
the  latter,  having  probably  been  replaced  from 
memory,  was  tiA,ctured  with  the  former,  is  a 
disputed  question. 

Mexico.  The  history  of  ancient  Mexico 
exhibits  two  distinct  and  widely  differing  peri- 
ods —  that  of  the  Toltecs  and  that  of  the  Aztecs. 
The  Eighth  Century  is  the  traditional  date  when 
the  Toltecs  are  related  to  have  come  from  the 
North.  Their  capital  was  established  at  Tula, 
north  of  the  Mexican  Valley.  Their  laws  and 
usages  stamp  them  as  a  people  of  mild  and 
peaceful  instincts,  industrious,  active,  and  enter- 
prising. It  is  related  that  a  severe  famine  and 
pestilence  all  but  destroyed  the  Toltec  people  in 
the  Eleventh  Century,  and  near  the  end  of  the 
next  century,  a  fresh  migration  brought,  among 
other  kindred  nations,  the  Aztecs  into  the  land. 
Within  two  centuries  and  a  half  this  last  people 
had  become  predominant.  But  their  rule  was, 
in  a  great  degree,  a  reversion  to  savagery. 

The  Aztecs  founded,  about  1325,  the  city  of 
Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico;  a  hundred  years  later 
they  had  extended  their  sway  beyond  their 
plateau  valley,  and  on  the  arrival  of  the  Span- 
iards, their  empire  was  found  to  stretch  from 
ocean  to  ocean.  Their  government  was  an 
elective  empire,  the  deceased  prince  being 
usually  succeeded  by  a  brother  or  nephew,  who 
must  be  a  tried  warrior;  but  sometimes  the 
successor  was  chosen  from  among  the  powerful 
nobles.  The  monarch  wielded  despotic  power, 
save  in  the  case  of  his  great  feudal  vassals; 
these  exercised  a  very  similar  authority  over 
the  peasant  class,  below  whom,  again,  were  the 
slaves.  The  Mexicans  apparently  believed  in 
one  supreme  invisible  creator  of  all  things,  the 
ruler  of  the  universe ;  but  the  popular  faith  was 
polytheistic.  At  the  head  of  the  Aztec  pantheon 
was  the  frightful  Huitzilopochtli,  the  Mexican 
Mars.  The  victims  were  borne  to  the  summit 
of  the  great  pyramidal  temples,  where  the 
priests,  in  sight  of  assembled  crowds,  bound 
them  to  the  sacrificial  stone,  and,  slashing  open 
the  breast,  tore  from  it  the  bleeding  heart  and 
held  it  up  before  the  image  of  the  god. 

Cortez  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  in  1519.  Before 
his  energy,  and  the  superior  civilization  of  his 
followers,  the  power  of  the  native  empire  crum- 
bled away.  In  1540  Mexico  was  united  with 
other  American  territories  —  at  one  time  all  the 
country  from  Panama  to  Vancouver's  Island  — 
under  the  name  of  New  Spain,  and  governed 
by  viceroys  appointed  by  the  mother  country. 
The  intolerant  spirit  of  the  Catholic  clergy  led 
to  the  suppression  of  almost  every  trace  of  the 
ancient  Aztec  nationality  and  civilization,  while 
the  commercial  system  crippled  the  resources  of 
the  colony;    for  all  foreign  trade  with  any  coun- 


HISTORY 


133 


try  other  than  Spain  was  prohibited  on  pain  of 
death.  Mexico  ranked  first  among  all  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  regard  to  population,  mate- 
rial riches,  and  natural  products.  In  1810,  the 
discontent  broke  into  open  rebellion,  and  a 
guerilla  warfare  was  kept  up  until,  in  1821,  the 
capital  was  surrendered  by  O'Donoju,  the  last 
of  the  viceroys.  In  the  following  year,  General 
Iturbide,  who,  in  1821,  had  issued  the  plan  de 
Iguala,  providing  for  the  independence  of  Mexico 
under  a  prince  of  the  reigning  houses,  had  him- 
self proclaimed  emperor;  but  the  guerilla  leader 
Guerrero,  his  former  ally,  and  General  Santa  Ana 
raised  the  republican  standard,  and  in  1823  he 
was  banished  to  Italy  with  a  pension.  Return- 
ing the  following  year  he  was  taken  and  shot, 
and  the  federal  republic  of  Mexico  was  finally 
established. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  after  this  the 
history  of  Mexico  is  a  record  of  nearly  chronic 
disorder  and  civil  war.  In.  1836,  Texas  secured 
its  independence,  for  which  it  had  struggled  for 
several  years,  and  which  Mexico  was  compelled 
to  recognize  in  1845.  In  that  year  Texas  was 
incorporated  with  the  United  States;  but  its 
western  boundary  was  not  settled,  and  war 
ensued  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 
From  the  fall  of  Santa  Ana  in  1855,  down  to 
1867,  great  confusion  prevailed. 

In  1853,  Benito  Juarez  became  president,  but 
his  claims  were  contested  by  General  Miramon, 
the  head  of  the  reactionary  or  clerical  party, 
and  the  country  was  plunged  in  civil  war.  Dur- 
ing this  period  of  internal  disorder,  the  Cortes 
passed  an  act  suspending  all  payments  to  for- 
eigners for  two  years;  the  result  was  the  dis- 
.patch  of  a  fleet  of  English,  French,  and  Spanish 
ships  into  the  Mexican  Gulf  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  satisfaction.  In  April,  1862,  Emperor 
Napoleon  formally  declared  war  against  Mexico ; 
but  the  French  finally  had  to  withdraw,  without 
permanent  success,  in  1867,  largely  because  of  the 
attitude  of  the  United  States.  Maximilian,  who 
had  become  Emperor  of  Mexico  under  French 
support,  was  executed  in  the  same  year,  and 
Juarez  returned  to  power.  On  his  death  in 
1872,  the  chief  justice,  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  assumed 
the  presidency,  in  which,  after  a  revolution,  he 
was  succeeded  in  1876  by  General  Porfirio  Diaz, 
one  of  the  ablest  of  Mexican  soldiers  and  admin- 
istrators, who  has  since  then,  with  the  exception 
of  one  term,  been  regularly  reelected.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1901,  the  Pan-American  Congress,  with  rep- 
resentatives from  all  the  countries  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere,  convened  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 
In  1907,  an  increase  and  reorganization  of  the 
army  was  effected. 

In  1910,  a  rebellion  was  started  under  Madero, 
but  Diaz  immediately  took  steps  to  suppress  it. 
American  citizens  [and  property  were  reported 
to  be  endangered,  but  intervention  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  was  found  unnecessary. 

Michigan.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Indian  words,  meaning  "a  weir  of  fish."  The 
State  was  the  thirteenth  admitted  under  the 
Federal  Constitution.  Though  visited  as  early 
as  1610  by  French  missionaries  and  fur-traders, 
the  first  European  settlement  w^as  made  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  by  Father  Marquette  in  1668.  Fort 
Michilimackinac,    now    Mackinaw,    was    estab- 


lished three  years  later.  In  1701  Antoine  Cadil- 
lac founded  Detroit.  With  other  French  pos- 
sessions it  came  into  the  ownership  of  England 
in  1763.  This  was  followed  by  the  conspiracy 
of  Pontiac,  and  the  massacre  of  the  garrison  at 
Michilimackinac.  After  the  Revolutionary  War, 
Michigan  did  not  come  into  the  possession  of 
the  United  States  till  1796,  and  it  was  thjn 
included  in  the  government  of  the  Northwest 
Territory.  The  Territory  of  Michigan  was 
formed  in  1805.  In  the  War  of  1812-15  it  was 
the  scene  of  several  bloody  contests  and  butch- 
eries perpetrated  by  the  British  and  their  Indian 
allies.  Between  1819  and  1836  the  Indians 
ceded  their  title  to  all  of  the  Lower  and  part  of 
the  Upper  Peninsula.  In  1836.  Congress  passed 
a  bill  admitting  Michigan  as  a  State  on  condition 
that  she  gave  up  a  claim  made  on  a  strip  of 
Ohio,  and  accepted  the  whole  region  known  as 
the  Upper  Peninsula  instead. 

Minnesota.  The  name  is  derived  from 
an  Indian  word,  signifying  "cloudy  water." 
Hennepin  and  La  Salle  visited  the  region  as 
early  as  1680.  Within  the  present  century.  Pike, 
Long,  Keating,  Nicollet,  Schoolcraft,  Owen,  and 
others  explored  it  thoroughly,  but  it  was  not 
until  1812  that  the  United  States  had  any 
authority  within  its  limits.  Fort  Snelling  was 
established  in  1819, .and  in  1837  lumbering  in- 
dustries began  to  attract  immigration.  The 
Territory  established  in  1849  embraced  about 
twice  the  limits  of  the  present  State,  the  western 
limit  extending  to  the  Missouri  and  White  Earth 
rivers.  In  1851,  the  Sioux  ceded  all  their  lands 
west  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Big  Sioux  River. 
The  State  was  admitted  to  the  Union  May  11,. 
1858.  The  portion  of  the  State  lying  west  of 
the  Mississippi  originally  belonged  to  the  Louis- 
iana Purchase,  and  the  eastern  portion  was  a 
part  of  what  was  known  as  the  "Northwest 
Territory."  Minnesota  was  the  nineteenth  State 
admitted.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  Sioux  War 
and  massacre  in  1862-63. 

Mississippi.  This  region  was  first  trav- 
ersed by  De  Soto  in  1542,  and  in  1682  La  Salle 
descended  ihe  Mississippi  (the  name  derived 
from  Indian  words  meaning  "great  water"), 
took  formal  possession,  and  called  the  adjacent 
country  Louisiana.  Iberville  built  a  fort  on  the 
Bay  of  Biloxi  in  1699,  and  in  1716  Fort  Rosalie 
was  erected  on  the  site  of  Natchez.  After  the 
cession  of  the  east  portion  of  Louisiana  (includ- 
ing what  is  now  Mississippi)  to  Great  Britain, 
in  1763,  and  until  the  Revolutionary  War,  immi- 
gration proceeded  very  slowly.  The  Territory 
of  Mississippi  was  organized  in  1798.  In  1804 
the  boundaries  were  enlarged,  and  Mississippi 
was  made  to  comprise  the  whole  of  the  present 
States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  north  of  the 
31st  parallel.  The  region  south  of  that  line 
between  the  Pearl  and  Perdido  rivers  was  added 
in  1812,  though  claimed  by  Spain.  Alabama 
was  organized  as  a  Territory  in  1817,  and  Mis- 
sissippi was  admitted  as  a  State,  the  seventh 
under  the  Federal  Constitution.  A  new  consti- 
tution was  formed  in  1832.  The  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  January  9,  1861.  The 
principal  military  events  within  the  State  during 
the  war  of  1861-65  were  the  battles  of  luka  and 
Corinth  and  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  which  sur- 


i 


134 


THE   STANDARD    DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


rendered  on  July  4,  1863.  The  State  was  form- 
ally readmitted  to  the  Union  in  1870.  On  Jan- 
uary 29,  1903,  the  Yazoo  Canal  was  opened, 
restoring  to  Vicksburg  the  water  front  it  lost 
during  1876,  when  the  Federal  Government 
attempted  to  dredge  a  canal  through  six  miles 
of  forest,  tapping  the  Yazoo  River  above  that 
city  and  diverting  the  flow  of  the  Mississippi. 

Missouri.  The  name  of  the  State  signifies 
"big  muddy."  The  settlement  and  progress  of 
Missouri  were  at  first  slower  than  in  the  lower 
portions  of  French  Louisiana.  Its  oldest  town, 
Ste.  Genevieve,  was  founded  in  1755.  In  1762, 
France  ceded  to  Spain  the  portion  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  to  England  the  section  east  of 
the  river.  Numbers  of  French  Canadians  had 
settled  along  the  whole  line  of  the  river,  and  an 
active  trade  had  been  carried  on  between  upper 
and  lower  Louisiana.  With  liberal  grants  of  lands 
to  colonists,  immigrants  flocked  hither  from 
Spain.  In  1775,  St.  Louis,  originally  a  depot 
of  the  fur-trade,  contained  800  inhabitants, 
while  Ste.  Genevieve  had  only  460.  Spain  sided 
with  the  colonists  during  the  Revolution,  and 
her  arms  were  successful  m  lower  Louisiana  and 
Florida.  In  1780,  however,  St.  Louis  was  at- 
tacked by  a  force  of  English  and  Indians  from 
Michilimackinac,  and  was  only  relieved  by  the 
arrival  of  General  Clarke  ^rom  Kaskaskia  with 
American  assistance.  With  the  retrocession  of 
Louisiana  to  France  in  1800,  and  its  subsequent 
sale  to  the  United  States  by  Napoleon  three 
years  later,  its  political  ownership  became  fixed. 
Missouri  was  included  in  the  Territory  of  Louis- 
iana, which  had  been  set  off  in  1805,  with  St. 
Louis  as  the  seat  of  territorial  government. 
In  1812,  with  the  admission  of  the  present  State 
of  Louisiana  into  the  Union,  the  name  of  the 
Territory  was  changed  to  Missouri.  With  rapid 
immigration  the  population  had  swelled  in  1817 
to  60,000.  In  1820,  by  the  celebrated  compro- 
mise, Missouri  was  admitted  ^o  the  Union  as  a 
slaveholding  State,  on  condition  that  slavery 
should  never  exist  north  of  latitude  36°  30',  in 
lands  farther  west,  out  of  which  new  States 
should  be  formed.  During  the  late  Civil  War 
repeated  efforts  were  made  to  force  secession  on 
Missouri,  but  unsuccessfully.  Though  no  great 
battles  were  fought  within  the  State  limits,  it 
was  the  field  of  active  military  operations  and, 
in  many  sections,  of  bloody  guerilla-fighting. 
The  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek,  on  August  10, 
1861,  where  General  Lyon,  the  Federal  com- 
mander, was  killed,  and  the  capture  of  Lexing- 
ton by  the  Confederate  general.  Sterling  Price, 
on  September  20,  1861,  were  the  most  important 
events  of  the  first  year  of  the  conflict.  Several 
times  General  Price  held  more  than  half  the 
State  in  his  hands,  and  it  was  not  till  1864  that 
the  Confederates  were  finally  expelled.  In  June, 
1865,  a  new  constitution  was  ratified  by  the 
people.  The  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution  was  adopted  by  the  legislature 
in  1869.  Missouri  was  the  eleventh  State 
admitted  under  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Montana.  In  1743,  Chevalier  de  la  Veren- 
drye,  with  a  party  of  French  Canadians,  entered 
Montana  and  discovered  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
but  made  no  attempt  at  settlement.  The  coun- 
try came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 


by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803.  In  1804 
and  1806,  Lewis  and  Clark  made  exploring  expe- 
ditions up  the  Missouri  and  across  the  mountains 
to  the  Pacific,  crossing  Montana  twice.  Alex- 
ander Henry,  in  1808,  led  a  party  of  fur-traders 
into  the  Yellowstone  country,  and  in  1806-1810, 
John  Colter,  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  expedition, 
engaged  in  hunting  and  trapping  in  the  territory. 
Fort  Union,  the  first  permanent  fort  in  Montana, 
was  built  in  1829  by  Kenneth  Mackenzie,  and 
in  1832  the  first  steamer  ascended  the  Missouri 
into  Montana.  Fort  Benton  was  built  in  1846 
by  Alexander  Culbertson.  In  1853-54,  Mon- 
tana was  explored  by  a  scientific  and  military 
expedition  sent  out  by  Governor  Isaac  J.  Stevens, 
of  Washington  Territory.  The  Gold  Creek 
mines  were  discovered  in  1862,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  development  of  the  mines  of  Beaver- 
head Valley  and  Bighole  River  began.  In  1864, 
Montana  was  organized  as  a  Territory  and 
Helena  and  Butte  City  were  founded.  From 
1864  to  1879  there  was  war  with  the  Sioux, 
Blackfeet,  and  Cheyennes.  In  1874,  Helena  was 
made  territorial  capital.  The  battle  of  Little 
Big  Horn,  when  General  Custer  and  his  men 
were  massacred,  occurred  in  1876.  In  1881,  the 
first  railroad  reached  Helena,  and  in  1883  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed  to 
this  point,  relieving  the  financial  distress.  In 
1889,  Montana  was  admitted  as  a  State.  The 
Montana  State  University  was  opened  at  Helena 
in  1891. 

Nebraska.  The  name  first  applied  to  the 
river  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  signifies  "Shallow 
Water."  When  originally  organized  as  a  Ter- 
ritory in  1854,  it  extended  from  latitude  40" 
north  to  the  northern  national  boundary  and 
west  to  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
Territory  of  Colorado  was  set  off  from  this  on 
February  28,  1861,  and  that  of  Dakota  a  few 
months  later.  At  the  same  time  Nebraska  re- 
ceived from  Utah  and  Washington  Territories  a 
tract  of  15,378  square  miles,  lying  on  the  south- 
west slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which,  how- 
ever, was  taken  from  her  with  an  additional 
portion  in  1863  to  form  the  Territory  of  Idaho. 
Nebraska  was  thus  cut  down  to  its  present 
Hmits.  Measures  to  form  a  State  government 
were  made  in  1860  and  in  1864,  but  the  first  was 
defeated  by  the  popular  vote,  and  the  second 
(being  an  enabling  act  of  Congress)  was  not 
acted  on.  The  Civil  War  and  Indian  hostilities 
checked  the  growth  of  the  Territory  during  1861- 
65.  In  1866,  a  constitution  was  framed  and 
ratified  by  popular  vote,  and  in  1867  Nebraska 
was  admitted  as  a  State,  being  the  twenty- 
fourth  under  the  Constitution. 

Nevada.  The  region  within  the  limits  of 
Nevada  forms  part  of  the  Mexican  cession  of 
■1848.  It  was  organized  by  act  of  Congress  as  a 
Territory  in  1861,  from  a  portion  of  Utah,  and 
embraced  the  region  bounded  north  by  the  pres- 
ent boundary  of  the  State,  east  by  the  116th 
meridian,  south  by  the  37th  parallel,  and  west 
by  California.  A  portion  of  California  which 
had  been  included,  the  latter-named  State  re- 
fused to  transfer,  and  by  an  additional  act  of 
Congress,  in  1861,  a  further  portion  of  Utah 
was  added,  extending  the  east  boundary  the 
distance    of    one    degree.     Nevada    became    a 


HISTORY 


135 


State  October  31,  1864.  In  1866,  a  third  portion 
of  Utah  was  added,  extending  the  east  boundary 
to  the  114th  meridian,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  portion  of  the  State  south  of  the  37th 
parallel  was  added  from  Arizona.  The  earliest 
settlements  were  made  by  the  Mormons  in  1848. 
Gold  was  discovered  in  1849;  but  the  rapid 
advance  in  population  dates  from  the  .discovery 
of  silver  in  1859.  Among  the  earliest  discover- 
ies was  that  of  the  world-renowned  Comstock 
lode.  In  1906-07  rich  discoveries  of  gold  were 
made  at  Goldfields  and  other  points.  The  State 
was  the  twenty-fifth  admitted  under  the  Con- 
stitution. 

New  Hampshire.  One  of  the  thirteen 
original  States,  the  first  settlements  were  made 
within  the  limits  of  New  Hampshire  at  Dover 
and  Portsmouth  in  1623.  The  district  was 
annexed  to  Massachusetts  in  1641,  became  a 
royal  province  in  1679,  and  was  again  annexed 
to  Massachusetts  in  1689.     It  became  a  separate 

f)rovince  in  1741  and  remained  so  till  the  Revo- 
ution.  Indian  atrocities  were  frequent  till  the 
English  conquered  Canada.  It  was  supposed 
till  1764  that  the  present  State  of  Vermont  was 
included  in  the  province.  The  territory,  how- 
ever, was  claimed  by  New  York;  the  contro- 
versy lasted  till  the  independence  of  Vermont 
was  acknowledged  in  1790.  In  1776,  New  Hamp- 
shire declared  its  independence  and  established 
a  temporary  government  of  its  own.  It  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
the  battle  of  Bennington  was  fought  within  its 
limits.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  ratified  in  1788.  During  the  Civil  War 
New  Hampshire  furnished  34,606  men  to  the 
Union  cause. 

New  Jersey.  The  State  of  New  Jersey, 
one  of  the  thirteen  original  States,  was  originally 
a  part  of  New  York,  and  was  first  settled  about 
1617  by  the  Dutch.  A  patent  granted  by 
Charles  II.  of  England,  to  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  York,  in  1664,  gave  the  latter  a  claim  on  all 
the  country  between  the  Delaware  and  Con- 
necticut rivers.  An  expedition  under  Colonel 
Nicolls  conquered  the  whole  territory.  The 
portion  of  the  province  now  named  New  Jersey 
received  its  name  from  Sir  George  Carteret,  to 
whom  the  Duke  of  York  had  sold  his  claim,  in 
memory  of  the  Island  of  Jersey  of  which  the 
former  had  been  governor.  A  constitution  was 
formed  for  it  in  1665  as  a  separate  colony.  In 
1776,  a  State  constitution  was  formed,  and  dur- 
ing the  Revolution  the  battles  of  Trenton, 
Princeton.  Millstone,  Red  Bank,  and  Monmouth 
were  fought  within  the  State  limits.  'The  Fed- 
eral Constitution  was  ratified  December  18,  1787, 
the  State  capital  established  at  Trenton  in  1790, 
and  the  present  constitution  August  13,  1844. 
The  State  furnished  79,511  fully  equipped  troops 
to  the  Union  army  and  navy  during  the  Civil 
War. 

New  York.  The  Bay  of  New  York  and 
the  river  emptying  into  it  were  explored  by 
Hendrik  Hudson,  a  navigator  in  the  employ- 
ment of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  m 
September,  1609.  In  1614,  the  Dutch  made 
settlements  on  Manhattan  Island,  and  the  name 
New  Netherland  was  extended  to  all  the  uncon- 
quered  regions  lying  between  Virginia  and  Can- 


ada. Seven  years  later  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  was  incorporated  and  took  possession. 
In  1623,  settlements  were  made  at  Albany  and 
on  Long  Island,  and  in  1626,  Peter  Minuit,  the 
Director-General,  bought  Manhattan  Island  of 
the  Indians.  In  1629,  the  company  passed  the 
act  under  which  the  manorial  monopolies  in 
land  were  established.  In  spite  of  Indian  wars 
the  colony  grew  so  fast  that  it  came  in  collision 
with  the  English  on  the  Connecticut  and  the 
Swedes  on  the  Delaware  River.  The  claims 
made  by  the  English  to  New  Netherland  on  the 
score  of  Cabot's  prior  discovery  were  finally 
enforced  in  the  charter  granted  by  Charles  II. 
to  the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  armed  expedition 
of  Colonel  Nicolls  in  1664.  The  Dutch  under 
Governor  Stuyvesant  surrendered,  and  New 
Netherland  became  New  York,  though  the  Dutch 
reconquered  and  held  the  province  for  a  short 
period,  before  English  rule  became  permanent. 
The  tyranny  exercised  over  the  province  by 
Francis  Nicholson,  the  lieutenant  of  Andros, 
who  had  been  appointed  to  be  governor,  caused 
the  revolt  in  1689  headed  by  Jacob  Leisler, 
which  was  at  first  successful,  though  Leisler  was 
two  years  later  executed  for  treason.  In  1687 
began  the  series  of  French  and  Indian  wars  in 
which  the  New  York  colonists  bore  so  important 
a  part.  The  first  of  these  closed  in  1697,  with 
the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  The  second,  or  Queen 
Anne's  War,  lasted  from  1702  to  1713.  The 
most  important  act  in  this  long  conflict  between 
the  French  and  English  for  the  sovereignty  of 
North  America,  and  the  end  of  the  historic 
drama,  began  in  1754.  The  contest  lasted  with 
varying  fortunes  until  the  French  were  finally 
driven  from  their  line  of  fortresses  on  the  lake 
and  the  war  was  ended  by  General  Wolfe's  expe- 
dition, which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Quebec 
and  the  final  overthrow  of  French  power  in 
Canada  in  1759.  The  province  of  New  York 
entered  zealously  into  the  Revolutionary  cause, 
though  it  contained  a  large  loyalist  faction. 
Many  of  the  most  important  military  operations 
were  conducted  within  its  limits.  The  two  lead- 
ing battles  fought  were  that  of  Long  Island  on 
August  27,  1776,  whereby  the  British  secured 
and  held  possession  of  New  York  City  till  the 
end  of  the  war;  and  the  battle  of  Saratoga,  on 
October  17,  1777,  which  occasioned  the  surrender 
of  General  Burgoyne's  army.  On  November  25, 
1783,  New  York  was  evacuated  by  the  British. 
In  1790,  the  conflicting  claims  of  New  York  and 
New  Hampshire  were  settled  by  the  erection  of 
the  disputed  territory  into  the  State  of  Vermont. 
In  1797,  Albany  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
State,  and  slavery  was  abolished  in  1817.  Dur- 
ing the  War  of  1812  the  more  notable  incidents 
within  State  limits  were  the  battle  of  Lundy's 
Lane,  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  fought  by  General 
Winfield  Scott,  and  Commodore  McDonough's 
naval  defeat  of  the  British  on  Lake  Champlain, 
both  in  1813.  The  Erie  Canal,  originally  pro- 
jected in  1800,  was,  through  DeWitt  Clinton's 
influence,  completed  in  1825.  During  the  Civil 
War,  the  State  furnished  455,568  Union  troops. 
Nonconformists.  In  English  history, 
those  who  declined  to  conform  their  worship  to 
that  by  law  established.  They  were  of  two 
kinds:    First,  those  who,  being  religious,  wor- 


136 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


shiped  nowhere;  second,  those  who  attended 
the  services  of  some  other  religious  denomina- 
tion than  the  EstabHshed  Church.  It  was  more 
frequently  used  of  the  latter  class.  The  name 
was  first  applied  to  those  who  declined  to  con- 
form to  the  enactment  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
of  Edward  VI.,  passed  in  1549.  It  was  revived 
and  applied  to  the  2,000  clergymen,  who  had  to 
surrender  their  livings  on  account  of  their  in- 
ability to  conform  to  the  more  celebrated  Act  of 
Uniformity  of  Charles  II.,  first  enforced  on 
August  24,  1662.  Etymologically  viewed,  a 
Dissenter  and  Nonconformist  somewhat  differ. 
The  former  word  denotes  that  he  feels  differ- 
ently from  Churchmen,  that  his  sympathies  go 
in  a  different  direction;  the  latter  word  refers, 
not  to  his  feelings,  but  to  his  action  with  respect 
to  public  worship.  The  laws  formerly  existing 
required  him  to  conform  to  that  of  tne  Estab- 
lished Church  by  attending  the  services  and 
partaking  of  the  communion.  The  two  words, 
dissenter  and  non-conformist,  as  generally  refer- 
ring to  the  same  individual,  became  inter- 
changeable. 

Normandy.  An  ancient  northwest  pro- 
vince of  France,  extending  along  the  English 
channel,  from  a  point  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Somme  to  the  bay  of  Cancale,  now  divided  into 
the  departments  of  Seine-Inf^rieure,  Eure,  Cal- 
vados, Orne,  and  La  Manche.  Rouen  was  the 
capital  and  the  chief  town  of  Upper  Normandy, 
and  Caen  the  chief  tow^n  of  Lower  Normandy. 
The  Romans  included  the  territory  in  Gallia 
Lugdunensis  Secunda.  It  formed  part  of  Neus- 
tria  under  the  Merovingians,  and  received  the 
name  of  Normandy  from  the  Northmen,  who 
occupied  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  Tenth  Century. 
In  912,  Charles  the  Simple  gave  his  sanction  to 
their  conquests,  and  Rollo,  their  chief,  received 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Normandy.  The  sixth  suc- 
cessor of  Rollo,  William,  became  in  1066  the 
conqueror  and  first  Norman  king  of  England. 
On  his  death  (1087)  England  and  Normandy  were 
separated,  the  latter  reverting  to  Robert  Courte- 
heuse,  while  William  Rufus  seized  upon  the 
former.  Henry  I.  ruled  over  both,  but  his 
daughter  Matilda  was  only  Duchess  of  Normandy. 
Her  son,  Henry  II.,  accomplished  another  re- 
union. From  King  John  Normandy  was  wrested 
by  Philip  Augustus  of  France;  but  it  was  twice 
again  held  by  the  English,  first  under  Edward  III., 
and  a  second  time,  from  1417  to  1450,  under 
Henry  V.  and  Henry  VI.  Charles  VII.  of  France 
made  it  an  integral  portion  of  his  kingdom. 

North  Carolina.  In  1663  eight  noble- 
men received  from  Charles  11.  the  patent  of  the 
province  of  Carolina,  but  a  few  years  prior  to  this 
settlements  had  been  made  by  Dissenters  from 
Virginia  and  from  New  England.  Albemarle, 
the  name  given  to  the  portion  now  North 
Carolina,  was  rapidly  augmented  by  settlers 
from  Virginia,  New  England,  and  Bermuda.  In 
1729,  Carolina  became  a  royal  government,  all 
but  one  of  the  proprietors  having  sold  out  to  the 
Crown,  and  North  and  South  Carolina  were 
formally  declared  distinct  provinces.  In  1765, 
North  Carolina  received  large  accessions  in 
parties  of  Irish  Presbyterians,  Scotch  High- 
landers, and  Moravians.  In  1769,  the  Provincial 
Assembly  declared  against  the  right  of  taxation 


without  representation,  and  in'  1774  represen- 
tatives were  sent  to  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress, which  adopted  the  declaration  of  colonial 
rights.  Scotch  Loyalists,  under  McLeod  and 
McDonald,  were  defeated  by  the  Whigs  or  Pa- 
triots at  King's  Mountain  in  1775,  the  first  bat- 
tle of  the  Revolution.  In  1776,  North  Carolina 
united  with  the  other  colonies  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  and  a  State  constitution  was 
formed  the  same  year.  Aside  from  partisan 
warfare,  the  only  battle  fought  in  the  State  was 
that  of  Guilford  Court-House  in  1781,  between 
Generals  Green  and  Cornwallis.  The  State 
seceded  from  the  Union  May  21,  1861,  and  the 
military  operations  which  followed  were  notable. 
The  most  important  were  the  capture  of  Fort 
Hatteras  in  1861,  of  Roanoke  Island  and  Fort 
Macon  in  1862,  and  the  combined  land  and  naval 
assault  ending  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher 
in  1865.  The  State  ratified  the  14th  Amend- 
ment in  1868,  and  the  15th  Amendment  in  1869. 

North  Dakota.  The  Territory  of  North 
Dakota,  of  which  North  and  South  Dakotas 
were  formed,  originally  constituted  part  of  the 
Territory  of  Minnesota,  which  was  organized  in 
1849  from  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of 
1803.  In  1854  the  Territory  of  Nebraska  was 
formed,  comprising  then  the  present  State  of 
Nebraska  and  all  of  Dakota.  On  March  2,  1861, 
the  Territory  of  Dakota  was  organized,  com- 
prising then  the  States  of  Montana  and  Wyom- 
mg.  The  first  permanent  settlements  by  whites 
were  made  in  1859  in  Clay,  Union,  and  Yankton 
counties.  On  November  2,  1899.  the  Ter- 
ritory was  divided  and  the  States  of  North  and 
South  Dakota  formed  and  admitted  to  the  Union 
at  the  same  time.  The  history  of  the  settlement 
and  growth  of  the  country  is  identical  with  that 
of  the  territories  of  which  it  originally  formed 
a  part. 

North  German  Confederation,  The, 
was  formed  after  the  famous  "Seven  Weeks' 
War  "  and  the  "  Peace  of  Prague,"  when  Austria 
was  entirely  excluded  from  Germany.  The  con- 
federation included  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nas- 
sau and  Frankford  (all  incorporated  with  Prus- 
sia), and  the  states  north  of  the  Main  united  to 
Prussia  in  a  bund.  Strictly  speaking,  therefore, 
the  confederation  was  Prussia  and  the  states 
north  of  the  Main.  In  1870,  during  the  Franco- 
German  War,  the  "North  German  Confedera- 
tion," being  joined  by  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg, 
Baden,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  became  the  "Ger- 
man Confederation,"  and  two  months  afterwards 
(January  18,  1871),  the  King  of  Prussia  had  the 
title  of  "German  Emperor"  given  him. 

Northmen.  A  name  applied  to  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,  or  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  but  more  generally  restricted  to 
those  searovers  called  Danes  by  the  Saxons, 
who  sailed  on  piratical  expeditions  to  all  parts 
of  the  European  seas,  made  their  first  appear- 
ance on  the  coast  of  England  in  787,  and  from 
the  year  832  repeated  their  invasion  almost 
every  year,  till  they  became  masters  of  all  the 
country  under  their  King  Canute,  and  reigned 
in  England  during  the  next  fifty  years,  down 
to  1042,  when  the  Saxon  Dynasty  was  restored 
in  the  person  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  In  885, 
they  laid   siege  to   Paris,   but   were  at  length 


HISTORY 


137 


bought  off  by  Charles  the  Fat.  Rollo,  one  of 
the  most  renowned  of  the  Norman  chieftains, 
after  ravaging  Friesland  and  the  countries 
watered  by  the  Scheldt,  accepted  the  hand  of 
a  daughter  of  Charles  the  Simple,  and  received 
with  her,  under  the  tie  of  vassalage,  possession 
of  all  the  land  in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  from 
the  Epte  and  Eure  to  the  sea,  which  then  went 
by  the  name  of  Normandy.  They  rapidly 
adopted  the  more  civilized  form  of  life  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  Frankish  Kingdom  —  its  religion, 
language,  and  manners  —  but  inspired  every- 
thing they  borrowed  with  their  own  vitality. 
Their  conquest  of  England,  in  1066,  gave  that 
country  an  energetic  race  of  kings  and  nobles 
on  the  whole  well-fitted  to  rule  a  brave,  sturdy, 
but  somewhat  torpid  people  like  the  Anglo- 
Saxons. 

Norway.  The  early  history  of  Norway  is 
comprised  in  that  of  the  other  Scandinavian 
countries,  and  is,  like  theirs,  for  the  most  part 
fabulous.  It  is  only  towards  the  close  of  the 
Tenth  Century,  when  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced under  the  rule  of  Olaf  I.,  that  the  mythical 
obscurity  in  which  the  annals  of  the  kingdom 
had  been  previously  plunged  begins  to  give 
place  to  the  light  of  historical  truth. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity,  which  _was 
the  result  of  the  intercourse  which  the  Norwe- 
gians had  with  the  more  civilized  parts  of  Europe, 
through  their  maritime  expeditions,  destroyed 
much  of  the  old  nationality  of  the  people  with 
the  heathenism  which  they  had  hitherto  cherished, 
although  the  sanguinary  feuds  which  had  raged 
among  the  rival  chiefs  of  the  land  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  lost  their  ferocity  under  the  sway 
of  a  milder  religion.  Olaf  II.,  or  the  Saint 
(1015-1030),  who  zealously  prosecuted  the.  con- 
version of  his  countrymen,  raised  himself  to 
supreme  power  in  the  land  by  the  subjection 
of  the  small  kings  or  chieftains,  who  in  the  times 
of  heathenism  had  subdivided  the  kingdom 
among  them.  The  war  between  Olaf  and  King 
Knud  the  Great  of  Denmark,  which  terminated 
in  1030  with  the  battle  of  Sticklestad,  in  which 
the  former  was  slain,  brought  Norway  under 
the  sway  of  the  Danish  conqueror;  but  at  his 
death  in  1036,  Olaf's  son,  Magnus  I.,  recovered 
possession  of  the  throne,  and  henceforth,  till 
1319,  Norway  continued  to  be  governed  by 
native  kings.  The  death  in  that  year  of  Hakon 
v.,  without  male  heirs,  threw  the  election  of  a 
new  king  into  the  hands  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly, who,  after  many  discussions,  made  choice  of 
Magnus  VIII.,  of  Sweden,  the  son  of  Hakon's 
daughter.  He  was  in  turn  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hakon,  and  his  grandson  Olaf  IV.,  who  having 
been  elected  King  of  Denmark  in  1376  became 
ruler  of  the  sister  Scandinavian  kingdoms  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1380.  This  young  king, 
who  exercised  only  a  nominal  sway  under  the 
guidance  of  his  mother,  Queen  Margaret,  the 
only  child  of  Valdemar  III.  of  Denmark,  died 
without  heirs  in  1387.  Margaret's  love  of  power 
and  capacity  for  government  brought  about  her 
election  to  the  triple  throne  of  the  Scandinavian 
lands,  and  from  this  period  till  1814,  Norway 
continued  united  with  Denmark;  but  while  it 
shared  in  the  general  fortunes  of  the  latter  state, 
it  retained  its  own  constitutional  mode  of  gov- 


ernment, and  exercised  its  right  of  electing  to 
the  throne,  until,  like  the  sister  kingdom,  it 
agreed  of  its  own  free  will  to  relinquish  this 
privilege  in  favor  of  hereditary  succession  to 
the  throne.  The  Napoleonic  crisis  may  be  said 
to  have  severed  this  union,  which  had  existed 
for  more  than  400  years,  for  Denmark,  after 
having  given  unequivocal  proofs  of  adhesion  to 
the  cause  of  Bonaparte,  was  compelled,  after 
the  disastrous  War  of  1813,  to  purchase  peace 
at  the  cost  of  this  long  united  partner  of  her 
state.  Crippled  in  her  resources,  and  almost  a 
bankrupt,  she  saw  herself  constrained  to  sign 
the  treaty  of  Kiel  in  1814,  by  which  it  was  stip- 
ulated by  the  allied  powers  that  she  should 
resign  Norway  to  Sweden,  receiving  in  return, 
by  way  of  indemnity,  some  portion  of  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  the  island  of  Riigen,  which  were 
subsequently  exchanged  with  Prussia  for  Lauen- 
burg  on  the  payment  by  that  state  of  two 
million  rix  dollars.  The  Norwegians,  having 
refused  to  admit  the  validity  of  the  treaty  of 
Kiel,  nominated  Prince  Christian,  the  heir-pre- 
sumptive to  the  throne  of  Denmark,  regent  and 
subsequently  King  of  Norway.  This  nomina- 
tion was  made  by  the  National  Diet,  or  Storthing, 
which  met  at  Ejdsvold,  where  they  drew  up  a 
constitution  based  on  the  French  Constitution 
of  1791.  These  measures  found,  however, 
neither  supporters  nor  sympathizers  among  the 
other  nations;  and  with  the  sanction  of  the 
great  allied  powers,  Charles  John  Bernadotte, 
Crown-Prince  of  Sweden,  led  an  army  into 
Norway,  and  after  taking  Frederickstad  and 
Frederickshald,  threatened  Christiania.  Den- 
mark being  unable  to  support  the  cause  of 
Prince  Christian,  and  Norway  being  utterly 
destitute  of  the  means  necessary  for  prosecuting 
a  war,  resistance  was  of  no  avail,  and  the  Nor- 
wegians, in  this  untoward  conjuncture  of  affairs, 
were  glad  to  accept  the  proposals  made  to  them 
by  the  Swedish  King  for  a  union  with  Sweden, 
on  the  understanding  that  they  should  retain  the 
newly  promulgated  constitution,  and  enjoy  full 
liberty  and  independence  within  their  own 
boundaries.  These  conditions  were  agreed  to, 
and  strictly  maintained;  a  few  unimportant 
alterations  in  the  constitution,  necessitated  by 
the  altered  conditions  of  the  new  union,  being 
the  only  changes  introduced  in  the  machinery 
of  government.  Charles  XIII.  was  declared 
joint  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  in  1818. 
After  the  union,  Norway  firmly  resisted  every 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Swedish  monarchs 
to  infringe  upon  the  constitutional  prerogatives 
of  the  nation;  and  during  the  reign  of  the  first 
of  the  Bernadotte  Dynasty,  the  relations  be- 
tween him  and  his  Norwegian  subjects  were 
marked  by  jealousy  and  distrust  on  both  sides; 
but  after  his  death,  the  people  generally  became 
more  contented  and  Norway  continued  to  make 
rapid  progress  towards  a  state  of  political 
security  and  material  prosperity  far  greater 
than  it  ever  enjoyed  under  the  Danish  dominion. 
The  dissolution  of  the  union  with  Sweden 
which  had  endured  since  1814,  took  place  June 
7,  1905,  following  a  dispute  between  the  two 
countries  as  to  their  diplomatic  representation 
abroad.  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark  became 
King,  as  Haakon  VII. 


138 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


NOTABLE   WARS  OF  HISTORY 


Dates 


Historic  Name 


Leading  Battles 


Chief  Leaders 


B.  C. 
1193-1184 

743-669 
604-469 


595-586 
448-447 
357-346 
431-404 


334-331 
343-290 
264-146 
200-146 
112-106 

90-88 

88-63 

73-71 

58-51 

50-31 

A.  D. 

70 

86-100 
409-553 
710-1492 

1095-1291 

1336-1453 

1385-1389 
1419-1436 
1455-1485 

1562-1598 
1567-1609 

1618-1648 


Trojan  War.  Greeks  capture  Troy. 

Messenlan  War.   Sparta  conquers 
Messenia. 

Perso-Greclan  War.  Greece  suc- 
cessfully resists  Persian  invasion. 

Sacred  Wars  of  Greece.  Largely 
intestinal,  and  without  results. 

Peloponnesian  War.  Athens  con- 
quered by  Lacedeemonia. 

Greco-PersIan  War.  Greece  con- 
quers Persia. 

Satnnlte    War.     Romans  conquer 
Samnites. 


Romans     destroy 


Punic     Wars. 

Carthage. 

Greco-Roman  War.  Greece  sub- 
dued by  Rome. 

Jugurthlne  War.      Romans   con- 
quer Numidia. 

Roman  Social  War.  Right  of  Ro- 
man citizenship  granted  the  Socii. 

Mithridatlc    War.      Mithridates, 
King  of  Parthia,  defeated. 

Gladiatorial  War.    Gladiators  de- 
feated. 


Gallic  War. 

Cuesar. 


Gauls  conquered  by 


Roman  Civil  War.  Roman  Em- 
pire established. 

Jewish-Roman  War.  Jerusalem 
taken ;  temple  destroyed. 

Dacian  War.  Country  beyond 
Danube  conquered. 

Barbarian  Wars.  Teutonic  hordes 
capture  Rome  and  ravage  Italy. 

Saracen  Conauests.  The  Saracens 
occupy  Northern  Africa  and  Spain ; 
defeated  in  France. 

The  Cmsades.  Christians  capture 
Jerusalem  and  ports  of  Spain;  but 
finally  repulsed. 


Hundred  Tears'  War.     England 
lost  all  her  possessions  in  France. 


Austro-Swlss  War.  Independence 
of  Switzerland. 

Hussite  War.  Religious  toleration 
secured. 

War  of  the  Roses.  House  of  York 
supplants  that  of  Lancaster  on 
English  throne. 

French  Civil  War.  Edict  of  Nantes 
Protestant  toleration. 

Spanish-Netherlands  War.  In- 
dependence of  the  Netherlands 
achieved. 

Thirty  Tears  War.  Religious  free- 
dom secured. 


Siege  of  Troy. 


Marathon ;      Thermopylae ; 
Salamls;  Platea;  Mycale. 


Battles  chiefly  naval. 
Granicus;     Issus;    Arbela. 
Caudine    Forks;    Sentium. 


Ticinus;  Trebia;  Thrasy- 
menus;  Carmal;  Metau- 
rus;    Zama. 

Cynocephalse ;  Pydna. 


Muthul;  Cirta. 

Chferonea;  Cabira. 
Petelia. 


Pharsalia;  Thapsus;  Mun- 
da;  Phillipi;  Actium. 

Siege  of  Jerusalem. 


Sack  of  Rome. 


Xeres;  Tours;  Tarifa;  Gre- 
nada. 


Siege  of  Jerusalem;    Acre. 


Crecy;     Calais;      Poitiers; 
Agincourt. 


Sempach;  Nafels. 


Prague. 


St.  Albans*  Bloreheath; 
Wakefield  ;Towton;  Bar- 
net;  Tewksbury. 

Dreaux;  St.  Denis;  Jarnac; 
Moncontour;  Ivry. 

Zutphen;  Nieuport;  vari- 
ous sieges  and  naval  con- 
flicts. 

Dessau;  Leipsic;  Sech;  Liit- 
zen ;  N  ordlingen. 


Hector;    Agamemnon. 


Miltiades;   Leonidas;   Themis- 
tocles;    Pausanius. 


Pericles;  Alcibiades;  Lysander, 

Alexander  the  Great;  Darius. 

Fabius  Maximus ;  Caius  Pontius. 

Fabius;  Scipio;   Hannibal. 

Flaminius;  jEmilius;    Paulus; 
Mummius;  Perseus. 

Jugurtha;  Metellus;  Marius. 
Samnites;  Marsians. 
Lucullus;  Pompey;  Sulla. 
Spartacus;  Crassus. 
Csesar. 


Casar;  Pompey;  Brutus;  Cas- 
sius;  Antony;  Augustus. 

Titus. 


Trajan. 

Alaric;  Genseric;   Attila. 


Musa;  Tarik;  Charles  Martel; 
Cid  Rodrigo. 


Geoffrey  of  Bouillon;  Conrad 
III.;  Louis  VII.;  Fred- 
erick II. ;  Philip  Augustus; 
Richard  the  Lion-Hearted; 
Louis  IX.;  Edward  I.;  Sala- 
din. 

Edward  III.  of  England;  Ed- 
ward   the    Black    Prince; 
Henry  V.  of  England;  Joan 
of  Arc. 

Arnold  Von  Winckelried;  Leo- 
pold II. 

John  Ziska;  Sigismund. 


Richard,  Duke  of  York;  Ed- 
ward, Duke  of  York;  Earl  of 
Warwick;  Queen  Margaret; 
Henry  VI. 

Duke  of  Anjou;  Henry  III.; 
Henry  IV.;  Cond^. 

William  of  Orange;  Maurice  of 
Nassau;  Duke  of  Alva;  Alex- 
ander Farnese;  Duke  of  Par- 
ma. 

Gustavus  Adolphus;  Wallen- 
stein;  Tilly;  Turenne. 


HISTORY 
NOTABLE   WARS  OF  HISTORY— Continued 


139 


Dates 


A.  D. 
1642-1649 


1701-1714 

1700-1709 
1740-1748 

1756-1763 
1775-1783 

1792-1799 
1800-1815 


1812- 

-1815 

1821- 

-1828 

1846 

-1847 

1854- 

-1856 

1859 

1861- 

-1865 

1866 
1870 


1877 


1894-1895 


1898 


1904-1905 


Historic  Name 


English  ClvH  War.   English  Com- 
monwealth established. 


Spanish  Succession.  French  and 
Spanish  crowns  disunited.  Prot- 
estant succession  in  England. 

Swedish-Russian  War.  Defeat  of 
Charles  XII. 

Austrian  Succession.     Many  pre- 
vious   treaties    affirmed;    Maria 
Theresa  Empress  of  Austria. 

Seven  Tears'  War.  Prussia  gains 
a  high  rank. 

American   Revolutionary   War. 

United  States  achieve  their  inde- 
pendence. 


French  Revolution,  Bourbons  de- 
feated. 


Napoleonic    Wars.      France    ad- 
vances to  the  first  place  in  Europe. 


War  of  1813.  United  States  en- 
tirely independent  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. 

War   for   Greek     Independence. 

Greece  independent  of  Turkey. 

Mexican  War.  Boundary  between 
United  States  and  Mexico  estab- 
lished. 

Crimean  War.  Independence  of 
Turkey  guaranteed.  Peace  of 
Paris. 

Italian  War.  Papal  States  and 
two  Sicilies  annexed  to  Italy. 


American  Civil  War. 

of  slavery. 


Abolition 


Seven  Weeks'  War.  Prussia  de- 
feats Austria  and  unifies  Germany. 

Franco-Prussian  War.  Paris 
taken  and  Alsace  and  Loraine 
added  to  German  Empire. 


Russo-Turkish  War.  Rumania, 
Servia,  Montenegro,  independent 
of  Turkey.  Treaty  of  San  Stefano, 
Berlin. 

China-Japanese  War.  Indemnity 
to  Japan;  independence  of  Corea. 

Spanish-American  War.   End  of 

Spanish  rule  in  America;  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Philippines  pass 
to  United  States. 

Russo-Japanese  War.  Mutual 
concessions,  confirmed  by  treaty 
of  Portsmouth.  Japan  a  world 
power. 


Leading  Battles 


Edgehill;  Marston  Moor; 
Naseby;  Dunbar;  Wor- 
cester. 

Blenheim;  Ramillies;  Tu- 
rin; Oudenorde,  Malpla- 
quet. 

Narva;  Pultowa. 


Dettinger;  Fontenoy;  Pla- 
ceutia;   Laffeldt. 


Prague;  KoUin;  Rosbach; 
Lissa;  Torgau. 

Bunker     Hill;      Saratoga; 
Monmouth;  Yorktown. 


Valmy;  Jemappe;  Wattig- 
nies;  Lonato;  Lodi;  Ar- 
eola; Pyramids. 

Marengo;  Trafalgar;  Aus- 
terlitz;  Jena;  Eylau; 
Friedland;  Wagram;  Bo- 
rodino; Leipsic;  Ligny; 
Waterloo. 

Battles  chiefly  naval;  New 
Orleans;  Burning  of 
Washington. 

Missolonghi;  Navarino. 


Buena  Vista ;  Cerro  Gordo ; 
Capture  of  Mexico  City. 


Alma;    Balaklava;    Inker- 
man  ;  Malakoif . 


Magenta;  Solferino. 

First  and  Second  Bull  Run ; 
Shiloh;  Seven  Days;  An- 
tietam ;  Murfreesboro ; 
Chancellorville;  Vicks- 
burg ;  Gettysburg ;  Chick- 
amauga ;  Chattanooga ; 
Virginia  Campaign;  At- 
lanta Campaign. 

Langensalza;    Koniggratz 
^  or  Sadowa. 

Worth;  Gravelotte;  Sedan; 
Metz;  Capture  of  Paris. 


Plevna;  Shipka  Pass;  Kars. 


Occupation  of  Corea  by 
Japanese;  Port  Arthur; 
WeiHaiWei;  Nieuchang. 

Manila  Bay;  Santiago;  San 
Juan;  El  Caney. 


Destruction  of  Russian 
fleet;  Liaoyang;Mukden; 
Siege  of  Port  Arthur; 
Shako ;  Telissu ;  Wafang- 
kan;  Yalu. 


Chief  Leaders 


Prince  Rupert;  Fairfax; 
Charles  I. ;  Cromwell. 


Duke  of  Marlborough;  Prince 
Eugene;  Marshals  Tallard 
and  Villars. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden;  Peter 
the  Great. 

Marshal  Saxe;  George  II.  of 
England;  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land. 

Marshal  Dann;  Frederick  the 
Great. 

Washington;  Greene;  Bur- 
goyne;  Cornwallis;  Clinton; 
Howe;  Lafayette;  Gates; 
Montgomery. 

Kellerman;  Dumauriez;  Jour- 
dan;  Morcan;  Hoche;  Bona- 
parte. 

Napoleon ;  Wellington ;  Nelson ; 
Blucher;  Alexander  I.; 
Francis  I.-  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III. ;  Ney. 


Com.     Perry;    Admiral  Cock- 
burn;   Ross;  Jackson. 


Admiral  Canaris;  Byron;  Ibra- 
him Pasha. 

Taylor;  Scott;  Santa  Ana. 


Lord  Raglan;  St.  Armand; 
Prince  Menchikoff ;  Gen.  Can- 
robert. 

Napoleon  III.;  Victor  Emman- 
uel;  Franz  Joseph  I. 

McClellan;  Grant;  Sherman; 
Sheridan;  Jackson;  Thomas; 
Lee;  Johnston;  Meade. 


Marshal  Benedek;  William  I.; 
Benst. 

William  I.;  Von  Moltke;  Fred- 
erick of  Prussia;  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles;  Napoleon 
III.;  MacMahon;  Bazaine; 
Trochu. 

Good  Duke  Nicholas;  Gourko; 
Skobeloff;  Todleben;  Osman 
Pasha;  Muktar  Pasha. 


Oyama;     Prince     Arisugawa; 
Prince  Komatsu. 


Admirals  Dewey,  Schley,  Samp- 
son, Montejo  Cervera;  Gen- 
erals Shafter,  Toral. 

Admiral  Makaroff,  Kuropatkin; 
Linievitch;  Stoessel;  Oyama; 
Kuroki;  Admiral  Togo;  Ad- 
miral Kamimura;  Admiral 
RojestveHsky;  Nogi;  Oku; 
Admiral  Uriu. 


140 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Ohio.  The  French  made  the  first  explora- 
tions in  what  is  now  Ohio,  La  Salle's  discoveries 
dating  from  about  1680.  The  English,  whose 
patents  covered  a  portion  of  the  region  which 
the  French  traders  aimed  to  monopolize,  came 
in  hostile  contact  with  the  latter.  It  was  in 
this  connection  that  Washington's  name  first 
became  notable  through  the  Braddock  Expedi- 
tion. In  1763  Canada,  and  the  whole  region 
West  to  the  Mississippi  previously  claimed  by 
France,  were  surrendered  to  Great  Britain. 
After  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  United  States 
assumed  control  over  the  region  afterward 
known  as  the  Northwest  Territory,  acknowledg- 
ing the  claim  made  by  Virginia  to  3,709,848 
arifs  near  the  rapids  of  the  Ohio,  and  a  similar 
claim  by  Connecticut  to  3,666,621  acres  near 
Lake  Erie,  which  became  known  as  the  "  Western 
Reserve."  These  claims  were  admitted  in  the 
sense  of  ownership,  but  in  no  way  as  question  of 
State  jurisdiction.  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Marietta,  in  1788.  The 
early  years  of  the  Northwest  Territory  were 
harrassed  by  Indian  warfare,  which  did  not 
cease  till  the  crushing  defeat  inflicted  on  them  by 
General  Anthony  Wayne  in  1794.  In  1799,  the 
Northwest  Territory  was  organized,  and  shortly 
afterward  Ohio  (the  name  being  derived  from  the 
Indian  signifying  "beautiful  river")  was  formed 
into  a  separate  territorial  government.  In  1803, 
the  Territory  was  admitted  as  a  State,  the  fourth 
under  the  Federal  Constitution  The  seat  of 
government  was  in  Chillicothe  till  1810,  in 
Zanesville  till  1812,  and  in  Chillicothe  again  till 
1816,  after  which  the  State  capital  was  fixed  at 
Columbus.  In  1818,  the  first  steamboat,  the 
"  Walk  on  the  Water,"  was  launched  on  Lake  Erie. 
In  1836,  the  first  western  railroad  was  opened, 
from  Toledo,  Ohio,  to  Adrian,  Michigan,  with 
horse  power  at  first  and,  in  1837,  with  steam 
power.  The  State  began  to  be  noted  for  wheat 
growing  about  1840,  and  in  1863  her  coal  and 
iron  mines  began  to  be  developed.  Manufactur- 
ing became  an  important  industry  about  1865, 
and  for  a  decade  grew  rapidly.  The  Standard 
Oil  Company  was  formed  in  1870,  and  during 
the  next  two  decades  the  State's  oil  fields  were 
rapidly  developed.  During  the  Civil  War  Ohio 
furnished  one-eighth  of  the  federal  troops. 

Oklahoma.  The  history  of  Oklahoma 
before  it  was  constructed  into  a  separate  Terri- 
tory is  identical  with  that  of  the  region  of 
which  Texas  and  New  Mexico  formed  a  part. 
When  Indian  Territory  was  created  as  a  home 
for  all  the  Indian  tribes  most  of  what  is  now 
Oklahoma  was  within  its  bounds.  Some  time 
in  the  early  seventies  the  name  first  appeared  in 
political  history,  the  occasion  being  a  bill  intro- 
duced into  Congress  to  create  a  Territory  out 
of  part  of  Indian  Territory,  to  be  known  as 
Oklahoma.  The  measure  failed  of  passage  and 
for  more  than  a  decade  nothing  was  heard  of  the 
country.  It  was  not  forgotten,  however,  as  in 
March,  1889,  an  amendment  was  tacked  on  to 
the  Indian  Appropriation  Bill  providing  for  the 
opening  to  homestead  settlers  of  the  little  area 
of  land  embracing  less  than  3,000,000  acres  and 
lying  in  the  center  of  what  is  now  the  great 
State.  The  land  was  opened  in  April,  1889,  and 
the   first   rush  of   Oklahoma   "boomers"   took 


place.  In  June,  1890,  the  territorial  govern- 
ment first  came  into  existence,  and  by  the  act 
which  brought  this  about  a  strip  of  land  known 
as  "No  Man's  Land,"  consisting  of  3,681,000 
acres,  was  added  as  Beaver  County.  Other  sec- 
tions were  added  from  time  to  time  until  the 
Territory  contained  24,933,120  acres.  In  1906, 
Congress  provided  an  enabling  act  whereby 
Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory  might  be  created 
into  a  State  and  admitted  into  the  Union.  On 
November  16,  1907,  the  conditions  of  this  act 
having  been  complied  with,  the  President  of  the 
United  States  signed  the  Constitution  of  Okla- 
homa, and  issued  a  proclamation  announcing  its 
admission.  The  first  State  legislature  con- 
vened December  2,  1907. 

Oregon.  The  original  region  named  Ore- 
gon was  the  whole  province  claimed  by  the 
United  States  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  extending 
from  latitude  42°  to  54"  40'  north.  Until  1846 
joint  possession  was  held  by  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  and  then  the  latter,  by  the 
northwest  boundary  treaty,  abandoned  all 
claim  to  the  country  north  of  the  49th  parallel, 
and  the  name  Oregon  was  restricted  to  the  region 
?outh  of  that  line,  which  was  given  up  by  Great 
Britain.  The  first  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
territory  was  brought  back  by  Captain  Rolaert 
Gray,  an  American  navigator,  who  entered  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  in  1792,  and  gave 
the  name  ot  his  ship  to  it.  The  sale  of  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States,  in  1803,  endowed  this 
country  with  a  title  of  ownership,  and  the  expe- 
dition of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  in  1804-1806, 
strengthened  the  claim.  Though  a  trading-post 
was  established  in  1811,  by  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company,  under  the  Astor  regime,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River,  the  region  was  largely 
inhabited  by  Indians  and  the  employes  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company  until  the  active 
emigration  of  Americans,  between  1833  and  1850, 
introduced  a  new  element.  The  territorial 
organization  took  place  in  1848.  In  1853, 
Washington  Territory  was  instituted  out  of  the 
region  north  of  the  Columbia  River  on  the  west 
and  of  the  46th  parallel  on  the  east.  In  1858, 
Oregon  was  admitted  as  a  Stat^  the  twentieth 
under  the  Constitution.  A  Lewis  and  Clarke 
Centennial  Celebration  was  held  at  Portland 
in  1905. 

Pennsylvania.  Delaware  River  and  Bay 
were  first  explored  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  from  1604  to  1624, 
and  military  jurisdiction  was  established.  Till 
1664  they  continued  in  possession  of  both  sides 
of  the  bay  without  much  colonization,  though 
a  Swedish  colony  settled  at  Chester,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  river,  in  1638,  where  their  industry 
and  peacefulness  prefigured  the  characteristics 
of  the  Quakers,  who  were  to  come  later.  Under 
a  charter  given  by  Charles  II.,  in  1681,  the  region 
west  of  the  Delaware  was  granted  to  William 
Penn,  the  Quaker,  who  colonized  it  and  founded 
Philadelphia  in  1682.  Under  this  grant  was 
included  Delaware,  and  the  whole  region  was 
ruled  under  the  same  proprietary  until  1699, 
when  a  separate  legislature,  though  not  a  sepa- 
rate governor,  was  allowed  to  this  section  of  the 
province.  This  union  lasted  till  1776.  The 
letter  of  the   Penn   charter  included   territory 


HISTORY 


141 


already  covered  in  the  vague  grants  made  to  the 
New  England  colonies  Virginia  and  Maryland. 
All  the  boundary-lines,  however,  were  easily 
settled,  except  that  separating  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland,  which  was  not  defined  until  the 
completion  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  Survey, 
in  1767.  The  original  Swedish  immigrants 
readily  coalesced  with  the  Quaker  colonists, 
and  the  remarkable  thrift  of  the  people,  com- 
bined with  their  peaceful  Indian  policy,  soon 
made  Pennsylvania  a  flourishing  region.  Large 
additional  bodies  of  immigrants,  Scotch-Irish 
between  1715  and  1725,  and  Germans  from  1730 
onward,  rapidly  swelled  population  and  wealth. 
The  government  instituted  by  William  Penn 
remained  in  force  until  1776,  when  the  province 
joined  the  other  colonies  in  the  fight  for  inde- 
pendence, and  a  provisional  constitution  was  made 
by  a  convention  presided  over  by  Benjamin 
Franklin.  Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  the 
British  forces  from  September,  1777,  to  June, 
1778.  All  the  earlier  sessions  of  the  Contihental 
Congress  were  held  in  this  city.  The  battle  of 
Germantown  was  fought  within  the  present 
chartered  limits  of  the  city  in  1777.  From  1790 
to  1800  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States.  In  1790,  a  new  State  constitu- 
tion was  formed.  In  1794  occurred  the  disturb- 
ance known  as  the  "Whiskey  Rebellion"  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State,  growing  out  of  oppo- 
sition to  the  excise  laws.  In  1799,  the  seat  of 
the  State  government  was  removed  to  Lancaster, 
and  thence  in  1812  to  Harrisburg,  which  still 
remains  the  capital.  In  1862,  during  the  late 
Civil  War,  the  State  was  threatened  with  inva- 
sion by  the  Confederates,  but  the  tide  of  attack 
then  stopped  with  invading  Maryland.  In  1863 
General  Lee  carried  out  his  interrupted  purpose, 
and  overran  the  south  portion  of  the  State  to 
within  a  short  distance  of  Harrisburg.  On  his 
retreat  General  Meade  joined  battle  with  him 
at  Gettysburg,  near  the  Maryland  line.  The 
battle,  beginning  July  1st,  lasted  three  days, 
resulting  in  the  Confederate  defeat.  This  Fed- 
eral victory  was  probably  the  important  turning- 
point  of  the  war.  As  the  seventh  in  the  geo- 
graphical order  of  the  original  States,  Pennsyl- 
vania has  become  historically  the  "Keystone" 
State.  Disastrous  riots  occurred  about  Pitts- 
burg and  elsewhere  in  1877  and  1892.  In  1908, 
the  famous  "State  House  Cases"  were  brought 
to  trial,  as  the  result  of  an  alleged  $5,000,000 
steal  by  the  contractors  of  the  new  State  capitol, 
at  Harrisburg,  and  their  accomplices. 

Persia.  The  original  country  of  the  Per- 
sians occupied  a  small  portion  of  modern  Persia 
on  the  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  After  being 
under  the  Assyrians,  and  next  under  the  Medes, 
Cyrus  (B.  C.  559-529),  by  conquering  and  unit- 
ing Media,  Babylonia,  Lydia,  and  all  Asia  Minor, 
became  the  founder  of  the  Persian  Empire.  The 
empire  was  further  extended  by  his  son  and 
successor,  Cambyses  (B.  C.  529-522),  who  con- 
quered Tyre,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt;  and  by 
Darius  I.,  who  subdued  Thrace  and  Macedonia, 
and  a  small  part  of  India.  His  son  Xerxes 
(486-465  B.  C.)  reduced  Egypt,  which  had 
revolted  under  his  father,  and  also  continued 
the  war  against  the  European  Greeks,  but 
was  defeated   at  Thermopylae  and  at  Salamis 


(480  B.  C),  and  obliged  to  defend  himself 
against  their  attacks  in  a  disastrous  war.  Artax- 
erxes  I.  (465-425  B.  C.)  had  a  long  and  com- 
paratively peaceful  reign.  Artaxerxes  was  fol- 
lowed by  Darius  II.  or  Darius  Nothus,  Artax- 
erxes II.  (Mnemon),  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus), 
and  Darius  III.  (Codomannus,  338-330  B.  C), 
the  last  of  this  dynasty,  known  as  the  Achae- 
menian  Dynasty.  He  was  defeated  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  three  battles,  lost  his  life, 
and  the  empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  his 
conqueror.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Mace- 
donian Empire,  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
(323),  Persia  ultimately  fell  to  his  general, 
Seleucus  and  his  successors,  the  Seleucidae  (312). 
They  reigned  over  it  till  236  B.  C,  when  the  last 
Seleucus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Arsaces  I.,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacidse  and  of  the  Parthian  Empire,  of  which 
Persia  formed  a  portion,  and  which  lasted  till 
226  A.  D.  the  supremacy  was  then  recovered 
by  Persia  in  the  person  of  Ardishir  Babigan 
(Artaxerxes),  who  obtained  the  sovereignty  of 
all  Central  Asia,  and  left  it  to  his  descendants, 
the  Sassanidffi,  so  called  from  Sassan,  the  grand- 
father of  Ardishir.  This  dynasty  continued  to 
reign  for  about  417  years,  under  twenty-six 
sovereigns.  The  reign  of  Sapor  II.,  called  the 
Great  (310-381),  and  that  of  Chosroes  I.  (Khos- 
ru,  531-579),  were  perhaps  the  most  notable  of 
the  whole  dynasty.  The  latter  extended  the 
Persian  Empire  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Indus,  from  the  Jaxartes  to  Arabia  and  the  con- 
fines of  Egypt.  He  waged  successful  wars  with 
the  Indians,  Turks,  Romans,  and  Arabs.  Chos- 
roes II.  (591-628)  made  extensive  conquests, 
but  lost  them  again  in  the  middle  of  the  reign 
of  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Heraclius.  His  son, 
Ardishir  (Artaxerxes)  III.,  but  seven  years  old, 
succeeded  him,  but  was  murdered  a  few  days 
after  his  accession.  He  was  the  last  descendant 
of  the  Sanssaidaj  in  the  male  line.  Numerous 
revolutions  now  followed,'  until  Yezdigerd  III., 
a  nephew  of  Chosroes  II.,  ascended  the  throne 
in  632,  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  He  was  attacked 
and  defeated  by  Caliph  Omar  in  639-636,  and 
Persia  became  for  more  than  150  years  a  prov- 
ince of  the  Mohammedan  Empire.  The  Arab 
conquest  had  a  profound  influence  on  Persian 
life  as  well  as  on  the  language  and  religion. 
The  old  Persian  religion  was  given  up  in  favor 
of  Mohammedanism,  only  the  Guebres,  or 
Parsees,  adhering  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  Ninth  Century  the 
Persian  territories  began  to  be  broken  up  into 
numerous  petty  states.  The  Seljuks,  a  Turkish 
Dynasty,  who  first  became  powerful  about  1037, 
extended  its  dominions  over  several  Persian 
provinces,  and  Malek-Shah,  the  most  powerful 
of  them,  conquered  also  Georgia,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor.  Through  Genghis  Khan  the  Tartars 
and  Mongols  became  dominant  in  Persia  about 
1220,  and  they  preserved  this  ascendency  till  the 
beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Then  ap- 
peared (1387)  Timurlenk  (Tamerlane)  at  the 
head  of  a  new  horde  of  Mongols,  who  conquered 
Persia  and  filled  the  world  from  Hindustan  to 
the  extremities  of  Asia  Minor  with  terror.  But 
the  death  of  this  famous  conqueror  in  1405  was 
followed  not  long  after  by  the  downfall  of  the 


142 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Mongol  dominion  in  Persia,  where  the  Turlio- 
mans  thenceforward  remained  masters  for  100 
years.  The  Turkomans  were  succeeded  by  the 
Sufi  Dynasty  (1501-1736).  The  first  sovereign 
of  this  dynasty,  Ismail  Sufi,  pretended  to  be 
descended  from  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Moham- 
med. He  assumed  the  title  of  shah,  and  intro- 
duced the  sect  of  Ali  (the  Shiite  or  Shiah  sect). 
The  great  Shah  Abbas  (1587-1628)  introduced 
absolute  power,  and  made  Ispahan  his  capital. 
Under  Snah  Soliman  (1666-94)  the  empire 
declined,  and  entirely  sunk  under  his  son  Hus- 
sein. A  period  of  revolts  and  anarchy  followed 
until  Kuli  Khan  ascended  the  throne  m  1736  as 
Nadir  Shah,  and  restored  Persia  to  her  former 
importance  by  successful  wars  and  a  strong 
government.  In  1747  Nadir  was  murdered  by 
the  commanders  of  his  guards,  and  his  death 
threw  the  empire  again  into  confusion.  Kerim 
Khan,  who  had  served  under  Nadir,  succeeded, 
after  a  long  period  of  anarchy,  in»  making  him- 
self master  of  the  whole  of  Western  Iran  or 
modem  Persia.  He  died  in  1779.  New  dis- 
turbances arose  after  his  death,  and  continued 
till  a  eunuch,  Aga  Mohammed,  a  Turkoman 
belonging  to  the  noblest  family  of  the  tribe  of 
the  Kaiars,  and  a  man  of  uncommon  qualities, 
seated  himself  on  the  throne,  which  he  left  to 
his  nephew,  Baba  Khan.  The  latter  began  to 
reign  in  1796  under  the  name  of  Futteh  Ali  Shah, 
and  fixed  his  residence  at  Teheran.  This  mon- 
arch's reign  was  in  great  part  taken  up  with 
disastrous  wars  with  Russia  and  Turkey.  In 
1813  he  was  compelled  to  cede  to  Russia  all  his 
possessions  to  the  north  of  Armenia,  and  in 
1828  his  share  of  Armenia.  Futteh  Ali  died  in 
1834,  leaving  the  crown  to  his  grandson,  Me- 
hemet  Shah.  He  died  in  1848,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Nasr-ed-Din,  born  1829.  He 
had  to  suppress  a  number  of  insurrections,  and 
in  1851  a  serious  rebellion  of  the  pure  Persian 
party  in  Khorassan,  who  refused  obedience  to 
the  Kajar  Dynasty  on  religious  grounds.  In 
May,  1852,  he  annexed  the  Sultanate  of  Herat, 
but  was  compelled  to  relinquish  it  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  a  second  occupation  in  1855  resulted 
in  the  landing  of  a  British  force  on  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  the  capture  of  Bushire,  and  the 
Peace  of  Paris  (March  3,  1857).  Persia  has 
since  come  into  the  possession  of  portions 
of  territory  formerly  belonging  to  Oman, 
Afghanistan,  and  Beluchistan.  On  the  north- 
east the  boundary  between  Persia  and  the 
Russian  territory  beyond  the  Caspian,  after  re- 
maining long  uncertain,  was  settled  in  the  end 
of  1881,  the  lower  course  of  the  river  Atrek, 
and  farther  east  certain  mountain  ridges  north 
of  that  river,  forming  the  new  boundary.  Shah 
Nassr-ed-Din  visited  Europe  thrice,  and  his 
successor,  Muzaffer-ed-Din,  in  1905.  Upon  the 
death  of  the  latter  he  was  succeeded  in  January, 
1907,  by  Mahommed  Ali,  who,  after  an  attempt 
to  overcome  the  constitution  granted  by  his 
father,  abdicated  in  1909  in  favor  of  Ahmed 
Mirza. 

Philippine  War.  When  the  Philippines 
were  taken  by  the  United  States  an  insurgent 
army  was  operating  against  Spain.  After  assist- 
ing the  United  States  troops,  Aguinaldo  turned 
upon  them,  desiring  absolute  freedom  of  control. 


February  4,  1899,  Aguinaldo's  army  of  Filipinos 
made  a  night  attack  near  Manila.  Although  the 
insurgents  were  driven  back  with  great  loss,  the 
Americans  lost  forty-nine  soldiers,  and  148  were 
wounded.  Admiral  Dewey's  ships  could  not 
begin  their  firing  until  daylight,  their  second 
Sunday  morning  engagement  in  Eastern  waters. 
Then  they  did  effective  work  in  shelling  the 
trenches  of  the  insurgent  army.  About  13,000 
men  of  the  Eighth  Army  Corps,  under  Major- 
General  E.  S.  Otis,  participated  in  this  initial 
fight  of  the  new  conflict  in  the  Philippines. 
From  this  time  on  with  general  success  the 
Americans  gained  ground,  though  slowly.  April 
26th  the  insurgents,  using  artillery  for  the  first 
time,  were  defeated  by  Colonel  Funston,  who 
captured  many  prisoners.  May  23d,  Lawton, 
under  orders  of  General  McArthur,  arrived  with 
his  command  at  Malolos,  having  marched  120 
miles  in  twenty  days ;  had  twenty-two  fights, 
captured  twenty-eight  towns,  destroyed  300,000 
bushels  of  rice,  killed  400  insurgents,  wounded 
double  that  number,  and  lost  only  six  men 
killed  and  wounded.  July  30th,  near  Calamba, 
an  American  detachment  suffered  a  loss  of  seven 
killed  and  twenty-three  wounded.  In  August  a 
treaty-like  arrangement  was  made  with  the  Sultan 
of  the  Sulu  Islands;  a  part  of  the  agreement 
provides  for  the  United  States  continuing  the 
pension  of  $4,000  per  annum  formerly  paid  by 
Spain;  the  United  States  flag  to  be  paramount, 
and  the  Sultan  to  repress  piracy,  being  among 
the  stipulations.  In  this  month,  also,  Agui- 
naldo, the  insurgent  chief,  was  successful  in 
eluding  all  efforts  to  capture  him,  until  April, 
1901,  when  he  was  secured  by  means  of  a  strata- 
gem by  General  Funston,  of  Kansas  Volunteers; 
he  was  rewarded  by  being  breveted  Brigadier- 
General  in  the  regular  army.  December  3,  1900, 
the  gallant  General  Lawton  was  killed  while 
assisting  a  wounded  soldier.  A  series  of  desul- 
tory skirmishes  have  since  occurred  with  the 
half:-civilized  natives,  which  could  not  be  inter- 
preted as  actual  warfare. 

Portugal.  The  name  Portugal  is  a  cor- 
rupted form  of  that  of  the  hill  fort,  Partus  Cale, 
which  stood  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Douro, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Oporto  ("the 
harbor").  The  Carthaginians  under  Hamilcar 
subdued  the  region,  and  were  followed  by  the 
Romans.  In  the  Fifth  Century  A.  D.,  Lusi- 
tania,  like  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  was  overrun 
by  the  Visigoths,  and  in  the  Eighth  Century  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs.  The  warlike  Fernando, 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  in  the  course  of 
marauding  expeditions  conquered  and  occupied 
the  important  city  and  stronghold  of  Coimbra, 
in  1064.  His  son,  Alonso  IV.,  seized  his  brother's 
territory  of  Galicia,  which  included  part  of  the 
north  of  Portugal.  Meanwhile  the  long  wars 
were  attracting  to  the  Christian  courts  and 
camps  of  Spain  the  flower  of  European  chivalry. 
Two  knights  of  the  House  of  Burgundy,  Counts 
Raymond  and  Henri,  acquired  the  highest  favor 
with  Alonso.  Count  Raymond  received,  with 
the  hand  of  the  king's  daughter,  the  government 
of  Galicia  and  Portugal,  but  after  a  terrible 
defeat  near  Lisbon,  in  1095,  he  was  deemed  too 
weak  to  hold  the  outlying  viceroyalty,  which 
was   given    to   Count    Henri,    the    husband   of 


HISTORY 


143 


Alonso's  natural  daughter.  Henri  was  made 
governor  of  the  whole  district  between  Minho 
and  Tagus,  and  died  in  1114.  Alfonso  I.  de- 
feated a  large  Saracen  army  in  the  plain  of 
Ourique,  Alemtejo,  in  1139,  took  the  great 
stronghold  of  Santarem,  and  with  the  aid  of  a 
fleet  of  English,  German,  and  Flemish  crusaders 
carried  Lisbon  itself  by  siege  in  1147.  Before 
his  death,  in  1185,  he  had  kindled  the  fire  of 
patriotic  loyalty  in  the  nation,  which  his 
sword  had  extended  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  Burgundian  Dynasty  founded  by  him  con- 
tinued to  rule  Portugal  till  1580.  The  war 
with  the  Infidels  was  continued  by  Alfonso's 
immediate  successors,  and  Alfonso  III.  was 
called  the  Restorer,  on  account  of  his  recon- 
quest  of  Algarve.  His  son,  Dinis,  the  founder 
of  the  university  at  Lisbon,  and  a  liberal  pa- 
tron of  learning,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
commercial  greatness  ^f  Portugal  in  the  next 
century. 

Henrique  the  Navigator  gathered  together 
voyagers  and  men  of  science  and  sent  forth  the 
various  expeditions  which  explored  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  discovered  the  Azores, 
Madeiras,  Canaries,  Cape  Verde,  and  other 
islands.  The  prince  bore  the  expense  of  these 
expeditions  till  a  national  interest  was  awakened 
in  the  West  African  trade.  Maritime  discovery 
and  colonization  continued  during  the  reign  of 
Alfonso  v.,  and  culminated  during  that  of 
Joilo  II.,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Portuguese  mon- 
archs.  In  1486-87  Bartholomeo-Diaz  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  sailed  along  the 
Kafir  coast  as  far  as  the  Great  Fish  River  in 
two  small  vessels  fitted  out  by  JoSo.  In  1495 
Manoel  succeeded  Joio,  and  in  his  reign  Vasco  de 
Gama  made  his  famous  voyage  to  India,  and 
Cabral  discovered  Brazil  (1500).  The  great 
navigator  Magalhaens  was  a  Portuguese.  The 
cradle  of  discovery  and  home  of  commerce, 
Portugal  at  this  period  attained  its  greatest 
intellectual  eminence.  Its  plate  and  goldsmith's 
work  had  great  artistic  value,  its  Burgundian 
Gothic  style  in  architecture  was  noted  for  no- 
bility of  proportion  and  richness  of  tracery,  and, 
above  all,  its  glory  had  been  sung  in  the  Lusiads 
of  Camoens. 

When  Joao  III.  ascended  the  throne  in  1521, 
Portugal  was  one  of  the  first  kingdoms  in  Europe, 
and  Lisbon  one  of  the  wealthiest  cities;  but  in 
1536  the  Inquisition  was  put  in  force  against 
the  Jews,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  first 
admission  of  the  Jesuits.  Under  their  influence 
JoSo's  grandson,  Sebastian,  a  youth  of  fourteen 
years,  started  on  a  Quixotic  expedition  to 
Africa  against  the  Infidels,  which  ended  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Portuguese  and  the  loss  of  their 
king  at  Alcazar,  in  1578.  Cardinal  Henrique, 
Sebastian's  uncle,  reigned  only  till  158P,  and  his 
death  marks  the  extinction  of  the  old  Burgun- 
dian line.  The  nation  clung  to  the  hope  that 
Sebastian  was  still  alive  in  the  hands  of  the 
Infidels  and  would  return,  but,  meantime,  num- 
erous aspirants  were  struggling  for  the  throne, 
and  eventually  Philip  II.  of  Spain  annexed 
Portugal  to  his  own  dominions.  Portugal  was 
now  worse  ruled  than  ever,  and  was  burdened 
with  much  of  the  expense  and  misery  of  the 
Spanish  wars  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands. 


Moreover,  as  a  penalty  of  its  identification  with 
Spain,  it  lost  to  the  Dutch  great  part  of  its 
foreign  possessions.  But  at  last,  after  a  shame- 
ful union  of  sixty  years,  Portugal  regained  its 
liberty  by  a  conspiracy  which  placed  Joao  de 
Braganga,  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family,  on 
the  throne  in  1640.  After  a  war  which  lasted 
till  1668,  Spain  ceded  all  claims  to  Portugal  by 
the  Treaty  of  Lisbon.  The  Dutch  also  restored 
Brazil  to  the  Portuguese,  and  in  1683  a  com- 
mercial alliance  was  entered  into  with  England; 
but  nothing  could  bring  back  to  Portugal  her 
old  prosperity. 

In  the  reign  of  Jose  I.  the  minister  Pombal 
effected  certain  reforms  and  procured  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  in  1759.  But  Portugal  lapsed 
into  maladministration  during  the  reign  of  Maria 
Isabella  (1777-89).  In  the -war  between  France 
and  Spain  Joao  VI.  was  ordered  by  Napoleon  to 
seize  the  British  merchandise  in  Portugal,  and 
on  his  refusal  was  declared  to  have  forfeited 
the  throne.  He  solicited  the  protection  of 
England,  and,  setting  sail  with  his  family,  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  government  to  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  1807.  The  French  occupied  Portugal,  but 
were  forced  to  withdraw  on  their  defeat  at 
Vimiera  by  the  English  and  Portuguese  allies, 
under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  in  1808.  Welling- 
ton's defense  of  the  triple  lines  of  Torres  Vedras 
against  Marshal  Massena  (1810)  completed  the 
deliverance  of  Portugal  from  Napoleon's  tyranny. 
Joao  continuing  to  reside  in  Brazil,  a  revolution 
took  place  at  Lisbon  in  1820,  when,  without 
bloodshed,  a  constitution  was  proclaimed  in 
place  of  the  old  absolute  monarchy.  In  1821 
Joao  returned,  but  was  not  allowed  to  land  till 
he  had  ratified  the  acts  of  the  Cortes.  Adopting 
a  liberal  policy,  he  accepted  the  constitution, 
and  in  1825  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
Brazil,  under  his  brother,  Dom  Pedro,  retaining 
himself  merely  the  imperial  title.  Joao  was 
succeeded  in  1826  by  Pedro  IV.,  who  organized 
the  state  and  then  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
daughter,  Dona  Maria  de  Gloria.  In  1828, 
Miguel  the  "absolutist,"  uncle  of  Dona  Maria, 
usurped  the  throne,  and  plunged  Portugal  into 
three  years  of  anarchy.  In  1832,  Dom  Pedro 
landed  with  a  strong  force  (partly  English)  and 
after  a  feeble  resistance  Miguel  capitulated. 
Pedro  died  in  1834,  and  Dofia  Maria,  who  had 
assumed  royal  authority,  married  Prince  Ferdi- 
nand of  Saxe-Coburg  in  1836.  The  disorders  of 
her  reign  were  checked,  but  only  for  a  time,  by  the 
armed  intervention  of  the  great  powers  in  1847. 
Maria  died  in  1853,  and  her  son  ascended  the 
throne  as  Pedro  V.  On  the  death  of  the  latter 
in  1861,  his  brother  became  king  as  Luis  I. 

Under  constitutional  government,  Portugal 
remained  tranquil  until  recently.  Some  years 
ago,  the  country  took  an  honorable  part  in  the 
work  of  African  exploration,  and  thereby  se- 
cured valuable  colonial  possessions.  In  1907, 
there  were  numerous  riotous  outbreaks  in  Por- 
tugal, which  culminated  in  the  assassination  of 
King  Carlos  and  the  Crown  Prince  on  Feb.  1,  1908. 

Manuel  II.  succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  a 
revolution  in  1910  turned  the  monarchy  into  a 
republic  under  the  presidency  of  Theophile 
Braga.  The  young  king  sought  refuge  in 
England. 


144 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


PRESIDENTS   OF  THE    UNITED 


Name 


1.  George  Washington 

2.  John  Adams,     .    . 

3.  Thomas  Jefferson, 

4.  James  Madison,     . 

5.  James  Monroe,      .    . 

6.  John  Quincy  Adams 

7.  Andrew  Jackson,  . 

8.  Martin  Van  Buren,  . 

9.  William  H.  Harrison, 

10.  John  Tyler,    .    .    . 

11.  James  K.  Polk,     . 

12.  Zachary  Taylor,    . 

13.  Millard  Fillmore,  . 

14.  Franklin  Pierce,    . 

15.  James  Buchanan, . 

16.  Abraham  Lincoln, 

17.  Andrew  Johnson, 

18.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,      . 

19.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes 

20.  James  A.  Garfield, 

21.  Chester  A.  Arthur, 

22.  Grover  Cleveland, 

23.  Benjamin  Harrison, 

24.  Grover  Cleveland, 

25.  William  McKinley. 

26.  Theodore  Roosevelt 

27.  William  H.  Taft,  . 


When 


1732 
1735 
1743 
1751 
1758 
1767 
1767 
1782 
1773 
1790 
1795 
1784 
1800 
1804 
1791 
1809 
1808 
1822 
1822 
1831 
1830 
1837 
1833 
1837 
1843 
18.58 
1857 


BORN 


Where 


Bridge's  Creek,  Va., 
Braintree,  Mass.,  .    . 

Shadwell,  Va 

Port  Conway,  Va.,    . 
Westmoreland  Co.,  Va 
Quincy,  Mass.,  ... 
Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.  C 
Kinderhook,  N.  Y.,  . 

Berkeley,  Va 

Charles  City  Co.,  Va.. 
Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.  C 
Orange  Co.,  Va.,    .    . 
Summer  Hill,  N.  Y., 
Hillsborough,  N.  H., 
Stony  Batter,  Pa.,    . 
Nolin  Creek,  Ky., 
Raleigh,  N.  C,       .    . 
Point  Pleasant,  Ohio 
Delaware.  Ohio,     .    . 
Orange,  Ohio,    .    .    . 

Fairfield,  Vt 

Caldwell,  N.J 

North  Bend,  Ohio,    . 

Caldwell,  N.  J 

Niles,  Ohio 

New  York  City,  N.  Y., 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  .    .    . 


PARENTS 


Father 


Augustine 
John,  . 
Peter,  . 
James, 
Spence, 
John,  . 
Andrew, 
Abraham, 
Benjamin, 
John,  .  . 
Samuel,  . 
Richard,  . 
Nathaniel, 
Benjamin, 
James, 
Thomas,  . 
Jacob,  .  . 
Jesse  Root, 
Rutherford, 
Abram,  . 
William,  . 
Richard  Falley, 
John  Scott, 
Richard  Falley 
William. 
Theodore 
Alphonso 


Mother 


Mary  Ball,    .    .    . 
Susanna  Boylston 
Jane  Randolph,   . 
Nelly  Conway, 
Eliza  Jones,      .    . 
Abigail  Smith, 
ElizabethHutchinson 
Maria  Hoes,      .    . 
Elizabeth  Bassett, 
Mary  Armisted,   . 
Jane  Knox,  .    .    . 
Sarah  Strother,    . 
Phebe  Millard,   . 
Anna  Kindreck,  . 
Elizabeth  Speer, 
Nancy  Hanks, 
Mary  M'Donough, 
Harriet  Simpson, 
Sophia  Birchard, 
Eliza  Ballou,    .    . 
Malvina  Stone,     . 
Anna  Neal,   .    .    . 
Elizabeth  Irwin, 
Anna  Neal,   .    .    . 
Nancy  C.  Allison, 
Martha  Bullock,  . 
Louise  M.  Torrey, 


Paternal. 

ANCE8TRT 


English, 
English, 
Welsh,   . 
English, 
Scotch,  . 
English, 
Scotch-Irish, 
Dutch,   .    . 
English,     . 
English,     . 
Scotch-Irish, 
English,     . 
English,     . 
English,     . 
Scotch-Irish, 
English,     . 
English,     . 
Scotch,  .    . 
Scotch,  .    . 
English,     . 
Scotch-Irish, 
English,     . 
English,     . 
English, 
Scotch-Irish, 
Dutch.   .    . 
English,     . 


PRESIDENTS   OF  THE    UNITED 


Name 


1.  George  Washington, 

2.  John  Adams 

3.  Thomas  Jefferson,     . 

4.  James  Madison,     .    . 

5.  James  Monroe,  .    .    . 


6.  John  Quincy  Adams, 

7.  Andrew  Jackson,  .    . 

8.  Martin  Van  Buren,  . 

9.  William  H.  Harrison, 

10.  John  Tyler,    •    •    •    | 

11.  James  K.  Polk,      .    . 

12.  Zachary  Taylor,    .    . 

13.  Millard  Fillmore,  .    | 

14.  Franklin  Pierce,    .    . 

15.  James  Buchanan, .    . 

16.  Abraham  Lincoln.     . 

17.  Andrew  Johnson,  .    . 

18.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  .    . 

19.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes, 

20.  James  A.  Garfield,    . 

21.  Chester  A.  Arthur,    . 

22.  Grover  Cleveland,     . 

23.  Benjamin  Harrison,  ■] 

24.  Grover  Cleveland,     . 

25.  William  McKinley,    . 

26.  Theo.  Roosevelt,  .    j 

27.  William  H.  Taft,  .    . 


Mar- 
ried 


1759 
1764 

1772 
1794 
1786 


1797 

1791 

1807 

1795 

1813 
1844 

1824 
1810 

1826 
18.^8 
1834 


1842 

1827 
1848 
1852 
1858 

1859 


1886 
1853 
1896 

i87i 
1883 
1886 
1886 


Wife's  Name 


Mrs.  Martha  Custis,     .    .    .    . 
Abigail  Smith,      

Mrs.  Martha  Skelton,  .    .    .    . 

Mrs.  Dorothy  Todd 

Eliza  Kortwright 

Louisa  C.  Johnson 

Mrs.  Rachel  Robards 

Hannah  Hoes  (Goes),      .    .    . 

.\nna  Symmes, 

Letitia  Christian 

Julia  Gardiner 

Sarah  Childress 

Margaret  Smith,  ...... 

Abigail  Power,      .' 

Mrs.  Caroline  Mcintosh,.    .    . 
Jean  Means  Appleton,     .    .    . 

Unmarried 

Mary  Todd 

Eliza  McCardle 

Julia  Dent , 

Lucy  Ware  Webb 

Lucretia  Rudolph 

Ellen  Lewis  Herndon,     .    .    . 

Frances  Folsom , 

Caroline  Lavinia  Scott.   .    . 
Mary  Scott  (Lord)  Dimmick, 

(See  above) , 

Ida  Saxton 

Alice  Lee 

Edith  Carow, 

Helen  Herron 


CHILDREN 

Inaug- 
urated 

Residence  When 
Elected 

Age 
When 

Inaug- 

Boys 

Girls 

urated 

0 
3 

0 

2 

1797 

Mt.  Vernon,  Va.,  .    . 
Quincy,  Mass.,  .    .    . 

57 
62 

0 
0 
0 

6 
0 
2 

1801 
1809 
1817 

Monticello,  Va.,     .    . 
Montpelier,  Va.,    .    . 
Oakhill,  Va 

58 
58 
59 

3 

1 

1825- 

1  Quincy,  Mass 

58 

3 

0 

1829 

Hermitage,  Tenn.,     . 

62 

4 

0 

1837 

Kinderhook,  N.  Y..  . 

55 

6 

4 

1841 

North  Bend,  0.,    .    . 

68 

3 
4 

u 

1841 

Williamsburg,  Va.,    . 

51 

0 

1 

0 
3 

1845 
18« 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  .    . 
Baton  Rouge,  La.,    . 

50 
65 

1 
0 

0 

1850 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

50 

3 

1853 

Concord,  N.  H.,     .    . 

49 

1857 

Wheatland,  Pa.,    .    . 

66 

4 

0 

1861 

Springfield,  111.,     .    . 

52 

3 
3 

7 
4 

2 
1 

1 
1 

1865 
1869 
1877 
1881 

Greenville,  Tenn.,     . 
Washington,  D.  C,  . 
Fremont,  Ohio,.    .    . 
Mentor,  Ohio,    .    .    . 

57 
47 
54 
49 

1 

1 

1881 

New  York  City, 

51 

2 

3 

1885 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

48 

1 

i  S 

2 

1889 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,    . 

55 

d 

1893 
1897 

New  York  City,     .    . 
Canton,  Ohio,    .    .    . 

56 
54 

0 
4 

{     } 

1901 

Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  . 

43 

2 

1 

1909 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  .    . 

51 

HISTORY 


145 


STATES  — TABLE   I 


Father's 
Business 


Planter, 

Farmer, 

Planter, 

Planter, 

Planter, 

Lawyer, 

Farmer, 

Farmer, 

Statesman 

Jurist,    . 

Farmer, 

Planter, 

Farmer, 

Farmer, 

Merchant, 

Farmer, 

Sexton, 

Farmer, 

Merchant, 

Farmer, 

Clergyman, 

Clergyman, 

Farmer, 

Clergyrnan, 

Iron  Manfr 

Merchant, 

Lawyer,     . 


Educational  Advantage 


Common  School, 

Harvard  College,  1755 

College  of  William  and  Mary,  1762, 

Princeton  College,  1771 

Entered  College,  William  and  Mary, 

Harvard  College,  1787 

Self  Taught, 

Academy, 

Entered  Hampden-Sidney  College, 
College,  William  and  Mary,  1806,  . 
University  of  North  Carolina,      .    . 

Common  School, 

Public  School, 

Bowdoin  College,  1824 

Dickinson  College,  1809 

Self  Taught 

Self  Taught 

West  Point  Military  Academy,  1843, 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  1842,    .    .    . 

Williams  College,  1856 

Union  College,  1848 

Common  School, 

Miami  University,  Ohio,  1851,     .    . 

Common  School, 

Entered  Allegheney  College,     .    .    . 

Harvard 

Yale,  1878 


Early 
Vocation 


Surveyor,' 

Teacher, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Medicine, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Soldier, 

Tailor, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Farmer, 

T«i^r, 

Tanner, 

Lawyer, 

Teacher, 

Teacher, 

Teacher, 

Lawyer, 

Teacher, 

Lawyer, 

Publicist, 

Lawyer, 


Poli- 
tics 


Fed., 

Fed., 

Rep. 

Rep., 

Rep., 

Rep., 

Dem., 

Dem., 

Whig, 

Dem., 

Dem., 

Whig, 

Whig, 

Dem., 

Dem., 

Rep., 

Rep., 

■Rep., 


Rep., 
Rep., 
Rep., 
Dem., 
Rep., 
Dem., 
Rep., 
Rep., 
Rep., 


Profession 


Planter, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Politician, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Army,    . 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Army,    . 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Politician 

_Army,   . 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Lawyer, 

Publicist, 

Lawyer, 


Religious 
Connections 


Episcopalian, 

Unitarian, 

Liberal,  .    .    . 

Episcopalian, 

Episcopalian, 

Unitarian, 

Presbyterian, 

Reformed  Dutch 

Episcopalian, 

Episcopalian, 

Presbyterian, 

Episcopalian, 

Episcopalian, 

Episcopalian, 

Presbyterian, 

Liberal,  .    .    , 

Liberal,  .    .    , 

Methodist, .    . 

Methodist, .    , 

Disciples,    .    , 

Episcopalian, 

Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Methodist, .    , 

Reformed  Dutch 

Unitarian,      .    . 


Name 


Washington. 

Adams. 

Jefferson. 

Madison. 

Monroe. 

Adams,  J.Q. 

Jackson. 

Van  Buren. 

Harrison. 

Tyler. 

Polk. 

Taylor. 

Fillmore. 

Pierce. 

Buchanan. 

Lincoln. 

Johnson. 

Grant. 

Hayes. 

Garfield. 

Arthur. 

Cleveland. 

Harrison. 

Cleveland. 

McKinley. 

Roosevelt. 

Taft. 


STATES  — TABLE   II 


Served  as 
President 


7  yr.,  10  mo.,  4  d. 
4  yr., 

8  yr.,    ..... 

8  yr 

8  yr 

4  yr., 

8  yr 

4  yr., 

1  mo 

3  yr.,  11  mo.. 


4  yr 

1  yr.,  4  mo.,  5  d.,  . 

2  yr.,  7  mo.,  6  d.,  . 
4  yr.,    ...... 

4  yr., 

4  yr.,  1  mo.,  lid.,  . 

3  yr.,  10  mo.,  19  d. 
8  yr 

4  yr 

6J  mo 


3  yr.,  5i  mo.. 


8yr., 
4  yr., 


4  yr.,  6  mo.,  10  d. 
7  yr.,  5  mo.,  20  d. 


Died 


1799 
1826 

1826 
1836 
1831 


1848 
1845 
1862 
1841 

1862 

1849 
1850 

1874 
1869 

1868 

1865 

1875 
1885 
1893 
1881 

1886 

1908 
1901 

1901 


.\ge  at 
Death 


67 
90 

83 
85 
73 

80 
78 
79 
68 

72 

53 
65 

74 
64 


56 


63 
71 
49 

56 


71 

67 

58 


Cause  op  Death 


Acute  laryngitis. 
Natural  decline. 

Chronic  diarrhoea. 
Natural  decline. 
Natural  decline. 


Paralysis,  .  . 
Dropsy,  .  . 
Asthma,  .  . 
Pleurisy  fever. 


Bilious  attacks,  with  bron- 
chitis,   

Chronic  diarrhoea 

Cholera    morbus    and    ty- 
phoid fever, 

Paralysis 

Dropsy  and  inflammation 

of  stomach, 

Rheumatic  gout,    .... 

Assassinated  by  Booth,    . 


Paralysis, 

Cancer  of  the  tongue,    .    . 
Neuralgia  of  the  heart. 
Assassinated  by  Guiteau, 

Bright's  disease,  culminat- 
ing in  paralysis  and  apo- 
plexy  

Heart  failure 


Pneumonia, 


Assassinated  by  Czolgosz, 


Place  of  Death 


Mt.  Vernon,  Va., 
Quincy,  Mass., 


Monticello,  Va., 
Montpelier,  Va., 
New  York  City, 


Hall  of  Congress,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,      ... 

Hermitage,  near  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,      .... 

Kinderhook,  N.  Y.,    .    . 

White  House,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C 

Ballard  House,  Rich- 
mond, Va., 

Nashville,  Tenn 

White  House,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C, 

Bufifalo,  N.  Y 

Concord,  N.  H 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Washington,  D.  C,    .    . 

Greenville,  Tenn.,  .    .    . 
Mt.  McGregor,  N.  Y.,    . 
Fremont,  Ohio,  .... 

Elberon,    Long    Branch, 
N.  J.,    ......    . 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  .    .    . 


Princeton,  N.  J.,     . 
Indianapolis,  Ind., 


Bufifalo,  N.  Y., 


Place  of  Burial 


Mt.  Vernon,  Va. 

Unitarian  Church,  Quincy, 
Mass. 

Monticello,  Albemarle  Co.,  Va. 

Montpelier,  Hanover  Co.,  Va. 

Originally,  2d  Avenue  Ceme- 
tery, N.  Y.  Transferred, 
1858,  to  Hollywood  Ceme- 
tery, Richmond,  Va. 

Unitarian  Church,  Quincy, 
Mass. 

Hermitage,  near  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Village  Cemetery,  Kinder- 
hook,  N.  Y. 

North  Bend,  Ohio. 

Hollywood,  Richmond,  Va. 


Nashville,  Tenn. 

Near     Louisville, 

(Springfield). 


Kentucky 


Forest  Lawn.  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Minot  Cemetery,  Concord, 
N.  H. 

Woodward  Hill  Cemetery, 
Lancaster,  Pa. 

Oak  Ridge  Cemetery,  Spring- 
field, ill. 

Greenville,  Tenn. 

Riverside,  New  York  City. 

Fremont,  Ohio. 

Lake  View  Cemetery,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Rural  Cemetery,  Albany,  N.Y. 


Princeton,  N.  J. 

Crown  Hill  Cemetery,  Indian- 
apolis, Ind. 

Cemetery,  Canton,  Ohio. 


146 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Rhode  Island.  Supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  ancient  Vinland  of  the  Icelandic  Sagas, 
historians  credit  the  first  discovery  of  Rhode 
Island  to  the  Norsemen  about  1000  A.  D,  The 
navigator  Verrazzano  visited  Narragansett  Bay 
and  its  shores  in  1524.  The  State  was  settled 
at  Providence  in  1636,  by  Roger  Williams  and 
his  companions,  who  had  been  banished  from 
Massachusetts  by  religious  intolerance.  In  1638, 
the  Island  of  Aquidneck,  afterward  called  Rhode 
Island,  was  settled  at  Newport  and  Portsmouth. 
A  third  settlement  was  formed  at  Warwick  in 
1643.  The  same  year  Roger  Williams  went  to 
England  and  obtained  a  patent  for  the  united 
government  of  the  settlements.  In  1663,  this 
patent  gave  way  to  a  charter  by  Charles  II., 
mcorporating  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations,  which  remained  in  force 
for  180  years.  The  colony  suffered  severely  in 
King  Philip's  War,  1675-76,  which  resulted  in 
the  destruction  of  the  Wampanoag  and  Narra- 
gansett tribes  of  Indians.  In  1687,  Sir  Edmond 
Andros,  who  had  been  made  Governor  of  New 


York,  New  England,  etc.,  abrogated  the  charter, 
but  it  became  again  the  ruling  constitution  after 
his  recall.  In  the  wars  between  France  and 
England,  Rhode  Island  furnished  valuable  aid 
by  land  and  sea  for  the  expeditions  against 
Louisburg,  Crown  Point,  Oswego,  and  Canada. 
In  1756,  she  had  fifty  privateers  at  sea.  During 
the  War  of  the  Revolution  the  State  supplied 
many  ships  and  sailors  for  naval  operations. 
Rhode  Island  was  invaded  by  the  British,  and 
vain  attempts  were  made  for  several  years  to 
drive  them  thence  by  Count  d'Esting's  fleet  and 
General  Sullivan's  army.  The  State  was  the 
last  to  accept  the  Federal  Constitution,  May  29, 
1790.  Dorr's  insurrection  occurred  in  1842,  an 
imbroglio  growing  out  of  the  bigoted  suffrage 
laws,  an  inheritance  from  colonial  times.  It 
was  only  in  1861  that  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts  was 
finally  settled.  In  1901,  Massachusetts  re- 
voked the  edict  of  banishment  against  Roger 
Williams,  which  had  stood  for  nearly  three  cen- 
turies. 


RULERS   OF   THE    WORLD 

ROMAN    EMPERORS 


Name 


Augustus 

Tiberius, 

Caligula, 

Claudius 

Nero 

Galba 

Otho,    ....... 

Vitellius, 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Nerva, 

Trajan, 

Hadrian, 

Titus  Antonius  Pius, 
Marcus    Aurelius  An- 
toninus,     

Commodus 

Pertinax, 

Didius  Julianus,      .    . 
Septinius  Severus,  .    . 

Caracal  la 

Macrinus 

Heliogabalus 

(Elagabalus),  .    .    . 
Alexander  Severus,     . 

Maximin, 

Pupienus  and 

Balbinus,     .    .    . 

Gordian 

PhUlip 

Decius 

Callus 

Aemilianus 

Valerian,      

Gallienus, 

Flavius  Claudius,    .    . 

Aurelian 

Tacitus 

Florian, 

Probus 

Carus, 


Lineage 


THE  C^SARS 
A  title  conferred  by  the  Senate, 


Stepson  of  Augustus, 

Youngest  son  of  Germanicus,  nephew  of  Tibe- 
rius  

Grandson  of  Tiberius 


Son  of  Domitius  Ahenobarbus, 
Was  proclaimed  Emperor,    .    . 


Was  proclaimed  Emperor 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor, 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor, 

Son  of  Vespasian, 

Second  son  of  Vespasian, 

THE  FIVE  GOOD   EMPERORS 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor, 

Adopted  son  of  Nerva, 

Nephew  of  Trajan 

Adopted  son  of  Hadrian, 


Nephew  of  Antoninus  Pius 

THE  PERIOD  OF  MILITARY  DESPOTISM 

Son  of  Marcus  Aurelius 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor, 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor, 

Son  of  Septinius  Severus 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor 

First  cousin  of  Caracalla, 

Cousin  of  Heliogabalus,  by  whom  he  was  adopted. 
Was  elevated  by  soldiers, 

Appointed  by  the  Senate 

Grandson  of  Gordianus  I 

Murdered  Gordian  and  usurped  the  throne,  . 
Proclaimed  Emperor  by  the  army,  .  .  .  .  . 
Was  elected  Emperor  by  Senate  and  soldiers. 


Son  of  Valerian 

Was  designated  by  Claudius, 


Proclaimed  Emperor,     .    .    .    . 

Choice  of  the  army, 

Elevated  to  throne  by  soldiers. 


Period  of  Rule 

Birth 

Death 

B.C. 

A.D. 

B.  C. 

A.  D. 

30 

14 

63 

14 

A.  D. 

14 

37 

42 

37 

37 

41 

12 

41 

41 

54 

10 
A.  D. 

54 

54 

68 

37 
B.  C. 

68 

68 

69 

3 
A.  D. 

69 

69 

32 

69 

69 

69 

15 

69 

70 

79 

9 

79 

79 

81 

41 

81 

81 

96 

51 

96 

96 

98 

32 

98 

98 

117 

53 

117 

117 

138 

76 

138 

138 

161 

86 

161 

161 

180 

121 

180 

180 

193 

161 

192,  Dec.  31 

193 

126 

193 

193 

193 

193 

212? 

146 

211 

212 

217 

188 

217 

217 

218 

164 

218 

218 

222 

2057 

222 

222 

235 

205 

235 

235 

238 

238 

238 

238 

(238 
1238 

238 

244 

224 

244 

244 

249 

.  , 

249 

249 

251 

,  . 

251 

251 

254 

.  . 

254   • 

254 

208? 

254? 

254 

260 

269 

260 

268 

268 

268 

270 

214 

270 

270 

275 

212 

275 

275 

276 

200 

276 

276 

277 

? 

277 

282 

282 

282 

283 

222 

283 

HISTORY 


147 


ROMAN   EMPERORS— Continued 


'     Name 

Lineage 

Period  of  Rule 

Birth      1      Death 

Carinus  and                    ( 

A.  D. 
283 
284 

305 

306 
336 
361 
363 

364 

375 

383? 

383? 

388 

394 

395 

423 

455 

455 

457 

461 

467 

472 

473 

473 

475 

A.  D. 
284 
305 

306 

336 
361 
363 
364 

375 
383 

388 
394 
395 
423 
455 

457 
461 
467 
472 
473 

475 
476 

A.  E 

<  . 

1" 

i25( 

27: 
31' 
33 
33: 

32 

35f 

? 

37 

34( 
38-^ 
4K 
39. 

>.             A.D. 

285 

Son  of  Carus, ) 

Diocletian  and              j 
Maximian,    .    .    .     ( 

Constantius  and            ) 
Galerius,       .    .    .      ) 

Constantine  the  Great, 

Constantius  II 

Julian  the  Apostate,  . 

Was  proclaimed  Emperor  by  the  army,     .    .     j 
Was  made  Csesar  by  Diocletian ) 

Was  created  Csesar, 

5              313 

310 

)              306 

Eldest  son  of  Augustus  Constantius  Chlarus,  . 
Third  son  of  Constantine  the  Great 

J              337 

7              361 

363 

Jovian 

Valentinian  I 

Gratian, 

Elevated  to  the  throne  by  the  army 

ROMAN  EMPERORS  OF  THE  WEST 

Proclaimed  Emperor  by  the  army, 

Son  of  Valentinian  I., 

I              364 

375 
)              383 

Maximinius 

Made  Emperor  by  the  legions  in  Britain, 

398 
392 

Eugenius, 

Theodosius  the  Great, 

Assumed  the  purple, 

Son  of  Flavins  Theodosia, 

)              395 

1              423 

Valentinian  III.,     .    . 

Son  of  Constantius, 

)              455 

)?            455 

Avitus, 

457 

? 

Severus, 

Anthenius 

Olybrius 

Glycerus, 

Raised  to  imperial  dignity  by  Ricimer 

Son-in-law  of  Emperor  Marcian, 

Made  Emperor  by  Ricimer,      

Proclaimed  Emperor, 

465-7? 
? 

? 
? 

Nepos, 

Romulus  Augustulus. 

Proclaimed  Emperor  by  order  of  Leo 

Son  of  Orestes, 

480 
476 

Augustus  is  deposed  and  banished  by  Odoacer, 
who  thus  puts  an  end  to  the  Western  Empire 
of  Rome. 

1 

KINGS,  EMPERORS,  AND    PRESIDENTS   OF   FRANCE 


Name 


Pharamond,  . 
Clodian,  .  .  . 
Meroveus',  .  . 
Childeric,  .  . 
Clovis  I.,  .  . 
Childebert  I.,. 
Thierry  I.,  .  . 
Clodomir  and 
Clothaire  I.,    . 


Charibert,  .  .  . 
Grothan,  .  .  . 
Chilperic  I.,  .  . 
Sigebert, .  .  .  . 
Childebert  II.,  . 
Clothaire  II.,  . 
Dagobert  I.,  .  . 
Clovis  II.  and 

Dagobert  II.,. 
Clothaire  III.,  . 
Thierry  II.,    .    . 

Clovis  III 

Childebert  III., 
Dagobert  III.,    . 
Chilperic  II.,  .    . 
Thierry  IV.,   .    . 
Childeric  III.,    . 


Pepin  the  Little 

(or  Short) 

Charlemagne,  or  Charles 

the  Great, 

Louis  le  Debonnaire,     . 


Charles  the  Bald,  .    .    , 

Louis  II., 

Louis  III.,  and 

Carloman,  .  .  .  ■  . 
Charles  the  Fat,  .  .  , 
Count  Eudes,  .  .  .  , 
Charles  the  Simple,  .  , 
Raoul  (Rudolf  of  Bur- 
gundy),  ..,..., 

Louis  IV., , 

Lothaire,     ..'..., 
Louis  V 


Lineage 


THE  MEROVINGIANS 


Son  of  Pharamond  (obscure),  .... 
Founder  of  the  Merovingian  Dynasty, 
Son  of  Meroveus,  King  of  the  Franks, 

Son  of  Childeric,     . 

Son  of  Clovis 

Son  of  Clovis, 

Son  of  Clovis 

Fourth  son  of  Clovis, 


Kingdom  Divided  into  Four  Parts: 

Reigns  at  Paris 

King  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy 

King  of  Neustria  at  Soissons, 

King  of  Austrasia  at  Metz, 

Son  of  Sigebert  I.  of  Austrasia 

Son  of  Chilperic  I 

Son  of  Clothaire  II.,      

"  The  Young  "  son  of  Dagobert  I 


Son  of  Clovis  II., 
King  of  Neustria, 
King  of  Neustria, 
King  of  Neustria, 


Son  of  Dagobert  III., 

Son  of  Childeric  II.  (obscure),     .    .    . 

THE  CARLOVINGIANS 
Son  of  Charles  Martel 


Son  of  Pepin  the  Short 

Son  of  Charles  the  Great 

carlovingian  kings 

Younger  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire, 

Son  of  Charles  the  Bald, 

Sons  of  Louis  II., 

Reigns  two  years 

Son  of  Louis  the  German 


Son  of  Louis  the  Stammerer, 


Son  of  Charles  the  Simple, 
Son  of  Louis  IV.,  .... 
Son  of  Lothaire,     .... 


Period  of  Rule 

A.  D. 

A.D. 

420 

428 

428 

448 

448 

457 

458 

481 

481 

511 

511 

558 

558 

'sei 

562 

584 

584 

628 

628 

638 

638 

665 

665 

673 

673 

691 

691 

695 

695 

711 

711 

715 

715 

720 

720 

747 

747 

751 

751 

768 

768 

814 

814 

840 

843 

877 

877 

879 

879 

884 

884 

888 

888 

898 

898 

922 

922 

936 

936 

954 

954 

986 

986 

987 

Birth 


A.  D. 


465 
495 


497 


1570 
1584 

602 

633 
I  652 

652? 

652? 

681 

699 
? 

7i2 
? 


714 


742 

778 


823 

846 

863 

? 

839? 

? 
879 

? 
921 
941 
966 


148 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


KINGS,   EMPERORS,  AND    PRESIDENTS   OF   FRANCE  — Continued 


Name 


Hugh  Capet 

Robert  II 

Henry  I 

Phillip  I 

Louis  the  Fat 

Louis  VII 

Phillip  Augustus,  .    .    . 

Louis  VIII 

Louis  IX.,  or  St.  Louis, 
Phillip  the  Bold.  .  .  . 
Phillip  the  Fair,     .    .    . 

Ix)His  X., 

Phillip  the  Hardy.  .  . 
Charles  the  Fair,    .    .    . 


Phillip  of  Valois,  .  .  , 
John  the  Good,  .  .  , 
Charles  the  Wise,  .    .    , 

Charles  VI., 

Charles  the  Victorious, 

Louis  XL, , 

Charles  VIII , 

Louis  XII , 

Francis  I , 

Henry  II.,  .  .  .  .  , 
Francis  II.,     ..*.., 

Charles  IX , 

Henry  III 


Henry  IV.,. 
Louis  XIIL, 
Louis  XIV.. 
Louis  XV.,. 
Louis  XVI., 


National  Convention. 
Directory  nominated. 


Bonaparte, . 
Cambaceres, 
Lebrun,  .  . 
Bonaparte, . 
Bonaparte, . 


Napoleon  I.. 
Napoleon  II., 


Louis  XVIII. 
Charles  X.. 


Louis  Phillipe, 


Provisional  Government 

formed. 

Louis  Napoleon.    .    .    . 


Napoleon  III. 


Committee  of  Public  De- 
fense  

L.  A.  Thiers 

Marshal  McMahon.    .    . 

Jules  Grevy 

Marie  F.  S.  Carnot,  .    . 

Jean  Cassimir  Perier.    . 

Felix  Francois  Faure.   . 

M.  Emile  Loubet,  .    .    . 

Armand  Clement  Fal- 
lieres, 


Lineage 


HOUSE  OF  CAPET 

Son  of  Hugh  the  Great, 

Son  of  JIugh  Capet, 

Son  of  Robert  II 

Son  of  Henry  I 

Son  of  Philhp  I 

Son  of  IvOuis  VI 

Son  of  Louis  VII 

Son  of  Phillip  Augustus 

Son  of  Louis  VIII.. 

Son  of  Ixjuis  IX 

Son  of  Phillip  III 

Son  of  Phillip  IV 

Second  son  of  Phillip  IV 

Youngest  son  of  Phillip  the  Fair. 

HOUSE  OF  VALOIS 

Son  of  Charles  of  Valois 

Son  of  PhiUip  VI 

Son  of  John  II., ;    . 

Son  of  Charles  V 

Son  of  Charles  VI 

Son  of  Charles  VII 

Son  of  Louis  XI 

A  descendant  of  the  younger  son  of  Charles  V.. 
Son  of  Charles.  Count  of  Angouleme.     .... 

Son  of  Francis  I 

Eldest  son  of  Henry  II 

Second  son  of  Henry  II ~.    .    .    . 

Third  son  of  Henry  II 

HOUSE  OF  BOURBON 

Son  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  King  of  Navarre. 

Son  of  Henry  IV 

Son  of  Louis  XIII.  and  Anne  of  Austria,  .    .    . 

Great-grandson  of  Louis  XIV 

Grandson  of  Louis  XV 

FROM    THE   REVOLUTION    OF   1792    TO 
THE   FIRST  REPUBLIC 

First  sat  September  21,  1792 

November  1,  1795, 


THE  CONSULATE 
December  24,  1799 


Consul  for  ten  years.  May  6,  1802, 
Consul  for  life.  August  2,  1802.   . 


THE  EMPIRE 

Decreed  Emperor.  May  18,  1804, 
Never  reigned, 


THE  RESTORATION 

Brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  re-entered  Paris  May  3, 
1814 ^    .    .    .    . 

Younger  brother  of  Louis  XVIII. ,  deposed  July 
30,  1830 

HOUSE  OF  ORLEANS 

Son  of  Phillipe  Egalite,  abdicated  February  24, 
1848 

THE  SECOND  REPUBLIC 


Elected  President 

THE  SECOND  EMPIRE 

Nephew  of  Napoleon  I.,  elected  Emperor, 
posed  1870 


De- 


THE  THIRD  REPUBLIC 


Elected 
Elected 
Elected 
Elected 
Elected 
Elected 
Elected 


President, 
President, 
President, 
President, 
President, 
President, 
President, 


Elected  President, 


Period  of  Rule 


A.  D. 


A.  D. 

987 
996 
1031 
1060 
1108 
1137 
1180 
1223 
1226 
1270 
1285 
1314 
1316 
1321 


1328 
1350 
1364 
1380 
1422 
1461 
1483 
1498 
1615 
1547 
1559 
1560 
1574 


1589 
1610 
1643 
1715 
1774 


1792 
1795 


1799 


1804 


1814 
1824 


1830 

Feb.  22, 
1848 
1848 


1852 


1870 
1871 
1873 
1879 
1887 
1894 
1895 
1899 

1906 


1031 
1060 
1108 
1137 
1180 
1223 
1226 
1270 
1285 
1314 
1316 
1321 
1328 


1350 
1364 
1380 
1422 
1461 
1483 
1498 
1515 
1547 
1559 
1560 
1574 
1589 


1610 
1643 

1715 
1774 
1793 


1795 
1799 


1804 


1814 


1824 
1830 


1848 

Dec.  19, 
1848 
1852 


1870 


1871 
1873 
1879 
1887 
1894 
1895 
1899 
1906 


Birth 


Death 


A.  D. 

7 
971 
1011? 
1052 
1078 
1120 
1165 
1187 
1215 
1245 
1268 
1239 
1294 
1294 


1293 

1319? 

1337 

1368 

1403 

1423 

1470 

1462 

1494 

1519 

1543 

1550 

1551 


1553 
1601 
1638 
1710 
1754 


1769 
1753 
1739 


1811 


1755 
1757 


1773 


1808 


1808 


1797 
1808 
1807 
1837 
1847 
1841 
1838 

1841 


A.  D. 

996 
1031 
1060 
1108 
1137 
1180 
1223 
1226 
1270 
1285 
1314 
131^ 
1322 
1328 


1350 
1364 
1380 
1422 
1461 
1483 
1498 
1515 
1547 
1559 
1560 
1574 
1589 


1610 
1643 
1715 
1774 
1793 


1821 
1824 
1824 


1832 


1824 
1836 


1850 


1873 


1873 


1877 
1893 
1891 
1894 

? 
1899 


HISTORY 


149 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  RUSSIA 


Name 


Ivan  the  Great, .    . 

Vasily  IV 

Ivan  the  Terrible, . 

Feodor I 

Boris  Godonof,  .  . 
Demetrius,  .  .  . 
Zuiski  (Vasily  IV.), 
An  Interregnum,   . 


Michael  Romanoff, 

Alexis, 

Feodor  II. 

Ivan  v.,  and 

Peter 

Peter  the  Great,    . 

Catharine  I 

Peter  II 

Anna, 

Ivan  VI.,  .  .  .  . 
Elizabeth,  .  .  .  . 
Peter  III.,  .  .  .  . 
Catharine  II.,     .    . 

Paul 

Alexander  I.,      .    . 

Nicholas 

Alexander  II..  .  . 
Alexander  III.,  .  . 
Nicholas  II 


Lineage 


HOUSE  OF  RURIC 


Grand  Duke  of  Moscow,  . 
Son  of  Ivan  the  Great, 

Son  of  Vasily  IV 

Son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  . 
Was  elected  to  the  throne. 
Usurped  the  throne,      .    . 


HOUSE  OF  ROMANOFF 

Unanimou.sly  elected  Czar, 

Son  of  Michael  Feodorovitch,       

Eldest  son  of  Emperor  Alexis, 

Half-brother  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  whose  favor  I 

he  resigned \ 

Son  of  Alexis, 

Was  married  to  Peter  the  Great  in  1707,  .    .    . 

Grandson  of  Peter  the  Great, 

Daughter  of  Ivan  V 

Son  of  Antoin  Ulrich  Leopoldovina  and  Anna, 

Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great, 

Son  of  Charles  Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein, 

Wife  of  Peter  III., 

Son  of  Peter  III., 

Son  of  Paul, 

Third  son  of  Paul  I 

Son  of  Nicholas  I 

Son  of  Alexander  II 

Son  of  Alexander  III 


Period  of  Rule 


A.  D. 

1462 
1505 
1533 
1584 
1598 
1604 
1606 
1610 


1613 
1645 
1676 

1682 

1689 
1725 
1727 
1730 
1740 
1741 
1762 
1762 
1796 
1801 
1825 
1855 
1881 
1894 


A.  D. 

1505 
1533 
1584 
1598 
1604 
1606 
1610 
1613 


1645 
1676 
1682 

1689 

1725 
1727 
1730 
1740 
1741 
1762 

1796 
1801 
1825 
1855 
1881 
1894 


Birth 


A.  D. 

1438 

? 
1629 
1557 
1552 


1598 
1629 
1656 
1666 

i672 

1679? 

1715 

1693 

1740 

1709 

1728 

1729 

1754 

1777 

1796 

1818 

1845 

1868 


Death 


A.  D. 

1505 

7 

1584 
1598 
1605 
1606 


1645 
1676 
1682 
1696 

i725 
1727 
1730 
1740 
1764 
1762 
1762 
1796 
1801 
1825 
1855 
1881 
1894 


EMPERORS  OF  GERMANY 


Name 


Louis,    "The   German' 
and  Lothaire,  .   .    .    , 


Louis  II 

Charles  the  Fat, 

Arnolph 

Louis  the  Child, 

Conrad  I.,    .    .    . 


Henry  the  Fowler, 
Otho  the  Great,  . 

Otho  II 

Otho  III.,    .    .    . 
Henry  the  Saint, 


Conrad  II.,  . 
Henry  III., . 
Henry  IV.,  . 
Henry  V.,    . 


Lothaire  II. 


Conrad  III 

Frederick  Barbarossa, 

Henry  VI 

Otho  IV.  and 

Phillip  Swabia,   .    . 

Frederick  II 

An  Interregnum,   .    . 


Rudolph  of  Habsburg, 


Adolph, 
Albert, . 


Henry  VII. 


Lineage 


CARLOVINGIAN  EMPERORS 

Son  of  the  Emperor  Louis  I.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  German  Empire 

Son  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire  I., 

Son  of  Louis,  the  German 

Illegitimate  son  of  Karlmann, 

Son  of  the  Emperor  Arnolph 


HOUSE  OF   FRANCONIA 
Duke  of  Franconia 


HOUSE  OF  SAXONY 

Son  of  the  King  of  Saxony,       

Son  of  Henry  I., 

Son  of  Otho  I 

Son  of  Otho  II 

Son  of  Henry  the  Quarrelsome  of  Bavaria, 

HOUSE  OF  FRANCONIA 

Was  crowned  Emperor 

Son  of  Conrad  II 

Son  of  Henry  III 

Son  of  Henry  IV 


HOUSE  OF  SAXONY 
Was  elected  King  and  crowned  by  the  Pope, 

THE  HOHENSTAUFFENS 

Elected  in  an  irregular  manner, 

Nephew  of  Conrad  III., 

Son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa, 

Second  son  of  Henry  the  Lion 

Youngest  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  .    .    . 
Son  of  Henry  VI 


HOUSE  OF  HABSBURG 
Son  of  Albert  IV 


HOUSE  OF  NASSAU 
Elected, 

HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA 
Eldest  son  of  Rudolph  I., 

HOUSE  OF  LUXEMBURG 
Son  of  the  Count  of  Luxemburg,     .    . 


Period  of  Rule 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

843 

855 

855 
875 
887 
898 

875 
887 
898 
911 

911 

919 

919 
936 
973 
983 
1002 

936 
973 
983 
1002 
1024 

1024 
1039 
1056 
1106 

1039 
1056 
1106 
1125 

1125 

1138 

1138 
1152 
1190 

1152 
1190 
1197 

1197 

1208 

1218 
1250 

1250 
1273 

1273 

1291 

1291 

1298 

1298 

1308 

1308 

1313 

Birth 


A.  D. 


804 
795 
822 
839 
850 
893 


876 
912 
955 
980 
972 


1017 
1050 
1081 


1093 

? 
1165 
1174 
1177 
1194 


1218 
1252 
1250 
1262 


Death 


A.  D. 


876 

855 
875 


911 


Dec,  918 


936 
973 
983 
1002 
1024 


1039 
1056 
1106 
1125 


Dec,  1137 


1152 
1189 
1197 
1218 
1208 
1250 


1291 
1298 
1308 
1313 


160 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


EMPERORS   OF   GERMANY  —  Continued 


Name 


Louis  V.  or  IV. 

Charles  IV.,     . 
Wenceslaus,    . 

Rupert,    .    .    . 

Sigismund,  .    . 

Albert 

Frederick  III., 
Maximilian,  . 
Charles  V.,  .  . 
Ferdinand  I.,  . 
Maximilian  II., 
Rudolph  II.,  . 
Mathias,  .  .  . 
Ferdinand  II., 
Ferdinand  III., 
Leopold  I.,  .  . 
Joseph  I.,  .  . 
Charles  VI.,    . 

Charles  VII.,  . 

Francis  I.,  .  . 

Joseph  II.,  .  . 

Leopold  II.,  . 
Francis  II., 


William   the  Victorious, 
William  II.,*     .... 


Lineage 


HOUSE  OF  BAVARIA 

Son  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria 

HOUSE  OF  LUXEMBURG 

Son  of  John  of  Luxemburg 

Son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV., 

HOUSE  OF  PALATINATE 
Was  chosen  King, 

HOUSE  OF  LUXEMBURG 
Son  of  Charles  IV 

HOUSE  OF  HABSBURG 

Third  son  of  Frederick  I., 

Was  elected  Emperor 

Son  of  Frederick  III., 

Son  of  PhilHp  of  Burgundy 

Younger  brother  of  Charles  V 

Son  of  Ferdinand  I 

Son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II 

Younger  son  of  Maximilian  II., 

Son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Styria 

Son  of  Ferdinand  II 

Second  son  of  Ferdinand  III., 

Son  of  Leopold  I 

Son  of  Leopold  I.,  ., 

HOUSE  OF  BAVARIA 

Son  of  Maximilian  Emmanuel 

HOUSE  OF  LORRAINE 

Son  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine 

Son  of  Francis  I., 

Third  son  of  Francis  I 

Son  of  Leopold  II., 

THE  CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE 

THE  GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION 

THE  NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HOHENZOLLERN 

Second  son  of  Frederick  William  III 

Son  of  Frederick  III. and  Grandson  of  William  I.. 


Period 

3f  Rule 

A.D. 

A.  D. 

1313 

1347 

1347 

1378 

1378 

1400 

1400 

1410 

1410 

1438 

1438 

1440 

1440 

1493 

1493 

1519 

1519 

1556 

1556 

1564 

1564 

1576 

1576 

1612 

1612 

1619 

1619 

1637 

1637 

1657 

1657 

1705 

1705 

1711 

1711 

1741 

1741 

1745 

1745 

1765 

1765 

1790 

1790 

1792 

1792 

1806 

1806 

1815 

1815 

1866 

1866 

1871 

1871 

1888 

1888 

Birth 


A.  D. 

1286 


1316 
1361 


1352 
1361 


1414 
1415 
1459 
1500 
1503 
1527 
1552 
1557 
1578 
1608 
1640 
1678 
1685 


1697 


1708 
1741 
1747 
1768 


1797 
1859 


Death 


A.  D. 
1347 


1378 
1419 


1410 


1438 


1486 
1493 
1519 
1558 
1564 
1576 
1612 
1619 
1637 
1657 
1705 
1711 
1740 


1745 


1765 
1790 
1792 
1835 


1888 


KINtiS   AND   QUEENS   OF   ENGLAND 


Name 

Lineage 

Period  of  Reign 

Birth 

Death 

Egbert 

Ethelwulf 

ANGLO-SAXON  KINGS 

A.D. 

827 
838 
857 
860 
866 
871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
955 
959 
975 
978 
1016 

1017 
1035 
1040 

1041 
1066 

1066 
1087 
1100 
1135 

1154 

A.D. 
837 
857 
860 
866 
871 
901 
924 
940 
946 
955 
959 
975 
978 
1016 
1017 

1035 
1040 
1042 

1066 

1087 
1100 
1135 
1154 

1189 

A.D. 
775? 

849 
870? 
8957 
923 

939? 
943? 
961? 

989 
995 

i6i9 

1004 
1022 

1027 
1056 
1068 
1105 

1133 

A.D. 
837 

858 

<  Ethelbald,    .    .    . 

I  Ethelbert,    .    .    . 

Ethelred  I 

Alfred  the  Great    .    .    . 

Son  of  Ethelwulf, 

860? 

Second  son  of  Ethelwulf, 

Third  son  of  Ethelwulf,    , 

866? 

871 

901 

Edward  the  Elder,     .    . 

Son  of  Alfred 

924 

Athelstan 

Edmund  I., 

Edred 

Eldest  son  of  Edward 

Brother  of  Athelstan, 

941 

946  or  8 

955? 

Edwy 

Edgar 

Son  of  Edmund  I 

Second  son  of  Edmund  I.,        

959 
975 
978 

Ethelred  II.,  ..... 

Half-brother  of  Edward 

1016 
1017 

DANISH  KINGS 

1035 

Harold  I.  (Harefoot),    . 

1040 

1042 

SAXON  KINGS 
Son  of  Ethelred  II 

1066 

Harold  II. 

1066 

William  I 

William  II 

NORMAN  KINGS 

Obtained  the  Crown  by  conquest 

Third  son  of  William  I 

Youngest  .son  of  William  I 

1087 
1100 
1135 

Stephen 

Henry  II 

Third  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois 

THE  PLANTAGENETS 
Son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet, 

1154 
1189 

•Frederick  III.,  son  of  William  I.,  was  emperor  Irom  March  9  to  June  15,  1888. 


HISTORY 


151 


KINGS   AND   QUEENS   OF   ENGLAND  —  Continued 


Name 


Lineage 


Period  of  Reign 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

1189 
1199 
1216 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 

1199 
1216 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 
1399 

1399 
1413 
1422 

1413 
1422 
1461 

1461 
1483 
1483 

1483 
i485 

1485 
1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 

1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 
1603 

1603 
1625 

1625 
1649 

U649 

1660 

1660 
1685 

1685 
1688 

i689 
1702 

1702 
1714 

1714 
1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 

1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 
1901 

1901 
1910 

1910 

Birth 


Death 


Richard    I.    the    Lion 

hearted 

John 

Henry  III 

Edward  I 

Edward  II 

Edward  III.,  .    .    ;    . 
Richard  II 

Henry  IV., 

Henry  V.,    ..... 
Henry  VI.. 

Edward  IV 

Edward  V.,     .    .    .    . 
Richard  III 

Henry  VII 

Henry  VIII 

Edward  VI 

Mary  I 

EUzabeth 

James  I., 

Charles  I., 

Commonwealth, .    .    . 


Charles  II 

James  II., 

William  III.  ( 

and  •< 

Mary  II.,  ( 

Anne 

George  I., 

George  II 

'George  III., 

George  IV., 

WilUam  IV 

Victoria 

EdVard  VII 

George  V 


Eldest  surviving  son  of  Henry  IL, 

Youngest  son  of  Henry  II 

Eldest  son  of  John, 

Eldest  son  of  Henry  III., 

Eldest  surviving  son  of  Edward  I 

Eldest  son  of  Edward  II. , 

Son  of  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III 

HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER 
Son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III., 

Eldest  son  of  Henry  IV., 

Only  son  of  Henry  V., 

HOUSE  OF  YORK 

His  grandfather  was  Richard,  son  of  Edmund, 
fifth  son  of  Edward  III.;  and  his  grandmother, 
Anne,  was  great-granddaughter  of  Lionel, 
third  son  of  Edward  III., 

Eldest  son  of  Edward  IV., 

Younger  brother  of  Edward  IV 

HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 

Son  of  Edmund,  eldest  son  of  Owen  Tudor,  by 
Katharine,  widow  of  Henry  V.;  his  mother, 
Margaret  Beaufort,  was  great-granddaughter 
of  John  of  Gaunt, 

Only  surviving  son  of  Henry  VII., 

Son  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Jane  Seymour 

Daughter  of  Henry  VI II .  by  Katharine  of  Aragon , 

Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Anne  Boleyn,  .    . 

HOUSE  OF  STUART 
Son  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  granddaughter  of 

James  IV.,  and  Margaret 

Only  surviving  son  of  James  I 

Commonwealth  declared  May  19 

Oliver  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector 

Richard  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector 

HOUSE  OF  STUART  RESTORED 

Eldest  son  of  Charles  I 

Second  son  of  Charles  I., 

Son  of   William,  Prince  of  Orange,   by  Mary, 

daughter  of  Charles  I 

Eldest  daughter  of  James  II., 

Second  daughter  of  James  II 

HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 

Son  of  Elector  of  Hanover,  by  Sophia,  daughter 

of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,      .... 

Only  son  of  George  I 

Grandson  of  George  II., 

Eldest  son  of  George  III., 

Third  son  of  George  III., 

Daughter  of  Edward,  fourth  son  of  George  111., 

HOUSE   OF   SAXE-COBURG 

Son  of  Victoria 

Son  of  Edward  VII., 


A.  D. 

1157 
1166 
1207 
1239 
1284 
1312 
1366 

1366? 

1388 

1421 


1441 
1470 
1452 


1457 
1491 
1537 
1516 
1533 


1566 
1600 

1599 
1626 

1630 
1633 

1650 
1662 
1665 


1660 
1683 
1738 
1762 
1765 
1819 


1841 
1865 


A.  D. 

1199 
1216 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 
1400 

1413 
1422 
1471 


1483 
1483 
1485 


1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 
1603 


1625 
1649 

1658- 
1712 

1685 
1701 

1702 
1694 
1714 


1727 
1760 
1820 
18.30 
1837 
1901 


1910 


GOVERNORS-GENEBAIi   OF   CANADA 


G  OVEKNOR-G  EN  ERAL 


Lineage 


Term  of  Office 

1867 

1869 

1869 

1872 

1872 

1878 

1878 

1883 

1883 

1888 

1888 

1893 

1893 

1898 

1898 
1904 

1904 

Birth 


Death 


The  Right  Hon.  Vis- 
count Monclc,  G.  C.  M. 
G 

The  Right  Hon.  Lord 
Lisgar,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  . 

The  Right  Hon.  the  Earl 
of  Dufferin,  K.  P.,  K. 
C.  B.,  G.  C.  M.  G.,    . 

The  Right  Hon.  the  Mar- 
quis of  Lome,  K.  T., 
G.  C.  M.  G.,  P.  C,  etc.. 

The  Most  Hon.  the  Mar- 
quis of  Lansdowne, 
G.  C.  M.  G 

The  Right  Hon.  Lord 
Stanley  of  Preston,  G. 

TheRight  Hoia.  the  Earl 
of  Aberdeen,  K.  T., 
G.  C.  M.  G 

The  Right  Hon.  the  Earl 
of  Minto,  G.  C.  M.  G., 

The  Right  Hon.  the  Earl 
Grey,  G.  C.  M.  G.,     . 


Charles  Monck,  British  statesman,  made  a  peer 
of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1866 

Baron  Lisgar,  a  British  poUtician  (Sir  John 
Young) 

Was  created  Marquis  of  Dufferin  in  1888  (Fred- 
erick Temple,  Hamilton  Blackwood),     .    .    . 

Eldest  son  of  the  eighth  Duke  of  Argyll  (John 
George  Henry  Douglas  Sutherland  Camp- 
bell)  

Fifth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne  (Petty-FitzMau- 
rice,  Henry  Charles  Keith) 

Sixteenth  Earl  of  Derby  (Frederick  Arthur 
Stanley), 

Seventh  Earl  of  Aberdeen  (John  Campbsll 
Hamilton  Gordon), 

Fourth  Earl  of  Minto  (Gilbert  John  Elliot- 
Murray  Kynynmound), 

Fourth  Earl  Grey  (Albert  Henry  George),    .    . 


1819 
1807 

1826 

1845 
1845 

1841 

1847 

1845 
1851 


1894 
1876 

1902 


1908 


152 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


PREMIERS    OF    CANADA 


Service 

Born 

Died 

Terna 

Years 

Rt.  Hon.  Sir  John  A.  Mocdonald 

Hon.  Alexander  Mackenzie, 

1867-1873 

1873-1878 

1878-1891 

1891-1892 

1892-1894 

1894-1896 

1896-Jan.  15  to  July  8, 

1896-. . . . 

6 
5 
3 

1 
2 
2 

is' 

1815 
1822 
(see  above) 
1821 
-1844 
1823 
1821 
1841 

1891 
1892 
(see  above) 
1893 
1894 

Rt.  Hon.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald 

Hon.  Sir  J.  J.  C.  Abbott 

Rt.  Hon.  Sir  J.  S.  D.  Thompson 

Hon.  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell, 

Hon.  Sir  Charles  Tupper,  Bart 

Rt.  Hon.  Wilfrid  Laurier 

Russia.  The  origin  of  the  Russian  Empire 
is  involved  in  much  obscurity,  but  it  is  usually 
regarded  as  having  been  founded  by  Rurik,  a 
Scandinavian  (Varangian),  about  862,  his  domin- 
ions and  those  of  his  immediate  successors  com- 
prising Novgorod,  Kieff,  and  the  surrounding 
country,  Vladimir  the  Great  (980-1015),  the 
Charlemagne  of  Russia,  introduced  Christianity 
and  founded  several  cities  and  schools.  But 
from  this  period  down  to  the  time  when  the 
country  was  overrun  by  the  Tartars,  Russia  was 
almost  constantly  the  scene  of  civil  war.  For 
more  than  two  centuries  Russia  was  subject  to 
the  Tartars.  But  Russia's  real  foundation  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  accession  of  Peter  the 
Great  in  1689,  who  first  secured  to  the  country  the 
attention  of  the  more  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 
His  first  military  achievement  was  his  conquest 
of  Azov  from  the  Turks  in  1696,  which,  however, 
he  lost  again  in  1711.  He  also  completed  the 
conquest  of  Siberia;  and,  what  was  of  more 
importance,  obtained  from  Sweden  by  the  Peace 
of  Nystadt,  in  1721,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria, 
or  part  of  Karelia,  the  Territory  of  Viborg,  Oesel, 
and  all  the  other  islands  in  the  Baltic  from 
Courland  to  Viborg.  Catharine  I.,  widow  of 
Peter  I.,  succeeded  on  the  death  of  the  latter, 
but  died  after  a  reign  of  only  two  years.  The 
throne  was  then  occupied  successively  by  Peter 
II.,  1727-30;  by  Anna,  1730-40;  by  Ivan  VI., 
1740-41;  by  Elizabeth,  1741-62;  by  Peter  III,, 
about  six  months  in  1762;  by  Catharine  II., 
wife  of  Peter  III.,  1762-96;  by  Paul,  1796-1801 ; 
by  Alexander  I.,  1801-25;  by  Nicholas,  1825- 
55;  by  Alexander  II.,  1855-81.  During  all 
these  reigns  the  growth  of  the  empire  was  con- 
tinuous. The  Kirghiz  Cossacks  were  subdued 
in  1731,  the  Ossetes  in  1742;  the  Finnish  Prov- 
ince of  Kymenegard  was  gained  by  the  Treaty 
of  Abo  in  1743.  The  three  partitions  of  Poland 
took  place  under  Catharine  II.  in  1772,  1793, 
and  1795.  Russia  acquired  nearly  two-thirds  of 
this  once  powerful  state.  By  the  Peace  of  Kut- 
chuk-Kainarji  in  1774,  the  Turks  gave  up  Azov, 
part  of  the  Crimea  (the  other  part  was  taken 
possession  of  in  1783),  and  Kabardah;  and  by 
the  Peace  of  Jassy  in  1792,  Oczakov.  Georgia 
also  came  under  the  protection  of  Russia  in  1783, 
and  Courland  was  incorporated  in  1795.  A  por- 
tion of  Persian  Territory  had  already  been  ac- 
quired; and  in  1801  the  formal  annexation  of 
Georgia  was  effected.  The  Peace  of  Fredericks- 
haven,  1809,  robbed  Sweden  of  the  whole  of 
Finland,  which  now  passed  to  Russia;  the  Peace 
of  Bukarest,  1812,  took  Bessarabia  from  the 
Turks;  that  of  Tiflis,  1813,  deprived  the  Per- 
sians of  parts  of  the  Caucasus;  and  then  the 
Vienna  Congress  of  1815  gave  the  remainder  of 


Poland  to  Russia,  After  fresh  wars,  the  Persians 
lost  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhichevan 
in  1828;  and  the  Turks  lost  Anapa,  Poti,  Akhal- 
zik,  etc.,  by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople  in  1829. 
The  desire  to  possess  further  dominions  of  the 
sultan  led  to  a  war  against  Turkey  in  1853,  in 
which  England,  France,  and  Sardinia  also  took 
part  in  1854,  and  which  ended  in  the  Peace  of 
Paris,  1856.  The  Russians  were  compelled  to 
restore  to  .Moldavia  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube 
in  Bessarabia.  This  district,  however,  was  again 
restored  to  Russia  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  in 
1878,  which  followed  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of 
1877-78.  In  1858,  Russia  acquired  by  agree- 
ment with  China  the  sparsely  populated  but 
widely  extended  district  of  the  Amur;  the  sub- 
jection of  Caucasia  was  accomplished  in  1859 
and  1864,  and  considerable  conquests  have  fol- 
lowed since  1866  both  in  Turkestan  and  the  rest 
of  Central  Asia.  A  ukase  of  1868  annihilated 
the  last  remains  of  the  independence  of  Poland 
by  incorporating  it  completely  in  the  czardom. 
On  the  other  hand,  Russian  America  was  sold 
to  the  United  States  in  1867,  The  following 
table  will  show  at  a  glance  the  extent  of  these 
continuous  accessions  of  territory: 

The  extent  of  Russian  Territory  under  — 
Ivan  the  Great,     .    .    1462,  about  382,716  sq.  m. 


Vassili  Ivanovitch,  .  1505, 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  .  1584, 
Alexis  Michaelovitch,  1650, 
Peter  I.,.  .  .  . 
Anna,  .... 
Catharine  II.,  , 
Alexander  II.,  . 
Alexander  II.,  . 
Alexander  III., , 
Nicholas  II., 


510,288 
1,530,864 
5,039,094 
5,953,360 


1689, 
1730, 

1775,     "    7,122,770     " 
1868,     "    7,866,940     " 
1881,     "    8,325,393     " 
1892,     "    8,644,100     " 
1908,     "    8,647,657     " 
The  population  from  14,000,000  in  1722  has 
grown  to  129,562,718  in  1908.     The  extension 
of  the  Russian  Empire  in  the  East  is  still  going 
on.     In  1881,  the  Tekke  Turcomans  were  sub- 
jected;   in  1884,  Merv  was  ™cen,  and  Penjdeh 
was  occupied  and  annexed  if[l885,  which  led  to 
considerable  friction  between^ussia  and  Britain. 
Of  late  years  a  great  disturbing  element  to  the 
Government  of  Russia  has  sprung  up  in  Nihilism. 
Alexander  II.  was  killed  by  their  agency,  and 
many  attempts  have  been  made  to  murder  the 
succeeding  emperors.     In  1891,  flour  and  grain 
were  sent  by  the  United  States  to  relieve  distress 
caused  by  failure  of  the  harvest.     Oppressive 
measures  against  the  Jews  have  excited  unfav- 
orable comment,     Alexander  III.  died  Novem- 
ber 1,  1894,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nicho- 
las II.     In  1900,  following  the  Boxer  Rebellion, 
China  gave  to  Russia  exclusive  mining  and  rail- 
way privileges  in  Manchuria,  and  the  command 


HISTORY 


153 


of  all  the  Chinese  troops  there  to  the  Russian 
authorities.  This  occupation  was  to  end  in 
three  years,  and  the  delay  in  the  withdrawal  of 
Russian  troops  led  to  open  hostilities  between 
Russia  and  Japan  in  1894.  (See  Russo-Japanese 
War.)  During  1905-06,  Russia  was  much  per- 
turbed by  internal  and  insurrectionary  disturb- 
ances. In  October  of  1905  the  Czar  issued  a 
manifesto,  assuring  civil  liberty,  freedom  of  the 
press,  extension  of  the  suffrage,  and  limited 
representative  government.  A  continual  strug- 
gle has  existed  between  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment and  the  Duma  since  that  time  as  to  how 
this  manifesto  should  be  interpreted,  and  to 
what  extent  it  should  be  made  operative. 

Russo-Japanese  _War.  A  war  between 
Russia  and  Japan,  waged  in  Manchuria  (1904-05). 
The  chief  cause  of  the  war  was  the  occupation 
(continued  notwithstanding  repeated  promises 
of  withdrawal  by  the  Russian  Government)  of 
Manchuria  by  Russia  after  the  Boxer  uprising 
of  1899-WOO,  with  the  consequent  endanger- 
ment  of  the  Japanese  preponderance  in  Corea, 
which  was  regarded  by  Japan  as  essential  to  her 
safety.  An  earlier  cause  of  irritation  was  the 
action  of  Russia,  Germany,  and  France  in  pre- 
venting the  retention  by  Japan  of  Port  Arthur 
and  the  Liao-taing  peninsula  after  the  Chinese- 
Japanese  War  of  1894-95,  and  the  subsequent 
leasing  of  this  territory  from  China  by  Russia. 
The  principal  events  of  the  war  were  the  follow- 
ing: rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  with  Russia 
by  Japan,  February  6,  1904;  attack  by  torpedo- 
boats  of  the  Japanese  fleet  under  Admiral  Togo 
upon  the  Russian  squadron  under  Admiral 
Stark  at  Port  Arthur,  February  8,  1904 ;  general 
attack  by  the  Japanese  fleet,  February  9,  1904; 
these  two  attacks  resulting  in  great  injury  to 
the  Russians ;  naval  fight  off  Chemulpo,  result- 
ing in  the  destruction  of  the  Russian  cruiser 
"  Variag"  and  the  gunboat  "Korietz,"  February 
9,  1904;  war  declared  by  Japan,  February  10, 
1904;  Admiral  Makaroff  succeeded  Admiral 
Stark,  Februarjr  17,  1904;  General  Kuropatkin 
appointed  Russian  commander-in-chief  in  Man- 
churia, February  21,  1904;  agreement  between 
Japan  and  Corea  signed  at  Seul,  February  23, 
1904;  Vladivostok  bombarded  by  Admiral 
Kamimura,  March  6,  1904;  Port  Arthur  bom- 
barded, March  21-22,  1904;  Wiju  occupied  by 
the  Japanese,  April  6-7,  1904;  destruction  of 
the  Russian  battle-ship  "  Petropavlovk "  by  a 
mine  and  death  of  Admiral  Makaroff,  April  13, 
1904;  Russian  Vladivostok  squadron  appeared 
off  Yuen-san,  April  25,  1904;  defeat  of  the  Rus- 
sians under  Sassulitch  by  the  Japanese  First 
Army  under  Kuroki,  May  1,  1904;  the  entrance 
to  Port  Arthur  blocked  for  battle-ships  and 
cruisers.  May  3,  1904;  Japanese  battle-ship 
"Hatsuse"  sunk  by  a  mine,  May  15,  1904; 
Japanese  victory  at  Kin-chau  (capture  of  Nan- 
shan  Hill),  May  27-28,  1904;  occupation  of 
Dalny  by  the  Japanese,  May  29-30,  1904;  Rus- 
sians defeated  at  Telissu  and  Wafangkau,  June 
14-15,  1904;  unsuccessful  sortie  of  Russian  fleet 
from  Port  Arthur,  June  23,  1904 ;  investment  of 
Port  Arthur  (after  severe  preliminary  fighting), 
July  31,  1904- January  1,  1905;  sortie  of  the 
Port  Arthur  fleet,  resulting  in  a  sea- battle,  in 
which  most  of  the  Russian  vessels  were  driven 


back  "to  Port  Arthur  and  the  rest  dispersed  with 
the  death  of  Admiral  Withoft,  August  10,  1904; 
Vladivostok  squadron  defeated  by  Admiral 
Kamimura  ("Rurik"  sunk),  August  14,  1904; 
battle  of  Liao-yang,  resulting  in  the  success  of 
the  Japanese  under  Oyama,  the  Russians  retir- 
ing upon  Mukden,  August  27-September  4,  1904 ; 
battle  of  the  Shaho,  in  which  the  Russian  attack 
was  repulsed,  October  9-14,  1904;  the  Baltic 
fleet  under  Rozhestvensky  sailed  for  the  Far 
East,  October,  1904,  and  attacked  the  Hull  fish- 
ing fleet  on  the  Doggerbank,  on  the  night  of 
October  21-22,  1904;  Port  Arthur  surrendered, 
January  1,  1905;  Russians  crossed  the  Hun 
River  and  attacked  the  Japanese  at  Haikautai, 
but  were  repulsed  January  25-29,  1905;  battle 
of  Mukden,  resulting  in  the  complete  defeat  of 
Kuropatkin  and  the  capture  of  the  city,  Feb- 
ruary 19-March  10,  1905;  Kuropatkin  relieved 
of  his  command  and  succeeded  by  Linievitch, 
March  16,  1905;  the  Baltic  fleet  reached  Kam- 
ranh  Bay,  April  12,  1905;  battle  of  the  Sea  of 
Japan  and  the  annihilation  of  the  Baltic  fleet  by 
Admiral  Togo,  May  27-28,  1905;  President 
Roosevelt  urged  the  Russian  and  Japanese  Gov- 
ernments to  negotiate  for  peace,  June  8,  1905; 
plenipotentiaries  met  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hamp- 
shire, August  9,  1905;  treaty  of  peace  signed, 
September  5,  1905. 

Sabines.  An  ancient  people  of  Italy,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  named  from  "Sabus,"  one 
of  their  deities.  Little  is  known  of  their  history. 
They  were  at  war  with  the  Romans  at  a  very 
early  period.  A  contest  broke  out  between 
them  504  B.  C,  and  a  body  of  the  Sabines  mi- 
grated to  Rome,  where  they  were  welcomed, 
and  founded  the  powerful  family  and  tribe  of 
Claudii.  The  Sabines  carried  their  ravages  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome,  469  B.  C.  On  their 
defeat  by  Marcus  Horatius,  449  B.  C,  their  camp 
was  found  full  of  plunder  obtained  in  the  Roman 
territories.  They  were  again  at  war  with  the 
Romans,  290  B.  C.,  and  having  been  vanquished, 
many  of  them  were  sold  as  slaves.  The  remain- 
ing citizens  received  the  Roman  franchise. 

St.  Bartholomew,  Massacre  of,  a 
massacre  of  the  Huguenots  which  took  place  in 
Paris,  France,  beginning  on  the  night  of  August 
23-24  (St.  Bartholomew's  Day),  1572.  A  large 
number  of  prominent  Huguenots  had  been 
invited  to  the  royal  palace  to  participate  in  the 
wedding  festivities  of  Henry  of  Navarre.  While 
these  guests  were  in  the  palace  they  were  slaugh- 
tered without  mercy,  and  at  a  signal  the  massacre 
quickly  spread  over  the  city.  The  anti-Hugue- 
not leaders  were  Charles  IX.,  the  Queen-mother 
Catherine  de  Medici,  and  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
The  massacre  spread  over  France  and  it  is  vari- 
ously estimated  that  2,000  to  100,000  lives  were 
lost. 

Salic,  or  Salique  Law,  The  (s&l'-ik). 
An  ancient  fundamental  law  of  the  Ripuarian 
Franks,  which  excluded  females  from  inheriting 
the  French  throne.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
established  by  Pharamond  or  Clovis,  and  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  River  Saale,  in 
Saxony,  whence  those '  Franks  originally  came. 
This  body  of  law  was  revised  and  reconstituted 
by  Charlemagne ;  according  to  it  "  no  portion  of 
Salic  land  can  fall  to  females;"  but  what  was 


154 


THE    STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


meant  by  Salic  land  has  been  long  debated 
among  French  antiquaries.  It  was  the  cause 
of  long  wars  between  England  and  France,  when, 
in  opposition  to  it,  Edward  III.  claimed  the 
throne  of  France  by  a  title  prior  to  that  of 
Philip  of  Valois.  It  has  been  recognized  in  all 
countries  of  which  the  crown  has  devolved  on 
a  member  of  the  blood-royal  of  France;  and 
formed  the  foundation  of  the  pretensions  of  Don 
Carlos  to  the  Spanish  Crown.  It  was  observed 
with  reference  to  the  great  fiefs  which  had  been 
granted  to  princes  of  the  blood,  by  way  of 
appanage;  and  hence,  on  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  without  a  male  heir,  that 
duchy  reverted  to  Louis  XI. 

Scotland  was  first  visited  by  the  Roman 
troops  under  Agricola,  who  penetrated  to  the 
foot  of  the  Grampian  Mountams.  It  was  after- 
ward exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Norwegians 
and  Danes,  with  whom  many  bloody  battles  were 
fought.  Various  contests  were  also  maintained 
with  the  kings  of  England.  Robert  Bruce,  how- 
ever, secured  the  independence  of  the  country 
and  his  title  to  the  throne  by  the  decisive  battle 
of  Bannockburn  in  1314.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Robert  Stewart,  and  he  by  his  eldest 
son,  Robert.  The  latter  was  a  weak  prince,  and 
the  government  was  seized  by  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  who  stoned  to  death  the  eldest  son  of 
the  king.  James,  his  second  son,  to  escape  a 
similar  fate,  fled  to  France;  in  the  year  1424  he 
returned  to  Scotland,  and  having  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  nobility,  he  was  assassinated  in 
a  monastery  near  Perth.  James  II.,  his  son,  an 
infant  prince,  succeeded  him  in  1437.  He  was 
killed  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon  at  the  siege 
of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh.  James  III.  ascended 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  seven  years.  His  reign 
was  weak  and  inglorious,  and  he  was  murdered 
in  the  house  of  a  miller,  whither  he  had  fled  for 
protection.  James  IV.,  a  generous  and  brave 
prince,  began  his  reign  in  1488.  He  was  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Flodden.  James  V.,  an  infant 
of  less  than  two  years  of  age,  succeeded  to  the 
crown.  He  died  m  1542,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  daughter,  the  celebrated  Queen  Mary.  She 
was  succeeded  by  her  son  James,  who,  in  1603, 
ascended  the  throne  of  England,  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  two  king- 
doms were  united  into  one  great  monarchy 
which  was  legislatively  united  in  1707.  At  the 
union  of  the  kingdoms  the  political  system  of 
Scotland  was  almost  entirely  incorporated  with 
that  of  England. 

The  Court  of  Sessions  is  the  Supreme  Civil 
Court  of  Scotland.  The  Court  of  Justiciary,  or 
Criminal  Court,  composed  only  of  judges  of  the 
Court  of  Sessions,  is  supreme  in  the  highest  sense, 
since  its  decisions  in  criminal  cases  are  not  sub- 
ject to  any  review.  The  principal  subordinate 
judicatories  are  sheriff  courts,  established  in 
each  county  or  stewartry.  Sheriff-substitutes, 
or  judges  ordinary,  one  or  more  holding  separate 
courts  in  differents  districts,  decide  in  the  first 
instance,  subject  to  the  review  of  the  principal 
sheriff  or  sheriff  depute,  whose  decisions,  though 
final  within  the  limits  of  his  jurisdiction,  are 
reviewable  by  the  Court  of  Sessions.  Besides 
the  sheriff  court,  each  county  or  district  of  a 
county  has  its  justice  of  peace  courts,  in  which 


judges  decide  on  principles  of  equity  in  minor 
crimes;  and  in  every  town  of  any  importance 
are  bailie,  dean,  or  guild,  and  police  courts, 
with  limited  jurisdictions. 

Seven  Years'  War,  The  (1756-63), 
was  the  third,  last,  and  most  terrible  of  the  con- 
tests between  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 
and  Maria  Theresa  (with  the  other  powers  of 
Europe  on  one  side  or  the  other)  for  the  pos- 
session of  Silesia.  In  1763  Maria  Theresa, 
sorely  against  her  will,  was  finally  compelled  to 
conclude  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg,  which 
acknowledged  Frederick  as  Lord  of  Silesia.  This 
long  and  desperate  conflict  made  no  change  in 
the  territorial  distribution  of  Europe,  but  it 
increased  tenfold  the  moral  power  of  Prussia, 
and  gave  its  army  a  prestige  which  it  retained 
till  the  battle  of  Jena.  It  cost  Europe  1,000,000 
lives,  and  prostrated  the  strength  of  almost  all 
the  powers  who  had  engaged  in  it. 

Shays'  Rebellion.  At  the  close  of 
the  Revolution,  the  United  States  were  burdened 
with  a  very  heavy  foreign  and  domestic  debt. 
They  were  impoverished  by  the  long  war,  and  it 
was  difficult  to  raise  the  means  to  meet  the 
arrears  of  pay  due  the  soldiers  of  the  Revolution. 
On  the  recommendation  of  Congress,  each  State 
endeavored  to  provide  means  for  raising  its 
quota  by  a  direct  tax.  This  effort  produced 
much  excitement  in  some  of  the  States,  and, 
finally,  in  1787,  a  portion  of  the  people  of  Massa- 
chusetts openly  rebelled.  Daniel  Shays,  who 
had  been  a  captain  in  the  Continental  Army, 
marched  at  the  head  of  a  thousand  men,  took 
possession  of  Worcester,  and  prevented  a  ses- 
sion of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  repeated  his 
performance  at  Springfield ;  and  the  insurrection 
soon  became  so  formidable  that  the  governor 
was  compelled  to  call  out  several  thousand 
militia  under  General  Lincoln,  to  suppress  it. 
This  was  speedily  accomplished.  Though  some 
of  the  insurgents  were  sentenced  to  death,  none 
were  executed.  A  free  pardon  was  finally  given 
to  all. 

Sicilies,  The  Two,  a  former  kingdom  of 
Italy,  consisting  of  Naples  (or  South  Italy)  and 
Sicily.  In  1047,  while  Greeks  and  Saracens 
were  struggling  for  the  possession  of  Lower  Italy 
and  Sicily  the  twelve  sons  of  Tancred  de  Haute- 
ville,  a  count  in  Lower  Normandy,  came  in  with 
their  followers.  Robert  Guiscard,  one  of  these 
brothers,  subdued  Apulia  and  Calabria,  taking 
the  title  of  duke,  and  his  youngest  brother. 
Count  Roger,  conquered  Sicily.  Roger's  son 
and  successor,  Roger  II.,  completed  the  conquest 
of  all  Lower  Italy  by  subduing  Capua,  Amalfi, 
and  Naples,  at  that  time  celebrated  commercial 
republics,  and  in  1130  took  the  title  of  king, 
calling  his  kingdom  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  1759,  when  Charles  IV.  ascended 
the  Spanish  throne  under  the  name  of  Charles 
III.,  he  conferred  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  on  his  third  son  Ferdinand,  and  decreed 
at  the  same  time  that  it  should  never  again  be 
united  to  the  Spanish  Monarchy.  The  reign  of 
Ferdinand  extended  through  the  stormy  period 
of  the  French  Revolution  and  the  subsequent 
European  commotions.  A  varied  experience 
followed,  during  which  the  country  was  succes- 
sively subject  to  Germany,  France,  and  Spain. 


HISTORY 


155 


In  1860,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Sicily,  and 
an  expedition  of  volunteers  from  Piedmont  and 
other  Italian  provinces  under  Garibaldi  sailed 
from  Genoa  to  the  assistance  of  the  insurgents. 
The  result  was  that  the  Neapolitan  troops  were 
driven  from  the  island.  Garibaldi,  following 
up  his  success,  crossed  over  to  the  mainland, 
where  he  met  little  or  no  opposition;  Francis 
II.  fled  from  Naples;  the  strong  places  in  his 
hands  were  reduced;  and  by  a  popular  vote 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ceased  to 
exist  as  such  and  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Sicilian  Vespers,  the  name  given  to  a 
massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  March  30,  1282. 
On  the  evening  of  Easter  Monday  the  conspira- 
tors were  already  assembled  at  Palermo;  but 
the  massacre  was  precipitated  by  an  outrage 
offered  by  a  Frenchman  to  a  Sicilian  bride,  who 
was  passing  along  the  streets  with  her  train. 
Instantly  the  Frenchman  was  killed,  and,  the 
populace  being  aroused  by  the  conspirators,  all 
the  French  who  could  be  found  in  the  city  were 
slaughtered.  Eight  thousand  were  slain  in 
Palermo  alone,  and  the  massacre  afterwards 
spread  over  the  island,  the  French  being  even 
dragged  out  of  the  churches  to  which  they  had 
fled  for  protection.  The  six  hundredth  anni- 
versary of  the  Sicilian  Vespers  was  celebrated 
with  much  enthusiasm  at  Palermo  in  1882. 

Slavery.  The  establishment  of  one  man's 
right  to  control  the  liberty,  property,  and  even 
life  of  another.  Slavery  probably  arose  at  an 
early  period  of  the  world's  history  out  of  the 
accident  of  capture  in  war.  Savages,  in  place 
of  massacring  their  captives,  found  it  more 
profitable  to  keep  them  in  servitude.  All  the 
ancient  Oriental  nations  of  whom  we  have  any 
records,  including  the  Jews,  had  their  slaves. 
In  Greece  in  general,  and  especially  at  Athens, 
slaves  were  mildly  treated,  and  enjoyed  a  large 
share  of  legal  protection;  while  by  the  Romans 
they  were  used  with  considerable  rigor.  The 
English  word  slave  is  simply  the  name  of  the 
Sclavonian  race.  The  wars  of  the  Frankish 
kings  and  emperors  filled  Saracenic  Spain  with 
Sclavonic  -captives  to  such  an  extent  that  in  its 
language,  as  well  as  in  those  of  other  European 
countries,  a  natural  name  meaning,  in  its  own 
tongue,  glorious,  became  the  title  of  servitude. 
The  African  slave-trade  was  commenced  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1442;  it  was,  however,  of  only 
trifling  extent  till  the  Sixteenth  Century.  But 
the  importation  of  negroes  into  the  West  Indies 
and  America  having  once  begun,  it  gradually 
increased,  until  the  vastness  and  importance  of 
the  traffic  rivaled  its  cruelty  and  guilt.  The 
slave-trade  was  abolished  in  England  in  1807 
but  it  was  only  in  1834  that  slavery  itself  was 
abolished  throughout  the  British  dominions. 
Long  before  that  time,  several  of  the  North 
American  States  had  decreed  the  extinction  of 
slavery.  Vermont  abolished  it  in  1777,  before 
she  had  joined  the  Union.  Pennsylvania  in  ]  780, 
Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  shortly  after. 
New  York  in  1797,  and  New  Jersey  in  1804, 
provided  for  the  gradual  emancipation  of  their 
slaves.  In  Massachusetts  the  Supreme  Court 
declared  that  slavery  was  abolished  by  the  act 
of  adopting  the  State  Constitution  of  1780.     In 


1820,  the  United  States  passed  a  law  declaring 
the  slave-trade  to  be  piracy,  but  no  conviction 
was  obtained  under  the  statute  until  November, 
1861,  when  Nathaniel  Gordon,  master  of  a  vessel 
called  the  "Erie,"  was  convicted  and  hanged  at 
New  York.  Finally,  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
cause  and  fruit  of  the  gigantic  war  of  secession, 
was  definitively  consecrated  in  1865  by  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  The  French  emancipated  their 
negroes  in  1848,  and  the  Dutch  in  1863.  Slavery 
was  also  partially  abolished  in  Brazil  in  1871, 
and  gradual  emancipation  has  been  adopted  in 
Cuba. 

South  Carolina.  The  first  attempt  to 
colonize  the  territory  now  included  in  South 
Carolina  was  made  by  Jean  Ribault,  a  French- 
man, in  1562.  The  first  permanent  settlement 
was  made  by  English  colonists,  who  planted 
themselves  on  the  banks  of  the  Ashley  in  1670, 
but  removed  to  the  site  of  Charleston  in  1680. 
The  province  was  created  by  Charles  II.  in  1683. 
Both  the  Carolinas  were  included  under  a  com- 
mon name  and  proprietary  government  till  1729, 
when  the  king  formed  the  province  into  two 
royal  colonies.  Large  numbers  of  French  Hugue- 
nots had  arrived  in  1685,  and  subsequently 
Swiss,  Irish,  and  German  colonists.  South 
Carolina  suffered  severely  from  Indian  depreda- 
tions, and  joined  with  Georgia,  under  Oglethorpe, 
in  a  contest  with  Spanish  Florida.  She  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Revolution,  and  the  battles 
of  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston,  Camden,  King's 
Mountain,  Cowpens,  Eutaw  Springs,  etc.,  were 
fought  on  her  soil.  The  United  States  Constitu- 
tion was  ratified  in  1788.  In  1832,  the  State 
passed  the  Nullification  Act,  which  threatened 
civil  war,  then  happily  averted,  but  afterward 
precipitated  in  1861  by  the  firing  on  Fort  Sum- 
ter. The  important  military  operations  were  the 
capture  of  Hilton  Head  in  1861,  the  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Charleston  in  1863*  and  the  march 
of  General  Sherman  in  1865.  The  State  was 
readmitted  to  federal  relations  in  1868.  From 
1865  until  1871  there  were  reconstruction  trou- 
bles, ending  with  the  election  of  Wade  Hampton 
as  Governor  of  the  State  and  his  recognition  by 
President  Hayes.  In  1886  Charleston  suffered 
from  a  severe  earthquake  which  caused  much 
property  loss.  A  State  dispensary  law  for  the 
regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  was  j)assed  in 
1892.  The  present  State  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1897. 

South  Dakota.  South  Dakota  became 
a  State  November  2,  1899,  when  the  Territory 
of  Dakota  was  divided  into  two  States.  The 
history  of  that  part  of  the  country  will  be  found 
under  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  North  Dakota. 

Spain,  the  Spania,  Hispania  and  Iberia  of 
the  Greeks,  and  known  to  the  Romans  hy  the 
same  names,  is  supposed  to  have  been  origmally 
inhabited  by  a  distinct  race  called  Iberians, 
upon  whom  a  host  of  Celts  are  supposed  to  have 
descended  from  the  Pyrenees.  These  two  races 
coalesced  and  formed  the  mixed  nation  of  the 
Celtiberians.  About  the  middle  of  the  Third 
Century  B.  C.  the  Carthaginian  influence  began 
to  be  felt  in  Iberia,  and  a  considerable  tract  of 
territory  was  brought  under  subjection  to 
Carthage  by  Hamilcar,  who  founded  the  city  of 


156 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Barcelona.  The  Romans  had  driven  the  Car- 
thaginians from  the  peninsula  in  206  B.  C,  and 
the  country  was  erected  into  a  Roman  Province. 
From  the  time  of  the  complete  supremacy  of  the 
Romans  till  the  death  of  Constantine  the  con- 
dition of  Spain  was  eminently  prosperous. 
Everywhere  throughout  the  country  towns  of 
purely  Roman  character  sprang  up,  and  numer- 
ous aqueducts,  bridges,  amphitheaters,  etc.,  were 
built.     Spain  was  for  three  centuries  the  richest 

Province  of  the  Roman  Empire.  In  409  A.  D., 
ordes  of  barbarians,  Alans,  Vandals,  and  Suevi, 
crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  swept  over  and  des- 
olated the  peninsula.  About  412  tne .Visigoths 
invaded  the  country,  and  their  king,  Athaulf, 
established  the  Gothic  monarchy  in  Catalonia. 
In  711  the  Moors  obtained  mastery  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  Spain.  The  Moors  held  Spain  for 
the  first  few  years  as  a  dependency  of  the 
province  of  North  Africa;  but  after  the  down- 
fall of  Musa  the  country  was  governed  (717) 
by  emirs  appointed  by  the  Caliph  of  Damascus. 
During  the  period  of  Moorish  domination  the 
small  independent  kingdom  of  Asturias,  or  Leon, 
had  been  growing  in  power  and  extent.  In  758 
a  second  mdependent  Christian  Kingdom  was 
founded  in  Sobrarve,  which  was  in  801  swallowed 
up  by  the  caliphate  of  Cordova.  Thirty-six 
years  afterward  was  founded  the  third  Christian 
Kingdom,  that  of  Navarre,  and  in  933  another 
independent  monarchy  was  founded  in  Castile, 
which,  from  its  central  position  and  consequent 
greater  facilities  for  expansion,  soon  became  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Spanish  states.  The 
Kingdom  of  Aragon  was  the  last  Christian 
kingdom  formed  in  Spain.  The  rest  of  the 
history  of  the  Spanish  kingdoms  before  their 
union  is  undeserving  of  a  detailed  account. 
Ferdinand  II  ,  the  last  sovereign  of  Aragon,  by 
marriage  with  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile,  in  1469, 
by  the  conquest  of  Granada  in  1492,  and  that  of 
Navarre  in  1512,-  united  the  whole  of  Spain 
(and  French  Navarre)  under  one  rule.  Charles 
I.  (Charles  V.  of  Germany)  succeeded  Ferdinand, 
and  in  his  reign  Mexico  and  Peru  were  added  to 
the  possessions  of  Spain.  Philip  II.,  by  his 
enormous  war  expenditure  and  maladminis- 
tration, laid  a  sure  foundation  for  the  decline 
of  the  country;  and  the  reigns  of  Philip  III.  and 
IV.  witnessed  a  fearful  acceleration  in  the 
decline.  That  of  Charles  II.  was  still  more 
unfortunate,  and  the  death  of  the  latter  was  the 
occasion  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
Philip  V.  was  the  first  of  the  Bourbon  Dynasty 
who  occupied  the  throne  of  Spain.  Under 
Charles  III.  (1759-88)  the  second  great  revival 
of  the  country  commenced,  and  trade  and  com- 
merce began  to  show  signs  of  returning  activity. 
During  the  inglorious  reign  of  Charles  IV. 
(1788-1808)  a  war  broke  out  with  Britain,  which 
was  productive  of  nothing  but  disaster  to  the 
Spaniards  and  by  the  pressure  of  the  French 
another  arose  in  1804.  and  was  attended  with 
similar  ill  success.  Charles's  eldest  son  ascended 
the  throne  as  Ferdinand  VII.  Forced  by  Napo- 
leon to  resign  all  claims  to  the  Spanish  Crown, 
Ferdinand  became  a  prisoner  of  the  French,  and 
Joseph,  the  brother  of  the  French  Emperor,  was 
declared  Kirig  of  Spain  and  the  Indies.  But 
before  this  time  an  armed  resistance  had  been 


organized  throughout  the  whole  country.  The 
various  provinces  elected  juntas,  or  councils, 
consisting  of  the  most  influential  inhabitants 
of  the  respective  neighborhoods,  and  it  was 
their  business  to  administer  local  rule.  The 
Supreme  Council  of  Seville  declared  war  against 
Napoleon  and  France  in  1808.  England,  on 
solicitation,  made  peace  with  Spain,  recognized 
Ferdinand  VII.  as  king,  and  sent  an  army  to 
aid  the  Spanish  insurrection.  After  many 
bloody  campaigns  the  French  were  driven  from 
the  country.  The  reign  of  Ferdinand's  daughter, 
Isabella  II.,  was  disturbed  by  the  Carlist  rebel- 
lion, 1834-39.  Frequent  changes  of  ministry, 
occasional  revolts,  the  banishment  of  Queen 
Christina,  the  war  with  the  Moors,  the  annexa- 
tion of  St.  Domingo  in  1861,  and  the  quarrels 
between  Spain  and  her  former  colonies,  Peru 
and  Chile,  were  the  most  marked  events  in  the 
more  recent  history  of  Spain.  In  1868,  Isabella 
was  driven  from  the  throne  by  a  general  revolt; 
and  the  Cortes,  in  1871,  elected  Prince  Amadeo 
of  Italy  to  be  king.  Finding  the  task  of  ruling 
constitutionally  hopeless,  Amadeo  abdicated  in 
1873,  upon  which  the  form  of  government  was 
changed  into  a  republic.  During  the  remainder 
of  1873,  and  the  whole  of  1874,  Spain  was  the 
scene  of  general  anarchy  and  much  bloodshed. 
In  December,  1874,  Alfonso,  son  of  ex-Queen 
Isabella,  was  declared  King  of  Spain  at  Santan- 
der,  under  the  title  of  Alfonso  XII.  He  died 
in  1886,  and  his  widow.  Queen  Maria  Christina, 
was  chosen  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
infant  Prince  Alfonso  XIII.  The  Prince  reached 
his  majority.  May  17,  1902,  and  assumed  charge 
of  the  kingdom  as  Alfonso  XIII.  On  May  31, 
1904,  he  married  Princess  Ena  of  Battenberg, 
and  as  the  king  and  queen  were  returning  to 
the  palace,  they  narrowly  escaped  death  from 
a  bomb  thrown  by  an  anarchist. 

Spanish -American  War.  In  1898, 
a  crisis  in  Cuban  affairs  brought  on  war  with  the 
United  States,  known  as  the  Spanish-American 
War,  which  from  its  opening  to  its  close  lasted 
114  days.  In  that  time  the  United  States 
land  and  sea  forces  destroyed  two  Spanish 
fleets,  received  the  surrender  of  more  than 
35,000  Spanish  soldiers,  took  by  conquest  the 
fortified  cities  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  Cuba, 
Ponce,  in  Porto  Rico,  and  Manila,  on  the  island 
of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippines,  and  secured  con- 
trol, pending  negotiations  of  peace,  of  the  entire 
Spanish  possessions  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
Philippines,  and  Guam  of  the  Ladrone  Islands. 
The  Americans  suffered  no  loss  of  ships  or  territory 
and  but  279  killed  and  1,465  wounded  in  battle, 
while  the  cost  to  Spain,  aside  from  prisoners, 
ships,  and  lost  territory,  was  2,199  killed,  and 
2,948  wounded.  The  cost  to  the  United  States 
in  money  was  $141,000,000. 

The  principal  events  preceding  and  during  the 
war  and  the  dates  on  which  they  occurred  are 
as  follows: 

February  15th — The  United  States  battleship 
"Maine"  was  blown  up  in  the  harbor  of 
Havana.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
Court  of  Inquiry  appointed  by  the  United 
States  the  explosion  was  due  to  an  external 
mine. 


HISTORY 


157 


April  20th — President  McKinley,  authorized  by 
Congress  to  intervene  in  Cuba,  using  the 
United  States  military  and  naval  forces, 
sent  an  ultimatum  to  Spain.  The  Spanish 
minister  at  once  left  Washington,  and  the 
next  day  the  United  States  minister  left 
Madrid. 

April  22d— A  proclamation  was  issued  by  the 
President  blockading  the  principal  ports  of 
Cuba. 

April  23d^President  McKinley  issued  a  call  for 
125,000  volunteers  to  serve  for  two  years. 

April  27th — The  batteries  of  Matanzas,  Cuba, 
were  shelled  by  Admiral  Sampson's  flagship, 
the  "New  York,"  with  the  monitor  "Puri- 
tan" and  the  cruiser  "Cincinnati." 

April  29th — ^The  Spanish  fleet,  commanded  by 
Admiral  Cervera,  consisting  of  the  "Cristo- 
bal Colon,"  the  "Almirante  Oquendo,"  the 
"Maria  Teresa"  and  the  "Viscaya,"  and 
the  torpedo  Uoats  "Furor,"  "Terror,"  and 
"Pluton,"  left  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  for 
Cuba. 

May  1st — Commodore  Dewey,  commanding  the 
United  States  Asiatic  squadron,  destroyed 
the  entire  Spanish  fleet  in  Manila  Bay, 
Philippines,  without  losing  a  man. 

May  nth— The  "Wilmington,"  "Winslow,"  and 
"Hudson"  engaged  the  Spanish  batteries 
at  Cardenas.  Ensign  Bagley  and  four  of  the 
"Winslow's"  crew  were  killed.  Major- 
General  Wesley  Merritt  was  ordered  to  the 
Philippines  as  military  governor. 

May  12th — A  United  States  fleet,  commanded 
by  Rear-Admiral  Sampson,  bombarded  the 
fortifications  of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

May  19th — Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  reached  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  and  a  few  days  later  was 
"bottled  up"  there  by  the  "flying  squad- 
ron "  of  Commodore  Schley. 

May  25th^President  McKinley  called  for  75,000 
more  volunteers.  Twenty-five  hundred 
United  States  troops  sailed  from  San  Fran- 
cisco for  Manila,  several  thousand  more 
following  at  a  later  date. 

May  31st — The  "Massachusetts,"  "Iowa,"  and 
"New  Orleans"  bombarded  the  fortifica- 
tions at  the  mouth  of  Santiago  Harbor. 
They  were  bombarded  again  several  times 
after  Admiral  Sampson  took  command  of 
the  fleet. 

June  3d — Assistant  Naval  Constructor  Hobson 
with  seven  men  ran  the  coUier  "Merrimac" 
to  the  mouth  of  Santiago  Harbor  and  sank 
her  in  the  channel  under  the  fire  from  the 
Spanish  forts  Hobson  and  his  men  were 
taken  prisoners. 

June  10th — Six  hundred  marines  were  landed  at 
Caimanera,  Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba,  where 
sharp  skirmishing  continued  for  several 
days,  several  Americans  being  killed. 

June  12th — The  5th  Army  Corps,  commanded 
by  General  Shafter,  sailed  from  Tampa  on 
twenty-nine  transports  for  Santiago,  arriv- 
ing off  there  on  June  20th. 

June  13th— President  McKinley  signed  the  War 
Revenue  Bill,  providing  for  the  raising  of 
revenues  by  a  stamp  tax  and  providing  for 
a  popular  bond  loan  which  was  immediately 
subscribed. 


June  17th — A  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral 
Camara  left  Cadiz  for  the  Philippines,  but 
returned  after  passing  through  the  Suez 
Canal. 

June  22d — General  Shafter's  troops  began  dis- 
embarking at  Daiquiri  and  Siboney,  near 
Santiago. 

June  14th — Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders  were  at- 
tacked while  advancing  toward  Santiago; 
sixteen  Americans  were  killed  and  forty 
more  wounded  before  the  Spaniards  were 
repulsed. 

July  1st — General  Lawton  took  El  Caney,  near 
Santiago,  and  General  Kent,  commanding 
the  1st  division  of  the  5th  Army  Corps, 
which  included  the  2d,  6th,  9th,  10th,  13th, 
16th,  and  24th  infantry,  and  the  71st  New 
York  volunteers,  took  San  Juan  Hill  after 
heavy  fighting.  Official  reports  gave  the 
American  losses  231  killed  and  1,364 
wounded  and  missing. 

July  3d — Admiral  Cervera's  squadron  made  a 
dash  out  of  Santiago  Harbor,  and  every 
vessel  was  sunk  or  disabled  by  the  American 
fleet.  General  Shafter  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  Santiago.  The  seizure  of  Guama, 
in  the  Ladrone  Islands,  by  the  "Charles- 
ton" was  reported  at  this  time. 

July  7th — President  McKinley  signed  resolutions 
passed  by  the  Senate  annexing  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  to  the  United  States,  and  the  "  Phil- 
adelphia "  was  ordered  to  Honolulu  to  raise 
the  American  flag. 

July  17th — General  Toral,  in  command  of  the 
Spanish  troops  at  Santiago,  General  Linares 
being  wounded,  surrendered  his  forces  and 
the  east  portion  of  the  province  of  Santiago 
de  Cuba  to  General  Shafter. 

July  21st — General  Leonard  R.  Wood,  formerly 
colonel  of  the  1st  Volunteer  cavalry,  was 
appointed  military  governor  of  Santiago. 

July  25th — United  States  troops,  under  General 
Nelson  A.  Miles,  landed  at  Guanica,  Porto 
Rico,  the  town  having  surrendered  to  the 
"Gloucester." 

July  26th — Through  the  French  ambassador,  the 
government  of  Spain  asked  President  Mc- 
Kinley on  what  terms  he  would  consent  to 
peace. 

July  28th — Ponce,  the  second  largest  city  in  Por- 
to Rico,  surrendered  to  General  Miles,  and 
he  was  received  by  the  residents  with  joyful 
acclamations.  Capture  of  several  other 
towns,  with  little  or  no  fighting,  followed. 

July  30th — President  McKinley's  statement  of 
the  terms  on  which  he  would  agree  to  end 
the  war  was  given  to  the  French  ambassador. 
The  President  demanded  the  independence 
of  Cuba,  cession  of  Porto  Rico  and  one  of 
the  Ladrones  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
retention  of  Manila  by  the  United  States 
pending  the  final  disposition  of  the  Philip- 
pines by  a  joint  commission. 

July  31st — United  States  troops  engaged  the 
Spaniards  at  Malate,  near  Manila,  in  the 
Philippines,  and  repulsed  them,  with  some 
loss  on  both  sides. 

August  9th — The  French  ambassador  presented 
to  President  McKinley  Spain's  reply, 
accepting  his  terms  of  peace. 


158 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


August  12th — Protocols  agreeing  as  to  the  pre- 
liminaries for  a  treaty  of  peace  were  signed 
by  Secretary  Hay  and  the  French  ambas- 
sador. United  States  military  and  naval 
commanders  were  ordered  to  cease  hostili- 
ties. The  blockades  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
and  Manila  were  lifted  and  hostilities  ended. 

August  13th — Manila  surrendered  after  a  com- 
bined assault  by  the  army  under  General 
Merritt  and  Dewey's  fleet. 

Sparta  or  Laced semon.  A  celebrated 
city  of  ancient  Greece;  capital  of  Laconia  and 
of  the  Spartan  state,  and  the  chief  city  in  the 
Peloponnesus;  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Eurotas 
River,  and  embraced  a  circuit  of  six  miles. 
Sparta  was  a  scattered  city  consisting  of  five 
separate  quarters.  Unlike  Athens,  it  was 
plainly  built,  and  had  few  notable  public  build- 
mgs;  consequently,  there  are  no  imposing  ruins 
to  be  seen  here  as  in  Athens,  and  the  modern 
Sparta  is  only  a  village  of  some  4,000  inhabitants. 

The  Spartan  state  was  founded,  according  to 
tradition,  by  Lacedsmon,  son  of  Zeus.  The 
most  celebrated  of  its  legendary  kings  was 
Menelaus.  Shortly  after  their  settlement  in  the 
Peloponnesus  it  is  probable  that  the  Spartans 
extended  their  sway  over  all  the  territory  of 
Laconia,  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  which 
they  reduced  to  the  condition  of  slaves.  They 
also  waged  war  with  the  Messenians,  the  Arca- 
dians, and  the  Argives,  against  whom  they  were 
so  successful  that  before  the  close  of  the  Sixth 
Century  B.  C.  they  were  recognized  as  the 
leading  people  in  all  Greece. 

Early  in  the  following  century  began  the  Per- 
sian wars,  in  which  a  rivalry  grew  up  between 
Athens  and  Sparta.  This  rivalry  led  to  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  in  which  Athens  was  humil- 
iated and  the  old  ascendency  of  Sparta  regained. 
Soon  after  this  the  Spartans  became  involved  in 
a  war  with  Persia,  and  Athens,  Thebes,  Corinth, 
and  some  of  the  Peloponnesian  States  took  this 
opportunity  to  declare  war  against  them.  This 
war,  known  as  the  Boeotian  or  Corinthian  War, 
lasted  eight  years  and  increased  the  reputation 
and  power  of  Athens.  To  break  the  alliance  of 
Athens  with  Persia,  Sparta,  in  387  B.  C,  con- 
cluded with  the  latter  power  the  peace  known 
by  the  name  of  Antalcidas;  and  the  designs  of 
Sparta  became  apparent  when  she  occupied, 
without  provocation,  the  city  of  Thebes,  and 
introduced  an  aristocratical  constitution  there. 
Pelopidas  delivered  Thebes,  and  the  celebrated 
Theban  War  (378-363)  followed,  in  which 
Sparta  was  much  enfeebled.  During  the  fol- 
lowing century  Sparta  steadily  declined,  though 
one  or  two  isolated  attempts  were  made  to 
restore  its  former  greatness. 

Stadtholder  (Dutch,  Stadhouder),  the 
name  formerly  given  to  the  chief  magistrate  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  Holland.  The  last 
Stadtholder  was  William  V.,  who  had  to  fly  to 
England  in  1795,  at  the  invasion  of  the  French 
Republican  army.  After  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  (1815),  Holland,  with  Belgium,  was 
erected  into  a  kingdom,  and  William  V.,  was 
the  first  king,  under  the  name  of  William  I. 

Star-Chamber,  an  ancient  English  tribu- 
nal, said  to  have 'existed  from  a  very  early  period, 


but  revived  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  One 
derivation  of  the  name  is  from  the  star-covered 
roof  or  ceiling  of  the  room  in  which  the  tribunal 
assembled ;  but  this  derivation  is  at  least  doubt- 
ful. The  tribunal  consisted  of  privy  councillors, 
and  of  certain  judges,  who  acted  without  the 
intervention  of  a  jury.  As  this  was  a  violation 
of  Magna  Charta,  and  as  the  tribunal  had  been 
guilty  of  the  most  grave  excesses,  especially  in 
the  time  of  Charles  I.,  the  Star  Chamber  was 
abolished  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1641,  at 
the  same  time  as  the  High  Commission  Court. 

Sumter,  Fort  (named  after  General 
Thomas  Sumter,  1734-1832),  an  American  fort 
associated  with  both  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  the  Civil  War;  built  of  brick,  in  the  form  of 
a  truncated  pentagon  thirty-eight  feet  high,  on 
a  shoal  partly  artificial,  in  Charleston  Harbor, 
three  and  one-half  miles  from  the  city.  On 
the  withdrawal  of  South  Carolina  from  the 
Union  in  December,  1860,  Major  Anderson,  in 
command  of  the  defenses  of  the  harbor,  aban- 
doned the  other  forts,  and  occupied  Fort  Sumter, 
mounting  sixty-two  guns,  with  a  garrison  of 
some  eighty  men.  The  attack  on  the  fort  was 
opened  by  General  Beauregard  April  12,  1861, 
and  it  surrendered  on  the  14th;  this  event 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  war.  The  Confed- 
erates strengthened  it,  and  added  ten  guns  and 
four -mortars.  In  April,  1863,  an  attack  by  a 
fleet  of  monitors  failed.  In  July  batteries  were 
erected  on  Morris  Island,  about  4,000  yards  off, 
from  which  in  a  week  5,000  projectiles,  weighing 
from  100  to  300  pounds,  were  hurled  against  the 
fort ;  at  the  end  of  that  time  it  was  silenced  and 
in  part  demolished.  Yet  the  garrison  held  on 
amid  the  ruins  and  in  September  beat  off  a  naval 
attack ;  and  in  spite  of  a  forty  days'  bombard- 
ment in  October-December,  1863,  and  for  still 
longer  in  July  and  August,  1864,  it  was  not  till 
after  the  evacuation  of  Charleston  itself,  owing 
to  the  operations  of  General  Sherman,  that  the 
garrison  retired,  and  the  United  States  flag  was 
again  raised  April  18,  1865;  an  event  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  and  the 
Confederate  surrender. 

Sweden.  When  we  first  hear  of  Sweden 
the  country  was  inhabited  by  numerous  tribes, 
kindred  in  origin,  but  politically  separate.  Two 
principal  groups  are  recognizable,  Goths  in  the 
South  and  Swedes  in  the  North.  Ingiald  Hrada, 
the  last  ruler  of  the  old  royal  family  of  the 
Ynglingar,  who  drew  their  origin  from  Njord, 
sought  to  establish  a  single  government  in  Swe- 
den and  perished  in  the  attempt.  To  the 
Ynglingar  followed,  in  the  Upland,  the  dynasty 
of  the  Skioldungar.  Erik  Edmundsson  acquired 
the  sovereignty  of  the  whole  of  Sweden  about  the 
end  of  the  Ninth  Century.  The  dawn  of  Swedish 
history  now  begins.  Efforts  to  introduce 
Christianity  were  made  as  early  as  829  A.  D., 
but  it  was  not  till  1000  A.  D.,  that  Olaf  Skotko- 
nung,  the  Lap  King,  was  baptized.  Erik 
undertook  a  crusade  against  the  pagan  Finns, 
and  having  compelled  them  to  submit  to  bap- 
tism, and  established  Swedish  settlements 
among  them,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  union 
of  Finland  with  Sweden.  Erik's  murder  in  1160 
by  the  Danish  prince,  Magnus  Henriksen,  who 
had  made  an  unprovoked  attack  upon  the  Swe- 


HISTORY 


159 


dish  king,  was  the  beginning  of  a  long  series  of 
troubles.  In  1389,  the  throne  was  offered  by 
the  Swedish  nobles  to  Margaret,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway,  who  threw  an  army  into 
Sweden,  defeated  the  Swedish  king,  Albert  of 
Mecklenburg,  and  by  the  union  of  Calmar,  in 
1397,  brought  Sweden  under  one  joint  scepter 
with  Denmark  and  Norway.  In  1523,  Sweden 
emancipated  itself  from  the  union  with  Denmark, 
which  had  become  hateful  to  the  Swedes,  and 
rewarded  its  deliverer,  the  young  Gustaf  Vasa, 
by  electing  him  king,  and  declaring  its  independ- 
ence of  Denmark.  Gustaf  Vasa,  on  his  death, 
in  1560,  left  to  his  successor  an  hereditary  and 
well-organized  kingdom,  a'  full  exchequer,  a 
standing  army,  and*  a  well-appointed  navy. 
Sigismund,  grandson  of  Vasa,  who  had  been 
elected  king  of  Poland  through  the  influence  of 
his  Polish  mother,  was  compelled  to  resign  the 
throne  in  1599  to  his  uncle  Karl.  The  deposition 
of  Sigismund  gave  rise  to  the  Swedo-Polish  War 
of  Succession,  from  1604-60;  and  on  the  death  of 
Karl,  in  1611,  his  son,  the  great  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  found  himself  involved  in  hostilities  with 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark.  The  young 
king  soon  concluded  treaties  of  peace  with  his 
northern  neighbors,  and  placed  the  internal 
affairs  of  his  kingdom  in  order,  and,  although  he 
ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  military  connnanders 
of  his  age,  the  extraordinary  number  of  benefits 
which  he  conferred  on  every  department  of  the 
administrative  system  of  Sweden  entitle  him  to 
still  greater  renown  as  the  benefactor  of  his 
native  country.  The  reign  of  Christina  was 
disastrous.  Karl  X.  was  occupied  in  generally 
unsuccessful  wars  against  Poland  and  Denmark ; 
while  the  long  rule  of  his  son,  Karl  XI, —  from 
1660-97  —  was  characterized  by  success  abroad 
and  in  the  augmentation  of  the  regal  power, 
which  was  declared  by  Charles  XII.  In  1697, 
the  male  line  of  the  Vasas  expired,  and  his  sister 
and  her  husband,  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
were  called  to  the  throne  by  election.  The 
weak  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
who  was  called  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
Frederick  in  1751,  did  little  to  retrieve  the  evil 
fortunes  of  the  state;  but  his  son,  Gustavus  III., 
(1771-92),  skillfully  recovered  the  lost  power 
of  the  Crown.  Gustavus  IV.  was  forcibly  de- 
posed in  1809,  and  obliged  to  renounce  the 
Crown  in  favor  of  his  uncle,  Charles  XIII.  The 
dominant  party  in  Sweden  elected  General 
Bernadotte  to  the  rank  of  crown-prince,  the 
latter  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  and 
by  his  steady  support  of  the  allies  against  the 
French  Emperor  secured  to  Sweden,  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  the  possession  of  Norway, 
when  that  country  was  separated  from  Denmark. 
Under  the  administration  of  Bernadotte,  who 
in  1818  succeeded  to  the  throne  as  Charles  XIV., 
the  united  kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
made  great  advances  in  material  prosperity, 
and  in  political  and  intellectual  progress;  and 
although  the  nation  at  large  entertained  very 
little  personal  regard  for  their  alien  sovereign, 
his  son  and  successor,  Oscar  (1844-59),  and  his 
grandsons,  the  late  king,  Charles  XV.,  and  the 
late  king,  Oscar  II.,  who  came  to  the  throne 
in  1872,  so  identified  themselves  with  their  sub- 
jects that  the  Bernadotte  Dynasty  secured  the 


loyal  affections  of  every  section  of  the  united 
nations  of  Sweden  and  Norway  down  to  1903. 

In  that  year  serious  difficulty  arose  between 
Norway  and  Sweden,  owing  to  the  desire  of  the 
former  for  autonomous  government.  In  1905 
the  two  nations  separated,  and  Oscar  II.  con- 
tinued monarch  of  Sweden  until  his  abdication 
and  death  December  8,  1907,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  oldest  son,  Gustave  V. 

Switzerland  was  in  Roman  times  inhab- 
ited by  two  races  —  the  Helvetii,  supposed  to 
have  been  Celts,  on  the  northwest,  and  the 
Rhaetians  on  the  southeast.  After  the  conquest 
of  Gaul  both  races  adopted  the  language  and 
habits  of  Rome.  When  the  invasions  took  place 
the  Burgundians  settled  in  Western  Switzerland, 
while  the  Alemanni,  another  Germanic  tribe, 
took  possession  of  the  country  east  of  the  River 
Aar.  A  third  Teutonic  people,  the  Goths,  en- 
tered the  country  from  Italy  and  took  possession 
of  the  country  of  the  Rha;tians.  The  Helvetii 
retained  their  old  pagan  creed  until  the  Seventh 
Century,  when  they  were  converted  by  Irish 
monks.  During  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Cen- 
turies the  greater  part  of  Switzerland  was  ruled 
on  behalf  of  the  emperors  by  the  lords  of  Zahr- 
ingen,  who,  however,  became  extinct  in  1218. 
In  1273,  Rudolf  of  Habsburg,  a  Swiss  nobleman, 
became  emperor.  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unter- 
walten,  with  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug,  and 
Berne,  eight  cantons  in  all,  in  1352,  entered  into 
a  perpetual  league  which  was  the  foundation  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation.  In  1415  the  people  of 
the  cantons  invaded  Aargau  and  Thurgau,  parts 
of  the  Austrian  territory,  and  annexed  them; 
three  years  later  they  crossed  the  Alps,  and 
annexed  Ticino,  and  constituted  all  three  sub- 
ject states.  In  1481  the  towns  of  Freiburg  and 
Soleure  were  admitted  into  the  confederacy. 
Basel  and  Schaffhausen  (1501)  and  Appenzell 
(1513)  were  next  received  into  the  confedera- 
tion, and  its  true  independence  began.  War 
broke  out  in  1531  between  the  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  and  the  former  were  successful. 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Berne  and  Zurich 
contrived  to  maintain  the  neutrality  of  Switzer- 
land, and  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648, 
it  was  acknowledged  by  the  great  powers  as  a 
separate  and  independent  state.  In  1798,  Swit- 
zerland was  seized  by  the  French.  At  the  peace 
of  1815  its  independence  was  again  acknowledged. 
In  1847,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  and  the  monas- 
teries were  suppressed.  An  attempt  was  made 
by  diplomatic  notes  to  intimidate  the  Swiss 
Government,  but  the  revolution  of  1848  broke 
out  and  prevented  further  interference.  In  the 
same  year  the  radical  party  carried  the  consti- 
tution of  1848.  After  a  rebellion  against  the 
King  of  Prussia,  as  Prince  of  Neufchatel,  the 
canton  was  declared  a  republic,  with  a  constitu- 
tion similar  to  that  of  the  other  Swiss  states. 

Tarpeian  Rock  (t&r-pe'  yan),  a  precip- 
itous rock  forming  part  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  at 
Rome  over  which  persons  convicted  of  treason 
to  the  state  were  hurled.  It  was  so  named, 
according  to  tradition,  from  Tarpeia,  a  vestal 
virgin  of  Rome,  and  daughter  of  the  governor  of 
the  citadel  on  the  Capitoline,  who,  covetous  of 
the  golden  bracelets  worn  by  the  Sabine  soldiery, 
opened  the  gate  to  them  on  the  promise  of  receiv- 


160 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


ing  what  they  wore  on  their  left  arms.  Once 
inside  the  gate  they  threw  their  shields  upon  her, 
instead  of  the  bracelets.  She  was  buried  at  the 
base  of  the  Tarpiean  Rock. 

Tartary,  properly  Tatary,  the  name  under 
which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  comprised  the 
whole  central  belt  of  Central  Asia  and  Eastern 
Europe,  from  the  Sea  of  Japan  to  the  Dnieper, 
including  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Chinese  Turk- 
estan, Independent  Turkestan,  the  Kalmuck  and 
Kirghiz  steppes,  and  the  old  khanates  of  Kazan, 
Astrakhan,  and  Crimea,  and  even  the  Cossack 
countries;  and  hence  arose  a  distinction  of 
Tartary  into  European  and  Asiatic.  But  lat- 
terly the  name  Tartary  had  a  much  more  limited 
signification,  including  only  Chinese  Turkestan 
and  Western  Turkestan.  It  took  its  name  from 
the  Tatars  or  Tartars. 

Temple,  Solomon's,  the  building  reared 
by  Solomon  as  a  habitation  for  Jehovah.  David 
had  planned  the  Temple,  but  was  divinely  for- 
bidden to  erect  it,  as  he  had  shed  so  much  blood 
in  his  wars.  He  made  great  preparations  for 
his  son  and  successor,  who,  he  learned  from  the 
prophet  Nathan,  was  destined  to  achieve  the 
work.  It  was  built  on  Mount  Moriah,  chiefly  by 
Tyrian  workmen,  and  had  massive  foundations. 
The  stone  for  its  erection  was  dressed  before  its 
arrival,  so  that  the  edifice  arose  noiselessly; 
the  floor  was  of  cedar,  boarded  over  with  planks 
of  fir;  the  wainscoting  was  of  cedar,  covered 
with  gold,  as  was  the  whole  interior.  It  was 
modeled  inside  on  the  tabernacle,  which  was 
Jehovah's  dwelling  while  journey ings  were  con- 
tinually taking  place.  There  was  a  Holy  and 
Most  Holy  Place.  The  temple  was  surrounded 
by  an  inner  court  for  the  priest.  There  was  also 
a  Great  or  Outward  Court,  called  specially  the 
Court  of  the  Lord's  House.  This  temple  was 
destroyed  by  the  Babyloniai.s  during  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  under  Nebuchadnezzar.,  On  the 
return  from  Babylon,  a  temple,  far  inferior  to 
Solomon's  was  commenced  imder  Zerubbabel, 
B.  C.  534,  and,  after  a  long  intermission,  was 
resumed  B.  C.  520,  and  completed  B.  C.  516, 
under  Darius  Hystaspes.  The  second  temple 
was  gradually  removed  by  Herod,  as  he  pro- 
ceeded with  the  building  or  rebuilding  of  a  temple 
designed  to  rival  the  first  rather  than  the  second. 
The  work  was  commenced  B.  C.  21  or  20;  the 
temple  itself  was  finished  in  about  a  year  and  a 
half,  the  courts  in  eight  years,  but  the  subse- 
quent operations  were  carried  on  so  dilatorily 
triat  the  Jews  reckoned  forty-six  years  as  the 
whole  time  consumed.  In  the  courts  of  this 
temple  Jesus  preached  and  healed  the  sick.  It 
caught  fire  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  under 
Titus,  and  was  burned  to  the  ground. 

Tennessee.  The  name  is  derived  from 
"Tanase,"  the  Indian  appellation  of  the  Little 
Tennessee  River.  The  first  permanent  white 
settlement  was  made  on  the  Tennessee  River, 
about  thirty  miles  from  the  site  of  Knox- 
ville,  and  Fort  Loudon  built.  Indian  wars 
lasted  till  1761,  when  the  savages  were  reduced  to 
terms.  From  1777  to  1784  the  territory  formed 
a  portion  of  North  Carolina.  During  the  four 
years  subsequent,  the  settlers  maintained  an 
organization  as  the  State  of  Franklin,  but  were 
reunited  to  North  Carolina  in   1788.     In    1789 


the  Territory,  with  that  of  Kentucky,  was  organ- 
ized by  the  United  States  Government,  which 
had  received  its  cession  from  North  Carolina. 
In  1794,  a  distinct  territorial  organization  was 
made,  and  in  1796  Tennessee  was  admitted  as  a 
State,  the  third  under  the  Federal  Constitution. 
The  State  seceded  in  June,  1861.  The  principal 
miUtary  events  within  her  limits  during  the  Civil 
War  were  the  capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donel- 
son,  in  February,  1862;  the  battle  of  Pittsburg 
Landing,  or  Shiloh,  in  April,  1862;  the  battle  of 
Murfreesboro,  in  January,  1863;  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga,  in  September,  1863;  the  battles 
about  Chattanooga,  and  the  battles  of  Franklin 
and  Nashville,  in  November,  1864.  State  was 
readmitted  in  1866.  TRe  Centenary  of  the 
State  was  celebrated  by  an  Exposition  at  Nash- 
ville in  1897.  In  1907  the  National  Rivers  and 
Harbors  Convention  met  at  Memphis  and  was 
attended  by  the  President. 

Teutones,  a  tribe  of  Germany,  which, 
with  the  Cimbri,  invaded  Gaul  in  B.  C.  113.  In 
B.  C.  102,  they  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter 
near  Aquae  Sextiae  (Aix  in  the  department  of 
Bouches  du  Rhone)  by  the  Roman  general  Mari- 
us.  A  tribe  of  the  same  name  is  mentioned  by 
Pliny  and  others  as  inhabiting  a  district  north  of 
the  Elbe,  which  appears  to  have  been  the  original 
settlement  of  the  Teutones  before  their  invasion 
of  Gaul. 

Teutonic  Knights,  a  military  religious 
order  of  knights,  established  toward  the  close  of 
the  Twelfth  Century,  in  imitation  of  the  Templars 
and  Hospitallers.  It  was  composed  chiefly  of 
Teutons  or  Germans  who  marched  to  the  Holy 
Land  in  the  Crusades,  and  was  established  in 
that  country  for  charitable  purposes.  In  the 
Thirteenth  Century  they  acquired  Poland  and 
Prussia,  and  they  long  held  sway  over  a  great 
extent  of  territory  in  this  part  of  Europe.  The 
order  began  to  decline  in  the  Fifteenth  Century, 
and  was  finally  abolished  by  Napoleon  in  1809. 

Texas.  The  first  attempt  at  colonization 
known  to  history  was  made  by  La  Salle,  who 
sailed  into  Matagorda  Bay,  and  erected  Fort  St. 
Louis  on  the  Lavaca  in  1685.  Four  years  later 
the  French  were  ousted  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
two  nationalities  contested  the  dominion  of  the 
country  with  bitterness,  though  the  right  of  pos- 
session was  for  the  most  part  with  the  Spaniards. 
In  1715,  the  name  of  New  Philippines  was  given 
to  the  country,  and  the  Marquis  de  Aguayo  was 
made  governor-general,  under  whose  rule  Span- 
ish settlements  were  rapidly  multiplied.  In 
1762-63,  France  settled  the  feud  by  her  cession 
of  the  Louisiana  territory  to  Spain.  The  reces- 
sion of  Louisiana  to  France  in  1803,  and  the  sale 
by  the  latter  power  to  the  United  States,  still 
left  the  boundary  of  the  old  Spanish  possessions 
west  of  Louisiana  open  to  controversy,  as  there 
had  previously  been  no  well-defined  line.  In  1806, 
the  territory  between  the  Sabine  and  Arroya 
Honda  was  established  as  a  neutral  ground  by 
the  Spanish  and  American  generals  commanding 
on  the  frontier.  In  the  absence  of  any  national 
settlement,  a  series  of  revolutionary  intrigues 
began  with  the  projected  movement  of  Aaron 
Burr  in  1806.  Filibustering  expeditions  into 
Texas  from  the  United  States  led  to  several 
severe  battles,  and  it  was  not  till  1819  that  the 


HISTORY 


161 


Sabine  River  was  finally  established  as  the  Teian 
boundary.  The  revolutionary  spirit,  which 
made  Texas  a  region  of  turmoil,  did  not  cease 
when  Mexico  became  independent  under  the 
leadership  of  Iturbide.  Invasions  from  the 
United  States  continued,  and,  though  several 
peaceable  and  thrifty  American  colonies  had 
been  planted,  the  dictator  Bustamante,  in  1830, 
forbade  the  people  of  the  United  States  from 
further  immigration.  The  long  bitterness  be- 
tween the  two  races  culminated  in  1835,  and  the 
Americans  in  the  province,  after  fighting  several 
engagements,  organized  a  provisional  govern- 
ment, with  Sam  Houston  as  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  Texan  forces.  A  series  of  sanguinary 
battles  ensued  between  the  Mexican  troops 
under  General  Santa  Ana  and  the  Texan  revo- 
lutionists, and  the  atrocities  of  the  Mexicans 
awakened  deep  sympathy  for  the  Texans. 
The  issue  of  the  contest  was  practically  settled 
with  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  April  21,  1836, 
when  Santa  Ana  was  taken  prisoner.  General 
Houston  was  elected  president  of  the  Texan 
Republic  the  same  year,  and  in  March,  1837,  the 
United  States  formally  recognized  the  new  gov- 
ernment. Intermittent  hostilities  continued  be- 
tween Mexico  and  Texas,  which,  in  1839-'40, 
had  been  recognized  by  the  leading  European 
governments;  but  the  threats  of  the  former 
nation  to  subjugate  the  Texans  was  rendered 
negative  by  her  own  weakness  and  the  growing 
power  of  the  young  State.  The  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States,  which  led  to  the 
Mexican  War,  occurred  by  her  admittance  as  a 
State  in  1845,  the  fifteenth  under  the  Constitu- 
tion. After  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  the 
State  seceded,  February  23,  1861,  by  force  of  a 
popular  vote,  ratifying  the  ordinance  of  the  con- 
vention called  for  that  purpose.  General  Twiggs, 
on  February  18th,  surrendered  to  the  State  au- 
thorities all  the  United  States  posts,  troops,  and 
munitions  of  war  in  the  department.  No  yery  im- 
portant military  operations  occurred  within  the 
State  limits  during  the  war.  The  last  fight  of 
the  war  took  place  in  Texas,  ending  in  a  Federal 
defeat,  on  May  13,  1865,  and  General  Kirby 
Smith  surrendered  the  last  Confederate  army 
here  on  May  26th.  Texas  was  readmitted  to 
her  full  rights  in  the  Union,  March  30,  1870.  A 
period  of  lawlessness  existed  in  the  State  for  a 
number  of  years,  but  was  finally  suppressed  by 
the  Texas  Rangers  in  1879.  A  storm  and  tidal 
wave  destroyed  Galveston  in  1900.  In  the  next 
year  vast  oil  fields  were  discovered  near  Beau- 
mont. Colored  United  States  soldiers  engaged  in 
a  riot  at  Brownsville  in  1905,  and  were  dismissed 
from  the  service  by  the  President. 

Thebes  (thebz).  The  principal  city  of 
Beotia,  seated  on  the  River  Ismenus.  Its  fame 
was  great  in  legendary  Greece;  it  was  built  by 
Cadmus;  Amphion  reared  its  walls:  the  Sphinx, 
(Edipus,  and  the  fatal  combat  of  Eteocles  and 
Polynices,  figured  in  its  story.  It  played  a 
subordinate  part  in  the  histoiy  of  Greece,  until 
the  times  of  Epaminondas,  when  by  his  genius 
it  was  raised  to  the  first  rank  among  the  states 
of  Hellas.  But  it  fell  with  his  death,  and  never 
recovered  from  the  destructive  siege  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  in  336  B.  C. — A  city  of  Egypt, 
on  the  Nile,  called  No  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 


in  the  Iliad  celebrated  for  its  100  gates,  and  its 
vast  military  forces.  Amun,  or  Ammon,  was 
especially  worshiped  there.  Among  its  ruins 
are  the  magnificent  temples  of  Luxor  and  Kar- 
nak,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile. 

Thermopylae,  a  celebrated  pass  of 
Ancient  Greece,  leading  from  Thessaly  into 
Locris,  between  Northern  and  Southern  Greece. 
It  lay  between  Mount  CEta  (celebrated  mytho- 
logically  as  the  mountain  on  which  Hercules 
burnt  himself  to  death)  and  a  morass  which 
fringed  the  Malic  or  Maliac  Gulf;  both  the  east- 
ern and  the  western  entrance  to  the  pass  approach- 
ing so  close  to  the  morass  as  to  leave  room  for 
only  a  single  carriage.  In  this  pass,  Leonidas, 
King  of  Sparta,  was  appointed  to  oppose  the 
invading  armies  of  Xerxes  (480  B.  C).  These 
were  driven  back  with  immense  slaughter,  in 
their  repeated  attempts  to  force  the  pass;  till 
at  last  Ephialtes,  a  Malain,  guided  a  body  of 
Persians  over  the  mountain,  and  thus  enauled 
them  to  fall  on  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who  were 
all  slain  (Leonidas  included),  with  the  exception 
of  one  man.  The  pass  derived  its  name  from  the 
hot  springs,  sacred  to  Hercules,  by  which  it  was 
distinguished. 

Thirty  Tyrants  of  Rome.  The  collect- 
ive title  given  to  a  set  of  military  usurpers  who 
sprung  up  in  different  parts  of  the  empire  during 
the  fifteen  years  (253-268  A.  D.)  occupied  by 
the  reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus,  and,  amid 
the  wretched  confusion  of  the  time,  endeavored 
to  establish  themselves  as  independent  princes. 
The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  Thirty  Tyrants 
of  Athens,  but,  in  reality,  historians  can  only 
reckon  nineteen:  Cyriades,  Macrianus,  Balista, 
Odenathus,  and  Zenobia,  in  the  East ;  Postumus, 
Lollianus,  Victorinus  and  his  mother  Victoria, 
Marius,  and  Tetricus,  in  the  West;  Ingenuus, 
Regillianus,  and  Aureolus,  in  Illyricum  and  the 
countries  about  the  Danube;  Saturninus,  in 
Pontus;  Trebellianus,  in  Isauria;  Piso,  in  Thes- 
saly; Valens,  in  Achaea;  iEmilianus,  in  Egypt; 
and  Celsus,  in  Africa. 

Thirty  Years'  War  (1618  to  1648),  a 
war  in  Germany,  at  first  a  struggle  between 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Subse- 
quently it  became  a  struggle  for  political  ascend- 
ency in  Europe.  On  the  one  side  were  Austria, 
nearly  all  the  Roman  Catholic  princes  of  Ger- 
many, and  Spain;  on  the  other  side  were,  at 
different  times,  the  Protestant  powers  and 
France.  The  occasion  of  this  war  was  found 
in  the  fact  that  Germany  had  been  distracted 
ever  since  the  Reformation  by  the  mutual  jeal- 
ousy of  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists. 
Certain  concessions  had  been  made  to  the  Prot- 
estants of  Bohemia  by  Rudolph  11.  (1609),  but 
these  were  withdrawn  by  his  successor  Matthias 
in  1614,  and  four  years  afterward  the  Bohemian 
Protestants  were  in  rebellion.  Count  Thurn  at 
the  head  of  the  insurgents  repeatedly  routed  the 
imperial  troops,  compelling  them  to  retire  from 
Bohemia,  and  (1619)  invaded  the  archduchy 
of  Austria.  Matthias  having  died  in  1619,  he 
was  succeeded  by  Ferdinand  II.,  who  was  a 
rigid  Catholic,  but  the  Protestants  elected  as 
their  king,  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  who 
was  a  Protestant.  Efforts  at  mediation  having 
failed,  the  Catholic  forces  of  Germany  marched 


162 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


against  Frederick,  who,  with  an  army  of  Bohemi- 
ans, Moravians,  and  Hungarians,  kept  the  field 
till  November  8,  1620,  when  he  was  totally 
routed  at  Weissenberg,  near  Prague,  by  Duke 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  The  Protestant  cause 
was  now  crushed  in  Bohemia,  and  the  people  of 
that  province  were  much  embittered.  The 
dominions  of  Frederick,  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine  included,  were  now  conquered,  the  latter 
being  occupied  by  Count  Tilly,  assisted  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Spinola.  At  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon  (March,  1623)  Frederick  was  deprived  of 
his  territories,  Duke  Maximilian  receiving  the 
Palatinate.  Ferdinand,  whose  succession  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia  was  thus  secured,  sought  for- 
eign assistance,  and  a  new  period  of  war  began. 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  induced  partly  by 
religious  zeal  and  partly  by  the  hope  of  an  ac- 
quisition of  territory,  came  to  the  aid  of  his 
German  co-religionists  (1624),  and  being  joined 
by  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick,  advanced 
into  lower  Saxony.  There  they  were  met  by 
Wallenstein,  Duke  of  Friedland,  who  in  1626 
defeated  Mansfeld  at  Dessau,  while  Tilly  was  also 
successful  in  driving  Christian  back  to  Denmark. 
In  the  peace  of  Lubeck  which  followed  (May, 
1629),  Christian  of  Denmark  received  back  all 
his  occupied  territory,  and  undertook  not  to 
meddle  again  in  German  affairs.  After  this  sec- 
ond success,  Ferdinand  again  roused  his  people 
by  an  edict  which  required  restitution  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  of  all  church  lands  and 
property  acquired  by  them  since  1552. 

To  the  assistance  of  the  Protestants  of  Germany 
came  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  who 
landed  (1630)  with  a  small  army  on"  the  coast  of 
Pomerania.  Joined  by  numerous  volunteers, 
and  aided  by  French  money,  he  advanced,  and 
routed  Tilly  at  Breitenfeld  (or  the  battle  of 
Leipsic,  September,  1631),  victoriously  trav- 
ersed the  Main  and  the  Rhine  valleys,  defeated 
Tilly  again  near  the  confluence  of  the  Lech  and 
the  Danube  (April,  1632),  and  entered  Munich. 
Meanwhile  the  emperor  sought  the  aid  of  Wal- 
lenstein, by  whose  ability  and  energy  Gustavus 
was  obliged  to  retire  to  Saxony,  where  he  gained 
the  great  victory  of  Lutzen  (November,  1632), 
but  was  himself  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle. 
The  war  was  now  carried  on  by  the  Swedes  under 
the  chancellor  Oxenstiema,  till  the  rout  of  the 
Swedish  forces  at  Nordlingen  (September,  1634) 
again  gave  to  the  emperor  the  preponderating 
power  in  Germany.  The  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who  had  been  an  ally  of  Gustavus,  now  made 
peace  at  Prague  (May,  1635),  and  within  a  few 
months  the  treaty  was  accepted  by  many  of  the 
German  princes.  The  Swedes,  however,  thought 
it  to  their  interest  to  continue  the  war,  while 
France  resolved  to  take  a  more  active  part  in  the 
conflict.  Thus  the  last  stage  of  the  war  was  a 
contest  of  France  and  Sweden  against  Austria, 
in  which  the  Swedish  generals  gained  various 
successes  over  the  imperial  forces,  while  the 
French  armies  fought  with  varied  fortunes  in 
West  Germany  and  on  the  Rhine.  Meanwhile 
the  emperor  had  died  (1637),  and  had  been  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Ferdinand  III.  The  struggle 
still  continued  till,  in  1646,  the  united  armies  of 
the  French  under  the  great  generals  Turenne 
and  Conde,  and  the  Swedes  advanced  through 


Suabia  and  Bavaria.  The  combined  forces  of 
Sweden,  Bavaria,  and  France  were  then  about  to 
advance  on  Austria,  when  the  news  reached  the 
armies  that  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  was 
concluded,  and  that  the  long  struggle  was  ended. 

Tlconderoga,  a  village  in  Essex  County, 
N.  Y.,  on  Lake  Champlain.  Ticonderoga  fig- 
ured prominently  during  the  colonial  and  revo- 
lutionary periods.  In  1755  the  French  erected 
a  fort  here  and  named  it  Carrillon.  Two  years 
later  Montcalm  started  from  this  place  with 
9,000  men  and  captured  Fort  William  Henry  on 
Lake  George.  In  1758  General  Abercrombie 
endeavored  to  take  the  French  fort,  and  was 
repulsed  after  losing  2,000  men;  but  in  1759  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  General  Amherst  together 
with  Crown  Point.  Both  were  then  enlarged 
and  strengthened  at  a  heavy  expense.  In  1775 
the  works  were  taken  by  Ethan  Allen  while 
weakly  garrisoned.  Two  years  later  the  fort 
surrendered  to  General  Burgoyne,  and  after 
being  dismantled  was  abandoned. 

Tiers  Etat  {ie-arz  a-tah').  [Fr.,  the  third 
estate.]  This  term  was  universally  applied  in 
France  to  the  mass  of  the  people  under  the  old 
regime.  Before  the  cities  rose  to  wealth  and 
influence,  the  nobility  and  clergy  possessed  the 
property  of  almost  the  whole  country,  and  the 
people  were  subject  to  the  most  degrading  hu- 
miliations. But  as  trade  and  commerce  began 
to  render  men  independent,  send  they  were  able 
to  shake  off  their  feudal  bonds,  the  Tiers  Etat 
gradually  rose  into  importance;  and  at  length 
the  third  estate,  during  the  Revolution,  may  be 
said  to  have  become  the  nation  itself. 

Tilsit,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  East  Prussia,  on  the  river  Niemen, 
about  sixty  miles  northeast  of  Konigsberg.  It 
is  celebrated  for  the  Peace  concluded  in  the 
town,  in  1807,  between  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia. 
The  three  monarchs  met  on  a  raft  moored  in  the 
river.  The  population  of  the  town  at  last  census 
was  34,539. 

Toleration,  Act  of,  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
(1689),   and  confirmed  by  Anne,   relieving  all 

f)ersons  who  dissented  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
and  (except  Roman  Catholics  and  persons  who 
denied  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity)  from  many 
of  the  disabilities  under  which  they  had  been 
placed  by  the  acts  of  former  reigns.  By  the 
Act  of  Toleration,  such  persons  were  to  be  no 
longer  prevented  from  assembling  for  religious 
worship  according  to  their  own  forms,  but  they 
were  to  be  required  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  supremacy,  and  to  subscribe  a  declaration 
against  transubstantiation ;  and  Dissenting  min- 
isters were  to  be  also  required  to  subscribe  to  cer- 
tain of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  The  benefits  of 
the  Act  were  subsequently  (in  1813)  extended  to 
persons  who  deny  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
Most  of  the  remaining  disabilities  of  Nonconform- 
ists have  been  removed  by  later  legislation ;  and 
the  disabilities  of  the  Roman  Catholics  (which 
were  continued  by  the  Act  of  Toleration)  were 
repealed  in  1829  by  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
Emancipation  Act. 

Toltecs,  a  Mexican  race  who  are  supposed 
to  have  been  supreme  in  Central  America  from 


HISTORY 


163 


the  Seventh  to  the  Eleventh  Centuries.  They 
were  completely  obliterated  by  the  Aztecs  and 
Tezcucans,  who  held  the  countiy  when  the 
Spaniards  first  landed.  The  latter  races  were  of 
a  martial  spirit,  but  they  were  indebted  for  their 
arts,  their  civilization,  and  their  religion  to  their 
milder  predecessors.  The  Toltecs  present  striking 
analogies  to  the  Etruscans,  and  in  a  less  degree  to 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  They  were  great 
builders,  and  their  religion  was  a  mystic  system 
of  great  complexity,  intimately  connected  with 
the  study  of  astronomy,  and  interpreted  by  a 
priesthood,  who  formed  an  exclusive  caste. 

Tory,  a  political  party  name  of  Irish  origin, 
first  used  in  England  about  1679,  applied  origin- 
ally to  Irish  Revolutionary  Catholic  outlaws,  and 
then  generally  to  those  wno  refused  to  concur  in 
the  scheme  to  exclude  James  II.  from  the  throne. 
The  nickname,  like  its  contemporaneous  oppo- 
site. Whig,  in  coming  into  popular  use  became 
much  less  strict  in  its  application,  till  at  last  it 
came  simply  to  signify  an  adherent  of  that  politi- 
cal party  in  the  state  who  disapproved  of  change 
in  the  ancient  constitution,  and  who  supported 
the  claims  and  authority  of  the  king,  church, 
and  aristocracy,  while  their  opponents,  the  Whigs 
were  in  favor  of  more  or  less  radical  changes,  and 
supported  the  claims  of  the  democracy.  In 
modern  times  the  term  has  to  some  extent  been 
supplanted  by  Conservative. 

Tournament,  or  Tourney,  a  common 
sport  of  the  middle  ages,  in  which  parties  of 
mounted  knights  encountered  each  other  with 
lances  and  swords  in  order  to  display  their  skill 
in  arms.  Tournaments  reached  their  full  per- 
fection in  France  in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Centuries 
where  they  first  received  the  form  under  which 
they  are  known  to  us.  They  were  introduced 
into  England  soon  after  the  Conquest  by  the 
Normans.  Jousts  were  single  combats  between 
two  knights,  and  at  a  tournament  there  would 
often  be  a  number  of  jousts  as  well  as  combats 
between  parties  of  knights.  The  place  of  combat 
was  the  lists,  a  large  open  place  surrounded  by 
ropes  or  a  railing.  Galleries  were  erected  for 
the  spectators,  among  whom  were  seated  the 
ladies,  the  supreme  judges  of  the  tournaments. 
A  knight  taking  part  in  a  tournament  generally- 
carried  some  device  emblematic  of  a  lady  s 
favor.  Tournaments  gradually  .  went  out  with 
the  decline  of  chivalry,  and  are  rare,  except  in 
America,  where  they  are  a  form  of  sport. 

Tower  of  London.  The  most  ancient, 
and  historically  the  most  interesting  pile  in  the 
English  metropolis;  a  mass  of  buildings  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Thames,  immediately  to  the 
east  of  the  ancient  city  walls,  its  ramparts  and 
gates  surrounded  by  a  dry  ditch  in  pentagonal 
shape;  in  outer  circuit  measuring  1,050  yards. 
Within  this  the  whole  of  the  buildings  are  en- 
circled by  a  double  line  of  walls  and  bulwarks, 
in  some  places  forty  feet  high  and  twelve  feet 
thick;  the  space  between  the  walls  being  known 
as  the  outer  ward,  and  the  interior  as  the  inner 
ward.  The  inner  ward  was  formerly  the  royal 
quarter.  The  outer  ward  was  the  folk's  quarter. 
The  inner  ward  is  defended  by  twelve  massive 
and  conspicuous  towers,  stationed  at  unequal 
distances,  and  possessing  distinctive  names 
and  formations.     In  the  center,  rearing  its  head 


proudly  above  them  all,  stands  the  main  quad- 
rangular building  and  great  Norman  keep, 
known  as  the  White  Tower.  To  the  north  are 
the  barracks,  and  to  the  northwest  the  Church 
of  St.  Peter  and  Vincula.  The  entrance  to  the 
buildings  is  on  the  west  side  by  the  Lion's  Gate 

For  centuries  the  tower  was  a  palace,  a  prison, 
a  fortress,  and  a  court  of  law.  Here  the  Plan- 
tagenet  kings  held  their  gay  tournaments,  mag- 
nificent revels,  and  pompous  religious  cere- 
monials. Here  also  tragedy  succeeded  tragedy, 
and  the  innocent  blood  of  many  of  England's 
bravest  and  most  beautiful  poured  forth  in  a 
cruel  stream.  Wise  statesmen,  fair  queens, 
child  princes,  noble  warriors,  and  priests  were 
slain,  their  only  crimes,  in  many  cases,  being 
their  rank,  their  patriotism,  and  their  faith. 
"No  sadder  spot  on  earth,"  says  Macaulay, 
of  England.  .  .  .  "Death  is  there  associ- 
ated .  .  .  with  whatever  is  darkest  in  hu- 
man nature  and  in  human  destiny,  with  the 
savage  triumph  of  implacable  enemies,  with 
the  inconstancy,  the  ingratitude,  the  cowardice 
of  friends,  with  all  the  miseries  of  fallen  great- 
ness  and  of  blighted  fame." 

The  tower  is  now  chiefly  used  as  an  arsenal, 
and  has  a  small  military  garrison  of  the  yeomen 
of  the  guard.  The  governorship  is  still  a  post 
of  distinction. 

Treaty,  A,  in  public  law,  is  an  agreement 
of  friendship,  alliance,  commerce,  or  navigation, 
entered  into  between  two  or  more  independent 
states.  Treaties  have  been  divided  by  pub- 
licists into  personal  and  real,  the  difference  being 
that  the  former  relate  exclusively  to  the  per- 
sons of  the  contracting  parties  —  t.  g.,  treaties 
guaranteeing  the  throne  to  a  particular  sovereign 
and  his  family,  and  the  latter  are  treaties  for 
national  objects,  independent  of  the  rulers  of 
the  state.  While  personal  treaties  expire  with 
the  death  of  the  sovereign,  or  the  extinction  of 
his  family,  real  treaties  bind  the  contracting 
parties  independently  of  any  change  in  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  states.  The  constitution  of  each 
particular  state  must  be  looked  to  to  determine 
in  whom  the  power  of  negotiating  and  contract- 
ing treaties  with  foreign  powers  resides.  In 
monarchies,  whether  absolute  or  constitutional, 
it  is  usually  vested  in  the  sovereign.  In  repub- 
lics the  chief  magistrate,  senate,  or  executive 
council  is  intrusted.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America  (Article  II,  Section  2) 
vests  it  in  the  President,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate.  No  special  form  of  words 
is  necessary  for  the  validity  of  a  treaty;  but 
modern  usage  requires  that  an  agreement 
which  has  originally  been  verbal  should,  as  soon 
as  possible,  be  committed  to  writing.  Treaties 
of  alliance  may  be  offensive  or  defensive;  in 
the  former  the  ally  engages  to  cooperate  in  hos- 
tilities against  a  specified  poWer,  or  against  any 
power  with  which  the  other  may  be  at  war;  in 
the  latter,  the  engagements  of  the  ally  extend 
only  to  a  war  of  aggression  commenced  against 
the  other  contracting  party. 

Treaties,  Coalitions,  Conventions, 

and  Leagues.     The    principal    treaties    of 

history  are  the  following: 

Adrianople,  1829,  Adrianople  restored  by  the  Rus- 
sians to  Turkey. 


164 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Aix-L>a-Chapelle<  1748,  celebrated  treaty  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  Hungary,  Spain,  and 
Genoa.  A  number  of  previous  treaties  renewed  and  con- 
6rmed. 

Aix-La-Chapelle,  1818,  between  the  Allies  and 
France.  The  latter  pays  265,000,000  francs  to  the 
Allies. 

Amiens,  1803,  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great  Britain 
and  Holland,  France,  and  Spain. 

Augsburg,  League  of  1686,  between  Holland  and 
other  European  powers  to  enforce  respect  for  the  treaties 
of  Munster  and  Nimeguen. 

Baden,  1714,  terminating  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  between  France  and  the  Emperor. 

Basle,  1795,  treaties  between  France  and  Prussia  and 
between  France  and  Spain. 

Berlin,  decree,  1806,  issued  by  Napoleon  I.,  against 
the  commerce  of  England. 

Breda,  1667,  treaty  between  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Denmark. 

Bresiau,  1742,  between  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria 
and  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia. 

Bretigny,  1360,  treaty  of  peace  that  interrupted  the 
Hundred  \  ears'  War  between  England  and  France. 

Calmar,  Union  of,  1397,  United  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway  under  Queen  Margaret  of  Denmark. 

Cambray,  1508,  league  against  Venice,  comprising 
the  Pope,  tne  Emperor,  and  the  Kings  of  France  and 
Spain. 

Cambray,  Peace  of,  1539,  between  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V. 

Campo  Formio,  Peace  of,  1797,  between  France 
and  Austria. 

Carlowitz,  Peace  of,  1699,  between  Turkey  and 
Austria,  Poland  and  Venice.  Humiliating  concessions 
made  by  Austria. 

Carlsbad,  Congress  of,  1819,  held  by  the  German 
powers  to  protest  against  the  progress  of  free  institutions 
and  popular  rights. 

Coalitions  Against  France,  1793,  1799,  1805, 
1806,  1809,  1813,  led  by  England  and  entered  into  by 
the  great  powers  of  the  Continent  to  break  down  F'rench 
influence  in  Europe. 

Concordat,  1801,  between  Napoleon  1.  and  Pius  VII., 
whereby  the  former  was  made  in  effect  head  of  the 
Galilean  Church. 

Constance,  1183,  between  Frederick  Barbarossa 
and  the  Lombartl  cities. 

Copenhagen,  1660,  treaty  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden. 

Fontainebleau,  1807,  treaty  between  Napoleon  and 
the  royal  family  of  Spain. 

Frankfort,  1871,  conclusion  of  the  preliminary 
treaty  of  Versailles. 

Gastein,  Convention  of,  1865,  between  Prussia  and 
Austria. 

Ghent,  1814,  treaty  of  Peace  between  United  States 
and  England,  closing  War  of  1812. 

Hague,  1659,  between  England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land, with  a  view  to  preserve  the  equilibrium  of  Northern 
Europe. 

Hamburg,  1341,  league  with  Subeck,  giving  rise  to 
the  Hansiatic  League. 

Holy  Alliance,  1815,  a  league  between  the  Emperors 
of  Russia  and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  by  which 
they  ostensibly  bound  themselves  to  Christian  principles 
in  political  matters. 

Hubertsburg,  1763,  peace  between  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Saxony. 

Jay's  Treaty,  1794,  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain. 

Kiel,  1814,  between  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  England. 
Norway  and  Sweden  united. 

Kutchuk-Kainardji,  1774,  between  Turkey  and 
Russia. 

Ijcague,  Catholic,  1576,  formed  to  prevent  the 
accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

London,  1840,  quadruple  treaty  between  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Ru.ssia  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Turkey,  touching  the  states  of  Egypt. 

Lunevllle,  1801,  between  France  and  Austria  and 
the  German  Empire. 

Madrid,  1536,  treaty  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis 
I. 

Munster,  1648,  between  France  and  the  Emperor  of 
Sweden.  By  this  peace,  the  principle  of  a  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  was  first  recognized. 

Nankin,  1843,  ended  the  opium  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  China. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  1598,  by  which  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  toleration  to  the  Huguenots. 

Nj[stadt,  1731,  closed  the  war  between  Sweden  and 
Russia. 


Paris,  Treaties  of:  1763,  terminating  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  in  Austria,  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
1783,  terminating  the  American  Kevolulionary  War. 
1814-15,  between  France  and  the  Coalition.  1856, 
terminating  the  Crimean  War.  1898,  terminating  the 
Spanish-American  War. 

Partition  of  Poland: 

1773,  secret  treaty  between  Russia  and  Prussia  at 

St.  Petersburg. 
1795,  between  Ru.ssia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 

Passau,  1553,  securing  the  liberties  of  German 
Lutherans. 

Perry's  Treaty,  1854,  commercial  treaty  between 
United  States  and  Japan. 

Portsmouth,  1905,  treaty  between  Japan  and  Rus- 
sia, closing  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 

Prague,  1866,  peace  between  Prussia  and  Austria. 

Presburg,  1805,  peace  between  France  and  Austria; 
ancient  states  of  Venice  ceded  to  J  taly,  and  independence 
of  Switzerland  stipulated. 

Pretoria,  1903,  terminated  the  Boer  War  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  Transvaal. 

Pyrenees,  1659,  between  France  and  Spain;  mutual 
concessions  of  territory  made. 

Quadruple  Alliance,  1718,  celebrated  treaty  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  the  Emperor,  and  Holland, 
for  the  purpose  of  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  the 
reigning  families  in  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  set- 
tling the  partition  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy. 

Rastatlt,  1714,  between  France  and  Austria. 

Rastadt,  Congress  of,  1797,  between  France  and 
the  Empire,  established  a  general  peace  with  the  Ger- 
manic powers. 

Ratisbon,  1806,  secession  of  the  Germanic  princes 
from  the  Empire,  to  the  cause  of  Napoleon,  forming  the — 

Rhine,  Confederation  of,  1806. 

Ryswick,  1697,  peace  between  France  and  the  allied 
powers,  closing  the  war  of  the  "Patch  Note." 

St.  Clair-Sur-Epte,  911,  terminated  the  war  be- 
tween the  Norse  under  RoUa  and  Charles  the  Simple  of 
France. 

Saint  Germain,  1570,  peace  between  the  Cathohcs 
and  Huguenots. 

San  Stefano,  1878,  this  treaty,  supplemented  by 
the  Congress  of  Berlin  closed  the  Russian-Turkish  War. 

Schonbrunn,  1809,  treaty  between  France  and  Aus- 
tria. 

Shimonoseki,  1895,  closed  the  war  between  Japanese 
and  China. 

Thorn,  1466,  settled  the  terms  of  the  Polish  conquest 
of  Western  Prussia. 

Tientsin,  1858,  between  China  aftd  each  of  the 
nations  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  and  the  United 
States. 

Tilsit,  1807,  treaty  concluded  between  France  and 
Russia,  whereby  Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian 
Monarch  one-half  of  his  territories,  and  Russia  recog- 
nized the  Confederates  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  elevation 
of  Napoleon's  brothers,  Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome  to  the 
thrones  of  Naples.  Holland,  and  Westphalia. 

Tolentlno,  1797,  between  the  Pope  and  the  French 
Republic. 

Triple  Alliance,  1668,  the  celebrated  alliance  be- 
tween the  States-General  and  England  against  France 
for  the  protection  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Sweden 
afterward  joined  the  league. 

Triple  Alliance,  1879,  between  Austria,  Germany, 
and  Italy. 

Troyes,  1430,  between  England,  France,  and  Bur- 
gundy, whereby  Henry  V.  of  England  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  France. 

Ulm,  1630,  by  wliich  Frederick  V.  lost  Bohemia. 

Utrecht,  1713,  terminated  the  wars  of  Queen  Anne 
of  England,  and  secured  the  Protestant  succession  in 
England,  and  enlarged  British  colonization  in  America. 

Utrecht,  Union  of,  1579,  foundations  of  the  Dutch 
Republic  laid. 

Valencay,  1813,  between  Napoleon  and  Ferdinand 
VII.  of  Spain,  whereby  the  latter  restored  full  possession 
of  his  kingdom  upon  agreeing  to  maintain  its  integrity. 

Verdun,  Contract  of,  843,  concluded  the  war  be- 
tween Lothaire,  Louis  the  German,  and  Charles  the  Bald, 
and  settled  their  respective  imperial  dominions  after  the 
death  of  their  father,  Louis  the  Pious. 

Verona,  Congress  of,  1833,  held  by  the  great 
powers  to  adjust  Spanish  and  Grecian  disturbances. 

Versailles,  1783,  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  at  close  of  American  Revolution;  the 
treaty  was  signed  in  Paris.  1783,  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Spain.  1871,  between  France  and  Ger- 
many:   William   I.,  proclaimed   Emperor  of  Germany. 

Vienna,  1735,  treaty  between  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many and  the  King  of  Spain,  settling  the  sovereignty 


History 


165 


over  certain  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions.  1731, 
treaty  of  alliance  between  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  granted, 
and  the  Spanish  succession  settled.  1738,  treaty  of 
peace  between  Germany  and  France;  Loraine  ceded  to 
France,  and  France  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  sanction. 
1809,  treaty  of  peace  between  Napoleon  and  Francis  I, 
of  Austria.  Austria  ceded  to  France  the  Illyrian  Prov- 
inces. 1815,  treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  confirming  the  treaty  of  Chaument. 
1815,  treaty  between  the  Low  Countries,  and  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  agreeing  to  the 
enlargement  of  the  Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the 
sovereignty  in  the  house  of  Orange.  1815,  Federative 
constitution  of  Germany  signed. 

Warsaw,  1683,  alliance  between  Austria  and  Poland 
against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which  John  Sobieski 
assisted  in  raising  the  siege  of  Vienna.  1768,  treaty 
between  Russia  and  Poland. 

Washington,  18412,  Ashburton  treaty  defined  the 
northwestern  boundary  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Washington,  1871,  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  to  adjust  the  Alabama  claims. 

Westphalia,  1648,  treaty  of  peace  between  France, 
Germany,  and  Sweden,  terminating  the  Thirty  Years' 
War. 

Worms,  Concordat  of,  1123,  between  the  Emperor 
and  the  Pope,  closed  the  long  strife  called  the  War  of 
Investitures. 

Worms,  Diet  of,  1531,  imperial  conclave  before 
whom  Luther  was  summoned  and  presented. 

Zurich,  1859,  closed  the  dispute  between  Austria 
and  France  and  Sardinia. 

Tribune  (tribunus),  in  Roman  antiquity, 
originally  an  officer  connected  with  a  tribe,  or 
who  represented  a  tribe  for  certain  purposes; 
especially,  an  officer  or  magistrate  chosen  by 
the  people  to  protect  them  from  the  oppression 
of  the  patricians  or  nobles,  and  to  defend  their 
liberties  against  any  attempts  that  might  be 
made  upon  them  by  the  senate  and  consuls. 
These  magistrates  were  at  first  two,  but  their 
number  was  increased  to  five,  and  ultimately 
to  ten.  This  last  number  appears  to  have  re- 
mained unaltered,  down  to  the  end  of  the  em- 
pire. There  were  also  military  tribunes,  officers 
of  the  army,  each  of  whom  commanded  a  division 
or  legion,  and  also  other  officers  called  tribunes; 
as,  tribunes  of  the  treasury,  of  the  horse,  etc. 

Triumvirate,  a  coalition  of  three  men 
in  office  or  authority;  specifically  applied  to 
two  great  coalitions  of  the  three  most  powerful 
individuals  in  the  Roman  Empire  for  the  time 
being.  The  first  of  these  was  effected  in  the 
year  60  B.  C,  between  Julius  Csesar,  Pompey, 
and  Crassus,  who  pledged  themselves  to  support 
each  other  with  all  their  influence.  This  coali- 
tion was  broken  by  the  fall  of  Crassus  at  Carrhae 
in  Mesopotamia ;  soon  after  which  the  civil  war 
broke  out,  which  ended  in  the  death  of  Pompey, 
and  establishment  of  Julius  Caesar  as  perpetual 
dictator.  After  his  murder,  44  B.  C,  the  civil 
war  again  broke  out;  and  after  the  battle  of 
Mutina,  43  B.  C,  Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus 
coalesced,  thus  forming  the  second  triumvirate. 
They  divided  the  provinces  of  the  empire; 
Octavius  taking  the  West,  Lepidus,  Italy,  and 
Antony,  the  East. 

Troy,  or  Ilium  (Greek,  Troia  or  Ilion), 
an  ancient  city  in  the  Troad,  a'  territory  in  the 
northwest  of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Hellespont,  rendered  famous 
by  Homer's  epic  of  the  Iliad.  The  region  is  for 
the  most  part  mountainous,  being  intersected 
by  Mount  Ida  and  its  branches.  There  have 
been  various  opinions  regarding  the  site  of  the 
Homeric  city,  the  most  probable  of  which  places 


ancient  Troy  at  the  head  of  the  plain  bounded 
by  the  modern  river  Mendereh,  supposed  to  be 
the  Scamander  of  Homer,  and  the  Dombrek, 
probably  the  Homeric  Simois.  The  Ilium  of 
history  was  founded  about  700  B.  C.  by  iEolic 
Greeks,  and  was  regarded  as  occupying  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city,  but  this  is  doubtful;  it 
never  became  a  place  of  much  importance. 
The  ancient  and  legendary  city,  according  to 
the  Homeric  story,  reached  its  highest  splen- 
dor when  Priam  was  king;  but  the  abduction 
of  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta,  by 
Paris,  one  of  Priam's  sons,  brought  about  its 
destruction.  To  revenge  this  outrage,  all  the 
Greek  chiefs  afterwards  famous  in  history, 
banded  themselves  against  the  Trojans  and 
their  allies,  and  went  against  Troy  with  a  great 
fleet.  The  first  nine  years  of  the  war  were  spent 
by  the  Greeks  in  driving  the  Trojans  and  their 
allies  within  the  walls  of  the  capital.  The  tenth 
year  brought  about  a  quarrel  between  Achilles, 
the  bravest  of  the  Greeks,  and  Agamemnon, 
the  Greek  commander-in-chief,  which  proved 
for  a  time  disastrous  to  their  party,  and  which 
forms  the  subject  of  the  Iliad.  In  the  end,  the 
city  was  taken  by  means  of  a  large  hollow  wooden 
horse,  in  which  a  number  of  the  bravest  of  the 
Greek  heroes  concealed  themselves,  while  the 
rest  retired  to  their  ships.  Thinking  that  the 
Greeks  had  given  up  the  siege,  the  Trojans  in- 
cautiously drew  the  horse  within  the  city,  and 
gave  themselves  up  to  revelry.  The  Greeks 
within  the  horse  issued  from  their  concealment, 
and  being  joined  by  their  companions  without 
the  walls,  Troy  was  taken  and  utterly  destroyed. 
This  is  said  to  have  occurred  about  1184  B.  C. 
Not  only  has  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  been 
disputed,  but  the  legends  connected  with  it  are 
held  by  some  scholars  to  have  no  historical 
foundation;  nor  has  this  view  been  altered  by 
the  excavations  of  Schliemann,  and  his  dis?- 
covery  of  the  remains  of  a  prehistoric  city  or 
cities  at  Hissarlik,  the  site  of  the  historic  Ilium. 

Tudor,  the  name  of  one  of  the  royal  families 
of  England  allied  to  the  race  of  Plantagenets. 
The  line  embraced  five  sovereigns,  and  com- 
menced in  1485  with  Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of 
Richmond,  the  grandson  by  his  wife,  of  Sir 
Owen  Tudor,  a  Welsh  knight  of  distinction,  the 
widow  of  Henry  V.,  and  who,  after  the  battle 
of  Bosworth  Field,  was  proclaimed  king  by 
the  title  of  Henry  VII.  From  him  the  crown 
descended  to  his  son  Henry  VIII.,  whose  son 
Edward  VI.  succeeded,  and  after  him  his  two 
sisters,  Mary  and  Elizabeth ;  the  Tudor  dynasty 
expiring  with  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1603, 
when  the  house  of  Stuart  succeeded. 

Tuilerles  (twe'le-riz),  the  residence  of  the 
French  monarchs;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Seine,  in  Paris.  Catharine  de  Medici,  wife  of 
Henry  II.,  began  the  building  (1564);  Henry 
IV.  extended  it,  and  founded  the  old  gallery 
(1600);  and  Louis  XIV.  enlarged  it  (1654), 
and  completed  that  gallery.  The  side  toward 
the  Louvre  consisted  of  five  pavilions,  and  four 
ranges  of  buildings;  the  other  side  had  only 
three  pavilions.  During  the  revolution  of  1830 
the  palace  was  sacked.  It  was  restored  by 
Louis  Philippe  to  its  former  splendor,  but  in 
1848  it  was  again  pillaged.     The  Tuileries  then 


166 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


became  a  hospital  for  wounded  soldiers,  a  picture 
gallery,  and  the  home  of  Louis  Napoleon  in 
185^.  On  May  23,  1871,  it  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  fire  (the  work  of  the  communists), 
and  the  remaining  portions  were  removed  in 
the  year  1883. 

Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire  com- 
prises the  territories  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
more  or  less  under  the  sway  of  the  Turkish 
sultan.  In  Europe,  besides  the  immediate 
provinces  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  are  Bulgaria 
(with  Eastern  Roumelia),  and  Bosnia,   Herze- 

fovina,  etc.,  held  by  Austria;  in  Asia,  Asia 
linor,  Syria,  including  Palestine,  Mesopotamia, 
part  of  Arabia,  Candia,  and  others  of  the  islands 
of  the  archipelago;  in  Africa,  Egypt,  over 
which  there  is  a  nominal  suzerainty,  and  the 
vilayet  of  Tripoli.  Formerly  the  empire  was 
much  more  extensive,  even  in  recent  times  com- 
prising Greece,  Rumania,  Servia,  Bessarabia, 
Tunis,  etc.  We  shall  here  give  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  referring  to 
the  article  Turkey  for  information  regarding  the 
geography,  constitution,  etc.,  of  Turkey  proper. 
The  Ottoman  Turks  came  originally  from 
the  region  of  the  Altai  Mountains,  in  Central 
Asia,  and  in  the  Sixth  Century  A.  D.,  pushed 
onward  to  the  west  in  connection  with  other 
Turkish  tribes.  Early  in  the  Eighth  Century 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  Saracens,  from 
whom  they  took  their  religion,  and  of  whom 
they  were  first  the  slaves  and  mercenaries,  and 
finally  the  successors  in  the  caliphate.  In  the 
Thirteenth  Century  they  appeared  as  allies  of 
the  Seljukian  Turks  against  the  Mongols,  and 
for  their  aid  received  a  grant  of  lands  from  the 
Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium  in  Asia  Minor.  Their 
leader,  Othman  or  Osman,  of  the  race  of  Og- 
huzian  Turkomans,  became  the  most  powerful 
emir  of  Western  Asia,  and  after  the  death  of 
Ihe  Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium,  in  the  year  1300, 
he  proclaimed  himself  sultan.  He  died  in  1326. 
Thus  was  founded  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Saracen, 
Seljuk,  and  Mongol  power  the  Empire  of  the 
Osman  or  Ottoman  Turks  in  Asia;  and  after 
Osman,  the  courage,  policy,  and  enterprise  of 
eight  great  princes,  whom  the  dignity  of  caliph 
placed  in  possession  of  the  standard  of  the 
Prophet,  and  who  were  animated  by  religious 
fanaticism  and  a  passion  for  military  glory, 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  the  first  military  power 
in  both  Europe  and  Asia  (1300-1566). 

The  first  of  them  was  Orkhan,  son  of  Osman. 
He  subdued  all  Asia  Minor  to  the  Hellespont, 
took  the  title  of  Padishah,  and  became  son-in- 
law  to  the  Greek  Emperor  Cantacuzenus.  Ork- 
han's  son,  Soliman,  first  invaded  Europe  in 
1355.  He  fortified  Gallipoli  and  Sestos,  and 
thereby  held  possession  of  the  straits  which 
separate  the  two  continents.  In  1360  Orkhan's 
second  son  and  successor,  Amurath  I.,  took 
Adrianople,  which  became  the  seat  of  the  Em- 
pire in  Europe,  conquered  Macedonia,  Albania, 
and  Servia,  and  defeated  a  great  Slav  confedera- 
tion under  the  Bosnian  King  Stephen  at.  Kos- 
sova  in  1389.  After  him  Bajazet,  surnamed 
Ilderim  {Lightning),  invaded  Thessaly,  and  also 
advanced  towards  Constantinople.  In  1396 
he  defeated  the  Western  Christians  under  Sigis- 
mund,  King  of  Hungary,  at  Nicopolis,  in  Bul- 


garia; but  at  Angora,  in  1402,  he  was  himself 
conquered  and  taken  prisoner  by  Timour,  who 
divided  the  provinces  between  the  sons  of  Ba- 
jazet. Finally,  in  1413,  the  fourth  son  of  Ba- 
jazet, Mohammed  I.,  seated  himself  upon  the 
undivided  throne  of  Osman.  In  1415  his  vic- 
torious troops  reached  Salzburg  antl  invaded 
Bavaria.  He  conquered  the  Venetians  at 
Thessalonica  in  1420;  and  his  celebrated  grand- 
vizier  Ibrahim  created  a  Turkish  navy.  Mo- 
hammed was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Amurath  II., 
who  defeated  Ladislaus,  King  of  Hungary  and 
Poland,  at  Varna,  in  1444.  Mohammed  II., 
the  son  of  Amurath,  completed  the  work  of 
conquest  (1451-81).  He  attacked  Constanti- 
nople, which  was  taken  May  29,  1453,  and  the 
Byzantine  Empire  came  finally  to  an  end. 
Since  that  time  the  city  has  been  the  seat  of  the 
Sublime  Porte  or  Turkish  Government.  Mo- 
hammed added  Servia,  Bosnia,  Albania,  and 
Greece  to  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  threatened 
Italy,  which,  however,  was  freed  from  danger 
by  his  death  at  Otranto  in  1480.  His  grandson, 
Selim  I.,  who  had  dethroned  and  murdered  his 
father  in  1517,  conquered  Egypt  and  Syria. 
Under  Soliman  II.,  the  Magnificent,  who  reigned 
between  1519  and  1566,  the  Ottoman  Empire 
reached  the  highest  pitch  of  power  and  splen- 
dor. In  1522  he  took  Rhodes  from  the  Knights 
of  St.  John,  and  by  the  victory  of  Mohacz,  in 
1526,  subdued  half  of  Hungary.  He  exacted  a 
tribute  from  Moldavia,  made  Bagdad,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  Georgia  subject  to  him,  and  threat- 
ened to  overrun  Germany,  but  was  checked 
before  the  walls  of  Vienna  (1529).  Soliman 
had  as  an  opponent  Charles  V.  of  Germany, 
as  an  ally  Francis  II.  of  France.  From  his 
time  the  race  of  Osman  degenerated  and  the 
power  of  the  Porte  declined. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
and  most  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  the  chief 
wars  were  with  Venice  and  with  Austria.  The 
battle  of  Lepanto  (1571),  in  which  the  Ottoman 
fleet  was  overthrown  by  the  combined  fleets 
of  Venice  and  Spain,  was  the  first  great  Ottoman 
reverse  at  sea;  and  the  battle  of  St.  Gothard 
(1664),  near  Vienna,  in  which  Montecuculi  de- 
feated the  Vizier  Kiuprili,  the  first  great  Otto- 
man reverse  on  land.  In  1683  Vienna  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Turks,  but  was  relieved  by  John 
Sobieski  and  Charles  of  Lorraine;  in  1687  the 
Turks  were  again  defeated  at  Mohacz,  and  in 
1697  (by  Prince  Eugene),  at  Szenta.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  in  1699,  by  which 
Mustapha  II.  agreed  to  renounce  his  claims 
upon  Transylvania  and  a  large  part  of  Hungary, 
to  give  up  the  Morea  to  the  Venetians,  to  restore 
Podolia  and  the  Ukraine  to  Poland,  and  to 
leave  Azov  to  the  Russians.  Eugene's  subse- 
quent victories  at  Peterwardein  and  Belgrade 
obliged  the  Porte  to  give  up,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Passarowitz  in  1718,  Temeswar,  Belgrade,  with 
a  part  of  Servia  and  Walachia;  but  the  Turks 
on  the  other  hand  took  the  Morea  from  Venice, 
and  by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade  in  1739  regained 
Belgrade,  Servia,  and  Little  Wallachia,  while 
for  a  time  they  also  regained  Azov. 

Russia,  which  had  been  making  steady  ad- 
vances under  Peter  the  Great  and  subsequently, 
now  became  the  great  opponent  of  Turkey.     In 


HISTORY 


167 


the  middle  of  the  Eighteentli  Century  the  Otto- 
man Empire  still  embraced  a  large  part  of 
Soutliern  Russia.  The  victories  of  Catharine  II. 's 
general  Romanzoff  in  the  war  between  1768 
and  1774  determined  the  political  superiority 
of  Russia,  and  at  the  Peace  of  Kutchuk-Kain- 
arji,  in  1774,  Abdul-Hamid  was  obUged  to  re- 
nounce his  sovereignty  over  the  Crimea,  to  yield 
to  Russia  the  country  between  the  Bog  and  the 
Dnieper,  with  Kinburn  and  Azov,  and  to  open 
his  seas  to  the  Russian  merchant  ships.  By  the 
Peace  of  Jassy,  1792,  which  closed  the  war  of 
1787-91,  Russia  retained  Taurida  and  the  coun- 
try between  the  Bog  and  the  Dniester,  together 
with  Otchakov,  and  gained  some  accessions  in 
the  Caucasus.  In  the  long  series  of  wars  which 
followed  the  French  revolution  the  Ottoman 
Empire  first  found,  herself  opposed  to  France, 
in  consequence  of  Bonaparte's  campaign  in 
Egypt,  and  finally  to  Russia,  who  demanded 
a  more  distinct  recognition  of  her  protectorate 
over  the  Christians,  and  to  whom,  by  the  Peace 
of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812,  she  ceded  that  part 
of  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia  which  lies  beyond 
the  Pruth.  In  1817,  Mahmud  II.  was  obliged 
to  give  up  the  principal  mouth  of  the  Danube 
to  Russia.  Further  disputes  ended  in  the  Porte 
making  further  concessions,  which  tended 
towards  loosening  the  connection  of  Servia, 
Moldavia,  and  Wallachia  with  Turkey.  In  1821, 
broke  out  the  war  of  Greek  independence.  The 
remonstrances  of  Britain,  France,  and  Russia, 
against  the  cruelties  with  which  the  war  against 
the  Greeks  was  carried  on,  proving  of  no  avail, 
those  powers  attacked  and  destroyed  the  fleet 
of  Mahmud  at  Navarino  (1827).  In  1826,  the 
massacre  of  the  Janizaries  took  place  at  Con- 
stantinople, after  a  revolt.  In  1828-29,  the 
Russians  crossed  the  Balkans  and  took  Adrian- 
ople,  the  war  being  terminated  by  the  Peace  of 
Adrianople  (1829).  In  that  year  Turkey  had 
to  recognize  the  independence  of  Greece.  In 
1831-33,  Mehemet  Ah,  nominally  Pasha  of  Egypt, 
but  real  ruler  both  of  that  and  Syria,  levied 
war  against  his  sovereign  in  1833,  and  threatened 
Constantinople;  when  the  Russians,  who  had 
been  called  on  for  their  aid  by  the  sultan,  forced 
the  invaders  to  desist.  In  1840  Mehemet  AU 
again  rose  against  his  sovereign;  but  through 
the  active  intervention  of  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
and  Russia,  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Syria, 
though  he  was,  in  recompense,  recognized  as 
hereditary  viceroy  of  Egypt. 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  was  the  war  with  Russia, 
in  which  Turkey  became  involved  in  1853,  and 
in  which  she  was  joined  by  England  and  France 
in  the  following  year.  This  war,  known  as  the 
Crimean  War,  speedily  terminated  with  the 
defeat  of  Russia,  and  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
at  Paris  on  the  30th  of  March,  1856,  by  which 
the  influence  of  Russia  in  Turkey  was  greatly 
reduced.  The  principal  articles  were  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Russian  protectorate  over  the  Dan- 
ubian  principalities  (Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
united  in  1861  as  the  principahty  of  Roumania), 
the  rectification  of  the  frontier  between  Russia 
and  Turkey,  and  the  cession  of  part  of  Bessarabia 
to  the  latter  power. 

In  1875  the  people  of  Herzegovina,  unable 


to  endure  any  longer  the  misgovemment  of  the 
Turks,  broke  into  rebeUion.  A  year  later  the 
Servians  and'  Montenegrins  likewise  took  up 
arms,  and  though  tlie  former  were  unsuccessful 
and  obliged  to  abandon  the  war,  the  Montene- 
grins still  held  out.  Meantime  the  great  powers 
of  Europe  were  pressing  reforms  on  Turkey, 
and  at  the  end  of  1876  a  conference  met  at  Con- 
stantinople, with  the  view  of  making  a  fresh 
settlement  of  the  relations  between  her  and  her 
Christian  provinces.  All  the  recommendations 
of  the  conference  were,  however,  rejected  by 
Turkey ;  and  in  April  following,  Russia,  who 
had  been  coming  more  and  more  prominently 
forward  as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed  prov- 
inces, and  had  for  months  been  massing  troops 
on  both  the  Asiatic  and  the  European  frontier 
of  Turkey,  issued  a  warlike  manifesto  and  com- 
menced hostile  operations  in  both  parts  of  the 
Turkish  Empire.  She  was  immediately  joined 
by  Roumania,  who  on  the  22d  of  May  (1877) 
declared  her  independence.  The  progress  of  the 
Russians  was  at  first  rapid;  but  the  Turks  of- 
fered an  obstinate  resistance.  After  the  fall  of 
Kars,  however,  November  18th,  and  the  fall  of 
Plevna,  December  10th,  the  Turkish  resistance 
completely  collapsed,  and  on  the  3d  of  March, 
1878,  Turkey  was  compelled  to  agree  to  the 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  in  which  she  accepted  the 
terms  of  Russia.  The  provisions  of  this  treaty 
were,  however,  considerably  modified  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  concluded  on  the  13th  of  July 
following,  by  which  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Monte- 
negro were  declared  independent;  Roumanian 
Bessarabia  was  ceded  to  Russia;  Austria  was 
empowered  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina; 
and  Bulgaria  was  erected  into  a  principality. 

The  main  events  in  the  history  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  since  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin  are  the  French  invasion  of  Tunis  in 
1881,  which  soon  after  was  formally  placed 
under  the  protectorate  of  the  French;  the 
treaty  with  Greece,  executed  under  pressure  of 
the  great  powers  in  1881,  by  which  Turkey 
ceded  to  Greece  almost  the  whole  of  Thessaly 
and  a  strip  of  Epirus;  the  occupation  of  Egypt 
by  Great  Britain  in  1882;  and  the  revolution 
at  Philippopolis  in  1885,  when  the  government 
of  Eastern  Roumelia  was  overthrown,  and  the 
union  of  that  province  with  Bulgaria  proclaimed. 
The  results  of  the  revolution  were  recognized 
by  an  imperial  firman  in  1886,  and  Eastern 
Roumelia  has  since  for  all  practical  purposes 
formed  part  of  Bulgaria. 

In  1903,  serious  revolts  broke  out  in  Bulgaria 
and  Albania,  attended  with  massacres  and 
atrocities.  In  1909,  Abdul  Hamid  II.  was 
dethroned  by  the  Young  Turks,  and  Mehmed  Y. 
made  sultan. 

Tuscany  (Italian,  Toscana),  formerly  a 
grand-duchy,  now  a  department  of  Italy;  area, 
9,289  square  miles;  population,  2,340,100. 
The  chain  of  the  Northern  Apennines  forms  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  northern  boundary, 
the  sea  being  its  boundary  on  the  west.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Arno.  Cereals  cover  a 
large  area,  and  vineyards,  olive-yards,  and 
orchards  are  numerous.  The  manufacture  of 
silk  is  considerable.  The  marble  of  Tuscany, 
especially  that  of  Siena,  is  well  known.     Tuscany 


168 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


corresponds  to  the  ancient  Etruria,  which  was, 
however,  of  wider  extent.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire  (476)  it  passed  successively 
into  the  hands  of  the  Ostrogoths,  Byzantine 
Greeks,  and  Lombards.  Charlemagne  made 
it  a  Frankish  province,  and  it  was  governed  by 
marquises  or  dukes  until  the  Twelfth  and  Thir- 
teenth Centuries,  when  it  became  broken  up 
into  a  number  of  small  republics,  four  of  which 
were  Florence,  Pisa,  Siena,  and  Lucca.  From 
the  first,  Florence  occupied  the  leading  place, 
and  it  gradually  extended  its  territory.  In  1569 
Pope  Pius  I.  granted  to  Cosmo  I.  the  title  of 
Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  this  position  was 
retained,  with  interruptions,  by  the  celebrated 
Medici  family,  until  1737,  when  it  passed  to 
Francis  Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  In  1859, 
when  under  his  descendant,  the  Grand-duke 
Leopold,  it  was  annexed  to  Sardinia  by  a  popular 
vote,  and  in  1861  became,  with  Sardinia,  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

United  States  of  America.  When 
first  visited  by  Europeans,  the  country  now 
comprise.d  within  the  United  States  was  exclu- 
sively inhabited  by  the  race  commonly  called 
American  Indians.  According  to  the  Scandi- 
navian sagas,  Leif,  a  Norwegian,  sailed  about 
1001  from  Iceland  for  Greenland,  but  was  driven 
southward  by  storms  till  he  reached  a  country 
called  Vinland,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Rhode  Island  or  some  other  part  of  the  coast  of 
New  England.  In  1497,  about  five  years  after 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  John 
Cabot  sailed  westward  from  Bristol,  England, 
and  on  June  24th  discovered  land  (Labrador), 
along  which  he  coasted  to  the  southward  nearly 
1,000  miles.  In  1498,  his  son,  Sebastian  Cabot, 
sailed  from  the  same  port  in  search  of  a  north- 
west passage  to  China;  but  finding  the  ice  im- 
penetrable, he  turned  to  the  south  and  coasted 
as  far  as  Chesapeake  Bay.  In  1512,  the  Spaniard 
Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida.  In  1539, 
took  place  the  expedition  of  the  Spaniard  De 
Soto,  who,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  penetrated 
overland  from  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west  coast  of 
Florida  to  a  point  200  miles  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi. In  1565,  the  Spaniards  founded  St.  Augus- 
tine, the  first  permanent  settlement  in  the 
United  States.  In  1585,  an  expedition  sent  by 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  made  a  settlement  on  Roa- 
noke Island,  N.  C.,  which  failed.  In  1607,  the 
English  founded  Jamestown  on  James  River, 
Virginia,  their  first  permanent  settlement.  The 
master  spirit  of  this  enterprise  was  Captain 
John  Smith,  Plymouth,  Mass.,  was  founded  in 
1620  by  the  "Pilgrim  fathers  of  New  England," 
a  body  of  Puritans  led  by  John  Carver  and 
others,  who  sailed  from  England  in  the  "May- 
flower." Salem  was  settled  by  John  Endicott 
in  1628.  In  1630,  John  Winthrop  settled  Bos- 
ton. In  1692,  Plymouth  Colony  was  united  to 
Massachusetts.  Portsmouth  and  Dover  in  New 
Hampshire  were  settled  in  1623.  The  first  per- 
manent English  settlements  in  Maine  were  made 
about  the  same  time.  These  settlements  ulti- 
mately fell  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachu- 
setts. Connecticut  was  colonized  in  1635-36  by 
emigrants  from  Massachusetts,  who  settled  at 
Hartford,  Windsor,  and  Wethersfield.  Rhode 
Jsl^n^  was  first  settled  at  Providence  in  1636  by 


Roger  Williams.  In  1623,  permanent  settle- 
ments were  made  by  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Orange 
(now  Albany)  and  at  New  Amsterdam  on  the 
present  site  of  New  York.  The  Swedes  settled 
on  the  Delaware  in  1638,  and  were  expelled  in 
1655  by  a  Dutch  army.  The  English  seized 
New  Amsterdam  in  1664,  and  with  it  the  whole 
of  New  Netherland,  which  they  named  New 
York  from  the  Duke  of  York,  to  whom  it  had 
been  granted  by  Charles  II.  New  Jersey  at 
this  time  acquired  its  distinctive  name.  In 
1681  the  territory  west  of  the  Delaware  was 
granted  to  William  Penn,  who  colonized  it 
chiefly  with  Friends  or  Quakers,  and  founded 
Philadelphia  in  1682.  Maryland  was  settled  in 
1632  by  Roman  Catholics  sent  out  by  Lord 
Baltimore.  The  first  permanent  settlement  in 
North  Carolina  appears  to  have  been  made 
about  1663,  on  Albemarle  Sound,  by  emigrants 
from  Virginia.  The  first  permanent  settlement 
in  South  Carolina  was  made  in  1670  by  colonists 
from  England  on  the  Ashley  River,  near  the 
site  of  Charleston,  which  began  to  be  settled 
about  the  same  time.  Georgia  was  settled  by 
General  James  Oglethorpe,  who,  in  1733,  founded 
Savannah.  The  principal  Indian  wars  were 
those  of  1622  and  1644-46  in  Virginia;  thePequot 
War  (1636-37)  and  King  Philip's  War  (1675-76) 
in  New  England ;  that  with  the  Corees  and 
Tuscaroras  in  1711,  and  that  with  the  Yemas- 
sees  in  1715,  in  the  Carolinas.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  the  Indians 
on  the  northern  and  western  frontiers  began  to 
receive  aid  from  the  French  in  Canada,  who, 
whenever  their  mother  country  was  at  war  with 
England,  carried  on  hostilities  with  the  English 
colonies,  and  frequently,  accompanied  by  their 
savage  allies,  made  destructive  and  bloody  in- 
roads into  New  England  and  New.  York.  The 
first  conflict  with  the  French,  known  as  King 
William's  War  lasted  seven  years,  terminating 
in  1697.  Queen  Anne's  War  (1702-13)  was 
marked  by  the  conquest  from  the  French  in 
1710  of  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia).  The  principal 
event  of  King  George's  War  was  the  capture 
(1745)  of  Louisburg,  the  chief  stronghold  of  the 
French  in  America,  which  was  restored  to  the 
French  at  the  close  of  the  war  (1748).  Disputes 
having  arisen  with  the  French  on  the  Ohio,  an 
expedition  under  Washington,  was  sent  toward 
that  river,  which,  on  May  28,  1754,  cut  to  pieces 
a  French  detachment  under  Jumonville,  who 
was  slain.  This  affair  began  the  long  contest 
known  as  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Among 
its  prominent  events  were  Braddock's  defeat 
(1755)  near  Fort  Duquesne,  when  Washington 
distinguished  himself  by  covering  the  retreat; 
the  capture  by  the  French  of  Oswego  (1756) 
and  Fort  William  Henry,  at  the  head  of  Lake 
George  (1757);  and  the  taking  of  Louisburg 
after  a  siege  of  seven  weeks  by  Generals  Amherst 
and  Wolfe,  and  the  repulse  of  an  attack  on  Ti- 
conderoga  made  by  a  powerful  army  under 
General  Abercrombie  and  Lord  Howe  (1758). 
The  crowning  exploit  of  the  war  was  the  taking 
of  Quebec  (1759)  by  an  army  led  by  General 
Wolfe.  In  1763,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Canada 
and  its  dependencies  were  formally  ceded  to 
Great  Britain.  The  transfer  from  the  French 
to  the  English  of  the  posts  between  the  Great 


HISTORY 


169 


Lakes  and  the  Ohio  led  (1763)  to  a  war  with 
the  Indian  tribes,  of  which  the  master  spirit 
was  Pontiac.  The  sentiment  of-  poUtical  free- 
dom was  strongly  developed  among  the  colo- 
nists, and  republican  ideas  and  feelings  trans- 
mitted from  the  period  of  the  commonwealth  in 
England  were  widely  diffused,  though  at  the 
same  time  a  warm  attachment  existed  for  the 
mother  country  and  a  devoted  loyalty  to  the 
Crown.  The  .first  opposition  was  aroused  by 
an  act  of  parliament  in  1761,  authorizing  sher- 
iffs and  officers  of  the  customs  to  use  "writs  of 
assistance  V  or  general  search  warrants.  These 
writs  were  resisted  in  Massachusetts,  where  the 
rights  of  the  people  were  defended  by  James 
Otis.  In  1765  the  Stamp  Act  was  passed,  which 
declared  that  every  document  used  in  trade  or 
legal  proceedings,  to  be  valid,  must  have  affixed 
to  it  a  tax  stamp  of  the  minimum  value  of  one 
shilling,  and  increasing  indefinitely  according  to 
the  value  of  the  writing.  To  enforce  the  act 
parliament  authorized  the  ministry  to  send 
troops,  for  whom  the  colonies  were  required  to 
provide  quarters  and  various  necessaries.  These 
acts  created  great  excitement  and  indignation 
in  America.  Everywhere  the  people  determined 
not  to  use  the  stamps,  and  associations  calling 
themselves  "sons  of  liberty,"  were  organized 
in  opposition  to  the  act  and  for  the  general 
defense  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  In  Octo- 
ber a  congress  of  delegates  from  nine  colonies 
assembled  in  New  York  or.  the  invitation  of 
Massachusetts,  and  drew  up  a  declaration  of 
rights,  a  memorial  to  parliament,  and  a  petition 
to  the  king,  in  which  they  claimed  the  right  of 
being  taxed  only  by  their  own  representatives. 
The  merchants  of  the  principal  cities  agreed  to 
purchase  no  more  goods  in  England  till  the  act 
was  repealed,  and  the  people  pledged  themselves 
to  use  no  articles  of  English  manufacture.  The 
Stamp  Act  was  repealed  in  1766,  but  the  next 
year  parliament  passed  an  act  imposing  duties 
on  paper,  glass,  tea,  and  some  other  articles 
imported  into  the  colonies.  The  colonies  in 
return  revived  with  renewed  vigor  their  non- 
importation associations.  Massachusetts,  and 
especially  Boston,  was  foremost  in  the  opposi- 
tion. A  military  force  under  General  Gage  was 
sent  to  occupy  the  town  in  1768.  A  collision 
took  place  March  5,  1770,  between  the  soldiers 
and  a  crowd  of  citizens,  in  which  three  of  the 
latter  were  killed  and  eight  wounded.  The 
"Boston  Massacre,"  as  this  was  called,  caused 
great  excitement  throughout  the  country.  In 
April,  1770,  the  government  removed  all  the 
duties  except  that  of  threepence  a  pound  on 
tea.  Combinations  were  now  formed  against 
the  importation  and  use  of  tea,  and  measures 
taken  to  prevent  its  being  either  landed  or  sojd. 
At  Boston,  December  16,  1773,  a  band  of  men 
disguised  as  Indians  went  on  board  three  tea 
ships  which  had  recently  arrived  from  England, 
and  emptied  the  tea  into  the  water.  Parliament 
thereupon,  in  1774,  passed  the  "Boston  Port 
Bill,"  which  closed  that  port  to  all  commerce, 
and  transferred  the  board  of  customs  to  Marble- 
head  and  the  seat  of  colonial  government  to 
Salem.  Other  repressive  bills  were  also  passed. 
On  September  5th  the  "Old  Continental  Con- 
gress" met  in  Philadelphia,   in   which  all   the 


colonies  were  represented  except  Georgia.  A 
declaration  of  rights  was  agreed  upon,  in  which 
was  set  forth  the  claim  of  the  colonists  as  British 
subjects  to  participate  in  making  their  own  laws 
and  imposing  their  own  taxes,  and  to  the  rights 
of  trial  by  a  jury  of  the  vicinage,  of  holding 
public  meetings,  and  of  petitioning  for  redress 
of  grievances.  The  maintenance  of  a  standing 
army  in  the  colonies  without  their  consent  was 
protested  against,  as  were  eleven  acts  passed 
since  the  accession  of  George  III.  in  violation 
of  colonial  rights  and  privileges.  The  first  con- 
flict occurred,  and  the  first  bfood  of  the  Revolu- 
tion was  shed,  on  April  19,  1775.  (See  under 
Lexington.)  On  the  night  of  the  day  fol- 
lowing the  action  the  king's  governor  and  army 
found  themselves  closely  beleaguered  in  Boston. 
The  people  everywhere  rose  in  arms,  and  before 
the  close  of  summer  the  power  of  all  the  royal 
governors  from  Massachusetts  to  Georgia  was 
at  an  end.  Volunteer  expeditions  from  Vermont 
and  Connecticut,  led  by  Ethan  Allen  and  Bene- 
dict Arnold,  seized  the  important  fortresses  of 
Ticonderoga  (May  10th)  and  Crown  Point  (May 
12th).  The  second  Continental  Congress  assem- 
bled on  May  10th  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  State 
house,  now  known  as  Independence  Hall.  It 
sent  another  petition  to  the  king,  denying  any 
intention  of  separation  from  England,  and  ask- 
ing only  for  redress  of  grievances;  but  measures 
were  taken  to  raise  an  army,  to  equip  a  navy, 
and  to  procure  arms  and  ammunition.  The 
forces  before  Boston  were  adopted  as  the  Conti- 
nental army,  and  Washington  was  nominated 
and  unanimously  chosen  (June  15th)  as  com- 
mander-in-chief. Before  he  could  reach  the  seat 
of  war  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  had  been  fought, 
June  17th.  He  regularly  beleaguered  Boston 
till  March  17,  1776,  when  the  British  evacuated 
it  and  sailed  for  Halifax.  Meantime,  an  inva- 
sion of  Canada  under  General  Montgomery  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  Montreal  and  a  repulse 
from  Quebec,  which  was  attacked  December  31, 
1775,  by  parties  led  by  Montgomery  and  Arnold. 
On  June  28,  1776,  a  British  fleet  attacked 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  was  repulsed  with  great 
loss  by  a  small  force  in  Fort  Sullivan  (afterward 
Fort  Moultrie),  commanded  by  Colonel  Moultrie. 
On  July  4th  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
written  by  Jefferson,  was  adopted,  and  in  this 
document  the  colonies  were  first  designated  the 
"United  States  of  America."  Soon  after  the 
evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  British,  Washing- 
ton transferred  his  army  to  New  York.  On 
June  29th  the  late  garrison  of  Boston  arrived 
from  Halifax,  and  soon  after  other  British  troops 
from  Europe  and  from  the  South.  The  cam- 
paign began  on  Long  Island,  where,  on  August 
27th,  the  Americans  were  defeated  with  heavy 
loss,  and  forced  to  abandon  that  island,  and 
soon  after  the  city  of  New  York.  Having  fought 
another  unsuccessful  battle  at  White  Plains 
(October  28th),  Washington  early  in  December 
was  compelled  to  retreat  beyond  the  Delaware 
at  the  head  of  but  3,000  men.  About  the  same 
time  the  British  seized  and  held  the  island  of 
Rhode  Island.  On  the  night  of  December  25th 
Washington  crossed  the  Delaware  in  open  boats 
with  2,400  men,  and  falling  upon  the  British 
forces  at  Trenton,  captured  about  1,000  Hessians. 


170 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


On  January  3,    1777,   he  defeated  the  enemy 
again   at   Princeton,   taking  230  prisoners.     A 
movement  threatening  Philadelphia  called  Wash- 
ington south.     In  the  battle  on  the  Brandywine, 
September  11th,  he  was  outnumbered  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  nearly   1,000 
men.     On  the  26th,  the  British  took  possession 
of  Philadelphia  without  opposition.     On  Octo- 
ber 4th,  Washington   attacked   the   British  at 
Germantown,    seven   miles   from    Philadelphia, 
but  was  repulsed   with  heavy  loss;    and  soon 
afterward  both  armies  went  into  winter  quarters, 
the  Americans  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill,   twenty  miles  from   Philadelphia.     Mean- 
time, a  British  army,  7,500  strong,  besides  In- 
dians,  commanded  by  General  Burgoyne,  ad- 
vanced from  Canada  by  Lake  Champlain,  and 
took    Ticonderoga,     Fort    Independence,     and 
Whitehall.     Strong    detachments,    which    were 
sent  to  Bennington,  Vt.,  to  destroy  a  collection 
of  stores,   were  met  there   (August   16th)  and 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  about  200  killed  and 
600  prisoners  by  the  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire militia  led  by  General  Stark.     Burgoyne 
was  encountered  by  General  Gates,  to  whom, 
after  the  battles  of  Stillwater  (September  19th) 
and  Saratoga  (October  7th),  he  capitulated  at 
Saratoga  (October  17th)  with  his  whole  army. 
The  consequences  of  this  victory  were  apparent 
in  the  signing,  in  February,  1778,  of  treaties  of 
alliance  and  of  amity  and  commerce  with  France. 
The  British  evacuated  Philadelphia  in  the  night 
of    June    17th    with    more    than    17,000    men. 
Washington  pursued,  and  on  the  28th  the  two 
armies  engaged  in  battle  on  the  plains  of  Mon- 
mouth,  near  Freehold,   N.  J.     The  Americans 
remained  masters  of  the  field,  while  the  British 
retreated  to  New  York.     An  attempt  made  in 
August,  with  the  assistance  of  the  French  fleet 
under  Count  d'Estaing,  to  drive  the  British  from 
Rhode  Island,  proved  a  failure.     On  December 
29th  the  British,  having  defeated  the  American 
forces  at  Savannah,  took  possession  of  the  city. 
In  September,  1779,  Savannah  was  besieged  by 
a  French  and  American  force,  and  on  October 
9th  an  assault  was  made  upon  it,  which  was 
repulsed  with  a  loss  to  the  allies  of  nearly  800 
men,  among  them  Casimir  Pulaski.     About  this 
time  the  British  evacuated   Rhode  Island,   to 
concentrate  their  forces  at  New  York.     One  of 
the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  war  was 
the  storming  (July  16,  1779)  of  Stony  Point  on 
the  Hudson  by  General  Wayne.     On  the  ocean, 
which  swarmed  with  American  privateers,  Paul 
Jones  chiefly  distinguished  himself.     Charleston, 
S.  C,  after  a  feeble  defense  of  several  weeks, 
was  surrendered  to  the  British  on  May  12,  1780, 
by  General  Lincoln.     The  rest  of  South  Carolina 
nominally   submitted   to   the   royal   authority; 
but  a  guerilla  warfare  was  kept  up  by  Sumter, 
Marion,  and  other  partisan  leaders.     Congress 
sent  General  Gates  to  recover  South  Carolina. 
On  his  first  encounter  with  Cornwallis  at  Cam- 
den, August    16th,   he  was  routed   with  great 
loss,  and  with  the  remnant  of  his  force  fled  to 
North  Carolina.     Early  in  September  Cornwallis 
marched  into  North  Carolina,  where,  on  October 
7th,  at  King's  Mountain,  a  detachment  from 
his  army  was  totally  defeated  by  900  militia, 
who  killed  and  captured  upward  of  1,100  of  the 


enemy.  Cornwallis  withdrew  to  South  Carolina. 
On  July  10th,  a  French  fleet  arrived  at  Newport, 
bringing  the  Count  de  Rochambeau  and  6,000 
soldiers.  In  September  a  treasonable  plot 
schemed  by  Arnold  was  discovered.  The  prin- 
cipal military  operations  of  1781  were  in  the 
south,  where  Greene  had  superseded  Gates. 
At  the  Cowpens,  S.  C,  on  January  17th,  General 
Morgan  won  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  British 
under  Colonel  Tarleton.  On  March  15th,  the 
British  gained  a  victory  at  GuilforH  Court  House, 
N.  C,  but  drew  from  it  no  advantage;  and  on 
September  8th  occurred  the  drawQ  battle  of 
Eutaw  Springs,  which  nearly  terminated  the 
war  in  South  Carolina.  Cornwallis,  having  ad- 
vanced into  Virginia  in  April,  was  opposed  by 
Lafayette,  Wayne,  and  Steuben,  and  fortified 
himself  at  Yorktown.  Meanwhile,  the  American 
army  under  Washington  and  the  French  army 
of  Rochambeau  had  formed  a  junction  on  the 
Hudson.  The  allied  army  arrived  before  York- 
town  September  28,  1781,  and  began  a  regular 
siege,  which  lasted  till  October  19th,  when  Corn- 
wallis surrendered  with  his  whole  force  of  7,247 
men,  besides  840  sailors;  106  guns  were  taken. 
This  victory  substantially  terminated  the  con- 
test. A  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Paris,  November  30, 1782,  by  Franklin,  Adams, 
Jay,  and  Laurens.  On  September  3,  1783,  a 
definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Versailles,  by 
which  the  United  States  were  formally  acknowl- 
edged by  Great  Britain  to  be  free,  sovereign,  and 
independent.  New  York,  the  last  position  held 
by  the  British  on  our  coast,  was  evacuated  No- 
vember 25,  1783.  On  June  12,  1776,  while  the 
resolution  of  independence  was  under  considera- 
tion in  Congress,  a  committee  of  one  from  each 
colony  was  created  to  draft  a  form  of  confedera- 
tion, and  the  articles  reported  by  it  were  adopted 
November  15,  1777.  Having  been  ratified  by 
all  the  States,  they  went  into  effect  on  March  1, 
1781.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  confederation, 
owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  central  government 
under  it,  soon  became  widespread,  and  in  1786 
a  convention  of  delegates  from  several  States  at 
Annapolis,  Md.,  recommended  the  calling  of  a 
convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  States  to 
propose  changes  in  the  articles  of  confederation. 
This  plan  was  approved  by  Congress  on  February 
21,  1787,  and  the  convention  organized  at  Phila- 
delphia on  May  25th,  by  the  choice  of  Washing- 
ton as  president.  It  remained  in  session  until 
September  17th,  when  it  adjourned  after  adopt- 
ing the  Constitution.  All  the  States  were  repre- 
sented except  Rhode  Island.  Having  been  rati- 
fied by  the  requisite  number  of  States,  the  Con- 
stitution went  into  effect  on  March  4,  1789.  At 
the  first  election  Washington  was  chosen  presi- 
dent and  John  Adams  vice-president,  and  Wash- 
ington was  inaugurated  in  New  York  on  April 
30th.  In  the  summer  of  1790  an  Indian  war 
broke  out  with  the  tribes  of  the  northwest,  who, 
after  inflicting  defeats  on  Generals  Harmar  and 
St.  Clair,  were  finally  quelled  by  General  Wayne, 
and  peace  was  restored  in  August,  1795.  At  the 
second  presidential  election  in  1792,  Washington 
again  received  the  unanimous  votes  of  the  elec- 
toral colleges,  and  Adams  was  reelected  vice- 
president.  The  whiskey  insurrection  against  an 
unpopular  excise  law  in   1794  threw  Western 


HISTORY' 


171 


Pennsylvania  into  confusion,  but  was  energet- 
ically suppressed  by  the  president.  Two  parties 
had  sprung  up,  the  Federalists,  supporters  of  the 
Constitution  as  it  was,  and  the  Republicans  or 
Democrats,  who  desired  to  limit  the  federal 
power.  The  Republicans  were  active  in  their 
sympathy  for  the  French  Republic.  At  the 
third  presidential  election  (1796)  the  Federalists, 
among  whom  Alexander  Hamilton  was  promi- 
nent, supported  John  Adams  and  the  Republi- 
cans Thomas  Jefferson.  Adams,  who  received 
seventy-one  electoral  votes,  was  chosen  president 
while  Jefferson,  who  received  sixty-eight,  the 
next  highest  number,  became,  by  the  Constitu- 
tion as  it  then  was,  the  vice-president.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  administration  the  relations 
with  France  were  threatening,  and  envoys  were 
sent  to  adjust  the  difficulties;  but  the  French 
Government  refused  to  receive  them.  This  ex- 
cited great  indignation  in  the  United  States,  and 
Congress  made  preparations  for  war.  The  meas- 
sures  adopted  were  not  without  effect.  A  fresh 
embassy  was  sent,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
in  1800.  During  the  troubles  with  France  two 
acts  were  passed  by  Congress,  known  as  the 
alien  and  sedition  laws :  the  first,  which  was  lim- 
ited to  two  years,  empowering  the  president  to 
order  aliens  who  were  conspiring  against  the 
peace  of  the  United  States  to  quit  the  country; 
the  other,  which  was  to  remain  in  force  till 
March  4,  1801,  providing  among  other  things 
for  the  punishment  by  fine  and  imprisonment  of 
seditious  libels,  upon  the  government.  These 
laws  became  exceedingly  unpopular,  and  were 
bitterly  denounced  as  harsh  and  unconstitutional. 
They  contributed  largely  to  the  dissatisfaction 
with  Mr.  Adam's  administration,  which  led  in 
the  next  presidential  election  to  the  success  of 
the  Republican  candidates,  Jefferson  and  Burr, 
each  of  whom  received  seventy-three  votes. 
The  tie  threw  the  election  into  the  House  of 
Representatives,  where,  on  the  thirty-sixth  bal- 
lot, Jefferson  was  chosen  president  and  Burr 
vice-president.  This  contest  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  twelfth  amendment  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, requiring  the  electors  to  designate  which 
person  is  voted  for  as  president  and  which  as 
vice-president.  Jefferson's  administration  for 
the  most  part  was  marked  by  vigor  and  enlight- 
ened views,  and  in  1804  he  was  reelected,  with 
George  Clinton  as  vice-president.  The  vast  ter- 
ritory then  called  Louisiana  was  purchased  from 
P'rance  in  1803.  A  war  with  Tripoli,  ended  in 
1805,  humbled  the  Barbary  pirates.  In  1806 
Aaron  Burr  secretly  organized  a  military  expe- 
dition, chiefly  in  the  western  States,  which  led 
to  his  arrest  and  trial  at  Richmond  in  1807,  on  a 
charge  of  attempting  to  dismember  the  Union 
and  to  establish  an  independent  dominion  west 
of  the  Alleghanies;  but  no  overt  act  being  proved 
against  him,  he  was  acquitted.  The  relations 
with  Great  Britain  began  in  1805  to  be  disturbed 
by  the  unfriendly  acts  of  that  power  directed 
against  American  commerce,  and  by  the  exercise 
of  the  asserted  right  to  search  American  vessels 
for  suspected  deserters  from  her  navy.  In  1806, 
an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  the  importation 
of  certain  articles  of  British  production.  In  1807, 
Congress  laid  an  embargo,  which  prohibited  the 
departure  from  American  ports  of  vessels  bound 


for  foreign  countries.  This  measure  was  vehem- 
ently denounced  by  the  Federal  party,  and  was 
repealed  in  1809.  In  the  presidential  election  of 
1808  the  Republican  candidates,  James  Madison 
for  president  and  George  Clinton  for  vice-presi- 
dent, were  elected.  Congress  continued  the  non- 
importation system.  A  long  negotiation  was 
carried  on  with  the  English  Government  without 
result,  and  on  June  18,  1812,  war  was  declared 
against  Great  Britain.  In  the  summer  of  1811, 
hostilities,  excited  as  was  alleged  by  British  emis- 
saries, were  begun  by  the  Indian  tribes  north  of 
the  Ohio  under  the  lead  of  Tecumseh.  William 
Henry  Harrison,  Governor  of  Indiana  Territory, 
defeated  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Tippecanoe 
River,  November  7,  1811.  The  campaign  of 
1812  closed  with  little  or  no  credit  to  the  Ameri- 
can arms  on  land,  the  principal  event  being  the 
surrender  of  Detroit  (August  16th)  by  the  Ameri- 
can General  Hull  to  General  Brock.  But  the 
navy  achieved  a  series  of  brilliant  victories, 
which  were  followed  by  others  during  the  suc- 
ceeding years  of  the  war.  The  campaign  of  1813 
was  marked  by  alternate  successes  and  reverses. 
The  principal  events  were  the  defeat  of  General 
Winchester  at  the  River  Raisin  by  the  British 
and  Indians,  the  capture  of  York  (now  Toronto) 
and  of  Fort  George  in  Canada  by  the  Americans, 
the  repulse  of  a  British  attack  on  Sackett's  Har- 
bor, and  the  defeat  of  the  British  and  Indians 
near  Thames  River,  Canada,  by  General  Harri- 
son, Tecumseh  being  slain.  On  Lake  Erie,  Sep- 
tember 10th,  a  British  fleet  of  six  vessels  was 
captured  after  a  severe  contest  by  Lieutenant 
O.  H.  Perry.  On  July  5,  1814,  the  British  were 
defeated  at  Chippawa  by  General  Brown,  and  on 
the  25th  at  Bridgewater  or  Lundy's  Lane  by 
Generals  Brown  and  Winfield  Scott.  On  Sep- 
tember 11th  the  United  States  fleet,  under  Com- 
modore Macdonough,  totally  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  on  Lake  Champlain;  and  on  the  same 
day  the  British  army,  which  had  invaded  New 
York  and  laid  siege  to  Plattsburgh,  retreated  to 
Canada.  In  August,  a  British  fleet  arrived  in 
the  Chesapeake  with  an  army  of  5,000  men  com- 
manded by  General  Ross,  who  marched  on 
Washington,  and,  after  putting  to  flight  the 
militia  at  Bladensburg,  took  possession  of  the 
federal  city  on  the  24th,  and  burned  the  capitol, 
the  president's  house,  and  other  public  build- 
ings. On  the  next  day  the  British  retired  to 
their  ships,  and  on  September  12th- 13th  attacked 
Baltimore,  where  they  were  repulsed  by  the 
citizens,  and  General  Ross  was  killed.  After 
protracted  negotiations  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Ghent,  December  24,  1814,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  mutual  restoration  of  all  territory 
taken  during  the  war.  Nothing  was  said  of  the 
impressment  of  American  seamen,  one  of  the 
main  causes  of  the  war,  but  the  practice  was  dis- 
continued. Before  the  news  of  peace  could  cross 
the  Atlantic,  a  British  army,  12,000  strong,  was 
defeated  at  New  Orleans  (January  8,  1815)  by 
fewer  than  5,000  men  under  General  Jackson. 
In  the  same  year  Commodore  Decatur  compelled 
the  rulers  of  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  to  make 
indeinnity  for  former  outrages,  and  to  agree  to 
abstain  from  depredations  on  American  com- 
merce. The  presidential  election  of  1812  had 
resulted  in  the  reelection  of  Mr.  Madison.     El- 


172 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


bridge  Gerry  was  chosen  vice-president.  At  the 
presidential  election  of  1816  James  Monroe  of 
Virginia,  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins  of  New  York, 
Democrats,  were  elected  president  and  vice- 
president,  respectively.  Monroe's  administra- 
tion began  under  very  favorable  circumstances. 
Party  distinctions  had  so  nearly  disappeared, 
that  Democrats  and  Federalists  combined  to 
support  the  government.  He  was  reelected  in 
1820  by  all  the  electoral  votes  except  one. 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins  was  reelected  vice-president. 
The  main  event  of  Monroe's  administration  was 
the  Missouri  controversy,  by  which,  for  the  first 
time,  the  country  was  disastrously  divided  upon 
the  slavery  question.  In  the  session  of 
1818-19  a  bill  was  introduced  in  Congress  au- 
thorizing the  Territory  of  Missouri  to  form  a 
constitution,  whereupon  James  Tallmadge  of  New 
York  moved  in  the  House  of  Representatives  to 
insert  a  clause  prohibiting  any  further  introduc- 
tion of  slaves,  and  granting  freedom  to  the  chil- 
dren of  those  already  in  the  Territory  on  their 
attaining  the  age  of  25.  This  motion  was  car- 
ried, but  the  Senate  refused  to  concur.  In  the 
session  of  1819-20  the  debate  was  long  and  acri- 
monious. The  Senate  sent  to  the  House  the 
Missouri  bill  with  the  prohibition  of  slavery  in 
that  State  struck  out,  but  with  the  proviso  that 
it  should  not  thereafter  be  tolerated  north  of 
latitude  36°  30'.  This  compromise  was  at  length 
agreed  to.  The  other  great  event  of-  Mr.  Mon- 
roe's administration  was  the  recognition  (1822) 
of  the  Spanish  American  republics,  which  had 
declared  and  maintained  their  independence  for 
several  years.  In  1823  the  president  in  his  an- 
nual message  put  forth  a  declaration,  famous  as 
the  "Monroe  Doctrine,"  in  which  it  was  an- 
nounced that  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  Euro- 
pean governments  to  extend  their  system  to  any 
portion  of  this  hemisphere  would  be  considered 
dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  United 
States.  In  1819,  Florida  had  been  ceded  by 
Spain.  In  the  presidential  election  of  1824  none 
of  the  four  candidates  (Andrew  Jackson,  John 
Quincy  Adams,  William  H.  Crawford,  and  Henry 
Clay)  had  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes,  and 
Adams  was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. John  C.  Calhoun  had  been  elected  vice- 
president  by  the  electoral  colleges.  Adam's  ad- 
ministration was  remarkable  for  order,  method, 
and  economy^  but  party  spirit  was  higher  than 
it  had  been  for  many  years.  At  the  election  of 
1828  General  Jackson  was  chosen  president, 
while  John  C.  Calhoun  was  reelected  vice-presi- 
dent. In  his  first  annual  message  (December, 
1829)  the  president  took  strong  ground  against 
the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  United  States 
bank,  as  not  being  authorized  by  the  Constitu- 
tion. Congress,  in  1832,  passed  a  bill  to  re- 
charter  it,  but  Jackson  vetoed  it ;  and  the  char- 
ter expired  by  limitation  in  1836.  The  com- 
mercial part  of  the  community  generally  took  the 
side  of  the  bank,  and  the  party  formed  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  president  assumed  the  name  of 
Whigs,  while  his  supporters  adhered  to  the  old 
name  of  Democrats.  In  1832  arose  the  so-called 
nullification  movement  in  South  Carolina,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  tariff  acts  of  that  year  and  of  1828. 
A  State  convention  held  in  November  declared 
these  acts  unconstitutional  and,  therefore,  null 


and  void,  and  proclaimed  that  any  attempt  by 
the  General  Government  to  collect  duties  in  the 
port  of  Charleston  would  be  resisted  by  force  of 
arms,  and  would  produce  the  secession  of  South 
Carolina  from  the  Union.  Jackson  had  just 
been  reelected  for  a  second  term,  while  Martin 
Van  Buren  was  chosen  vice-president.  The 
firmness  of  the  president  gave  an  effectual  check 
to  the  incipient  rebellion,  and  the  affair  was 
finally  settled  by  a  proposition  brought  forwaril 
in  Congress  by  Henry  Clay,  the  leading  cham- 
pion of  the  protective  system,  for  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  tariff  by  a  gradual  reduction  of  the 
obnoxious  duties.  Other  events  of  Jackson's 
administration  were  the  removal  of  the  public 
funds  from  the  United  States  bank,  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  national  bank  and  the  beginning, 
toward  the  close  of  1835,  of  a  war  with  the 
Seminole  Indians  in  Florida.  In  the  presidential 
contest  of  1836,  Mr.  Van  Buren,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Democrats,  was  elected.  No  can- 
didate having  been  elected  vice-president,  Rich- 
ard M.  Johnson  was  chosen  by  the  Senate.  The 
new  administration  began  under  most  untoward 
circumstances.  Within  two  months  after  the 
inauguration  the  mercantile  failures  in  the  city 
of  New  York  alone  amounted  to  more  than 
$100,000,000.  The  war  with  the  Seminoles  was 
not  ended  till  1842.  At  the  election  in  1840, 
Harrison  and  Tyler,  the  Whig  candidates  for 
president  and  vice-president,  were  chosen.  Gen- 
eral Harrison  was  inaugurated  March  4,  1841, 
and  died  on  April  4th.  The  presidential  office 
devolved  on  John  Tyler,  who  soon  developed  a 
policy  in  relation  to  a  national  bank  much  more 
in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Democratic 
party  than  with  those  of  the  Whigs.  A  treaty 
was  concluded  in  1842  with  Great  Britain  by 
Daniel  Webster  for  the  settlement  of  the  north- 
eastern boundary.  The  Texas  question  (see 
Texas)  became  the  prominent  issue  in  the  presi- 
dential contest  of  1844,  the  Democratic  party 
supporting  and  the  Whigs  opposing  annexation. 
The  Democratic  candidates,  James  K.  Polk  for 
president  and  George  M.  Dallas  for  vice-presi- 
dent, were  elected  over  Henry  Clay  and  Theo- 
dore Frelinghuysen.  Joint  resolutions  for  an- 
nexing Texas  as  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union 
were  signed  by  President  Tyler  March  1,  1845, 
which  led  to  a  war  with  Mexico  in  1846.  Gen- 
eral Zachary  Taylor  defeated  the  Mexicans  at 
Palo  Alto  May  8th,  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  May 
9th,  at  Monterey  in  September,  and  at  Buena 
Vista  February  23,  1847.  General  Scott  landed 
near  Vera  Cruz  on  March  9th  with  about  12,000 
men,  immediately  besieged  that  city,  which  sur- 
rendered before  the  end  of  the  month,  and  en- 
tered the  city  of  Mexico  on  September  14th, 
after  a  series  of  hard-fought  and  uniformly  suc- 
cessful battles.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  nego- 
tiated at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  February  2,  1848, 
by  which  Mexico  granted  to  the  United  States 
the  line  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  a  boundary,  and 
ceded  New  Mexico  and  California.  The  Oregon 
dispute  with  Great  Britain,  which  claimed  the 
whole  region,  while  the  United  States  claimed 
as  far  north  as  latitude  54°  40',  was  settled  by 
the  treaty  of  1846,  which  adopted  the  boundary 
of  the  parallel  of  49°,  with  a  modification  giving 
to  Great  Britain  the  whole  of  Vancouver  Island. 


HISTORY 


173 


In  the  Democratic  National  convention  of  1848, 
Lewis  Cass  was  nominated  for  president,  and 
William  O.  Butler  for  vice-president.  By  the 
Whig  convention  Zachary  Taylor  and  Millard 
Fillmore  were  nominated.  The  question  of 
slavery  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  political 
combinations  of  this  period.  In  1846,  during 
the  Mexican  War,  a  bill  being  before  Congress 
authorizing  the  president  to  use  $2,000,000  in 
negotiating  a  peace,  David  Wilmot,  a  Demo- 
cratic representative  from  Pennsylvania,  moved 
to  add  thereto  a  proviso  prohibiting  slavery  in 
any  territory  acquired  from  Mexico.  This  pro- 
viso was  adopted  in  the  House,  nearly  all  the 
members  from  the  free  States  voting  for  it,  but 
failed  in  the  Senate  from  want  of  time.  Several 
delegates  seceded  from  both  the  Whig  and  Dem- 
ocratic conventions  of  1848,  on  the  failure  of 
those  bodies  to  pronounce  in  favor  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  proviso.  These,  with  the  Liberty 
party,  formed  in  1840,  organized  a  free-soil  or 
free  Democratic  party,  and  Martin  Van  Buren 
was  nominated  for  president  and  Charles  Francis 
Adams  for  vice-president.  Van  Buren  and 
Adams  received  at  the  election,  in  November,  a 
popular  vote  of  291,263,  but  secured  no  electoral 
vote.  Taylor  and  Fillmore  were  elected.  The 
application  in  1850  of  California  for  admission 
as  a  State  roused  the  slavery  controversy,  and 
the  difficulty  was  complicated  by  the  application 
of  New  Mexico  for  admission,  and  by  a  claim 
brought  forward  by  Texas  to  a  western  line  of 
boundary  which  would  include  a  large  portion 
of  New  Mexico.  Finally,  a  compromise  was  pro- 
posed by  Henry  Clay  in  the  Senate  as  a  final 
settlement  of  the  whole  question  of  slavery,  and 
after  a  long  discussion  the  result  aimed  at  was 
attained  by  separate  acts,  which  provided  for: 

(1)  the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  State; 

(2)  Territorial  Governments  for  New  Mexico  and 
Utah  without  excluding  slavery,  but  leaving  its 
exclusion  or  admission  to  the  local  population; 

(3)  the  settlement  of  the  Texas  boundary  ques- 
tion; (4)  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the 
District  of  Columbia;  (5)  the  enactment  of  a 
stringent  law  for  the  arrest  and  return  of  fugitive 
slaves.  President  Taylor  died  July  9,  1850,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  vice-president,  Millard 
Fillmore.  The  whole  weight  of  his  administra- 
tion was  given  to  the  support  of  the  compromise 
measures.  The  Democratic  National  Conven- 
tion of  1852  nominated  for  president  Franklin 
Pierce  of  New  Hampshire,  who  was  known  to 
hold  opinions  satisfactory  to  the  South  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  and  William  R.  King  of  Ala- 
bama for  vice-president.  The  Whig  National 
Convention  nominated  for  president  General 
Winfield  Scott,  and  for  vice-president  William 
A.  Graham  of  North  Carolina.  The  National 
Convention  of  the  Free-soil  party  nominated 
John  P.  Hale  for  president,  and  George  W.  Julian 
for  vice-president.  Pierce  and  King  were  elected. 
The  passage  in  1854  of  a  bill  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
by  which  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act  of  1820 
was  repealed,  roused  great  excitement  and  in- 
dignation in  the  free  States.  The  struggle  in 
Kansas  between  the  anti-slavery  and  pro-slavery 
parties  (see  Kansas)  and  the  assault  by  Brooks 
on  Sumner  (see  Sumner,  Charles)  added  to  the 


feeling.  Preparatory  to  the  presidential  canvass 
of  1856  the  Republican  party  was  formed,  which 
absorbed  the  entire  Free-soil  party,  the  greater 
part  of  the  Whig  party,  and  considerable  acces- 
sions from  the  Democratic.  That  portion  of  the 
Whig  party  opposed  to  anti-slavery  measures 
was  merged,  especially  at  the  South,  in  an  organ- 
ization called  the  American  party,  from  its  oppo- 
sition to  foreign  influence,  and  particularly  to 
Roman  Catholic  influence,  in  our  political  affairs, 
but  popularly  known  as  the  "Know-Nothing 
Party"  from  the  secrecy  of  its  organization  and 
the  reticence  of  its  members.  This  party  nomi- 
nated Millard  Fillmore  for  president,  and  An- 
drew J.  Donelson  of  Tennessee  for  vice-president. 
The  Democratic  National  Convention  nominated 
James  Buchanan  of  Pennsylvania  for  president, 
and  John  C.  Breckenridge  of  Kentucky  for  vice- 
president.  The  Republican  National  Conven- 
tion nominated  John  C.  Fremont  of  California 
for  president,  and  William  L.  Dayton  of  New 
Jersey  for  vice-president.  Buchanan  and  Breck- 
enridge were  elected.  The  chief  interest  of  Mr. 
Buchanan's  administration  centered  around  the 
slavery  controversy.  A  constitution  for  Kansas 
framed  at  Lecompton  in  1857  was  laid  before 
Congress  in  the  session  of  1857-58,  and  its  dis- 
cussion resulted  in  a  schism  in  the  Democratic 
party,  and  eventually  in  its  division  into  two 
bodies,  one  of  which  looked  upon  Stephen  A. 
Douglas  as  its  leader,  while  the  other  supported 
Breckenridge  for  the  presidency.  The  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  met  at  Charleston, 
April  23,  1860,  and  a  controversy  on  t^e  subject 
of  slavery  immediately  arose.  A  non-committal 
platform  having  been  adopted,  most  of  the 
Southern  delegates  withdrew  and  adopted  a  plat- 
form of  their  own,  denying  the  right  of  Congress 
to  interfere  with,  and  asserting  its  duty  to  pro- 
tect, slavery  in  the  Territories.  The  convention 
adjourned  May  3d,  reassembled  in  Baltimore 
June  18th,  and  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
of  Illinois  for  president,  and  Benjamin  Fitzpat- 
rick  of  Alabama  for  vice-president.  The  latter 
afterward  declined,  arid  Herschel  V.  Johnson  of 
Georgia  was  substituted.  A  convention  called 
by  the  seceding  delegates  convened  at  Baltimore 
on  June  23d,  and  nominated  John  C.  Brecken- 
ridge for  president,  and  Joseph  Lane  of  Oregon 
for  vice-president.  The  "Constitutional  Union " 
party,  composed  mainly  of  the  American  party, 
nominated  for  president  John  Bell  of  Tennessee, 
and  for  vice-president  Edward  Everett  of  Massa- 
chusetts. The  Republican  National  Convention 
assembled  at  Chicago  on  May  16th,  and  nomi- 
nated for  president  Abraham  Lincoln  of  Illinois, 
and  for  vice-president  Hannibal  Hamlin  of 
Maine.  In  the  election,  November  6th,  Mr. 
Lincoln  received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the 
free  States  (except  three  in  New  Jersey),  180, 
and  was  elected.  Mr.  Bell  received  the  votes  of 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  39;  Mr. 
Douglas  the  9  votes  of  Missouri  and  3  from  New 
Jersey;  and  the  remaining  Southern  States  cast 
their  72  electoral  votes  for  Breckenridge.  A 
convention  was  at  once  called  in  South  Carolina, 
and  on  December  20th  unanimously  adopted  an 
ordinance  of  secession  from  the  Union.  Before 
the  end  of  May,  1861,  eleven  States  had  passed 
ordinances  of  secession  (South  Carolina,  Missis- 


174 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


sippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Virginia,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North 
Carolina).  On  February  4th  a  Congress  met  at 
Montgomery  Ala.,  and  framed  a  constitution  for 
the  "Confederate  States  of  America."  Jefferson 
Davis  of  Mississippi  was  chosen  president,  and 
Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia  vice-presi- 
dent. After  governmental  organization,  the  first 
warlike  act  was  the  bombardment  by  the  Con- 
federates of  Fort  Sumter,  which  surrendered 
April  13,  1861.  On  July  21st  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  near  Manassas  Junction,  Va., 
the  first  of  any  magnitude  during  the  war,  in 
which  the  Union  forces  under  General  McDowell 
were  defeated  by  the  Confederates  under  Gen- 
eral Beauregard,  and  fell  back  in  disorder  to 
Washington.  Soon  after  General  McClellan, 
who  had  cleared  West  Virginia  of  Confederate 
troops,  was  placed  in  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac.  On  August  10th,  a  battle  was 
fought  at  Wilson's  Creek,  near  Springfield,  Mo., 
between  the  Confederates  under  General  Mc- 
Culloch  and  the  Federals  under  General  Lyon, 
who  fell.  This  was  followed  by  a  varying  and 
indecisive  warfare  in  that  State.  On  August 
29th,  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark,  N.  C,  were 
taken  by  General  Butler  and  Commodore  String- 
ham;  and  on  November  7th,  Port  Royal,  S.  C, 
by  Commodore  Du  Pont  and  General  T.  W. 
Sherman.  On  October  2 1st,  a  portion  of  General 
Stone's  command,  having  crossed  the  Potomac 
at  Ball's  Bluff,  about  midway  between  Harper's 
Ferry  and  Washington,  was  defeated  by  the 
Confederate  General  Evans,  with  a  loss  of  1,000 
out  of  1,960  men.  On  February  6,  1862,  the 
Federal  Commodore  Foote,  with  a  fleet  of  gun- 
boats from  Cairo,  reduced  Fort  Henry  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Tennessee  River  in  Tennessee; 
and  on  the  16th  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Cumberland,  surrendered  with  about 
13,000  men  to  General  Grant.  The  Confeder- 
ates under  McCulloch  and  others,  just  driven  out 
of  Missouri,  were  defeated  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark., 
March  7th-8th.  In  the  night  of  April  7th,  Island 
No.  Ten  in  the  Mississipp,  a  few  miles  above 
New  Madrid,  Mo.,  surrendered,  after  a  series  of 
operations  by  General  Pope  and  Commodore 
Foote,  lasting  over  a  month.  The  Federal  fleet 
was  now  enabled  to  proceed  down  the  river  as 
far  as  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  receiving  the  surrender 
of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  June  6th.  The  battle  of 
Shiloh,  Miss.,  raged  two  days  (April  6th  and  7th), 
when  the  Confederates  under  Beauregard  fell 
back  to  Corinth,  leaving  the  field  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Union  army  under  Generals  Buell 
and  Grant.  Corinth  was  evacuated  after  some 
operations  against  it  under  General  Halleck. 
An  important  event  of  the  year  was  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans  toward  the  close  of  April  by 
naval  and  land  forces  under  Captain  Farragut 
and  General  Butler.  Early  in  the  year  Roanoke 
Island,  New  Berne,  Beaufort,  Washington,  Ply- 
mouth, and  other  places  on  the  coast  of  North 
Carohna  were  occupied  by  the  Federals.  On 
April  11th,  Fort  Pulaski,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Savannah  River,  was  reduced.  Toward  the  end 
of  August  the  Confederate  General  Bragg  started 
on  an  invasion  of  Kentucky  from  East  Tennes- 
see. He  captured  Richmond,  Lexington,  and 
Munfordsville,    and    on    October    1st    entered 


Frankfort.  The  Union  forces  under  General 
Buell  moving  against  him,  he  slowly  retreated 
to  Perryville,  where,  on  the  8th,  a  severe  battle 
was  fought.  During  the  succeeding  night  Bragg 
continued  his  retreat,  and  passed  into  East  Ten- 
nessee. About  the  end  of  September  the  Con- 
federates under  Generals  Price  and  Van  Dorn 
advanced  against  Corinth,  Miss.,  now  defended 
by  General  Rosecrans.  Their  assaults  (October 
3d,  4th)  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  General 
Rosecrans,  having  superseded  Buell,  moved  into 
Tennessee,  and  marched  upon  Murfreesboro, 
where  Bragg's  forces  were  concentrated,  reach- 
ing Stone  River  near  that  place  on  December  29 
and  30th.  Here  bloody  engagements  occurred 
December  31,  1862,  and  January  2,  1863,  which 
resulted  in  Bragg's  retreat.  Still  greater  ope- 
rations took  place  on  the  eastern  theater  of  the 
war.  Brisk  fighting  occurred  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  (March-June),  with  decided  advantage 
on  the  whole  to  the  Confederate  General  Jackson 
over  Banks,  Fremont,  and  others.  About  April 
1,  1862,  General  McClellan  transferred  his  forces 
to  Fortress  Monroe,  near  which  a  remarkable 
naval  duel  had  taken  place  (at  Hampton  Roads) 
and  began  a  movement  upon  Richmond  up  the 
peninsula  between  the  York  and  James  Rivers, 
fighting  at  Yorktown,  Williamsburg,  Seven  Pines 
Fair  Oaks,  and  Mechanicsville,  and,  during 
a  retrograde  movement  to  Harrison's  Landing 
on  the  James,  at  Cold  Harbor,  Savage's  Station, 
Frazier's  Farm,  and,  finally  (July  1st),  at  Mal- 
vern Hill.  About  the  middle  of  August  his  army 
was  transferred  to  the  Potomac.  The  Confed- 
erate army,  commanded  by  General  Robert  E. 
Lee,  who  had  succeeded  J.  E.  Johnston,  had 
retired  to  Richmond,  to  assume  the  offensive 
against  Washington.  On  August  9th  an  inde- 
cisive battle  was  fought  by  General  Banks 
against  Jackson  at  Cedar  Mountain;  and  on 
August  29th  and  30th  occurred  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  between  the  Union  army  under 
Pope  and  the  Confederate  forces  under  Jackson 
and  Longstreet,  in  which  the  latter  had  the 
advantage.  Lee  moved  to  the  Potomac  above 
Washington  and  crossed  into  Maryland.  Jack- 
son captured  Harper's  Ferry  with  11,500  men. 
McClellan,  advancing  to  meet  Lee,  found  him 
on  September  15th  strongly  posted  across  Antie- 
tam  Creek  near  Sharpsburg,  where,  on  the  two 
following  days,  a  bloody  battle  was  fought.  In 
the  night  of  the  18th,  Lee  retreated  into  Virginia. 
McClellan  crossed  the  Potomac  about  November 
1st.  On  the  7th  he  was  superseded  by  General 
Burnside,  who  moved  down  the  Rappahannock 
to  Fredericksburg.  Lee  had  made  a  parallel 
movement  down  the  south  bank  and  strongly 
intrenched  himself  on  the  bluffs  behind  the  town. 
On  December  13th,  Burnside  crossed  the  river 
and  made  repeated  attacks  on  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion, but  was  repulsed  with  great  slaughter,  and 
on  the  15th  returned  to  the  north  bank.  On 
January  26,  1863,  Burnside  was  superseded  by 
General  Joseph  Hooker.  About  the  close  of 
April  Hooker  began  to  cross  the  Rappahannock, 
and  concentrated  his  forces  at  Chancellorsville, 
where  a  bloody  engagement  ensued.  May  2d-4th, 
in  which  the  Union  army  was  worsted  by  the 
forces  under  Lee,  Hooker  recrossing  to  the  north 
side  of  the  river.     General  Jackson  was  mortally 


HISTORY 


175 


wounded.  About  the  beginning  of  June,  Lee 
again  assumed  the  offensive.  The  main  body  of 
the  Confederate  army  crossed  the  Potomac  above 
Harper's  Ferry,  June  24th-25th,  and  march- 
ing across  Maryland  entered  Pennsylvania. 
Hooker  moved  north,  so  as  to  cover  Washington, 
and  on  the  26th  crossed  the  Potomac  about  half 
way  between  Washington  and  Harper's  Ferry. 
On  the  28th  he  was  succeeded  by  General  Meade. 
The  latter  advanced  into  Pennsylvania,  and  on 
July  1st,  2d,  and  3d  the  two  armies  met  in  the 
great  battle  of  Gettysburg,  which  ended  in  the 
discomfiture  of  the  Confederate  army.  On  the 
4th,  Lee  began  his  retreat,  and  on  the  13th  re- 
crossed  the  Potomac.  Meade  crossed  on  the 
18th,  and  reached  Warrenton  on  the  25th, 
where  he  was  soon  confronted  by  Lee  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Rappahannock.  In  the  west 
important  operations  had  taken  place  under 
Generals  Grant  and  Sherman  against  Vicksburg. 
Close  pressed,  on  July  3d,  General  Pember- 
ton  surrendered  that  Confederate  stronghold, 
with  27,000  men,  to  General  Grant,  who,  on  the 
4th,  occupied  the  city.  The  result  of  this  cam- 
paign rent  the  Confederacy  in  twain,  and  de- 
cided its  fate.  Port  Hudson,  La.,  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, surrendered  after  a  siege  to  General 
Banks,  July  8th.  Rosecrans  remained  quietly 
at  Murfreesboro  till  June  23,  1863,  when  he  ad- 
vanced, forcing  Bragg  to  retreat  to  Chattanooga, 
which  was  occupied  by  a  detachment  on  Sep- 
tember 9th,  Bragg  retiring  into  Georgia  and 
posting  his  troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Chicka- 
mauga  Creek,  east  of  Trenton.  Here,  Septem- 
ber 19th  and  20th,  occurred  a  severe  engage- 
ment, in  which  the  Federals  were,  worsted  and 
fell  back  to  Chattanooga,  where  they  were  be- 
sieged by  Bragg.  On  October  23d,  General  Grant 
arrived  and  took  command.  A  series  of  move- 
ments was  at  once  initiated,  which  resulted  in 
driving  Bragg  from  Chattanooga  (November 
25th)  and  forcing  him  to  retreat  into  Georgia. 
An  army  under  General  Burnside,  which  had 
occupied  Knoxville,  and  was  besieged  there  by 
Longstreet,  was  relieved  at  the  beginning  of 
December.  All  Tennessee  was  now  recovered. 
In  Arkansas,  General  Steele  had  captured  Little 
Rock,  September  10th.  Fort  Wagner,  on  Mor- 
ris Island  at  the  entrance  of  Charleston  Harbor, 
after  vigorously  repelling  a  heavy  assault,  had 
about  the  same  time  been  reduced  by  a  regular 
siege  under  General  Gillmore.  On  April  20, 
1864,  Plymouth,  N.  C,  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render to  a  Confederate  force  under  General 
Hoke,  and  as  a  consequence  Washington,  N.  C, 
was  evacuated  'by  the  Federals  eight  days  later. 
On  October  31st,  Plymouth  was  retaken  by  the 
Federal  fleet.  On  April  12th  Fort  Pillow,  on 
the  Mississippi  about  forty  miles  above  Mem- 
phis, was  taken  by  assault  by  the  Confederates 
under  General  Forrest,  and  many  of  its  colored 
defenders  were  killed  after  the  capture.  In 
August,  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan,  commanding 
the  entrance  to  Mobile  Bay,  were  reduced  by  a 
fleet  under  Admiral  Farragut,  aided  by  a  land 
force  under  General  Granger,  and  the  Confed- 
erate fleet  there  was  destroyed.-  West  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  most  important  movement  in 
1864  was  Bank's  disastrous  Red  River  campaign 
in  the  early  spring.     In  September  and  October, 


General  Price  with  a  considerable  force  made  a 
raid  through  Missouri.  In  Virginia,  General 
Grant,  who  had  received  the  chief  command  of 
the  Union  armies,  began  on  May  4th  to  cross  the 
Rapidan  and  advance  into  the  "Wilderness." 
Here  (May  5th  and  6th)  and  at  Spottsylvania 
Court  House  near  by  (May  8th-21st)  followed  a 
series  of  sanguinary  engagements,  which  baffled 
the  direct  advance.  Grant  then  advanced  by  a 
succession  of  flank  movements  to  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  where,  on  June  3d,  he  suffered  a  dis- 
astrous check  in  the  second  battle  of  Cold  Har- 
bor. On  the  12th,  having  determined  to  attack 
Richmond  from  the  south,  he  began  to  move, 
crossing  the  Chickahominy  below  Lee's  position, 
and  effecting  the  passage  of  the  James,  June 
14th-15th.  Lee  thereupon  retired  within  the  in- 
trenchments  covering  Richmond.  On  the  15th 
and  16th  a  part  of  the  Union  forces  unsuccess- 
fully assailed  Petersburg,  and  on  the  19th  Grant 
began  a  regular  siege.  An  invasion  of  Mary- 
land under  General  Early  in  July,  which  threat- 
ened Washington,  failed,  and  led  to  operations 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  in  which  General 
Sheridan  nearly  destroyed  Early's  forces  at 
Winchester.  On  May  5,  1864,  General  W.  T. 
Sherman  started  from  Chattanooga  on  his  cam- 
paign against  Atlanta,  in  which  he  was  ably 
opposed  by  Johnston,  and  vainly  assailed  by 
his  successor  in  command,  General  Hood.  At- 
lanta was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates  on 
September  1st.  Near  the  middle  of  November 
he  started  for  the  coast.  Marching  through  the 
heart  of  Georgia  without  opposition,  he  reached 
the  vicinity  of  Savannah,  capturing  Fort  Mc- 
Allister December  13th,  and  occupying  the  city 
December  21st.  On  December  15th  and  16th, 
Hood,  who  had  marched  north  with  his  army, 
suffered  a  bloody  repulse  before  Nashville  by 
Thomas.  An  attempt  in  December,  by  a  fleet 
under  Admiral  Porter  and  a  land  force  under 
General  Butler,  to  reduce  Fort  Fisher  at  the 
mouth  of  Cape  Fear  River,  commanding  the 
approach  to  Wilmington,  N.  C,  failed;  but  on 
January  15,  186^,  it  was  carried  by  an  assault 
under  General  Terry,  aided  by  the  fleet.  The 
Federal  forces  occupied  Wilmington  on  February 
22d.  The  siege  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond 
continued  till  April  3,  1865,  when,  after  Lee's 
defeat  at  Five  Forks  (March  31st,  April  1st), 
those  places  were  occupied  by  the  Federals,  hav- 
ing been  evacuated  by  Lee  during  the  preceding 
night.  Grant  vigorously  pursued  the  retreating 
army,  and  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  on  the 
9th,  compelled  Lee  to  surrender  the  remnant  of 
his  forces,  about  27,000  in  all,  an  event  which 
virtually  terminated  the  war.  On  February  1st, 
General  Sherman  started  from  Savannah  on  a 
northward  movement  through  the  Carolinas, 
and  reached  Columbia  on  the  17th.  General 
Hardee,  being  thus  taken  in  the  rear,  evacuated 
Charleston,  which  was  occupied  by  a  detach- 
ment of  General  Gillmore's  forces  on  the  18th, 
and  the  same  day  the  national  flag  was  raised 
over  Fort  Sumter.  Sherman  reached  Fayette- 
ville,  N.  C,  on  March  12th.  On  the  19th  the 
left  wing  under  Slocum  encountered  the  Con- 
federate army  under  General  Johnston  at  Ben- 
tonville,  repelled  several  assaults,  and  on  the 
21st,  being  reinforced,  compelled  it  to  retreat 


176 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


to  Smithfield,  covering  Raleigh.  Sherman  then 
occupied  Goldsboro,  whence  he  advanced  on 
April  10th.  Johnston  retreated  through  Ra- 
leigh, and  on  April  26th  surrendered  his  entire 
army,  then  reduced  to  about  31,000  men.  In 
the  meantime,  a  cavalry  force  under  General 
Wilson  had  swept  through  Alabama  from  the 
north,  and  passed  into  Georgia,  occupying  Selma 
on  April  2d,  Montgomery  on  the  12th,  and 
Columbus,  Ga.,  on  the  IGth.  Mobile  was  taken 
on  April  12th  by  General  Canby,  aided  by  a 
fleet  under  Admiral  Thatcher.  On  May  4th, 
General  Taylor  surrendered  the  Confederate 
forces  in  Alabama  to  General  Canby.  The  last 
fight  of  the  war  occurred  May  13th,  on  the  Rio 
Grande  in  Texas,  between  Colonel  Barrett  (Fed- 
eral) and  General  Slaughter  (Confederate),  the 
latter  being  victorious.  The  trans-Mississippi 
army  of  the  Confederates,  the  last  in  the  field, 
was  surrendered  by  Kirby  Smith  on  May  26th. 
During  the  war  Confederate  cruisers,  mostly 
built  and  fitted  out  in  British  ports,  and  manned 
by  British  sailors,  scoured  the  ocean.  Evading 
vessels  of  war,  they  destroyed  hundreds  of  mer- 
chantmen, doing  irreparable  injury  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  Union.  The  chief  of  these  were 
the  "Alabama,"  "Chickamauga,"  "Florida," 
"Georgia,"  "Olustee,"  "Shenandoah,"  "Sum- 
ter," and  "Tallahassee."  The  "Alabama,"  the 
most  famous,  commanded  by  Raphael  Semmes, 
was  sunk  off  Cherbourg,  France,  June  19,  1864, 
by  the  United  States  steamer  "Kearsarge," 
commanded  by  Captain  Winslow.  After  the 
fall  of  Richmond,  President  Davis  of  the  Con- 
federacy fled  south,  and  was  captured  at  Irwin- 
ville,  Ga.,  by  General  Wilson's  forces.  May  10, 
1865.  He  and  some  other  prominent  leaders 
were  imprisoned  for  a  time,  but  no  man  was 

Sunished  for  participation  in  the  rebellion.  The 
lational  Republican  Convention  assembled  at 
Baltimore  on  June  7,  1864,  and  nominated 
President  Lincoln  for  reelection,  and  for  vice- 
president  Andrew  Johnson  of  Tennessee.  The 
platform  pledged  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war  for  the  suppression  of  thp  rebellion,  and 
favored  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
abolishing  slavery.  The  National  Democratic 
Convention  assembled  at  Chicago  on  August 
29th,  and  nominated  General  George  B.  McCIel- 
lan  for  president,  and  for  vice-president  George 
H.  Pendleton  of  Ohio.  The  election  took  place 
on  November  8th,  the  eleven  seceded  States  not 
participating.  McClellan  and  Pendleton  re- 
ceived the  electoral  votes  of  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, and  Kentucky,  21;  Lincoln  and  Johnson 
received  those  of  all  the  other  States,  212,  and 
were  elected.  On  March  4,  1865,  Lincoln's  sec- 
ond inauguration  took  place.  On  April  14.th  he 
was  assassinated  by  John  Wilkes  Booth,  and 
the  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Seward,  dangerously 
wounded  by  another  conspirator;  and  on  the 
following  day  Vice-President  Johnson  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  the  presidency.  The  ques- 
tion of  emancipation  early  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  administration  and  Congress.  On 
April  16,  1862,  an  act  was  passed  abolishing 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  on  June 
9th  another  act  declared  that  slavery  should  not 
thereafter  exist  in  the  Territories.  On  January 
1,  1863,  Mr.  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation  de- 


claring free  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  the 
States  or  portions  of  States  then  in  rebellion. 
The  13th  amendment  to  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution, declaring  that  slavery  shall  not  exist 
within  the  United  States  or  any  place  subject 
to  their  control,  was  declared  adopted  by  the 
proclamation  of  the  Secretary  of  State  on  Decem- 
ber 18,  1865.  The  first  step  toward  the  recon- 
struction of  loyal  governments  in  the  seceded 
States  was  the  proclamation  of  President  Lin- 
coln of  December  8,  1863.  Under  this  scheme 
governments  were  organized  in  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas  in  the  early  part  of  1864,  and  in  Ten- 
nessee early  in  1865,  but  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives from  those  States  were  not  admitted 
to  Congress.  After  the  close  of  the  war  Presi- 
dent Johnson  appointed  provisional  governors 
for  several  of  the  seceded  States.  But  Congress 
did  not  approve  this  scheme  of  reconstruction, 
and  senators  and  representatives  from  those 
States  were  not  admitted.  In  June,  1866,  a 
joint  resolution  adopted  by  Congress  proposed 
the  14th  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
extending  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  all  classes 
of  native  and  naturalized  persons,  guaranteeing 
the  validity  of  the  national  debt,  forbidding  the 
payment  of  any  part  of  the  Confederate  debt 
or  of  claims  for  the  loss  of  slaves,  etc.  In  July 
senators  and  representatives  were  admitted  from 
Tennessee,  that  State  having  ratified  the  14th 
amendment.  On  January  8,  1867,  an  act  was 
passed  over  President  Johnson's  veto,  confer- 
ring the  right  of  suffrage  on  colored  citizens  of 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  on  the  24th  a 
similar  act  became  a  law  for  the  Territories. 
The  congressional  plan  of  reconstruction  was 
developed  in  the  act  of  March  2d  and  the  sup- 
plementary acts  of  March  23d  and  July  19th, 
each  of  which  was  passed  over  the  President's 
veto.  These  acts  declared  that  "no  legal  State 
Governments  or  adequate  protection  for  life  or 
property  now  exist  in  the  rebel  States  of  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Florida,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas,"  and  divided  them  into  five  mili- 
tary districts.  The  district  commanders  were 
required  to  make  a  registration  of  voters,  com- 
prising male  citizens  of  the  United  States  21 
years  old  and  upward,  without  regard  to  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition,  who  had  resided 
in  the  respective  States  one  year,  and  were  not 
excluded  from  holding  office  by  the  14th  amend- 
ment. Delegates  were  to  be  elected  in  the 
several  States  by  the  registered  voters  to  con- 
ventions for  framing  new  constitutions.  Only 
when  constitutions  had  been  adopted  conferring 
the  right  of  suffrage  on  colored  persons,  and  such 
constitutions  had  been  approved  by  Congress, 
and  when  the  14th  amendment  had  been 
ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  the  respective 
States,  were  senators  and  representatives  to  be 
admitted.  The  conditions  of  these  acts  were 
complied  with  in  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina  in  1868,  and  in  Mississippi,  Texas,  and 
Virginia  in  1870.  But  the  subsequent  action 
of  the  legislature  of  Georgia  in  excluding  colored 
members  led  to  further  measures  on  the  part 
of  Congress,  and  delayed  the  final  restoration 
of  that  State  until  1870.     The  adoption  of  the 


HISTORY 


177 


14th  amendment  was  proclaimed  on  July  28, 
1868.  In  February,  1869,  a  joint  resolution 
proposing  the  15th  amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution, prohibiting  the  denial  or  abridgement 
by  any  State  of  the  Union  of  the  right  to  vote 
on  account  of  color  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude,  was  passed.  The  difference  between 
President  Johnson  and  Congress  on  the  question 
of  reconstruction  led  to  his  separation  from  the 
Republican  party,  and  to  the  passage  on  March 
2,  1867,  over  his  veto,  of  the  "tenure  of  offtce" 
act,  which  took  from  the  President  the  power 
to  remove,  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
such  civil  officers  as  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  His  at- 
tempt to  remove  Mr.  Stanton,  secretary  of  war, 
notwithstanding  the  act,  led  to  his  impeach- 
ment, a  resolution  to  that  effect  passing  the 
House  of  Representatives  February  24,  1868. 
He  was  tried  before  the  Senate  and  acquitted  in 
May,  there  being  a  majority  against  him,  but 
not  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote.  In-  1867, 
Alaska  was  purchased  of  Russia.  The  National 
Republican  Convention  assembled  at  Chicago 
on  May  21,  1868,  and  nominated  General  Ulysses 
S.  Grant  for  president,  and  for  vice-president 
Schuyler  Colfax  of  Indiana.  The  National  Dem- 
ocratic Convention  assembled  at  New  York  on 
July  4th,  and  nominated  Horatio  Seymour  of 
New  York  for  president,  and  Francis  P.  Blair, 
Jr.,  of  Missouri,  for  vice-president.  The  elec- 
tion took  place  on  November  3d,  Virginia, 
Mississippi,  and  Texas  not  voting.  Seymour 
and  Blair  received  80  electoral  votes;  Grant 
and  Colfax  received  214,  and  were  elected.  On 
May  1,  1872,  a  convention  assembled  at  Cincin- 
nati, composed  of  persons  previously  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  Republican  party,  but  now 
dissatisfied  with  the  administration  of  President 
Grant  and  opposed  to  his  reelection.  They 
styled  themselves  "Liberal  Republicans."  By 
this  convention  Horace  Greeley  of  New  York 
was  nominated  for  president,  and  Benjamin 
Gratz  Brown  of  Missouri  for  vice-president. 
The  National  Republican  Convention  assembled 
at  Philadelphia  on  June  5th,  and  nominated 
President   Grant   for   reelection,   and   for  vice- 

S resident  Henry  Wilson  of  Massachusetts.  The 
ational  Democratic  Convention  assembled  at 
Baltimore  on  July  9th,  and  nominated  the  same 
candidates  and  adopted  the  same  platforni  as 
the  Cincinnati  Convention.  The  election,  which 
took  place  on  November  5th,  resulted  in  the 
choice  of  Grant  and  Wilson,  who  each  received 
286  electoral  votes,  out  of  a  total  of  366.  One 
of  the  most  prominent  events  of  Grant's  admin- 
istration was  the  settlement  by  the  Treaty  of 
Washington  (May  8,  1871),  and  a  subsequent 
arbitration  at  Geneva,  Switzerland  (1871-2),  of 
outstanding  disputes  with  Great  Britain,  of 
which  the  principal  (the  "Alabama  claims" 
question)  related  to  the  charge  that  the  British 
Government  had  failed  in  its  duties  as  a  neutral 
in  allowing  the  construction  and  fitting  out  of 
Confederate  cruisers  (the  "Alabama,"  etc.)  in 
British  ports.  The  verdict  of  the  arbitrators 
awarded  to  the"  United  States  an  indemnity  of 
$15,500,000  in  gold.  The  National  Republican 
Convention  of  1876  assembled  at  Cincinnati  on 
June  14th,  and  nominated  Rutherford  B.  Hayes 


of  Ohio  for  president,  and  William  A.  Wheeler 
of  New  York  for  vice-president.  The  National 
Democratic  Convention,  which  assembled  at 
St.  Louis  on  June  27th,  nominated  Samuel  J. 
Tilden  of  New  York  for  president,  and  Thomas 

A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana  for  vice-president. 
Hayes  and  Wheeler,  although  they  received  a 
minority  of  the  popular  vote,  were  declared  by 
a  special  commission,  whose  report  was  adopted 
by  Congress  in  joint  convention,  to  have  been 
elected  by  a  majority  of  one  in  the  electoral 
colleges. 

In  1876,  the  Centennial  Exposition  was  held 
in  Philadelphia,  in  celebration  of  the  one  hun- 
dredth year  of  American  independence.  The 
exhibitors,  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  numbered 
30,865.  The  buildings  were  of  the  grandest 
description,  exceeding  any  that  had  hitherto 
been  conceived  for  the  purpose  of  an  interna- 
tional exposition.  After  a  presidency  of  two 
terms  General  Grant  was  succeeded  by  Ruthford 

B.  Hayes,  whose  election  was  granted  by  an 
electoral  commission  formed  by  patriotic  com- 
promise. At  the  following  election  (1880)  the 
Republicans  elected  General  Garfield,  who  was 
shot  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  July  2,  1881,  at  the 
Baltimore  and  Potomac  depot,  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  died  September  19,  1881.  Mr.  Arthur, 
the  vice-president,  became  president.  In  1885, 
Grover  Cleveland,  the  first  Democrat  holding 
the  office  since  1861,  succeeded  as  president. 
The  Anti-polygamy  Bill,  virtually  disfranchising 
Mormons,  became  a  law  in  1886 ;  also  the  Inter- 
State  Commerce  Bill,  establishing  a  commission 
to  secure  uniformity  of  railroad  rates,  nationalize 
through-route  traffic,  and  break  up  harmful 
combinations.  In  1888,  North  Dakota,  South 
Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington  Territories 
were  admitted  as  States.  A  bill  passed  in  1879 
prohibiting  the  immigration  of  Chinese  as 
laborers,  amended  in  1882  making  the  restriction 
to  last  for  twenty  years,  was  further  amended 
in  1888  by  taking  away  from  the  Chinese  now  or 
heretofore  in  the  country  the  privilege  of  return 
unless  they  had  previously  procured  certificates. 
President  Cleveland  retired  to  private  life  after 
giving  a  cautious  and  prudent  administration, 
signalized  by  patient  attention  to  details  and 
strong  assertion  of  official  prerogative.  In  1889, 
Benjamin  Harrison,  elected  by  the  Republicans, 
became  president,  the  issue  of  the  campaign 
being  Free-trade  vs.  Protection.  In  1890  a 
protective  tariff  bill,  known  as  the  McKinley 
Act,  became  a  law.  It  increased  duties  on  115 
articles,  embracing  farm  products  and  manu- 
factures, and  decreased  those  on  190,  i.e.,  manu- 
factures established.  It  placed  sugar  on  the 
free  list.  The  Coinage  Act  of  1890  made  it  com- 
pulsory on  the  government  to  buy  54,000,000 
ounces  of  silver  yearly;  instead  of  coining  the 
same,  to  issue  silver  certificates  therefor.  Acts 
to  admit  Wyoming  and  Idaho  as  States  were 
passed  in  1890.  On  June  19,  1890,  the  report 
of  the  International  American  Conference  was 
presented,  forming  the  basis  of  the  policy  of 
reciprocity  by  which  treaties  were  entered  into 
with  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Brazil,  and  the 
countries  of  Central  and  South  America.  By 
the  end  of  1892  these  treaties  began  to  bring 
about   an   anticipated   increase   of   trade.     An 


178 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


application  of  the  "Monroe  Doctrine"  in  regard 
to  the  Samoan  group  of  islands  strategically  situ- 
ated in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  had  been  seized 
by  Germany,  resulted  in  the  conclusion  of  a 
treaty  which  saved  the  absorption  of  the  islands. 
The  Bering  Sea  question,  long  a  diplomatic 
stumblir^-block  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  was,  after  skillful  diplomacy, 
i-eferred  to  a  board  of  arbitration.  A  dangerous 
complication  with  Italy,  caused  by  the  lynching 
of  Italians  in  New  Orle'^ns  in  1891,  was  amicably 
settled  and  friendly  relations  restored.  In 
October,  1891,  the  crew  of  the  United  States 
war- vessel  "Baltimore"  having  met  with  out- 
rageous treatment  by  the  police  of  Valparaiso, 
the  government  demanded  an  apology  from 
Chile,  which  after  delay  was  extended,  with 
promise  of  full  reparation.  The  presidential 
election  in  1892  resulted  in  the  selection  of 
Grover  Cleveland.  President  Harrison  retired 
from  office,  March  4,  1893.  President  William 
McKinley  was  inaugurated  March  4,  1897,  and 
a  year  later,  after  a  number  of  attempts  to  allay 
the  Cuban  situation,  came  the  war  with  Spain. 
(See  Spanish- American  War.) 

A  peace  commission  (consisting  of — American: 
Hon.  William  R.  Day,  president;  Senators,  C. 
K.  Davis,  William  P.  Frye,  Geo.  Gray;  White- 
law  Reid,  with  Prof.  J.  B.  Moore,  secretary — 
Spanish:  Senor  Montero  Rios,  president;  Gen- 
eral Cerero,  Senor  de  Villaurratia,  Senor  de 
Garnica,  Senor  Abarzua)  met  in  Paris  to  discuss 
the  terms  of  peace  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States.  December  28,  1898,  Spain  ceded  to  the 
United  States  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Guam,  and  agreed  to  retire  from  Cuba,  accept- 
ing the  offer  of  $20,000,000,  the  United  States' 
proposition. 

President  McKinley  was  inaugurated  for  the 
second  term  March  4,  1901.  He  was  shot  by 
an  assassin  on  September  6,  1901,  and  died 
September  14th,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Vice-President  Roosevelt,  who,  after  the  elec- 
tion of  1904,  was  inaugurated  March  5,  1905, 
for  a  full  term. 

President  Roosevelt  at  once  set  about  initiat- 
ing needed  reforms  in  railroad,  corporations, 
and  trust  methods,  and  in  pushing  forward  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal.  In  1906, 
a  race  war  occurred  at  Brownsville,  Texas, 
resulting  in  the  colored  troops  stationed  there 
being  ordered  out  of  the  State,  and  in  their 
subsequent  expulsion  from  the  United  States 
army  by  order  of  the  President.  In  the  same 
year  San  Francisco  was  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  earthquake  and  fire.  In  March,  1907,  the 
President  issued  orders  for  the  exclusion  of 
Japanese  laborers,  and  for  the  dismissal  of 
suits  against  the  San  Francisco  school  board. 
This  action  opened  the  way  for  negotiations 
between  the  governments  of  Japan  and  the 
United  States,  which  culminated,  early  in  1908, 
in  the  complete  restraint  of  Japanese  immigra- 
tion to  the  United  States. 

In  June,  1908,  the  Republican  National  Con- 
vention at  Chicago  nominated  William  H.  Taft 
of  Ohio  for  President,  and  James  S.  Sherman 
of  New  York  as  Vice-president.  In  July,  at 
Denver,  the  Democrats  nominated  William  J. 
Bryan  for  the  third  time  for  President,  and 


John  W.  Kern  of  Indiana  for  Vice-President. 
Taft  and  Sherman  received  321  electoral  votes 
and  were  elected. 

Soon  after  their  inauguration,  ex-President 
Roosevelt  headed  a  great  hunting  expedition 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute 
to  Africa.  He  attracted  world-wide  attention, 
and  completed  his  trip  by  a  tour  of  European 
capitals,  which  was  a  magnificent  triumph. 
The  chief  incident  were  his  speeches  at  Cairo  and 
at  the  Guildhall,  London,  and  his  review  of  the 
German  army.  The  misunderstanding  with  the 
Vatican  was  the  only  unfortunate  feature.  On 
his  return  in  1910  Colonel  Roosevelt  was  tendered 
a  magnificent  reception  in  New  York.  He 
plunged  immediately  into  active  political  life. 
The  Payne-Aldrich  tariff  law  of  1909  had  proved 
disastrously  disappointing,  and  resulted  in  the 
rise  of  the  "Insurgent  Republicans"  and  the 
attack  on  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  who  was 
shorn  of  his  power  over  committees.  Despite 
the  strenuous  efforts  of  Taft  and  Roosevelt,  the 
Democrats  gained  sweeping  victories  in  the 
November  elections. 

The  chief  features  of  the  Taft  administration 
have  been  the  adoption  of  economical  and  busi- 
nesslike methods  in  the  various  departments, 
the  creation  of  a  Commerce  Court  and  a  tariff 
board,  the  establishment  of  postal  savings  banks, 
and  the  appointment  by  the  President  of  four 
new  members  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
Fisheries  dispute  with  England  was  arbitrated 
successfully  at  the  Hague.  The  census  of  1910 
showed  the  population  of  the  United  States 
with  its  possessions  to  be  101,000,000. 

Vermont.  The  first  white  settlement 
was  made  at  Brattleboro,  in  1724,  as  a  military 
station,  by  the  Massachusetts  colonists.  It 
served  as  a  base  of  operations  during  the  French 
wars.  Immigration  set  in,  and  in  1768,  124 
townships  had  been  granted  by  Governor  Went- 
worth,  of  New  Hampshire,  by  which  colony 
the  fee  and  jurisdiction  of  the  soil  were  claimed. 
A  counter-claim  was  made  by  New  York  in  1763, 
and  imtil  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  there 
was  a  bitter  controversy  between  the  two  colo- 
nies over  their  respective  rights  to  Vermont.  In 
1777,  the  people  of  Vermont  declared  their 
independence,  and,  though  admission  to  the 
confederacy  of  States  was  sought,  it  was  refused, 
and  Vermont  remained  outside  of  the  Union  till 
1791.  During  the  previous  year  New  York 
had  surrendered  its  claims  for  a  financial  consid- 
eration. Vermont  was  the  first  State  to  join 
the  original  thirteen.  Though  not  confederated 
with  the  other  colonies  against  Great  Britain, 
the  "Green  Mountain  Boys"  had  signalized 
their  valor  and  patriotism  in  a  number  of  hard- 
fought  battles  and  expeditions.  Among  these 
were  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  by  Ethan  Allen, 
the  invasion  of  Canada,  the  battles  on  Lake 
Champlain,  and  the  two  battles  near  Bennington, 
which  were  the  primary  cause  of  Burgoyne's 
defeat  at  Saratoga.  In  1$37,  Vermont  was  the 
starting  point  of  the  Canadian  raids,  and  also  of 
the  Fenian  raids. 

Virginia.  The  name  Virginia,  originally 
bestowed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1584  on  the 
region  now  known  as  North  Carolina,  discovered 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  expedition,  was  after- 


HISTORY 


179 


ward  applied  to  the  whole  country  to  45°  north. 
In  1606,  James  I.  gave  to  the  London  Company, 
which  made  the  first  permanent  settlement  of 
the  English  in  America  at  Jamestown  the  year 
after,  the  country  from  34°  to  38°  north,  extend- 
ing 100  miles  from  the  sea.  The  colony  was 
saved  from  ruin  by  Captain  John  Smith  two 
years  later.  Colonization  increased  rapidly, 
and  in  1621  a  legislative  body  was  formed.  In 
1641,  there  were  15,000  English  in  the  colony. 
In  1676,  occurred  Bacon's  Rebellion,  brought  on 
by  the  tyranny  of  Sir  William  Berkeley,  the 
Governor.  The  French  War  of  1754,  of  which 
Braddock's  defeat  was  the  most  notable  incident, 
first  brought  George  Washington  into  notice. 
Virginia,  under  the  leadership  of  Patrick  Henry, 
was  the  first  to  protest  against  British  oppression 
in  1764,  and  sent;  representatives  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1775.  The  most  important 
military  event  during  the  Revolutionary  War, 
in  Virginia,  was  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown,  October  19,  1781.  Virginia  passed 
an  ordinance  of  secession,  April  17,  1861,  and  in 
the  war  that  followed  became  the  bloodiest 
cock-pit  of  the  whole  contest.  The  most  impor- 
tant battles  were  Bull  Run  July  21,  1861";  Win- 
chester, May  25,  1862;  the  battles  of  the  Penin- 
sular campaign  in  the  summer  of  1862;  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29,  1862;  Fredericks- 
burg, December  13,  1862;  Chancellorsville, 
May  2-4,  1863;  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness 
campaign  in  1864,  ending  in  the  investment  of 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and  the  final  sur- 
render of  General  Lee  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  April  9,  1865.  The  State  was  readmitted 
January  27,  1870. 

"Washington.  The  first  record  in  history 
of  the  region  which  is  now  the  State  of  Washing- 
ton was  the  discovery,  in  1592,  of  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca  by  a  Greek  pilot.  In  1775  Cap- 
tain Heceta,  a  Spanish  navigator,  discovered 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  but  was  unable  to 
enter  the  river.  In  1789  Captain  Kendrick,  an 
American,  sailed  through  the  Strait  of  Fuca, 
through  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  and  Queen  Charlotte 
Sound,  and  was  the  first  to  make  known  the 
character  of  these  inland  waters.  On  the  11th 
of  May,  1792,  Captain  Gray,  of  the  American 
ship  "Columbia"  entered  the  river,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  his  ship.  This  gave  to  the 
United  States,  the  priority  of  claim  to  the 
Oregon  region,  which  then  comprised  the  present 
States  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho.  In 
October  of  the  same  year  an  Englishman  sailed 
up  and  examined  the  Columbia  about  100  miles 
from  the  mouth.  The  coast  soon  became  well- 
known,  and  the  United  States  Government 
fitted  out  expeditions  to  more  thoroughly  ex- 
plore the  interior.  The  most  important  of  these 
was  that  under  Lewis  and  Clark,  who,  ascending 
the  Missouri,  made  the  Clearwater  River,  thence 
entering  the  Columbia  and  reaching  the  Pacific 
Ocean  in  December,  1805. 

In  1810,  two  expeditions  were  sent  out  by 
companies  formed  by  J.  J.  Astor  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  in  fur  trade  along  the  river,  and  the 
following  year  a  trading  post  was  established 
at  Astoria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia. 
In  the  meantime  another  fur  trading  expedition 
had  been  sent  out  by  the  Northwest  Fur  Com- 


pany in  an  attempt  to  forestall  the  Astor  Expe- 
dition, but  it  reached  the  river  too  late.  For 
some  time  after  the  history  of  the  country  was 
merely  the  record  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Com- 
pany and  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  During 
all  the  years  of  the  fur  trading  a  dispute  had 
been  going  on  between  the  United  States  and 
England,  and  at  times  war  was  threatened.  An 
agreement  was  arrived  at  after  a  time,  and  in 
1846  a  treaty  was  signed  fixing  the  boundary 
at  the  forty-ninth  parallel.  The  Territory  of 
Oregon  was  formed  in  1848,  and  in  1853  the 
Territory  of  Washington  was  established  from 
a  part  of  the  original  country.  Washington  was 
admitted  to  Statehood  November  11,  1899. 

Waterloo,  Battle  of,  an  important 
battle  won  by  the  allied  forces  over  Napoleon, 
near  Waterloo,  a  Belgian  village  eleven  miles 
south  of  Brussels,  June  18,  1815.  The  prelimi- 
nary battles  had  been  at  Ligny,  June  16th  (when 
Napoleon  had  defeated  the  Prussians  under 
Blucher),  and  at  Quartre-Bras,  on  the  same  day 
(when  the  allies  under  Wellington  compelled  the 
French  Marshal  Ney  to  retire).  At  Waterloo 
the  French  numbered  about  72,000.  The  allies 
(I^ritish,  Dutch,  and  Germans),  under  Welling- 
ton, had  about  67,000;  the  Prussians  (about 
50,000  more),  under  Blucher,  came  up  in  time 
to  take  part  in  the  close  of  the  battle,  and  in  the 
pursuit.  The  battle  began  about  11.30  A.  M. 
Briefly  it  may  be  said  to  have  consisted  of  a 
series  of  brilliant  but  unsuccessful  charges  made 
by  the  French,  and  dogged  resistance  on  the 
part  of  the  British;  in  the  evening  the  French 
Old  Guard  charged,  but  unavailingly ;  after 
which  the  allies  advanced.  The  French  lost 
about  35,000,  and  many  prisoners;  the  allies 
about  22,000.  Marshal  Grouchy,  though  he 
defeated  Blucher  at  Wavre,  June  18th,  failed 
to  prevent  him  from  joining  Wellington,  and 
himself  failed  to  come  to  Napoleon's  aid,  though 
but  a  few  miles  distant.  The  rout  of  the  French 
was  complete,  and  the  disaster  final  to  Napoleon, 
the  result  being  his  deposition  and  exile  to  St. 
Helena. 

W^est  Virginia.  Immediately  after  the 
ordinance  of  secession,  passed  by  Virginia  in 
April,  1861,  a  mass-meeting  of  citizens  con- 
vened at  Clarksburg,  and  denounced  the  action 
of  the  convention,  recommending  the  citizens  of 
Northwest  Virginia  to  meet  in  convention  at 
Wheeling  on  May  13th.  Other  meetings  sus- 
tained the  movement,  and  delegates  from 
twenty-five  western  counties  met  in  convention, 
denounced  the  action  of  Virginia,  and  provided 
for  a  convention  of  all  the  counties  of  the  State 
adhering  to  the  Union.  The  latter  convention 
repudiated  the  action  of  Virginia,  and  elected 
Francis  H.  Pierpont  as  governor  of  the  reorgan- 
ized State  of  Virginia.  The  ultimate  result  was 
the  formation  of  the  new  State  under  the  title 
of  West  Virginia,  and  in  1863  the  State  was 
admitted  to  the  Union.  Military  operations  in 
what  is  now  known  as  West  Virginia  were 
mostly  confined  to  1861,  and  the  most  im- 
portant engagements  were  at  Philippi,  Beverly, 
Rich  Mountain,  Cheat  Mountain,  and  Carnifex 
Ferry. 

Whisky  Insurrection,  a  popular  out- 
break in  Western  Pennsylvania,  in  the  summer 


180 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


of  1794,  on  account  of  the  imposition  of  duties  on 
domestic  distilled  spirits.  The  people  of  West- 
ern Pennsylvania,  where  large  quantities  of 
whisky  were  manufactured,  resisted  the  collec- 
tion of  the  revenue  by  excise  officers  with  force 
of  arms.  The  insurrection  became  general  in 
several  counties.  Many  outrages  were  com- 
mitted. Buildings  were  burned,  the  mails  were 
rifled,  and  government  officers  were  insulted  and 
abused.  At  one  time  there  were  6,000  or  7,000 
insurgents  under  arms.  The  President  of  the 
United  States  (Washington)  finally  called  out 
the  military  force  of  the  country,  to  put  down 
the  insurgents,  and  was  successful.  Great  leni- 
ency was  shown  to  the  offenders,  and  the  excite- 
ment died  away. 

Wisconsin.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  River  Wisconsin  (originally  used  with  the 
French  orthography,  Ouisconsin),  from  an 
Indian  word,  meaning  "  wild,  rushing  river." 
The  first  white  people  in  Wisconsin  were  French 
explorers,  Jean  Nicolet  and  his  followers,  who 
entered  the  region  in  1634.  In  1658-59,  two 
fur  traders,  Radisson  and  Groseilliers,  visited  the 
Mississippi  and  left  a  record  of  their  travels.  In 
1665,  a  Jesuit  mission  at  La  Pointe  was  founded 
by  Father  Claude  AUouez,  and  three  years  later 
he  established  the  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
on  the  shores  of  Green  Bay.  In  1673,  Father 
Marquette,  accompanying  Louis  Joliet,  reached 
the  Mississippi  by  passing  through  Wisconsin, 
and  later  Father  Hennepin  and  La  Salle  traced 
other  waterways  within  the  territory.  Trading 
posts  were  established  soon  after  this,  becoming 
dependencies  of  Mackinaw.  About  the  middle 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  a  fixed  settlement 
was  established  at  Green  Bay,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolutionary  War  Prairie  du  Chien,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  grew  into  a  like 
settlement,  and  a  few  years  later  La  Pointe  and 
Portage  became  permanent  trading  posts. 

England  retained  Mackinaw  after  the  treaty 
of  1783,  and  American  dominion  was  not  felt 
by  the  Wisconsin  traders  until  after  the  War  of 
1812.  The  formation  of  Astor's  company  to 
establish  fur  trade  in  this  region  was  followed  by 
a  law  forbidding  English  traders  in  the  territory, 
which  resulted  in  an  increase  of  American  influ- 
ence. By  the  ordinance  of  1787  Wisconsin  had 
been  a  part  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  In  1800, 
it  was  included  in  Indiana  Territory.  In  1809,  it 
passed  to  Illinois,  and  in  1818  to  Michigan.  In 
1825,  the  lead  mines  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  began  to  attract  attention  and  considerable 
mining  population  came  into  the  country.  In 
1828,  Fort  Winnebago  was  erected  at  Portage 
and  the  mining  region  was  ceded  to  the  whites 
by  the  Indians.  In  1832,  occurred  the  Black 
Hawk  War,  which  ended  in  the  almost  entire 
extermination  of  the  Sacs.  The  Territory  of 
Wisconsin  was  formed  in  1836  out  of  lands  then 
comprised  in  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  It 
embraced  all  the  land  now  within  the  States  of 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  and  that  part 
of  the  Territory  of  Dakota  which  lie.s  east  of  the 
Missouri  and  White  Earth  rivers.  In  1838,  all 
the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
of  a  line  due  north  from  the  source  of  that 
river  to  the  international  boundary-line,  was 
taken  to  form  the  Territory  of  Iowa.     As  thus 


bounded,  Wisconsin  became  a  State  in  1848, 
the  seventeenth  admitted  under  the  Federal 
Constitution. 

Wyoming"  was  first  visited  by  white  men 
in  1742  and  1744,  when  Sieur  de  Verendrye, 
with  a  party  from  Canada,  entered  the  territory 
and  discovered  the  Rocky  Mountains.  John 
Colter,  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  expedition  of  1806- 
10,  explored  the  northern  part  of  the  section 
and  discovered  Yellowstone  Park.  In  1807, 
Ezekiel  Williams  made  extensive  explorations 
in  Wyoming,  and  in  1812  Robert  Stuart's 
courier  party  discovered  the  route  to  the  West 
known  as  the  "Overland  Trail."  In  1834, 
Sublette  and  Campbell  built  Fort  Williams, 
afterward  called  Fort  Laramie,  and  established 
the  first  permanent  post  in  the  State.  In 
1834,  the  first  emigrants  to  the  Pacific  Coast 
passed  along  the  overland  trail,  and  in  1836 
the  first  white  women  crossed  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Fort  Bridger,  the  second  permanent  post,  was 
built  in  1842.  In  1847,  the  advance  guard  of 
the  Mormons  crossed  Wyoming  on  their  way  to 
Utah.  Fort  Laramie  was  garrisoned  in  1849 
and  made  a  government  post.  In  1854,  began  a 
series  of  Indian  wars  which  continued  until  1876. 
The  greatest  Indian  uprising  happened  from 
1862  to  1868,  and  in  1866  occurred  the  massacre 
of  Fort  Plul  Kearny,  when  Colonel  Fetterman 
and  eighty  men  were  killed.  The  gold  mines 
of  Sweetwater  were  discovered  in  1867,  and  the 
city  of  Cheyenne  was  founded  in  the  same  year. 
The  first  passenger  train  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  arrived  in  Wyoming  in  1867.  In  1868, 
the  Territory  of  Wyoming  was  organized. 
Cheyenne  was  designated  as  the  capital,  and 
Laramie  was  founded.  The  first  territorial 
legislature  convened  at  Cheyenne  in  "1869.  An 
act  was  approved  that  year  giving  women  the 
right  to  vote  and  hold  office  in  Wyoming.  Coal 
was  discovered  in  1869  and  the  first  mine  was 
opened.  In  1890,  Wyoming  was  admitted  to 
statehood  and  the  first  legislature  convened  at 
Cheyenne.  In  the  same  year  cowboys,  in  an 
attempt  to  put  a  stop  to  train  robbery,  brought 
about  a  period  of  outlawry  that  necessitated  a 
call  for  United  States  troops. 

Serious  trouble  was  caused  for  some  years  in 
Wyoming  by  the  State  game  laws,  to  which  the 
Indians  were  naturally  unable  to  reconcile  them- 
selves. In  the  latter  part  of  October  and  the 
beginning  of  November,  1903,  severe  fighting 
took  place  between  the  whites  and  Indians  who 
had  been  killing  game,  in  which  several  whites 
were  killed. 

Yorktown,  Virginia.  Lord  Cornwallis 
had  taken  possession  of  Yorktown  in  August, 
1781;  but,  after  sustaining  a  disastrous  siege, 
he  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  armj^,  consisting 
of  about  7,000  men,  to  the  allied  armies  of  France 
and  America,  under  the  command  of  General 
Washington  and  Count  Rochambeau,  October 
19,  1781.  This  mischance  was  attributed  to  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  who  had  not  given  the  garrison 
the  necessary  succor  they  expected;  and  it 
mainly  led  to  the  close  of  the  war.  It  was 
strongly  fortified  by  the  Confederates  in  the 
American  Civil  War,  but  surrendered  to  Mc- 
Clellan,  May,  1862. 


CHARLES  WILLIAM   ELIOT 


Copyright,  1899,  by  Notm»ii  Photo  Co. 


LANGUAGE 


It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  twelve 
hundred  languages  were  spoken  in  the  two 
Americas.  These  languages  give  evidence  of 
no  continuously  progressive  type  of  culture. 
The  many  tribes  have  changed  their  vocabu- 
laries; but  the  identical  method  of  putting 
words  together  has  survived  without  change. 
One  striking  characteristic  is  the  frequency  of 
long  words.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
Aztec  word  for  letter-postage  —  amatlocuilolit- 
quitcatlaxtlahuilli,  the  literal  meaning  of  which 
is,  "the  payment  received  for  carrying  a  paper 
on  which  something  is  written."  By  compari- 
son and  classification  of  the  countless  dialects 
and  languages,  they  are  reduced  to  a  few  great 
groups:    the  Tum6h  group  covers  the  northern 

Eart  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  the  Aztec  group 
as  its  seat  in  Central  Mexico  and  Central  Amer- 
ica; the  Maya  group  has  its  seat  in  Central 
America  and  Yucatan;  the  Appalachian  tribes 
include  all  those  with  which  the  English  and 
the  French  first  came  into  contact  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
also  the  tribes  of  the  northern  part  of  South 
America;  the  Amazonian  tribes  occupy  a  large 
part  of  South  America. 

The  Hamitic  race  belongs  historically  to  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa,  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  and  the  western  parts  of  Asia.  The 
Hamitic  people  were  called,  by  the  historic 
Greeks,  Pelasgic.  Their  civilization  has  been 
so  overlaid  by  that  of  the  Aryans  as  to  be  almost 
wholly  obscured.  The  great  Hamitic  civiliza- 
tion was  that  of  Egypt,  long  considered  the 
earliest  of  all  the  civilizations. 

HAMITIC   TONGUES 

Sidonian,         Egyptian,  Berber,  Iberian, 


Rotic 


I 
Koptic 


Libyan         Biscayan 


Pelasgian, 
(probably) 


Minaean, 
(probably) 


Galla 
(probably) 


At  the  beginning  of  this  century  we  knew 
little  more  of  Semitic  literature  than  what  was 
contained  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  Scriptures 
and  in  that  body  of  Arabic  literature  that  grew 
up  after  the  era  of  Mohammed.  Our  knowledge 
has  been  greatly  added  to  by  the  numerous 
inscriptions  which  have  been  found  and  de- 
ciphered. The  Semitic  races  first  appear  his- 
torically in  the  great  desert  region  covering 
Arabia  and  extending  to  the  border  of  the  Mes- 
opotamian  River  valleys.  The  Semitic  tongues 
are  different  dialects,  rather  than  different  lan- 
guages. 

The  Koran  made  the  Arabic  language  sacred, 
as  well  as  classic.  About  the  Eleventh  Century 
that  treasure-house  of  tales,  "The  Thousand 
Nights  and  a  Night,"  was  produced.  From  the 
Canaanite  family  came  our  Hebrew  Bible,  a 
library  of  very  varied  literature. 


AMERICAN   LANGUAGES 


Blackfeet,  .... 

Cree 

Montagnoi,    .  .  . 
Micmoc,  .  . 
Ottawa,  .  .  .  .  . 

Abenaki 

Passamaq  uoddy, 

Pequoid, 

Monegan,    .... 

Lenape, 

Nanticoke 

Powhatan 

Miami, 

Sac, 

Fox,  . 

Kickapoo 

Shawnee,    .... 


Seneca,  .  , 
Cayuga,  .  . 
Onondaga, . 
Oneida,  .  . 
Mohawk,  . 
Tuscarora, . 
Huron, .  .  , 


Assiniboin, 
Sioux,  .  .  . 
Crow,  .  .  . 
Winnebago, 
Omaha,  .  . 
Mandan,  .  . 

Oto 

Ponca,  .  .  . 
Osage,  .  .  . 
Kansas,  .  . 
Tutelo,     .  . 


Chippewa, 
Kutchin, 
Kenai,  .  . 
Tacullie,  . 
Umpqua, 
Hoopab,  . 
Apache,  . 
Navajo,  . 
Lipan,  .  . 


Toltec, .  .  . 
Aztec,  .  .  . 
Chichimec, 
Pipile,  .  .  . 

Nicarao,  .  . 
Alaguilac,  . 


Itza,  .  .  .  . 

Tzendal,  .  . 

Quiche,    .  . 
Cakchiquel, 

Huasteca,  . 

Maya,   .  .  . 

Quichfia, .  . 

Amard,    .  . 


£> 


k 


Cherokee, 

Creek,  .  . 

Choctaw, 

Chickasaw, 

Yemassee, 

Seminole, 


Caddo ] 

Pawnee I 

Arickaree, ( 

Wishita J 

Ute I 

Comanche (" 

Carib I 

Arawak I 


Algonkin,  .  .  . 
Iroquois, .... 

•Dakota 

Chahta-Muskoki 

Caddo 

Kioway,  .... 
Shoshonee,  .  . 
West  Indian,    . 


Tupi 

Guarani,  .  . 
Mundurucu, 
OrAra,  .  .  . 
Ticuna,  .  . 
Parentintin, 
Mura,  .  .  . 
Purupurti,  . 

Piro 

Mirdnha, .  . 
Caishdna,    . 


Sen 


184 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


W  '=^ 

Eh 
O 

O 

H 


w        ^ 


?^ 

_<3 

Pu 

s 

3 

1 

2 

« 
S 

^J 

1^ 

•a 

S  c 

M 

•S.s 

~ 

£Sr' 

'S 

f^f^ 

0 

0 
;z; 
0 
H 

<! 
>H 

P^ 


Old  High  German 

Middle  High  German 

High  German  x 

Gothic  = 

Old  Dutch J 

Low  German  {  Anglo-Saxon — 

Friesian 

Saxon 

IDansk 
Svensk 
Norsk 
(Lithuanian 
Old  Prussian 
Lettic 


E.  Slavic 


[  Russian 
Bulgarian 
,  lUyrian 


f  Lech 
W.  Slavic  I  Czech 

I  Palabian 


o 

Doric 

z 

Aeolic 

J 

H 

Attic 

x 

Ionic 

-H 


Portuguese 

Romansch 

Wallachian 

Ladin 

Italian 


Catalan 
Castilian 

Provencal 
Old  French- 


f  Welsh 

Cornish  (died 
out  beginning 
of  Nineteenth 
Century) 

Breton  (intro- 
duced from 
Britain) 

Gallic  (inscrip- 
tions in  Gaul) 


S  (Gaelic 

-I 

a  {  Erse 

o 

O  I  Manx 


SEMITIC   LANGUAGES 

Chaldeean,  or 
Babylonian. 


Jewish, 

Aramaic, 

Syriac 

Nabatsean 

Palmyrite,  .... 

Hebrew  (proper), 

Phenician 

Canaanite,  .... 

Edomite 

Moabite, 

Punic,  or 
Carthaginian,  .  . 


Assyrian. 


-Aramaic. 


Hebrew. 


Arabic. 


Sabsean  following 
Minsean,  which 
may  have  been 
Hamitic. 


Ethiopic,  or  Geez. 


Amharic  (possibly 
Hamitic). 


Aryan  ( Indo-European,  Indo-Ger- 
manic)  Family.  To  this  family  belongs 
the  first  place.  From  the  Aryans  sprang 
both  Persians  and  Greeks  midway  in  its 
development;  this  family  rules  both  Eu- 
rope and  America,  the  African  coasts  and 
Australia,  as  well  as  the  north  and  south 
of  Asia.  Its  literature,  both  in  abun- 
dance and  quality,  is  unsurpassed  by 
those  of  any  of  the  other  world  fami- 
lies of  language.  From  the  Aryans  have 
come  the  great  world  literatures  in  politics, 
art,  letters,  science,  and  religious  truth. 
From  them  came  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey,  the  Vedas  of  India,  and  the 
Shah-ndmeh  of  Persia,  the  Eddas  of 
the  Norsemen,  the  Gudrun,  the  Lay  of 
the  Nibelungs,  the  Beowulf,  the  Romaunt 
of  Roland,  the  Arthurian  Tales,  and  the 
Keltic  Mabinpgion. 

One  group  of  the  Aryan  family  con- 
quered and  civilized  India  and  Ceylon. 
Sanskrit  was  the  language  in  their  day 
of  greatness.  The  group  that  traveled 
farthest  west  was  the  Kelts.  These  were 
soon  followed  by  the  Teutonic  tribes. 
Then  came  the  Slav,  Serb,  or  Wend. 

"The  care  of  the  national  language  I 
consider  as  at  all  times  a  sacred  trust  and 
a  most  important  privilege  of  the  higher 
orders  of  society.  Every  man  of  educa- 
tion should  make  it  the  object  of  his  un- 
ceasing concern,  to  preserve  his  language 
pure  and  entire,  to  speak  it,  so  far  as  is 
in  his  power,  in  all  its  beauty  and  per- 
fection. *  *  *  A  nation  whose 
language  becomes  rude  and  barbarous, 
must  be  on  the  brink  of  barbarism  in 
regard  to  everything  else.  A  nation 
which  allows  her  language  to  go  to  ruin, 
is  parting  with  the  best  half  of  her  intel- 
lectual independence,  and  testifies  her  wil- 
lingness to  cease  to  exist." — F.  Schlegel. 

"  It  is  with  words  as  with  sunbeams, 
the  more  they  are  condensed  the  deeper 
they  burn." —  Southey. 

"  Though  our  comparison  might  be  bold, 


LANGUAGE 


185 


it  would  be  just  as  if  we  were  to  say  that  the 
EngHsh  language  is  a  conglomerate  of  Latin  words 
bound  together  in  a  Saxon  cement;  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Latin  being  partly  portions  intro- 
duced directly  from  the  parent  quariy,  with  all 
their  sharp  edges,  and  partly  pebbles  of  the  same 
material,  obscured  antl  shapetl  by  long  rolling 
in  a  Norman  or  some  other  channel." —  Whewell. 

The  English  language  is  a  conglomerate. 
Whenever  there  is  an  invention  made  or  a 
psychological  truth  discovered,  or  a  new  article 
of  commerce  is  introduced,  or  contact  or  inter- 
course with  a  new  nation  or  people  is  estab- 
lished, a  new  word  or  set  of  words  is  added  to 
our  vocabulary.  Every  new  game  or  fashion 
creates  new  names.  Our  complex  civilization 
is  reflected  in  a  complex  vocabulary  or  lan- 
guage. It  is  important  that  we  should  familiarize 
ourselves  with  the  sources  of  our  language,  and 
with  the  sources  of  its  strength,  and  each  do 
his  share  towards  preserving  it  in  its  purity 
and  beauty.  We  should  have  an  intelligent 
interest  in  our  mother  tongue  in  order  that  we 
may  use  it  intelligently.  We  must  spend  a 
little  time  in  the  study  of  the  past  of  our  lan- 
guage, because  it  is  only  in  the  light  of  that  past 
that  the  present  is  intelligible.  Few  of  us  are 
conscious  of  the  changes  taking  place  now,  yet 
these  changes  must  be  taking  place,  for  ours  is 
the  same  language  used  by  Chaucer,  yet,  how 
different.  New  words  are  coming  in,  and  old 
ones  becoming  obsolete  every  year. 

Slang  is  responsible  for  the  introduction  of 
many  new  words.  When  we  first  hear  a  slang 
phrase,  we  are  surprised ;  but  in  this  day  of  great 
surprises,  we  quickly  grow  accustomed  to  it, 
and  soon  adopt  it  as  an  integral  part  of  our 
language.  We  use  it  as  though  it  were  not  a 
thing  of  yesterday,  but  had  existed  as  long  as 
the  language  itself.  If  we  were  to  examine 
some  of  these  slang  terms,  we  should  find  that 
many  of  them  have  been  incorporated  into  the 
language,  and  are  properly  used  in  polite  society 
and  in  serious  composition. 

Trench  says,  "If  the  English  language  were 
to  be  divided  into  a  hundred  parts,  forty-five 
of  these  might  be  Anglo-Saxon,  or  Old  English, 
as  now  some  prefer  to  call  them;  forty-five 
Latin  (including,  of  course,  the  Latin  which  has 
come  to  us  through  the  French);  five  perhaps 
would  be  Greek.  We  should,  in  this  way,  have 
allotted  ninety-five  parts,  leaving  the  other  five 
to  be  divided  among  all  the  other  languages, 
which  have  made  their  smaller  contributions 
to  the  vocabulary  of  our  English  tongue."  It 
will  be  interesting  to  find  what  classes  of  words 
come  from  the  different  sources. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  is  the  basis  of  the  English 
language;  it  is  the  warp  while  the  Latin  is  the 
woof.  The  monosyllables  in  great  part  are 
Anglo-Saxon.  The  articles,  conjunctions,  pro- 
nouns, prepositions,  numerals,  and  auxiliary 
verbs  are  Saxon.  Verbs  of  action  and  words 
that  relate  to  the  primary  action  of  the  senses 
are  Saxon;  as,  think,  feel,  sing,  see,  talk,  walk, 
run,  and  the  like. 

Ever  since  the  English  language  began  we 
have  been  filibusters;  we  have  plundered  every 
other  tongue  for  words  to  make  our  meaning 
plain;    we  have  raided  where  we  would,  and 


have  never  hesitated  to  put  ourselves  under 
obligation  to  all  strangers  coming  to  our  shores, 
or  whose  shores  we  have  visited.  The  history 
of  the  English  language  is,  in  fact,  but  the  his- 
tory of  the  English  people,  and  of  their  doings. 

The  early  British  language  was  under  debt 
to  the  Kelts,  first  of  all ;  and  we  find  in  our  pres- 
ent-day vocabulaiy  such  words  as  apply  to  Keltic 
things;  as,  bard,  shamrock,  whiskey,  clan,  dirk, 
cromlech,  kilt,  etc.  The  Anglo-Saxons,  while 
they  eagerly  discarded  words  of  Celtic  origin, 
as  did  the  French  later,  enriched  their  language 
from  the  Latin.  The  Roman  occupation  of 
Britain,  from  about  A.  D.  43  to  A.  D.  410, 
bequeathed  to  us  five  or  six  terms:  castra,  a 
camp,  has  been  retained  in  Doncaster,  Lancaster, 
Gloucester,  Winchester,  Bibchester,  Exeter, 
formerly  Excestre;  strata,  a  paved  road,  in 
street.  Park  street,  Stratford,  Stretford,  Streat- 
ham,  Stradbroke;  colona,  a  colony,  in  Lincoln; 
partus,  a  harbor,  in  Portsmouth,  Portchester, 
Portsea;  pons,  a  bridge,  in  Poritefract;  fossa, 
a  ditch,  in  Fossway,  Fossbridge;  vallum,  a 
rampart,  in  Wallbury. 

The  conversion  of  the  British  to  Christianity 
is  marked  by  another  influx  of  Latin  words  and 
terms  relating  to  the  Church:  abstinence,  avarice, 
bounty,  cardinal  virtues,  conscience,  charity, 
chastity,  confession,  consistory,  contemplation, 
contrition,  indulgence,  recreant,  relic,  reverence, 
sanctity,  spiritual,  unity,  etc.  Then  the  Danes 
lent  a  hand,  giving  us:   to  plough,  to  ask. 

Nor  is  it  without  a  strange  irony  that  the 
lawless  Vikings  gave  us  our  word  "law."  The 
early  supremacy  of  the  Dutch  in  agriculture, 
in  horticulture,  and  in  ship  building  is  made 
evident  by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  English  words,  dealing  with  the  farm,  the 
garden,  and  the  ship,  are  of  Dutch  origin,  and 
were  borrowed  from  the  brave  little  republic 
when  the  English  went  to  school  to  the  Hol- 
lander, to  learn  what  he  had  to  teach.  A  few 
of  the  words  they  give  us  are:  ahoy,  aloof, 
ballast,  bluff,  blunderbuss,  boom,  brack,  brack- 
ish, brandy,  bruin,  duck  (a  fabric),  golf,  growl,' 
hoarding,  knapsack,  landscape,  leaguer,  loiter, 
manikin,  measles,  mope,  mumps,  pink,  sheer, 
slim,  sloop,  swab,  switch,  uproar,  wagon,  yacht, 
dock,  hull,  skipper,  fly  boat. 

During  the  First  Century  that  followed  the 
Conquest  in  1066,  the  language  of  the  native 
population  was,  as  they  were  themselves,  utterly 
crushed  and  trodden  under  foot.  The  Conquest 
revolutionized  our  language  as  it  did  our  life. 
A  foreign  dynasty,  speaking  a  foreign  tongue, 
and  supported  by  an  army  of  foreigners,  was  on 
the  throne  of  England;  Norman  ecclesiastics 
filled  all  the  high  places  of  the  Church,  and  places 
of  honor  and  emolument.  This  meant  that 
French  became  the  language  of  the  court,  of 
society,  and  even  of  the  many  Norman  families 
who  employed  the  Saxons  as  servants.  But 
the  masses  of  England  still  spoke  their  native 
tongue. 

The  better  or  richer  families  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  began  to  adopt  the  French  fashions  and 
manners,  and  to  speak  the  French  language, 
as  a  mark  of  gentility.  The  many  churches 
and  castles,  which  the  Normans  built  in  different 
parts  of  England,  meant  that  the  French  would 


186 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


there  be  used,  and  add  to  the  influence  at  work 
to  make  a  new  English  language.  The  lan- 
guage of  cliivalry  was  exclusively  French,  and 
Drought  in  such  words  as  honor,  glory,  renown, 
host,  champion,  valiant,  feat,  achievement, 
courtesy,  gentle,  etc.  With  the  lawyer,  who 
was  a  great  power  during  this  time  of  transition, 
came  such  words  as  advocate,  alliance,  chattels, 
demise,  devise,  demurrer,  domain,  estate,  fief, 
homage,  liege,  loyalty,  manor,  personality,  pur- 
suit, realty,  treaty,  voucher,  etc. 

The  words  which  describe  the  pursuits  of 
gentlefolk  are  mostly  of  '  French  origin ;  and 
it  is  a  curious  comment  on  history  that,  as 
Wamba  points  out  in  "  Ivanhoe,"  while  live 
animals  —  ox,  sheep,  calf,  swine,  deer  —  re- 
tain their  native  names,  they  are  described  by 
French  words  —  beef,  mutton,  veal,  pork,  veni- 
son —  when  they  are  brought  to  table.  The 
"Saxon"  serf  had  the  care  of  the  animals  while 
they  were  alive,  but  when  killed  they  were  eaten 
by  his  "French"  superiors.  Abundant  words 
relating  to  law,  government,  and  property 
have  their  origin  in  the  Conquest.  Such  are: 
custom,  prime,  court,  assize,  tax,  county,  city, 
judge,  jury,  justice,  prison,  goal,  parliament, 
manor,  money,  rent,  chattel,  mortgage,  council, 
bill,  act,  etc.  The  French  had  shown  their 
greater  genius  for  war,  and  so,  very  naturally, 
their  military  terms  were  accepted.  Army, 
battle,  fortress,  cannonade,  assault,  siege,  hau- 
berk, ambuscade,  brigadier,  colonel,  arms,  armor, 
standard,  banner,  harness,  glaive,  tower,  and 
lance  are  some  of  them. 

From  the  fact  that  butcher,  grocer,  mason, 
carpenter,  barber,  chandler,  cutter,  draper,  and 
tailor  are  of  French  extraction,  we  should  con- 
clude that  the  strangers  were  superior  to  the 
natives  in  the  industrial  occupations. 

"  It  is  owing  to  the  coming  of  William,"  says 
Dr.  Freeman  in  his  "History  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,"  "that  we  cannot  trace  the  history 
of  our  native  speech,  that  we  cannot  raise  our 
wail  of  its  corruption  without  borrowing  largely 
from  the  store  of  foreign  words  which,  but  for 
his  coming,  would  never  have  crossed  the  sea. 
So  strong  a  hold  have  the  intruders  taken  on 
our  soil  that  we  cannot  tell  the  tale  of  their  com- 
ing without  their  help." 

Nearly  all  the  scholarly  writers  of  to-day 
have  been  classically  educated,  and  they  write 
for  readers  presumed  to  have  more  or  less  knowl- 
edge of  Latin,  hence  they  do  not  hesitate  to  use 
Latin  derivatives,  and  often  anglicize  a  Latin 
word  rather  than  invent  a  native  English  com- 
pound. It  is  this  tendency  which  has  kept  us 
from  forming  compound  words,  as  do  the  Ger- 
mans for  each  new  idea.  But  recently  the  Ger- 
man Emperor  put  forth  a  strong  plea  for  the 
use  of  the  native  woi'ds  instead  of  the  foreign 
words,  which  the  people  were  adopting  so  readily. 
He  even  wanted  them  to  use  a  native  compound 
in  place  of  the  cosmopolitan  word  telephone. 

The  English  tongue  is  fortunate  In  that  it  is 
an  ingenious  and  partial  compound  of  German 
and  Latin.  The  German  gives  force,  the  Latin 
sonority  to  our  verse  and  prose,  while  an  inter- 
changing of  German  and  Latin  gives  a  variety 
which  every  other  language  may  seek  in  vain. 

Most  of  our  scientific  nomenclature  is  from 


the  Grgek.  Not  only  do  we  get  our  scientific 
terms  from  the  Greek,  but '  also  the  names 
for  the  new  instruments  and  processes;  as, 
lithography,  photography,  telephone,  cinemo- 
tograph,  etc. 

Our  musical  vocabulary  is  largely  from  the 
Italian,  as  the  following  words  bear  witness: 
contralto,  duet,  opera,  piano,  quartet,  solo, 
sonata,  soprano,  stanza,  trio,  trombone,  allegro, 
adagio,  baritone,  cantata,  canto,  fugue,  can- 
zonet, etc. 

The  French  give  us  terms  of  dress  and  cook- 
ing: flounce,  jewel,  pattern,  plait,  toilet,  ton- 
sure, vesture,  trousseau,  costume,  model,  peruke, 
drape,  embroider,  furbelow,  jacket,  apparel, 
apron,  bracelet,  brooch,  buckle,  fricassee,  fritter, 
gem,  jelly,  juice,  omelet,  parboil,  peel,  pie,  rag- 
out, sauce,  sausage,  victuals,  salad,  etc. 

The  advent  of  the  English  in  the  New  World 
is  known  by  the  adoption  of  tobacco,  potato, 
tepee,  wigwam,  toboggan,  moccasin,  pemmican, 
etc. 

Were  it  wise  to  use  the  space  for  it,  illustra- 
tions of  words  taken  from  eveiy  language  could 
be  given.  But  enough  has  already  been  done 
to  show  the  composite  make-up  of  our  mother 
tongue,  and  to  show  the  sources  of  its  strength. 

Every  American  should  speak  English.  If 
a  foreign  word  has  been  adopted  into  the  Eng- 
lish language,  why  not  let  it  take  the  English 
forms  ?  Let  the  plural  of  syllabus  be  syllabuses ; 
of  cactus,  cactuses;  of  focus,  focuses;  etc. 
Let  others  take  on  the  English  spelling;  as, 
technic,  not  technique;  grip,  not  grippe;  con- 
servatory, not  conservatoire;  exposure,  not 
expose,  etc.  Only  a  pedant  will  use  serviette 
in  place  of  napkin. 

Let  the  student  or  would-be  author  not  try 
to  adorn  his  style  with  foreign  words;  let  him 
use  the  most  usual  terms  to  produce  the  desired 
effect.  Let  him  remember  that,  though  Eng- 
lish has  borrowed  a  great  deal  of  French,  though 
it  has  lost  a  large  stock  of  English  words,  though 
it  has  adopted  many  a  French  idiom,  and  has 
been  influenced  by  French  in  endless  indirect 
ways,  it  still  remains  English. 

In  former  times  "  hard  work  made  one  sweat " ; 
now-a-days  excessive  labor  causes  profuse  per- 
spiration. If  a  man,  thus  overheated,  were  to 
stand  in  a  draught,  he  might  catch  his  death 
of  cold,  get  very  sick,  and  even  die.  This  reads 
well  enough  as  an  ordinary  warning;  but  in  a 
treatise  on  hygiene  for  popular  use,  the  matter 
is  now  presented  as  follows:  "  If  a  person,  whose 
system  is  excited  by  vigorous  exertion,  should 
suddenly  expose  himself  to  a  current  of  air,  he 
would  probably  check  his  perspiration  and  con- 
tract a  disease  which  might  involve  the  most 
serious  and  even  fatal  consequences."  Which 
form  of  expression  shall  we  cultivate?  Which 
recommends  itself  to  you? 

Dr.  Freeman  says:  "In  almost  every  page 
I  have  found  it  easy  to  put  some  plain  English 
word,  about  whose  meaning  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  instead  of  those  needless  French  and 
Latin  words  which  are  thought  to  add  dignity 
to  style,  but  which  in  truth  only  add  vagueness. 
I  am  in  no  way  ashamed  to  find  that  I  can  write 
purer  and  clearer  English  now  than  I  did  four- 
teen and  fifteen  years  back;   and  I  think  it  well 


LANGUAGE 


187 


to  mention  the  fact  for  the  encouragenjent  of 
younger  writers.  The  common  temptation  of 
Deginners  is  to  write  in  wliat  they  think  a  more 
elevated  fashion.  It  needs  some  years  of  prac- 
tice before  a  man  fully  takes  in  the  truth  that 
for  real  strength,  and  above  all,  for  real  clear- 
ness, there  is  nothing  like  the  old  English  speech 
of  our  fathers." 

CAPITALS 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  full  sentence  should 
begin  with  a  capital,  unless  a  literal  reprint  of 
the  writing  of  an  illiterate  person,  who  does 
not  begin  a  sentence  with  a  capital,  is  to  be 
made. 

Two  lines  of  invasion  were  adopted.  Montgomery 
descended  Lake  Champlain  with  2,000  men,  and  after  a 
campaign  of  two  months  captured  Montreal. 

2.  Every  line  or  verse  of  poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

Morning,  evening,  noon,  and  night, 
"Praise  GodI  "  sang  Theocrite. 
Then  to  his  poor  trade  he  turned, 
Whereby  the  daily  meal  was  earned. 

The  initial  letter  in  the  first  word  of  a  poetical 
quotation,  though  not  beginning  a  line,  should 
be  capitalized. 

But  that's  not  enough  : 
Give  my  conviction  a  clinch  ! 

3.  The  name  of  the  Deity  in  every  person, 
and  in  every  synonym  or  attribute,  should' be- 
gin with  a  capital;  as,  God,  Christ,  Jesus,  Son, 
Holy  Ghost,  Jehovah,  Heaven,  Creator,  Provi- 
dence, Infinite  One,  Supreme  Being,  etc. 

When  the  attributes  of  the  Deity  or  of  the 
Saviour  are  expressed,  not  by  adjectives,  but  in 
the  Hebrew  style,  by  nouns,  they  should  begin 
with  small  letters,  as  Father  of  mercies,  God 
of  wisdom.  Prince  of  peace. 

Also  write  Son  of  man,  Spirit  of  God,  Lord 
of  lords.  King  of  kings,  etc. 

4.  Pronouns  referring  to  God  and  Christ 
should  not  begin  with  capitals,  unless  they  are 
used  emphatically  without  a  noun. 

Shepherd!  with  thy  tenderest  love, 
Guide  me  to  thy  fold  above; 

Jesus  said,  I  and  my  Father  are  One. 

5.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O  al- 
ways take  a  capital  letter.  Oh  does  not  unless 
it  begins  a  sentence. 

The  heavens  and  earth,  O  Lord!  proclaim  thy  boundless 
power. 

6.  The  proper  names  of  the  days  of  the  week 
and  of  the  months  of  the  year,  and  of  days  of 
feasts  and  fasts,  festivals  and  holidays,  both 
religious  and  civic,  should  begin  with  capitals; 
as,  Monday,  March,  Arbor  Day,  New  Years, 
Whitsunday,  Decoration  Day,  Labor  Day, 
Easter,  Black  Friday,  etc. 

The  names  of  the  seasons  are  not  capitalized. 

7.  All  proper  nouns  and  adjectives  derived 
from  these  nouns  should  begin  with  capitals; 
as,  a  Greek,  a  Roman,  a  Hebrew,  a  Christian,  a 
Mohammedan,  an  Elizabethan. 

Names  of  all  geographical  zones  or  sections 
of  the  world,  when  used  as  proper  nouns,  take 
a  capital;  as,  the  Occident,  the  Orient,  the  Le- 
vant, etc. 


Names  of  political  parties  should  be  capital- 
ized; as,  Tory,  Republican,  Federalist,  Free 
Soiler,  etc. 

Geographical,  national,  or  personal  qualities, 
when  used  as  nouns  or  before  nouns  in  common 
use  that  specify  merchandise,  do  not  need  a 
capital ;  as,  china,  india  ink,  prussian  blue,  turkey 
red,  majolica,  delft,  oriental  rugs,  castile  soap, 
etc. 

There  are  some  verbs  derived  from  proper 
nouns  that  have  lost  their  reference  to  the  noun, 
and  so  are  printed  with  small  letters ;  as,  to  hector, 
to  philippize,  to  romance,  to  japan,  to  galvanize. 
But  .Judaize  and  Christianize  are  exceptions 
to  this  rule. 

8.  Capitalize  the  first  word  in  all  titles  of 
books,  periodicals,  plays,  and  pictures,  and  also 
every  other  word  in  the  titles  except  articles, 
prepositions,  and  conjunctions. 

Fiske's  The  War  of  Independence. 

This  rule  is  •contrary  to  the  custom  of  the 
American  Library  Association's  rules,  used  in 
cataloguing  books.  They  capitalize  only  the 
first  word  and  proper  nouns  and  proper  adjec- 
tives; as,  Fiske's  The  war  of  independence. 

9.  The  first  word  and  all  important  words 
in  the  titles  of  corporations  and  societies,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as.  The  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  the  Synod, 
the  Government  (when  it  stands  in  place  of  the 
title  of  the  divisions  of  the  government).  In 
general,  one  should  use  a  capital  in  the  last  illus- 
trations when  the  definite  article  is  used,- and 
a  small  letter  if  the  indefinite  article  is  used. 

10.  Titles  of  ofhce  or  honor  should  be  capi- 
talized if  used  before  the  name  of  the  person; 
as,  Mr.  Smith,  President  Roosevelt,  Messrs. 
A.  K.  Bidwell  &  Co.,  Brother  George,  Aunt 
Hannah. 

If  used  after,  they  are  better  written  with  a 
small  letter;  as,  Hon.  James  G.  Blaine,  ex-senator 
from  Maine;  James  Brown,  roundsman,  Broad- 
way squad. 

When  titles  occur  frequently  on  a  page,  and 
are  used  without  any  particular  expression  of 
honor,  they  should  be  written  with  small  letters. 

In  official  documents  the  titles  of  potentates 
are  often  capitalized,  even  though  they  follow 
the  name  of  the  ruler ;  as,  Victoria,  by  the  grace 
of  God,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Empress  of  India,  etc. 

When  sir,  friend,  boy,  and  the  like  words  are 
used  in  the  salutation  of  a  letter,  they  should 
be  capitalized;  as,  My  dear  Sir,  My  dear  Boy. 

A  title  used  in  place  of  the  person's  name 
should  begin  with  a  capital;  as.  Good  morning. 
Captain;    Mr.  President,  I  call  for  the  question. 

Abbreviated  titles  of  honor  or  respect  should 
be  capitalized:  James  Bryce,  D.  C.  L. ;  Henry 
Northam,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.;  Gen.,  Hon.,  Dr.,  etc. 
■  XL  Words  of  primary  importance,  especially 
if  they  indicate  some  great  event,  or  remarkable 
change  in  religion  or  government,  are  com- 
menced with  capital  letters;  as.  The  Reforma- 
tion, effected  by  Luther,  is  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  events  in  modern  times. 

12.  The  names  of  the  points  of  the  compass 
when  used  to  indicate  direction  should  begin 
with  small  letters.     When  used  to  indicate  a 


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THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


section  of  the  country,  they  should  begin  with 
capitals ;  as,  I  am  going  West ;  he  is  a  representa- 
tive man  of  the  South;  the  river  flows  south- 
west. 

13.  Appelatives  used  either  before  or  after  geo- 
.graphical  nouns  are  capitalized;  as, 

Erie  Canal,  Hudson  River  Railroad,  Strait  of 
Magellan,  Coe  Place,  Shenandoah  Valley,  though 
many  publishers  omit  the  capital  for  the  generic 
word,  when  it  precedes  the  specific  term;  as, 
county  of  Winchester,  state  of  New  York,  em- 
pire of  Russia. 

14.  Abstract  qualities,  when  personified, 
should  be  capitalized ;  as, 

O  Death  I  where  is  thy  sting?     Then  Crime  ran  riot. 

15.  All  quotations  that  are  intended  to  be 
emphatic,  or  that  consist  of  a  complete  sentence, 
should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

Then  Elijah  said,  "Thou  art  the  man." 

These  two  questions,  "What  are  we?"  and  "Whither 
do  we  tend?"  will  at  all  times  press  painfully  upon 
thoughtful  minds. 

When  a  quotation  is  introduced  by  that  it 
should  begin  with  a  small  letter;    as, 

"  He  said  that  this  great  patriot  bequeathed 
to  his  heirs  the  sword  which  he  had  worn  in 
the  war  for  liberty,  and  charged  them  never  to 
take  it  from  the  scabbard  but  in  self  defense, 
or  in  defense  of  their  country  and  her  free- 
dom." 

16.  In  writing  resolutions,  -the  word  immedi- 
ately following  Resolved,  should  begin  with  a 
capital.     See  Punctuation,  Comma,  Rule  13. 

Resolved,  That  the  discovery  of  smokeless  gunpowder 
has  increased  the  horrors  of  war. 

PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  breaking  up  a  sen- 
tence by  means  of  points  and  stops,  so  as  to 
conVey  to  the  reader's  mind,  as  quickly  and 
easily  as  possible,  the  writer's  meaning.  There 
are  two  systems  of  punctuation,  the  close  and 
the  open.  The  close  system  is  used  in  legal 
documents,  laws,  ecclesiastical  formularies,  and 
in  precise  composition  of  every  sort.  Even 
the  omission  of  a  hyphen  from  a  compound 
word  may  make  a  serious  error.  The  insertion 
of  a  comma  in  place  of  a  hyphen  between  "  fruit " 
and  "seeds"  in  an  enactment  of  Congress  cost 
the  government  thousands  of  dollars.  The 
loose  punctuation  should  be  used  in  ordinary 
descriptive  writing.  Formerly  too  many  marks 
were  used;  to-day  the  tendency  is  toward  the 
use  of  too  few  marks.  Punctuation  can  surely 
not  be  classed  among  the  exact  sciences.  It 
is  not  even  an  established  system,  for  many  of 
the  rules  of  the  teachers  differ,  and  the  practice 
of  their  pupils  differs  still  more.  Points  may  be 
omitted  or  inserted  in  a  catalogue  in  a  way  that 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  a  history. 

However,  there  are  some  explicit  directions 
that  may  be  given  that  all  writers  should  follow. 
The  points  should  be  used  to  show  the  gram- 
matical relation  of  words,  and  never  solely  to 
indicate  rhetorical  pauses  in  reading. 

The  necessity  for  a  knowledge  of  correct 
punctuation  is  well  illustrated  by  this  anecdote : 
"The  following  request  is  said  to  have  been 
made  at  church:   'A  sailor  going  to  sea,  his  wife 


desires  the  prayers  of  the  congregation  for  his 
safety.'  But,  by  an  unhappy  transposition  of 
the  comma,  the  note  was  read  thus:  'A  sailor 
going  to  sea  his  wife,  desires  the  prayers  of  the 
congregation  for  his  safety.'  " 

The  marks  used  for  punctuation  are  the  peri- 
od [.],  colon  [:],  semicolon  [;],  comma  [,],  interro- 
gation point  [?],  exclamation  point  [!],  dash  [ — ], 
parentheses  (),  brackets  [],  hyphen  [-],  double 
quotation  marks  ["  "],  single  quotation  marks 
['  '],  apostrophe  [']. 

Period.  1.  All  declarative  and  imperative 
sentences,  and  sentences  that  are  interrogative 
in  form,  but  to  which  an  answer  is  not  expected, 
should  be  followed  by  a  period ;  as,  He  has  gone. 
Go  at  once.  Ah!  whither  now  are  fled  those 
dreams  of  happiness.  The  Cyprians  asked  me 
why  I  wept. 

2.  All  abbreviations,  unless  the  ellipsis  of 
intermediate  letters  in  the  words  has  been  in- 
dicated by  using  the  apostrophe,  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  period;  7th,  9th,  3d,  etc.,  are  not 
followed  by  the  period. 

3.  When  capitals  are  used  for  numerals,  it 
was  customary  formerly  to  follow  them  by  a  pe- 
riod; e.  g.,  Henry  VIII.,  John  IV.  3.  The  latest 
usage  seems  to  omit  the  period,  especially  in  the 
possessive  construction;  as,  Henry  VIII's  reign. 

Comma.  1.  All  nouns  of  direct  address 
should  be  set  off  by  commas;  as,  John,  come 
here.  I  say,  Mary,  can  you  go  now  ?  Sir,  I  can- 
not do  it. 

2.  When  there  are  three  or  more  parts  in  the 
subject  of  a  sentence,  and  the  conjunction  is 
used  between  the  last  two  only,  a  comma  should 
be  used  after  each  part  except  the  last. 

Mary  Lee  and  Laura  came  yesterday.  As 
the  sentence  stands,  you  may  think  that  there 
are  but  two  persons  that  came  yesterday;  viz., 
Mary  Lee  and  Laura.  If  the  sentence  is  written, 
Mary,  Lee  and  Laura  came  yesterday,  then 
Mary  may  be  a  noun  of  direct  address,  and  the 
boy  Lee  and  the  girl  Laura  came;  but  if  it  is 
written,  Mary,  Lee,  and  Laura  came,  you  know 
that  three  persons  came.  The  comma  before 
the  and  is  frequently  omitted  by  rapid  writers; 
but  it  should  not  be  omitted  in  this  compound 
construction. 

3.  Parenthetical  or  additional  expressions,  that 
is,  those  expressions  that  break  the  directness  of 
the  statement,  require  to  be  cutoff  by  commas; 
as,  Christopher  Columbus,  an  Italian  by  birth, 
discovered  America.  It  is  tnind,  after  all,  that 
does  the  work  of  the  world.  In  this  sentence, 
'after  all'  does  not  modify  'does,'  but  shows  a 
connection  between  this  sentence  and  something 
gone  before.  Another  illustration  would  be,  It 
was  not  necessary,  however,  for  you  to  go. 

Some  of  the  phrases  in  common  use  that  are 
usually  set  off  by  commas  are :  in  short,  in  fact, 
in  reality,  in  brief,  as  it  happens,  no  doubt,  in  a 
word,  to  be  sure,  to  be  brief,  etc.  Some  of  the 
words  used  parenthetically,  which,  according 
to  the  close  punctuation  should  be  set  off  by 
commas,  and,  according  to  the  loose,  should  not 
be,  are:  therefore,  then,  however,  perhaps, 
namely,  indeed,  too,  moreover,  etc. 

Most  of  these  words  named  last  are  capable 
of  two  constructions, —  they  may  either  belong 
to  the  proposition  as  a  whole,  or  to  a  single  word 


language; 


189 


in  it.  It  is  only  when  used  in  the  former  sense 
that  they  require  to  be  set  off  by  commas;  e.  g., 
On  this  assistance,  then,  you  may  rely.  Then 
I  believed  you,  now  I  do  not. 

4.  Independent  adverbs  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence  should  be  set  off  by  a  comma;  as, 
Well,  I  will  go.     Why,  you  may  if  you  want  to. 

Note. —  Used  in  this  way  it  would  be  better  to  omit 
them  from  all  sentences. 

5.  The  nominative,  the  infinitive,  and  the 
participle  used  absolutely  should  be  set  off  by 
commas:  The  wind  having  gone  down,  we  may 
go  sailing.  To  tell  the  truth,  I  must  remain  here . 
Generally  speaking,  he  is  a  good  fellow. 

6.  Nouns  in  apposition  are  set  off  by  commas : 
George,  my  brother,  can  do  it  for  you.  We,  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  do  ordain  and  es- 
tablish this  constitution. 

7.  If  the  subordinate  clause  in  a  complex 
sentence  comes  first,  it  should  be  followed  by 
a  comma:  If  I  go,  you  must  remain.  While  he 
stays,  you  must  stay. 

8.  A  series  of  words  used  in  the  same  con- 
struction should  be  separated  by  commas;  as, 
Ulysses  was  wise,  eloquent,  cautious,  and  in- 
trepid, as  was  requisite  in  a  leader  of  men.  He 
stood,  walked,  ran,  and  jumped. 

If  the  words  are  used  in  pairs,  only  the  pairs 
should  be  separated ;  as,  Ulysses  was  wise  anxl 
eloquent,  cautious  and  intrepid,  as  was,  etc. 

9.  When  two  statements,  each  with  its  own 
subject,  verb,  and  object,  are  put  in  one  sen- 
tence, the  comma  should  be  used  to  show  their 
distinctiveness,  even  when  the  sentence  is  very 
short ;   as.  You  may  go,  and  I  will  stay. 

10.  Use  a  comma  between  two  words  in  the 
same  construction  when  they  are  differently 
modified;  as,  He  sold  a  horse,  and  wagon  of 
5vood.  If  the  comma  is  omitted,  the'  horse 
tvas  of  wood. 

11.  When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more 
nouns  not  joined  by  a  conjunction,  use  a  comma 
before  the  predicate;  as.  Riches,  pleasures, 
health,  become  evils  to  those,  etc. 

12.  A  comma  is  put  before  a  relative  clause, 
when  it  is  explanatory  of  the  antecedent,  or 
presents  an  additional  thought. 

But  the  point  is  omitted  before  a  relative 
clause  which  restricts  the  general  notion  of  the 
antecedent  to  a  particular  sense. 

To  make  clear  the  difference  between  an 
additional  and  a  restrictive  clause,  let  me  use 
this  sentence:  Her  entrance  was  unnoticed 
by  the  officer  who  sat  gazing  in  the  fire.  We 
restrict  when  we  wish  to  separate  one  object 
from  other  objects  of  the  same  sort.  If  there 
were  several  officers  in  the  room,  and  you  wish 
me  to  know  that  her  entrance  was  unnoticed 
by  but  one  of  them,  you  wish  to  separate  or 
distinguish  him  from  the  others.  Then  the 
clause  is  used  restrictively  and  should  not  be 
set  off  by  a  comma.  But  if  there  was  but  one 
officer  in  the  room,  you  use  this  same  clause 
to  tell  an  additional  fact  about  him;  then  it  is 
used  additionally  and  should  be  set  off  by  com- 
mas. 

Much  confusion  arises  in  this  sort  of  sentence 
because  authors  on  punctuation  say  that  a 
descriptive  or  additional  clause  should  be  set 
off  by  commas.     A  descriptive  clause  may  be 


used  to  express  either  an  additional  or  a  re- 
strictive thought.  Bring  me  the  dress  that  is 
made  of  red  silk.  This  sentence  requires  no 
comma  because  there  are  several  dresses  there, 
and  I  want  the  red  silk  one.  Bring  me  the  dress, 
which  is  made  of  red  silk.  Here  I  have  used  the 
same  descriptive  clause,  but  the  use  of  "which" 
and  the  comma  shows  that  that  is  the  only 
dress  there. 

Note  : —  In  all  restrictive  relative  clauses  the  pronoun 
"that"  should  be  used;  and  in  all  additional  relative 
clauses  use  "who  "  when  referring  to  people  and  "which  " 
when  referring  to  animals  or  inanimate  objects.  If 
writers  would  bear  this  use  of  these  pronouns  in  mind, 
the  matter  of  the  comma  would  be  immaterial  because 
the  pronoun  would  sufficiently  indicate  the  use  of  the 
clause. 

13.  One  good  authority  says  do  not  use  a 
comma  after  Whereas,  It  appea:rs,  etc.;  Re- 
solved, That,  etc.;  Ordered,  That,  etc.  He 
also  says,  Do  not  use  a  capital  after  these  words. 
Write,  Resolved  that  women,  etc. 

14.  When  a  clause  is  used  as  the  subject  of 
a  verb,  it  should  not,  even  though  long,  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  comma,  unless  it  ends  with  a  verb; 
as.  That  the  governor  of  this  great  State  of 
Illinois  should  make  this  unworthy  appeal  to 
the  passions  and  prejudices  of  the  foreign-born 
citizens  of  the  nation  must  always  be  a  cause 
of  mortification  to  every  lover  of  his  country. 

The  second  part  of  the  rule  is  illustrated  by, 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 

15.  A  comma  is  used  before  a  short  direct 
quotation:    He  said,  "I  will  go." 

Note. —  A  colon  is  used  before  a  long  direct  quotation. 

16.  The  comma  shows  the  omission  of  words; 
as.  Her  address  is  718  Norwood  Ave.,  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  which  means  in  Rochester,  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man;  writ- 
ing, an  exact  man. 

Note. —  The  latest  authority  says  omit  the  comma  in 
the  last  sentence  because  no  misunderstanding  can 
arise  thereby;   but  custom  still  uses  it. 

Semicolon.  This  mark  is  used  to  sep- 
arate such  parts  of  a  sentence  as  are  somewhat 
less  closely  connected  than  those  separated  by 
a  comma. 

1.  When  two  clauses  are  joined  by  for,  but, 
and,  or  an  equivalent  word,  the  one  clause  per- 
fect in  itself,  and  the  other  added  as  a  matter 
of  inference,  contrast,  or  explanation, —  they 
are  separated  by  a  semicolon:  Economy  is  no 
disgrace;  for  it  is  better  to  live  on  a  little  than 
to  outlive  a  great  deal. 

2.  When  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence, 
even  though  they  are  short,  are  not  closely  con- 
nected in  thought,  they  should  be  separated 
by  a  semicolon;  as,  I  live  to  die;  you  dye  to 
live. 

3.  Use  the  semicolon  to  separate  the  parts 
of  a  compound  sentence,  when  one  or  both 
members  contain  commas:  Men  are  not  judged 
by  their  looks,  habits,  and  appearances;  but 
by  the  character  of  their  lives  and  conversations, 
and  by  their  works. 

4.  If  a  series  of  expressions  depend  on  a  com- 
mencing or  concluding  portion  of  the  sentence, 
they  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon:  Phi- 
losophers assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her 
operations;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures 
in  reserve;    that,  etc.     Also  in  such  a  sentence 


190 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


as,  If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field ;  of  wisdom  in 
the  cabinet;  of  the  purest  patriotism;  of  the 
highest  integrity,  public  and  private ;  of  morals 
*  *  *  the  august  figure  of  Washington  presents 
itself  as  the  personation  of  all  these  ideas. 

5.  All  of  the  older  authorities  say  use  a  semi- 
colon before  and  comma  after  as,  viz,  to  wit, 
namely,  i.  e.,  or  that  is,  when  they  precede  an 
example  or  an  illustration.  The  latest  authority 
says  use  the  comma  in  both  places.  This  is 
but  another  illustration  of  the  changes  in  punc- 
tuation that  are  coming  in. 

Colon.  1.  When  a  sentence  is  long,  and 
one  or  both  of  the  parts  contain  semicolons, 
the  greater  division  should  be  marked  by  a 
colon:  Art  has  been  to  me  its  own  exceeding 
great  reward:-  it  has  soothed  my  afflictions; 
it  has  refined  my  enjoyments;  it  has  endeared 
my  solitude;  and  it  has  given  me  the  habit  of 
wishing  to  discover  the  good  and  the  beautiful 
in  all  that  surrounds  me. 

2.  A  colon  should  follow  a  clause  that  is  com- 
plete in  itself,  but  is  followed,  without  a  con- 
junction, by  some  remark,  inference,  or  illus- 
tration :  Nor  was .  the  religion  of  the  Greek 
drama  a  mere  form:  it  was  full  of  truth,  spirit, 
and  power. 

3.  A  colon  should  be  used  before  a  long  direct 

a  notation,  or  a  list  of  articles  formally  intro- 
uced:    She  finished  her  helpful  talk  with  the 
song  from  "Pippa  Passes": 

"The  year's  at  the  spring 
The  day's  at  the  morn; 
Morning's  at  seven;  " 
Etc. 

Will  you  kindly  send  me  the  following  articles : 

2  lbs.  of  granulated  sugar, 

1  lb.  of  coffee, 

Etc. 

4.  The  words  yes  and  no  should  be  followed 
by  a  colon,  provided  the  words  that  follow  are 
a  continuation  or  repetition  of  the  question: 
Can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts? 
Yes:    they  can  do  it;    they  have  often  done  it. 

5.  The  colon  is  more  often  used  than  any 
other  mark  after  the  salutation  in  a  letter:  My 
dear  Sirs : 

Interrogation  Point.  1.  An  interro- 
gation mark  is  placed  at  the  end  of  every  direct 
question:  Will  you  go?  He  asked  me,  "Will 
you  go?" 

2.  The  mark  of  interrogation  should  not  be 
used  when  it  is  only  affirmed  that  a  question 
has  been  asked,  and  the  expression  denoting 
inquiry  is  put  in  any  other  form  than  that  of  a 
direct  question:  I  was  asked  if  I  would  go  to 
Europe  next  summer. 

Note. —  It  should  be  placed  inside  of  the  quotation 
marks  if  it  belongs  properly  to  the  quotation,  and  out- 
side in  other  cases; — He  asked,  "Will  you  return  by 
nine  o'clock?"  What  can  be  more  interesting  than 
"the  passing  crowd"? 

Elxclamation  Point.  This  point  is 
used  after  any  expression  of  strong  emotion, 
and  after  interjections:  Friends,  countrymen, 
and  lovers!  hear  me  for  my  cause,  and  be  silent 
that  you  may  hear.  The  heavens  and  earth, 
O  Lord!  proclaim  Thy  boundless  power.  Oh! 
nothing  is  further  from  my  thoughts  than  to 
deceive  you.  Oh,  that  all  classes  of  society  were 
both  enlightened  and  virtuous! 


Tiie   Marks  of   Parentiieses.     If  an 

expression  is  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence, 
with  which  it  has  no  connection  in  sense  or  con- 
struction, it  should  be  enclosed  by  the  marks 
of  parentheses.  The  test  is,  can  the  words  to 
be  enclosed  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the 
sense?  I  have  clearly  seen  charity  (if  charity 
it  may  be  called)  insult  witli  an  air  of  pity.  She 
had  managed  this  matter  so  well  (oh,  how  artful 
a  woman  she  was),  that  my  father's  heart  was 
gone  before  I  suspected  it  was  in  danger. 

Notice  the  use  of  the  mark  of  interrogation 
in  this  sentence:  "  While  the  Christian  desires 
tlie  approbation  of  his  fellow-men  (and  why 
sliould  he  not  desire  it?),  he  disdains  to  receive 
their  good-will  by  dishonorable  means." 

The  Dash.  1.  The  dash  is  used  to  show 
an  abrupt  break  in  a  sentence;  to  show  a  sus- 
pension in  the  thought;  or  an  epigrammatic 
turn  in  sentiment.  Closely  following  came  — 
what  do  you  suppose  ?  The  eye  of  the  child  — 
who  can  look  unmoved  into  that  "well  unde- 
filed,"  in  which  heaven  itself  seems  to  be  re- 
flected? 

2.  The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  an  ellipsis 
of  such  words  as,  namely,  that  is,  etc.  To 
separate  adjectives  in  apposition  but  closely 
connected.  These  poets  —  Homer  and  Virgil  — 
wrote  epics. 

Bracliets.  These  marks,  used  for  nearly 
the  same  purposes  as  the  parentheses,  are  usually 
confined  to  expressions  inserted  in  or  appended 
to  a  quotation,  and  not  belonging  to  it.  They 
are  intended  to  give  an  explanation,  to  rectify 
a  mistake,  or  to  supply  an  omission;  as,  He 
had  the  finest  head  [of  hair]  I"  ever  saw; 
*  *  *  because  the  people  love  the  principles 
of  the  Constitution  [long  continued  applause] 
and  to-day,  etc. 

Hyphen.  1.  The  hyphen  is  used  in  form- 
ing compound  words.  When  each  of  the  words 
of  which  a  compound  is  formed  retains  its  origi- 
nal accent,  they  should  be  united  by  a  hyphen: 
The  alK-pow'erful  God;  In^cense-breath^ing 
morn.  Everlasting,  notwithstanding,  and  a  few 
other  words  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

2.  If  a  prefix  ends  in  a  vowel,  and  the  word 
to  which  it  is  joined  begins  with  a  vowel,  the 
hyphen,  or  the  diaeresis  over  the  second  vowel 
is  used:  co-operate  or  cooperate. 

3.  The  hyphen  is  used  to  show  the  division 
of  words  into  syllables:   hy-phen. 

Double  and  Single  Quotation 
Marks.  1.  Every  direct  quotation  should  be 
enclosed  in  double  quotation  marks:  To  me 
he  said,  "  I  cannot  believe  it  is  true." 

2.  If  the  thought,  but  not  the  words  of  an- 
other are  given,  quotation  marks  are  not  used: 
He  said  that  he  could  not  believe  it  true. 

3.  You  may  use  italics,  or  double,  or  single 
quotation  marks  if  you  are  quoting  a  single 
word  or  short  expression.  "  Petticoat "  (liter- 
ally 'little  coat'),  in  itself  a  sufficiently  inof- 
fensive term,  has  shown  a  tendency  to  give 
way  to  "skirt."  In  this  illustration  "petti- 
coat" and  "skirt"  may  be  italicized  and  the 
quotation  marks  omitted. 

4.  If  a  quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation, 
enclose  the  second  one  in  single  quotation 
marks:    In  his  letter  he  wrote,  "If  the  physi- 


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191 


cian  sees  you  eat  anything  that  is  not  good  for 
you,   he  says,   '  It  is  poison ! '  " 

5.  When  several  paragraphs  are  quoted,  use 
double  marks  at  the  beginning  of  each  para- 
graph, and  at  the  end  of  the  last  paragraph  only. 

Apostrophe.  1.  The  apostrophe  is  used 
to  mark  the  possessive  case :  John's. 

2.  To  show  the  contraction  of  words  and 
omission  of  letters:    I'll,  you'd,  etc. 

3.  To  show  the  clipping  of  words  in  dialect: 
He  wa'  singin'  to  'em. 

4.  To  form  plurals  of  letters,  signs,  and  figures : 
There  are  twenty  a's  on  this  page.  Count  the 
2's  in  this  sum.  Your  x's  or  O's  were  not  well 
made. 

The  foregoing  are  the  generally  accepted  rules. 
It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  we  are 
in  a  stage  of  transition  in  regard  to  capitaliza- 
tion and  punctuation,  there  being  a  marked 
tendency  toward  simplification. 

RIGHT   USE   OF   SOME 
COMMON   WORDS 

A.  Use  the  article  before  both  nouns  or  both 
adjectives  when  they  denote  different  objects. 
"  A  coat  and  a  hat "  not  "  a  coat  and  hat."  "  A 
black  and  white  dress"  (one  dress);  "a  black 
and  a  white  dress"  (two  dresses). 

Abortive.  A  ridiculous  perversion  of  this 
word  is  creeping  into  use  through  the  newspapers. 
"  A  lad  was  yesterday  caught  in  the  acfe  of  abor- 
tively appropriating  a  pair  of  shoes."  That  is 
abortive  that  is  untimely  in  its  birth;  and,  by 
figure  of  speech  anything  is  abortive  which  is 
brought  out  before  it  is  well  matured.  Abortive 
should  not  be  used  indiscriminately  of  failure. 

Accept  of.  Never  use  the  preposition 
after  this  verb.  We  accept  invitations,  presents, 
hospitality,  and  the  like. 

Accept  and  Except.  Accept  means  to 
take  when  offered;  except  means  to  leave  out, 
to  exclude.  I  accepted  the  gift.  All  except  two 
will  go. 

Accord.  To  accord  means  to  render  or  be- 
stow upon  another,  as  honor:  therefore  one 
should  never  say,  "The  information  he  desired 
was  accorded  him." 

Administer.  The  man  died  from  blows 
administered  by  the  policeman.  Oaths,  medi- 
cine, affairs  of  state  are  Md ministered.  Blows 
are  dealt. 

Adopt.  This  word  is  often  used  instead  of 
to  decide  upon  and  to  take;  thus,  "The  meas- 
ures adopted  by  Congress  as  the  result  of  this 
inquiry  will  be  productive  of  good."  Better, 
"  The  measures  decided  upon,  etc."  Instead  of 
"What  course  shall  you  adopt  to  get  your  pay ?  " 
say,  "What  course  shall  you  take,  etc.  ?"  In  the 
newspapers  one  may  see  "  Wanted  to  adopt  — 
A  beautiful  female  infant."  The  advertisers 
meant  to  say  that  they  wanted  the  child  men- 
tioned in  their  advertisement  adopted.  The 
word  is  correctly  used  in  "The  measures  pro- 
posed by  the  senator  were  adopted  at  once." 

Affect.     See  effect. 

Aggravate.  This  word  is  often  used,  when 
the  speaker  means  to  provoke,  irritate,  or  anger. 
Thus,  '^  It  aggravates  (provokes)  me  to  be  con- 
tinually found  fault  with";  "He  is  easily  ag- 
gravated (irritated)." 


Agree.  Do  not  use  agree  for  admit.  "  That 
a  flat  brick  fagade  pierced  by  a  few  windows 
does  not  make  an  inspiring  picture,  all  will  agree." 
Say,  "  all  will  admit." 

Agriculturist  is  to  be  preferred  to  agri- 
culturalist.    The  same  is  true  of  conversationist. 

Ain't.  This  is  not  a  contraction,  and  can- 
not take  the  place  of  I'm  not. 

Alilce.  This  word  should  not  be  used  with 
both,  nor  with  both  just,  as  in  "  These  hats  are 
both  alike"  or  "both  just  alike";  say,  "These 
hats  are  alike." 

All  of.  The  of  is  a  superfluity.  "  I  have 
them  all,"  not  "I  have  all  of  them";  "Take  it 
all,"  not  "Take  a«o/ it." 

All  Over.  All  should  modify  the  noun, 
and  not  the  prepositional  phrase  in  "The  disease 
spread  over  all  the  country,"  not  "all  over  the 
country." 

Allege.  Do  not  use  this  word  as  a  syno- 
nym for  say  or  tell,  as  in  "  He  alleges  that  the 
engine  ran  sixty  miles  an  hour."  Instead,  "  He 
says  or  tells  us  that,  etc." 

Allow.  This  word  is  frequently  misused 
in  the  West  and  the  South  for  think;  to  be  of 
opinion;  to  admit;  as,  "  He  allows  his  horse  can 
beat  yours."  Instead  of  this  say,  "He  thinks 
or  is  of  the  opinion  that,  etc." 

Almost  —  Nearly.  These  two  adverbs 
should  not  be  used  indiscriminately.  Almost  re- 
gards the  ending  as  an  act;  nearly,  its  begin- 
ning. A  man  that  receives  an  injury  so  severe 
that  he  comes  off  with  barely  his  life  is  almost 
killed;  a  man  that  escapes  what  would  have 
killed  him  is  nearly  killed.  These  words  are 
correctly  used  in  "  I  am  almost  done  with  my 
work " ;  "I  nearly  ran  over  the  child." 

Alone  —  Only.  That  is  alone  that  is  un- 
accompanied ;  that  is  only,  of  which  there  is  no 
other.  "Virtue  only  makes  us  happy"  means 
that  nothing  else  can  do  it.  If  we  say,  "  Virtue 
alone  makes  us  happy,"  we  mean  that  virtue 
unaided  makes  us  happy.  "This  means  of  lo- 
comotion is  used  by  man  only." 

Alternative.  Do  not  use  this  word  when 
more  than  two  things  are  referred  to.  You 
may  have  the  choice  of  three  courses,  not  of 
three  alternatives. 

Always.  Often  used  redundantly.  "When- 
ever I  see  her,  I  think  of  mother,"  not  "I 
always  think  of  mother." 

Ameliorated.  "Her  troubles  are  greatly 
ameliorated"  should  be  "are  lessened." 

Among.  "He  was  there  among  the  rest" 
should  be  "with  the  rest." 

Among  One  Another.  "They  ex- 
changed votes  among  one  another"  should  be 
"with  one  another." 

Amount.  "A  surprising  amount  of  per- 
fection has  been  reached"  should  be  "A  sur- 
prising degree  of  perfection,  etc." 

And.  Do  not  use  and  in  place  of  the  particle 
to.     "  Come  to  see  me,"  not  "  Come  and  see  me." 

And  should  never  introduce  a  relative  clause 
unless  it  joins  it  to  a  coordinate  relative  clause. 
"  I  have  a  dress  worn  by  my  aunt,  and  which  is 
forty-five  years  old."  In  this  sentence  leave 
out  and  and  use  that  instead  of  which.  (See  Rule 
12  for  the  comma,  under  Punctuation.) 

Antecedents.     This  word  used  as  a  sub- 


192 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


stantive  means  those  persons  or  things  which 
have  preceded  any  person  or  thing  of  the  same 
kind  in  a  certain  position.  Thus  the  anteced- 
ents of  General  Sherman  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States  are  General  Washington,  General 
Scott,  and  General  Grant.  To  call  the  course 
of  a  man's  life  until  the  present  moment  his 
antecedents  is  nearly  as  absurd  a  misuse  of  lan- 
guage as  can  be  compassed.  If,  instead  of  "  What 
do  you  know  of  his  antecedents?"  it  is  asked 
"What  do  you  know  of  his  previous  life?"  or 
better,  "What  do  you  know  of  his  past  ?"  there 
is  sense  instead  of  nonsense,  and  the  purpose  of 
the  question  is  fully  conveyed. 

Anticipate.  This  word  is  often  used  in 
place  of  expect,  or  foresee.  Anticipate  means  to 
go  before,  so  as  to  preclude  another ;  to  get  the 
start  of,  or  to  get  ahead  of;  to  enjoy,  possess,  or 
suffer,  in  expectation.  It  is  therefore  misused 
in  "  By  this  means  it  is  anticipated  that  the  time 
for  Europe  will  be  lessened  two  days";  and  in 
"Her  death  is  hourly  anticipated."  It  is  cor- 
rectly used  in  "If  not  anticipated,  I  shall  here- 
after make  an  attempt  at  a  magazine  paper  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Point";  and  in  "Why  should 
we  anticipate  our  sorrows?  'Tis  like  those  who 
die  through  fear  of  death."  "Were  Greeley's 
movements  those  that  it  was  anticipated  (ex- 
pected) he  would  make?" 

Anxious  is  often  used  where  desirous  would 
better  express  the  meaning.  Anxious  means 
full  of  anxiety;  suffering  from  suspense  or  un- 
certainty; concerned  about  the  future.  "I  am 
not  anxious  to  get  to  Canada"  should  be  "I  am 
not  desirous,  etc."  "  I  am  still  more  anxious  to 
have  you  live  in  New  York"  should  be  "still 
more  desirous." 

Anyliow  is  permissible  in  conversation, 
though  incompatible  with  dignified  diction,  in 
which  such  phrases  as  "in  any  event,"  "be  that 
as  it  may,  "  "at  any  rate,"  and  the  like  are  to  be 
preferred. 

Appeals  is  used  in  this  sentence  instead 
of  drafts:  "There  are  constant  appeals  upon 
the  resources  of  the  government." 

Approacli  is  sometimes  improperly  used 
in  the  sense  of  address,  petition,  appeal  to ;  thus, 
"The  teachers  have  approached  tne  Educational 
Department  in  some  matters  that  concern  their 
interest." 

Apt  is  often  misused  for  likely,  and  sometimes 
for  liable.  "  What  is  he  apt  (likely)  to  be  doing?  " 
"Where  shall  I  be  apt  (likely)  to  find  him?" 
"  If  you  go  there,  you  will  be  apt  (liable)  to  get 
into  trouble." 

Aren't  in  colloquial  use  is  admissible,  but  are 
you  not  is  preferable.  I'll,  I'm,  etc.,  are  good  form 
because  they  are  contractions  of  the  verb  only. 

As — as  ;  So — as.  Use  the  former  in  affirma- 
tive propositions,  and  the  latter  in  negative 
propositions.  He  is  as  tall  as  you  are.  He  was 
never  so  happy  as  now. 

Aside  is  sometimes  misused  for  apart. 
"Words  have  a  potency  of  association  aside 
(apart)  from  their  significance  as  representa- 
tive signs." 

As  Tliougii  is  often  used  for  as  if.  In  the 
sentence,  "The  child  looked  as  though  her  hair 
had  never  been  combed, "  supply  the  elliptical 
clause,  and  you  will  see  the  need  of  using  if  in 


place  of  though.  "  The  child  looked  as  (she  would 
look)  though  her  hair,  etc."  "  The  woman  looks  as 
(she  would  look)  though  (if)  she  were  tired." 

At.  "They  do  things  differently  in  (not  at) 
the  South." 

At  all  is  superfluous  in  such  sentences  as, 
"She  had  no  friends  at  all";  "I  do  not  want 
any  at  all " ;  "  If  she  had  any  desire  at  all  to  see, 
she  would  have  waited." 

At  Best.  At  Worst.  These  phrases  re- 
quire the  article  or  a  possessive  pronoun  used 
in  them.  Always  say,  "  I  did  the  best  I  could," 
etc.     "  He  was  at  his  worst." 

Audience  is  often  used  in  place  of  specta- 
tors. The  audience  hears;  the  spectators  see: 
therefore  say,  "The  spectators  at  the  ball  game," 
not  "the  audience."  "The  audience  at  the  con- 
cert, etc." 

Avenge  and  Revenge.  We  avenge  the 
wrong  done  to  others,  and  revenge  the  wrong 
done  to  ourselves. 

Avoid  is  often  used  in  the  place  of  prevent  or 
hinder;  as,  "There  shall  be  nothing  lost  if  I  can 
avoid  it."     It  should  be  "if  I  can  prevent  it." 

Awful  is  too  frequently  used  as  an  inten- 
sive. Avoid  this  use  of  it;  e.  g.,  I  was  awfully 
glad  to  see  you. 

A  While  Since  should  be  a  while  ago. 

Bad  Cold.  Say  a  slight  or  a  severe  cold. 
Colds  are  never  good. 

Badly  is  inelegantly  used  for  very  much. 
"I  shall  miss  you  very  much,"  not  "I  shall  miss 
you  badly." 

Balance  means  the  excess  of  one  thing  over 
another,  and  should  be  iised  in  this  sense  only: 
hence  it  is  improper  to  talk  about  the  balance 
of  the  edition.  In  this  case  say  rest  or  remainder. 
You  may  speak  of  the  balance  of  the  account. 

Beastly.  One  may  properly  say  "beastly 
drunk"  but  not  "beastly  weather." 

Before  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  rather 
than.  "  War  before  peace  at  that  price  "  should 
be  "War  rather  than  peace  at  that  price." 

Between  should  be  used  only  with  refer- 
ence to  two  of  a  kind.  When  more  than  two 
are  referred  to,  use  among.  "The  candy  was 
divided  between  the  two  boys,"  or  "among  the 
four  children." 

When  used  to  express  contrast,  the  word  may 
be  correctly  used  in  speaking  of  more  than  two: 
"True,  the  three  boys  are  brothers,  but  there  is 
a  great  difference  between  them." 

Black  —  Blacken,  y^e  black  stoves  and 
blacken  reputations. 

Blame  it  on  is  a  vulgarism  used  in  place 
of  accuses  or  suspects.  "He  blames  it  on  his 
brother"  should  be  "He  suspects  or  accuses  his 
brother." 

Both  is  often  used  in  such  sentences  as  "  They 
are  both  alike";  "They  both  ran  away  from 
school,"  etc.  Omit  both  from  each  sentence. 
It  is  incorrect  in  "  He  lost  all  his  fruit  —  both 
plums,  peaches,  and  pears." 

Bound  should  not  be  made  to  do  service 
for  doomed,  determined,  resolved,  certain,  or  will 
be  compelled.  "He  is  bound  to  do  it"  should  be 
"He  is  certain,  resolved,  or  determined  to  do  it." 
"He  is  bound  to  fail"  should  be  "He  is  doomed, 
destined,  or  sure  to  fail." 

But  is  often  misused.     "  I  do  not  doubt  but 


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193 


he  will  be  here"  should  read  "doubt  that."  "1 
should  not  wonder  but  he  will  succeed"  should 
read  "wonder  if."  In  "  I  have  no  doubt  but  that 
he  will  go  "  suppress  but.  Change  but  to  than  in 
"  The  mind  no  sooner  entertains  any  proposition 
but  it  presently  hastens,  etc." 

But  is  correctly  used  in  "  I  have  no  fear  but 
that  she  will  succeed,"  which  means  a  very  dif- 
ferent thing  from  "  I  have  no  fear  that  she  will 
succeed." 

By  should  be  with  in  "The  room  was  filled 
by  ladies  and  children  " ;  also  in  "  The  ball  ended 
by  a  waltz."  There  is  a  difference  of  meaning 
in  these  two  sentences:  "I  know  a  man  by  the 
name  of  Brown,"  and  "  I  know  a  man  of  the 
name  of  Brown."     Which  do  you  mean? 

Calamity  means  in  an  abstract  sense  source 
of  misery  or  of  loss,  but  it  is  often  misused  to  mean 
loss.  Calamities  are  causes,  losses  are  results. 
"The  fire  caused  a  great  calamity"  should  read 
"caused  a  great  loss."  It  is  correctly  used  in 
"The  falling  of  the  building,  which  caused  the 
death  of  two  firemen,  was  a  great  calamity." 

Calculate  is  wrongly  used  in  "He  calcu- 
lates to  get  off  to-morrow."  "The  sentence 
should  read  "expects,  purposes,  or  intends  to 
get  off." 

Caliber  is  often  misused  for  order,  as  in 
"His  work  is  of  a  higher  caliber  than  hers 
is." 

Capable  is  often  used  in  place  of  suscep- 
tible. "We  need  more  articles  capable  of  illus- 
tration" should  read  "susceptible  of  illustra- 
tion." 

Condone  is  sometimes  misused  for  com- 

eensate  and  atone  for.  It  means  to  pardon,  to 
)rgive.  "The  abolition  of  the  income  tax  more 
than  condones  for  the  turmoil  of  an  election" 
should  read  "atones  for,  etc." 

Congregate  Together.  In  "A  large 
number  of  people  congregated  together  in  the  hall," 
omit  the  word  together,  because  to  congregate, 
unaided,  means  to  collect,  or  gather  together. 

Consequence  is  sometimes  used  instead 
of  importance  or  moment;  as,  "They  were  all 
persons  of  more  or  less  consequence  "  should  be 
"of  more  or  less  importance."  "It  is  a  matter 
of  no  consequence"    should  be  "of  no  moment." 

Consider  means  to  meditate,  to  deliberate, 
to  reflect,  to  revolve  in  the  mind ;  and  yet  it  is 
made  to  do  service  for  think,  suppose,  and  regard. 
Thus:  "  I  consider  his  course  very  unjustifiable  " 
should  read  "think  his  course."  "  I  have  always 
considered  it  my  duty,  etc."  should  read  "thought 
it  my  duty." 

Conversationist.     See  Agriculturist. 

Co-operate  Together  means  co-oper- 
ate or  operate  together,  and  can  mean  no  more, 
which  makes  it  plain  that  the  co  or  the  together 
serves  no  purpose  —  is  a  superfluity. 

Creditable  should  not  be  used  instead  of 
credible.  Say,  "two  credible  witnesses,"  not 
"creditable  witnesses."  Say,  "  I  am  credibly 
informed,"  not  "  creditably  informed." 

Crushed  out.  The  rebellion  was  finally 
crushed  out.  Out  of  what?  We  may  crush  the 
life  out  of  a  man,  or  crush  a  man  to  death,  and 
crush  —  not  crush  out  —  a  rebellion. 

Dandy.  This  adjective  belongs  properly 
to  the   "gushers."     It  is  their  sole  adjective. 


He  is  a  dandy  man;  The  refreshments  were 
dandy;   The  sunset  was  dandy. 

Dangerous  is  misused  in  the  sentence 
"He  is  dangerous,"  when  we  mean  "He  is  sick." 
Say,"  He  is  not  in  danger," or"notdangerously  ill." 

Dearest.  Do  not  begin  a  letter  "My 
dearest  John,"  unless  he  is  the  dearest  of  three 
or  more  Johns  with  whom  you  are  acquainted. 

Deceiving  should  not  be  used  in  place  of 
trying  to  deceive.  It  is  when  we  do  not  suspect 
deception  that  we  are  deceived;  "  He  is  deceiv- 
ing me  "  should  read  "  He  is  trying  to  deceive  me." 

Deprecate  means  to  endeavor  to  avert 
by  prayer,  and  so  should  not  be  used  in  the 
sense  of  disapprove,  censure,  or  condemn.  Do 
not  say,  "He  deprecates  the  whole  proceeding." 

Desperately.  Do  not  say,  "He  was  des- 
perately wounded,"  but  "badly  wounded." 

Despite  should  not  be,  as  it  often  is,  pro- 
ceeded by  in,  and  followed  by  of.  Say,"  Despite 
all  our  efforts,"  not  "  In  despite  of  all  our  efforts." 

Detect  is  often  misused  for  distinguish, 
recognize,  discover,  see.  "  I  did  not  detect  any- 
thing wrong  in  his  appearance"  should  be  "I 
did  not  discover  anything  wrong  in  his  appear- 
ance." "I  could  not  detect  any  difference  be- 
tween them"  should  be  "  I  could  not  see  any 
difference  between  them." 

Die  with  —  from.  Man  and  brute  die  of, 
and  not  with  or  from,  fevers,  old  age,  and  so  on. 

Differ — Different.  The  prepositions /rom 
and  with  are  both  used  with  the  verb  differ,  but 
the  weight  of  authority  is  on  the  side  of  using 
from.  Different  to  is  sometimes  used  instead  of 
different  from ;  but  it  is  incorrect.  "  She  is  differ- 
ent than  you  would  expect  her  to  be"  should 
be  "different  from  what  you  would  expect  her 
to  be."  The  word  than  implies  comparison  and 
demands  the  comparative  degree.  Different  is 
in  no  way  a  comparative.  We  say  greater  than 
but  different  from.  We  may  differ  with  a  per- 
son, but  things  differ  from  one  another. 

D  ock — W  harf .  A  dry  dock  is  a  place  where 
vessels  are  drawn  out  of  the  water  for  repairs, 
A  wet  dock  is  a  place  where  vessels  are  kept  afloat 
at  a  certain  level,  while  they  are  being  loaded 
or  unloaded.  A  wharf  is  a  sort  of  quay  built  by 
the  side  of  the  water.  Vessels  lie  at  wharfs  and 
piers,  not  at  docks. 

Don't.  This  is  the  contraction  for  do  not, 
and  not  for  does  not:  therefore  do  not  say, "He 
don't  want  it." 

Each  other  is  properly  applied  to  two 
only ;  one  another  must  be  used  when  the  number 
considered  exceeds  two.  We  say,"  Great  authors 
address  themselves  to  one  another,"  unless  we 
refer  to  only  two  authors. 

Effect  —  Affect.  Effect  means  to  bring 
about;  as,  "to  effect  a  reform."  Affect  means 
to  influence;  as,  "His  ideas  will  affect  the  char- 
acter of  the  reform." 

Elegant.  "This  is  a  fine  morning,"  not 
"This  is  an  elegant  morning." 

Emigrant  —  Immigrant.  These  two 
words  are  not  infrequently  confounded.  Emi- 
grants are  persons  going  out  of  the  country; 
immigrants  are  persons  coming  into  the  country. 

Ending  of  Sentences.  Sentences  end- 
ing with  prepositions  are  always  more  terse, 
always  quite  as  idiomatic,  and  always  simpler, 


194 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


than  they  would  be  if  differently  constructed. 
"The  man  I  gave  it  to,"  not  "The  man  to  whom 
I  gave  it."  "The  verb  it  belongs  to,"  not  "The 
verb  to  which  it  belongs,"  etc. 

Enjoy  Bad  Health.  Does  anyone  en- 
joy bad  health?  Say,  "  He  is  in  feeble  or  delicate 
health." 

Equally  as  Well.  As  well,  or  equally 
well,  expresses  quite  as  much  as  equally  as  well. 

Everlastingly  means  perpetually,  eter- 
nally, forever.  Do  not  say,  "  The  horse  was  ever- 
lastingly running  away." 

Every.  "Every  one  of  us  has  this  in  com- 
mon" should  be  "All  of  us  have  this  in  com- 
mon." 

Except.     See  Accept. 

Excessively.  Say,  "  The  weather  is  very 
warm,"  not  "excessively  hot."  "My  friend  was 
exceedingly  popular,"  not  "excessively  popular." 

Excise  Laws.  An  excise  is  a  tax  levied 
on  domestic  products;  it  is  an  internal  revenue 
tax.  New  York  has'  license  laws  and  license 
commissioners,  and  properly  they  should  be  so 
called.  New  York's  excise  laws,  so  called,  are 
properly  license  laws. 

Exercise  —  Exorcise.  Do  not  use  these 
words  interchangeably.  Exercise  means  a  put- 
ting into  use,  action,  or  practice;  exorcise  to 
cast  or  drive  out  (an  evil  spirit),  by  religious 
or  magical  formulas  or  ceremonies. 

Expect.  We  cannot  expect  backwards. 
"  I  expect  you  thought  I  would  come  to  see  you 
yesterday"  should  be  "I  suppose,  etc."  "I 
expect  you  know  all  about  it"  should  be  "I  sus- 
pect you  know,  etc." 

Experience.  "We  experienced  great 
hardships"  should  read  "We  suffered." 

Extend.  "They  showed  me  every  kind- 
ness" is  better  than  "They  extended  every  kind- 
ness to  me." 

Farther  —  Further.  Use  farther  for  all 
distances  that  can  be  measured  either  great  or 
small.     Use  further  in  all  other  sentences. 

Female  applies  to  animals,  as  well  as  to 
women,  and  so  should  not  be  used  in  such  sen- 
tences as,  "With  the  dislike  not  unnatural  to 
females,  etc." 

Fewer  —  Less.  Fewer  refers  to  number, 
and  less  to  quantity.  Instead  of  "There  were 
not  less  than  twenty  scholars  absent,"  we  should 
say, "  There  were  not  fewer  than  twenty  scholars 
absent."  Instead  of  "There  were  not  less  than 
ten  chapters  in  the  book,"  we  should  say,  "  There 
were  not  fewer  than  ten  chapters  in  the  book." 

Find.  "I  think  the  men  /ind  everything" 
should  be  "supply  everything." 

Fixed.  This  word  is  often  misused  for  ar- 
ranged; as,  "I  must  fix  the  books."  "Who 
fixed  the  dishes  on  the  shelves?"  It  is  vul- 
garly used  thus:  "I  will  fix  him."  "The  jury- 
was  fixed."  "You  must  fix  up,  if  you  go. 
"  Your  alTairs  are  in  a  bad  fix." 

Former — Latter.  The  less  the  writer  uses 
these  words  the  better.  In  the  interest  of  force 
and  clearness  their  use  should  be  studiously 
avoided.  It  is  nearly  always  better  to  repeat 
the  noun.  This  avoids  the  reader's  going  back 
to  see  which  is  former  and  which  is  latter. 

Got  —  Have.  If  a  man  inherits  a  fortune, 
you  say  he  has  money;    if  he  obtains  money 


through  his  own  effort,  you  say  "He  has  gotten 
money."  "He  has  books"  means  merely  that 
he  possesses  them;  "He  has  gotten  his  books" 
means  that  he  has  obtained  them  through  effort. 
Have  shows  simple  possession;  got  shows  pos- 
session plus  the  effort  to  obtain  the  thing. 

Had  Ought.  This  expression  is  incorrect 
because  had  is  used  with  the  past  participle  of 
the  principal  verb  to  form  the  compound  tense. 
Ought  is  a  defective  verb  and  has  no  participle: 
therefore  ought  cannot  be  used  with  had. 

Hain't  is  a  very  objectionable  vulgarism. 

Handy  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense, 
near,  near  by,  close  at  hand;  as,  "The  store  is 
handy."     Say,  "The  store  is  near." 

Have  to  Have  or  Had  to  Have.  Bet- 
ter than  "  I  have  to  have  my  work  done  by  three 
o'clock"  is  "  I  should,  must,  or  ought  to  have  my 
work,  etc."  Got  to  get  is  another  unpleasant 
repetition. 

Hence  is  superfluous  in  the  sentence,  "  It 
will  be  many  years  hence,  we  apprehend,  before 
he  returns." 

How.  "I  have  heard  how,  in  Italy,  one  is 
beset  on  all  sides  by  beggars"  should  read  "I 
have  heard  that,  in  Italy,  etc." 

However.  Use  how,  not  however,  in  such 
a  sentence  as,  "However  could  you  tell  such  a 
story !" 

If.  Use  whether  in  place  of  if  in  these  sen- 
tences: "I  doubt  if  the  book  will  suit  you"; 
"I  wonder  if  he  has  come." 

Ill  —  Sick.  Almost  all  British  speakers  and 
writers  limit  the  meaning  of  sick  to  the  expres- 
sion of  qualmishness,  sickness  at  the  stomach, 
nausea,  and  lay  the  proper  burden  of  the  ad- 
jective sick  upon  the  word  ill.  They  sneer  at  ue 
for  not  joining  in  the  robbery  and  the  imposition. 
Richard  Grant  White  says,  "  I  was  present  once 
when  a  British  merchant,  receiving  in  his  own 
house  a  Yankee  youth  at  a  little  party,  said,  in 
a  tone  that  attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole 
room,  'Good  evening!  We  haven't  seen  you 
for  a  long  while.  Have  you  been  seeck'  (the 
sneer  prolonged  the  word),  'as  you  say  in  your 
country?'  'No,  thank  you,'  said  the  other, 
frankly  and  promptly,  '  I've  been  hill,  as  they 
say  in  yours.'  " 

In  —  Into.  In  is  sometimes  an  adverb  and 
sometimes  a  preposition.  As  an  adverb  it  is 
correctly  used  in  these  sentences:  "Come  in"; 
"Go  in."  As  a  preposition  in  should  be  used 
with  verbs  of  rest  and  into  with  verbs  of  motion. 
These  words  are  correctly  used  in:  "He  sat  in 
his  chair";    "He  ran  into  the  house." 

Incite — Insight.  Incite  means  to  rouse 
to  a  particular  action;  as,  "The  mob  was  in- 
cited to  set  the  house  on  fire."  Insight  is  a  noun 
and  means  the  power  or  faculty  of  immediate 
and  acute  perception  or  understanding ;  as,  "  The 
strongest  insight  we  obtain  into  nature  is  that 
which  we  receive,  etc." 

In  Our  Midst  is  not  according  to  the 
genius  of  our  language.  It  should  be  written 
in  the  midst  of  us.  Also  in  the  midst  of  them, 
and  not  in  their  midst. 

Inaugurate  should  not  be  used  in  place 
of  begin  for  the  simple  things  of  daily  life.  It 
is  a  big  word  misused. 

Individual  should  not  be  used  for  person. 


LANGUAGE 


195 


The  word  is  used  correctly  in  "Changes  both  in 
individuals  and  communities  are  often  pro- 
duced by  trifles";  incorrectly  in  "That  indi- 
vidual, left  here  several  hours  ago." 

Innumerable  Number  should  not  be 
used.  Say  instead  innumerable  times  or  numr- 
berless  times. 

In  so  far  as.  The  in  is  superfluous  in 
this  phrase.  "In  so  far  as  I  know"  should  be 
"So  far  as  I  know." 

Intend  is  often  misused  for  purpose.  "I 
intend  to  attend  college  this  winter"  should 
read  "  I  purpose  to  attend  college  this  winter." 
We  purpose  seriously;    we  intend  vaguely. 

Just  Going  to  Go  is  better  expressed  by 
just  about  to  go.  Just  going  to  say  by  just  about 
to  say,  etc.,  or  by  about  to  go. 

Just  Next.  Doesn't  "He  was  next  me" 
express  as  much  as  "  He  was  just  next  me  "  ? 

Kids.  It  is  better  usage  to  speak  of  one's 
gloves  than  of  one's  kids.  Silk  gloves  are  not 
silks.     Children  are  not  kids. 

Kind  of.  "What  kind  of  man  is  he?"  is 
correct.  "What  kind  of  a  man  is  he?"  is  in- 
correct. 

Lady.  Address  a  stranger  as  madam,  and 
not  as  lady.  People  of  culture  and  refinement 
will  never  say,  "She  is  a  fine  lady,"  a  "clever 
lady,"  etc.  Ladies  say,  "The  women  of  Amer- 
ica," "women's  apparel,"  etc.  In  similar  in- 
stances men  should  be  used  in  place  of  gentle- 
men. 

Lie  —  Lay.  By  a  vulgar  error  these  verbs 
have  been  so  confounded  as  to  deserve  some 
notice.  To  lie  is  neuter,  and  designates  a  state : 
to  lay  is  active,  and  denotes  an  action  on  an 
object;  it  is  properly  to  cause  to  lie.  "A  thing 
lies  on  the  table";  "Some  one  lays  it  on  the 
table";  "He  lies  with  his  fathers";  "They 
laid  him  with  his  fathers."  In  the  same  manner, 
when  used  idiomatically,  we  say,  "A  thing  lies 
by  us  until  we  bring  it  into  use";  "We  lay  it 
by  for  some  future  purpose." 

The  confusion  arises  probably  from  the  fact 
that  lay  appears  in  both  verbs.  The  words  are 
correctly  used  in  the  following  sentences: 

I  lay  myself  upon  the  bed  (action).  I  lie 
upon  the  bed  (rest). 

I  laid  myself  upon  the  bed  (action).  I  lay 
upon  the  bed  (rest). 

I  have  laid  myself  upon  the  bed  (action).  I 
have  lain  upon  the  bed  (rest). 

A  hen  lays  an  egg  (action).  A  ship  lies  at  the 
wharf  (rest). 

The  murdered  Lincoln  lay  in  state  (rest); 
The  people  laid  the  crime  upon  the  rebels  (ac- 
tion). 

Learn  — Teach.  The  uncultured  often 
change  these  verbs.  To  teach  is  to  give  instruc- 
tion; to  learn  is  to  take  instruction.  "I  will 
learn  if  you  will  teach  me  "  is  correct. 

Leave.  The  vulgar  say,  "Leave  me  be"; 
"Leave  it  alone";  "Leave  me  see  it."  Of 
course  let  is  the  verb  to  be  used  here. 

Lend.  Frequently  confused  with  loan.  The 
latter  is  not  a  verb,  but  a  noun.  A  loan  is  the 
completed  act  of  lending,  or  is  the  thing  lent. 
It  may  sound  larger  to  some  people  to  say  that 
they  loaned  than  that  they  lent  a  thousand 
dollars  —  more  as  if  the  loan  were  an  important 


transaction;  but  that  can  be  only  because  they 
are  either  careless  or  indifferent. 

Less.     See  fewer. 

Lilce  —  Love.  We  like  acquaintances, 
horses,  flowers,  pictures,  etc.  We  love  wives, 
sweethearts,  kinsmen,  truth,  justice,  and  country. 

Lilce  — As.  "He  looks  like  you."  This 
sentence  may  mean  either  "He  looks  as  you 
look,"  or  "  He  resembles  you  in  his  appearance." 
The  sentence  should  read  "He  looks  as  you 
look,"  or  "He  is  like  you."  Like  is  followed 
by  an  object  only,  and  does  not  admit  of  a  verb 
in  the  same  construction.  As  must  be  followed 
by  a  verb  expressed  or  understood. 

Like  is  sometimes  improperly  used  in  the 
sense  of  as  though,  thus:  "It  looks  like  it  was 
caused  by  fire." 

Loan.     See  Lend. 

Lot  —  Lots.  Very  inelegantly  used  for  a 
great  many,  a  great  deal :  "  He4iad  a  lot  of  money 
left  him";    "Lots  of  trouble  came  her  way." 

Luncheon  is  a  more  elegant  form  than 
lunch,  especially  in  the  sense  of  a  formal 
repast. 

Make  a  Visit.  We  do  not  make  visits, 
we  pay  them. 

Malaria.  This  word  is  the  name  of  a  cause 
of  a  disease,  and  not  the  name  of  a  disease.  We 
do  not  suffer  from  malaria,  but  from  the  effect 
of  malaria,  which  is  a  noxious  exhalation,  usually 
from  marshy  districts. 

Middling.  This  word  is  an  adjective,  not 
an  adverb ;  hence  we  cannot  say  a  thing  is  mid- 
dling good,  or  that  a  thing  was  middling  well 
done.  "  He  resided  in  a  town  of  middling 
size"  is  correct. 

Mind  is  often  misused  for  obey.  To  mind 
is  to  attend  to  a  thing  so  it  will  not  be  forgotten. 
"Will  you  obey  me?"  not"  Will  you  mind 
me?" 

Mistaken.  "  If  I  am  not  mistaken  "  should 
be  "  If  I  mistake  not."  You  are  mistaken  is  a 
correct  form  of  expression;  it  means  you  have 
been  led  into  error. 

Most.  This  word  should  usually  be  omitted 
from  conversation  and  writing.  Very  is  the 
better  word  in  almost  every  instance.  "  It  would 
most  {very')  seriously  aiTect  us."  This  word  is 
often  misused  for  almost.  "He  comes  here  most 
every  day"  should  be  "He  comes  here  almost 
every  day." 

Mutual.  This  word  is  often  confounded 
with  common.  These  words  are  correctly  used 
in  these  sentences :  "  Our  former  correspondence 
was  renewed,  with  the  most  hearty  expression 
of  mutual  good  will."  "We  have  two  friends 
in  common."  "They  met  at  the  house  of  a  comr- 
man  friend."  "Their  mutual  dislike  (not  dis- 
like for  each  other)  was  well  known." 

Myself.  This  pronoun  should  be  used  only 
where  increased  emphasis  is  aimed  at,  as  in  "I 
will  do  it  myself,"  etc.  It  is  incorrect  to  say, 
"Mary  and  myself  were  satisfied." 

Nicely.  This  word  is  frequently  misused  in 
the  attempt  to  make  it  do  service  for  well,  in 
this  wise:  "How  do  you  do?"  "Nicely." 
"  How  are  you  ?  "     "  Nicely." 

Numerous  is  often  used  in  place  of  large 
or  many.  "We  have  numerous  acquaintances" 
should  be  "We  have  many  acquaintances." 


196 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Of  All  Others.  "0/  all  others  she  is  the 
last  one  you  would  expect."  Is  she  one  of  the 
others?     If  not,  why  class  her  as  such? 

Of  Any  is  often  used  in  place  of  all.  "  She  is 
the  smallest  of  any  I  have  known"  should  be 
"the  smallest  of  all,  etc." 

Off  of.  The  latter  of  these  words  should  be 
omitted  from  the  sentence.  Say,  "The  pears  fell 
off  the  tree,"  not "  The  pears  fell  o^  of  the  tree." 

On  to.  "  We  get  on  a  horse,  on  a  chair,"  etc., 
not  "on  to." 

One  should  be  followed  by  one  and  not  by 
he.  "Can  one  visit  his  friends  there?"  should 
be  "Can  one  visit  one's  friends  there?" 

Only.  This  word  is  probably  more  often 
misplaced  than  any  other  word  in  the  language. 
"He  only  sang  for  us."  "He  sang  only  for  us." 
The  first  means  that  he  sang,  but  did  not  play 
for  us;  the  second  one  means  he  sang  for  us 
and  not  for  any  one  else.  A  change  in  the  po- 
sition of  only  in  almost  any  sentence  will  effect 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence  the  same  as  in  this 
illustration. 

Other.  This  word  should  not  be  omitted 
in  sentences  like  the  following:  "He  said  that 
his  wife  was  dressed  better  than  any  (other) 
woman  there." 

Ought— Should.  Ought  is  the  stronger 
term.  "What  we  ought  to  do,  we  are  morally 
bound  to  do."  "We  ought  to  be  truthful  and 
honest,  and  should  be  respectful  to  our  elders." 

Over.  Do  not  use  over  in  the  sense  of  more 
than.  "It  is  over  a  yard  long"  should  read 
"more  </ian  a  yard  long." 

Own  is  often  misused  in  place  of  confess. 
"I  own  I  saw  her  do  it"  should  be  "I  confess  I 
saw  her  do  it." 

Pair.  "A  new  pair  of  shoes"  should  be  "a 
pair  of  new  shoes."  The  shoes  are  new,  not  the 
pair. 

Pants  is  a  vulgar  abbreviation  for  panta- 
loons. 

Party  is  often  used  by  the  ignorant  where 
good  taste  would  use  the  word  person.  Not 
"the  party  that  I  saw,"  but  "  the  person." 

Past.  This  word  is  incorrectly  used  for  la^t 
in  such  expressions  as,  "The  past  three  days," 
"The  past  year." 

Pell-mell  means  mixed  or  mingled  to- 
gether. It  cannot  properly  be  applied  to  an 
individual.  "  He  rushed  pell-mell  into  my  arms  " 
would  be  to  say  "  He  rushed  into  my  arms  mixed 
together." 

Per.  Per  day,  per  man,  per  pound,  etc.,  are 
better  expressed  by  the  plain  English  a  day,  a 
man,  a  pound,  etc.  Ten  dollars  per  is  the  slang 
for  ten  dollars  a  week,  a  month,  apiece,  etc. 

Perform.  The  short  word  play  is  to  be 
preferred  in  "She  performs  on  the  piano  beau- 
tifully." This  sentence  would  be  improved  by 
using  well  or  admirably  in  place  of  beautifully. 

Peruse  is  often  used  when  the  word  read 
would  be  in  better  taste. 

Place  is  misused  for  where  in  "Let's  go 
some  place."     "1  want  to  go  some  place." 

Polite  should  not  be  used  for  kind  before 
the  word  invitation. 

Posted  is  incorrectly  used  for  inform  in  such 
expressions  as,  "The  man  posted  me";  "If  I  had 
been  better  posted." 


Prejudice  should  not  be  used  in  a  favorable 
sense.  You  cannot  say  "The  man  is  prejudiced 
in  his  favor."  We  should  say,  "He  is  prepos- 
sessed in  his  favor." 

Prepositions.  If  you  are  in  doubt  what 
preposition  to  use  after  any  verb,  or  with  any 
noun,  always  consult  the  dictionary. 

Preventive  and  not  Preventative. 
This  adjective,  in  common  with  subsequent,  in- 
dependent, relative,  antecedent,  and  possibly 
others,  is  often  incorrectly  used  as  an  adverb. 
"Previous  to  our  visit"  should  be  "  previously  to 
our  visit."  " Independent  oi  this  reason"  should 
be  "independently  of  this  reason." 

Procure  is  often  made  to  do  the  work  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  word  get.  "Where  did  you 
procure  it?"  should  be  "Where  did  you  get 
it?" 

Promise  often  does  duty  for  assure.  "I 
promise  you  I  was  agreeably  surprised  "  should 
be  "  I  assure  you,  etc." 

Providing  should  be  provided  in  such 
sentences  as,  "He  offered  to  provide  a  stable 
and  supply  the  necessities  of  the  company  pro- 
viding the  control  of  the  board  should  he  turned 
over  to  him." 

Purchase — Buy.  Use  purchase  in  refer- 
ence to  great  matters,  as,  "  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase"; use  buy  with  reference  to  ordinary  mat- 
ters, as,  "He  bought  a  book,  his  dinner,  etc." 

Railroad  Depot.  A  depot  is  properly  a 
place  where  goods  or  stores  of  any  kind  are  kept ; 
and  the  places  at  which  the  trains  of  a  railroad 
— or,  better,  railway — stop  for  passengers,  or 
the  points  they  start  from  or  arrive  at,  are  prop- 
erly the  stations. 

Raise — Rear.  We  rear  children  and  raise 
animals.  Raised  the  rent  is  incorrectly  used  for 
increased  the  rent. 

Real  should  not  be  used  for  very  in  such 
phrases  as  real  pretty,  real  nice,  real  angry. 

Resurrect  is  still  marked  colloquial  in  the 
recent  dictionaries. 

Retire.  It  is  only  the  over  nice  that  retire 
in  the  sense  of  go  to  bed. 

Sunday  is  the  first  day  of  the  week,  and 
Sabbath  is  the  last  day  of  the  week. 

Saw  is  sometimes  carelessly  used  for  have 
seen.  "  I  never  saw  anything  like  it  before " 
should  be  "I  have  never  seen  anything  like  it 
until  now. "  We  say  properly,  "  I  never  saw 
anything  like  it  when  I  was  in  Paris." 

Set — Sit.  These  verbs,  like  lie  and  lay,  are 
often  confounded  in  their  use.  To  set  is  transi- 
tive; to  sit  is  intransitive.  "I  set  the  hen,  but 
she  sits  on  her  eggs."  Incorrectly  we  speak  of  a 
setting  hen,  instead  of  a  sitting  hen.  In  Matthew, 
it  was  prophesied  that  Christ  should  come  "  sit- 
ting upon  an  ass "  and,  therefore,  His  disciples 
took  a  colt  and  "  they  set  Him  thereon."  The 
verb  is  correctly  used  in  these  sentences:  "My 
dress  sits  well";  "We  will  sit  up,"  that  is,  will 
not  go  to  bed;  "Congress  siis."  "We  sei  down 
figures,"  but  "We  sit  down  on  the  ground." 

An  apparent  contradiction  is  found  in  the 
sentence,  "The  sun  sets";  but  the  verb  sets  in 
this  sentence  has  a  different  origin  from  the 
verb  set  that  we  have  been  discussing.  Long 
ago  they  used  to  say,  "The  sun  settles";  but 
settle  has  been  shortened  to  set. 


LANGUAGE 


197 


Shall — Will.  The  radical  signification  of 
will  is  purpose,  intention,  determination;  that 
of  shall  is  obligation.  I  will  do  means  I  pur- 
pose doing  —  1  am  determined  to  do.  I  shall 
do  means,  radically,  I  ought  to  do ;  and  as  a  man 
is  supposed  to  do  that  which  he  ought  to  do,  I 
shall  do  came  to  mean,  I  am  about  doing  —  to 
be,  in  fact,  a  mere  announcement  of  future  ac- 
tion, more  or  less  remote.  Always  keep  in  mind 
that  I  shall,  you  will,  and  he  will,  are  the  forms 
of  the  future,  and  that  I  will,  you  shall,  and  he 
shall,  imply  volition  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 
Will  and  shall  in  the  first  person  are  properly 
used  in  the  following  quotations  from  "The 
Absentee,"  one  of  Miss  Edgeworth's  novels:  — 
"Gone!  Forever  gone  from  me,"  said  Lord 
Colambre,  as  the  carriage  drove  away.  "  Never 
shall  I  see  her  more  —  never  will  I  see  her  more, 
till  she  is  married." 

"  We  will  do  our  best  to  make  you  happy,  and 
hope  we  shall  succeed." 

They  are  also  used  properly  in  "I  shall  be 
drowned";  "We  shall  have  to  go";  "Is  the 
time  coming  when  we  shall  desert  Thackeray?" 

These  two  words  are  coming  more  and  more 
to  be  used  interchangeably,  so  tliat  one  authority 
says  there  is  no  distinction  to  be  made  in  their 
use ;  but  this  is  not  yet  true.  There  is  determi- 
nation expressed  in  shall  as  well  as  in  will. 
Suppose  you  had  put  a  book  upon  the  table, 
and  had  told  me  not  to  take  it  from  the  table, 
not  to  read  it.  I  might  say,  "  I  shall  go  to  the 
table;  I  shall  take  the  book;  and  I  will  read 
it."  Shall  here  indicates  a  future  action  with 
intention  added  to  the  thought;  and  will  ex- 
presses determination.  "  I  will  go  to  the  table 
for  supper"  indicates  that  you  have  been  told 
not  to  go  to  the  table,  but  that  you  will  go  in 
spite  of  this  prohibition;  while  "I  shall  go  to 
the  table"  indicates  only  futurity  of  action. 
Where  there  is  nothing  to  rouse  the  will  or  to 
show  a  prohibition,  shall  is  often  used  inter- 
changeably with  will,  as  in  "  Will  you  come  to 
the  table?"  "Yes,  I  will  come  to  the  table," 
in  which  sentence  will  expresses  futurity,  and 
not  determination. 

You  shall  do  it  shows  intention  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker  to  make  the  other  person  do  his 
will,  and  not  his  own  will.  "You  will  do  it" 
usually  shows  simple  futurity.  Still,  in  the  case 
of  the  child  and  its  mother,  the  child  says,  "I 
won't  do  it ! "  and  the  mother  puts  her  will  into 
operation  and  says,  "You  will  do  it,"  meaning 
I  will  that  you  will  to  do  it. 

"He  shall  do  it"  and  "He  will  do  it"  follow 
the  same  rules  as  the  second  person. 

The  words  are  incorrectly  used  in  "  Will  I  cut 
myself?"  "I  will  drown,  and  nobody  shall 
help  me." 

Will  cannot  be  used  interrogatively  in  the 
first  person  singular  or  plural,  as  can  be  seen 
by  the  sentence,  "  Will  I  put  some  more  coal  on 
the  fire?" 

To  determine  whether  to  use  would  or  should, 
express  your  thought,  whenever  possible,  in  the 
present  tense,  and  then  use  would  for  will  and 
should  for  shall.  These  words  are  used  correctly 
in  the  following  sentences :  "I  would  come  to  you 
if  I  could."  "  I  should  have  been  sorry  if  I  had 
gone."     "I   would   I   were   there."     "I   should 


go  hunting  to-day  if  the  weather  were  good." 
"  I  should  prefer  to  hear  the  music." 

Sick  —  III.     See  111. 

Since  wlien  should  not  be  used  for  since 
that  time,  or  since  what  time,  according  to  the 
meaning. 

Smell  of.     We  smell  the  rose,  not  S7nell  of  it. 

Splendid.  Splendid,  awful,  and  dandy 
seem  to  be  about  tne  only  adjectives  some  of  our 
superlative  young  women  have  in  their  vocabu- 
laries. 

Standpoint.  This  idea  is  better  expressed 
by  view  point  or  point  of  view. 

Stop  for  stay  is  a  Briticism.  To  stop  is  to 
arrest  motion ;  to  stay  is  to  remain  where  motion 
is  arrested.  We  may  stop  at  a  hotel;  but  how 
long  we  stay  depends  upon  circumstances. 

Storm.  To  a  storm  a  violent  commotion 
of  the  atmosphere  is  indispensable;  so  say  rains 
or  snows,  unless  it  really  storms. 

Street.  We  live  in  not  on  a  street.  Things 
occur  in  not  on  a  street. 

Stricken  is  used  when  misfortune  is  im- 
plied; as,  "  He  was  s<ncA;en  with  death."  Struck 
is  used  in  all  other  cases;  as,  "He  was  struck  by 
a  stone." 

Such.  "I  have  never  seen  such  a  small 
man"  should  be  "  I  have  never  seen  so  small  a 
man,"  as  may  be  seen  by  transposing  the  words 
of  the  first  sentence,  which  then  becomes  "  I 
have  never  seen  a  man  such  small." 

Such  a  Pretty,  Such  a  Lovely,  are 
incorrect,  and  should  be  so  pretty,  so  lovely. 

Sure.  "He  will  surely  be  here,"  not  "He 
will  be  here  sure." 

Sustain.  We  do  not  sustain  injuries;  we 
receive  them. 

Teach.     See  Learn. 

That.  This  word  is  not  an  adverb,  and  so 
cannot  modify  an  adjective;  so,  that  good,  that 
worthy,  etc.,  should  be  so  good,  so  worthy, 
etc. 

The,  like  a,  should  be  used  before  both  nouns 
or  both  adjectives  when  they  denote  different 
objects.  "The  fish  and  monkey"  should  be 
"t}ie  fish  and  the  monkey"  ;  "the  secretary  and 
treasurer"  (if  one  man),  "the  secretary  and  the 
treasurer"  (if  two  men). 

The  should  be  used  before  Reverend,  Hon- 
orable, etc.     The  Reverend  James  Smith,  D.  D. 

Thence.  Do  not  use  thence  with  tlie  prepo- 
sition from.     "He  came  thence"  is  correct. 

Think  for.  "He  hears  more  than  you 
think  for"  is  wrong.     Omit  the  for. 

Those  Kind.  "  That  kind  of  shoes  is  good," 
not  "  those  kind."  "  This  sort  of  people  (not  these 
sort)  will  suit  you." 

To.  Never  say,  "  She  was  to  my  house  yes- 
terday."    Use  at  in  place  of  to. 

Try.     We  make  experiments,  not  try  them. 

T"wice  Over.  The  over  serves  no  purpose 
in  "He  said  it  twice  over  in  different  ways." 

Under  the  Circumstances.  Better 
in  the  circumstances. 

Universally  — •  All.  "  He  was  universally 
praised  by  all  who  heard  him"  is  better  ex- 
pressed by  "He  was  universally  praised,"  or 
"  He  was  praised  by  all  who  heard  him." 

Upon  —  On.  We  call  on  persons,  and 
speak  on  subjects,  and  stand  upon  the  table. 


198 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Use  to.  Use  to  should  be  used  to,  "We 
lised  to  live  there  "  is  correct. 

Vocation  —  Avocation.  A  man's  vo- 
cation is  his  profession,  his  calling,  his  business; 
and  his  avocations  are  the  things  that  occupy  him 
incidentally.  Miss  Brown's  vocation  is  teaching  ; 
her  avocations  are  embroidering  and  painting. 

Ways.  Wrongly  used  for  way;  as,  "The 
house  is  a  long  ways  off"  should  be  "way  off." 

Well  —  W  hy.  These  two  words  are  used 
by  Americans  in  almost  every  sentence.  Un- 
less they  are  absolutely  necessary  in  a  sentence 
leave  them  out. 

Wharf.     See  Dock. 

W^hat.  "He  would  not  think  but  what  I 
said  it"  should  be  "but  that." 

Wlience.  "Whence  came  ye  V  not  "From 
whence  came  ye?"  Whence  means  from  what 
place,  source,  or  cause. 

Whole  of.  "All  of  the  school,"  not  "the 
whole  of  the  school." 

Widow  Woman.  Are  not  widows  al- 
ways women?  Another  error  of  this  sort  is 
brother  men. 

Without  is  a  preposition  and  should  not 
take  the  place  of  the  connective  unless;  as,  "I 
shall  not  go  without  my  father  consents"  should 
read  "unless  my  father  consents,"  or  "without 
my  father's  consent."  In  this  last  expression 
without  is  a  preposition. 

W^orst  Kind.  A  vulgarism  we  sometimes 
hear  used  in  the  sense  of  very  much.  "  I  want  to 
go  the  worst  kind." 

Worst  W^ay.  This  belongs  in  the  same 
category  with  worst  kind. 

FORMS   OF  LANGUAGE 

COMPOSITION 

The  following  table  includes  the  principal 
forms  of  language  composition : — 

I.  PROSE. 

(1)  Narration. —  Letters,  journals,  memoirs,  biog- 

raphies, history,  travel,  news,  fiction. 

(2)  Description. —  Descriptions    of    external    ob- 

jects, of  character  and  its  development,  of 
intellectual  processes. 

(3)  Exposition. —  Essays,   treatises,  editorials,   re- 

views, criticism. 

(4)  Argument. —  Argumentative    essays,    debates, 

briefs,  etc. 

(5)  Persuasion  or  Oratory. —  Orations,  addres-ses, 

lectures,  sermons. 

II.  POETRY. 

(1)  Epic    and    Narrative    Poetry. —  The    great 

epics,  metrical  romances,  metrical  tales,  bal- 
lads, pastorals,  idylls,  etc. 

(2)  Dramatic  (including  all  narrative  poetry  which 

presents  actors  as  speaking  and  acting  for 
themselves). —  Tragedy,  comedy,  farce,  opera, 
melodrama,  mask,  interlude,  etc. 

(3)  Lyric. —  Odes,  sacred  and  secular  songs,  elegy, 

sonnets,  simple  lyrics. 

(4)  Didactic. —  Moral  essays  in  verse,  satiric  poetry, 

etc. 

It  is  the  object  of  words  to  convey  thought; 
but  in  order  to  present  connected  thought, 
words  must  be  properly  arranged  with  a  definite 
end  in  view.  Such  an  arrangement  of  words 
is  called  a  language  composition.  There  are  two 
types  of  composition,  prose  and  poetry.  Prose 
is  the  plain  language  of  every-day  speech  in 
distinction  from  the  more  emotional  and  artistic 
language  of  poetry. 

liie  chief  varieties  of  prose  composition  are: 


narration,  description,  exposition,  argument, 
persuasion. 

Narration  presents  events  in  sequence  of 
time,  it  presents  a  story;  description  paints  a 
picture;  exposition  defines  a  term  or  explains  a 
proposition;  argument  establishes  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  a  statement;  persuasion  arouses  the 
emotions,  and  influences  the  will.  Narration  pre- 
sents events  with  special  reference  to  time  and 
place  and  persons,  with  their  attendant  motives 
and  circumstances.  It  is  the  aim  of  narration 
to  make  the  reader  an  eye-witness  of  the  events 
related. 

Under  narration  may  be  classed  letters,  jour- 
nals, memoirs,  biographies,  history,  travel, 
news,  fiction,  and  that  great  body  of  literature 
comprehended  under  the  term  "stories." 

The  sequence  of  events  in  narration  may  be 
with  or  without  plot.  If  it  be  simply  a  sequence 
of  time,  then  the  narration  is  said  to  be  without 
plot,  as  in  letters,  diaries,  news  of  the  day, 
journals,  memoirs,  biographies;  but  if  thpre 
be  a  subtle  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  which 
binds  together  the  sequence  of  events,  then  we 
have  a  narrative  with  a  plot,  such  as  stories, 
and  novels,  and  dramas.  A  plot  has  been  de- 
fined as  "any  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a 
narrative  so  that  the  reader's  interest  is  aroused 
concerning  the  result  of  the  series  of  events 
detailed." 

Letters,  books  of  travel,  memoirs,  and  biogra- 
phies owe  their  interest  to  the  charm  with  which 
they  are  told,  and  the  real  worth  of  the  succes- 
sive incidents  treated.  Letters  of  Thoreau  to 
his  friends,  of  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Channing, 
Alcott,  give  us  the  charm  of  Concord  life  in 
the  golden  days  of  those  philosophers,  and  also 
give  us  a  model  of  letter-writing  in  their  simple 
beauty  of  style,  and  the  value  of  their  subject 
matter. 

Books  of  Travel  have  all  the  personal 
charm  of  letters,  and  added  to  that  the  deep 
interest  of  new  scenes,  visited  by  an  apprecia- 
tive narrator.  Travels  consist  largely  of  de- 
scription, which  should  be  well  selected  and 
accurate.  Stanley's  "  In  Darkest  Africa," 
Roberts's  "Forty-one  Years  in  India,"  Grey's 
"Travels  in  Australia,"  are  interesting  books 
of  travel. 

Memoirs  relate  chiefly  to  matters  of  mem- 
ory, events  that  have  come  under  the  author's 
personal  experience.  Memoirs  are  related  to 
history,  but  are  less  systematic  and  more  con- 
versational in  style.  "Yesterdays  with  Au- 
thors," by  J.  T.  Fields,  is  a  volume  of  memoirs 
of  noted  literary  men  he  knew. 

Biography  is  a  history  of  an  individual 
life,  somewhat  more  extended  than  a  memoir. 
An  autobiography  is  the  life  history  of  the 
writer  himself.  Biographies  form  a  very  im- 
portant branch  of  history.  If  one  would  know 
the  history  of  a  time  he  must  know  the  men  of 
that  time.  The  Autobiography  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  furnishes  a  much  better  picture  of  life 
in  his  times  than  pages  of  our  best  histories. 
American  Men  of  Letters  series,  American 
Statesmen  series,  give  a  fine  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  American  nation. 

History  is  a  formal  and  connected  account 
of  the  life  of  a  nation.     Historical  narration  ex- 


LANGUAGE 


199 


plains  the  sequence  of  events,  their  cause  and 
effect,  and  their  bearing  on  civilization.  The 
historian  records  truth  for  the  instruction  of 
mankind.  It  is,  therefore,  required  of  him  that 
he  make  his  records  witli  impartiality  and  accu- 
racy, and  with  the  highest  regard  for  morality. 
Gibbon's  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire," Motley's  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic," 
are  histories  written  with  the  charm  of  romance, 
because  they  are  narrated  with  the  vividness 
of  an  eye-witness  and  are  aglow  with  human 
sympathies. 

News  forms  a  most  important  branch  of 
letters.  The  editorial  and  the  news  columns  in- 
fluence more  people  to-day  than  any  other  form 
of  literature.  Thousands,  who  are  utterly  un- 
acquainted with  books,  read  with  eagerness  the 
daily  news,  so  the  newspaper  of  to-day  has  be- 
come a  popular  educator.  It  is  the  privilege  of 
the  newspaper  to  present  a  high  standard  of 
pure  grammatical  English,  and  of  morality. 

Clearness,  brevity,  accuracy,  are  the  essential 
qualities  in  a  news  reporter.  He  must  choose 
language  that  will  convey  his  exact  meaning, 
and  give. all  essential  details  in  as  brief  a  manner 
as  is  consistent  with  accuracy  and  clearness. 
Daily  news  is  read  for  the  information  it  conveys, 
and  not  for  beauty  of  style,  yet  it  is  desirable 
that  the  news  writer  cultivate  ease  and  the 
charm  of  naturalness  in  writing  up  the  simplest 
occurrences  of  the  day,  if  he  can  do  all  this  in 
quick  and  graphic  sentences.  News  writing 
differs  greatly  from  the  writing  of  editorials  or 
leaders.  The  news  reporter  simply  gathers  up 
the  facts  of  the  day  and  presents  them  without 
bias  of  opinion,  whereas  it  is  the  business  of  the 
editor  to  discuss  facts  and  give  opinions.  Edi- 
torials properly  belong  under  exposition  and 
persuasion,  rather  than  under  the  division  of 
prose  narration. 

Fiction,  from  the  earliest  dawn  of  litera- 
ture, has  been  the  favorite  form  of  composition. 
The  mind  revels  in  the  creations  of  the  imagina- 
tion, and  myths  and  folk  tales  are  the  delight 
of  all  peoples.  Modern  fiction  has  had  phe- 
nomenal development,  and  the  growth  of  the 
short  story  has  been  without  parallel. 

Fiction  includes  stories,  novels,  and  romances, 
both  in  prose  and  verse.  The  aim  of  fiction  is 
principally  to  entertain.  The  general  reader  of 
fiction  does  not  want  instruction,  he  is  seeking 
diversion.  Incidentally,  however,  to  the  enter- 
tainment that  is  furnished  by  a  modern  novel, 
there  is  much  instruction  given  by  our  best  writers 
of  historical  novels,  concerning  customs  and  man- 
ners, and  domestic  and  social  life,  and  the  history 
of  the  time  in  the  midst  of  which  the  plot  is  set; 
but  more  valuable  than  these  outer  facts  of  life 
is  the  study  of  motives  and  behavior,  and  de- 
velopment of  character,  and  the  insight,  which  is 
given  into  human  nature,  and  the  conditions 
of  human  society  which  lie  beyond  our  range  of 
observation.  If  well  selected,  and  not  read  to 
excess,  novels  form  a  valuable  means  of  educa- 
tion, as  well  as  of  intellectual  entertainment. 
The  novels  of  Dickens,  Victor  Hugo,  Tolstoi,  have 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  public  to  unsuspected 
social  conditions.  Bunyan,  Goldsmith,  Eliot, 
Hawthorne,  have  given  us  a  deeper  insight  into 
human  nature.     We  see  how  men  and  women 


behave  under  certain  circumstances,  and  the 
relation  of  good  and  evil  conduct. 

The  Short  Story  is  not,  as  often  claimed, 
a  creation  of  recent  date.  Myths,  legends,  fab- 
les, folk-tales,  are  all  forms  of  short  stories, 
which  were  invented  when  language  was  young. 

Myths  are  old-world  fairy  tales,  and  have 
for  their  heroes  gods  and  goddesses,  and  for 
their  agencies  the  forces  of  nature.  Homer's 
"Odyssey,"  Virgil's  "iEneid,"  Longfellow's 
"Hiawatha,"  are  poems  woven  out  of  mythic 
fancies. 

Fables  are  stories  in  which  animals  and 
inanimate  things  are  represented  as  having  the 
attributes  of  human  beings.  .^sop's  fables 
have  been  translated  into  every  language. 

Parables  are  concrete  examples  of  spiritual 
truths.     They  are  frequently  used  in  the  Bible. 

Allegories  are  concrete  stories  to  illustrate 
abstract  truths,  but  more  extended  than  parables 
or  fables.  An  allegory  gives  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  one  thing  under  the  image  of  another. 
Spenser's  "Faerie  Queene,"  Swift's  "Tale  of  a 
Tub,"  are  good  types  of  allegories.  Bunyan's 
"Pilgrim's  Progress"  is  the  best  known  allegory 
of  modern  times. 

Legends  and  Folk-Tales  are  the 
stories  of  daily  life  and  heroic  adventure  that 
are  common  among  all  people. 

The  field  of  the  short-story  writer  has  been 
greatly  extended  in  modern  times,  and  now 
includes  every  domain  of  fact  and  fancy.  The 
short  story  of  domestic  life,  or  a  brief  chapter 
in  personal  history,  may  be  said  to  characterize 
the  modern  short  story,  and  is  the  favorite  form 
of  fiction.  Newspapers  and  magazines  con- 
tribute largely  to  this  form  of  literature.  It  is  to 
be  greatly  regretted  that  the  popularity  of  the 
short  story  has  led  to  its  abuse,  and  that  much 
that  is  unworthy  both  in  plot  and  workmanship 
is  found  in  active  circulation.  But  literature 
has  been  enriched  by  the  number  of  really  worthy 
short-story  writers,  and  American  literature  is 
especially  rich  in  the  number  who  have  pre- 
served for  us  tones  of  local  coloring  and  contem- 
porary characters.  Bret  Harte,  Mark  Twain, 
Frank  Stockton,  have  contributed  the  riches 
of  their  humor,  and  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
Richard  Harding  Davis,  Sarah  Orne  Jewett, 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  George  W.  Cable,  have 
added  the  beauty  of  their  most  delicate  touch 
to  the  creation  of  the  modern  short  story. 
"A  New  England  Nun"  by  Mary  E.  Wil- 
kins,  "Story-tell  Lib"  by  Annie  Trumbull 
Slosson,  "The  Blue  Flower"  by  Henry  Van 
Dyke,  "Christmas  Stories"  by  Charles  Dickens, 
and  incidents  related  in  story  by  Maupassant 
are  a  few  of  the  long  list  of  excellent  short 
stories. 

Description  follows  narration  and  has 
already  been  included  in  narration.  Every 
story  must  contain  word  pictures  of  persons  or 
places  or  objects  of  interest.  Description  of 
external  objects  is  simpler  than  the  delineation 
of  character.  In  a  few  strokes  of  the  pen  Sir 
Walter  Scott  places  before  us  the  person  of  Re- 
becca, but  her  thoughts,  her  feelings,  her  inner 
struggles,  are  revealed  to  us  by  a  slower  process 
of  description.  We  are  quickly  introduced  to 
Silas  Marner  and  his  home;  but  the  real  man 


200 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


and  his  nobility  of  soul,  we  do  not  comprehend 
until  he  stands  before  Godfrey  Cass  and  ofTers 
to  give  up  to  him  his  daughter.  It  is  because 
George  Eliot  can  describe  such  moments  as  this 
that  she  is  ranked  among  the  world's  greatest 
novelists.  Shakespere  stands  first  of  all  writers 
in  his  power  to  describe  soul  experiences. 

Exposition  differs  from  narration  or  de- 
scription in  this  that  it  does  not  deal  with  con- 
crete things,  but  with  ideas,  either  separately 
or  in  combination.  Exposition  presents  defi- 
nitions, doctrines,  principles,  or  views,  with 
the  aim  to  instruct.  Exposition  is  often  intro- 
duced into  the  midst  of  narration  or  description 
for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  to  give  a  point 
of  view,  or  to  present  a  situation  more  fully. 

An  £ssay  is  a  composition  which  aims  to 
set  forth  the  author's  views  on  a  certain  subject. 
It  is  less  eb'^orate  than  a  treatise,  and  varies 
in  length  from  the  brief  school  exercise  to  the 
elaborate  essays  of  Macaulay,  or  Emerson,  or 
Carlyle.  Editorials,  reviews,  criticisms,  are 
familiar  forms  of  the  essay. 

An  Editorial  may  be  called  a  short  essay, 
giving  the  views  of  the  editor  on  some  subject 
of  the  day.  The  editorial  is  very  different  from 
the  news  item  which  was  classed  under  narra- 
tion. The  reporter  simply  records  facts  without 
personal  comment,  whereas  it  is  the  business 
of  the  editor  to  record  facts  and  give  opinions, 
explaining  where  necessary,  and  commending 
or  condemning  as  occasion  requires.  News- 
papers set  forth  social  and  political  problems 
of  a  local  or  national  character,  and  it  is  the 
aim  of  the  editorial  to  shape  public  thought. 
Back  of  the  editorial  "we"  is  the  personality 
of  the  writer;  but  sometimes  the  writer  himself 
is  lost  in  the  political  party  or  organization 
which  the  paper  or  magazine  represents. 

Reviews  are  more  elaborate  forms  of  edi- 
torials, they  deal  with  the  subject  at  greater 
length,  and  are  more  exhaustive  in  the  discus- 
sions. Reviews  often  treat  of  literary  subjects, 
as  book  reviews,  music,  art,  lives  of  noted  men, 
explorations,  etc. 

Criticisms  are  for  the  purpose  of  setting 
forth  excellences  and  defects,  and  are  designed 
to  be  constructive  rather  than  destructive,  as 
defects  are  pointed  out  that  the  true  principles 
upon  which  the  work  is  constructed  may  be 
better  understood. 

Argumentative  Discourse  is  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  tlie  truth  or  falsity  of  a 

Eroposition.  Its  aim  is  to  modify  or  induce 
elief.  It  is  assumed  that  there  is  reasonable 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  hearers,  and  by  rea- 
sonable argument  they  must  be  convinced.  In 
the  conduct  of  such  a  discourse  the  subject  or 
proposition  is  first  stated  briefly  and  concisely, 
then  follow  the  arguments  drawn  up  in  order 
and,  finally,  the  conclusion,  which  consists  of  a 
restatement  of  the  proposition  reinforced  by 
the  strength  of  the  arguments.  In  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  debate,  both  sides  must  agree  on  the 
preliminary  statement  or  proposition,  and  then 
each  side  must  furnish  proof  to  establish  the 
truth  of  the  main  proposition  as  presented  af- 
firmatively or  negatively  by  that  side. 

Persuasion  is  the  highest  type  of  argu- 
mentative   discourse,    and    includes    addresses, 


lectures,  sermons,  orations.  The  aim  of  persua- 
sion is  so  to  move  upon  the  feelings  of  the  audi- 
ence as  to  influence  the  will.  In  exposition  and 
argumentation  the  appeal  is  to  the  will,  but 
the  end  of  oratory  has  a  view  to  action.  Mark 
Antony,  over  the  dead  body  of  Cajsar,  aimed 
to  excite  the  populace  to  violence. 

Orations  are  elaborate  compositions  and 
are  delivered  on  formal  occasions,  as  Daniel 
Webster's  Bunker  Hill  oration,  Edward  Everett's 
Gettysburg  oration,  the  orations  delivered  by 
Burke,  and  Peel,  and  Fox.  Clearness  and 
force  are  strong  qualities  in  an  oration,  but,  in 
addition  to  these,  all  the  beauties  of  composition 
are  in  place.  As  oratory  is  the  highest  form  of 
prose  composition,  nothing  trivial  -or  low  in 
language  or  thought  should  be  allowed.  The 
main  idea  should  be  developed  by  both  language 
and  gesture.     Words  must  be  made  alive. 

Addresses  and  Speeclies  are  less 
formal  than  orations,  yet  they  all  admit  of  the 
tliree-fold  structure  into  introduction  or  ex- 
ordium, body  or  argument,  and  conclusion  or 
peroration.  The  strength  of  the  discourse  de- 
pends upon  the  skill  with  which  each  part  is 
handled.  Ready  and  fluent  speech  are  desir- 
able qualities  in  all  public  speaking;  but  the 
ornate  language  of  an  oration  would,  on  ordi- 
nary occasions,  be  out  of  place. 

A  Lecture  is  less  formal  than  an  oration, 
but  it  demands  a  scholarly  presentation  of  a 
subject  in  a  clear  and  logical  manner.  The 
subject  presented  should  be  of  importance,  not 
too  familiar,  and  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to 
interest  and  instruct. 

Sermons  are  the  most  familiar  forms  of 
discourse.  They  are  founded  usually  upon 
some  passage  of  Scripture,  and  are  intended  for 
instruction.  Besides  tlieir  expository  character, 
sermons  usually  contain  appeals  to  the  listener, 
and  admonitions.  The  theme  of  the  sermon  is 
presented  in  the  Bible  text;  and,  in  addition  to 
this,  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  minister  to 
make  explanatory  remarks  before  he  begins 
the  body  of  his  argument.  The  introduction 
must  contain  a  clear  putting  of  the  question, 
all  necessary  explanation  must  be  made,  and 
usually  an  outline  is  given  of  the  plan  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  body  of  the  sermon.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  the  three  kinds  of  arguments  used 
in  the  body  of  a  sermon. 

First,  tliere  is  the  argument  of  fact.  This 
is  an  argument  which  appeals  directly  to  sense 
and  reason,  and  not  to  prejudice.  The  audi- 
ence is  assumed  to  be  impartial,  and  concrete 
questions  are  presented  to  their  judgment. 

Second,  argument  of  principle  is  also  ad- 
dressed to  the  reason  of  the  audience,  and  not 
to  feelings  or  interests.  Arguments  of  facts  es- 
tablish or  disprove  some  concrete  matter  of 
human  experience,  whereas  argument  of  theory 
or  principles  establishes  the  fundamental  law 
upon  which  the  judgment  of  those  facts  is 
based. 

Third,  argument  of  policy  aims  to  persuade 
by  appeals  to  motives  of  action.  It  aims  to  in- 
fluence the  will  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  prin- 
ciples outlined  in  the  previous  arguments  of  fact 
and  theory.  What  is  right  is  presented  as  the 
expedient.     The  "I  ought"  becomes  an  obliga- 


LANGUAGE 


201 


tion.  It  is  through  the  medium  of  the  feehngs 
that  most  men  are  moved  to  action. 

The  conclusion  of  the  sermon  sums  up  the  main 
points  of  the  argument,  clearly  and  concisely. 
It  may  at  times  be  done  in  a  single  sentence; 
sometimes  it  is  best  done  by  the  repetition  of 
the  opening  text  which  has  been  established. 

Poetry  differs  from  prose  in  form  and  dic- 
tion. The  form  of  poetry  is  verse.  It  is 
arranged  in  lines  of  regularly  recurring  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables.  The  language  of 
poetry  differs  from  prose.  Certain  privileges  are 
granted  to  the  poet  which  are  called  "poetic 
licenses."  Words  are  chosen  for  their  beauty 
of  sound  or  association.  Figures  of  speech  are 
more  frequent  in  poetry  than  in  prose,  and 
inverted'  structure  is  frequently  employed.  The 
essential  difference  between  prose  and  poetry 
is,  however,  in  the  writer's  aim.  The  chief  aim 
of  prose  is  to  instruct  and  to  convince ;  the  aim 
of  poetry  is  to  appeal  to  the  emotions,  to  touch  the 
heart  of  the  reader,  to  play  upon  his  sympathies. 

Epic  Poetry  recites  some  great  and  heroic 
enterprise.  Epic  poetry  is  the  longest  and,  ex- 
cept the  drama,  the  most  complex  of  all  poetic 
composition.  Its-  theme  is  noble,  its  underlying 
plot  simple;  it  has  one  hero  but  many  actors; 
supernatural  agencies  are  often  introduced.  The 
treatment  of  the  story  is  grave  and  dignified. 
There  are  but  few  great  world  epics.  Homer's 
"Iliad"  and  "Odyssey,"  Virgil's  -".Eneid," 
Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  Tasso's  "Jerusalem 
Delivered,"  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  are  the 
greatest,  and  their  themes  are  of  universal  interest. 

Metrical  Romances  and  Narrative 
Poetry  are  inferior  to  the  epic.  They  present 
plot  and  story,  but  with  less  complication  of 
action,  and  with  simpler  theme.  Spenser's 
"Faerie  Queene,"  Scott's  "Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,"  Longfellow's  "Evangeline,"  Lowell's 
"Sir  Launfal,"  Mrs.  Browning's  "Aurora  Leigh," 
are  examples  of  this  kind  of  composition. 

The  Ballad  and  the  Tale  are  the  sim- 
plest forms  of  metrical  romance.  "Chevy 
Chase,"  "Robin  Hood,"  Chaucer's  "Canterbury 
Tales,"  Macaulay's  "Lays  of  Ancient  Rome," 
Coleridge's  "Rime  of 'the  Ancient  Mariner," 
are  good  illustrations. 

Narrative  poems  of  a  mixed  character  have 
been  variously  classed  under  minor  epics  or  pas- 
toral poems:  Tennyson's  "Idylls  of  the  King," 
Scott's  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  Longfellow's  "Tales 
of  a  Wayside  Inn,"  W^hittier's  "Snowbound," 
William  Morris's  "Earthly  Paradise."  These 
classifications  are  not  binding. 

Dramatic  poetry  presents  action,  what 
men  do  and  say,  and,  in  our  greater  dramas, 
motives  and  the  moral  train  of  consequences. 
Passion  is  strong,  incident  exciting,  thought 
vigorous.  Scenery,  costume,  dialogue,  aid  in 
the  presentation  of  the  story.  The  drama  lives 
its  life  upon  the  stage. 

The  main  divisions  of  the  drama  are  tragedy 
and  comedy.  Comedy  itself  has  the  subordi- 
nate divisions:  farce,  opera,  melodrama,  mask. 

The  Greek  drama  presents  to  us  the  highest 
form  of  dramatic  art  before  the  age  of  Shakes- 
pere.  In  the  golden  age  of  Pericles  we  have 
the  tragedies  of  ^schylus,  Euripides,  Sophocles, 
and  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes,  later  we  have 


the  comic  plays  of  Menander.  Greek  drama, 
like  our  own  English  drama,  was  written  in 
poetic  form. 

Tragedy  deals  with  grave  topics,  and  stirs 
the  deepest  feelings.  It  presents  the  unusual 
struggle  between  good  and  evil.  Some  crime 
has  been  committed,  and  the  consequences  of 
this  act  are  worked  out  upon  the  stage  in  a  chain 
of  events  which  involves  many  people.  The 
plot  becomes  more  or  less  complicated,  yet  in 
Shakespere's  dramas  the  skill  with  which  the 
leading  characters  and  the  central  theme  are 
presented,  preserves  for  the  audience  unity  of 
action  throughout  the  play.  King  Lear,  Othello, 
Macbeth,  Hamlet,  present  the  great  drama  of 
Good  versus  Evil,  and  will  make  a  good  begin- 
ning for  the  student  who  wishes  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  tragedy. 

Comedy,  unlike  tragedy,  has  a  happy 
ending.  The  passions  of  men,  love,  hate,  jeal- 
ousy, ambition,  are  still  the  hidden  springs  of 
action,  but  there  is  a  happy  turn  in  the  current 
of  events,  and  Good  triumphs  without  violence 
or  bloodshed.  Browning's  "Pippa  Passes" 
presents  Good  and  Evil,  and  the  superior  power 
of  the  good,  but  it  is  not  for  the  stage  —  it  is 
too  analytic.  Shakespere's  plays  again  pre- 
sent to  us  the  best  study.  "  Merchant  of  Venice," 
"Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "As  You  Like 
It,"  "All's  Well  that  Ends  Well  "  "The  Tem- 
pest," "Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  "Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,"  also  Sheridan's  "Rivals,"  Gold- 
smith's "She  Stoops  to  Conquer,"  will  repay 
many  times  reading.  Shakespere's  historic 
dramas  may  be  classed  among  comedies  or 
tragedies,  according  to  the  relation  of  good  and 
evil  working  out  of  the  theme.  "King  Henry, 
the  Eighth,"  "King  John,"  "Richard  II,"  and 
"Richard  III"  should  be  studied. 

The  Farce  is  a  minor  comedy,  which  pre- 
sents ridiculous  and  extravagant  situations. 
It  is  familiar  to  the  modem  stage. 

"The  Mask  is  usually  a  presentation  of 
some  pastoral  scene,  and  introduces  supernatural 
characters.  The  "Mask  of  Comus"  by  John 
Milton  is  our  best  example. 

Opera  and  Melodrama  are  forrns  of 
comedy  where  music  and  action  are  combined. 
In  an  opera  the  parts  are  entirely  sung,  while 
in  melodrama  singing  and  speaking  are  com- 
bined. Wagner's  operas  are  the  noblest  con- 
ception we  have  of  the  power  of  music  combined 
with  dramatic  art. 

Lyric  Poetry,  as  the  words  suggest,  is 
poetry  set  to  music.  Originally  the  voice  of  the 
singer  was  accompanied  by  some  musical  in- 
strument, as  the  harp  or  lyre,  hence  lyric.  Lyric 
poems  express  the  personal  feeling  of  the  author, 
and  are  moved  by  some  fervor  of  emotion  that 
must  sing  itself  out.  Not  only  are  all  song 
poems,  both  religious  and  secular,  classed  as 
lyrics,  but  odes  and  sonnets  belong  to  this  group. 

Odes  express  so  wide  a  range  of  feehng  that 
it  is  difficult  to  form  an  exact  definition.  The 
Greek  odes  of  Pindar  and  Anacreon  differ  from 
our  modern  conception  of  the  ode,  which  we 
regard  as  more  stately  and  dignified.  Examples 
of  odes  found  in  our  own  English  are  Milton's 
"Hymn  on  the  Nativity,"  Wordsworth's  "Inti- 
mations of  Immortality,"  Shelley's  "Ode  to  a 


202 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Nightingale,"  Collin's  "Ode  to  Passions,"  Dry- 
den's  "Ode  in  Honor  of  St.  Cecelia's  Day," 
Tennyson's  "  Ode  to  Memory." 

Elegy  is  areflective  poem  on  some  mournful 
subject,  or,  as 'in  modern  elegies,  a  eulogy  over 
the  dead.  Milton's  "Lycidas"  belongs  to  this 
class,  also  Gray's  "Elegy  written  in  a  Country 
Churchyard,"  Shelley's  "Adonais,"  a  tribute  to 
Keats,  and  Tennyson's  "  In  Memoriam,"  a  trib- 
ute to  his  friend,  Arthur  Hallam. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  complete  poem  of  fourteen 
lines.  The  personal  element  is  strong,  and  the 
themes  are  tenderness  of  emotion,  and  beauty 
of  thought  and  expression.  The  sonnet  is  the 
poet's  poem.  Shakespere,  Spenser,  Milton, 
Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  Browning,  and  all  our 
great  poets  have  delighted  in  this  form  of  verse. 


Read  "What  is  a  Sonnet?"  by  Richard  Watson 
Gilder  to  understand  its  charm. 

Didactic  Poetry  is  the  least  poetic  of  all 
poetic  forms.  It  aims  to  teach,  while  the  higher 
aim  of  poetry  is  to  reveal  life  and  beauty  and 
joy.  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  Cowper's  "  Task," 
Dryden's  "Absalom  and  Achitophel, "  are 
examples  of  poems  which  are  so  didactic  that 
they  are  httle  read.  Lyric  poems  like  Shelley's 
"Cloud,"  Wordsworth's  "Daffodils,"  Longfel- 
low's "Rain  in  Summer,"  Burns's  "To  a  Wee 
Mousie's  Nest,"  Tennyson's  "Crossing  the  Bar," 
Newman's  "Lead  Kindly  Light,"  will  always 
remain  popular,  because  they  appeal  to  the 
emotions  and  the  imagination,  rather  than  to 
critical  thought.  The  aim  of  poetry  is  to  arouse 
the  emotions  and  to  give  pleasure. 


ABBREVIATIONS,  CONTRACTIONS,  AND  DEGREES 


A.,  a.  Adjective. 

A.  Alto. 

A.,  arts.  Answer. 

a.,  @  (Lat.  a<f).  To;    At. 

a,  da.  The  like  quantity  of  each. 

A.A.G.  Assistant  Adjutant-General. 

A.  A.  A.  S.  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence. 

A.  A.  S.  S.  (Lat.  AcademuB  Antiqua- 
rincB  Societaiis  Socius),  Member 
of  the  American  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety. 

A.  B.  (Lat.  artium  baccalaureus) , 
Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Abbr.,  Abbrev.  Abbreviated,  Abbre- 
viation. 

Abl.,  ablat.  Ablative. 

Abp.  Archbishop. 

A.  B.  S.  American  Bible  Society. 

A.  C.  (Lat.  ante  Christum),  Before 
Christ;     Analytical    Chemist. 

Acad.  Academy. 

A.  C.  A.  American  Congregational 
Association. 

Ace.,  Accus.  Accusative. 

Ace,  Acct.  Account. 

A.  D.  (Lat.  anno  Domini),  In  the 
year  of  our  Lord. 

A.  D.  C.  Aide-de-camp. 

Ad.,  advl.  Advertisement. 

Adj.  Adjective. 

Adj't.  Adjutant 

Adj't.  Gen.   Adjutant  General. 

Ad  lib..  Ad  libit.  (Lat.  ad  libitum). 
At  pleasure. 

Adm..  Admiral. 

Admr.  Administrator. 

Admx.  Administratrix. 

Adv.  Adverb. 

/E.,  Mt.  (Lat.  astatia).  Of  Age,  Aged. 

A.  F.  A.  Associate  of  the  Faculty 
of  Actuaries. 

A.  G.,    Agt.-Gen.    Adjutant-General. 

Ag.  (Lat.  argentum).    Silver. 

Agl.  Dept.  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment. 

Agr.,  Agric.  Agriculture,  Agricul- 
tural. 

Agt.  Agent. 

A.  H.  (Lat.  anno  Ilegira),  In  the 
year  of  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of 
Mohammed. 

A.  H.  S.  (Lat.  anno  humanw  salu- 
tis).  In  the  year  of  human  salva- 
tion. 

A.  I.  A.  Associate  of  the  Institute 
of  Actuaries. 

A.  L.  of  H.  American  Legion  of 
Honor. 

Al.,  Ala.  Alabama. 

Alas.  Ter.  Alaska  Territory. 

Aid.  Alderman. 

Alex.  Alexander. 

Alf.  Alfred. 

Alg.  Algebra. 


A.  M.  (Lat.  anno  mundi),  In  the 
year  of  the  world. 

A.  M.  (Lat.  ante  m,eridiem),  Before 
noon. 

A.  M.  (Lat.  artium  magister),  Mas- 
ter of  Arts. 

Am.,  Amer.  America,  American. 

Am.  Asn.  Sci.  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  American  Philo- 
sophical Society. 

Amt.  Amount. 

A.  N.  Anglo-Norman. 

an.  (Lat.  anno).  In  the  year. 

Anal.  Analysis. 

Anal.  Anatomy,  Anatomical. 

Anc.  Ancient. 

Anon.  Anonymous. 

Ans.  Answer. 

A.  N.  S.  S.  Associate  of  the  Normal 
School  of  Science. 

Ant.,  Antiq.  Antiquities.Antiquarian. 

Anthrop.  Anthropology,  Anthro- 
pological. 

A.  O.  U.  American  Ornithologists' 
Union. 

A.  O.  U.  W.  Ancient  Order  of  United 
Workmen. 

Ap..  App.  Apostle,  Apostles. 

A.  P.  A.  American  Protestant  As- 
sociation; American  Protective 
Association. 

Apoc.  Apocalypse,  Apocrypha. 

Apog.  Apogee. 

App.  Appendix. 

approx.  Approximate,  -ly. 

Apr.  April. 

A.  P.  S.  Associate  of  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Society. 

Aq.  (Lat.  aqua).  Water. 

A.  Q.  M.    Assistant    Quartermaster. 

A.  Q.  M.  G.  Assistant  Quartermas- 
ter-General. 

A.  R.  (Lat.  anno  regni).  In  the  year 
of  the  reign. 

Ar.  Arab.  Arabic,  Arabian. 

Ar.,  Arr.  Arrive,  Arrives,  Arrived, 
Arrival. 

A.  R.  A.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Arab.  Arabic,  Arabian. 

Aram.  Aramaic. 

Arch.  Architecture. 

Archceol.  Archaeology. 

Archd.  Archdeacon. 

A.  R.  H.  A.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Hibernian  Academy. 

Arith.  Arithmetic,  Arithmetical. 

Ariz.  Arizona. 

Ark.  Arkansas. 

Arm.  Armorican,  Armenian. 

Arr.  Arrive,  Arrives,  Arrived,  Ar- 
rival. 

A.  R.  R.  (Lat.  anno  regni  regis  or 
regince).  In  the  year  of  the  king's 
(or  queen's)  reign. 


A.  R.  S.  A.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy. 

A.  R,  S.  M.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines. 

Art.  Article. 

A.  S.,  A.-S.  Anglo-Saxon. 

Asst.  Assistant." 

A.  S.  S.  U.  American  Sunday  School 
Union. 

Assyr.  Assyrian. 

Astrol.  Astrology. 

Astron.  Astronomy,  Astronomical. 

A.  T.  S.  American  Tract  Society. 

Atty.  Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen.  Attorney-General. 

A.  U.  A.  American  Unitarian  As- 
sociation. 

A.  U.  C.  (Lat.  anno  urbis  condilm). 
In  the  year  from  the  building  of 
the  city  —  Rome. 

Aug.  Augmentative. 

Aug.  Augustus;  August. 

Auxil.  Auxiliary. 

A.  V.  Authorized  Version. 

A.  V.  Artillery  Volunteers. 
Avoir.  Avoirdupois. 

B.  Bass;  Bodk. 
B.,  Brit.  British. 
b.  Born. 

B.  A.  Bachelor  of  Arts.  [A.  B.] 

Bal.  Balance. 

BaU.,  Ballo.  Baltimore. 

Bank.  Banking. 

Bap.,  Bapt.  Baptist. 

Bar.  Barrel,  Barometer. 

Bart.,  Bt.  Baronet. 

Bat.,  BaU.  Battalion. 

bbl.,  bbls.  Barrel,  Barrels. 

B.  C.  Before  Christ. 

B.  Ch.     (Lat.    baccalaureus    chirur- 

gioe).  Bachelor  of  Surgery. 
B.  C.  ii.  (Lat.      baccalaureus     civilis 

legis).  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.  D.  (Lat.  baccalaureus  divinilatis). 

Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
Bd.  Bound. 
Bdls.  Bundles. 
Bds.  Bound  in  boards. 
B.    E.    Bachelor   of   the   Elements; 

Bachelor  of  Elocution. 
Belg.  Belgic,  Belgian. 
Ben.,  Benj.  Benjamin. 
Berks.  Berkshire. 
Bib.  Bible.  Biblical. 
Biog.  Biography,  Biographical. 
Biol.  Biology,  Biological. 
B.  L.,  B.  L.  L.  (Lat.  baccalaureus  le- 

gum).  Bachelor  of  Laws. 
B.   es  L.    (F.  Bahcelier  ea  Lettrea), 

Bachelor  of  Letters. 
bis.  Bales. 
B.  M.  <Lat.  baccalaureus  medidnce). 

Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
B.  M.,  B.  Mus.     (Lat.    baccalaureus 

m.usic(B),  Bachelor  of  Music. 
B.  O.  Branch  Office. 


LANGUAGE 


203 


B.  O.  Bachelor  of  Oratory. 

Boh.  Bohemian,  or  Czech. 

Boat.  Boston. 

Bot.  Botany,  Botanical. 

B.  O.  U.  British  Ornithologists' 
Union. 

Lp.  Bishop. 

Br.,  Bra.  Brother. 

Bret.  Bas-Breton,  or  Celtic  of  Brit- 
tany. 

Brig.  Brigade. 

Brig.-Gen..  Brigadier-General. 

Brit.    Britain,    Britannia,    British. 

B.  S.  Bachelor  of  Surgery;  Bachelor 
of  Science. 

B.  Sc.  (Lat.  baccalaurcus  scientice). 
Bachelor  of  Science. 

B.  S.  L.  Botanical  Society,  London. 

Bi.  Baronet. 

bush.  Bushel. 

B.  V.  Blessed  Virgin. 

B.  V.  M.  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 
bx.,  bxs.   Box,  Boxes. 

C.  Cent,  Cents;  Centigrade;  Consul; 
Centime.  Centimes;    a  hundred. 

C,  Cap.   (Lat.  caput),  Chapter. 

C.  A.  Chartered  Accountant. 

Cal.  California;  Calendar. 

Cam.,  Camb.  Cambridge. 

Cant.  Canticle. 

Cant.  [Cantaur.] 

Cantab.  (Lat.  Cantabrigiensis),  Of 
Cambridge. 

Cantuar.,  Cant.  (Mid.  Lat.  Cantua- 
ria),  Canterbury. 

Cap.  (Lat.  caput).  Capital;  Chapter. 

Caps.  Capitals. 

Capt.  Captain. 

Card.  Cardinal. 

Cath.  Catharine;  Catholic. 

C.  B.  Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.  C.  Catholic  Clergyman,  Catholic 
Curate. 

C.  D.  V.  Carte-de-Visite. 

C.  E.  Civil  Engineer. 

Cel.  Celsius. 

Celt.  Celtic. 

Cent,  (centum),  A  hundred;  Centi- 
grade. 

Centig.  Cen.tigrade. 

Cert.,  Certif.  Certify;   Certificate. 

Cf.  (Lat.  confer).  Compare. 

C.  ft.  Cubic  feet. 

C.  (r.  Coastguard ;  Commissary-Gen- 
eral. 

C.  G.  S.  Centimetre-Gramme-Second. 

C.  H.  Court  House. 

Ch.  Church;  Chapter. 

Chal.  Chaldron. 

ChaL,  ChcUd.  Chaldee. 

Chan.  Chancellor. 

Chap.  Chapter. 

Chas.  Charles. 

Chem.  Chemistry,  Chemical. 

Ch.  Hist.  Church  History. 

Chic.  Chicago. 

Chin.  Chinese. 

Chr.  Christ;   Christian;   Christopher. 

Chron.  Chronology,  Chronological. 

C.  I.  Order  of  the  Crown  of  In- 
dia. 

C.  I.  E,  Companion  of  the  Order  of 
the  Indian  Empire. 

Cin.  Cincinnati. 

CU.  Citation;  Citizen. 

Civ.  Civil. 

C.  J.  Chief  Justice. 

CI.  Clergyman. 

Class.  (Jlassical. 

Clk.  Clerk. 

cm.  Centimetre. 

C.  M.  Certificated  Master;  Com- 
mon metre. 

C.  M.  (Lat.  chirurgice  m^agister). 
Master  in  Surgery. 

C.  M.  G.  Companion  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Michael  and  George. 

C.  M.  Z.  8.  Corresponding  Member 
of  the  Zoological  Society. 

Co.  Company;  County. 

C.  O.  D.  Cash  on  delivery;  Collect 
(payment)  on  delivery. 

Cogn,  Cognate. 


Col.  Colonel;   Colossians;   Column. 

Coll.  College. 

Colloq.  (IJolloquial ;  Colloquialism ; 
Colloquially. 

Colo.  Coloracio. 

Com.  Commander;  Commerce ;  Com- 
missioner; Committee;  Commo- 
dore; Common. 

Cotnm.  Commentary;    Commerce. 

Comp.  Compare;  Comparative; 
Compound,  Compounded. 

Compar.  Comparative. 

Compos.  Composition. 

Com.  ver.  Common  Version. 

Con.,  contra.  (Lat.),  Against. 

Con.  Cr.  Contra  Credit. 

Cong.  Congregation,  Congregational, 
Congregationaiist;  Congress. 

Conj.  Conjunction. 

Conn.  Connecticut. 

Con.  Sec.  Conic  Sections. 

Contr.  Contracted,  Contraction. 

Cop.,  Copt.  Coptic. 

Cor.  Corinthians. 

Cor.  Mem.    Corresponding    Member. 

Com.  Cornwall;  Cornish. 

Corrup.  Corruption,  Corrupted. 

Cor.  Sec.    Corresponding    Secretary. 

Cos.  Cosine. 

C.  P.  Clerk  of  the  Peace;  Common 
Pleas. 

C.  P.  A.  Certified  Public  Account- 
ant. 

C.  P.  C.  Clerk  of  the  Privy  Council. 

C.  P.  S.  (Lat.  cu/stos  privati  sigilli). 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

C.  Q.  D.  Come  quick —  danger. 

Cr.  Credit,  Creditor. 

C.  R.  (Lat.  Civus  Romanus),  Roman 
Citizen. 

C.  R.  (Lat.  custoa  rotulorum).  Keeper 
of  the  Rolls. 

Cres.  Crescendo. 

Crim.  con.  Criminal  conversation,  or 
adultery. 

Cry  stall.,  Crystallog.  Crystallogra- 
phy. 

C.  S.  A.  Confederate  States  of 
America. 

C.  S.  Court  of  Sessions,  Clerk  to  the 
Signet. 

C.  S.  I.  Companion  of  the  Star  of 
India. 

Csks.  Casks. 

Ct.  (Lat.  centum),  A  hundred. 

Ct.  Court. 

Ct.,  Conn.  Connecticut. 

C.  T.  Certified  Teacher. 

C.  T.  A.  U.  Catholic  Total  Absti- 
nence Union. 

Cu.  (Lat.  cuprum).  Copper. 
Cub.,  Cu.  ft.  Cubic,  Cubic  foot. 
Cur.,  Curt.  Current  —  this  month. 
CtDt.    A   hundredweight;     Hundred- 
weights. 
Cyc.  Cyclopa?dia. 

D.  Deputy. 

d.  (Lat.  denarius,  denarii),  A  penny. 
Pence. 

d.  Died. 

Dan.  Daniel;   Danish. 

Dot.  Dative. 

Dav.  David. 

D.  C.  (Ital.  da  capo).  From  the  be- 
ginning. 

D.  C,  Dist.  Col.  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

D.  C.  L.  Doctor  of  Civil  (or  Canon) 
Law. 

D.  D.  (Lat.  divinitatis  doctor).  Doc- 
tor of  Divinity. 

D.  D.  D.  (Lat.  dai.  dicat,  dedicat), 
He  gives,  devotes,  and  consecrates. 
(The  formula  by  which  anything 
was  consecrated  to  the  gods  or  to 
religious  uses  by  the  Romans; 
still  used  in  funeral  inscriptions.) 

D.  D.  S.  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

D.  E.  Dynamic  Engineer. 

D.  Eng.  Doctor  of  Engineering. 

Dec.  December. 

decim.  Decimetre. 

Def.  Definition. 


Deft.  Defendant. 

Deg.  Degree,  Degrees. 

Del.  Delaware. 

Del.  (Lat.  delineavit).  He  (or  she) 
drew. 

Dep.,  Dept.  Department. 

Dep.  Deputy. 

Der.  Derived,  Derivation. 

Deut.  Deuteronomy. 

D,  F.  Dean  of  the  Faculty;  Defender 
of  the  Faith. 

D.  G.  (Lat.  Dei  gratia),  By  the  grace 
of  God. 

Diet.  Dictionary. 

Dim.,  Dimin.  Diminutive. 

Dis.,  Disct.  Discount. 

Dist.  District. 

Dist.  Ally.  District  Attorney. 

Div.  Divide;  Dividend;  Division; 
Divisor. 

D.  Lit.,  D.  Liu.  Doctor  of  Literature. 

D.  L.  O.  Dead  Letter  Office. 

D.  M.,  D.  Mus.  Doctor  of  Music. 

D.  M.  D.  Doctor  of  Dental  Medicine. 

D.  O.  Doctor  of  Osteopathy;  Doc- 
tor of  Optics. 

Do.  (Ital.  ditto).  The  same. 

Dols.  Dollars. 

Dom.  Econ.  Domestic  Economy. 

Doz.  Dozen. 

Dpt,  Deponent. 

Dr.  Debtor;   Doctor;   Dram,  Drams. 

Dram.  Dramatic,  Dramatically. 

D.  S.  (Ital.  dal  segno).  From  the 
sign. 

D.  Sc.  Doctor  of  Science. 

D.  T.  (Lat.  doctor  theologiai),  Doctor 
of  Theology. 

Du.,  Dut.  Dutch. 

Dub.  Dubhn. 

Duo.  \2mo.  Duodecimo  (twelve 
folds). 

D.  V.  (Lat.  Deovolente),  God  willing. 

D.  V.  M.  Doctor  of  Veterinary  Med- 
icine. 

D.  V.  S.  Doctor  of  Veterinary  Sur- 
gery. 

Dwt.  _  (Lat.  denarius,  an  English 
weight).  Pennyweight,  Penny- 
weights. 

Dynam.  Dynamics. 

E.  East,  Eastern;  English;  Edin- 
burgh. 

Ea.  Each. 

E.  Aram.  East  Arama'an,  generally 
called  Chaldee. 

Eben.  Ebenezer. 

E.  C.  Eastern  Central;  Established 
Church. 

Eccl.,  Eccles.  Ecclesiastical. 

Eccles.,  Ecclesiol.  Ecclesiology. 

Econ.  Economy. 

Ed.  Editor;  Edition;  Edinburgh. 

Ed.,  Edm.  Edmund. 

Edin.  Edinburgh. 

E.  D.  S.  English  Dialect  Society. 

Edw.  Edward. 

E.  E.  Errors  excepted. 

E.  E.  Electrical  Engineer. 

e.  g.  (Lat.  exempli  gratia).  For  ex- 
ample. 

E.  I.  East  Indies,  East  Indian. 

E.  L  C,  E.  I.  Co.  East  Indian  Com- 
pany. 

E.  I.  C.  S.  East  India  Company's 
Service. 

Elec,  Elect.  Electric,  Electricity. 

Eliz.  Elizabeth,  Elizabethan. 

Emp.  Emperor,  Empress. 

Ency.,  Encyclo.  Encyclopaedia. 

E.  N.  E.  East-northeast. 

Eng.  England,  English. 

Eng.,  Engin.  Engineer,  Engineering. 

Eng.  Dept.  Department  of  Engi- 
neers. 

Ent.,  Entom.  Entomology,  Entomo- 
logical. 

Env.  Ext.  Envoy  extraordinary. 

Eph.  Ephesians;    Ephraim. 

Epiph.  Epiphany. 

Epis.  Episcopal. 

Epist.  Epistle,  epistolary. 

Eq.  Equal,  equivalent. 


204 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Equiv.  Equivalent. 

Esd.  Esdras. 

E.  S.  E.  East-southeast. 

Esp.,  Espec.  Especial,  especially. 

Esq.,  Esqr.  Esquire. 

et  al.  (Lat.  et  alibi).  And  elsewhere. 

et  al.  (Lat.  et  alii,  alim,  or  alia).  And 
others. 

elC;  &c.  (Lat.  et  celcrri,  cceterm,  or 
ccetera).  And  others,  and  so  forth. 

Elh.  Ethiopia,  Ethiopian. 

Ethnol.  Ethnology,  ethnological. 

et  seq.  (Lat.  et  sequentes,  or  sequen- 
tia),  And  the  following. 

Etym.    Etymology. 

Ex.  Example:  Examined:  Excep- 
tion: Exodus.. 

Exc.  Excellency:   Except,  excepted. 

Exch.  Exchange:  Exchequer. 

Exd.  Examined. 

Ex.  Doc.  Executive  Document. 

Exec.  Executor. 

Execx.  Executrix. 

Ex.  Gr.  (Lat.  exempli  gratia).  For 
example. 

Exod.  Exodus. 

Exon.  (Lat.  Exonia),  Exeter. 

Exor.  Executor. 

Ez.  Ezra. 

Ezek.,  Ezekiel. 

E.  &  O.  E.  Errors  and  omissions  ex- 
cepted. 

F.  Fellow:  Folio:  Fahrenheit. 
/.  Farthing,  farthings. 

/.,  fern.  Feminine. 

/.  Franc,  francs. 

ft.  Foot,  feet. 

Fahr.  Fahrenheit. 

F.  A.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Arts. 

F.  A  A.  M.  Free  and  Accepted  Ma- 
sons. 

F.A.S.  E.  Fellow  of  the  Antiqua- 
rian Society,  Edinburgh. 

F.  B.  S.  E.  Fellow  of  the  Botanical 
Society  of  Edinburgh. 

F.  C.  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

Fcp.  Foolscap. 

F.C.  P.  S,  Fellow  of  the  Philosoph- 
ical Society,  Cambridge. 

F.  C.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Chemical  So- 
ciety. 

F.  D.,  Fid.  Def.  (Lat.  Fidei  Defen- 
sor), Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Feb.  February. 

Fee.  (Lat.  fecit).  He  or  she  did  it. 

F.  E.  I.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Educational 
Institute  of  Scotland. 

Fern.  Feminine. 

F.  E.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Entomologi- 
cal Society. 

Feud.  Feudal. 

F.  F.  V.  First  Families  of  Virginia. 

F.  G.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Geological 
Society. 

F.I.  A.  Fellow  of  the  Institute  of 

F.  I.  C.  Fellow  of  the  Chemical  In- 
stitute. 

ft.  fa.  Fieri  facias ■ 

Fig.  Figure,  figures,  figurative,  fig- 
uratively. 

Finn.  Finnish. 

F.  K.  Q.  C.  P.  I.  Fellow  of  the  Kings 
and  Queen's  College  of  Physicians, 
Ireland. 

Ft.  Flemish;  Florin,  florins;  Flour- 
ished. 

Fla.  Florida. 

Flem.  Flemish. 

F.  L.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Linnsean  So- 
ciety. 

F.  M.  Field-marshal. 

Fo.,Fol.  Folio. 

F.  O.  Foreign    Office;     Field-officer. 

F.  O.  B.  Free  on  board. 

For.  Foreign. 

Fort.  Fortification. 

F.P.  Fire-plug. 

F.P.S.  Fellow  of  the  Philological 
Society. 

Ft.  France;  French;  Francis;  Francs. 

fr.  From. 


F.R.A.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  As- 
tronomical Society. 

F.  K.  C.  P.  Felbw  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians. 

F.  R.  C.  P.  E.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  E.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  I.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  Ireland. 

Fred.  Frederick. 

Freq.  Frequentative. 

F.  R.  G.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

F.  R.  H.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Hor- 
ticultural Society. 

F.  R.  Hist.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Historical  Society. 

Fri.  Friday. 

Fries.  Friesland. 

Fris.  Frisian. 

F.  R.Met.S.  FeWow  of  the  Royal 
Meteorological  Society. 

F.  R.  M.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Mi- 
croscopical Society. 

F.  R.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.  R.  S.  E.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  S.  L.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Literature. 

F.  R.  S.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Sta- 
tistical Society. 

F.  S.  A.  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Arts,  or  of  Antiquaries. 

F.  S.  A.  Scot.  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland. 

Ft.  Foot,  feet;  Fort. 

Fth.  Fathom. 

Fur.  Furlong. 

Ful.  Future. 

F.  Z.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Zoological 
Society. 

G.  Genitive;    Guinea,  guineas;  Gulf. 
Ga.  Georgia. 

G.  A.  General  Assembly. 

Gael.  Gaelic;  Gadhelic. 

Gal.  Galatians. 

Gal.,  Gall.  Gallon,  gallons. 

Galv.  Galvanism,  galvanic. 

G.  A.  R.  Grand  Army  of  the  Repub- 
lic. 

G.  B.  Great  Britain. 

G.  B.  &  I.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

G.  C.  B.  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.  C.  G.  II.  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Guelphs  of  Hanover. 

G.  C.  L.  H.  Grand  Cross  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor. 

G.  C.  M.  G.  Grand  Cross  SS.  Michael 
and  George. 

G.  C.  S.  I.  Grand  Commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

G.  D.  Grand  Duke,  Grand  Duchess. 

Gen.,  Genl.  General. 

Gen.  Genesis;  Genitive. 

Gend.  Gender. 

Genii.  Genitive. 

Gent.,  Genln.  Gentleman,  gentlemen. 

Geo.  George;   Georgia. 

Geog.  Geography,  geographical. 

Geol.  Geology,  geological. 

Geom.  Geometry,  geometrical. 

Ger.,  Germ.  German. 

Gi.  Gill,  gills. 

G.  L.  Grand  Lodge. 

Gm.  Grammes. 

G.  M.  Grand  Master. 

Go.,  Goth.  Gothic. 

G.  O.  P.  Grand  old  party  (applied  to 
republican  party). 

Gov.  Governor. 

Gov.-gen.  Governor-general. 

Goi^t.  Government. 

G.  P.  O.  General  Post-Office. 

Gr.  Grain,  grains;  Great;  Greek; 
Gross. 

Gram.  Grammar,  grammatical. 

Gro.  Gross. 

G.  T.  Good  Templars;   Grand  Tyler. 

Gtt.   (Lat.  gullce).  Drops. 

Gun.  Gunnery. 


H.  Hour,  hours. 

Hab.  Habakkuk. 

Hag.  Haggai. 

Hants.  Hampshire. 

//.  B.  C.  Hudson  Bay  Company. 

//.  B.  M.  His  (or  Her)  Britannic 
Majesty. 

//.  C.  Heralds'  College;  House  of 
Commons. 

//.  C.  M.  His  (or  Her)  Catholic 
Majesty. 

h.  e.  (Lat.  hoc  est,  hie  est).  This  or 
That  is,  here  is. 

Heb.,  Hebr.  Hebrew,  Hebrews. 

Her.  Heraldry,  heraldic. 

Hf.-bd.  Half-bound. 

//.  G.  Horse  Guards. 

H.  H.  His  (or  Her)  Highness;  His 
Holiness  (the  Pope). 

Hhd.  Hogshead,  hogsheads. 

//.  /.  //.  His  (or  Her)  Imperial  High- 
ness. 

Hind.  Hindu,  Hindustan,  Hindu- 
stani. 

Hist.  History,  Historical. 

H.  J.,  H.  J.  S.  (Lat.  hie  jacet,  hie 
jacet  sepultus).  Here  lies,  here  lies 
buried. 

//.  M.  His  (or  Her)  Majesty. 

//.  M.  P.  (Lat.  hoc  monumenlum 
posuit).   Erected   this   monument. 

//.  M.  S.  His  (or  Her)  Majesty's 
Service,  Ship,  or  Steamer. 

Hon.,  Honble.  Honorable. 

Hand.  Honored. 

Hor.,  Horol.  Horology,  horological. 

Hort.,  Hortic.  Horticulture,  horticul- 
tural. 

Hos.  Hosea. 

//.  P.  Half-pay;  High-priest;  Horse 
power. 

//.  R.  House  of  Representatives. 

H.  R.  E.  Holy  Roman  Empire,  or 
Emperor. 

H.  R.  H.  His  (or  Her)  Royal  High- 
ness. 

H.  R.  I.  P.  (I>at.  hie  requiescil  in 
pace),  Here  rests  in  peace. 

//.  <S'.   (Lat.  hie  situs).  Here  lies. 

//.  S.  H.  His  (or  Her)  Serene  High- 
ness. 

Hum.,  Humb.  Humble. 

Hun.,  Hung.  Hungary,  Hungarian. 

Hund.  Hundred. 

Hyd.,  Hydros.  Hydrostatics. 

Hydraul.  Hydraulics. 
-Hydros.  [Hyd.] 

Hypoth.  Hypothesis,  hypothetical. 

/.  Island. 

la.  Iowa. 

lb..  Ibid.  (Lat.  ibidem),  In  the  same 
place. 

Icel.  Icelandic. 

Ich.,  Ichthy.  Ichthyology. 

Id.  (Lat.  idem).  The  same. 

Ida.  Idaho. 

t.  e.   (Lat.  id  est).  That  is. 

/.  //.  S.  (Lat.  Jesus  Salrator  Homi- 
num),  Jesus,  the  Saviour  of 
Men. 

HI.  Illinois. 

Imp.  (Lat.  imperator),  Emperor;  Im- 
perial; impersonal. 

Imp.,  Impf.  Imperfect. 

Imper.  Imperative. 

In.  Inch,  inches. 

Incog.  (Ital.  incognito,  incognita). 
Unknown. 

Ind.  India,  Indian;  Indiana. 

Indie.  Indicative. 

Ind.  Ter.  Indian  Territory. 

Inf.,  Infin.  Infinitive. 

In  Urn.  (Lat.  in  limine).  At  the  out- 
set. 

In  loc.  (Lat.  in  loco).  In  its  place. 

/.  N.  R.  I.  (Lat.  Jesus  Nazarenua 
Rex  ludceorum),  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
King  of  the  Jews. 

Ins.   Insurance. 

Ins.  Gen.  Inspector  General. 

Inst.  Instant,  the  present  month; 
Institute,  institution. 

Int.  Interest. 


LANGUAGE 


205 


Int.  Dept.  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Inlens.  Intensive;   Intensative. 

Inter}.  Interjection. 

Inlrans.  Intransitive. 

In  trans.   (Lat.  in  transitu),   On   the 

passage. 
Int.  Rev.  Internal  Revenue. 
Introd.  Introduction. 
lo.  Iowa. 
/.  0.  F.  Independent  Order  of   I'or- 

/.  O.  G.  T.  Independent      Order     of 

Good  Templars. 
/.  O.  O.  F.  Independent     Order     of 

Oddfellows. 
/.  O.  R.  M.  Improved  Order  of  Red 

Men. 
/.  O.  S.  M.  Independent     Order     of 

Sons  of  Malta. 
/.  0.  U.  I  owe  you. 
i.  q.  (Lat.  idem  quod),  The  same  as. 
Ir.  Ireland,  Irish. 
Irreg.  Irregular. 
Is.,  Isa.  Isaiah. 
/.  S.  Irish  Society. 
Isl.  Island. 

/.  S.  M.  Jesus  Salvator  Mundi. 
It.,  Hal.  Italy;    Itahc;  Italian. 
Itin.  Itinerary. 
J.  Judge;  Justice. 
J.  A.  Judge-advocate. 
Jac.  Jacob,  Jacobus  (=  James). 
Jan.  January. 

J.  A.  G.  Judge  Advocate  General. 
Jav.  Javanese. 
J.  C.  Jesus  Christ. 
J.  C.  D.  (Lat.    juris    civilis    doctor). 

Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
J.  D.   (Lat.  jurum  doctor).  Doctor  of 

Laws. 
Jer.  Jeremiah. 

J.  G.  W.  Junior  Grand  Warden. 
J.  H.  S.  [I.  H.  S.l 
Jno.  John. 
Jour.  Journey. 
Jon.,  Jona.  Jonathan. 
Jos.  Joseph. 
Josh.  Joshua. 
Jour.  Journal. 
J.  P.  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Jr.  Juror;  Junior. 

J.  U .  D.  (Lat.  Juris  ulriusque  doc- 
tor). Doctor  of  both  laws  (i.  e.,  of 

civil  and  canon  law). 
Jud.  Judith. 
Judg.  Judges. 
Jul.  July;  Julius;  Julian. 
Jul.  Per.  Julian  Period. 
Jun.  June. 
Jun.,  Junr.  Junior. 
Juris.  Jurisprudence. 
K.  King;   Knight. 
Kan.,  Ks.  Kansas. 
K.  B.  Knight  of  the  Bath. 
A'.  B.  King's  Bench. 
K.  C.  King's    Counsel;    Knights    of 

Columbus. 
K.  C.  B.  Knight  Commander  of  the 

Bath. 
K.  C.  H.  Knight  Commander  of  the 

Guelphs  of  Hanover. 
K.  C.  M.  G.  Knight   Commander   of 

St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 
K.  C.  S.  I.  Knight     Commander     of 

the  Star  of  India. 
K.  E.  Knight  of  the  Eagle. 
Ken.,  Ky.  Kentucky. 
K.  G.  Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.  G.  E.  Knight      of      tlie      Golden 

Eagle. 
K.  G.  C.  Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 
K.  G.  C.  B.  Knight    of    the     Grand 

Cross  of  the  Bath. 
K.  G.  F.  Knight     of      the      Golden 

F1g6CG. 

K.  G.  H.  Knight  of  the  Guelphs  of 
Hanover. 

Ki.  Kings. 

Kilog.  Kilogramme. 

Kilom.,  Kilo.  Kilometre. 

Kingd.  Kingdom. 

K.  I.  B.  Knight  of  Leopold  of  Bel- 
gium. 


K.  L.  H.  Knight  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor. 

K.  M.  Knight  of  Malta. 

Kn.  N.  S.  Knight  of  the  Loyal  Nor- 
thern Star  (Sweden). 

Knick.  Knickerbocker. 

Knl.  Knight. 

K.  P.  Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K.  of  P.  Knights  of  Pythias. 

Ks.  Kansas. 

K.  S.  Knight  of  the  Sword  (Sweden). 

Kt.  Knight. 

K.T.  Knight  of  the  Thistle;  Knight 
Templar. 

K.T.S.  Knight  of  Tower  and  Sword 
(Portugal). 

Ky.  Kentucky. 

L.  Latin;   Lake;   Lord;   Lady. 

L.,  I.,  £.  (Lat.  libra),  Pound,  pounds 
(sterling). 

L.,  lb.,  lb.  (Lat.  libra).  Pound, pounds 
(weight). 

La.  Louisiana. 

L.  A.  Law  Agent;    Literate  in  Arts. 

Lam.  Lamentations. 

Lot.  Latin;  Latitude. 

lb.  Pound,  pounds  (weight). 

L.  c.  Lower  case  (in  printing). 

L.  c,  loc.  cit.  (Lat.  loco  citato),  In 
the  place  cited. 

L.  C.  Lord  Chamberlain ;  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. 

L.  C.  J.  Lord  Chief-justice. 

L.  C.  P.  Licentiate  of  the  College  of 
Preceptors. 

Ld.  Ijord. 

Ldp.  Lordship. 

L.  D.  S.  Licentiate  of  Dental  Sur- 
gery. 

Leg.,  Legis.  Legislature,     legislative. 

Leip.  Leipsie. 

Leu.  Leviticus. 

Lex.  Lexicon. 

Lexicog.  Lexicography,  lexicogra- 
pher, lexicographical. 

L.  G.  Life  Guards. 

L.  Ger.  Low  German  or  Piatt 
Deutsch. 

L.  H.  D.  Doctor  of  Humanities. 

L.  I.  Light  Infantry;     Long   Island. 

Lib.   (Lat.  liber).  Book. 

Lib.  Library,  librarian. 

Lieut.,  Lt.  Lieutenant. 

Lieut. -col.  Lieutenant-colonel. 

Lieut.-gen.  Lieutenant-general. 

Lieut.-gov.  Lieutenant-governor. 

lin.  Lineal,  or  right-line  measures; 
e.  g.,  lin.  yd.;    lin.  ft.,  etc. 

Linn.  Linnaeus,  Linn^,  Linna>an. 

Liq.  Liquor,  liquid. 

Lit.  Literally,  literature,  literary. 

Lit.  D.,  Lilt.  D.  (Lat.  literarum  doc- 
tor). Doctor  of  Literature. 

Lith.  Lithography. 

Liv.  Livre. 

LL.  B.  (Lat.  legum  baccalaureus) , 
Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.  (Lat.  legum  doctor).  Doctor 
of  Laws. 

LL.  I.  Lord-Lieutenant    of    Ireland. 

LL.  M.  Master  of  Laws. 

L.  M.  Long  metre. 

Lon.,  Lond.  London. 

Lon.,  Long.  Longitude. 

Loq.  (Lat.  loquitur).  He  (or  she) 
speaks. 

Lou.  Louisiana. 

Lp.  Lordship. 

L.  P.  Lord  Provost. 

L.  S.  (Lat.  locus  sigilli).  Place  of  the 
seal. 

L.  s.  d.  (Lat.  librce,  solidi,  denarii). 
Pounds,  shillings,  pence. 

Lt.  Lieutenant. 

Lt.  Inf.   Light  Infantry 

Luth.  Lutheran. 

wi.  Married;  Masculine;  M^tre,  me- 
tres; Mile,  miles;  Minute,  min- 
utes. 

M.  Marquis;  Middle;  Monday; 
Morning;  Monsieur. 

M.   (Lat.  mille).  Thousand. 

M.  (Lat.  meridies).  Meridian,  Noon. 


M.  A.  (Master  of  Arts.)     [A.  M.] 

Mac.,  Mace.  Maccabees 

Mach.,  Machin.  Machine,  machinery. 

Mad.,  Madm.  Madam. 

Mag.  Magyar;   Magazine. 

Maj.  Major. 

Mai.-gen.  Major-general. 

Mai.  Malachi;  Malay,  Malayan. 

Manuf.  Manufactures,  manufactur- 
ing. 

Mar.  March;  Maritime. 

Marq.  Marquis. 

Mas.,  Masc.  Masculine. 

Mass.  Massachusetts. 

M.  Ast.  S.  Member  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Society. 

Math.  Mathematics,  mathematician, 
mathematical. 

Malt.  Matthew. 

M.  B.  (Lat.  medicincE  baccalaureus). 
Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  B.  (Lat.  musicoe  baccalaureus), 
Bachelor  of  Music. 

M.  C.  Member  of  Congress;  Master 
of  Ceremonies. 

Mch.  March. 

M.  C.  P.  Member  of  the  College  of 

'  Preceptors. 

M.  D.  (Lat.  medicincB  doctor).  Doc- 
tor of  Medicine. 

Md.  Maryland. 

Mdlle.   (Ft.  mademoiselle),   Miss. 

Mdse.  Merchandise. 

M.  E.  Most  Excellent;  Military  En- 
gineer; Mining  Engineer;  Me- 
chanical Engineer. 

M.  E.  Methodist  Episcopal. 

Me.  Maine. 

Meas.  Measure. 

Mech.  Mechanics,  mechanical. 

Med.  Medicine,  medical;    Mediaeval. 

Med.  Lot.,  Mediwv.  Lat.  Medieval 
Latin. 

Mem.  Memorandum,  memoranda. 

Mess.  &  Docs.  Messages  and  Docu- 
ments. 

Messrs.   (Fr.  messieurs).  Gentlemen. 

Met.  Metaphysics,  metaphysical. 

Metall.  Metallurgy. 

Metaph.  Metaphysics;  Metaphori- 
cally. 

Meteor.  Meteorology,  meteorological. 

Meth.  Methodist. 

Melon.  Metonymy. 

Mex.  Mexico. 

Mfd.,  Mfa.  Manufactured,  manufac- 
tures. 

Mfg.  Manufacturing. 

M.  F.  //.  Master  of  Foxhounds. 

M.  II.  Most  Honorable. 

M.  H.  Ger.  Middle  High  German. 

M.  I.  C.  E.  Member  of  the  Institute 
of  Civil  Engineers. 

Mich.  Michaelmas;   Michigan. 

Mid.  Middle;   Midshipman. 

Mid.  Lot.  Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Mil.,  MilU.  Military. 

M.  I.  M.  E.  Member  of  the  Institute 
of  Mining  Engineers. 

Min.  Mineralogy,  mineralogical  ; 
Minute,  minutes. 

Minn.  Minnesota. 

Min.  Plen.  Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

Miss.  Mississippi. 

Mile.   (Fr.  mademoiselle),  Mi.ss. 

M.  L.  S.  B.  Member  of  the  London 
School  Board. 

MM.  Their  Majesties. 

.MM.  (Fr.  messieurs).  Gentlemen. 

mm.  Millemetres;   Micrometres. 

Mme.   (Fr.  madame).  Madam. 

M.  P.  P.  Member  of  Provincial  Par- 
liament. 

M.  N.  A.  S.  Member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences. 

M.N.S.  Member  of  the  Nuraismati- 
cal  Society. 

Mo.  Missouri;   Month. 

Mod.  Modern. 

Mod.   (Hal.    moderalo).    Moderately. 

Mon.  Monday. 

Mons.  (Fr.  monsieur),  Sir,  Mr. 

Mont.  Montana. 


206 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


M.  P.  Member  of  Parliament. 

M.  P.  S.  Member  of  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Society;  Member  of  the 
Philological  Society. 

Mr.  Master,  Mister. 

A/.  R.  A.  <S".  Member  of  the  lloyal 
Asiatic  Society. 

M.  R.  C.  P.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians. 

M.  R.  C.  S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  C.  V.  S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  O.  S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Geograplucal  Society. 

M.  R.  I.  Member  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitution. 

M.  R.  I.  A.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy. 

Mrs.  Mistress  (usually  abbreviated 
to  mis' sis) . 

M.  S.  Master  of  Surgery. 

M.  S.  Master  of  Science. 

M.  S.  (Lat.  memorice  sacrum).  Sa- 
cred to  the  memory  of. 

MS.  Manuscript. 

MSS.  Manuscripts. 

mo.,  mth.  Month. 

Mt.,  Mts.  Mount,  mountains. 

Mu8.  Museum;  Music,  musical. 

Mas.  B.  (Lat.  musicae  baccalaureus) , 
Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D.,  Mua.  Doc,  Mus.  Doct.  (Lat. 
muaica  doctor),  Doctor  of  Music. 

M.W.G.M.  Most  Worthy  Grand 
Master. 

Myth.  Mythology,  mythological. 

A'.  Noon;  North;  Noun;  Number; 
New;  Neuter. 

A^.  A.  North  America,  North  Ameri- 
can. 

Nah.  Nahum. 

Nap.  Napoleon. 

Nat.  Natural;  National. 

Nal.  Hist.  Natural  History. 

Nat.  ord.  Natural  order. 

Nat.  Phil.  Natural  Philosophy. 

Naut.  Nautical. 

A^.  B.  New  Brunswick;  North  Brit- 
ain (=  Scotland). 

N.  B.  (Lat.  nota  bene).  Note  well, 
take  notice. 

A'^.  C.  North  Carolina. 

N.  D.,  N.  Dak.  North  Dakota. 

A^.  E.  New  England;    Northeast. 

Neb.  Nebraska. 

Neg.  Negative,  negatively. 

Neh.  Nehemiah. 

Nem.  con.  (Lat.  nemine  contradi- 
cetite).  No  one  contradicting; 
unanimously. 

Nem.  diss.  (Lat.  nemine  dissenli- 
ente).  No  one  dissenting;  unani- 
mously. 

Neth.  Netherlands. 

Neut.  Neuter. 

Nev.  Nevada. 

New  Test.,  N.  T.  New  Testament. 

N.  F.  Newfoundland. 

A^.  H.  New  Hampshire. 

A^.  H.  Ger.  New  High  German. 

A^.  J.  New  Jersey. 

N.  L.,  N.  Lat.  North  Latitude. 

N.  M.  New  Mexico. 

N.  N.  E.  North-northeast. 

N.  N.  W.  North-northwest. 

A^.  O.  New  Orleans. 

No.  (Lat.  numero).  Number. 

nol.  pros,  (noleus  prosequi),  J  am  un- 
willing to  prosecute. 

Nom.,  Nomin.  Nominative. 

N on  con.  Non-content,  dissentient. 
(The  formula  in  which  Members 
of  the  House  of  Lords  vote.) 

Non  obst.  (Lat.  non  obstante).  Not- 
withstanding. 

Non  pros.  (Lat.  non  prosequitur) , 
He  does  not  prosecute. 

Non  seg.  (Lat.  non  sequitur).  It  does 
not  follow  (as  a  consequence). 

n.  o.  p.  Not  otherwise  provided  for. 

Nor.,  Norm.  Norman. 


Nor.  Fr.,  Norm.  Fr.  Norman  French. 

Norm.  [Non.] 

Nor  10.  Norway,  Norwegian,  Norse. 

Nos.  Numbers. 

Nov,  November. 

A'^.  P.  Notary  public. 

N.S.  New  style;  Nova  Scotia. 

n.  8.  Not  specified. 

N.  S.  J.  C.  (Fr.  Notre  Seigneur  Jesus 
Christ),  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

A^.  T.  [New  Test.] 

Num.,  Numb.  Numbers. 

Numis.  Numismatic,  numismatol- 
ogy. 

N.  V.  M.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 

A''.  W.  Northwest. 

N.  W.  T.  Northwest  Territory. 

A^.  y.  New  York. 

N'.  Z.  New  Zealand. 

O.  Ohio;  Old. 

ob.   (Lat.  obiil).  He  (or  she)  died. 

Obad.  Obadiah. 

Obdt.,  Obt.  Obedient. 

Obj.  Objective. 

06s.  Obsolete. 

Oct.  October. 

Oct.,  Suo.  Octavo. 

O.  F.  Odd  Fellows. 

O.  H.  Ger.  Old  High  German. 

O.  H.  M.  S.  On  Her  Majesty's  Serv- 
ice. 

O.  K.  "All  correct." 

Okl.  Oklahoma. 

Old  Test.,  O.  T.  Old  Testament. 

Olym.  Olympiad. 

O.  M.  Old  Measurement. 

O.  M.  I.  Oblate  of  Mary  Immacu- 
late. 

Op.  Opposite,  opposition. 

Opt.  Optative;  Optics,  optical. 

Or.  Oregon. 

Ordn.  Ordnance. 

Orig.  Original,  originally. 

Omith.  Ornithology,  ornithologi- 
cal. 

O.S.  Old  Style;  Old  Saxon. 

O.  S.  A.  Order  of  St.  Augustine. 

O.  S.  B.  Order  of  St.  Benedict. 

O.  ,S.  F.  Order  of  St.  Francis. 

O.  T.  [Old  Test.] 

O.  U.  A .  M.  Order  of  United  Ameri- 
can Mechanics. 

Oxf.  Oxford. 

Oxon.  (Lat.  Oxonia,  Oxoniensis), 
Oxford;  of  Oxford. 

Oxonien.  (Lat.  Oxoniensis),  Of  Ox- 
ford. 

Oz.  Ounce.  [The  z  in  this  contraction 
and  in  I'iz.,  represents  an  okl  sym- 
bol (3),  used  to  mark  a  terminal 
contraction.] 

P.  Page;  Participle;  Past;  Pole; 
Port. 

Pa.  Pennsylvania. 

Pa.  a.,  par.  a.  Participial    adjective. 

Paint.  Painting. 

Pal.,  Palaonl.  Paleontology,  palap- 
ontological. 

PalcBobo.  Palaeobotany. 

Pa.  part.  Past  participle. 

Par.  Paragraph;  Participle. 

Pari.  Parliament,  parliamentary. 

Part.  Participle. 

Particip.  Participial. 

Pass.  Passive. 

Pat.  Patrick. 

Pathol.  Pathological. 

Payt.  Payment. 

P.  C.  (Lat.  patres  conscripti).  Con- 
script Fathers. 

P.  C.  Police-constable;  Privy  Coun- 
cil; Privy  Councillor. 

P.  C.  S.  Principal  Clerk  of   Session. 

Pd.  Paid. 

Pd.  D.  Doctor  of  Pedagogy. 

P.  E.  Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I.  Prince  Edward's  Island. 

Penn.  Pennsylvania. 

Pent.  Pentecost. 

Per.,  Pers.  Persian;  Person,  per- 
sonal. 

Per.  an.   (Lat.  per  annum).  Yearly. 


Per  cent.,  per  ct.   (Lat.    per    centum). 

By  the  hundred. 
Perf.  Perfect. 
Peri.  Perigee. 

Pers.,  Persp.  Perspective. 

Peruv.  Peruvian. 

Pet.  Peter. 

P.  G.  M.  Past  Grand  Master. 

Phar.,  Pharm.  Pharmacy. 

Ph.  B.  (Lat.  philosophice  baccalaur- 
eus). Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

PA.  D.  (Lat.  philosophiw  doctor), 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Phil.  Philip;  Philippians;  Philos- 
ophy, philosophical. 

Phil.  Trans.  Transactions  of  the 
Philosophical  Society. 

Phil.,  Phila.  Philadelphia. 

Philem.  Philemon. 

Philol.  Philology. 

Philos.  Philosophy,  philosophical. 

Ph.  M.  Master  of  Philosophy. 

Phenic.  Phenician. 

Photog.  Photography,  photographic, 
photographer. 

Phren.,  phrenol.  Phrenology,  phreno- 
logical. 

Phys.  Physics,  physical;  Physiol- 
ogy, physiological. 

Physiol.  Physiology,  physiological. 

Pinx.,  Pxt.  (Lat.  pinxil).  He  (or 
she)  painted  it. 

Pk.  Peck. 

PL  Place";  Plate;  Plural. 

P.  L.  Poet  Laureate. 

Plf!.,Pltff.  Plaintiff. 

Plu.  Plural. 

Plup.  Pluperfect. 

Plur.  Plural. 

P.  M.  (Lat.  post  meridiem).  After- 
noon. 

P.  M.  Past  Master;  Peculiar  metre; 
Postmaster. 

P.  M.  G.  Postmaster-General. 

P.O.  Post-office. 

P.  &  O.  Co.  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Steam  Navigation  Company. 

Poet.  Poetry,  poetical. 

Pol.  Polish. 

Polit.  Econ.  Political  Economy. 

P.  O.  O.  Post-office  order. 

Pop.  Population. 

Port,  Portugal,  Portuguese. 

Poss.  Possessive. 

Pp.  Pages. 

P.  p.  Past  participle. 

P.  P.  (Lat.  pater  patriae).  Father  of 
his  country. 

P.  P.  Parish  priest. 

P.  P.  C.  (Fr.  jwur  prendre  conge). 
To  take  leave.     [T.  T.  L.] 

Pph.  Pamphlet. 

Pr.  Present;  Priest;  Prince. 

Pr.  par.  Present  participle. 

P.  R.  (Lat.  Populus  Romanus),  The 
Roman  people. 

P.  R.  Prize  Ring. 

P.R.A.  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

P.R.C.  (Lat.  post  Roman  conditam) , 
After  the  building  of  Rome. 
[A.U.C.] 

Preb.  Prebend. 

Pref.  Prefix;   Preface. 

Pf-ep.  Preposition. 

Pres.  President;  Present. 

Pret.  Preterite. 

Prim.  Primary. 

Prin.  Principal. 

Print.  Printing. 

Priv.  Privative. 

Prob.  Problem;   Probable,  probably. 

Prof.  Professor. 

Pron.,  Pro.  Pronoun;  Pronounced; 
Pronunciation. 

Pron.  a.  Pronominal  adjective. 

Prop.  Proposition. 

Pros.  Prosody. 

Pro  tem.  (Lat.  pro  tempore).  For  the 
time  being. 

Prov.  Proverbs,  proverbial,  prover- 
bially; Provincial,  provincially; 
Provost. 


LANGUAGE 


207 


Provinc.  Provincial. 
Prox.  (Lat.  proximo),  Next  of  or  of 
the  next  month. 

P.  R.  S.  President  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

P.  R.  S.  A.  President  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy. 

P'>-U8.  Prussia,  Prussian. 

P,  S.  (Lat.  post  scriptum),  Post- 
script. 

P.S.  Privy  Seal. 

Ps.,  Psa.  Psalm,  psalms. 

Psychol.  Psychology. 

Pt.  Part;  Payment;  Point;  Port. 

P.  T.  Post-town ;   Pupil  teacher. 

Pub.  Public;     Published,    publisher. 

Pub.  Doc.  Public  Documents. 

P.  V.  Post-village. 

Pwt.  Pennyweight. 

Pxt.   [PiNX.] 

Pyro.,  Pyrotech.  Pyrotechnics. 

Q.,  Qu.  Query;  Question. 

Q.  C.  Queen's  College. 

Q.  d.  (Lat.  quasi  dicai).  As  if  he 
should  say. 

Q.  e.   (Lat.  quod  est),  Which  is. 

Q.  E.  D.  (Lat.  quod  erat  demonstran- 
dum). Which  was  to  be  proved. 

Q.  E.  F.  (Lat.  quod  erat  faciendum). 
Which  was  to  be  done. 

Q.  E.  I.  (Lat.  quod  erat  invenien- 
dum). Which  was  to  be  found  out. 

Q.  I.  (Lat.  quantum  libel).  As  much 
as  you  please. 

Q.  M.  Quartermaster. 

Q.  M.  Gen.  Quartermaster-General. 

Qr.  Quarterly;  Quire. 

Q.  S.  Quarter  Sessions. 

Q:  s.  (Lat.  quantum  sufftdt),  A  suffi- 
cient quantity. 

Qt.  Quart. 

Qu.  Queen;  Query;  Question. 

Quar.,  quart.  Quarterly. 

Quar.,  4to.  (Quarto. 

Ques.  Question. 

Q.  V.   (Lat.  quod  vide).  Which  see. 

Qy.  Query. 

R.  Railway;  Reaumur;  River. 

R.  (Lat.  rex).  King;  (Lat.  regina). 
Queen. 

R.   (Lat.  recipe).  Take. 

R.  A.  Royal  Academy,  Royal  Aca- 
demician; Rear-Admiral;  Royal 
Arch;   Royal  Artillery. 

Rabb.  Rabbinical. 

Rod.  (Lat.  radix).  Root. 

R.  A.  M.  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

R.  A.  S.  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

R.  C.  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  D.  Rural  Dean. 

R.  E.  Royal  Engineers;  Royal  Ex- 
change. 

R.  E.  Reformed  Episcopal. 

Reaum.  Reaumur. 

Rec.  Recipe. 

Reed.  Received. 

Recpt.  Receipt. 

Ref.  Reference. 

Ref.  Ch.  Reformed  Church. 

Ref.  Pres.  Reformed  Presbyterian. 

Reg.  Regular. 

Reg.,  Regr.  Registrar. 

Reg.,  Regt.  Regiment,  regimental. 

Rel.  Religion,  religious. 

Rel.  Pron.  Relative  Pronoun. 

Rem.  Remark,  remarks. 

Rep.  Report;   Representative. 

Rep.  Repub.  Republic;   Republican. 

Res.  Resolution. 

Retd.  Returned. 

Rev.  Revelation;  Revenues;  Rever- 
end; Review;  Revise. 

Revd.  Reverend. 

Revs.  Reverends. 

Rev.  Stat.  Revised  Statutes. 

R.  F.  D.  Rural  Free  Delivery. 

Rhet.  Rhetoric,  rhetorical. 

R.  H.  S.  Royal  Humane  Society. 

R.  I.  Rhode  Island. 

R.  I.  P.  (Lat.  requiescat  in  pace). 
May  he  (or  she)  rest  in  peace. 

Riv.  River. 


R.  M,  Royal  Mail;    Royal  Marines. 

R.  M.  A.  Royal  Marine  Artillery; 
Royal  Military  Asylum. 

R.  M.  L.  I,  Royal  Marine  Light  In- 
fantry. 

R.  M.  S.  Royal  Mail  Steamer;  Royal 
Mail  Service. 

R.  N.  Royal  Navy. 

R.  N.  R.  Royal  Naval  Reserve. 

R.  O.  Receiving  Office. 

Robt.  Robert. 

Rom.  Roman,  Romans. 

Rom.  Cath.  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  P.  Regius  Professor. 

R.  R.  Right  Reverend. 

R.  R.  Railroad. 

R.  S.  A.  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 

R.  S.  P.O.  A.  Royal  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

R.  S.  E.  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

R.  S.  L.  Royal  Society  of  London. 

R.  S.  V.  P.  (Fr.  Repondez  s'it  vous 
plait).  Please  reply. 

Rt.  Right. 

Rt.  Hon.  Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.  Right  Reverend. 

R.  T.  S.  Religious  Tract  Society. 

Rt.  Wpful.  Right  Worshipful. 

Russ.  Russia,  Russian. 

R.  V.  Revised  Version;  Rifle  Vol- 
unteers. 

R.  W.  Right  Worshipful ;  Right 
Worthy. 

R.  W.  D.  G.  M.  Right  Worshipful 
Deputy  Grand  Master. 

R.  W.  G.  M.  Right  Worshipful  Grand 

R.  W.  G.  R.  Right  Worthy  Grand 
Representative. 

R.  W.  G.  S.  Right  Worthy  Grand 
Secretary. 

R.  W.  G.  T.  Right  Worthy  Grand 
Treasurer;  Right  Worthy  Grand 
Templar. 

R.  W.G.W.  Right  Worshipful  Grand 
Warden. 

R.  W.  J.  G.  W.  Right  Worshipful  Ju- 
nior Grand  Warden. 

ft.  If.  S.  G.  W.  Right  Worshipful  Se- 
nior Grand  Warden. 

Ry.  Railway. 

a.  Saint;  Saturday;  Section;  Shil- 
ling; Sign;  Signor;  Solo;  Soprano; 
South;  Sun;  Sunday;  Sabbath. 

8.  Second,  .seconds;  See;  Singular; 
Son;  Succeeded. 

S.  A.  South  Africa;   South  America. 

S.  A.  (Lat.  secundem  artem).  Accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  art. 

Sab.  Sabbath. 

Sam.,  Saml.  Samuel. 

Sam.,  Samar.  Samaritan. 

Sans.,  Sansc,  Sansk.  Sanscrit,  Sans- 
krit. 

S.  A.  S.  (Lat.  Socielaiis  Antiquari- 
orum  Socius),  Fellow  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Antiquaries. 

Sat.  Saturday. 

Sax.  Saxon,  Saxony. 

iS.  B.  South  Britain  (England  and 
Wales).     [N.  B.] 

S.  C.  South  Carolina. 

S.  C.  (Lat.  senatus  consuUum),  A 
decree  of  the  senate. 

Sc.  [SciL.  Scull.] 

Scan.  mag.  (Lat.  scandalum  magna- 
tum).  Defamatory  expressions  to 
the  injury  of  persons  of  high  rank 
or  dignity. 

S.  caps.,  Sm.  caps.  Small  capitals.  (In 
printing.) 

Sc.  B.  (Lat.  sdenticB  baccalaureus) , 
Bachelor  of  Science. 

Sc.  D.  (Lat.  scienticB  doctor).  Doctor 
of  Science. 

Sch.  (Lat.  scholium),  A  note. 

Sch.  Schooner. 

Set.  Science. 

Sci.  fa.  Scire  facias. 

Sail.  Sc.  (Lat.  scilicet),  Namely;  to 
wit. 

S.  C.  L.  Student  in  Civil  Law. 

Sclav.  Sclavonic. 


Scot.  Scotland,  Scotch,  Scottish. 

ScT.  Scruple,  scruples. 

Scrip.,  Script.  Scripture,  scriptural. 

Sculp.  Sculpture. 

Sculp.,  Sculpt.,  Sc.  (Lat.  sculpsit). 
He  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

S.  D.  Doctor  of  Science. 

S.  D.,  S.  Dak.  South  Dakota. 

S.  D.  U.  K.  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge. 

S.  E.  South-east. 

Sec.  Second. 

Sec,  Sect.  Section. 

iScc,  Secy.  Secretary. 

Sec.  Leg.  Secretary  of  Legation. 

Sen.  Senate,  senator. 

Sen.  Doc.  Senate  Document. 

Sep.,  Sept.  September. 

Seq.  (Lat.  sequentes,  sequentia),  The 
following  or  the  next. 

Serg.,  Sergt.  Sergeant. 

Serg.  Maj.  Sergeant-Major. 

Serj.,  Serjt.  Serjeant. 

Serv.  Servian. 

Sess.  Session. 

S.  G.  Solicitor-general. 

8.  g.  [Sp.  Gr.] 

Sh.  Shilling,  shillings. 

Sing.  Singular. 

S.  J.  Society  of  Jesus. 

■S.  J.  C.  Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

Skr.  Sanskrit. 

Slav.  Slavonic. 

Sid.  Sailed. 

<S'.  M.  Sergeant-major. 

S.  M.  Lond.  Soc.  (Lat.  Societatis 
MediccB  Londinensis  Socius).  Mem- 
ber of  the  London  Medical  Society. 

S.  N.  (Lat.  secundum  naluram).  Ac- 
cording to  nature,  naturally. 

iSoc,  Socy.  Society. 

S.  of  Sol.  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sol.-gen.  Solicitor-general. 

Sp.  Spain,  Spanish;  Spirit. 

8.  p.  (Lat.  sine  prole).  Without  issue. 

S.  P.  C.  A.  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

S.  P.  C.  C.  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Children. 

S.  P.  C.  K.  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Christian  Knowledge. 

Spec.  Special,  specially. 

<S'.  P.  G.  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel. 

sp.  gr.,  s.  g.  Specific  gravity. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.  (Lat.  Senatus  Populusque 
Romanus),  The  Senate  and  the 
People  of  Rome. 

sq.  Square;  sq.ft.  Square  foot,  feet; 
sq.  in.  Square  inch,  inches;  sq.  m. 
Square  mile,  miles;  sq.  yd.  Square 
yard;    sq.  rd.  Square  rod. 

Sr.  Senior;  sir. 

S.  ft.  /.  (Lat.  Sacrum  Romanum  Im- 
perium).  The  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire. 

S.  ft.  S.  (Lat.  Societatis  Regice  So- 
cius), Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

SS.  Saints. 

S.  S.  Sunday  School. 

S.  S.  C.  Solicitor  before  the  Supreme 
Court. 

»S.  S.  E.  South-south-east. 

S.  S.  W.  South-south-west. 

St.  Saint;  Stone;  Strait;  Street. 

St.  (Lat.  stet),  Let  it  stand  (in  print- 
ing). 

Stat.  Statute,  statutes;  Statuary. 

S.  T.  Sons  of  Temperance. 

S.  T.  B.  Bachelor  of  Sacred  Theology. 

S.  T.  D.  {li&t.sacroetheologiiB  doctor). 
Doctor  of  Divinity. 

ster.,  stg.  Sterling. 

St.  L.  St.  Louis. 

iS.  T.  P.  (Lat.  sacrw  theologice  pro- 
fessor).  Professor  of  Theology. 

Str.  Steamer,  steam  vessel. 

Subj.  Subjunctive. 

Subst.  Substantive;  Substitute. 

Suff.  Suffix. 

Sun.,  Sund.  Sunday. 

Sup.  Superior;  Superlative;  Supple- 
ment; Supine. 


208 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Sup.  CI.  Supreme  Court. 

U.  J.  D.  [J.  U.  D.] 

Vul.,  Vula.  Vulgate. 

Vulg.  Vulgar,  vulgarly. 

vv.  U.   (Lat.  varice  lectiones).  Various 

Supt.  Superintendent. 

U.  K.  United  Kingdom. 

Sur.,  Surg.  Surgeon,  surgery. 

U.K.  A.  Ulster     King     at     Arms; 

Sur.-gen.  Surgeon-general. 

United  Kingdom  AUiance. 

readings. 

Surv.  Surveying,  surveyor. 

VU.  (Lat.  uUimo).  Last,  of  the  last 

W.  Wednesday;      Week;     Welsh; 

Surv.-gen.  Surveyor-general. 

month. 

West,  western. 

<S.  V.  (Lat.  sub  voce).  Under  the  word 

um.  Unmarried. , 

Wall.,  Wallach.  Wallachian. 

or  title. 

Unit.  Unitarian. 

Walt.  Walter. 

S.  W.  Senior  Warden ;   South-west. 

Univ.  University. 

Wash.  Washington. 

Sw.  Sweden,  Swedish. 

Up.  Upper. 

w.  c.  W.Tter  closet. 

Switz.  Switzerland. 

U.  P.  United  Presbyterian. 

W.C.A.  Women's   Christian    Asso- 

Syn. Synonym,  synonymous. 

U.  S.  United  States. 

ciation. 

Synop.  Synopsis. 

U.  S.  (Lat.  ut  supra).  As  above. 

W.C.T.  U.  Women's  Christian  Tem- 

Syr. Syria,  Syriac;  Syrup. 

U.S.A.  United  States  of  America; 

perance  Union. 

T.  Tenor;  Ton;  Tun;  Tuesday. 

United  States  Army. 

Wed.  Wednesday. 

T.  A   B.  Total  Abstinence  Brother- 

U. S.  L.  United  States  Legation. 

Wei.  Welsh. 

hood. 

U.  S.  M.  United  States  mail;  United 

w.  f.  Wrong  font  (in  printing). 

Tab.  Table;  Tabular  statement. 

States  marine. 

Whf.  Wharf. 

Tan.  Tangent. 

U.S.M.A.  United  States  Mihtary 

W.I.  West  Indies;  West  Indian. 

TaH.  Tartaric. 

Academy. 

iris.,  Wise.  Wisconsin. 

Tech.  Technical,  technically. 

U.  S.  N.  United  States  Navy. 

Wk.  Week. 

Ten.,  Tenn.  Tennessee. 

U.  S.  N.  A.  United     States     Naval 

W.  Long.  West  Longitude. 

Ter.  Territory. 

Academy. 

Wm.  William. 

Tehn.  Termination. 

U.S.S.  United  States  Senate;  Unit- 

W. M.  Worshipful  Master. 

Teul.  Teutonic. 

ed  States  ship  or  steamer. 

W.  N.  W.  West-north-west. 

Tex.  Texas. 

U.  S.  S.  Ct.  United  States  Supreme 

Wp.  Worship. 

Text.  rec.   (Lat.  textus  receptua).  The 

Court. 

Wpful.  Worshipful. 

received  text. 

Usu.  Usual,  usually. 

W.  S.  Writer  to  the  Signet. 

Th.  Thomas;  Thursday. 

V.  Verb;  Verse;  Victoria;  Violin. 

W.  S.  W.  West-south-west. 

Theo.  Theodore. 

V.   vs.,   (Lat.  versus).  Against. 

Wt.  Weight. 

Theol.  Theology. 

V.  (Lat.  vide).  See. 

W.  Va.  West  Virginia. 

Theor.  Theorum. 

V.  A.  Vicar  Apostolic;  Vice-admiral. 

Wyo.  Wyoming. 

Th^ss.  Thessalonians. 
Tho.,  Thos.  Thomas. 

Va.  Virginia. 

Val.  Valve;  Value. 

X.  Christ. 

Xm.,  Xmas.  Christmas. 

Thu.,  Thur.,  Tkurs.  Thursday. 

Var.  Variety. 

Xn.  Christian. 

Tier.  Tierce.                           ' 

Vat.  Vatican. 

Xnty.  Christianity. 

Tim.  Timothy. 

V.  aux.  Verb  auxiliary. 

Xper.,  Xr.  Christopher. 

TU.  Title;  Titus.       ^ 

V.  C.  Vice-chancellor;  Victoria  Cross. 

Xt.  Christ. 

T.  0.  Turn  over. 

V.  def.  Verb  defdfctive. 

Xtian.  Christian. 

Tob.  Tobtt. 

V.  D.  M.   (Lat.    Verbum  Dei  Minis- 

Y. Year. 

Tom.  Tome,  volume.                            » 

ter).  Minister  of  the  Word  of  God. 

Yd.  Yard. 

Tonn.  Tonnage. 

Ven.  Venerable.      ^_ 

Yds.  Yards. 

Topog.  Topography,  topographical. 

V.  G.  Vicar-GeneralT 

Ye.  The;  Thee. 

Tp.  Township. 

V.  g.  (Lat.  verbi  gratia).  For  the  sake 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Young  Men's  Christian 

Tr.  Translation,    translator,    trans- 

of example. 

Association. 

lated;  Transpose;  Treasurer;  Trus- 

V. i.  Verb  intransitive. 

Y.  M.  Cath.  A.  Young  Men's  Catho- 

tee. 

Vice-pres.  Vice-president. 

lic  Association. 

Trans.  Transaction;     Translation, 

Vid.  (Lat.  vide).  See. 

Y.  M.  H.  A.  Young   Men's   Hebrew 

translator,  translated. 

V.  imp.  Verb  impersonal. 

Association. 

Trav.  Travels. 

V.  trr.  Verb  irregular. 

Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.  Young    People's    So- 

Treas. Treasurer. 

Vis.,  Vise.   Viscount. 

ciety  of  Christian  Endeavor. 

Trig.,  Trigon.  Trigonometry,     trigo- 

Viz. (Lat.  videlicet).  Namely;  to  wit. 

Yr.  Year;  Younger;  Your. 

nometrical. 

[02.] 

Ys.  Years;  Yours. 

Trin.  Trinity. 

V.  n.  Verb  neuter. 

Y.  W.  C.  A.  Young  Women's  Chris- 

Ta. Texas. 

Voc.  Vocative. 

tian  Association. 

T.  T.  L.  To  take  leave.     [P.  P.  C] 

Vol.  Volume. 

Zach.  Zachary. 

Tu.,  Tues.  Tuesday. 

Vols.  Volumes. 

Zech.  Zechariah. 

Turk.  Turkey,  Turkish. 

V.  P.  Vice-president. 

Zeph.  Zephaniah. 

Typ.  Typographer. 

Typog.  Typography,    typographical. 

V.  r.  Verb  reflexive. 

Z.  G.,  Zoo.  Zoological  Gardens. 

V.  Rev.  Very  Reverend. 

Zoochem.  Zoochemistry,      zoochemi- 

U.  C.  (Lat.  urbis  condita).  From  the 

Vs.   (Lat.  versus).  Against. 

cal. 

building    of     the     city  —  Rome. 

V.  S.  Veterinary  surgeon. 

Zoogeog.         Zoogeography,     zoogeo- 

[A.  U.  C] 

V.  t.  Verb  transitive. 

graphical. 

Uh.  Utah. 

Vt.  Vermont. 

Zool.  Zoology,  zoological. 

FIGURES  OF   SPEECH 

The  first  and  most  obvious  use  of  language  is 
to  convey  thought,  but  it  is  not  enough  that 
words  should  be  correct  and  precise  and  appro- 
priately chosen.  The  plainest  language  is  not 
always  the  most  impressive.  There  is  often  a 
warmth  and  glow  accompanying  thought  which 
demands  imagery  and  vivacity  of  speech.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  life,  color,  flavor,  and 
fragrance  of  literature  have  been  secured  by  the 
skillful  use  of  figurative  language.  The  pic- 
turesque in  poetry  and  prose  is  due  in  a  large 
measure  to  figures  of  speech.  Vividness,  strength, 
beauty,  clearness,  force,  elegance,  often  lie  in  the 
effective  use  of  imagery. 

Origin  of  Figures.  Figures  of  speech 
are  common  in  every-day  conversation.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  such  phrases  as  these: — 
fleecy  cloud;  roaring  wind;  flight  of  time; 
mad  idea;    driving  a  bargain;    slow  as  a  snail; 


eloquent  eye;  soft  voice;  piercing  tongue; 
uneven  temper;  morning  of  life;  ship  of  state; 
bright  idea;  as  hungry  as  a  bear;  as  true  as 
steel;  as  quick  as  thought.  We  find  from  such 
expressions  that  figures  of  speech  originate  in 
the  very  necessities  of  language.  Words  in 
their  bare  literal  meaning  are  not  capable  of 
rendering  every  phase  of  thought.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  language  men  gave  names  to  different 
objects.  As  ideas  multiplied  words  were  in- 
creased; but  no  language  could  be  adequate  to 
supply  a  separate  word  for  every  separate  idea, 
hence  arose  the  figurative  or  secondary  use  of 
words.  The  word  "bright"  in  its  primary 
meaning  signifies  that  which  sends  out  light, 
a  luminous  body  or  a  reflecting  surface.  When 
we  speak  of  a  "bright"  mind  we  imagine  the 
influence  of  such  a  mind  upon  others  as  of  a 
light  in  the  midst  of  darkness^  In  this  way 
the  old  word  was  called  into  use  in  a  new  sense. 


LANGUAGE 


209 


Our  language  has  been  greatly  enriched  by  the 
vast  number  of  figurative  words  which  we  use 
unconsciously  every  day. 

Another  source  of  figures  is  the  pleasure 
which  they  give.  Words  in  their  literalness  are 
incapable  of  rendering  delicate  shades  of  thought 
or  feeling.  Figures  of  speech  not  only  add  to 
the  picturesqueness  of  language  but  seern  to 
be  the  natural  mode  for  expressing  the  emotions. 
Primitive  people,  as  well  as  little  children, 
the  most  illiterate  as  well  as  the  most  learned, 
talk  in  figures.  When  the  imagination  is 
awakened  or  the  passion  inflamed,  then  it  is 
natural  to  turn  to  the  figurative.  When  figures 
are  appropriately  used  they  strengthen-  and 
adorn  expression. 

Briefly,  then,  the  origin  of  figures  lies,  first, 
in  the  barrenness  of  language,  the  need  for 
more  copious  expression,  than  in  the  literal 
meaning  of  words;  and,  second,  in  the  desire 
to  give  pleasure,  force,  and  animation.  Figures 
are  the  ornaments  of  speech,  but  they  should 
not  be  used  unless  they  adorn  in  an  appropriate 
way. 

Definition  of  Figure  of  Speecii.  A 
figure  of  speech  is  any  deviation  from  the  literal 
or  ordinary  mode  of  expression  for  the  purpose 
of  making  the  thought  clearer  or  more  attractive 
or  more  forceful. 

Thinking  in  concrete  images  is  more  vivid 
and  for  the  most  part  more  interesting  tlian 
thinking  in  abstract  or  in  general  terms;  but 
for  exact  thinking  we  need  to  cultivate  the 
ability  to  use  expressions  that  are  general, 
abstract,  and  literal.  So  it  is  well  to  practice 
one's  self  occasionally  in  converting  the  figura- 
tive into  the  literal  or  the  reverse. 

Comparison  between  Literal  and  Figurative 
Language. 

1.  Literal,  I  am  growing  old. 
Figurative,  "My  May.  of  life 

Is  fallen  into  the  sere,  the  yellow  leaf." 

2.  Literal,  I  am  in  great  need  of  a  horse. 
Figurative,  "A  horse!   a  horse!   my  king- 
dom for  a  horse!" 

3.  Literal,  Longing  for  peace. 
Figurative,  "O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord, 

how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet? 
Put  up  thyself  into  thy  scabbard,  rest, 
and  be  still." 

4.  Literal,  He  was  a  man  to  be  despised. 
Figurative,  "The  Chief-Justice  was  rich, 

quiet,  and  infamous." 

5.  Literal,  There  is  a  conceit  peculiar  to  the 

Boston  people. 
Figurative,  "Boston  State  House  is  the 
hub  of  the  solar  system.  You  couldn't 
pry  that  out  of  a  Boston  man  if  you 
had  the  tire  of  all  creation  straightened 
out  for  a  crowbar."  ^ 

6.  Literal,  A  picture  of  autumn  leaves  blow- 

ing about. 
Figurative,  "Innumerable  tawny  and  yel- 
low leaves  skimmed  along  the  pave- 
ment, and  stole  through  people's  door- 
ways into  their  passages,  with  a  hesi- 
tating scratch  on  the  floor,  like  the 
skirts  of  timid  visitors." 


7.  Literal,  Promise  of  divine  protection. 
Figurative,  "As  the  mountains  are  round 

about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round 
about  His  people,  from  henceforth  even 
forever." 

8.  Literal,  Promise  of  abundance. 
Figurative,  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in 

that  day  that  the  mountains  shall  drop 
down  new  wine,  and  the  hills  shall  flow 
with  milk." 

9.  Literal,  A  great  ado  about  nothing. 
Figurative,  "Ocean  into  tempest  wrought, 

To  waft  a  feather  or  to  drown  a  fly." 

10.  Literal,  A  feeling  of  tenderness  when  look- 

ing at  a  violet  wet  with  dew. 
Figurative,  "Violet,  sweet  violet! 

Tliine  eyes  are  full  of  tears." 

11.  Literal,  I  wish  I  had  the  power  of  seeing 

myself  as  other  people  see  me. 
Figurative,  "O  wad  some  power  the  giftie 
gie  us. 
To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see 
us!" 

12.  Literal,  The  cannon  ball  shot  through  the 

air. 
Figurative,  "Whistling  so  airily, 
Past  the  air  warily, 
Watching  me  narrowly. 
Crashing  I  come ! "    (Song  of 
the  Cannon  Ball.) 

Classification  of  Figures.  Figures 
OF  Grammar.  A  figure  of  grammar  is  an 
intentional  deviation  from  the  ordinary  spelling, 
formation,  construction,  or  application  of 
words.  There  are,  accordingly,  figures  of  or- 
thography, figures  of  etymology,  figures  of  syn- 
tax. 

Figures  of  Orthography.  A  figure  of  or- 
thography is  an  intentional  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a  word.  The  prin- 
cipal figures  of  orthography  are  mi-me'sis  and 
ar'cha-ism. 

Mimesis.  Mimesis  is  a  ludicrous  imitation  of 
some  mistake  or  mispronunciation  of  a  word,  in 
which  the  error  is  mimicked  by  a  false  spelling, 
or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  another;  as,  "I 
will  description  the  matter  to  you,  if  you  will 
be  capacity  of  it." —  Shakespere.  "  We  will  not 
anticipate  the  past ;  so  mind,  young  people, — 
our  retrospection  will  all  be  to  the  future." — 
Mrs.  Malaprop. 

Figures  of  this  kind  were  formerly  called 
tropes,  i.  e.,  turns;  because  certain  words  are 
turned  from  their  original  signification. 

Archaism.  An  archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase 
expressed  according  to  ancient  usage,  and  not 
according  to  our  modern  orthography;  as, 
"Exceeding  was  the  love  he  bare  to  him"; 
"Albeit  of  a  stern,  unbending  mind";  "We 
have,    th/)u   knowest,    another    kinsman." 

Figures  of  Etymology.  A  figure  of  ety- 
mology is  an  intentional  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  formation  of  a  word.  The  principal 
figures  of  etymology  are :  a-phaer'e-sis,  pros'the- 
sis,  syn'co-pe,  a-poc'o-pe,  par-a-go'ge,  di-ser'e- 
sis,  syn-ser'e-sis,  and  tme'sis. 

Aphaeresis  is  the  elision  of  some  initial  letter 
or  letters  of  a  word;   as,  'gainst  for  against. 


210 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive 
syllable  to  a  word ;   as,  rjclad  for  clad. 

Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a  middle  letter  or 
letters  of  a  word ;   as,  o'er  for  over. 

Apocope  is  the  omission  of  the  final  letter  or 
letters  of  a  word ;   as,  th'  for  the. 

Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive 
syllable  to  a  word;   as,  dearie  for  dear. 

Diaeresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that 
might  be  supposed  to  form  a  dipthong;  as, 
co-operate  or  cooperate,   not  cooperate. 

Synseresis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into 
one;    as,  I'll  for  /  will. 

Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between 
the  parts  of  a  compound,  or  between  two  words 
which  should  be  united  if  they  stood  together; 
as,  to  us  ward. 

Figures  of  Syntax.  A  figure  of  syntax  is 
an  intentional  deviation  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction of  words.  The  principal  figures  of 
syntax  are:  el-lip'sis,  ple'o-nasm,  syl-lep'sis, 
en-al'la-ge,  and  hy-per'ba-ton. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or 
words  which  are  necessary  to  complete  the 
construction,  but  not  necessary  to  convey  the 
meaning:     "  Prythee,  peace." 

Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous 
words;  as,  "All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world, 
and  dwellers  on  the  earth." 

Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the 
figurative  sense  of  a  word,  and  not  according 
to  literal  use.  "Then  Philip  went  down  to  the 
city  of  Samaria,  and  preached  Christ  unto  them." 

Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or 
of  one  modification,  for  another.  "They  fall 
successive  (ly),  and  successive  (ly)  rise." 

Figures  of  grammar  are  in  common  use  and 
have  the  sanction  of  good  authority,  but  it  is 
not  at  all  important  that  we  remember  their 
various  names. 

FiGUUES  OF  Rhetoric.  A  figure  of  rhetoric 
is  an  intentional  deviation  from  the  literal  or 
ordinary  forms  of  expression.  Figures  of  rheto- 
ric are  usually  implied  whenever  we  speak  of 
figurative  language.  Departures  from  perfect 
simplicity  occur  in  almost  every  kind  of  com- 
position. They  are  mostly  founded  on  some 
similitude  or  relation  of  things  which,  by  the 
power  of  the  imagination,  makes  the  thought 
more  attractive  or  more  striking. 

Classification  of  Figures  op  Rhetoric. 

1.  Figures  based  on  resemblance;  simile, 
meljaphor,  personification,  allegory. 

2.  Figures  based  on  contiguity  or  association ; 
metonomy,  synecdoche. 

3.  Figures  based  on  contrast  or  surprise; 
antithesis,  epigram,  irony. 

4.  Figures  based  on  emphasis  or  strength  of 
emotion;  hyperbole,  interrogation,  exclamation, 
apostrophe,  vision. 

5.  Other  deviations  from  the  plain  or  literal 
mode  of  speech  which  contribute  to  force  or 
beauty  and  are  sometimes  ranked  among  figures 
of  speech;  climax,  anticlimax,  allusion,  litotes, 
euphemism,  onomatopoeia,  alliteration. 

Figures    Based    on    Resemblance. 

Simile.  A  simile  expresses  a  figurative  resem- 
blance between  two  things  essentially  different 


in  kind.  The  comparison  is  usually  introduced 
by  such  words  as  like  and  «s : 

"Sweet  arc  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Whicli,  like  the  toad,  ugly  aiul  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head." 

The  best  similes  are  those  that  compare 
things  which  are  in  most  respects  unlike,  but 
which  have  at  least  one  strong  point  of  resem- 
blance. Adversity  and  a  toad  are  as  unlike  as 
the  mind  can  well  conceive,  but  Shakespere's 
creative  fancy  discovers  in  them  an  unexpected 
relation  of  precious  use.  The  discovery  of  such 
an  unexpected  likeness  gives  the  reader  the 
pleasure  of  an  agreeable  surprise.  Similes  are 
appropriate  when,  without  violating  truth,  they 
make  the  subject  clearer  or  bring  its  relation 
more  strikingly  before  us.  When  the  similes 
are  too  remote  or  too  obvious  or  too  fantastic 
or  even  too  worn-out  from  over  repetition,  then 
they  are  not  appropriate.  The  joy  of  the 
imagery  lies  in  the  mind's  surprise  because  of 
its  unexpectedness  and  fitness.  Any  one  look- 
ing at  a  cloud  may  see  its  resemblance  to  a 
fleece  or  to  a  bank  of  snow,  but  how  much 
better  pleased  we  are  with  Lowell's  less  com- 
mon imagery: 

"A  sky  above. 
Where  one  white  cloud  like  a  stray  lamb  doth  move." 

Wordsworth  discovers  a  close  relation  be- 
tween evening  and  a  nun  at  her  devotion, — 

"The  holy  time  is  quiet  as  a  nun 
Breathless  with  adoration." 

Ossian  discovers  a  likeness  between  music  and 
memory:  "Like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are 
past,  sweet  and  mournful  to  the  soul."  More 
beautiful  still  is  the  discovery  by  Shakespere  of 
a  resemblance  between  music  and  the  odor  from 
a  bed  of  violets: 

"It  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  sound 
That  breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets. 
Stealing  and  giving  odor." 

A  study  of  the  great  similes  found  in  classic 
literature  will  teach  one  how  to  avoid  the  trite 
and  commonplace.  The  Bible  forms  the  rich- 
est source  from  which  we  draw  our  figurative 
language.  Greek  literature,  especially  Homer, 
is  our  next  source,  and  probably  Shakespere 
the  next. 

Several  of  the  Homeric  similes  have  been 
traced  through  their  use  by  later  poets, —  the 
simile  of  the  leaves,  the  bees,  the  growth  of 
rumor.  They  illustrate  "the  power  of  a  great 
thought,  adequately  expressed  in  one  language, 
to  influence  thought  and  expression  for  cen- 
turies in  other  languages." 

Metaphor.  A  metaphor  is  founded  upon  the 
resemblance  of  one  thing  to  another.  It  differs 
from  the  simile  in  that  the  comparison  is  impljed 
rather  than  formally  stated : 

1.  Simile.     She  sang  like  a  nightingale. 
Metaphor.     She  had  the  voice  of  a  night- 
ingale. 

2.  Simile.     "As  cold  water  to  a  thirsty  soul, 

so  is  good  news  from  a  far  country." 
Metaphor.     Good  news  from  a  far  country 
refreshes  the  soul. 

3.  Simile.     The  temper  of  the  nation,  loaded 

already  with  grievances,  was  like  a  vessel 
that   is  now  full;    and   this  additional 


LANGUAGE 


211 


provocation,  like  the  last  drop  infused, 

made    their    rage    and    resentment    as 

waters  of  bitterness  overflow. 

Metaphor.     The    vessel    of    the    nation's 

wrath  was  now  full,  and  this  last  drop 

made  the  waters  of  bitterness  overflow. 

4.  Simile.     Contentment    is    like    a    precious 

pearl. 

Metaphor.     Contentment  is  a  pearl  of  great 

price. 

Metaphors   are    sometimes   called    condensed 

similes.     We  find  them  in  all  speech.     They  are 

fitted  for  the  expression  of  the  most  intense 

passion  or  the  simple  unconscious  use  of  every 

day.     There  are  two  grades  of  metaphors.     In 

the  first,  attributes  properly  belonging  to  one 

thing   are   applied   to   another;     as,    unbridled 

passion,  hard  heart,  soft  answer,  black  omen, 

striking  thought,  clear  head.     A  large  class  of 

such  phrases,  originally  metaphorical,  have  been 

so  widely  adopted  that  they  have  ceased  to  be 

regarded  as  figurative.     In  the  second  degree, 

one  thing  is  completely  identified  for  the  time 

being  with  another.     "We  cannot  all  be  cabin 

passengers  in  the  voyage  of  life.     Some  must 

be  before  the  mast." 

Metaphors  are  more  common  than  any  other 
figure  of  speech.  Indeed,  it  has  been  said  that 
they  enter  into  all  figurative  language  and  that 
nearly  all  figures  are  founded  upon  them.  "  An 
unmetaphorical  style,"  says  Carlyle,  "you  shall 
in  vain  seek  for." 

Personification.  Personification  may  be 
considered  as  a  higher  form  of  metaphor.  It 
consists  in  attributing  life  or  animation  to  in- 
animate things  or  in  transferring  the  attributes 
of  human  beings  to  lower  animals.  Examples 
of  personification : 

1.  "All  day  the  sea- waves  sobbed  with  sor- 
row." 

2.  "The  wind  grumbled  and  made  itself 
miserable  all  last  night,  and  this  morning  it  is 
still  howling  as  ill-naturedly  as  ever,  and  roaring 
and  rumbling  in  the  chimneys." 

3.  "Joy  and  Temperance  and  Repose 

Slam  the  door  on  the  doctor's  nose." 

4.  "  The  Worm,  aware  of  his  intent, 

Harrangued  him  thus,  right  eloquent." 

The  highest  form  of  personification  combines 
direct  address  and  is  known  as  apostrophe. 
"Put  on  thy  strength,  O  Zion;  put  on  thy 
beautiful  garments,  O  Jerusalem,  the  holy  city." 

Allegory.  Allegory  is  an  extended  meta- 
phor generally  accompanied  by  personification. 
Under  this  head  fall  fables  and  parables. 

Resemblance  between  allegory,  metaphor,  and 
simile. 

These  three  figures  of  speech  are  all  founded 
upon  resemblance,  a  primary  and  a  secondary 
object  being  likened  to  each  other.  In  simile 
this  resemblance  is  formally  expressed,  "Israel 
is  like  a  vine."  In  metaphor  the  formal  word 
of  comparison  is  dropped,  "Israel  is  a  vine." 
In  allegory,  both  the  formal  comparison  and 
the  principal  subjects  are  dropped,  and  the 
secondary  subject  is  described  by  itself  j  as  in  the 
allegory  of  Israel  found  in  the  eightieth  Psalm: 
"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt:   thou 


hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and  planted  it. 
Thou  preparedst  room  for  it,  and  didst  cause 
it  to  take  root,  and  it  filled  the  land."     ' 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  two  marked 
differences  between  the  metaphor  and  the  alle- 
gory. First,  the  allegory  is  carried  out  into 
great  variety  of  particulars,  making  usually  a- 
complete  and  connected  story,  as  in  "Prodigal 
Son,"  "Paradise  Lost,"  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's 
Progress."  Second,  it  suppresses  all  mention 
of  the  principal  subject,  leaving  that  to  the 
imagination  of  the  reader,  as  vices  and  virtues 
are  represented  in  Tennyson's  "Idyls  of  the 
King"  as  prominent  persons  at  the  court  of 
King  Arthur. 

Figures  Based  on  Contiguity  or 
Association. 

Metonomy.  Metonomy  is  a  figure  by  which 
the  name  of  one  object  is  given  to  another,  not 
by  way  of  comparison  as  in  metaphors,  but  on 
some  such  relation  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  of 
progenitor  and  posterity,  of  subject  and  adjunct, 
of  place  and  inhabitant,  of  container  and  thing 
contained,  of  sign  and  thing  signified : 

1.  Cause  for  effect.  He  was  basking  in  the 
sun. 

2.  Effect  for  cause.  Children  should  be 
taught  to  respect  gray  hairs. 

3.  Sign  for  thing  signified.  Sceptre  and 
crown  shall  tumble  down. 

4.  Container  for  thing  contained.  With  dig- 
nity he  addressed  the  chair. 

5.  Name  of  an  author  for  his  works.  The 
class  is  reading  Milton. 

6.  Progenitor  and  posterity.  We  are  the 
seed  of  Abraham. 

Synecdoche.  Synecdoche,  like  metonomy, 
is  founded  on  contiguity  rather  than  resemblance. 
It  is  naming  a  part  for  the  whole  or  the  whole 
for  a  part  or  a  definite  number  for  an  indefi- 
nite; as,  "Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread"; 
i.  e.,  food.  "The  same  day  there  were  added 
unto  them  about  three  thousand  souls";  i.  e., 
persons.  The  figures  of  synecdoche  and  meto- 
nomy are  so  closely  related  that  there  is  often 
no  clear  distinction  between  them,  or  rather 
some  figures  of  metonomy  may  also  be  called 
figures  of  synecdoche.  The  following  quotations 
owe  their  beauty  to  the  skillful  use  of  these 
figures : 

1.  "  Our  flag  of  stripe  and  star 

Shall  bear  to  cotists  that  lie  afar 
The  fruitage  of  this  apple-tree." 

2.  "Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets, 

And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood." 

3.  "Out  of  this  silence  yet  I  picked  a  welcome; 

And  in  the  modesty  of  fearful  duty, 

I  read  as  much  as  from  the  rattling  tongue 

Of  saucy  and  audacious  eloquence." 

Figures  Based  on  Contrast  or  Sur- 
prise. 

Antithesis.  Antithesis  is  founded  on  con- 
trast. It  places  unlike  things  in  opposition 
to  heighten  the  effect.  Our  natural  love  of 
variety  or  surprise  is  illustrated  by  the  frequent 
recurrence  in  literature  of  this  figure.  Thus 
we  contrast  "fife  and  death,"  "heat  and  cold," 
"youth  and  age,"  "peace  and  war."  The  only 
practical  rule  in  regard  to  antithesis  is  to  give 


212 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


the  contrasted  ideas  a  similar  verbal  construc- 
tion. Let  nouns  be  contrasted  with  nouns,  ad- 
jectives with  adjectives,  verbs  with  verbs,  and  so 
on,  and  let  the  arrangement  of  the  words  in  the 
contrasted  clauses  be  also  as  nearly  alike  as 
possible. 

Famous  illustrations  of  antithesis: 
From  Bunyan:  "I  will  talk  of  things  heav- 
enly, or  things  earthly;  things  moral,  or  things 
evangelical;  things  sacred,  or  things  profane; 
things  past,  or  things  to  come;  things  foreign, 
or  things  at  home;  things  more  essential,  or 
things  circumstantial;  provided  that  all  be 
done  to  our  profit." 

From  Macaulay:  "The  Puritans  hated  bear- 
baiting,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to  the  bear, 
but  because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators." 
From  Pope :  "  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ; 
Virgil,  the  better  artist;  in  the  one,  we  most 
admire  the  man;    in  the  other,  the  work." 

Parallel.  An  extended  antithesis  is  called 
a  parallel.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  was  inclined 
to  use  this  form  of  comparison  to  the  point  of 
weariness. 

Epigram.  Closely  allied  to  antithesis  is  the 
epigram.  Epigram  originally  meant  an  inscrip- 
tion on  a  monument.  As  such  inscriptions  are 
usually  short,  epigram  came  next  to  mean  any 
brief  saying  remarkable  for  brevity  and  point. 
Epigram,  in  this  sense,  is  akin  to  antithesis, 
because  in  both  of  these  figures  there  is  the 
element  of  contrariety.  But  in  antithesis  it  is 
the  contrariety  between  two  different  things 
brought  together;  in  epigram  it  is  the  con- 
trariety between  the  apparent  meaning  of  the 
words  and  the  real  meaning.  The  power  of 
the  epigram  lies  very  largely  in  the  comparative 
rarity  of  its  employment.  It  is  too  artificial, 
too  elaborate,  to  be  made  common;  it  should 
be  reserved  for  those  thoughts  which  need  to 
be  compressed  into  especially  striking  and 
rememberable  statements.  To  be  epigrammatic 
an  expression  must  have  fundamentally  two 
qualities.  It  must  be  brief,  and  it  must  give 
some  unexpected  turn  to  the  idea. 

Epigram  leads  naturally  to  the  pun  which 
turns  entirely  upon  using  words  in  a  double 
meaning : 

"  Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie; 
She's  now  at  rest,  and  so  am  I." —  Old  Epitaph. 

Examples  of  epigram  that  have  passed  into 
current  speech: 

"The  more  haste  the  less  speed." 
"He  was  so  good,  he  was  good  for  nothing." 
"The  easiest  way  of  doing  nothing  is  to  do  it." 
"Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought." 
"  A  new  way  to  contract  debts  —  pay  them 
off."  ^ 

"The  fastest  colors  are  those  that  won't  run." 
"The  child  is  father  to  the  man." 
"Beauty  unadorned  is  adorned  the  most." 
"Nothing  is  so  difficult  as  doing  nothing." 
Irony.     Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker 
sneeringly  utters  the  direct  reverse  of  what  he 
intends  shall  be  understood;    as,  "We  have,  to 
be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest  man 
would  not  ask  him  for  a.  debt,  when  he  pursues 
his  life." 

The  true  meaning  in  irony  is  indicated  mainly 
by  the  tone  of  the  Voice,  the  words  being  spoken 


with  a  sneer,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called 
a  figure  of  elocution.  We  have  a  perfectly 
finished  example  of  irony  in  Antony's  speech 
over  the  dead  body  of  Csesar: 

"(jood  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up 
I  o  such  a  sudden  flood  of  mutiny. 
They  that  have  done  this  deed,  are  honourable; 
What  private  griefs  they  have,  alas!    1  know  not, 
1  hat  niade  them  do't ;  they  are  wise  and  honourable. 
And  will,  no  doubt,  with  reasons  answer  you." 

Figures  Based  on  Emphasis  or 
Strengtii  of  Emotion. 

Hyperbole.  Hyperbole  is  extravagant  exag- 
geration for  rhetorical  effect : 

L  "They  were  swifter  than  eagles;  they  were 
stronger  than  lions." 

2.  "Rivers  of  waters  run  down  mine  eyes, 
because  they  keep  not  thy  law." 

3.  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day 
that  the  mountains  shall  drop  down  new  wine, 
and  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk." 

Such  passages  are  strong  and  effective  and 
do  not  deceive  any  more  than  any  other  figure 
of  rhetoric  as  metaphor  or  personification. 

Frequent  use  of  hyperboles,  so  often  indulged 
in  both  in  conversation  and  in  writing,  is  a  bad 
habit.  Language  is  cheapened  whenever  there 
is  an  extravagance  of  modifiers.  Such  phrases 
as  "awfully  cold,"  "tired  to  death,"  "mag- 
nificent eyes,"  "cold  as  ice,"  "splendid  mince 
pie,"  "hideous  spider,"  "stunning  hat,"  "killing 
effect,"  are  gross  and  absurd. 

Interrogation.  Interrogation  is  a  question 
asked,  not  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  an 
answer,  but  for  rhetorical  effect.  "Am  I  not 
an  apostle?  am  I  not  free?  have  I  not  seen 
Jesus  Christ  our  Lord?  are  not  ve  my  work 
in  the  Lord?"  asks  the  apostle"^  Paul.  The 
answer  is  already  known,  but  this  interrogative 
form  of  putting  a  well-known  truth  emplmsizes 
it.  An  affirmative  interrogation  is  an  emphatic 
denial,  whereas  a  negative  interrogation  is  an 
affirmation: 

"Hath  he  not  always  treasures,  always 
friends  —  the  good  great  man? "     Ans.,  Yes. 

"Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  or  the 
leopard  his  spots?"     Ans.,  No. 

Exclamation.  Exclamation  is  a  more  pas- 
sionate form  of  emphasis  than  interrogation. 
It  must  be  noted  that  as  with  interrogation 
every  exclamative  sentence  is  not  a  rhetorical 
figure.  When  the  thought  springs  from  real 
emotion,  then  we  call  it  a  figure  of  exclamation. 
"Oh,  yes!  What  a  pity!"  is  exclamative  in 
form  but  lacks  the  intensity  of  emotion.  Many 
exclamative  sentences  may  be  found  in  orations 
and  speeches,  but  the  choicest  examples  are 
found  in  poetry: 

L  "How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon 
this  bank ! " 

2.  "How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of 
my  childhood ! " 

3.  "How  firm  a  foundation,  ye  saints  of  the 

Lord, 
Is  laid   for  your  faith  in   His  excellent 
word ! " 
Apostrophe.     Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from 
the  regular  course  of  the  subject  into  an  ani- 
mated address.     The  same  excited  state  of  feel- 


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213 


ing  which  causes  exclamation  and  interrogation 
leads  also  to  apostrophe.  In  this  form  of 
address  the  absent  is  spoken  to  as  though  pres- 
ent, the  inanimate  as  though  animate,  the  dead 
as  though  alive.  Apostrophe  is  often  combined 
with  metaphor  and  personification  and  is  often 
put  into  the  form  of  interrogation  or  exclama- 
tion. It  usually  indicates  a  high  degree  of 
excitement  or  an  exalted  state  of  the  imagina- 
tion : 

1.  "  My  country, 'tis  of  thee, 

Sweet  land  of  liberty, 
Of  thee  I  sing." 

2.  "O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting?  O  Grave, 
where  is  thy  vietory?" 

3.  "Thus,  O  Genius,  are  thy  footprints  hal- 
lowed." 

Vision.  Vision,  or  imagery,  is  a  figure  by 
which  the  speaker  represents  the  objects  of  his 
imagination,  as  actually  before  his  eyes,  and 
present  to  his  senses.  It  is  akin  to  apostrophe, 
yet  lacks  the  direct  address: 

1.  "I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the 
ornament  of  the  earth,  and  the  capital  of  all 
nations  suddenly  involved  in  one  conflagra- 
tion." 

2.  "I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie; 

He  leans  upon  his  hand  —  his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 
And    his    drooped   head   sinks  gradually 
low." 

Other  Deviations  from  the  Plain 
or  Literal  Mode  of  Speech. 

Climax.  Climax  is  a  series  of  words  or 
statements  which  advance  by  successive  steps  to 
what  is  more  and  more  important  and  interesting 
or  descend  to  what  is  more  and  more  minute  and 
particular.  "And  besides  this,  giving  all  dili- 
gence, add  to  your  faith,  virtue;  and  to  virtue, 
knowledge;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance; 
and  to  temperance,  patience;  and  to  patience, 
godliness;  and  to  godliness,  brotherly  kindness; 
and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity." 

Anticlimax.  Anticlimax  reverses  the  order 
of  the  expression,  ending  with  the  weakest  or 
least  important  thought  or  circumstance.  This 
is  often  used  in  humorous  writings: 

"Alas,  alas,  what  shall  I  do? 
I've  lost  my  wife  and  seed  corn  too." 

Allusion.  Allusion  is  a  reference  to  some 
historical  or  literary  fact  so  well  known  that  it 
may  be  denoted  by  word  or  phrase  without 
explanation.  The  following  passage  is  a  fine 
combination  of  vision  and  allusion: 

"I  see  the  pyramids  building;  I  hear  the 
shoutings  of  the  army  of  Alexander;  I  feel  the 
ground  shake  beneath  the  march  of  Cambyses. 
I  sit  as  in  a  theatre, —  the  stage  is  time,  the 
play  is  the  world." 

All  great  literature  is  enriched  by  allusions. 

Litotes.  Litotes  may,  in  itself,  be  a  plain 
statement  but  it  strengthens  a  proposition  by 
denying  the  negative : 

"The  immortal  names 
That  were  not  born  to  die."     i.  e.,  that  will 
live. 


The  force  of  this  construction  lies  in  its 
suggesting  more  than  it  says.  Carlyle  says, 
"The  editor  is  clearly  no  witch  at  a  riddle," 
meaning  that  he  is  obtuse. 

Euphemism.  Euphemism  is  the  mention  of 
a  disagreeable  thing  in  a  more  agreeable  way 
than  by  the  plain  statement  of  fact.  It  is  not 
in  itself  a  figure  of  speech  but  is  usually  based 
on  some  other  figure,  as  synecdoche,  metonomy, 
or  metaphor.  Thus,  death  is  called  a  sleep ; 
theft,  a  misappropriation;  lie,  a  prevarication. 
An  untruthful  person  is  sometimes  said  to  have 
"an  unreliable  imagination,"  or  to  be  "liable  to 
blunders,"  as,  "I  hope  he  thought  he  was 
speaking  the  truth ;  but  he  is  rather  a  dull  man 
and  liable  to  make  blunders." 

Onomatopoeia.  Onomatopoeia  is  the  use  of 
a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence,  the  sound  of  which 
resembles,  or  intentionally  imitates,  the  sound 
of  the  thing  signified  or  spoken  of:  as,  words 
denoting  sounds,  whiz,  roar,  splash,  thud,  buzz, 
hubbub,  murmur,  hiss,  rattle,  boom;  names 
taken  from  sounds:  cuckoo,  whip-poor-will, 
bumble-bee,  humming-bird,  crag;  words  so 
arranged  that  the  sound  expresses  the  meaning, 
as, 

"  Singing  through  the  forests, 
Rattling  over  ridges. 
Shooting  under  arches. 

Rumbling  over  bridges; 
Whizzing  through  the  mountain, 

Buzzing  o'er  the  vale, 

Blesa  mel   this  is  pleasant, 

Riding  on  the  rail!  " 

—  Saxe's  "Song  of  the  Rail." 
Southey's  "Cataract  of  Lodore"  and  Poe's 
poem,  "The  Bells,"  are  fine  examples  of  this 
figure : 

"Hear  the  sledges  with  the  bells  — 
Silver  bells  — 
What  a  world  of  inerriment  their  melody  foretells! 
How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle, 
In  the  icy  air  of  night! 
While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 
All  the  heavens,  seem  to  twinkle 
With  a  crystalline  delight. 
Keeping  time,  time,  time. 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 
From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 

Bells,  bells,  bells  — 
From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells." 

Alliteration.  Alliteration  is  the  name 
given  to  a  near  recurrence  of  the  same  initial 
sound.  It  is  a  very  natural  device  in  English 
and  has  proved  so  attractive  that  many  authors 
have  chosen  alliterative  titles  for  their  books, 
"  Pride  and  Prejudice,"  "  Nicholas  Nickleby."  A 
recent  pamphlet  is  entitled,  "Dirt,  Darkness, 
Disease,  Death."  All  early  English  poetry 
was  alliterative.  Modern  poets  use  it  sparingly 
but  with  effect,  as  in  the  following  lines  from 
Swinburne : 

".The  mother  of  months  in  meadow  or  plain 

Fills  the  shadows  and  windy  places 

With  lisp  of  leaves  and  ripple  of  rain." 

The  Value  of  Figurative  Language. 

Like  a  sunset  or  a  June  day  the  beauty  of 
figurative  language  cannot  be  described.  It- 
must  be  enjoyed.  A  comparative  reading  of  a 
plain  literal  passage  by  the  side  of  a  similar 
thought  rendered  in  highly  imaginative  and 
poetic  verse  is  the  best  summary  that  can  be 
given  of  the  value  of  figurative  language. 

What  is  a  Sonnet?     Answered  in  literal  prose 


214 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


definition:  The  sonnet  stanza  consists  of  four- 
teen lines,  iambic  pentameter.  It  is  divided 
into  two  distinct  portions,  called  the  major  and 
the  minor.  The  major  division  consists  of  eight 
lines,  called  an  octave,  and  has  usually  but  two 
rhymes.  The  minor  division  consists  of  six 
lines,  called  the  sextette,  and  has  sometimes 
three  rhymes,  sometimes  two.  The  rhymes  are 
arranged  in  prescribed  order.  To  prevent  the 
two  parts  from  swaying  apart,  care  is  usually 
taken  that  there  shall  be  no  grammatical  break 
in  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other,  and  thus 
the  whole  structure  is  made  one. 

What  is  a  Sonnet?  Answered  by  Mr.  Richard 
Watson  Gilder  in  his  "Sonnet  Upon  a  Sonnet," 
written  in  the  most  exquisite  imagery  and  in 
perfect  verse: 

"What  is  a,  sonnet?     'Tis  a  pearly  shell 
That  murmurs  of  the  far-off  murmuring  sea, 
A  precious  jewel  carved  most  curiously; 
It  is  a  little  picture  painted  well. 
What  is  a  sonnet?     'Tis  the  tear  that  fell 
From  the  great  poet's  hidden  ecstacy;   ■ 
A  two-edged  sword,  a  star,  a  song  —  ah  mel 
Sometimes  a  heavy-tolling  funeral  bell. 

"This  was  the  flame  that  shook  with  Dante's  breath, 
The  solemn  organ  whereon  Milton  played, 
And  the  clear  glass  where  Shalvespere's  shadow  falls; 
A  sea  this  is  —  beware  who  ventureth! 
For  like  a  fiord  the  narrow  floor  is  laid 
Deep  as  mid-ocean  to  sheer  mountain  walls." 

LETTER  WRITING 

It  would  be  foolish  to  waste  time  on  the  im- 
portance of  letter  writing.  It  is  the  one  form  of 
composition  that  appeals  to  every  one.  You 
may  never  be  called  upon  to  write  an  essay  or 
a  novel  or  a  page  of  history,  but  you  will  often 
have  occasion  to  write  a  letter.  To  be  able  to 
write  a  letter  correctly  and  attractively  is  an 
art  worth  cultivating.  It  increases  one's  per- 
sonality and  popularity.  Put  yourself  fnto  a 
letter  and  you  command  those  who  are  at  a  dis- 
tance from  you.  In  no  art  does  individuality 
count  for  more,  yet,  as  in  all  arts,  the  letter 
writer  must  conform  to  a  few  general  principles 
which  have  been  laid  down  for  those  who  would 
write  well. 

Materials.  A  careful  letter  writer  gives 
attention  to  the  minutest  details,  the  sum  total 
of  which  makes  up  a  good  letter.  The  first  con- 
sideration is  the  size  and  quality  of  the  stationery 
to  be  used.  White  or  cream-colored  paper,  or 
paper  of  a  light  blue  tint,  may  be  used  for  both 
business  and  social  correspondence.  Let  it  be 
of  good  quality,  and  always  have  the  envelopes 
to  match.  Business  paper  should  have  a  simple, 
neat  heading;  if  possible,  one  that  will  contain 
an  advertisement  that  may  bring  in  an  inquiry, 
if  not  an  order.  Unruled  paper  is  always  pre- 
ferred for  all  forms  of  correspondence.  The 
ordinary  size  of  paper  for  business  purposes  is 
about  8^  inches  by  11  inches,  or  about  6  inches 
by  9  inches.  Both  sizes  may  be  used  with  a 
number  6^  envelope.  For  notes  and  short  let- 
ters, 6  by  10  is  a  suitable  size,  and  for  invita- 
tions, acceptances,  and  regrets,  5J  by  8.  This 
is  not  an  arbitrary  matter,  but,  in  general, 
adapt  the  size  of  the  paper  to  the  length  of  the 
communication.  Two-page  paper  is  preferred 
for  business,  and  four-page  paper  for  social 
letters. 


Pale  ink  and  illegible  writing  are  inexcusable, 
so  care  should  be  taken  to  provide  good  black 
ink  or  blue  copying  ink  that  turns  black  with 
age.  and  a  pen  that  suits  the  writer. 

The  Form  of  a  Letter.  Convenience 
and  custom  have  prescribed  a  certain  definite- 
ness  of  form  in  the  arrangement  of  a  letter.  It 
must  consist  of  the  following  parts:  (1)  heading, 
(2)  address,  (3)  salutation,  (4)  body,  (5)  compli- 
mentary close,  (6)  signature. 

The  Heading.  This  contains  the  address 
of  the  person  writing  and  the  date  of  the  letter. 
For  convenience  of  reference  the  address  is 
usually  placed  in  full  in  the  upper  right  hand 
corner  of  the  first  page  and  the  date  written 
after  it  either  on  the  same  line  or  the  next  line 
below. 

Examples  showing  the  proper  method  of  spac- 
ing, and  the  proper  punctuation  of  the  heading : 

PouGHKEEPSiE,  N.  Y.,  July  1,  1908. 

123  Pall  Mall,  London,  Eng., 
Sept.  4,  1908. 

The  Address.  In  business  correspond- 
ence the  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  sent  should  be  written  on  the  line  below 
the  date  and  well  to  the  left  of  the  page.  In 
informal  letters  it  may  be  omitted  altogether. 
Some  prefer  to  place  the  address  of  the  writer 
or  of  the  person  written  to  after  the  signature, 
but  it  is  usually  considered  more  convenient  to 
have  them  both  precede  the  body  of  the  letter-. 
As  in  the  heading,  the  address  should  be  written 
with  every  necessary  detail,  including  place  of 
residence,  street,  and  number.  In  the  simplifi- 
cation of  capitals  the  word  street  or  place  or 
avenue  may  or  may  not  be  begun  with  a  capital. 
This  is  left  to  the  choice  of  the  writer,  as  custom 
is  not  uniform. 

The  Salutation.  The  form  of  the  salu- 
tation depends  upon  the  relation  of  the  writer 
to  the  recipient  of  the  letter.  Custom  permits 
a  variety  of  forms  even  in  letters  addressed  to 
strangers.  Appropriate  salutations  for  formal 
letters : 

My  dear  Sir,  or  Dear  Sir: 

My  dear  Madam,  or  Dear  Madam: 

Gentlemen,  or  Dear  Sirs: 

Most  formal  of  all  are  Sir  or  Honorable  Sir  or 
His  Excellency,  addressed  to  persons  in  high 
position.  The  President  of  the  United  States 
is  addressed  without  any  complimentary  saluta- 
tion. His  high  office  does  not  require  it,  though 
foreign  rulers  are  usually  addressed  with  very 
elaborate  phrases. 

My  dear  Mr.  Jones,  or  My  dear  Miss  Jones,  are 
proper  terms  of  address  between  entire  strangers, 
as  they  are  understood  to  signify  respect  rather 
than  affection.  My  dear  Mr.  Snow  is  regarded 
as  a  rather  more  formal  address  than  Dear  Mr. 
Snow,  though  curiously  enough  if  one  were 
writing  in  England  just  the  opposite  would  be 
true.  There  the  pronoun  "my"  signifies  a 
greater  degree  of  intimacy.  These  are  arbitrary 
matters,  but  it  is  well  to  note  the  customs  of 
the  place  where  one  is  writing. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  each 
word  of  the  salutation  with  a  capital,  but  now 


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215 


good  usage  prescribes  greater  simplicity  in  the 
use  of  capitals  and  punctuation.  No  absolute 
rules  can  be  given  as  there  is  great  variation 
among  good  writers.  The  first  word  of  every 
salutation  should  begin  with  a  capital.  If  "sir," 
"sirs,"  or  "madam  "  is  used,  you  may  follow  the 
dictates  of  your  own  taste  about  capitalizing 
it.  If  the  phrase,  "My  dear  sir,"  were  to  occur 
in  the  body  of  the  letter,  sir  would  not  be  capi- 
talized, therefore  it  need  not  be  in  the  salutation. 
General  usage  prefers  the  capital,  but  the  modern 
tendency  in  writing  is  to  lessen  the  number  of 
capitals,  as  well  as  the  number  of  punctuation 
marks  used.  Great  freedom  is  allowed  in  the 
punctuation  mark  which  follows  the  salutation. 
Some  prefer  the  colon,  while  others  use  only 
the  comma.  The  dash  adds  nothing,  so  should 
be  omitted. 

The  following  are  good  forms  for  the  intro- 
duction of  a  letter : 

Mk.  F.  G.  Adle. 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 
My  dear  Sir  : 

Mr.  S.  p.  Craig, 

27  Windsor  Ave.,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
My  dear  Mr.  Craig, 

The  Body  of  the  Letter.  The  first 
requisite  in  good  letter  writing  is  a  clear,  definite 
knowledge  of  what  you  want  to  say;  the  second 
is  to  say  it  in  such  a  way  that  no  one  can  possibly 
misunderstand  what  you  have  said.  Most 
errors  of  grammar  are  made  because  the  writer's 
thought  is  illogical  and  confused.  One  cannot 
be  too  careful  about  the  English  he  uses  in  his 
letters.  Every  letter  should  be  written  legibly, 
properly  punctuated,  accurately  spelled,  and 
divided  into  suitable  paragraphs,  each  para- 
graph treating  of  its  subject  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely. 

Do  not  burden  a  letter  with  apologies  for  not 
writing.  Make  your  style  easy  and  conversa- 
tional. It  has  been  said  that  the  best  letter 
writing  is  like  the  best  conversation.  Touches 
of  humor  and  bright  glimpses  of  thought  are 
very  attractive  in  social  letters.  A  touch  of 
humor,  quick  and  to  the  point,  is  attractive  in 
any  letter,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  in  busi- 
ness letters  there  is  no  wandering  from  the  point. 

The  body  of  the  letter  may  be  begun  on  the 
same  line  with  the  salutation  or  on  the  line  below. 
The  size  and  shape  of  the  sheet  of  paper  will 
determine  which  is  the  better  arrangement.  A 
uniform  margin  of  one-half  inch  or  more  should 
be  reserved  at  the  left-hand  side  of  each  page 
of  the  letter. 

The  Complimentary  Close.  This 
consists  of  the  concluding  words  of  affection  or 
respect,  and  indicates  the  relation  in  which  the 
writer  stands  to  his  correspondent.  "Yours 
truly,"  or  "Very  truly  yours,"  are  the  forms 
most  frequently  used  in  business  correspondence 
to-day.  The  complimentary  close,  "Yours  re- 
spectfully," or  "Very  respectfully  yours," 
should  be  used  when  respect  is  intended.  It  is 
proper  in  writing  to  persons  older  or  higher  in 
rank.  "Yours  sincerely,"  is  common  in  letters 
of  business  between  persons  who  really  have 
some  acquaintance  with  each  other.  "Your 
humble    servant,"    "Your    obedient    servant," 


are  entirely  out  of  date  as  meaningless  conven- 
tionalities. 

The  words  of  the  complimentary  close  should 
be  written  on  the  line  below  the  last  line  of  the 
letter.  The  first  word  should  be  begun  with  a 
capital  and  the  last  word  should  be  followed  by 
a  comma. 

The  Signature.  The  signature  should 
be  written  on  the  line  below  the  complimentary 
close  and  a  little  to  the  right.  Except  in  the 
most  informal  letters  it  should  give  the  full  name 
of  the  writer  in  the  form  which  he  would  use 
in  signing  a  document.  Business  men  would  be 
saved  a  great  many  embarrassments  if  people 
were  more  considerate  about  signatures. 

In  writing  to  a  stranger,  a  lady  should  sign 
her  name  so  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  proper  way  to  address  her.  Alma  D.  Bowen 
may  be  written  (Miss)  Alma  D.  Bowen  if  un- 
married, or  (Mrs.)  Alma  D.  Bowen  if  married 
and  writing  in  her  own  name,  or  Alma  D.  Bowen 
(Mrs.  Frank  Bowen)  if  she  wishes  to  be  known 
by  her  husband's  name. 

The  Superscription.  The  address  on 
the  envelope  should  contain  every  item  neces- 
sary to  insure  the  prompt  delivery  of  the  letter. 
It  usually  consists  of  four  lines  arranged  in  the 
following  order:  name  of  individual  or  firm, 
street  and  number,  city,  state.  The  firm's  or 
person's  name  should  be  written  in  the  middle 
of  the  envelope,  both  with  reference  to  the  top 
and  bottom,  and  the  right  and  left  edges.  Eacli 
added  line  should  follow  a  slant  to  the  right. 

Every  year  millions  of  letters  and  packages 
find  their  way  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office  because 
of  incorrect  or  incomplete  address.  Illegible 
writing  or  any  deviation  from  the  correct  form 
of  addressing  a  letter  may  add  one  more  to  these 
millions  already  counted.  Envelopes  used  for 
business  purposes  should  have  the  name  and 
address  of  the  sender  either  written  or  printed 
in  the  upper  left-hand  corner. 

In  punctuating  the  lines  of  the  superscription 
it  is  now  considered  good  form  to  omit  all  com- 
mas as  unnecessary,  though  they  are  usually 
retained  in  the  punctuation  of  the  address  in 
the  introduction.  It  is  left  to  personal  judg- 
ment whether  to  retain  them  or  not,  though  it 
is  along  the  advance  line  to  prefer  the  simpler 
form  when  there  is  a  choice. 

Note  the  omission  of  commas  in  the  following 
superscription : 

Mr.  Claren-ce  D.  Roxbury 
Univer»ity  Block 
Los  Angeles 
California 

Titles.  It  is  sometimes  embarrassing  in 
addressing  a  letter  to  know  what  title  to  give 
or  how  to  arrange  the  title.  Where  there  are  a 
number  of  titles  the  higher  presupposes  the 
lower,  as,  D.  D.  or  LL.  D.  extinguishes  the  A.  B. 
or  A.  M.  It  is  customary,  however,  to  retain 
both  the  higher  titles,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  if  one  hap- 
pens to  reach  them  both,  and  the  LL.  D.  in  such  a 
case  is  written  last.  Clergymen  always  have 
the  prefix  Rev.,  and  Bishops  that  of  Rt.  Rev. 
When  a  Bishop  has  the  added  title  D.  D.  the  two 
are  combined  as,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  Judges,  mem- 
bers of  Congress,  and  some  other  high  officers 


216 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


of  government,  have  the  prefix  Honorable. 
With  this  title  the  designation  Esq.  is  never 
affixed,  though-  one  may  with  entire  propriety 
say  Hon.  Henry  Somers,  LL.  D. 

When  such  prefixes  are  used  as  Hon.  or  Rev., 
the  full  name  should  be  given,  Hon.  James  Boyd, 
not  Hon.  Judge  Boyd.  When  the  full  name  is 
not  known  then  it  is  better  to  insert  the  cus- 
tomary title  Mr.,  as  Rev.  Mr.  Jones,  not  Rev. 
Jones.  It  is  contrary  to  American  etiquette  to 
address  a  woman  with  her  husband's  title, 
although  it  is  permissible  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  to  do  so.  Do  not  say  Mrs.  Dr.  Brown 
or  Mrs.  Major  Kent  but  simply  Mrs.  Brown  or 
Mrs.  Kent. 

Dame  Etiquette  in  some  things  is  very  ex- 
acting. In  a  letter  addressed  by  one  military 
man  to  another,  an  exact  form  is  prescribed  by 
law.  The  person  written  to  is  addressed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  letter  simply  by  his  title.  Then, 
at  the  end  of  the  letter,  on  the  line  below  the 
signature  of  the  writer,  the  name  of  the  person 
addressed  is  given,  with  his  full  official  title,  and 
his  location,  just  as  it  is  to  be  on  the  envelope. 

Headquarters,  Military  Division  of  the  Missis.sippi, 

In  the  Field,  Manchester,  Va.,  May  9,  1865. 
General: 

I  have  joined  my  army  at  Manchester,  opposite  Rich- 
mond, and  await  your  orders. 

W.  T.  Sherman, 
Major-General  Commanding. 
Lieut.-Genbral  U.  S.  Grant, 
Comm.ander-in-Chiej , 
Washington  City. 

The  following  exact  form  has  been  prescribed 
for  addressing  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 

On  the  outside  of  the  letter : 

To  the  President 
E.xecutive  Mansion 

Washington,  D.  C. 

On  the  inside  of  the  letter : 

Mr.  President, 

I  have  the  honor,  etc. 

The  governor  of  any  State  is  addressed  as 
"His  Excellency." 

His  Excellency 

Charles  PI  Hughes 

Governor  of  New  York 

This  same  title  is  also  applied  to  ministers  to 
foreign  countries.  "Honorable"  is  applied  to 
the  Vice-President,  members  of  the  cabinet, 
members  of  Congress,  mayors  of  cities,  judges, 
consuls,  and  other  high  dignitaries. 

BUSINESS   LETTERS 

A  business  letter  should  at  all  times  be  a  model 
of  clearness,  conciseness,  completeness,  good 
form  and  courtesy.  The  reply  should  be  prompt, 
courteous  and  definite.  As  a  rule  never  let  a 
business  letter  remain  more  than  twenty-four 
hours  without  an  answer.  If  you  cannot  give 
the  man  the  information  he  has  asked  for,  drop 
him  a  line  saying  that  his  letter  has  been  received 
and  will  have  the  proper  attention  as  soon  as 
the  information  desired  can  be  obtained.  Be 
prompt,  evermore,  be  prompt,  and  to  this  add 
the  injunction  be  brief,  evermore,  be  brief. 


In  all  business  letters  that  answer  an  order 
or  an  inquiry,  the  date  of  the  letter  you  are 
answering  should  be  mentioned.  This  can  be 
done  anywhere  in  the  first  paragraph ;  e.  g.,  "  We 
regret  that  we  cannot  supply  you  the  pattern 
of  wall  paper  for  which  you  wrote  on  July  17th;  " 
or,  "  We  are  shipping  you  by  fast  express  to-day 
the  groceries  you  ordered  on  the  4th  inst." 

An  Order  for  Goods. 

486  Main  St.,  Rochester,  N.  Y., 

November  13,  1908. 
Miller,  Greiner  &  Co., 
Wholesale  Grocers, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Sirs  : 

The  last  invoice  of  groceries  was  so  satisfactory  that 
we  are  glad  to  send  you  another  order.     Kindly  send  at 
once,  by  express,  the  following: 
4  bbls.  granulated  sugar, 
3  large  boxes  of  boneless  codfish, 
300  lbs.  of  the  best  Java  coffee, 
200  lbs.  best  Mocha  coffee, 
1 2  cases  of  Baiter's  cocoa. 
Trusting  you  will  fill  this  order  as  promptly  as  you 
did  the  last  one,  we  remain. 

Yours  very  truly. 

The  Eastside  Market  Co. 

Acknowledging  Receipt  of  Order. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
November  14,  1908. 
The  Eastside  Market  Co., 

486  Main  St.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Gentlemen : 

Your  order  of  the  13th  inst.  at  hand.  Inclosed  find 
invoice  for  same  amounting  to  two  hundred  forty-eight 
dollars  ($248). 

Trusting  that  the  goods  will  arrive  promptly  and  in 
good  condition,  we  are. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Miller,  Greiner  &  Co., 

Wholesale  Grocers. 

Inclosing  Remittance. 

468  Main  St..  Rochester,  N.  Y., 

November  27,  1908. 
Miller,  Greiner  <&  Co., 
Wholesale  Grocers, 
Buffalo.  N.  Y. 
Gentlemen : 

In   payment  of   your  invoice  of   the    14th   inst.,   find 
Buffalo   exchange   for   two   hundred   forty-eight   dollars 
($248). 
Kindly  return  receipted  bill. 

Yours  truly. 

The  Eastside  Market  Co. 

Acknowledging  Remittance. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  November  28,  1908. 
The  Eastside  Market  Co., 

486  Main  St.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Gentlemen : 

We  inclose  receipted  bill  for  your  payment  of  two 
hundred  forty-eight  dollars  ($248).  Accept  our  thanks 
for  your  prompt  remittance. 

Hoping  that  we  shall  have  the  privilege  of  serving 
you  again  soon,  we  are. 

Sincerely  yours. 

Miller,  Greiner  <fe  Co., 

Wholesale  Grocers. 

Requesting  Payment. 

Oakland,  California, 

January  6,  1908. 
Mr.  Joseph  W.  Duffy, 

Tacoma,  Washington. 
My  dear  Sir, 

You  may  have  overlooked  the  fact  that  your  account, 
amounting  to  thirty-six  dollars  and  forty-eight  cents 
($36.48),  is  past  due.  We  trust  that  you  will  be  able 
to  pay  in  full  at  once. 

Assuring  you  of  our  appreciation  of  past  favors,  we 
are,  with  the  wish  to  serve  you. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Henry  Hull  &  Co. 


LANGUAGE 


217 


Apologizing  for  not  Paying  an  Ac- 
count When  Due. 

Tacoma,  Washington,  Feb.  1,  1908. 
Henry  Hull  &  Co., 

Oakland,  Cal. 
My  dear  Sirs, 

I  owe  you  an  apology  for  tardiness  in  paying  my 
account  so  long  overdue.  My  only  e.xcuse  is  that  my 
customers  have  been  "slow"  with  me. 

Thank  you  for  the  courtesy  you  have  shown.     It  will 
be  my  effort  to  be  more  prompt  in  the  future. 
Yours  truly, 

Joseph  W.  Duffy. 

Renewing  a  Subscription. 

92  Elm  Ave.,  Worcester,  Mass., 
December  20,  1907. 
The  Outlook  Company, 

287  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 
Gentlemen  : 

Inclosed  you  will  find  money  order  for  two  dollars, 
for  which  please  renew  my  subscription  to  "The  Outlook." 
Yours  truly, 

William  Waring. 

A  Follow-up  Letter. 

The  Lundstrum  Sectional  Bookcase  Co., 
Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  January  6,  1908. 
Mrs.  G.  W.  Brown, 
486  Norwood  Ave., 
Albany,  N.  Y. 
My  dear  Madam : 

Ten  days  ago,  in  reply  to  your  inquiry  for  our  cata- 
logue, we  mailed  one  to  you.  Not  having  heard  from 
you,  we  write  to  learn  whether  you  received  it.  If  not, 
let  us  know  and  we  will  mail  another.  If  it  has  been 
received,  kindly  advise  us  whether  you  find  quoted  in 
it  anything  fitting  your  needs.  If  not,  write  us  what 
you  want,  and  we  will  quote  you  pric&s. 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  within  a  few  days,  we  are, 
Yours  truly. 
The  Lundstrum  Sectional  Bookcase  Co. 

A  Reply  to  a  Letter  of  Complaint. 

The  Kellogg  Lithograph  Co.,  Cleveland,  O., 
November  22,  1900. 
Mr.  E.  Dakin  Hoag, 

Security  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co., 
Providence,  R.  I. 
My  dear  Sir  : 

We  are  sorry  that  you  cannot  let  us  have  the  specifi- 
cations for  your  letter  headings  until  the  first  of  the 
year.  We  trust,  however,  that  you  will  let  us  have  the 
specifications  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible  so  we  can 
order  the  paper,  and  get  our  transferring  and  printing 
done  in  plenty  of  time  to  have  the  headings  in  your 
hands  by  the  time  you  need  them. 

In  your  letter  you  say  that  the  paper  is  not  so  good 
as  you  formerly  had  from  us.  We  cannot  understand 
this,  as  we  thought  the  last  lot  of  stock  we  received 
from  the  mill  was  of  a  very  good  quality,  right  up  to 
the  mark.  If  you  will  send  us  some  of  the  sheets  that 
you  think  are  light  weight,  we  will  have  them  tested; 
and  if  we  find  there  is  anything  wrong  with  the  paper, 
we  will  take  it  up  with  the  mill.  So  far  as  we  know, 
the  only  trouble  there  has  been  with  any  of  this  "se- 
curity" paper  was  with  the  first  lot,  where  a  small 
portion  of  the  headings  had  little  specks  on  them.  This, 
you  know,  we  took  up  with  the  mill,  and  they  promised 
to  see  that  the  balance  of  the  paper  on  the  contract 
should  be  O.  K.  in  every  respect.  We  certainly  want 
to  hold  them,  if  this  is  not  the  case. 

We  know  that  at  the  present  time  we  should  not  be 
able  to  secure  nearly  so  good  a  paper  as  this  is  at  the 
price  you  are  paying  for  this  lot;  and  we  want  to  say 
that  you  are  very  fortunate,  indeed,  in  having  placed 
your  order  when  you  did,  because,  if  you  were  to  place 
a  contract  now,  we  could  not  give  you  nearly  so  low 
a  price  on  it  on  account  of  the  marked  advance  in  price. 
•  Awaiting  your  reply,  we  remain. 
Yours  very  truly. 

The  Kellogg  Lith.  Co. 

Letters  of  Application. 

LaPorte,  Mo.,  January  2,  1909. 
Messrs.  Howe  &  Howk, 
St.  I^ouis,  Mo. 
Oentlemen:     In  reply  to  your  advertisement  in  Tues- 


day's "Tribune,"  I  respectfully  apply  for  the  position 
you  offer. 

I  have  had  two  years'  experience  in  the  crockery 
business  as  salesman  and  bookkeeper,  and  I  am  ac- 
quainted with  your  city,  for  I  lived  there  three  years 
and  worked  for  the  firm  of  Betz  &  Co.  I  refer  you  to 
them  now  should  you  wish  to  know  more  of  my  fitness 
for  the  work.  If  you  decide  to  hire  me,  I  will  work 
hard  to  succeed. 

Hoping  for  a  favorable  answer. 

Yours  respectfully, 

William  R.  Stone. 

417  College  St.,  Troy,  N.  Y., 

January  31,  1907. 
Messrs.  Wyburn  &  Co., 

Spokane,  Washington. 
Dear  Sirs: 

My  friend,  Mr.  Bidwell,  who  is  in  your  office,  writes 
me  that  you  are  in  need  of  an  expert  accountant.  I, 
shall  be  very  glad  to  come  West  to  take  the  position  if 
you  will  give  me  a  trial.  I  am  a  Yale  man,  .37  years 
old,  married,  and  have  had  five  years'  experience  as  an 
expert  accountant  with  the  New  York  Life  Insurance 
Co.,  for  which  I  am  now  working. 

If  you  will  write  Mr.  F.  C.  Green,  who  is  at  the  head 
of  the  New  York  Life  in  Troy,  he  will  tell  you  of  my 
ability  and  willingness  to  work  for  the  interests  of  the 
firm  that  employs  me. 

Trusting  you  will  send  me  a  favorable  answer,  I  am. 
Yours  very  truly, 

Samuel  H.  Gordy. 

Notes  of  Introduction. 

Mr.  Chas.  R.  Andrews, 

Trustee  of  School  District  No.  9,  Trenton,  N.  Y. 
My  dear  Sir, 

Miss  Emily  Smith  desires  to  secure  a  position  as 
assistant  in  your  school.  She  holds  a  first-grade  certifi- 
cate and  has  had  three  years'  successful  experience  in 
our  school.  We  regret  to  lose  her,  but  she  prefers  your 
district  because  it  is  nearer  to  her  home.  I  can  recom- 
mend Miss  Smith  as  an  excellent  teacher  who  will  be  a 
refining  influence  in  any  school. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Charles  J.  Major, 
Trustee  of  School  District  No.  4. 

North  Cornwall,  Vermont,  July  6,  1908. 
Mr.  Walter  C.  Strong, 

84  Arlington  Ave.,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
My  dear  Friend, 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  introduce  to  you  my 
friend,  Mr.  Weston  Beach,  who  is  to  become  a  resident 
in  your  city.  You  will  find  him  a  delightful  gentleman. 
I  shall  greatly  appreciate  whatever  courtesy  you  may 
show  in  helping  him  to  become  acquainted. 
Cordially  yours, 

Henry  B.  Johnson. 

Letters  of  Recommendation.  Recom- 
mendations are  sometimes  included  in  notes  of 
introduction,  but  often  they  are  written  as  sepa- 
rate letters.  They  may  be  written  as  general 
letters  addressed  "To  whom  it  may  concern," 
or  written  as  special  letters  to  some  definite  person. 

General  Recommendations. 

To  Whotn  It  May  Concern: 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  bearer  of  this  note.  Miss 
T/illian  Glades,  was  graduated  from  The  Teachers'  Col- 
lege, Cumberland  University,  and  has  since  taught  in 
the  schools  of  this  city.  For  the  past  three  years  she 
has  taught  in  the  Straymore  school, and  I  have  had  the 
opportunity  to  closely  observe  her  work.  I  can  recom- 
mend her  as  capable  of  filling  any  position  in  a  city 
graded  school. 

John  W.  Grove, 
Principal  of  Straymore  School. 

To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

Mr.  Henry  Henrys  has  been  in  our  employ  as  book- 
keeper the  past  six  years.  He  is  a  faithful  accountant, 
and  in  every  way  has  served  us  well.  We  regret  to 
part  with  him.  He  goes  at  his  own  request  because  he 
feels  that  he  ought  to  receive  a  higher  salary  than  we 
can  afford  to  pay. 

We  wish  him  every  success. 

Jones,  Jones  &  Co. 
Troy,  New  York. 


218 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Special  Recommendation. 

Mr.  Harvey  W.  Jonson, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Works, 
Topeka,  Kansas. 
My  dear  Sir, 

We  have  in  our  school  a  young  man,  Mr.  Thomas 
Redding,  who  has  done  excellent  work  in  the  engineer- 
ing department.  He  is  a  fine,  clean  young  man  and 
has  comrnanded  the  respect  of  instructors  and  students, 
alike.  His  home  is  in  Nebraska;  and  he  is  anxious,  on 
account  of  his  parents,  to  get  work  near  home. 

I  shall  greatly  appreciate  it  if  you  will  interest  your- 
self in  him,  and  help  him  to  get  work. 
Very  truly  yours, 

Thomas  Benedict. 
Lehigh  University,  Pennsylvania, 
January  1,  1909. 

Excuse  for  Absence  from  Scliool. 

Will  Miss  Stringer  kindly  excuse  Frances  for  absence 
from  school  on  account  of  illness  in  the  family  and 
greatly  oblige, 

Sarah  C.  Prescott. 

(Mrs.  J.  W.) 

Invitations  and  Replies.  Formal  in- 
vitations are  written  in  the  third  person,  and 
for  large  gatherings  are  usually  engraved  or 
printed  and  mailed  a  week  or  ten  days  in  ad- 
vance. An  invitation  sent  out  by  a  school,  or 
class  in  the  school,  a  club,  or  any  group  of  per- 
sons, is  usually  in  the  third  person;  and  if  the 
invitation  be  to  an  entertainment,  as  at  a  church 
or  a  commencement  program,  no  formal  reply 
is  needed.  Formal  replies,  however,  should 
always  be  sent  where  entertainment  has  been 

Erovided  for  each  individual,  for  the  host  or 
ostess  will  need  to  know  how  to  provide. 
The  letters  R.  S.  V.  P.  are  sometimes  put  in 
the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  an  invitation. 
They  stand  for  the  French  phrase,  "  Respondez 
s'  il  vous  plait":  Reply,  if  you  please.  The 
English  words,  "An  answer  will  oblige,"  are 
perhaps  in  better  taste. 

Invitations  to  class  commencements  furnish 
happy  occasions  for  friends  to  send  notes  of 
congratulation.  The  feeling  of  obligation  to 
present  gifts  is  very  much  to  be  regretted.  No 
gifts  should  be  expected  unless  it  may  be  from 
near  family  friends.  The  formal  wording  of 
engraved  cards  can  best  be  left  to  the  engraver, 
as  the  form  changes  slightly  from  year  to  year. 
The  reply  to  an  invitation  should  follow  the 
form  of  the  note  received,  and  should  repeat  the 
date  and  hour  mentioned  in  the  invitation.  In 
declining  an  invitation  it  is  not  essential  to 
repeat  the  hour. 

Invitation  to  Commencement  Exer- 
cises. 

The  Senior  Class  of 

Columbia  Seminary 

requests  the  pleasure  of  your  presence  at  the 

Commencement  Exercises 

June  fifteenth  to  eighteenth 

nineteen  hundred  seven 

Washington,  District  of  Columbia 


The  Faculty  and  Graduating  Class 

of  the 

Boston  Teachers'  Training  School 

invite  you  to  attend  the 

Seventeenth  Annual  Commencement  Exercises 

Friday  evening.  April  fifteenth,  1909 

at  half  past  eight  o'clock 

Teachers'  Training  School 

1124  Tremont  Avenue 


Formal    Invitation    to  a  Reception 
and  Dance. 

The  Epsilon  Mu  Sorority 

invites  you  to  be  present 

at  a  reception  and  dance 

to  be  held  at  the 

Colonial  Club 

Tuesday  evening,  April  twelfth 

at  half  after  eight  o'clock 

Wedding     Invitations    and    An- 
nouncements. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Joseph  Suffolk 

reque?it  the  honor  of  your  presence  at  the 

marriage  of  their  daughter 

Mabel  Grace 

to 

Mr.  Andrew  Jackman 

Wednesday  afternoon,  June  seventeenth 

at  three  o'clock 

Saint-Mary's-on-the-Hill  Church 

Baltimore 

Announcements. 

Mr.  Andrew  Jackman 

Miss  Mabel  Grace  Suffolk 

Married 

on  Wednesday,  June  the  seventeenth 

Nineteen  hundred  and  nine 

Baltimore 

Mrs.  George  Sampson 

announces  the  marriage  of  her  daughter 

Margaret  Louise 

to 

Mr.  William  Randolph  Holmes 

of  Roxbury,  Massachusetts 

Wednesday,  December  the  twenty-sixth 

nineteen  hundred  and  six 

At  home,  Roxbury,  Massachusetts. 

For  a  Formal  At-home. 

Mrs.  Jacques  Randolph  Stearns 

At  Home 

on  Wednesday  the  fifth  of  December 

from  three  until  six  o'clock 

UOR  Ballston  Heights 

to  meet 

Mrs.  James  Winchell  Toynbee 

Formal  Note  of  Invitation. 

Miss  Belle  Coe  requests  the  pleasure  of  Miss  Hiaman'a 
company  on  Thursday  evening  at  eight  o'clock. 
128  Fremont  St.,  January  nine. 

The  Invitation  Accepted. 

Miss  Hinman  accepts  with  pleasure  the  invitation  for 
Thursday  evening  at  eight  o'clock.  • 

Wellington  Place, 'January  ten. 

The  Invitation  Declined. 

Miss  Hinman  sincerely  regrets  that  she  cannot  accept 
Miss  Coe's  invitation  for  Thursday  evening  at  eight 
o'clock. 

Wellington  Place,  January  ten. 

Calling  cards  are  often  used  for  small  in- 
formal gatherings  of  friends. 


To  meet  Miss  Wells. 


MISS   ALICE   SMYTHE 

Friday,  May  twenty-ninth,  at  four  o'clock. 
40  College  Street. 


LANGUAGE 


219 


Acceptance. 


MISS   ELLEN  YATES. 


The  Arlington. 


Informal  Invitation. 

My  dear  Mr.  Collier, 

Dr.  Hartman,  who  has  just  returned  from  Europe, 
will  dine  with  us  on  Saturday  next  at  6  o'clock,  and  we 
shall  feel  highly  honored  and  pleased  if  we  can  have 
your  company. 

With  the  greatest  respect,  I  am. 

Yours  sincerely, 

William  J.  Lattimer. 
190  West  Ave.,  September  6,  1908. 

Acceptance. 

My  dear  Dr.  Lattimer, 

It  will  give  me  great  pleasure  to  dine  with  you  on 
Saturday  and  to  meet  our  friend,  Ur.  Hartman. 
Thanking  you  for  the  pleasure  in  store,  I  am. 
Very  cordially  yours, 

Ralph  A.  Collier. 
86  Union  St.,  September  7,  1908. 

Formal  Note  with  Birthday  Gift. 

Miss  Henry  presents  her  compliments  to  Miss  Brink- 
man,  and  begs  her  to  accept  these  flowers  with  her  love 
and  with  the  wish  that  she  may  enjoy  many  returns  of 
this  happy  day. 

Such  a  note  accompanying  a  gift  that  gives 
so  much  pleasure  will  naturally  call  forth  a 
cordial  letter  of  warm  appreciation. 

Reply  to  Xote  Accompanying  Birth- 
day Gift. 

My  dear  Miss  Henry, 

Your  note  and  beautiful  gift  of  flowers  completed  a 
day  of  perfect  happiness.  It  is  good  to  grow  old  when 
friends  emphasize  the  years  with  increasing  kindness. 
Thank  you,  dear  friend,  for  the  love  which  has  never 
failed  me. 

Yours,  Celia  Brinkman. 

Letters  of  Condolence.  Letters  of 
condolence  are  always  difficult  to  write.  Write 
only  what  is  in  your  heart  to  say.  Don't  use 
any  stereotyped  form  to  be  found  in  a  book  on 
etiquette.  There  is  a  tendency  to-day  to  over- 
do this  kind  of  letter-writing,  and  the  answer- 
ing of  so  many  letters  is  becoming  a  great  burden. 
In  many  instances  the  kindest  thing  is  silence. 
The  following  letter  of  sympathy,  now  preserved 
in  Oxford  University,  is  a  model  of  this  kind 
of  expression  and  appeals  to  us  all. 

Executive  Mansion, 
Washington,  November  21,  1864. 
Dear  Madame  :  I  have  been  shown  on  the  file  of  the 
war  department  a  statement  of  the  Adjutant-General 
of  Massachusetts,  that  you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons 
who  have  died  gloriously  on  the  field  of  battle.  I  feel 
how  weak  and  fruitless  must  be  any  word  of  mine  which 
should  attempt  to  beguile  you  from  the  grief  of  a  loss 
so  overwhelming,  but  I  cannot  refrain  from  tendering 
to  you  the  consolation  that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks 
of  the  republic  they  died  to  save.  I  pray  that  our 
Heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the  anguish  of  your 
bereavement  and  leave  only  the  cherished  memory  of 


the  loved  and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride  that  must  be 
yours  to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar 
of  freedom. 

Yours  very  sincerely  and  respectfully, 

A.  Lincoln. 
To  Mrs.  Barry, 
Boston,  Mass. 

My  dear,  dear  Friendy 

A  little  girl  came  home  from  a  neighbor's  house  where 
her  little  friend  had  died.  "Why  did  you  go?"  ques- 
tioned the  father.  "To  comfort  her  mother,"  said  the 
child.  "What  could  you  do  to  comfort  her?"  "I 
climbed  up  into  her  lap  and  I  cried  with  her."  Dear 
friend,  I,  too,  can  weep  with  you,  and  I  do. 
Yours  in  loving  sympathy, 

Sarah  A.  Hume. 
To  Miss  Cornelia  Y.  Maxon. 

Letter  of  Congratulation.  A  letter 
of  congratulation  is  more  easy  to  write.  Here 
again  let  the  letter  come  from  your  heart. 

My  dear  Old  Jack  : 

Could  anything  be  finer  than  the  result  of  yesterday's 
election?  I  don't  know  which  to  congratulate  more, 
you  or  the  city.  The  voters  were  satisfied  with  your 
past  record,  and  have  endorsed  your  worth  by  giving 
you  this  greater  honor. 

Continue  to  live  up  to  your  high  ideals,  and  you  will 
soon  go  to  Washington  to  protect  the  people  in  their 
rights. 

Remember  me  to  the  little  woman  at  the  head  of  the 
house,  and  accept  my  warmest  congratulations  and 
heartiest  wishes  for  success. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Andrew  Langtrt. 
November  7,  1908. 

• 

Letters  of  congratulation  are  often  very  brief, 
sometimes  only  a  telegram — -just  the  single 
message  of  sympathetic  joy  and  nothing  else. 
Such  congratulations  are  often  sent  to  high 
officials  after  an  election  or  following  some 
notable  success. 

Telegram  to  William  Howard  Taft  from 
Governor  Charles  E.  Hughes,  sent  June  18,  1908: 

"I  heartily  congratulate  you  upon  your  nomination. 
Under  your  administration  the  welfare  of  the  country 
will  be  assured." 

Letters  of  Friendship.      The   joy   of 

letter  writing  is  in  letters  of  friendship,  for 
which,  most  fortunately,  there  can  be  no  exact 
rules.  Write  to  your  friend  as  if  you  were 
talking  —  good,  bright,  happy  talk  about  the 
things  you  are  both  interested  in.  No  friend- 
ship can  be  so  close  as  to  excuse  one  for  indiffer- 
ence or  carelessness.  Models  of  good  letter 
writing  are  found  in  the  memoirs  of  noted  men 
and  women.  They  form  a  valuable  body  of 
literature  and  will  repay  the  reading. 

Letter  writing  has  been  rightly  called  the 
"gentlest  art."  It  is  the  art  of  giving  joy  to 
those  who  are  dear  to  us,  yet  far  away.  An 
interchange  of  letters  between  members  of  the 
same  family  or  between  friends  does  more  than 
anything  else  to  keep  alive  the  deep  affections. 
Even  brothers  and  sisters  drift  apart  and  hope- 
lessly lose  sight  of  each  other  when  they  forget 
to  be  faithful  in  their  letters.  Whatever  the 
pressure  of  pleasure  or  of  duties,  the  absent 
ones  should  make  time  for  at  least  one  letter 
every  week  to  those  who  are  left  at  home. 
Write  cheerfully,  never  sharply  or  pettishly. 
The  word  once  committed  to  paper  may  remam 
when  the  irritation  has  passed  away.  Never 
write  unnecessarily  of  bad  iiews.     Letter  writ- 


220 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


ing,  you  remember,  in  its  highest  mission,  is  the 
"blessed  art  of  giving  joy."  Answer  home 
letters  in  detail.  Many  questions  are  asked 
which  seem  trifling,  but  they  tell  the  very 
things  about  your  life  that  the  home  people 
want  to  kqow. 

The  chief  charm  in  letters  of  friendship  is 
their  naturalness.  They  should  make  the  per- 
son who  receives  them  feel  that  he  has  had  a 
delightful  visit  with  his  friend  who  wrote.  The 
following  passage  taken  from  a  letter  written 
by  Henry  W.  Longfellow  is  full  of  the  charm 
of  simplicity:  "I  have  just  had  the  pleasure  of 
receiving  your  photograph.  It  is  so  good,  it 
could  hardly  be  better.  I  wish  the  one  I  send 
you  in  return  were  as  good.  But  that  is  wish- 
ing I  were  a  handsome  man,  six  feet  high,  and 
we  all  know  the  vanity  of  human  wishes." 
Again  he  writes  in  a  letter,  "If  'Long  Pond' 
were  called  Loch  Long,  it  would  be  a  beautiful 
lake.  This  and  Sebago  are  country  cousins  to 
the  Westmoreland  lakes  in  England,  quite  as 
lovely,  but  wanting  a  little  more  culture  and 
good  society."  This  is  simple  language,  but 
the  thought  is  by  no  means  common-place. 
Our  best  thoughts  belong  to  our  friends  whether 
in  conversation  or  in  letters-.  Of  Hawthorne's 
letters  it  is  said,  "They  were  full  of  passages  of 
beauty  and  of  details  of  his  own  plans  and 
purposes,  hopes  and  disappointments." 

Bayard  Taylor  thus  commends  a  friend  for 
his  naturalness  in  writing:  "You  somehow 
manage  to  bring  your  own  bodily  self  before 
me  when  you  write;  I  see  your  eyes  and  the 
changing  expression  of  your  face,  as  I  read,  and 
the  sound  of  your  voice  accompanies  the  written 
word."  Who  would  not,  if  he  could,  write 
letters  that  by  their  naturalness  recall  both 
face  and  voice?  Charles  Dickens  thanks  a 
friend  for  his  letter  "which  is  like  a  pleasant 
voice  coming  across  the  Atlantic,  with  that 
domestic  welcome  in  it  that  has  no  substitute 
on  earth." 

One  likes  letters  written  for  the  very  joy  of 
correspondence  and  not  because  the  time  has 
come  and  one  must  write.     How  welcome  this 

f)assage  must  have  been  in  one  of  Lowell's 
etters:  "Somehow,  this  cool,  beautiful  summer 
day  I  feel  my  heart  go  out  towards  you  all, 
and  am  not  writing  because  I  ought."  Of  the 
closeness  and  the  intimacy  of  written  thoughts 
that  may  be  exchanged  in  letters,  Lowell  again 
writes:  "I  think  it  fortunate  to  have  dear 
friends  far  away.  For  not  only  does  absence 
have  something  of  the  sanctifying  privilege  of 
death,  but  we  dare  speak  in  the  little  closet  of 
a  letter  what  we  should  not  have  the  face  to 
at  the  corner  of  the  street." 

Playfulness  and  humor  and  lack  of  formality 
are  charming  qualities  in  home  letters  when 
they  can  be  naturally  introduced.  These  open- 
ing lines  taken  from  a  letter  written  by  Benjamin 
Franklin  to  his  wife,  delight  us  by  their  very 
unexpectedness  of  humor:  "I  wrote  you  a  few 
days  since  by  a  special  messenger  and  enclosed 
letters  for  all  our  wives  and  sweethearts,  ex- 

Kecting  to  hear  from  you  by  his  return, but 
e  has  just  now  returned  without  a  scrap  for 
F)oor  me."  Further  on  he  adds  in  the  same 
ight  vein  of  hidden  laughter  a  postscript:    "I 


have  scratched  out  the  loving  words,  having 
written  in  haste  by  mistake  when  I  forgot  I 
was  angry."  How  it  brightens  life  to  stop  in 
the  busy  day  for  such  innocent  sparkle  of  fun! 
It  makes  one  appreciate  the  great  Benjamin 
Franklin  even  more  because  we  know  of  such 
genial  letters  sent  to  those  who  were  dear  to  him. 

Occasions  multiply  for  writing  letters  to  our 
friends:  birthdays,  festivals,  anniversaries,  be- 
trothals, weddings,  funerals;  any  occasion  for 
peculiar  joy  or  sorrow  when  sympathy  and  love 
are  called  into  expression.  One  of  the  most 
pleasing  of  the  growing  customs  is  the  writing 
of  letters  to  friends  to  accompany  them  on 
their  journeys.  Now-a-days,  those  who  go 
abroad  in  ships  are  showered  with  "steamer" 
letters,  which  keep  them  mindful  of  home  and 
friends  throughout  their  long  voyage.  The 
brightness  and  sweetness  of  such  letters  enrich 
a  whole  lifetime  with  pleasant  memories. 

The  mission  of  the  letter  has  been  summed 
up  by  Whittier  in  a  letter  to  a  friend:  "I  am 
thankful  every  day  of  my  life  that  God  has  put 
it  into  the  hearts  of  so  many  whom  I  love  and 
honor  to  send  me  so  many  messages  of  good-will 
and  comfort." 

In  this  day  of  complex  living  when  so  much 
is  said  but  so  little  realized  of  the  "simpler  life," 
we  sometimes  forget  the  joy  which  these  simple 
"  messages  of  good  will  and  comfort "  bring  and 
unnecessarily  burden  ourselves  to  overload  our 
friends  with  purchased  gifts:  whereas,  Christ- 
mas letters,  birthday  letters,  any  letters  into 
which  we  put  our  best  selves,  are  the  most  ac- 
ceptable gifts  that  we  can  choose.  Beyond 
compare  is  the  joy  of  such  written  words  as 
these  sent  as  a  Christmas  offering  by  a  young 
girl  to  an  older  friend:  "What  can  I  wish  for 
you  that  you  have  not  already?  Your  heart  is 
so  full  of  good  things  that  it  needs  no  wish. 
Some  day  I  may  tell  you  just  what  you  have 
done  for  me,  my  dear  friend.  Many  a  door 
have  you  opened  for  me,  and  these  things 
cheapen  in  the  telling. 

"  A  blessed  Christmas  time  to  you  and  a  New 
Year  rich  with  God's  best  gifts." 

The  gift  of  "  things"  is  forgotten  but  of  such 
words  never. 

Postal  Cards.  Postal  cards  (post  cards 
the  English  call  them)  are  often  very  conven- 
ient for  a  word  of  greeting  or  for  general  busi- 
ness matters  which  anyone  may  read,  but  noth- 
ing private  should  ever  be  committed  to  them. 
To  write  on  a  postal  a  term  of  warm  affection 
or  family  news  or  any  message  which  one  would 
not  wish  to  tell  at  large  is  very  indelicate. 

Picture  postal  cards  furnish  pleasant  ex- 
changes between  friends,  and  postal  cards  which 
bear  printed  sentiments  of  refinement  or  the 
line  of  bright  humor,  are  pleasant  reminders; 
but  the  cheap  word  or  picture  of  coarse  fun 
should  be  strictly  forbidden,  not  only  by  the 
authority  of  law,  but  delicacy  of  thought  for 
one's  friend,  as  well  as  for  one's  own  self,  should 
never  selept  what  is  in  any  way  rude  or  coarse. 
In  this  busy  world  where  there  is  so  much  need 
of  frequent  intercourse,  postal  cards  have  their 
place  and  their  use  will  multiply,  but  they 
should  never  be  used  as  substitutes  for  the  well- 
written  letter  or  the  note  of  social  obligation. 


LANGUAGE 


221 


SYNONYMS 

For  complete  Alphabetical  list  of  Synonyms, 
see  Index  under  that  title — Synonyms. 

To  Abandon,  Desert,  Forsake,  Relinquish.     The 

idea  of  leaving  or  separating  oneself  from  an  object  is 
common  to  these  terms,  which  vary  in  the  circumstances 
of  the  action;  the  two  former  are  more  positive  acts  than 
the  two  latter.  To  abandon  may  be  an  act  of  necessity 
or  discretion,  as  a  captain  abandons  a  vessel  when  it  is  no 
longer  safe  to  remain  in  it.  Abandoning  is  a  violation  of 
the  most  sacred  ties,  and  exposes  the  object  to  every 
misery:  desertion  is  a  breach  of  honor  and  fidelity;  it 
deprives  a  person  of  the  assistance  or  the  countenance 
which  he  has  a  right  to  expect.  By  forsaking,  the  kindly 
feelings  are  hurt,  and  the  social  ties  are  broken.  A  bad 
mother  abandons  her  offspring;  a  soldier  deserts  his 
comrades;  a  man  forsakes  his  companions.  Things  as 
well  as  persons  may  be  abandoned,  deserted,  or  forsaken; 
things  only  are  relinquished.  To  relinquish  is  an  act  of 
prudence  or  imprudence;  men  often  inadvertently  relin- 
quish the  fairest  prospects  in  order  to  follow  some  favorite 
scheme  which  terminates  in  their  ruin. 

To  Abase,  Humble,  Degrade,  Disgrace,  Debase. 
To  abase  expresses  the  strongest  degree  of  self-humilia- 
tion. To  humble  marks  a  prostration  to  the  ground,  and 
figuratively  a  lowering  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings. 
Abase  and  humble  have  regard  to  persons  considered 
absolutely,  degrade  and  disgrace  to  their  relative  situa- 
tion. To  degrade  signifies  to  lower  in  the  estimation  of 
others.  To  disgrace  is  always  attended  with  circum- 
stances of  more  or  less  ignominy.  To  debase  is  to  re- 
duce from  a  higher  to  a  lower  state  or  grade  of  worth, 
dignity,  value,  etc.  The  penitent  man  humbles  himself; 
the  contrite  man  abases  himself;  the  man  of  rank  de- 
grades himself  by  a  too  familiar  deportment  with  his 
inferiors;  he  disgraces  himself  by  his  vices;  he  debases 
his  character  by  crime. 

To  Abhor,  Detest,  Abominate.  Loathe.  These 
terms  equally  denote  a  sentiment  of  aversion.  What 
we  abhor  is  repugnant  to  our  moral  feelings;  what  we 
detest  is  opposed  to  our  moral  principles;  what  we  abom- 
inate does  violence  to  our  religious  and  moral  sentiments; 
what  we  loathe  offends  our  physical  taste.  We  abhor 
what  is  base  and  ungenerous,  we  detest  hypocrisy;  we 
abominate  profanation  and  open  impiety;  we  loathe 
food  when  we  are  sick. 

To  Abide,  Sojourn,  Dwell,  Live,  Beside.  Inhabit. 
Abide  is  to  make  an  indefinite  stay.  Sojourn  signifies  to  pass 
the  day,  that  is,  a  certain  portion  of  one's  time,  in  a  place. 
Dwell  conveys  the  idea  of  a  movable  habitation,  such  as 
was  the  practice  of  living  formerly  in  tents.  At  present 
it  implies  a  stay  in  a  place  by  way  of  residence,  which  is 
expressed  in  common  discourse  by  the  word  live,  for 
passing  one's  life.  Reside  conveys  the  full  idea  of'a  set- 
tlement. Inhabit  signifies  to  have,  or  occupy  for  a 
permanency.  The  length  of  stay  implied  in_  these  terms 
is  marked  by  a  certain  gradation.  Abide  is  to  make  a 
continuous  stay  whether  long  or  short;  to  sojourn  is  to 
remain  temporarily;  dwell  comprehends  the  idea  of  per- 
petuity in  a  given  place,  but  reside  and  inhabit  are 
partial  and  local  —  we  dwell  only  in  one  spot,  but  we 
may  reside  at  or  inhabit  many  places. 

Ability,  Capacity,  Faculty,  Talent.  Ability  is  to 
capacity  as  the  genus  to  the  species.  Ability  compre- 
hends the  power  of  doing  in  general,  without  specifying 
the  quality  or  degree;  capacity  is  a  particular  kind  of 
ability.  Ability  may  be  either  physical  or  mental; 
capacity,  when  said  of  persons,  is  mental  only.  Ability 
respects  action,  capacity  respects  thought.  Ability 
always  supposes  something  able  to  be  done;  capacity  is 
a  mental  endowment,  and  always  supposes  something 
ready  to  receive  or  hold.  Ability  relates  to  human 
power  generally,  by  which  a  man  is  enabled  to  act;  it 
may  vary  in  degree  and  quality  with  times,  persons,  and 
circumstances.  Health,  strength,  and  fortune  are  abili- 
ties; faculty  is  a  gift  of  nature  directed  to  a  certain  end, 
and  following  a  certain  rule.  An  ability  may  be  acquired, 
and  consequently  is  properly  applied  to  individuals,  as  an 
ability  to  speak  extempore  or  an  ability  to  write;  but  a 
faculty  belongs  to  the  species,  as  a  faculty  of  speech,  or 
of  hearing,  etc.     Talent  imitates  but  does  not  originate. 

Able,  Capable,  Capacious.  Able  is  said  of  that 
which  one  can  do,  as  to  be  able  to  write  or  read ;  capable 
is  said  of  that  which  either  a  person  or  a  thing  can 
take,  receive,  or  hold.  A  person  is  capable  of  an  office,  or 
capable  of  great  things;  a  thing  is  capable  of  improve- 
ment. Capacious  is  used  only  of  the  property  having  the 
amplitude  of  space,  or  a  power  to  take  in  or  comprehend. 
A  hall  may  be  said  to  be  capacious,  or,  figuratively,  a 
man  has  a  capacious  mind. 

To  Abolish,  Abrogate,  Repeal,  Revoke,  Annul, 


Cancel.  The  word  abolish  conveys  the  idea  of  putting 
a  total  end  to  a  thing,  and  is  applied  properly  to  those 
things  which  have  been  long  in  existence,  and  firmly 
established.  An  abolition  may  be  effected  either  by  an 
act  of  power,  as  to  abolish  an  institution,  or  an  order  of 
men,  and  the  like;  or  it  may  be  a  gradual  act,  or  effected 
by  indirect  means,  as  to  abolish  a  custom,  practice,  etc. 
Laws  are  either  repealed  or  abrogated,  but  repealing  is 
a  term  of  modern  use,  applied  to  the  acts  of  public  coun- 
cils or  assemblies,  where  laws  are  made  or  unmade  by  the 
consent  or  open  declaration  of  numbers.  Abrogate  is  a 
term  of  less  definite  import;  to  abrogate  a  law  is  to  ren- 
der it  null  by  any  act  of  the  legislature;  thus,  the  making 
of  a  new  law  may  abrogate  the  old  one.  Revoking,  is  an 
act  of  individual  authority  —  edicts  are  revoked;  annul- 
ling is  an  act  of  discretion,  as  official  proceedings  or  pri- 
vate contracts  are  annulled;  cancelling  is  a  species  of 
annulling,  as  in  the  case  of  cancelling  deeds,  bonds,  obli- 
gations, etc. 

Abridgment,  Compendium,  Epitome,  Digest. 
Summary,  Abstract.  The  first  four  terms  are  applied 
to  a  distinct  work,  the  two  latter  to  parts  of  a  work.  An 
abridgment  is  the  reduction  of  a  work  into  a  smaller 
compass.  A  compendium  is  a  general  and  concise  view 
of  any  science,  as  geography  or  astronomy.  An  epitome 
is  a  compressed  view  of  all  the  substantial  parts  of  a  thing, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  whole  of  any  matter  brought  into 
a  small  compass.  A  digest  is  any  materials  systema- 
tized in  order.  A  summary  comprehends  the  heads  and 
subdivisions  of  a  work.  An  abstract  includes  a  brief  but 
comprehensive  view  of  any  particular  proceeding.  It  is 
necessary  to  make  abstracts  of  deeds  or  judicial  proceed- 
ings. 

Absolute,  Despotic,  Arbitrary,  Tyrannical.  Ab- 
solute power  is  independent  of  and  superior  to  all  other 
power;  an  absolute  monarch  is  uncontrolled,  not  only  by 
men,  but  by  things.  When  this  absolute  power  is  assigned 
to  any  one  according  to  the  constitution  of  a  government, 
it  is  despotic.  Despotic  power  is  something  less  than 
absolute  power;  a  prince  is  absolute  of  himself;  he  is 
despotic  by  the  consent  of  others.  With  arbitrariness 
is  associated  the  idea  of  caprice  and  selfishness.  With 
tyranny  is  associated  the  idea  of  oppression  and  injustice. 

To  Abstract,  Separate,  Distinguish.  We  abstract 
what  we  wish  to  regard  particularly  and  individually; 
we  separate  what  we  wish  not  to  be  united;  we  distin- 
guish what  we  wish  not  to  confound.  The  mind  per- 
forms the  office  of  abstraction  for  itself;  separating  and 
distinguishing  are  exerted  on  external  objects.  Arrange- 
ment, place,  time,  and  circumstances  serve  to  separate: 
the  ideas  formed  of  things,  the  outward  marks  attached 
to  them,  the  qualities  attributed  to  them,  serve  to 
distinguish. 

To  Abuse,  Disuse,  Misuse.  Everything  is  abused 
which  receives  any  sort  of  injury;  it  is  disused  if  not 
used  at  all,  misused  if  turned  to  a  wrong  use. 

Acceptable,  Grateful,  Welcome.  Acceptable  sig- 
nifies worthy  to  be  accepted.  Grateful,  pleasing,  signifies 
altogether  pleasing;  it  is  that  which  recommends  itself. 
The  acceptable  is  a  relative  good ;  the  grateful  is  positive : 
the  former  depends  upon  our  external  condition,  the 
latter  on  our  feelings  and  taste.  Welcome  signifies  come 
well  or  in  season  for  us;  it  refers  to  whatever  happens 
according  to  our  wishes.  It  is  a  grateful  task  to  be  the 
bearer  of  welcome  intelligence  to  our  friends. 

To  Accomplish,  Effect,  Execute,  Achieve.  To 
accomplish  an  object  signifies  more  than  simply  to  effect 
a  purpose,  both  as  to  the  thing  aimed  at  and  the  means 
employed  in  bringing  it  about.  Extraordinary  means 
are  requisite  for  accomplishing,  and  ordinary  means  for 
effecting.  To  accomplish  is  properly  said  of  that  which 
a  person  sets  before  himself;  but  to  effect,  execute, 
and  achieve  do  not  relate  to  the  views  of  a  person  acting, 
but  to  the  thing  brought  about.  What  is  executed  is 
complicated  in  its  nature,  as  to  execute  a  design  or  pro- 
ject; what  is  achieved  is  of  greater  and  worthier  con- 
ception, as  to  achieve  an  enterprise. 

To  Accuse,  Chaise,  Impeach,  Arraign.  The 
idea  of  asserting  something  to  the  prejudice  of  another 
is  common  to  these  terms;  but  accuse  is  said  of  acts, 
charge  of  moral  qualities  constituting  the  character.  We 
accuse  a  person  of  murder;  we  charge  him  with  dis- 
honesty. High  oflicials  are  impeached  ;  criminals  are 
arraigned. 

To  Act,  Do,  Make.  We  always  act  when  we  do,  but 
we  do  not  always  do  when  we  act.  To  act  is  applied 
either  to  persons  or  things,  as  a  spring  or  a  lock  acts ;  to 
do  applies  in  this  sense  to  persons  only.  To  act  is  also 
mostly  intransitive  or  reflective,  as  to  act  well  or  ill  in 
this  or  that  manner;  to  do  is  always  transitive,  as  to  do 
right  or  wrong,  to  do  one's  duty.  To  make  is  to  bring  a 
thing  to  pass,  as  to  make  a  pen. 

To  Act,  Work,  Operate.     A  machine  works,  but 


222 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


each  of  its  parts  is  said  to  act;  so  beer  works,  and  bread 
works.  Sometimes  act  as  well  as  work  is  taken  in  tlie 
sense  of  exerting  a  power  upon  other  bodies  and  pro- 
ducing changes,  as  tlie  sun  acts  on  the  plants.  Operate 
is  applied  to  matters  of  a  general  nature  in  science  or 
morals,  as  a  measure  operates;  or  words  may  operate  on 
the  mind,  or  reasons  may  operate  on  the  understanding. 

Action.  Gesture,  Gesticulation,  Posture,  Atti- 
tude. All  these  terms  are  applied  to  the  state  of  the 
body;  the  three  former  indicate  a  state  of  motion, 
the  two  latter  a  state  of  rest.  Action  respects  the  move- 
ments of  the  body  in  general;  gesture  is  an  action  indi- 
'cative  of  some  particular  state  of  mind;  gesticulation 
is  a  sort  of  artificial  gesture.  Raising  the  arm  is  an 
action;  bowing  is  a  gesture.  Actions  may  be  ungraceful, 
gestures  indecent.  Posture  and  attitude  both  imply  a 
mode  of  placing  the  body,  but  the  posture  is  either 
natural  or  assumed;  the  attitude  is  always  assumed  or 
represented.  We  assume  a  sitting  posture  or  an  attitude 
of  prayer. 

Active,  Diligent,  Industrious,  Assiduous,  Labo- 
rious, Busy,  Officious.  We  are  active  if  we  are  only 
ready  to  exert  our  powers,  whether  to  any  end  or  not; 
we  are  diligent  when  we  are  active  for  some  specific  end; 
we  are  industrious  when  no  time  is  left  unemployed  in 
some  serious  pursuit;  we  are  assiduous  if  we  do  not  leave 
a  thing  until  it  is  finished;  we  are  laborious  when  the 
bodily  or  mental  powers  are  regularly  employed  in  some 
hard  labor.  Busy  is  opposed  to  leisure.  Officious 
implies  being  busy  without  discretion. 

Actual,  Real,  Positive.  What  is  actual  has  proof 
of  its  existence  within  itself,  and  may  be  exposed  to  the 
eye;  what  is  real  may  be  satisfactorily  proved  to  exist; 
and  what  is  positive  precludes  the  necessity  of  a  proof. 
Actual  is  opposed  to  the  supposititious,  conceived,  or 
reported;  real  to  the  feigned,  imaginary;  positive  to  the 
uncertain,  doubtful. 

To  Actuate,  Impel,  Induce.  One  is  actuated  by 
motives,  impelled  by  passions,  and  induced  by  reason  or 
inclination.  Whatever  actuates  is  the  result  df  reflection ; 
it  is  a  steady  and  fixed  principle.  Whatever  impels  is 
momentary  and  vehement,  and  often  precludes  reflection. 
Whatever  induces  is  not  vehement,  though  often  momen- 
tary. 

Acute,  Keen,  Shrewd.  In  the  natural  sense,  a 
fitness  to  pierce  is  predominant  in  the  word  acute;  and 
that  of  cutting,  or  a  fitness  for  cutting,  in  the  word  keen. 
The  shrewd  man  exposes  follies.  Arguments  may  be 
acute,  reproaches  keen,  and  replies  or  retorts  shrewd. 
A  shrewd  understanding  is  quicker  at  discovering  new 
truths,  than  at  distinguishing  truth  from  falsehood. 

Address,  Application.  An  address  may  be  made 
for  an  indifferent  purpose  or  without  any  express  object; 
but  an  application  is  always  occasioned  by  some  serious 
circumstance.  An  address  may  be  rude  or  civil;  an  appli- 
cation may  be  frequent  or  urgent.  It  is  impertinent  to 
address  any  one  with  whom  we  are  not  acquainted,  un- 
less we  have  a  reason  for  making  an  application  to  him. 

To  Adhere,  Attach.  A  thing  is  adherent  by  the 
union  which  nature  produces;  it  is  attached  by  arbitrary 
ties  which  keep  it  close  to  another  thing.  What  adheres 
to  a  thing  is  closely  joined  to  its  outward  surface;  but 
what  is  attached  may  be  fastened  to  it  by  the  intervention 
of  a  third  body. 

Adjacent,  Adjoining,  Contiguous.  What  is  adja- 
cent may  be  separated  altogether  by  the  intervention  of 
some  third  object;  what  is  adjoining  must  touch  in  some 
part;  and  what  is  contiguous  must  be  fitted  to  touch 
entirely  on  one  side. 

To  Admit,  Receive.  Persons  are  admitted  to  the 
tables,  and  into  the  familiarity  or  confidence  of  others; 
they  are  hospitably  received  by  those  who  wish  to  be 
their  entertainers.  We  admit  willingly  or  reluctantly; 
we  receive  politely  or  rudely. 

To  Admit,  Allovr,  Permit,  Suffer,  Tolerate.  We 
admit  simply  by  not  refusing  or  preventing;  we  allow  by 
positively  granting  or  complying  with.  We  admit  that 
which  concerns  ourselves,  or  is  done  towards  ourselves; 
we  allow  that  which  is  for  the  convenience  of  others,  or 
what  they  wish  to  do.  What  is  suffered  may  be  burden- 
some to  the  sufferer,  if  not  morally  wrong;  what  is 
tolerated  is  bad  in  itself,  and  suffered  only  because  it 
cannot  be  prevented.  No  earthly  power  can  permit  that 
which  is  prohibited  by  the  divine  law. 

Admittance,  Admission.  Admittance  is  properly 
confined  to  receiving  a  person  or  a  thing  into  a  given 
place;  admission  includes  in  itself  the  idea  not  only  of 
receiving,  but  also  the  purpose  of  receiving.  Whoever 
is  admitted,  or  has  the  liberty  of  entering  any  place, 
whether  with  or  without  an  object,  has  admittance;  but 
a  person  has  admission  to  places  of  trust,  or  into  offices 
and  the  like. 

Adoration,    Worship,    Reverence,     Veneration. 


Adoration  is  the  service  of  the  heart  toward  a  Superior 
Being,  in  which  we  acknowledge  our  dependence  and 
obedience  by  petition  and  thanksgiving;  worship  con- 
sists in  the  outward  form  of  showing  reverence  to  some 
supposed  superior  being.  Reverence  differs  from  adora- 
tion inasmuch  as  it  has  a  mixture  of  awe,  arising  from 
consciousness  of  weakness  and  dependence,  or  of  obliga- 
tions for  favors  received.  The  contemplation  of  any 
place  rendered  sacred  by  its  antiquity  awakens  venera- 
tion. 

To  Advance,  Proceed.  To  advance  is  to  go  toward 
some  point;  to  proceed  is  to  go  onward  in  a  certain 
course. 

Advantage,  Benefit,  Utility.  Advantage  respects 
external  or  extrinsic  circumstances  of  profit,  honor,  and 
convenience;  benefit  resjjects  the  consequences  of  actions 
and  events;  utility  respects  the  good  which  can  be  drawn 
from  the  use  of  any  object.  A  large  house  or  a  particular 
situation  may  have  its  advantages;  suitable  exercise  is 
attended  with  benefit;  sun-dials  have  their  utility  in 
ascertaining  the  hour  precisely  by  the  sun. 

Adverse,  Contrary,  Opposite.  Adverse  respects 
the  feelings  and  interests  of  persons;  contrary  regards 
their  plans  and  purposes;  opposite  respects  the  situation 
and*  relative  nature  of  things.  Fortune  is  adverse;  an 
event  turns  out  contrary  to  what  was  expected;  senti- 
ments are  opposite  to  each  other. 

Adverse,  Inimical,  Hostile,  Repugnant.  We  are 
adverse  to  a  proposition,  or  circumstances  are  adverse 
to  our  advancement;  partisans  are  inimical  to  the 
proceedings  o»  government,  and  hostile  to  the  possessors 
of  power.  In  respect  to  persons,  adverse  denotes  merely 
the  relation  of  being  opposed;  inimical,  the  spirit  of  the 
individual  in  private  matters;  and  hostile,  the  situation, 
conduct,  and  temper  of  individuals  or  bodies  in  public 
matters.     Repugnant  means  offensive  to  taste  or  feelings. 

Advice,  Counsel,  Instruction.  Advice  flows  from 
superior  professional  knowledge,  or  from  an  acquaintance 
with  things  in  general;  counsel  regards  superior  wisdom, 
or  a  superior  acquaintance  with  moral  principles  and 
practice;  instruction  respects  superior  local  knowledge  in 
particular  transactions.  A  medical  man  gives  advice  to 
his  patients;  a  father  gives  counsel  to  his  children;  in 
points  of  law  a  counselor  gives  advice  to  his  client  who 
receives  instructions  from  him  in  matters  of  fact. 

Affair,  Business,  Concern.  An  affair  is  what 
happens;  a  business  is  what  busies;  a  concern  is  what  is 
felt.  An  affair  is  general;  it  respects  one,  many,  or  all: 
every  business  or  concern  is  an  affair,  though  not  vice 
versa.  Business  and  concern  are  personal;  business  is 
that  which  engages  the  attention;  concern  is  that  which 
interests  the  feelings,  prospects,  and  condition,  advan- 
tageously or  otherwise.  To  make  one's  peace  with  one's 
Maker  is  the  concern  of  every  individual. 

To  Affect,  Concern.  Things  affect  us  which  produce 
any  change  in  our  outward  circumstances;  they  concern 
us  if  connected  with  our  circumstances  in  any  shape. 
The  price  of  corn  affects  the  interest  of  the  seller;  and 
therefore  it  concerns  him  to  keep  it  up,  without  regard 
to  the  public  good  or  injury. 

To  Affect,  Assume,  Pretend.  To  affect  is  to  use 
forced  efforts  to  appear  to  have  that  which  one  has  not; 
to  assume  is  to  appropriate  to  oneself  that  which  one 
has  no  right  to  have.  One  affects  to  have  fine  feelings, 
and  assumes  great  importance.  We  pretend  by  making 
a  false  declaration.  One  affects  the  manners  of  a  gentle- 
man, and  pretends  to  gentility  of  birth. 

Affectionate,  Kind,  Fond.  Affectionate  character- 
izes the  feelings;  kind  has  mostly  a  reference  to  the 
action.  Affectionate  is  directed  to  a  particular  object; 
kind  to  objects  generally.     Fond  is  a  strong  liking. 

To  Affirm,  Assert.  To  affirm  is  said  of  facts;  to 
assert,  of  opinions.  We  affirm  what  we  know;  we  assert 
what  we  believe. 

To  AfHlct,  Distress,  Trouble.  People  are  afflicted 
with  grievous  maladies.  The  mariner  is  distressed  for 
want  of  water  in  the  midst  of  the  wide  ocean;  an  em- 
barrassed tradesman  is  distressed  for  money  to  maintain 
his  credit.  The  mechanic  is  troubled  for  want  of  proper 
tools;  the  head  of  the  family  is  troubled  for  want  of 
good  domestics. 

Aftllction,  Grief,  Sorrow.  Affliction  lies  deeper  in 
the  soul  than  grief.  It  is  too  deep  to  be  vehement. 
Continued  sickness  of  our  friends  will  cause  affliction; 
the  failure  of  our  favorite  schemes  will  occasion  grief; 
the  loss  of  a  fortune,  or  our  own  mistake  will  cause  sorrow. 

Affront,  Insult,  Outrage.  An  affront  is  a  mark  of 
reproach  shown  in  the  presence  of  others;  it  piques  and 
mortifies:  an  insult  is  an  attack  made  with  insolence;  it 
irritates  and  provokes:  an  outrage  combines  all  that  is 
offensive;    it  wounds  and  injures. 

Afraid,  Fearful,  Timorous,  Timid.  Afraid  may 
be  used  either  in  a  physical  or  moral  application,  either 


■> 


LANGUAGE 


223 


as  it  relates  to  ourselves  only  or  to  others;  fearful  and 
timorous  are  applied  only  physically  and  personally; 
timid  is  mostly  used  in  a  moral  sense.  It  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  fearful  or  timorous  person  to  be  afraid  of  what 
he  imagines  would  hurt  himself.  Between  fearful  and 
timorous  there  is  little  distinction,  either  in  sense  or 
application,  except  that  we  say  fearful  of  a  thing,  not 
timorous  of  a  thing. 

To  Aggravate,  Irritate,  Provoke,  Exasperate, 
Tantalize.  The  crime  of  robbery  is  aggravated  by  any 
circumstances  of  cruelty.  Whatever  comes  across  the 
feelings  irritates;  whatever  awakens  anger  provokes; 
whatever  heightens  this  anger  extraordinarily  exasper- 
ates; whatever  raises  hopes  in  order  to  frustrate  them 
tantalizes. 

To  Agree,  Accede,  Consent,  Comply,  Acquiesce. 
To  agree  is  the  general  term,  meaning  to  fall  in  with.  We 
accede  by  becoming  a  party  to  a  thing ;  those  who  accede 
are  on  equal  terms;  one  objects  to  that  to  which  one 
does  not  accede.  We  consent  to  a  thing  by  authorizing 
it,  we  comply  with  a  thing  by  allowing  it;  those  who 
consent  or  comply  are  not  on  equal  terms  with  those  in 
whose  favor  the  consent  is  given  or  compliance  made. 
Consenting  is  an  act  of  authority,  complying  an  act  of 
good-nature  or  weakness.  To  acquiesce  is  quietly  to 
admit;   it  is  a  passive  act,  dictated  by  prudence  or  duty. 

Agreeable,  Pleasant,  Pleasing.  Agreeable  ex- 
presses a  feeling  less  vivid  than  pleasant;  pleasing  marks 
a  sentiment  less  vivid  and  distinct  than  either.  A  pleasing 
countenance  denotes  tranquillity  and  contentment;  a 
pleasant  countenance  bespeaks  happiness. 

Aim,  Object,  End,  View.  The  aim  is  that  which 
the  person  has  in  his  own  mind;  it  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  individual  whether  it  be  good  or  bad, 
attainable  or  otherwise.  The  object  lies  in  the  thing;  it 
is  a  matter  of  choice;  it  depends  upon  accident  as  well  as 
design,  whether  it  be  worthy  or  unworthy.  The  end  is 
that  which  follows  or  terminates  any  course  or  pro- 
ceeding; it  depends  upon  the  means  taken,  whether  the 
end  is  arrived  at  or  not.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  Christian  to 
live  peaceably;  it  is  a  mark  of  dullness  or  folly  to  act 
without  an  object;  it  is  sophistry  to  suppose  that  the  end 
will  justify  the  means.  The  view  is,  generally  speaking, 
whatever  the  mind  sets  before  itself,  whether  by  way  of 
opinion  or  motive;  a  person's  views  may  be  interested 
or  disinterested,  correct  or  false;  the  view  is  a  matter 
rather  of  contemplation  than  of  practice. 

To  Aim,  Point,  Level.  Aim  expresses  more  than 
the  other  two  words,  inasmuch  as  it  denotes  a  direction 
toward  some  minute  point  in  an  object,  and  the  others 
imply  direction  toward  the  whole  objects  themselves. 
We  aim  at  a  bird;  we  point  a  cannon  toward  a  fortress; 
we  level  a  cannon  at  a  wall. 

To  Aim,  Aspire.  We  aim  at  a  certain  proposed 
point  by  endeavoring  to  gain  it;  we  aspire  after  that 
which  we  think  ourselves  entitled  to,  and  flatter  our- 
selves with  gaining.  Many  men  aim  at  riches  and  honor; 
it  is  the  lot  of  but  few  to  aspire  to  a  throne. 

Air,  Manner.  Air  lies  in  the  whole  person;  manner 
is  confined  to  the  action  or  the  movement  of  a  single 
limb.  A  man  has  the  air  of  a  common  person;  it  dis- 
covers itself  in  all  his  manners.  An  air  is  noble  or  sim- 
ple; it  rnarks  an  elevation  or  simplicity  of  character:  a 
manner  is  rude,  rustic,  or  awkward,  for  want  of  culture, 
good  society,  and  good  example.  We  assume  an  air,  and 
affect  a  manner. 

Air,  Mien,  Look.  Air  depends  not  only  on  the 
countenance,  but  on  thestature,  carriage,  and  action;  mien 
respects  the  whole  outward  appearance,  not  excepting 
the  dress;  look  depends  altogether  on  the  face  and  its 
changes. 

Alarm,  Terror,  Fright,  Consternation.  Alarm 
springs  from  any  sudden  signal  that  announces  the  ap- 
proach of  danger.  Terror  springs  from  any  event  or 
phenomenon  that  may  serve  as  a  prognostic  of  some 
catastrophe;  alarm  makes  us  run  to  our  defense,  and 
terror  disarms  us.  Fright  is  a  less  vivid  emotion  than 
either,  as  it  arises  from  the  simple  appearance  of  danger; 
we  may  be  alarmed  or  terrified  for  others,  but  we  are 
mostly  frightened  for  ourselves.  Consternation  springs 
from  the  view  of  some  very  serious  evil,  and  commonly 
affects  many.  Alarm  affects  the  feelings,  terror  the  under- 
standing, and  fright  the  senses;  consternation  seizes  the 
whole  mind,  and  benumbs  the  faculties. 

Alertness,  Alacrity.  We  proceed  with  alertness 
when  the  body  is  in  its  full  vigor;  we  proceed  with  alac- 
rity when  the  mind  is  in  full  pursuit  of  an  object. 

All,  Whole.  All  respects  a  number  of  individuals; 
whole  respects  a  single  body  with  its  components. 

All,  Every,  Each.  It  is  not  within  the  limits  of 
"uman  capacity  to  take  more  than  a  partial  survey  of 
all  the  interesting  objects  which  the  whole  globe  contains. 
All  men  are  not  born  with  the  same  talent,  either  in  | 


degree  or  kind;  but  every  man  has  a  talent  peculiar  to 
himself.  A  parent  divides  his  property  among  his  chil- 
dren, and  gives  to  each  his  due  share. 

To  Allay,  Soothe,  Appease,  Mitigate,  Assuage. 
All  these  terms  indicate  a  lessening  of  something  painful. 
In  a  physical  sense  an  irritating  pain  is  allayed ;  a  wounded 
part  is  soothed  by  affording  ease  and  comfort.  Extreme 
heat  or  thirst  is  allayed;  extreme  hunger  is  appeased;  a 
punishment  or  a  sentence  is  mitigated.  In  a  moral  sense 
one  allays  what  is  fervid  and  vehement;  one  soothes 
what  is  distressed  or  irritated;  one  appeases  what  is 
tumultuous  and  boisterous;  one  mitigates  the  pains  of 
others,  or  what  is  rigorous  and  severe;  one  assuages 
grief  or  afflictions. 

To  Alleviate,  Relieve.  A  pain  is  alleviated  by 
making  it  less  burdensome;  a  necessity  is  relieved  by 
supplying  what  is  wanted.  Alleviate  respects  our 
internal  feelings  only;  relieve  respects  our  external 
circumstances.  That  alleviates  which  affords  ease  and 
comfort;    that  relieves  which  removes  the  pain. 

Alliance,  League,  Confederacy.  Alliances  are 
formed  for  the  mutual  conveniences  of  parties,  as  be- 
tween states  to  promote  commerce.  Leagues  and  confed- 
eracies are  entered  into  mostly  for  purposes  of  self- 
defense  or  for  common  safety  against  the  attacks  of  a  com- 
mon enemy;  but  a  league  is  mostly  a  solemn  act  between 
two  or  more  states  and  for  general  purposes  of  safety, 
and  may,  therefore,  be  both  defensive  and  offensive.  A 
confederacy  is  mostly  the  temporary  act  of  several 
uniting  in  a  season  of  actual  danger  to  resist  a  common 
adversary. 

To  Allot,  Appoint,  Destine.  Allot  is  used  only  for 
things,  appoint  and  destine  for  persons  or  things.  A 
space  of  ground  is  allotted  for  cultivation;  a  person  is 
appointed  as  steward  or  governor;  a  youth  is  destined 
for  a  particular  profession.  Allotments  and  appoint- 
ments are  made  for  immediate  purposes,  destinations 
for  a  future  purpose. 

To  Allow,  Grant,  Bestow.  That  is  allowed  which 
may  be  expected,  if  not  directly  required;  that  is  granted 
which  is  desired,  if  not  directly  asked  for;  that  is  be- 
stowed which  is  wanted  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  A 
grant  comprehends  in  it  something  more  important  than 
an  allowance,  and  pa.sses  between  persons  in  a  higher 
station;  what  is  bestowed  is  of  less  value  than  either. 
\  boy  is  allowed  money  for  expenses;  a  king  grants  pen- 
sions to  his  officers;    relief  is  bestowed  on  the  indigent. 

Allowance,  Stipend,  Salary,  Wages.  Hire,  Pay. 
All  these  terms  denote  a  stated  sum  paid  according  to 
certain  stipulations.  An  allowance  is  gratuitous;  it 
ceases  at  the  pleasure  of  the  donor.  All  the  rest  are  the 
requital  for  some  supposed  service;  they  cease  with  the 
engagement  made  between  the  persons.  Stipend  is  more 
fixed  and  permanent  than  salary,  and  salary  than  wages, 
hire,  or  pay;  a  stipend  depends  upon  the  fulfilling  of  an 
engagement,  rather  than  on  the  will  of  an  individual.  A 
salary  is  a  matter  of  contract  between  the  giver  and 
the  receiver;  an  allowance  may  be  given  in  any  form,  or 
at  any  stated  times.  Stipend  and  salary  are  paid  yearly, 
or  at  even  portions  of  a  year;  wages,  hire,  and  pay  are 
estimated  by  days,  weeks,  or  months,  as  well  as  by  years. 

To  Allude,  Refer,  Hint,  Suggest.  To  allude  is  not 
so  direct  as  to  refer,  but  it  is  more  clear  and  positive  than 
either  hint  or  suggest.  We  allude  to  a  circumstance  by 
introducing  something  collaterally  allied  to  it;  we  refer 
to  an  event  by  expressly  introducing  it  into  one's  dis- 
course; we  hint  at  a  person's  intentions  by  darkly  insin- 
uating what  may  possibly  happen;  we  suggest  an  idea 
by  some  expressions  relative  to  it. 

Alone,  Solitary,  Lonely.  Alone,  compounded  of 
all  and  one,  signifies  altogether  one,  or  single,  that  is, 
by  oneself.  Alone  marks  the  state  of  a  person ;  solitary 
the  quality  of  a  person  or  a  thing;  lonely  the  quality  of  a 
thing  only.  A  person  walks  alone,  or  takes  a  solitary 
walk  in  a  lonely  place. 

Ambassador,  Envoy,  Plenipotentiary,  Deputy. 
Ambassadors,  envoys,  and  plenipotentiaries  speak  and 
act  in  the  name  of  their  sovereigns,  with  this  differ- 
ence: the  first  is  invested  with  the  highest  authority, 
acting  in  all  cases  as  the  representative;  the  second 
appears  only  as  a  simple  authorized  minister  acting  for 
another,  but  .not  always  representing  him;  the  third  is 
a  sort  of  envoy  used  by  courts  only  on  the  occasion 
of  concluding  peace  or  making  treaties.  Deputies  are  not 
deputed  by  sovereigns,  although  they  may  be  deputed  to 
sovereigns;  they  have  no  power  to  act  or  speak  but  in 
the  name  of  some  subordinate  community  or  particular 
body.  The  functions  of  the  first  three  belong  to  the 
minister,  those  of  the  latter  to  the  agent. 

Ambiguity,  Equivocation.  An  ambiguity  arises  from 
a  too  general  form  of  expression,  which  leaves  the  sense 
of  the  author  indeterminate;  an  equivocation  lies  in  the 
power  of  particular  terms  used,  which  admit  of  a  double 


"224 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


interpretation,  or  an  application  to  two  different  things. 
The  ambiguity  leaves  us  in  entire  uncertainty  as  to  what 
is  meant;  the  equivocation  misleads  us  in  the  use  of  a 
term  in  the  sense  which  we  do  not  suspect. 

To  Amend,  Correct,  Emend,  Improve,  Mend, 
Better.  Amend,  emend,  and  correct  are  all  applied  to 
works  of  the  understanding,  with  this  distinction,  that 
amend  signifies  to  remove  faults  or  defects  generally, 
either  by  adding,  taking  away,  or  altering,  as  to  amend 
a  law;  to  emend  is  to  remove  particular  faults  in  any 
literary  work  by  the  alteration  of  letters  or  single  words; 
to  correct  is  to  remove  gross  faults,  as  to  correct  the  press. 
To  mend  is  employed  in  respect  to  any  works  in  the  sense 
of  putting  that  right  which  either  is  or  has  become  faulty; 
to  improve  is  said  either  of  persons  or  things  which  are 
made  better,  as  to  improve  the  mind,  morals,  etc.;  to 
better  is  mostly  applied  to  the  outward  condition  on 
familiar  occasions. 

Amicable,  Friendly.  Amicable  implies  a  negative 
sentiment,  a  freedom  from  discordance;  friendly  implies 
a  positive  feelinR  of  regard,  the  absence  of  indifference. 
We  make  an  amicable  accommodation,  and  a  friendly 
visit. 

Ample,  Spacious,  Capacious.  Ample  is  opposed 
to  scanty,  spacious  to  narrow,  capacious  to  small.  What 
is  ample  suffices  and  satisfies;  it  imposes  no  constraint. 
What  is  spacious  is  free  and  open;  it  does  not  confine. 
What  is  capacious  readily  receives  and  contains;  it  is 
liberal  and  generous. 

To  Amuse,  Divert,  Entertain.  Whatever  amuses 
serves  to  kill  time,  to  lull  the  faculties  and  banish  reflec- 
tion; whatever  diverts  causes  mirth  and  provokes  laugh- 
ter; whatever  entertains  acts  on  the  senses,  and  awakens 
the  understanding. 

Anger,  Resentment,  Wrath,  Ire,  Indignation, 
Rage,    Fury.     Anger   is   a   sudden   sentiment  of   dis- 

gleasure;  resentment  is  a  continued  anger;  wrath  is  a 
eightened  sentiment  of  anger,  which  is  poetically  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  ire.  Indignation  is  a  sentiment 
awakened  by  the  unworthy  and  atrocious  conduct  of 
others;  as  it  is  exempt  from  personality,  it  is  not  irrec- 
oncilable with  the  temper  of  a  Christian.  Rage  is  a 
vehement  ebullition  of  anger;  and  fury  is  an  excess  of 
rage. 

Animadversion,  Criticism,  Stricture.  Animad- 
version includes  censure  and  reproof;  criticism  implies 
scrutiny  and  judgment,  whether  for  or  against;  and 
stricture  comprehends  a  partial  investigation  mingled 
with  censure. 

To  Animate,  Inspire,  Enliven,  Cheer,  Exhila- 
rate. To  be  animated  in  its  physical  sense  is  simply  to 
receive  the  first  spark  of  animal  life  in  however  small  a 
degree;  to  be  animated  in  the  moral  sense  is  to  receive 
the  smallest  portion  of  the  sentiment  or  thinking  faculty; 
to  inspire  expresses  the  communication  of  a  strong  moral 
sentiment  or  passion;  to  enliven  respects  the  mind;  cheer 
relates  to  the  heart;  exhilarate  regards  the  spirits,  both 
animal  and  mental. 

To  Announce,  Proclaim,  Publish.  We  announce 
an  event  that  is  expected  and  just  at  hand;  we  proclaim 
an  event  that  requires  to  be  known  by  all  the  parties 
interested ;  we  publish  what  is  supposed  likely  to  interest 
all  who  know  it. 

Answer,  Reply,  Rejoinder,  Response.  An  answer 
is  given  to  a  question;  a  reply  is  made  to  an  assertion ;  a 
rejoinder  is  made  to  a  reply;  a  response  is  made  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  words  of  another.  We  answer  either 
for  the  purpose  of  affirmation,  information,  or  contradic- 
tion; we  always  reply,  or  rejoin,  in  order  to  explain  or 
confute;  responses  are  made  by  way  of  assent  or  con- 
firmation. 

Answerable,  Responsible,  Accountable,  Amen- 
able. Answerable  and  responsible  convey  the  idea  of  a 
pledge  given  for  the  performance  of  some  act,  or  the 
fulfillment  of  some  engagement,  a  breach  of  which  sub- 
jects the  defaulter  to  loss,  punishment,  or  disgrace.  A 
person  is  accountable  to  his  employer  for  the  manner  in 
which  he  has  conducted  any  business  intrusted  to  him. 
To  be  amenable  is  to  be  accountable  as  far  as  laws  and 
regulations  bind  a  person;  one  is  amenable  to  the  laws 
of  society,  or  he  is  amenable  to  the  rules  of  the  house  in 
which  he  is  only  an  inmate. 

To  Apologize,  Defend,  Justify,  Exculpate,  Ex- 
cuse, Plead.  We  apologize  for  an  error  by  acknowl- 
edging ourselves  guilty  of  it;  we  defend  ourselves  against 
a  charge  by  proving  its  fallacy;  we  justify  our  conduct 
against  any  Imputation  by  proving  that  it  was  blame- 
less; we  exculpate  ourselves  from  all  blame  by  proving 
that  we  took  no  part  in  the  transaction.  Excuse  ana 
plead  are  not  grounded  on  any  idea  of  innocence;  a  plea 
18  frequently  an  idle  or  unfounded  excuse,  a  frivolous 
attempt  to  lessen  displeasure;  we  excuse  ourselves  for 
a  neglect  by  alleging  indisposition. 


Apparel,  Attire,  Array.  Apparel  is  the  dress  of 
every  one;  attire  is  the  dress  of  the  great;  array  is  the 
dress  of  particular  persons  on  particular  occasions. 

Apparent,  Visible,  Clear,  Plain,  Obvious,  Evi- 
dent, Alanifest.  That  which  is  simply  an  object  of 
sight  is  visible;  that  which  presents  itself  to  our  view 
in  any  form,  real  or  otherwise,  is  apparent.  The  stars 
themselves  are  visible  to  us;  but  their  size  is  apparent. 
What  is  clear  is  to  be  seen  in  all  its  parts  and  in  its  proper 
colors;  what  is  plain  is  seen  by  a  plain  understanding; 
what  is  obvious  presents  itself  readily  to  the  mind  of 
every  one;  what  is  evident  is  seen  forcibly,  and  leaves 
no  hesitation  on  the  mind.  Manifest  is  a  greater  degree 
of  the  evident;  it  strikes  on  the  understanding  and 
forces  conviction. 

Applause,  Acclamation.  These  terms  express  a 
public  demonstration,  the  former  by  means  of  a  noise 
with  the  hands  or  feet,  the  latter  by  means  of  shouts 
and  cries.  The  former  is  employed  as  a  testimony  of 
approbation;  the  latter  as  a  sanction,  or  an  indication 
of  respect. 

To  Appoint,  Order,  Prescribe,  Ordain.  To  ap- 
point is  either  the  act  of  an  equal  or  a  superior;  we 
appoint  a  meeting  with  any  one  at  a  given  time  and 
place;  a  king  appoints  his  ministers.  To  order  is  the  act 
of  one  invested  with  a  partial  authority;  a  master  gives 
his  erders  to  his  servant.  To  prescribe  is  the  act  of  one 
who  is  superior  by  virtue  of  his  knowledge;  a  physician 
prescribes  for  his  patient.  To  ordain  is  an  act  emanating 
from  the  highest  authority;  kings  and  councils  ordain; 
but  their  ordinances  must  be  conformable  to  what  is 
ordained  by  the  Divine  Being. 

To  Apprehend,  Conceive,  Suppose,  Imagine. 
To  apprenend  is  simply  to  take  an  idea  into  the  mind; 
thus  we  may  apprehend  any  object  that  we  hear  or  see; 
to  conceive  is  to  form  an  idea  in  the  mind,  as  to  con- 
ceive the  idea  of  doing  anything,  to  conceive  a  design. 
What  one  supposes  may  admit  of  a  doubt;  it  is  fre- 
quently only  conjectural:  what  one  imagines  may  be 
altogether  improbable  or  impossible;  that  which  cannot 
be  imagined  may  be  too  improbable  to  admit  of  being 
believed. 

Approach,  Access,  Admittance.  Approach  sig- 
nifies the  coming  near  or  toward  an  object,  and  conse- 
quently is  an  unfinished  act,  but  access  and  admittance 
are  finished  acts;  access  is  the  coming  to,  that  is,  as 
close  to  an  object  as  is  needful;  and  admittance  is  the 
coming  into  any  place,  or  into  the  presence  or  society 
of  any  person.  An  approach  may  be  quick  or  slow, 
an  access  easy  or  difficult,  an  admittance  free  or  ex- 
clusive. 

To  Approach,  Approximate.  To  approach  de- 
notes simply  the  moving  of  an  object  toward  another; 
but  to  approximate  denotes  the  gradual  moving  of  two 
objects  toward  each  other. 

To  Argue,  Evince,  Prove.  To  argue  is  to  serve  as 
an  indication  amounting  to  probability;  to  evince 
denotes  an  indication  so  clear  as  to  remove  doubt;  to 
prove  marks  an  evidence  so  positive  as  to  produce 
conviction. 

Argument,  Reason,  Proof.  An  argument  serves 
for  defense;  a  reason  for  justification;  a  proof  for  con- 
viction. Arguments  are  adduced  in  support  of  an 
hypothesis  or  a  proposition;  reasons  are  assigned  in 
matters  of  belief  and  practice;  proofs  are  collected  to 
ascertain  a  fact. 

To  Arise,  or  Rise,  Mount,  Ascend,  Climb,  Scale. 
Arise  is  used  only  in  the  sense  of  simply  getting  up,  but 
rise  is  employed  to  express  a  continued  motion  upward. 
A  person  arises  from  his  seat  or  his  bed;  a  bird  rises  in 
the  air;  a  person  mounts  a  hill,  and  ascends  a  moun- 
tain. To  climb  is  to  rise  step  by  step,  by  clinging  to  a 
certain  body;  to  scale  is  to  rise  by  an  escalade,  or  species 
of  ladder,  employed  in  mounting  the  walls  of  fortified 
towns.  Trees  and  mountains  are  climbed ;  walls  are 
scaled. 

Arrogance,  Presumption.  Arrogance  is  the  act  of 
the  great;  presumption  that  of  the  little.  The  arrogant 
man  takes  upon  himself  to  be  above  others;  the  presump- 
tuous man  strives  to  be  on  a  level  with  those  who  are 
above  him. 

Art,  Cunning,  Deceit.  Art  implies  a  disposition  of 
the  mind  to  use  circumvention  or  artificial  means  to 
attain  an  end;  cunning  marks  the  disposition  to  practice 
disguise  in  the  prosecution  of  a  plan;  deceit  leads  to 
the  practice  of  dissimulation  ana  gross  falsehood,  for 
the  sake  of  gratifying  a  desire. 

Artist,  Artisan,  Artificer,  Mechanic.  The 
artist  ranks  higher  than  the  artisan;  the  forrner 
requires  intellectual  refinement,  the  latter  nothing 
but  to  know  the  common  practice  of  art.  The 
sculptor  is  an  artist;  the  sign-painter  is  an  artisan. 
Manufacturers    are    artificers.     The    mechanic    is    one 


LANGUAGE 


225 


whose  work  involves  manual  skill,  or  skill  in  the  use 
of  tools. 

To    Ask,    Inquire,    Question,    Interrogate.     We 

Eerform  all  these  actions  in  order  to  get  information; 
ut  we  ask  for  general  purposes  of  convenience;  we 
inquire  from  motives  of  curiosity;  we  question  and 
interrogate  from  motives  of  discretion.^  Indifferent 
people  ask  of  each  other  whatever  they  wish  to  know; 
learners  inquire  the  reasons  of  things  which  are  new  to 
them;  masters  question  their  servants,  or  parents  their 
children,  when  they  wish  to  ascertain  the  real  state  of 
any  case;  magistrates  interrogate  criminals  when  they 
are  brought  before  them. 

To  Assemble,  Muster,  Collect.  Assemble  is  said 
of  persons  only;  muster  and  collect  of  persons  or  things. 
To  assemble  is  to  bring  together  by  a  call  or  invitation ; 
to  muster  is  to  bring  together  by  an  act  of  authority, 
or  by  a  particular  effort,  into  one  point  of  view  at  one 
time,  and  from  one  quarter:  to  collect  is  to  bring 
together  at  different  times,  and  from  different  quarters. 

Assent,  Consent,  Approbation,  Concurrence. 
Assent  respects  matters  of  judgment;  consent  respects 
matters  of  conduct.  We  assent  to  what  we  admit  to 
be  true;  we  consent  to  what  we  allow  to  be  done. 
Approbation  is  a  species  of  assent,  concurrence  of  con- 
sent. To  approve  is  not  merely  to  assent  to  a  thing  as 
right,  but  to  determine  upon  it  positively  to  be  so; 
concurrence  is  properly  the  consent  of  many.  Assent 
is  given  by  equals  or  inferiors;  consent  by  superiors; 
approbation  by  equals  or  superiors;  concurrence  by 
equals. 

To  Assert,  Maintain,  Vindicate.  We  assert  any- 
thing to  be  true;  we  maintain  it  by  adducing  proofs, 
facts,  or  arguments;  we  vindicate  our  own  conduct  or 
that  of  another  when  it  is  called  in  question. 

Association,  Society,  Company,  Partnership. 
Whenever  we  habitually  or  frequently  rneet  together  for 
some  common  object,  it  is  an  association.  Whenever 
association  is  used  in  distinction  from  the  others, 
it  denotes  that  which  is  partial  in  its  object  and 
temporary  in  its  duration.  It  is  founded  on  unity  of 
sentiment  as  well  as  on  unity  of  object;  but  it  is  mostly 
unorganized,  and  kept  together  only  by  the  spirit  which 
gives  rise  to  it.  A  society  requires  nothing  but  unity 
of  object,  which  is  permanent  in  its  nature;  it  is 
organized,  and  set  on  foot  to  promote  the  cause 
of  humanity,  literature,  or  religion.  Companies  are 
brought  together  for  the  purposes  of  interest,  and 
are  dissolved  when  that  object  ceases  to  exist;  their 
duration  depends  on  the  contingencies  of  profit  and 
loss.  Partnerships  are  altogether  of  an  individual  and 
private  nature.  As  they  are  without  organization  and 
system,  they  are  more  precarious  than  any  other  asso- 
ciation. Their  duration  depends  not  only  on  the  chances 
of  trade,  but  on  the  compatibility  of  individuals  to 
co-operate  in  a  close  point  of  union. 

Astronomer,  Astrologer.  The  astronomer  studies 
the  course  and  movement  of  the  stars;  the  astrologer 
reasons  on  their  influence. 

Asylum,  Refuge,  Slielter,  Retreat.  Asylum  is 
chosen  lay  him  who  has  no  home;  refuge  by  him  who 
is  apprehensive  of  danger.  Shelter  is  a  cover  or  a  pro- 
tection.     Fatigues  and  toils  of  life  make  us  seek  retreat. 

To  Atone  for.  Expiate.  Both  these  terms  express 
a  satisfaction  for  an  offense;  but  atone  is  general; 
expiate  is  particular.  We  may  atone  for  a  fault  by 
any  form  of  suffering;  we  expiate  a  crime  only  by 
suffering  a  legal  punishment. 

To  Attacli,  Assail,  Assault,  Encounter,  Onset, 
Charge.  To  attack  is  to  make  an  approach  in  order 
to  do  some  violence  to  the  person;  to  assail  or  assault 
is  to  make  a  sudden  and  vehement  attack;  to  encounter 
is  to  meet  the  attack  of  another.  One  assails  by  means 
of  missile  weapons;  one  assaults  by  direct  personal 
violence.  Onset  is  employed  for  the  commencement  of 
the  battle;  charge  for  an  attack  from  a  particular 
quarter. 

Attempt,  Trial,  Endeavor,  Effort,  Essay.  An 
attempt  is  the  act  of  setting  about  a  thing  with  a  view  of 
effecting  it ;  a  trial  is  the  act  of  setting  about  a  thing 
with  a  view  of  seeing  the  result;  an  endeavor  is  a  con- 
tinued attempt.  An  effort  is  to  an  attempt  as  a  means 
to  an  end;  it  is  the  act  of  calling  forth  those  powers 
which  are  required  in  an  attempt.  An  essay  is  an  im- 
perfect attempt,  or  attempt  to  do  something  which 
cannot  be  done  without  difficulty.  It  is  applied  either  to 
corporeal  or  intellectual  matters. 

To  Attend,  Hearken,  Listen.  To  attend  is  to  have 
the  mind  engaged  on  what  we  hear;  to  hearken  and 
listen  are  to  strive  to  hear.  People  attend  when  they 
are  addressed;  they  hearken  to  what  is  said  by  others; 
they  listen  to  what  passes  between  others. 

Attentive,  Careful.     We  are  attentive  in  order  to 


understand  and  improve;  we  are  careful  to  avoid  mis- 
takes. Attention  respects  matters  of  judgment;  care 
relates  to  mechanical  action:  we  listen  attentively;  we 
read  or  write  carefully. 

To  Attract,  Allure,  Invite,  Engage.  That  is  at- 
tractive which  draws  the  thoughts  toward  itself;  that  is 
alluring  which  awakens  desire;  that  is  inviting  which 
offers  persuasion;  that  is  engaging  which  takes  posses- 
sion of  the  mind. 

To  Augur,  Presage,  Forebode,  Betoken,  Portend. 
Augur  signifies  either  to  serve  or  make  use  of  as  an 
augury;  to  forebode,  or  to  presage,  is  to  forni  a  conclusion 
in  one's  own  mind;  to  betoken  or  portend  is  to  serve  as 
a  sign.  Persons  or  things  augur;  persons  only  forebode 
or  presage;  things  only  betoken  or  portend.  Auguring 
is  a  calculation  of  some  future  event,  in  which  the  imagi- 
nation seems  to  be  as  much  concerned  as  the  understand- 
ing. Presaging  is  rather  a  conclusion  or  a  deduction  of 
what  may  be  from  what  is;  it  lies  in  the  understanding 
more  thah  in  the  imagination.  Foreboding  Ues  altogether 
in  the  imagination.  Things  are  said  to  betoken,  which 
present  natural  signs;  those  are  said  to  portend  which 
present  extraordinary  or  supernatural  signs. 

Auspicious,  Propitious.  Those  things  are  auspi- 
cious wnich  are  casual,  or  only  indicative  of  good ;  persons 
are  propitious  to  the  wishes  of  others  who  listen  to  their 
requests  and  contribute  to  their  satisfaction. 

Austere,  Rigid,  Severe,  Rigorous,  Stern.  The 
austere  man  mortifies  himself;  the  rigid  man  binds  hini- 
self  to  a  rule.  The  manners  of  a  man  are  austere  when  he 
refuses  to  take  part  in  any  social  enjoyments;  his  pro- 
bity is  rigid,  that  is,  inaccessible  to  the  allurements  of 
gain,  or  the  urgency  of  necessity.  Severe  is  used  with 
reference  to  conduct:  he  is  severe  in  the  restraints^  he 
imposes,  and  the  punishments  he  inflicts;  rigorous  im- 
plies harshness,  severity,  as  vigorous  treatment,  a  vigorous 
officer  of  justice,  namely,  in  the  infliction  of  punishment. 
Sternness  is  a  species  of  severity  more  in  manner  than 
in  direct  action ;  a  commander  may  issue  his  commands 
sternly,  or  a  despot  may  issue  his  stern  decrees. 

Avaricious,  31iserly,  Parsimonious,  Niggardly. 
An  avaricious  man  shows  his  love  of  money  in  his  ordi- 
nary dealings;  but  the  miser  lives  for  his  money,  and 
suffers  every  privation  rather  than  part  with  it.  The 
avaricious  man  indulges  his  passion  for  money  by  par- 
simony, that  is,  by  saving  out  of  himself,  or  by  niggardly 
ways  in  his  dealings  with  others. 

To  AvFaken,  Excite,  Provoke,  Rouse,  Stir  Up. 
We  awaken  by  a  simple  effort;  we  excite  by  repeated 
efforts  or  forcible  means;  we  provoke  by  words,  looks, 
or  actions.  The  tender  feelings  are  awakened;  affec- 
tions, or  the  passions  in  general,  are  excited;  the  angry 
passions  are  commonly  provoked.  We  are  roused  from 
an  extraordinary  state  by  extraordinary  means;  we  are 
stirred  up  from  an  ordinary  to  an  extraordinary  state. 

Awe,  Reverence,  Dread.  Awe  and  reverence  both 
denote  a  strong  sentiment  of  respect,  mingled  with  some 
emotions  of  fear;  but  the  former  marks  the  much 
stronger  sentiment  of  the  two.  Dread  is  an  unmingled 
sentiment  of  fear  for  one's  personal  security. 

Awkward,  Clumsy,  Crooked,  Perverted,  Un- 
toward, Cross.  Awkward  respects  outward  deport- 
ment ;  clumsy  the  shape  and  make  of  the  object.  A  per-" 
son  has  an  awkward  gait,  is  clumsy  in  his  whole  person. 
What  is  crooked  springs  from  a  perverted  judgment; 
what  is  untoward  is  independent  of  human  control. 
We  are  cross  when  partially  irritated,  resulting  from  the 
state  of  the  humors,  physical  and  mental. 

Axiom,  Maxim,  Aphorism,  Apophthegm,  Say- 
ing, Adage,  Proverb,  By-word,  Saw.  The  axiom  is 
a  truth  of  the  first  value,  a  self-evident  proposition 
which  is  the  basis  of  other  truths.  A  maxim  is  a  truth 
of  the  first  moral  importance  for  all  practical  purposes; 
an  aphorism  is  a  truth  set  apart  for  its  pointedness  and 
excellence.  Apophthegm  is,  in  respect  to  the  ancients, 
what  saying  is  in  regard  to  the  moderns;  it  is  a  pointed 
sentiment  pronounced  by  an  individual,  and  adopted  by 
others.  Adage  and  proverb  are  vulgar  sayings,  the 
former  among  the  ancients,. the  latter  among  the  mod- 
erns. The  by-word  is  a  casual  saying,  originating  in  some 
local  circumstance;  the  saw,  which  is  a  barbarous  cor- 
ruption of  saying,  is  the  saying  formerly  current  among 
the  ignorant. 

To  Babble,  Chatter,  Chat,  Prattle,  Prate,  Bab- 
bling denotes  rapidity  of  speech,  which  renders  it  unin- 
telligible; chatter  is  an  imitation  of  the  noise  of  speech 
properly  applied  to  magpies  or  parrots,  and  figuratively 
to  a  corresponding  vicious  mode  of  speech  in  human 
beings.  The  winter's  fireside  invites  neighbors  to  assemble 
and  chat  away  many  an  hour  which  might  otherwise 
hang  heavy  on  hand;  or  be  spent  less  inoffensively.  The 
prattling  of  babes  has  an  interest  for  every  feeling  mind, 
but  for  parents  it  is  one  of  their  highest  enjoyments; 


226 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


prating,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  consequence  of  ignorance 
and  childish  assumption.  A  prattler  has  all  the  unaffected 
gayety  of  an  uncontaminatea  mind;  a  prater  is  forward, 
obtrusive,  and  ridiculous. 

Badly«  111.  These  terms  are  both  employed  to  mod- 
ify the  actions  or  qualities  of  things,  but  badly  is  always 
annexed  to  the  action,  and  ill  to  the  quality;  as,  to  ao 
anything  badly,  the  thing  is  badly  done,  an  ill-judged 
scheme,  an  ill-contrived  measure,  an  ill-disposed  person. 

Band,  Company,  Crew,  Gang.  All  these  terms  de- 
note a  small  association  for  a  particular  object.  A  band 
is  an  association  in  which  men  are  bound  together  by  some 
strong  obligation,  whether  taken  in  a  good  or  a  bad  sense, 
as  a  band  of  soldiers,  a  band  of  robbers;  a  company 
marks  an  association  for  convenience,  without  any  par- 
ticular obligation,  as  a  company  of  travelers,  a  company 
of  strolling  players.  A  crew  marks  an  association  col- 
lected by  some  external  power,  or  by  coincidence  of 
plan  anci  motive;  in  the  former  case  it  is  used  for  a 
ship's  crew,  in  the  latter  and  bad  sense  of  the  *rord  it  ic 
employed  for  any  number  of  evil-minded  persons  met 
together  from  different  quarters,  and  co-operating  for 
some  bad  purpose.  Gang  is  used  in  a  bad  sense  for  an 
association  of  thieves,  murderers,  and  depredators  in 
general,  or  in  a  technical  sense  for  those  who  work 
together. 

Banishment,  Exile,  Expulsion.  Banishment  fol- 
lows from  a  decree  of  justice;  exile  either  by  the  necessity 
of  circumstances  or  by  an  order  of  authority;  banish- 
ment is  a  disgraceful  punishment  inflicted  by  tribunals 
upon  delinquents;  exile  is  a  disgrace  incurred  without 
dishonor;  exile  removes  us  from  our  country;  banishment 
or  expulsion  drives  us  from  it  ignominiously. 

Bare,  Scanty,  Destitute.  Bare  respects  what  serves 
for  ourselves;  scanty  that  which  is  provided  by  others. 
A  subsistence  is  bare;  a  supply  is  scanty;  destitute  is 
generally  said  of  one  who  wants.  One  is  destitute  of 
friends,  of  resources,  or  of  comforts. 

To  Be,  Exist,  Subsist.  We  say  of  qualities,  of 
forms,  of  actions,  of  arrangement,  of  movement,  and  of 
every  different  relation,  whether  real,  ideal,  or  qualifi- 
cative,  that  they  are;  we  say  of  matter,  of  spirit,  of 
body,  and  of  all  substances,  that  they  exist.  Man  is 
man,  and  will  be  man  under  all  circumstances  and 
changes  of  life;  he  exists  under  every  known  climate 
and  variety  of  heat  or  cold  in  the  atmosphere.  Every- 
thing which  subsists  depends  for  its  existence  upon  the 
chances  and  changes  of  life. 

To  Be,  Become,  Grow.  Be  is  positive;  become  is 
relative:  a  person  is  what  he  is  without  regard  to  what 
he  was ;  he  becomes  that  which  he  was  not  before.  To 
grow  is  to  become  by  a  gradual  process.  A  man  may 
become  a  good  man  from  a  vicious  one,  in  consequence 
of  a  sudden  action  on  his  mind;  but  he  grows  in  wisdom 
and  virtue  by  means  of  an  increase  in  knowledge  and 
experience. 

To  Bear,  Yield.  Bear  conveys  the  idea  of  creating 
within  itself;  yield,  that  of  giving  from  itself.  Animals 
bear  their  young;   inanimate  objects  yield  their  produce. 

To  Beat,  Defeat,  Overpower,  Rout,  Overthrow. 
\  general  is  beaten  in  important  engagements;  he  is  de- 
feated and  may  be  routed  in  partial  attacks;  ne  is  over- 
powered by  numbers,  and  overthrown  in  set  engagements. 

Beautiful,  Fine,  Handsome,  Pretty.  When  taken 
in  relation  to  persons,  a  woman  is  beautiful  who,  in  fea- 
ture and  complexion,  possesses  a  grand  assemblage  of 
graces;  a  woman  is  fine  who,  with  a  striking  figure, 
unites  shape  and  symmetry;  a  woman  is  handsome  who 
has  good  features;  and  pretty  if  with  symmetry  of  fea- 
ture be  united  delicacy.  Beautiful,  fine,  and  pretty  are 
applied  indifferently  to  works  of  nature  and  art;  hand- 
some mostly  to  those  of  art  only:  a  beautiful  picture, 
a  fine  drawing,  a  pretty  cap,  and  handsome  furni- 
ture. 

Becoming,  Comely,  Graceful.  Becoming  respects 
the  decorations  of  the  person,  and  the  exterior  deport- 
ment; comely  respects  natural  embellishments;  grace- 
ful, natural  or  artificial  accomplishments.  Manner  is 
becoming;  figure  is  comely;  air,  figure,  or  attitude  is 
graceful. 

To  Beg,  Desire.  To  beg  marks  the  wish;  to  desire, 
the  will  and  determination.  Beg  is  the  act  of  an  infe- 
rior, or  one  in  a  subordinate  condition ;  desire  is  the  act 
of  a  superior.  We  beg  a  thing  as  a  favor;  we  desire  it 
as  a  right.  • 

To  Beg,  Beseech,  Solicit,  Entreat,  Supplicate, 
Implore,  Crave.  To  beg  denotes  a  state  of  want;  to 
beseech,  entreat,  and  solicit,  a  state  of  urgent  necessity; 
supplicate,  and  implore,  a  state  of  abject  distress;  crave, 
the  lowest  state  of  physical  want.  One  begs  with  im- 
portunity, beseeches  with  earnestness,  entreats  by  the 
force  of  reasoning  and  strong  representation ;  one  solicits 
by  virtue  of  one's  interest,  supplicates  by  an  humble 


address,  implores  by  every  mark  of  dejection  and 
humiliation. 

To  Begin,  Commence,  Enter  Upon.  To  begin 
respects  the  order  of  time;  to  commence,  the  exertion 
of  setting  about  a  thing.  Begin  is  opposed  to  end; 
commence,  to  complete.  A  person  begins  a  thing  with  a 
view  of  ending  it;  he  commences  a  thing  with  a  view 
of  completing  it.  To  enter  upon  denotes  that  of  first 
doing  what  has  not  been  tried  before. 

Belief,  Credit,  Trust,  Faith.  Belief  and  credit  are 
particular  actions  or  sentiments;  trust  and  faith  are 
permanent  dispositions  of  the  mind.  Things  are  en- 
titled to  our  belief;  persons  are  entitled  to  our  credit; 
but  people  repose  a  trust  in  others,  or  have  a  faith  in 
others.  Belief  is  purely  speculative;  and  trust  and 
faith  are  operative:  the  former  operates  on  the  mind; 
the  latter  on  the  outward  conduct.  Trust  in  God  serves 
to  dispel  all  anxious  concern  about  the  future. 

Beneficent,  Bountiful  or  Boiuiteous,  Mimiflcent, 
Generous,  Liberal.  The  sincere  well-wisher  to  fel- 
low-creatures is  beneficent  according  to  his  means; 
he  is  bountiful  in  providing  for  the  comfort  and  happi- 
ness of  others;  he  is  munificent  in  dispensing  favors; 
he  is  generous  in  imparting  his  property;  he  is  liberal  in 
all  he  does.  Beneficence  and  bounty  are  characteristics 
of  the  Deity  as  well  as  of  His  creatures. 

Benevolence,  Benignity,  Humanity,  Kindness, 
Tenderness.  Benevolence  lies  in  the  will.  Benignity 
in  the  disposition  or  frame  of  mind;  humanity  lies  in  the 
heart;  kindness  and  tenderness  in  the  affections.  Benev- 
olence indicates  a  general  good-will  to  all  mankind; 
benignity,  particular  goodness  or  kindness  of  disposition. 
Humanity  is  a  general  tone  of  feeling;  kindness  and  ten- 
derness are  particular  modes  of  feeling. 

To  Bereave,  Deprive,  Strip.  To  bereave  expresses 
more  than  deprive,  out  less  than  strip,  which  denotes  a 
total  and  violent  bereavement.  One  is  bereaved  of  chil- 
dren, deprived  of  pleasures,  and  stripped  of  property. 
We  are  bereaved  of  that  on  which  we  set  most  value; 
the  act  of  bereaving  does  violence  to  our  inclination. 
We  are  deprived  of  the  ordinary  comforts  and  conve- 
niences of  life;  they  cease  to  be  ours.  We  are  stripped  of 
the  things  which  we  most  want;  we  are  thereby  ren- 
dered, as  it  were,  naked. 

Besides,  Except.  Besides,  which  is  here  taken  as  a 
preposition,  expresses  the  idea  of  addition;  except 
expresses  that  of  exclusion.  There  were  many  there 
besides  ourselves;  no  one  except  ourselves  will  be 
admitted. 

Bishopric,  Diocese.  Both  these  words  describe 
the  extent  of  an  episcopal  jurisdiction,  the  first  with 
relation  to  the  person  who  officiates,  the  second  with 
relation  to  the  charge.  There  may,  therefore,  be  a 
bishopric  either  where  there  are  many  dioceses  or  no 
diocese;  but,  according  to  the  import  of  the  term,  there 
is  properly  no  diocese  where  there  is  no  bishopric. 

To  Blame,  Censure,  Condemn,  Reprove,  Re- 
proach, Upbraid.  To  blame  is  simply  to  ascribe  a  fault 
to;  to  censure  is  to  express  disapprobation:  the  former 
is  less  personal  than  the  latter.  The  thing  more  than 
the  person  is  blamed;  the  person  more  than  the  thing  is 
censured.  A  person  may  be  blamed  for  his  good  nature, 
and  censured  for  his  negligence.  That  which  is  con- 
demned is  of  a  more  serious  nature,  and  produces  a 
stronger  and  more  unfavorable  expression  of  displeasure 
or  disapprobation,  than  that  which  is  blamed;  reprove 
is  even  more  personal  than  censure.  A  reproof  passes 
from  one  individual  to  another,  or  to  a  certain  number 
of  individuals.  Reproaching  and  upbraiding  are  as  much 
the  acts  of  individuals  as  reproving,  but  the  former  de- 
note the  expression  of  personal  feelings,  and  may  be  just 
or  unjust;  the  latter  is  presumed  to  be  divested  of  all 
personal  feelings. 

Blemish,  Stain,  Spot,  Specli,  Flaw,  Defect,  Fault. 
Whatever  detracts  from  the  seemliness  of  appearance  is 
a  blemish.  In  works  of  art  the  slightest  dimness  of  color, 
or  want  of  proportion,  is  a  blemish.  A  stain  or  spot 
sufficiently  characterizes  itself,  as  that  which  is  super- 
fluous and  out  of  its  place;  a  speck  is  a  small  spot;  and 
a  flaw,  which  is  confined  to  hard  substances,  consists 
mostly  of  a  faulty  indenture  on  the  outer  surface.  A  blem- 
ish tarnishes;  a  stain  spoils;  a  spot,  speck,  or  flaw 
disfigures.  Defect  consists  in  the  want  of  some  specific 
essential  in  an  object;  fault  conveys  the  idea  not  only 
of  something  wrong,  but  also  of  its  relation  to  the  author. 
There  is  a  blemish  in  fine  china,  a  defect  in  the  springs 
of  a  clock,  and  a  fault  in  the  contrivance. 

To  Blot  Out,  Expunge,  Rase  or  Erase,  Efface, 
Cancel,  Obliterate.  Letters  are  blotted  out,  so  that 
they  cannot  be  seen  again;  they  are  expunged,  so  as  to 
signify  that  they  cannot  stand  for  anything;  they  are 
erased,  so  that  the  space  may  be  reoccupied  with  writing. 
Efface  does  not  designate  either  the  manner  or  the  object: 


LANGUAGE 


227 


inscriptions  on  stone  may  be  effaced,  which  are  rubbed 
off  so  as  not  to  be  visible.  Cancel  is  principally  confined 
to  written  or  printed  characters;  they  are  cancelled  by 
striking  through  them  with  the  pen.  Letters  are  oblit- 
erated which  are  in  any  way  made  illegible. 

Bold,  Fearless,  Intrepid,  Undaunted.  Boldness 
is  a  positive  characteristic  of  the  spirit;  fearlessness  is 
a  negative  state  of  the  mind,  that  is,  simply  an  absence 
of  fear.  A  person  may  be  bold  through  fearlessness, 
but  he  may  be  fearless  without  being  bold:  he  may  be 
fearless  where  there  is  no  apprehension  of  danger  or 
no  cause  for  apprehension,  but  he  is  bold  only  when  he 
is  conscious  or  apprehensive  of  danger,  and  prepared 
to  encounter  it.  A  man  is  intrepid  who  has  no  fear 
where  the  most  fearless  might  tremble;  he  is  undaunted 
whose  spirit  is  unabated  by  that  which  would  make  the 
stoutest  heart  yield. 

Booty,  Spoil,  Prey.  Booty  and  spoil  are  used  as 
miUtary  terms  in  attacks  on  an  enemy,  prey  in  cases  of 
particular  violence.  The  soldier  gets  his  booty;  the 
combatant  his  spoils;  the  carnivorous  animal  his  prey. 
Booty  respects  what  is  of  personal  service  to  the  captor; 
spoils  whatever  serves  to  designate  his  triumph;  prey 
includes  whatever  gratifies  the  appetite  and  is  to  b? 
consumed. 

To  Bound,  Limit,  Confine,  Circumscribe,  Re- 
strict. ]3ound  applies  to  the  natural  or  political  divi- 
sions of  the  earth:  countries  are  bounded  by  mountains 
and  seas.  Limit  applies  to  any  artificial  boundary: 
landmarks  in  fields  serve  to  show  the  limits  of  one  man's 
ground.  To  confine  is  to  bring  the  limits  close  together, 
to  part  off  one  space  absolutely  from  another;  in  this 
manner  we  confine  a  garden  by  means  of  walls.  To 
circumscribe  is  literally  to  surround;  in  this  manner  a 
circle  may  circumscribe  a  square.  To  restrict  is  to  exer- 
cise a  strong  degree  of  control:  a  person  is  restricted  by 
his  physician  to  a  certain  portion  of  food  in  a  day;  laws 
often  restrict  privileges. 

Boundless,  Unbounded,  Unlimited,  Infinite. 
The  ocean  is  a  boundless  object  so  long  as  no  bounds  to 
it  have  been  discovered;  desires  are  often  unbounded 
which  ought  always  to  be  bounded ;  power  is  sometimes 
unlimited  which  would  be  better  limited.  Nothing  is 
infinite  but  that  Being  from  whom  all  finite  beings 
proceed. 

Brave,  Gallant.  Gallantry  is  extraordinary  bravery 
or  bravery  on  extraordinary  occasions:  the  brave  man 
goes  willingly  where  he  is  commanded ;  the  gallant  man 
leads  on  with  vigor  to  the  attack.  Bravery  is  common 
to  vast  numbers  and  whole  nations;  gallantry  is  peculiar 
to  individuals  or  particular  bodies. 

Bravery,  Courage,  Valor.  Bravery  lies  in  the 
blood;  courage  lies  in  the  mind:  the  latter  depends  on 
the  reason,  the  former  on  the  physical  ternperament : 
the  first  is  a  species  of  instinct;  the  second  is  a  virtue. 
A  man  is  brave  in  proportion  as  he  is  without  thought; 
he  has  courage  in  proportion  as  he  reasons  or  reflects. 
Valor  is  a  higher  quality  than  either  bravery  or  courage, 
and  seems  to  partake  of  the  grand  characteristics  of  both; 
it  combines  the  fire  of  bravery  with  the  determination 
and  firmness  of  courage. 

Breach,  Break,  Gap,  Chasm.  A  breach  and  a  gap 
are  the  consequence  of  a  violent  removal,  which  destroys 
the  connection;  a  break  and  a  chasm  may  arise  from 
the  absence  of  that  which  would  form  a  connection.  A 
breach  in  a  wall  is  made  by  means  of  cannon;  gaps  in 
fences  are  commonly  the  effect  of  some  violent  effort 
to  pass  through;  a  break  is  made  in  a  page  of  printing 
by  leaving  off  in  the  middle  of  a  line;  a  chasm  is  left  when 
an  earthquake  causes  a  gaping  fissure. 

To  Breali,  Bruise,  Squeeze,  Pound,  Crush. 
Break  always  implies  the  separation  of  the  component 
parts  of  a  body;  bruise  denotes  simply  destroying  the 
continuity  of  the  parts.  Hard  brittle  substances,  as 
glass,  are  broken ;  soft  pulpy  substances,  as  flesh  or  fruits, 
are  bruised.  Squeeze  is  used  for  soft  substances  or 
for  gentle  compression.  To  pound  is  properly  to  bruise 
in  a  mortar,  so  as  to  produce  a  separation  of  parts.  To 
crush  is  the  most  violent  and  destructive  of  all  opera- 
tions, which  amounts  to  the  total  dispersion  of  all  the 
parts  of  a  body. 

To  Brealf,  Burst,  Crack,  Split.  To  break  does 
not  specify  any  particular  manner  or  form  of  action; 
what  is  broken  may  be  broken  in  two  or  more  pieces, 
broken  short  or  lengthwise,  and  the  like:  to  burst  is  to 
break  suddenly  and  with  violence,  frequently  also  with 
noise.  To  crack  and  split  are  modes  of  breaking  length- 
wise: the  former  in  application  to  hard  or  brittle  objects, 
as  clay,  or  the  things  made  of  clay;  the  latter  in  appli- 
cation to  wood,  or  that  which  is  made  of  wood. 

Breeze,  Gale,  Blast,  Gust,  Storm,  Tempest, 
Hurricane.  A  breeze  is  gentle;  a  gale  is  brisk,  but 
steady:    we  have  breezes  on  a  calm  summer's  day;    the 


mariner  has  favorable  gales,  which  keep  the  sails  on  the 
stretch.  A  blast  is  impetuous:  the  blare  of  a  trumpet, 
the  tareath  of  bellows,  are  blasts.  A  gust  is  sudden 
and  vehement;  storm,  tempest,  and  hurricane  include 
other  particulars  besides  wind.  A  storm  throws  the 
whole  atmosphere  into  commotion;  it  is  a  war  of 
the  elements,  in  which  wind,  rain,  hail,  and  the  like 
conspire  to  disturb  the  heavens.  Tempest  is  a  species 
of  storm  which  has  also  thunder  and  lightning  to  add  to 
the  confusion.  Hurricane  is  a  species  of  storm  which 
exceeds  all  the  rest  in  violence  and  duration. 

Brightness,  Luster,  Splendor,  Brilliancy.  Bright- 
ness and  luster  are  applied  properly  to  natural  lights; 
splendor  and  brilliancy  have  been  more  commonly 
applied  to  that  which  is  artificial  or  unusual:  there 
is  always  more  or  less  brightness  in  the  sun  or  moon; 
there  is  an  occasional  luster  in  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
when  they  shine  in  their  unclouded  brightness;  there 
is  splendor  in  the  eruptions  of  flame  from  a  volcano  or 
from  an  immense  conflagration;  there  is  brilliancy  in  a 
collection  of  diamonds. 

To  Bring,  Fetch,  Carry.  To  bring  is  simply  to 
take  with  oneself  from  the  place  where  one  is;  to 
fetch  is  to  go  first  to  a  place  and  then  bring  a  thing ;  to 
fetch,  therefore,  is  a  sort  of  bringing:  whatever  is  near 
at  hand  is  brought;  whatever  is  at  a  distance  must 
be  fetched.  To  carry  respects  always  a  motion  directly 
from  the  place  or  at  a  distance  from  the  place :  he  carries 
a  parcel  from  home. 

Bulky,  Massive.  Whatever  is  bulky  has  a  promi- 
nence of  figure;  what  is  massive  has  compactness  of 
matter. 

Burial,  Interment,  Sepulture.  We  bury  in  order 
to  conceal.  Interment  and  sepulture  are  accompanied 
with  religious  ceremonies.  Burial  is  confined  to  no  object 
or  place;  interment  may  be  used  when  a  body  is  depos- 
ited in  a  vault;  sepulture  is  an  abstract  term  confined  to 
particular  cases,  as  in  speaking  of  the  rites  and  privileges 
of  sepulture. 

Business,  Occupation,  Employment,  Engage- 
ment, Avocation,  Vocation.  Business  occupies  all 
a  person's  thoughts  as  well  as  his  time  and  powers; 
occupation  and  employment  occupy  only  his  tirne  and 
strength:  the  first  is  mostly  regular,  it  is  the  object  of 
our  choice;  the  second  is  casual,  it  depends  on  the  will 
of  another.  Engagement  is  a  partial  employment, 
avocation  a  particular  engagement.  Vocation  is  applied 
to  one's  regular  work;  and  avocation  to  the  occupation 
or  pleasures  that  call  one  away  from  the  regular  routine 
of  work. 

Business,  Trade,  Profession,  Art.  Buying  or 
selling  of  merchandise  is  inseparable  from  trade;  but 
the  exercise  of  one's  knowledge  and  experience  for  pur- 
poses of  gain  constitutes  a  business.  When  learning  or 
particular  skill  is  required,  it  is  a  profession;  and  when 
there  is  a  peculiar  exercise  of  art,  it  is  an  art. 

Bustle,  Tumult,  Uproar.  Bustle  has  most  of  hurry 
in  it ;  tumult  most  of  disorder  and  confusion ;  uproar 
most  of  noise:  the  hurried  movements  of  one,  or  many, 
cause  a  bustle;  the  disorderly  struggles  of  many  consti- 
tute a  tumult.  The  loud  elevation  of  many  opposing 
voices  produces  an  uproar;  uproar  is  the  consequence 
either  of  general  anger  or  mirth. 

To  Buy,  Purcliase,  Bargain,  Clieapen.  Buy  may 
always  be  substituted  for  purchase  without  impropriety; 
but  purchase  would  be  sometimes  ridiculous  in  the 
familiar  application  of  buy :  necessaries  of  life  are  bought ; 
luxuries  are  purchased.  "To  bargain  is  to  make  a  contract 
for  exchange.  To  cheapen  is  not  only  to  lower  the  price 
asked,  but  to  deal  in  such  things  as  are  cheap. 

Calamity,  Disaster,  3Iisfortune,  Mischance, 
Mishap.  A  calamity  is  a  great  disaster  or  misfortune; 
a  misfortune  is  a  great  mischance  or  mishap.  Whatever 
is  attended  with  destruction  is  a  calamity;  whatever 
occasions  mischief  to  the  person,  defeats  or  interrupts 
plans,  is  a  disaster;  whatever  is  accompanied  with  a  loss 
of  property,  or  the  deprivation  of  health,  is  a  misfortune; 
whatever  diminishes  the  beauty  or  utility  of  objects  is 
a  mischance  or  a  mishap. 

To  Calculate,  Reckon,  Compute,  Count.  To 
calculate  denotes  any  numerical  operation  in  general, 
but  is  particularly  applicable  to  the  abstract  science  of 
figures.  The  astronomer  calculates  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies;  the  mathematician  makes  algebraic 
calculations.  To  reckon  is  to  enumerate  and  set  down 
things  in  detail;  reckoning  is  applicable  to  the  ordinary 
business  of  life:  tradesmen  keep  their  accounts  by 
reckoning;  children  learn  to  reckon  by  various  simple 
processes.  Calculation  is  therefore  the  science,  reckoning 
the  practical  art  of  enumerating.  To  compute  is  to 
come  at  the  result  by  calculation.  We  count  one  by  one; 
we  count  the  minutes. 

Calendar,    Almanac,    Ephemeris.     The   calendar 


228 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


is  a  book  which  registers  events  under  every  month; 
the  almanac  is  a  book  which  registers  times,  or  the  divis- 
ions of  the  year;  and  an  ephemeris  is  a  book  which 
registers  the  planetary  movements  every  day. 

To  Call,  Cry,  Exclaim.  Call  is  used  on  all  ordinary 
occasions  in  order  to  draw  a  person  to  a  spot,  or  for  any 
other  purpose,  when  one  wishes  to  be  heard.  To  cry  is  to 
call  loudly  on  particular  occasions :  a  call  draws  attention ; 
a  cry  awakens  alarm.  To  exclaim  is  the  expression  of 
some  particular  feeling. 

To  Call,  Invite,  Bid,  Summon.  In  the  act  of 
calling,  any  sounds  may  be  used;  we  may  call  by  simply 
raising  the  voice.  Inviting  may  be  a  direct  or  indirect 
act;  we  may  invite  by  looks  or  signs  as  well  as  by  words, 
by  writing  as  well  as  by  speaking.  To  bid  and  summon 
require  the  express  use  of  words;  the  former  is  always 
directly  addressed  to  the  person,  the  latter  may  be  con- 
veyed by  an  indirect  channel.  To  summon  is  an  act  of 
authority,  as  to  summon  witnesses. 

Calm,  Composed,  Collected.  These  terms  agree 
in  expressing  a  state;  but  calm  respects  the  state  of  the 
feelings,  composed  the  state  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings, 
and  collectea  the  state  of  the  thoughts  more  particu- 
larly. Calmness  is  peculiarly  requisite  in  seasons  of 
distress,  and  amidst  scenes  of  horror;  composure,  in 
moments  of  trial,  disorder,  and  tumult;  collectedness 
in  moments  of  danger. 

Calm,  Placid,  Serene,  Calm  and  serene  are  ap- 
plied to  the  elements;  placid  only  to  the  mind.  Calm- 
ness respects  only  the  state  of  the  winds,  serenity  that 
of  the  air  and  the  heavens.  The  weather  is  calm  when  it 
is  free  from  agitation ;  it  is  serene  when  free  from  noise 
and  vapor.  Calm  respects  the  total  absence  of  all  per- 
turbation; placid  the  ease  and  contentment  of  the 
mind;  serene,  clearness  and  composure  of  the  mind. 
We  speak  of  a  calm  state  of  mind,  and  of  a  serene  temper. 

Can,  May.  Can  denotes  possibihty,  may  liberty 
and  probability:  he  who  has  sound  limbs  can  walk; 
but  he  may  not  walk  in  places  which  are  prohibited. 

Candor,  Openness,  Sincerity.  Candor  obliges  us  to 
acknowledge  even  that  which  may  make  against  our- 
selves; it  is  disinterested.  Openness  impels  us  to  utter 
whatever  passes  in  the  mind ;  it  is  unguarded.  Sincerity 
prevents  us  from  speaking  what  we  do  not  think;  it  is 
positive. 

Capacity,  Capaciousness.  Capacity  is  an  indefi- 
nite term  designating  the  property  of  being  fit  to  hold 
or  receive,  as  applied  to  bodies  generally;  but  capa- 
ciousness denotes  a  fullness  of  this  property  as  belonging 
to  a  particular  object  in  a  great  degree.  Measuring  the 
capacity  of  vessels  belongs  to  the  science  of  mensu- 
ration: the  capaciousness  of  a  room  is  to  be  observed 
by  the  eye. 

Captious,  Cross.  Peevish,  Petulant,  Fretful. 
Captious  marks  a  readiness  to  be  offended ;  cross  indicates 
a  readiness  to  offend  or  come  across  the  wishes  of  others; 
peevish  expresses  a  strong  degree  of  crossness;  fretful 
a  complaining  impatience;  petulant  a  quick  or  sudden 
impatience.  Captiousness  is  the  consequence  of  mis- 
placed pride;  crossness  of  ill-humor;  peevishness  and 
fretfulness  of  a  painful  irritability.  Petulance  is  either 
the  result  of  a  naturally  hasty  temper  or  of  a  sudden 
irritability. 

Capture,  Seizure,  Prize.  A  capture  is  made  by  force 
of  arms;  a  seizure  is  made  by  direct  and  personal  force. 
Prize  relates  only  to  the  thing  taken,  and  its  value  to 
the  captor. 

Care,  Solicitude,  Anxiety.  Care  is  the  most 
indefinite  of  the  three;  it  may  be  accompanied  with 
pain  or  not,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  object  or  the 
intensity  of  the  application.  Solicitude  and  anxiety  are 
accompanied  with  a  positive  degree  of  pain,  the  latter 
still  more  than  the  former.  Care  may  be  exercised  with 
or  without  feeling ;  soUcitude  has  desire,  mixed  witb  fear ; 
anxiety  has  distress  for  the  present,  mixed  with  fear  for 
the  future. 

Care,  Charge,  Management.  Care  will  include 
both  charge  and  management ;  but,  in  the  strict  sense, 
it  comprehends  personal  labor.  Charge  involves  respon- 
sibility; management  includes  regulation  and  order.  A 
gardener  has  the  care  of  a  garden ;  a  nurse  has  the  charge 
of  children;   a  steward  has  the  management  of  a  farm. 

Careful,  Cautious,  Provident.  Careful,  or  full  of 
care,  that  is,  having  care,  is  the  general  term;  to  be 
cautious  is  to  be  careful  in  guarding  against  danger; 
to  be  provident  is  to  be  careful  in  preventing  straits  and 
difficulties.  The  term  careful  is  applied  for  the  most 
part  to  present  matters,  but  provident  only  to  that 
which  is  future.  One  is  careful  of  his  money,  but  provi- 
dent toward  a  time  of  need. 

Carnage,  Slaughter,  Massacre,  Butcherjf.  Car- 
nage respects  the  number  of  dead  bodies  made;  it  is 
the  consequence  of  any  impetuous  attack  from  a  power- 


ful enemy.  Slaughter  respects  the  act  of  taking  away 
life,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  agent;  massacre  and 
butchery  respect  the  circumstances  of  the  objects  who 
are  the  sufferers  of  the  action.  The  latter  three  are  said 
of  human  beings  only:  defenseless  women  and  children 
are  commonly  butchered  by  the  savage  furies  who  are 
most  active  in  this  work  of  blood. 

Carriage,  Gait,  Walk.  Carriage  is  here  the  most 
general  term;  it  respects  the  manner  of  carrying  the 
body,  whether  in  a  state  of  motion  or  rest.  Gait  is  the 
mode  of  carrying  the  limbs  and  the  body  whenever  we 
move.  Walk  is  the  manner  of  carrying  the  body  when 
we  move  forward  to  walk. 

Case,  Cause.  The  case  is  matter  of  fact;  the  cause 
is  matter  of  question.  A  case  involves  circumstances  and 
consequences;  a  cause  involves  reasons  and  arguments. 
A  case  is  something  to  be  learned ;  a  cause  is  something 
to  be  decided. 

Cast,  Turn,  Description.  Cast,  as  applicable  to 
persons,  respects  that  which  they  are  made  by  circum- 
stances; turn,  that  which  they  are  by  themselves:  thus 
there  are  many  casts  of  -religion,  that  is,  men  cast  in  a 
certain  form  of  religion;  and  men  of  a  particular  moral 
Qast,  that  is,  such  as  are  cast  in  a  particular  mold  as 
respects  their  thinking  and  acting:  so  in  like  manner 
men  of  a  particular  turn,  that  is,  as  respects  their 
inclinations  and  tastes.  The  description  is  that  by  which 
a  man  is  described  or  made  known  to  others. 

Cause,  Reason,  Motive.  Cause  respects  the  order 
and  connection  of  things;  reason  the  movements  and 
operations  of  the  mind;  motive  the  movements  of  the 
mind  and  the  body.  Cause  is  said  of  all  inanimate  objects; 
reason  and  motive  of  rational  agents.  Whatever  happens 
in  the  world  happens  from  some  cause  mediate  or  imme- 
diate; the  primary  or  first  cause  of  all  is  God:  what- 
ever opinions  men  hold,  they  ought  to  be  able  to  assign 
a  substantial  reason  for  them;  and  for  whatever  they 
do,  they  ought  to  have  a  sufficient  motive.  As  the  cause 
gives  birth  to  the  effect,  so  does  the  reason  give  birth 
to  the  conclusion,  and  the  motive  gives  birth  to  the 
action. 

To  Cause,  Occasion,  Create.  What  is  caused 
seems  to  follow  naturally.  What  is  occasioned  follows 
incidentally,  or  what  occasions  may  be  incidental,  but 
necessary.  What  is  created  receives  its  existence  arbi- 
trarily. A  wound  causes  pain;  accidents  occasion 
delay;    busy  bodies  create  mischief. 

Cautious,  Wary,  Circumspect.  We  must  be 
cautious  on  all  occasions  where  there  is  danger,  but  we 
must  be  wary  where  there  is  great  danger.  A  trades- 
man must  be  cautious  in  his  dealings  with  all  men,  but 
he  must  be  wary  when  he  has  to  deal  with  designing 
men.  Circumspect  is  used  in  reference  to  matters  of 
theory  or  contemplation,  when  the  mind  is  principally 
employed;  a  man  must  be  circumspect  when  he  trans- 
acts business  of  particular  importance  and  delicacy. 

To  Cease,  Leave  Off,  Discontinue.  Cease  is  used 
either  for  particular  actions  or  general  habits;  leave  oS 
more  usually  and  properly  for  particular  actions;  dis- 
continue for  general  habits.  A  restless  spoiled  child 
never  ceases  crying  until  it  has  obtained  what  it  wants; 
it  is  a  mark  of  impatience  not  to  cease  lamenting  when 
one  is  in  pain.  A  laborer  leaves  off  his  work  at  any  given 
hour.  A  delicate  person  discontinues  his  visits  when 
they  are  found  not  to  be  agreeable. 

To  Celebrate,  Commemorate.  Everything  is  cele- 
brated which  is  distinguished  by  any  marks  of  attention, 
without  regard  to  the  time  of  the  event,  whether  present 
or  past;  but  nothing  is  commemorated  but  what  has 
already  passed  in  point  of  time. 

Celestial,  Heavenly.  Celestial  is  applied  mostly  in 
the  natural  sense  of  the  heavens;  heavenly  is  employed 
more  commonly  in  a  spiritual  sense.  Hence,  we  speak 
of  the  celestial  globe  as  distinguished  from  the  terrestrial; 
and  of  the  celestial  bodies.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
speak  of  the  heavenly  habitation,  of  heavenly  joys  or 
bliss,  of  heavenly  spirits,  and  the  like. 

To  Censure,  Carp,  Cavil.  To  censure  respects  posi- 
tive errors;  to  carp  and  cavil  have  regard  to  what  is 
trivial  or  imaginary:  the  former  is  employed  for  errors 
in  persons;  the  latter  for  supposed  defects  in  things. 
Carping  and  caviling  are  resorted  to  only  to  indulge  ill- 
nature  or  self-conceit:  party  politicians  carp  at  the 
measures  of  administration;  infidels  cavil  at  the  evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  because  they  are  determined  to 
disbelieve. 

Certain,  Sure,  Secure.  Certain  and  sure  have  re- 
gard to  a  person's  convictions;  secure  to  his  interests  or 
condition.  One  is  certain  from  actual  knowledge  or  from 
a  belief  in  others ;  one  is  sure  from  a  reliance  upon  others ; 
one  is  secure  when  free  from  danger.  We  can  be  certain 
of  nothing  future  but  death;  we  may  be  sure  that  God 
will  fulfill   His  promises  in  His  own  way;  we  may  be 


LANGUAGE 


229 


secure  against  any  loss  or  mischief  if  we  use  proper  pre- 
cautions. 

Cessation,  Stop,  Rest,  Intermission.  Cessation 
respects  the  course  of  things;  wliatever  does  not  go  on 
has  ceased;  things  cease  of  themselves:  stop  respects 
some  external  action  or  influence;  nothing  stops  but 
what  is  supposed  to  be  stopped  or  hindered  by  another: 
rest  is  cessation  that  regards  labor  or  exertion ;  whatever 
does  not  move  or  exert  itself  is  at  rest:  intermission  is 
cessation  only  for  a  time  or  at  certain  intervals.  That 
which  ceases  or  stops  is  supposed  to  be  at  an  end;  rest 
or  intermission  supposes  a  renewal. 

Chance,  Fortune,  Fate.  Chance  applies  to  all 
things,  personal  or  otherwise;  fortune  and  fate  are 
mostly  said  of  that  which  is  personal.  Chance  neither 
forms,  orders,  nor  designs;  neither  knowledge  nor  in- 
tention is  attributed  to  it;  its  events  are  uncertain  and 
variable.  Fortune  forms  plans  and  designs,  but  without 
choice;  we  attribute  to  it  an  intention  without  discern- 
ment ;  it  is  said  to  be  blind.  Fate  forms  plans  and  chains 
of  causes ;  intention,  knowledge,  and  power  are  attributed 
to  it;    its  views  are  fixed,  its  results  decisive. 

Chance,  Hazard.  Both  these  terms  are  employed 
to  mark  the  course  of  future  events,  which  are  not  discern- 
ible by  the  human  eye.  With  the  Deity  there  is  neitlier 
chance  nor  hazard.  His  plans  are  the  result  of  omnis- 
cience; but  the  designs  and  actions  of  men  are  all  de- 
pendent on  chance  or  hazard.  Chance  may  be  favorable 
or  unfavorable,  more  commonly  the  former:  hazard  is 
always  unfavorable;    it  is  properly  a  kind  of  chance. 

To  Cliange,  Exchange,  Barter,  Substitute.  To 
change  in  respect  to  persons  is  to  take  one  for  another, 
without  regard  to  whether  they  are  alike  or  different,  as 
a  king  changes  his  ministers;  any  person  may  change 
his  servants :  to  exchange  is  to  take  one  person  in  return 
for  another  who  is  in  like  condition,  as  prisoners  are  ex- 
changed in  time  of  war.  In  respect  to  things,  to  change 
is  to  take  anything  new  or  fresh,  whether  alike  or  differ- 
ent. Clothes  may  be  changed.  To  exchange  is  to  take 
one  thing  for  another,  that  is,  either  of  the  same  kind  or 
equivalent  in  value,  as  to  exchange  one  commodity  for 
another.  To  change  may  often  be  the  result  of  caprice, 
but  to  exchange  is  always  an  act  either  of  discretion  or 
necessity.  To  barter  is  to  give  any  commodity  for 
other  commodities.  To  substitute  is  to  put  one  person 
in  the  place  of  another  for  the  purpose  of  doing  any  serv- 
ice or  filling  any  office,  as  to  substitute  one  for  another 
who  has  been  drawn  for  the  militia. 

Change,  Variation,  Vicissitude.  Change  consists 
simply  in  ceasing  to  be  the  same;  variation  consists  in 
being  different  at  different  times;  vicissitude  consists  in 
being  alternately  or  reciprocally  different  and  the  same. 

Character,  Letter.  Character  is  any  written  or 
printed  mark  that  serves  to  designate  something;  a  letter 
is  a  species  of  character  which  is  the  constituent  part  of  a 
word. 

Character,  Reputation.  Character  lies  in  the  man ; 
it  is  the  mark  of  what  he  is;  it  shows  itself  on  all  occa- 
sions: reputation  depends  upon  others;  it  is  what  they 
think  of  him. 

To  Chasten,  Chastise.  Chasten  has  most  regard 
to  the  end,  chastise  to  the  means;  the  former  is  an  act 
of  the  Deity,  the  latter  a  human  action:  God  chastens 
His  faithful  people,  to  cleanse  them  from  their  trans- 
gressions; parents  chastise  their  children,  to  prevent  the 
repetition  of  faults. 

To  Cheat,  Defraud,  Trick.  One  cheats  by  direct 
and  gross  falsehood  or  artifice;  one  defrauds  by  a  settleil 
plan  or  contrivance;    one  tricks  by  a  sudden  invention. 

To  Checlf,  Cliide,  Reprimand,  Reprove,  Rebulce. 
A  person  is  checked  that  he  may  not  continue  to  do  what 
is  offensive;  he  is  chidden  for  what  he  has  done,  that  he 
may  not  repeat  it.  People  are  checked  by  actions  and 
looks,  as  well  as  by  words ;  they  are  chidden  by  words  only. 
A  person  may  chide  or  reprimand  in  anger,  he  reproves 
and  rebukes  with  coolness:  great  offenses  call  forth 
chidings.  Omissions  or  mistakes  occasion  or  require  a 
reprimand;  irregularities  of  conduct  give  rise  to  reproof; 
and  improprieties  of  behavior  demand  rebuke. 

To  Check,  Stop.  Check  signifies  to  impede  the 
course  of  a  body  in  motion,  that  is,  to  cause  it  to  move 
slowly;  to  stop  (v.  cessation),  is  to  cause  it  not  to  move 
at  all. 

To  Cheer,  Encourage,  Comfort.  To  cheer  regards 
the  spirits;  to  encourage  the  resolution :  the  sad  require 
to  be  cheered;  the  timid  to  be  encouraged.  To  cheer 
and  to  comfort  have  regard  to  the  spirits,  but  the 
latter  differs  in  degree  and  manner:  to  cheer  expresses 
more  than  to  comfort,  the  former  signifying  to  produce 
a  lively  sentiment,  the  latter  to  lessen  or  remove  a  painful 
one.  We  are  cheered  in  the  moments  of  despondency, 
whether  from  real  or  imaginary  causes;  we  are  com- 
forted in  the  hour  of  distress. 


Chief,  Principal,  Main.  Chief  respects  order  and 
rank;  principal  has  regard  to  importance  and  respecta- 
bility; main  to  degree  or  quantity.  We  speak  of  a  chief 
clerk;  a  commander-in-chief ;  the  chief  person  in  a  city : 
but  the  principal  people  in  a  city;  the  principal  circum- 
stances" in  a  narrative,  and  the  main  object. 

Chief,  Leader,  Chieftain,  Head.  Chief  denotes 
precedency  in  tribal  or  civil  matters;  leader  regards  the 
direction  of  enterprises:  chieftain  is  a  kind  of  leader; 
and  head  is  the  superior  in  general  concerns. 

To  Choose,  Prefer.  To  choose  is  to  take  one  thing 
from  among  others;  to  prefer  is  to  take  one  thing  before 
or  rather  than  another. 

To  Choose,  Pick,  Select.  We  may  choose  whatever 
comes  in  our  way  without  regard  to  the  number  of  the 
objects  to  be  chosen  from,  but  we  pick  or  select  out  of  a 
number  only,  as  to  pick  or  select  books  from  a  library. 
We  may  pick  one  or  many  out  of  a  number,  but  we  mostly 
select  a  number.  We  select  with  even  greater  care  than 
we  pick. 

Circuit,  Tour,  Round.  A  circuit  is  made  for  a  specif- 
ic end  of  a  serious  kind ;  a  tour  is  always  made  for  pleas- 
ure; a  round,  like  a  circuit,  is  employed  in  matters  of 
business,  but  of  a  more  familiar  and  ordinary  kind. 

To  Circumscribe,  Inclose.  The  extent  of  any  place 
is  drawn  out  for  the  eye  by  a  circumscription;  its  extent 
is  limited  to  a  given  point  by  an  inclosure.  A  garden  is 
circumscribed  by  any  ditch,  line,  or  posts,  that  serve  as 
its  boundaries;    it  is  inclosed  by  wall  or  fence. 

Circumstance,  Situation.  Circumstance  is  to 
situation  as  a  part  to  a  whole;  many  circumstances  con- 
stitute a  situation:  a  situation  is  an  aggregate  of  cir- 
cumstances. A  person  is  said  to  be  in  circumstances  of 
affluence  who  has  an  abundance  of  everything  essential 
to  his  comfort;  he  is  in  an  easy  situation  when  nothing 
exists  to  create  uneasiness. 

Circumstance,  Incident,  Fact,  Incident  is  what 
happens;  fact  is  what  is  done;  circumstance  is  not  only 
what  happens  and  is  done,  but  whatever  is  or  belongs  to 
a  thing.  To  everything  are  annexed  circumstances, 
either  of  time,  place,  age,  color,  or  other  collateral  ap- 
pendages, which  change  its  nature.  Everything  that 
moves  and  operates  is  exposed  to  incidents;  effects  are 
produced,  results  follow,  and  changes  are  brought  about ; 
these  are  incidents:  whatever  moves  and  operates,  does, 
and  what  it  produces  is  done  or  is  the  fact. 

Circumstantial,  Particular,  Minute.  Circumstan- 
tial expresses  less  than  particular,  and  particular  less  than 
minute.  A  circumstantial  account  contains  all  leading 
events;  a  particular  account  includes  every  event  and 
movement,  however  trivial;  a  minute  account  omits 
nothing  as  to  person,  time,  place,  form,  and  every  other 
trivial  circumstance  connected  with  the  events. 

To  Cite,  Quote.  To  cite  is  employed  for  persons  or 
things;  to  quote  for  things  only;  authors  are  cited, 
passages  from  their  works  are  quoted:  we  cite  only  bv 
authority;  we  quote  for  general  purposes  of  conveni- 
ence. 

Civil,  Polite.  These  two  epithets  are  employed  to 
denote  different  modes  of  acting  in  social  intercourse. 
Polite  expresses  more  than  civil;  it  is  possible  to  be  civil 
without  being  polite.  Civility  is  contented  with  pleasing 
when  the  occasion  offers:  politeness  seeks  the  oppor- 
tunity to  please;  it  prevents  the  necessity  of  asking  by 
anticipating  the  wishes;  it  is  full  of  delicate  attentions, 
and  is  an  active  benevolence  in  the  minor  concerns  of 
life. 

Civil,  Obliging,  Complaisant.  Civil  applies  to 
words  or  manner  as  well  as  to  the  action ;  obliging  to  the 
action  only.  As  civil  is  indefinite  in  its  meaning,  so  it  is 
often  used  indiscriminately  in  its  application;  obliging, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  confined  to  what  passes  between 
particular  persons  or  under  particular  circumstances. 
Civil  and  obliging  both  imply  a  desire  to  do  a  kindness; 
complaisant  signifies  the  desire  of  receiving  pleasure, 
which  is  a  refined  mode  of  doing  a  kindness. 

Clandestine,  Secret.  To  do  a  thing  clandestinely 
is  to  elude  observation ;  to  do  a  thing  secretly  is  to  do  it 
without  the  knowledge  of  any  one:  what  is  clandestine 
is  unallowed,  which  is  not  necessarily  the  case  with  what 
is  secret. 

To  Clasp,  Hug,  Embrace.  To  clasp  makes  the  act 
of  enclosing  another  in  one's  arms  when  it  is  performed 
with  the  warmth  of  true  affection.  To  hug  is  to  clasp 
tightly  to  the  bosom ;  the  more  refined  term,  to  em- 
brace, is  to  infold  in  the  arms  in  token  of  friendship  or 
affection. 

To  Class,  Arrange,  Range.  The  general  qualities 
and  attributes  of  things  are  to  be  considered  in  classing; 
their  fitness  to  stand  by  each  other  must  be  considered  in 
arranging;  their  capacity  for  forming  a  line  is  the  only 
thing  to  be  attended  to  in  ranging.  Classification  serves 
the  purposes  either  of  public  policy  or  science;   arranging 


230 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


is  a  matter  of  convenience  to  the  individual  himself; 
ranging  is  a  matter  of  convenience  for  others. 

Clean,  Cleanly,  Pure.  Clean  expresses  a  freedom 
from  dirt  or  soil;  cleanly  the  disposition  or  habit  of  being 
clean.  A  person  who  keeps  himself  clean  is  cleanly. 
Pure  is  used  in  a  moral  sense;  the  heart  should  be 
pure. 

Clearly,  Distinctly.  That  is  seen  clearly  of  which 
one  has  a  clear  view  independent  of  anytliing  else;  that 
is  seen  distinctly  which  is  seen  so  as  to  clistinguish  it  from 
other  objects.  We  see  the  moon  clearly  whenever  it 
shines;  but  we  cannot  see  the  spots  in  the  moon  dis- 
tinctly without  the  help  of  glasses. 

Clearness,  Lucidity,  Brightness,  Vividness.  A 
mere  freedom  from  stain  or  dullness  constitutes  clear- 
ness; the  return  of  light,  and  consequent  removal  of 
darkness,  constitutes  lucidity;  brightness  supposes  a 
certain  strength  of  light ;  vividness  a  freshness  combined 
with  strength,  and  with  a  degree  of  brilliancy. 

Clearness,  Perspicuity.  These  epithets  denote 
qualities  equally  requisite  to  render  a  discourse  intelligi- 
ble. Clearness  respects  our  ideas,  and  springs  from  the 
distinction  of  the  things  themselves  that  are  discussed: 
perspicuity  respects  the  mode  of  expressing  the  ideas, 
and  springs  from  the  good  qualities  of  style. 

Clever.  Skillful,  Expert,  Dexterous.  Cleverness 
is  mental  power  employed  in  the  ordinary  concerns 
of  life:  a  person  is  clever  in  business.  Skill  is  both 
a  mental  and  corporeal  power,  exerted  in  mechani- 
cal operations  and  practical  sciences:  a  physician,  a 
lawyer,  or  an  artist,  is  skillful:  one  may  have  a  skill  in 
divination,  or  a  skill  in  painting.  Expertness  and  dex- 
terity require  more  corporeal  than  mental  power  exerted 
in  minor  arts  and  amusements:  one  is  expert  at  throw- 
ing the  quoit;    dexterous  in  the  management  of  horses. 

Cloister,  Convent,  Monastery.  The  proper  idea  of 
cloister  is  that  of  seclusion;  the  proper  idea  of  convent 
is  that  of  community;  the  proper  idea  of  a  monastery  is 
that  of  solitude.  One  is  shut  up  in  a  cloister,  put  into  a 
convent;  one  retires  to  a  monastery.  Whoever  wishes  to 
take  an  absolute  leave  of  the  world  shuts  himself  up  in  a 
cloister;  whoever  wishes  to  attach  himself  to  a  communi- 
ty that  has  renounced  all  commerce  with  the  world  goes 
into  a  convent;  whoever  wishes  to  shun  all  human  inter- 
course retires  to  a  monastery.  In  the  cloister  our  liberty 
is  sacrificed;  in  the  convent  our  worldly  habits  are  re- 
nounced, and  those  of  a  regular  religious  community 
being  adopted,  we  submit  to  the  yoke  of  established 
orders:  in  a  monastery  we  impose  a  sort  of  voluntary 
exile  upon  ourselves;  we  live  with  the  view  of  living  only 
to  God. 

Close,  Near,  Nigh.  Close  is  more  definite  than  near: 
houses  which  are  almost  joined  stand  close  to  each  other; 
men  stand  close  when  they  touch  each  other.  Objects  are 
near  which  are  within  sight;  persons  are  near  each  other 
when  they  can  converse  together..  Near  and  nigh,  which 
are  but  variations  of  each  other  in  etymology,  admit  of 
little  or  no  difference  in  their  use. 

To  Close,  Shut.  To  close  signifies  simply  to  put  close 
together;  to  shut  to  stop  or  prevent  admittance:  closing 
is  therefore  a  partial  shutting,  and  shutting  a  complete 
closing. 

To  Close,  Conclude,  Finish.  We  may  close  at  any 
point  by  simply  ceasing  to  have  any  more  to  do  with  it ; 
out  we  concluQe  in  a  definite  and  positive  manner.  To 
conclude  is  to  bring  to  an  end  by  determination;  to  finish 
is  to  bring  to  an  end  by  completion :  what  is  settled  by 
arrangement  and  dehberation  is  properly  concluded ; 
what  is  begun  on  a  certain  plan  is  said  to  be  finished. 

Coarse,  Rough,  Rude.  In  the  proper  sense  coarse 
refers  to  the  composition  and  materials  of  bodies,  as 
coarse  bread,  coarse  meat,  coarse  cloth;  rough  respects 
the  surface  of  bodies,  as  rough  wood  and  rough  skin; 
rude  respects  the  make  or  fashion  of  things,  as  a  rude 
bark,  a  rude  utensil.  Coarse  is  opposed  to  fine,  rough  to 
smooth,  rude  to  polished. 

Cogent,  Forcible,  Strong.  Cogency  applies  to  rea- 
sons individually  considered ;  force  and  strength  to  modes 
of  reasoning  or  expression.  Cogent  reasons  impel  to  de- 
cisive conduct;  strong  conviction  is  produced  by  forcible 
reasoning  conveyed  in  strong  language. 

Colleague,  Partner.  Colleague  is  more  noble  than 
partner:  men  in  the  highest  offices  are  colleagues;  trades- 
men, mechanics,  and  subordinate  persons,  are  partners: 
every  Roman  Consul  had  a  colleague;  every  workman 
has  commonly  a  partner.  Colleague  is  used  for  com- 
munity of  office;   partner  for  community  of  interest. 

Colorable,  Specious,  Ostensible,  Plausible,  Fea- 
sible. The  first  three  of  these  words  are  figures  of  speech 
drawn  from  what  naturally  pleases  the  eye;  plausible  is 
drawn  from  what  pleases  the  ear;  feasible  takes  its  sig- 
nification from  what  meets  the  judgment  or  conviction. 
What  is  colorable  has  an  aspect  or  face  upon  it  that  lulls 


suspicion  and  affords  satisfaction;  what  is  specious  has 
a  fair  outside  when  contrasted  with  that  which  it  may 
possibly  conceal;  what  is  ostensible  is  that  which  pre- 
sents such  an  appearance  as  may  serve  for  an  indication 
of  something  real. 

To  Combat,  Oppose.  A  person's  views  or  attitudes 
are  combated ;  his  interests  or  his  measures  are  opposed. 

To  Come,  Arrive.  Persons  or  things  come;  persons 
only,  or  what  is  personified,  arrive.  To  come  specifies 
neither  time  nor  manner;  to  arrive  is  employed  with  re- 
gard to  some  particular  period  or  circumstances. 

Comfort,  Pleasure.  The  main  feature  of  comfort  is 
substantiality;  the  main  feature  of  pleasure  is  warmth. 
Pleasure  is  quickly  succeeded  by  pain ;  it  is  the  lot  of 
humanity  that  to  every  pleasure  there  should  be  an  alloy: 
comfort  is  that  portion  of  pleasure  which  seems  to  lie 
exempt  from  this  disadvantage;  it  is  the  most  durable 
sort  of  pleasure.  Comfort  must  be  sought  for  at  home ; 
pleasure  is  pursued  abroad. 

Command,  Order,  Injunction.  Precept.  A  com- 
mand is  an  exercise  of  power  or  authority;  it  is  impera- 
tive and  must  be  obeyed :  an  order  serves  to  direct ;  it  is 
instructive  and  must  be  executed.  A  sovereign  issues  his 
commands.  Orders  may  be  given  by  a  subordinate  or  by 
a  body,  as  orders  of  a  court.  Order  is  applied  to  the 
common  concerns  of  life;  injunction  and  precept  to  the 
moral  conduct  or  duties  of  men.  Injunction  imposes  a 
duty  by  virtue  of  the  authority  which  enjoins.  The  pre- 
cept lays  down  or  teaches  such  duties  as  already  exist. 

To  Commission,  Authorize,  Empower.  We  com- 
mission in  matters  where  our  own  will  and  convenience 
are  concerned;  we  authorize  in  matters  where  our  per- 
sonal authority  is  requisite;  and  we  empower  in  matters 
where  the  authority  of  the  law  is  required. 

Commodious,  Convenient.  Commodious  is  mostly 
applied  to  that  which  contributes  to  the  bodily  ease 
and  comfort ;  convenient  to  whatever  suits  the  purposes  of 
men  in  their  various  transactions. 

Commonly,  Generally,  Frequently,  Usually. 
What  is  commonly  done  is  an  action  common  to  all; 
what  is  generally  done  is  the  action  of  the  greatest  part ; 
what  is  frequently  done  is  either  the  action  of  many,  or 
an  action  many  times  repeated  by  the  same  person; 
what  is  usually  done  is  done  regularly  by  one  or  many. 

To  Communicate,  Impart.  A  thing  may  be  com- 
municated directly  or  indirectly,  and  to  any  number  of 
persons,  as  to  communicate  intelligence  by  signal  or 
otherwise.  Impart  is  a  direct  action  that  passes  between 
individuals,  as  to  impart  instruction. 

Communion,  Converse.  Both  these  terms  imply 
a  communication  between  minds;  but  the  former  may 
take  place  without  corporeal  agency,  the  latter  never 
does.  Spirits  hold  communion  with  each  other;  people 
hold  converse. 

Comparison,  Contrast,  Likeness  in  the  quality 
and  difference  in  the  degree  are  requisite  for  a  com- 
parison; likeness  in  the  degree  and  opposition  in  the 
quality  are  requisite  for  a  contrast. 

Compatible,  Consistent.  Compatibility  has  prin- 
cipally a  reference  to  plans  and  measures;  consistency 
to  character,  conduct,  and  station.  Everything  is  com- 
patible with  a  plan  which  does  not  interrupt  its  prose- 
cution; everything  is  consistent  with  a  person's  station 
by  which  it  is  neither  degraded  nor  elevated. 

To  Compel,  Force,  Oblige,  Necessitate.  To  com- 
pel denotes  moral  rather  than  physical  force;  but  to 
force  is  properly  applied  to  the  use  of  physical  force  or 
a  violent  degree  of  moral  force.  A  man  may  be  com- 
pelled to  walk  if  he  have  no  means  of  riding;  he  may 
De  forced  to  go  at  the  will  of  another.  Oblige  expresses 
only  an  indirect  influence,  which  may  be  resisted  or 
yielded  at  discretion.  We  are  compelled  to  do  that 
which  is  repugnant  to  our  will  and  our  feelings.  That 
which  one  is  obliged  to  do  may  have  the  assent  of  the 
judgment  if  not  of  the  will.  We  are  necessitated  by 
circumstances,  or  by  anything  which  puts  it  out  of  our 
power  to  do  otherwise. 

Compensation,  Amends,  Satisfaction,  Recom- 
pense. Remuneration,  Requital,  Reward.  A  com- 
pensation is  a  return  for  a  loss  or  a  damage  sustained; 
amends  is  a  return  for  anything  that  is  faulty  in  our- 
selves or  toward  others.  Satisfaction  is  that  which 
satisfies  the  individual  requiring  it  —  it  is  given  for 
personal  injuries;  a  recompense  is  a  voluntary  return 
for  a  voluntary  service — it  is  made  from  a  generous 
feeling.  Remuneration  is  estimated  rather  according  to 
the  condition  of  the  person  and  the  dignity  of  the  serv- 
ice, than  for  its  positive  worth.  Authors  often  receive  a 
remuneration  for  their  works  according  to  the  reputa- 
tion they  have  previously  acquired,  and  not  according 
to  the  real  merit  of  the  work.  A  reward  conveys  no 
idea  of  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  person  making 
it;     whoever   rewards   acts   optionally.     When    evil    is 


LANGUAGE 


231 


returned  for  good,  that  is  a  bad  requital,  and,  as  a  proof 
of  ingratitude,  wounds  the  feelings. 

Competent,  Fitted,  Qualified.  Competent  mostly 
respects  the  mental  endowments  and  attainments;  fitted, 
the  disposition  and  character;  qualified,  the  artificial 
acquirements  or  natural  qualities. 

To  Complain,  Lament,  Regret.  Complaint  marks 
most  of  dissatisfaction;  lamentation  most  of  grief; 
regret  most  of  pain.  Complaint  is  expressed  verbally; 
lamentation  either  by  words  or  signs;  regret  may  be 
felt  without  being  expressed.  Complaint  is  made  of 
personal  grievances;  lamentation  and  regret  may  be 
made  on  account  of  others  as  well  as  ourselves.  We 
complain  of  our  ill  health,  of  our  inconveniences,  or  of 
troublesome  circumstances;  we  lament  our  inability 
to  serve  another;  we  regret  the  absence  of  one  whom 
we  love. 

Complaint,  Accusation.  A  complaint  is  mostly 
made  in  matters  that  personally  affect  the  complainant; 
an  accusation  is  made  of  matters  in  general,  but  es- 
pecially those  of  a  moral  nature.  A  complaint  is  made 
for  the  sake  of  obtaining  redress;  an  accusation  is  made 
for  the  sake  of  ascertaining  a  fact  or  for  the  sake  of 
bringing  to  punishment. 

Complaisance,  Deference,  Condescension.  Com- 
plaisance signifies  the  act  of  complying  with,  or  pleasing 
others;  deference  marks  the  inclination  to  defer,  or 
acquiesce  in  the  sentiments  of  another  in  preference  to 
one's  own;  condescension  marks  the  act  of  conceding 
one's  point  to  yield  to  the  satisfaction  of  others,  rather 
than  rigorously  to  exact  one's  rights.  The  necessities 
and  the  allurements  of  society  and  of  intimacy  lead 
to  complaisance;  it  makes  sacrifices  to  the  wishes, 
tastes,  and  personal  feeUngs  of  others.  Complaisance  is 
the  act  of  an  equal;  deference  that  of  an  inferior; 
condescension  that  of  a  superior. 

Complete,  Perfect,  Finistied.  That  is  complete 
which  has  no  deficiency;  that  is  perfect  which  has  posi- 
tive excellence;  and  that  is  finished  which  is  at  an 
end. 

To  Complete,  Finish,  Terminate.  The  character- 
istic idea  of  completing  is  that  of  making  a  thing  alto- 
gether what  it  ought  to  be;  that  of  finishing,  the  doing 
all  that  is  intended  to  be  done  toward  a  thing;  and  that 
of  terminating,  simply  putting  an  end  to  a  thing. 

Compliant,  Yielding,  Submissive.  A  compliant 
person  may  want  command  of  feeling;  a  yielding  person 
may  want  fixedness  of  principle;  a  submissive  person 
may  want  resolution.  A  too  compliant  disposition  will 
be  imposed  upon  by  the  selfish  and  the  unreasonable:  a 
too  yielding  disposition  is  most  unfit  for  commanding;  a 
too  submissive  disposition  exposes  a  person  to  the  exac- 
tions of  tyranny. 

To  Comply,  Conform,  Yield,  Submit.  To  com- 
ply is  to  act  from  inclination;  to  conform  is  to  act 
irom  judgment.  Compliance  is  altogether  optional ;  we 
comply  with  a  thing  or  not,  at  pleasure.  Conformity  is 
binding  on  the  conscience;  it  relates  to  matters  in  which 
there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong.  To  yield  is  to  give  way  to 
another,  either  with  one's  will,  judgment,  or  outward 
conduct.  To  submit  is  to  give  up  oneself  altogether;  it 
is  the  substitution  of  another's  will  for  one's  own. 

To  Compose,  Settle.  We  compose  that  which  has 
been  disjointed  and  separated,  by  bringing  it  together 
again ;  we  settle  that  which  has  been  disturbed  and  put 
in  motion,  by  making  it  rest. 

Composed,  Sedate.  Composed  is  opposite  to  ruffled 
or  hurried,  and  is  a  temporary  state;  sedate  is  opposed 
to  buoyant  or  volatile,  and  is  a  permanent  habit  of  the 
mind  or  the  body. 

To  Compound,  Compose.  Compound  is  used  in  the 
physical  sense  only;  compose  in  the  proper  or  the  moral 
sense.  A  medicine  is  compounded  of  many  ingredients; 
society  is  composed  of  various  classes. 

Comprelienslve,  Extensive.  Comprehensive  re- 
spects quantity;  extensive  regards  space.  A  compre- 
hensive view  of  a  subject  includes  all  branches  of  it; 
an  extensive  view  of  a  subject  enters  into  minute  details. 
The  comprehensive  is  associated  with  the  concise;  the 
extensive  with  the  diffuse. 

To  Comprise,  Compreliend,  Embrace,  Contain, 
Include.  A  library  comprises  a  variety  of  books;  the 
whole  is  comprised  within  a  small  compass.  Laws  com- 
prehend a  number  of  cases.  A  discourse  embraces  a 
variety  of  topics.  A  society  contains  very  many  indi- 
viduals; it  includes  none  but  those  of  a  certain  class, 
or  it  includes  some  of  every  class. 

To  Conceal,  Dissemble,  Disguise.  To  conceal  is 
simply  to  abstain  from  making  known  what  we  wish  to 
keep  secret;  to  dissemble  and  disguise  signify  to  conceal, 
by  assuming  some  false  appearance.  We  conceal  facts; 
we  dissemble  feelings;    we  disguise  sentiments. 

To  Conceal,  Hide,  Secrete.     To  conceal  is  to  keep 


from  observation;  to  hide  is  to  put  under  cover;  to 
secrete  is  to  set  at  a  distance  or  in  unfrequented 
places. 

Concealment,  Secrecy.  Concealment  has  to  do 
with  wliat  concerns  others;  secrecy  with  that  which 
concerns  ourselves.  What  is  concealed  is  kept  from 
the  observation  of  others;  what  is  secret  is  known  only 
to  ourselves. 

Conceit,  Fancy.  Conceit  applies  only  to  internal 
objects;  it  is  mental  in  the  operation  and  the  result; 
it  is  a  species  of  invention:  fancy  is  applied  to  external 
objects,  or  whatever  acts  on  the  senses.  Nervous  people 
are  subject  to  strange  conceits;  timid  people  fancy  they 
hear  sounds  or  see  objects  in  the  dark,  which  awaken 
terror. 

To  Conceive,  Understand,  Comprehend.  Con- 
ception is  the  simplest  operation  of  the  three:  when  we 
conceive  we  may  have  but  one  idea;  when  we  under- 
stand or  comprehend  we  have  all  the  ideas  which  the 
subject  is  capable  of  presenting.  The  builder  conceives 
plans;  the  scholar  understands  languages;  the  meta- 
physician attempts  to  explain  many  things  which  are 
not  to  be  comprehended. 

Conception,  Notion.  Conception  is  the  mind's  own 
work,  what  it  pictures  to  itself  from  the  exercise  of  its 
own  powers;  notion  is  the  representation  of  objects  as 
they  are  drawn  from  observation.  Conceptions  are  the 
fruit  of  the  understanding  and  the  imagination;  notions 
are  the  result  of  experience  and  information. 

To  Concert,  Contrive,  Manage.  There  is  a  secret 
understanding  in  concerting;  invention  in  contriving; 
execution  in  managing.  Measures  are  concerted; 
schemes  are  contrived;    affairs  are  managed. 

To  Conciliate,  Reconcile.  To  conciliate  is  to  get 
the  good-will  and  affections  for  oneself;  to  reconcile 
is  to  unite  the  affections  of  two  persons  to  each 
other. 

Conclusion,  Inference,  Deduction.  Conclusions 
are  drawn  from  real  facts;  inferences  are  drawn  from 
the  appearances  of  things;  deductions  only  from  argu- 
ments or  assertions.  Conclusions  are  practical;  infer- 
ences ratiocinative;   deductions  are  final. 

Conclusive,  Decisive,  Convincing.  Conclusive  ap- 
plies either  to  practical  or  argumentative  matters; 
decisive  to  what  is  practical  only;  convincing  to  what 
is  argumentative  only.  It  is  necessary  to  be  conclusive 
when  we  deliberate,  and  decisive  when  we  command. 
An  argument  is  convincing,  a  chain  of  reasoning  con- 
clusive. 

Concord,  Harmony,  Concord  is  generally  emploj'ed 
for  the  union  of  wills  and  affections;  harmony  respects 
the  aptitude  of  minds  to  coalesce.  Harmony  may  be 
used  in  the  sense  of  adaptation  to  things  generally. 

Condition,  Station.  Condition  has  most  relation  to 
circumstances,  education,  birth,  and  the  like;  station 
refers  ratlier  to  the  rank,  occupation,  or  mode  of  life 
which  is  marked  out. 

To  Conduce,  Contribute.  To  conduce  signifies  to 
serve  the  full  purpose;  to  contribute  signifies  only  to 
serve  a  secondary  purpose.  Exercise  conduces  to  the 
health;   it  contributes  to  give  vigor  to  the  frame. 

To  Conduct,  Manage,  Direct.  Conducting  requires 
most  wisdom  and  knowledge;  managing  most  action; 
direction  most  authority.  A  lawyer  conducts  the  cause 
intrusted  to  him;  a  steward  manages  the  rnercantile 
concerns  for  his  employer;  a  superintendent  directs  the 
movements  of  all  the  subordinate  agents. 

Confederate,  Accomplice.  A  confederate  is  a  part- 
ner in  a  plot  or  a  secret  association ;  an  accomplice  is  a 
partner  in  some  active  violation  of  the  laws. 

To  Confer,  Bestow.  Conferring  is  an  act  of  author- 
ity; bestowing  that  of  charity  or  generosity.  Princes 
and  men  in  power  confer;  people  in  a  private  station 
bestow. 

Confidence,  Trust.  Confidence  is  an  extraordinary 
trust,  but  trust  is  always  ordinary  unless  the  term  be 
otherwise  qualified.  Confidence  involves  communica- 
tion of  a  man's  mind  to  another,  but  trust  is  confined 
to  matters  of  action. 

Confident,  Dogmatical,  Positive.  Confidence  im- 
plies a  general  reliance  on  one's  abilities  in  whatever  we 
undertake;  dogmatism  implies  a  reliance  on  the  truth 
of  our  opinions:  positivity  a  reliance  on  the  truth  of  our 
assertions.  A  confident  man  is  always  ready  to  act, 
as  he  is  sure  of  succeeding;  a  dogmatical  man  is  always 
ready  to  speak,  as  he  is  sure  of  being  heard;  a  positive 
man  is  determined  to  maintain  what  he  has  asserted, 
as  he  is  convinced  that  he  has  made  no  mistake. 

To  Confirm,  Corroborate.  What  confirms  serves 
to  strengthen  the  mind;  what  corroborates  gives 
weight  to  the  thing.  An  opinion  or  a  story  is  confirmed; 
an  evidence  or  the  representation  of  a  person  is  corrobo- 
rated. 


232 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


To  Conflrm,  Establish.  To  confirm  is  applied  to 
what  is  partial,  if  not  temporary;  to  establish  to  that 
which  is  permanent  and  of  importance,  as  to  confirm 
a  report,  to  establish  a  reputation,  to  confirm  a  treaty 
or  alliance,  to  establish  a  trade  or  a  government. 

Conformable,  Agreeable,  Suitable.  Conformable 
is  employed  for  matters  of  obligation;  agreeable  for 
matters  of  choice;  suitable  for  matters  of  propriety 
and  discretion.  What  is  conformable  accords  with  some 
prescribed  form  or  given  rule  of  others;  wliat  is  agrecr 
able  accords  with  the  feelings,  tempers,  or  judgments 
of  ourselves  or  others;  what  is  suitable  accords  with 
outward  circumstances. 

To  Confound.  Confuse.  A  person  confounds  one 
thing  with  another:  objects  become  confused,  or  a 
person  confuses  himself.  It  is  a  common  error  among 
ignorant  people  to  confound  names,  and  among  chil- 
dren to  have  their  ideas  confused  on  commencing  a 
new  study. 

To  Confront,  Face.  Confront  implies  to  set  face  to 
face;  and  face  signifies  to  set  the  face  toward  any  object. 
Witnesses  are  confronted;  a  person  faces  danger. 

Confusion,  Disorder.  Confusion  supposes  the  ab- 
sence of  all  order;  disorder  the  derangement  of  order 
where  it  exists,  or  is  supposed  to  exist. 

To  Confute,  Refute,  Disprove,  Oppugn.  To  con- 
fute respects  what  is  argumentative;  refute  what  is 
practical  and  personal ;  disprove  whatever  is  represented 
or  relatedj  oppugn  what  is  held  or  maintained.  An 
argument  is  confuted  by  proving  its  fallacy;  a  charge 
is  refuted  by  proving  the  innocence  of  the  party  charged ; 
an  assertion  is  disproved  by  proving  that  it  is  incorrect ; 
a  doctrine  is  oppugned  by  a  course  of  reasoning. 

To  Connect,  Combine,  Unite.  What  is  connected 
and  combined  remains  distinct,  but  what  is  united  loses 
all  individuality.  Things  the  most  dissimilar  may  be 
connected  or  combined;  things  of  the  same  kind  only 
can  be  united.  Houses  are  connected  by  means  of  a 
common  passage;  the  armies  of  two  nations  are  com- 
bined;  two  armies  of  the  same  nation  are  united. 

Connection,  Relation.  Families  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  the  ties  of  blood  or  marriage;  persons  are 
connected  with  each  other  in  the  way  of  trade  or  busi- 
ness; objects  stand  in  a  certain  relation  to  each  other, 
as  persons  stand  in  the  relation  of  giver  and  receiver, 
or  of  debtor  and  creditor. 

Conqueror,  Victor.  A  conqueror  is  always  supposed 
to  add  something  to  his  possessions;  a  victor  gains 
nothing  but  the  superiority.  Those  who  take  possession 
of  other  men's  lands  by  force  of  arms  make  a  conquest ; 
those  who  excel  in  any  trial  of  skill  are  the  victors. 

To  Consent,  Permit,  Allow.  As  the  act  of  an  equal 
we  consent  to  that  in  which  we  have  a  common  interest 
with  others.  We  permit  or  allow  what  is  for  the  accom- 
modation of  others:  we  allow  by  not  opposing;  we 
permit  by  a  direct  expression  of  our  will.  Contracts 
are  formed  by  the  consent  of  the  parties  who  are  inter- 
ested. The  proprietor  of  an  estate  permits  his  friends 
to  sport  on  his  grounds;  he  allows  a  passage  through 
his  premises.  A  parent  consents  to  the  establishment  of 
his  children;  he  permits  them  to  read  certain  books; 
he  allows  them  to  converse  with  him  familiarly. 

Consequence,  Effect,  Result,  Issue,  Event.  A 
consequence  is  that  which  follows  of  itself,  without  any 
qualification  or  restriction;  an  effect  is  that  which  is 
effected  or  produced,  or  which  follows  from  the  connec- 
tion between  the  thing  effecting,  as  a  cause,  and  the 
thine  effected.  A  result  is  general,  following  from  a 
whole;  there  may  be  many  consequences  from  the  same 
thing,  with  one  result  only.  We  speak  of  the  issue 
of  a  negotiation  or  a  battle,  and  the  event  of  a  war. 
The  fate  of  a  nation  sometimes  hangs  on  the  issue  of  a 
battle;  the  measures  of  government  are  often  unjustly 
praised  or  blamed  according  to  the  event. 

To  Consider,  Reflect.  To  consider  is  employed 
for  practical  purposes;  to  reflect  for  matters  of  specula- 
tion or  moral  improvement.  Common  objects  call  for 
consideration;  the  workings  of  the  mind  itself,  or  ob- 
jects purely  spiritual,  occupy  reflection. 

To  Consider,  Regard.  There  is  more  caution  or 
thought  in  considering;  more  personal  interest  in  re- 
garding. To  consider  is  to  bear  in  mind  all  that  pru- 
dence or  propriety  suggests;  to  regard  is  to  bear  in 
mind  all  that  our  wishes  or  interests  suggest. 

Consideration,  Reason.  The  consideration  influ- 
ences particular  actions;  the  reason  determines  a  line 
of  conduct. 

Consonant,  Accordant,  Consistent.  Consonant  is 
employed  in  matters  of  representation;  accordant  in 
matters  of  opinion  or  sentiment;  consistent  in  matters 
of  conduct. 

Constancy,  Stability,  Steadiness,  Firmness. 
Constancy  respects  the  affections;  stability  the  opinions; 


steadiness  the  action,  or  the  motives  of  action;  firmness 
the  purpose  or  resolution. 

To  Constitute,  Appoint,  Depute.  To  constitute  is 
the  act  of  a  body;  to  appoint  and  depute,  either  of  a 
body  or  an  individual:  a  community  constitutes  any 
one  their  leader;  a  monarch  appoints  his  ministers. 
Whoever  is  deputed  has  private  and  not  public  author- 
ity; his  office  is  partial,  often  confined  to  the  particular 
transaction  of  an  individual,  or  a  body  of  individuals. 

To  Consult,  Deliberate.  Consultations  always  re- 
quire two  persons  at  least;  deliberations  may  be  carried 
on  either  with  a  man's  self  or  with  numbers.  An  individ- 
ual may  consult  with  one  or  many;  assemblies  com- 
monly deliberate. 

To  Consummate,  Complete.  Wishes  are  con- 
summated ;  plans  are  completed. 

Contagion,  Infection.  We  consider  contagion  as 
to  the  rnanner  of  spreading  from  one  body  to  another; 
we  consider  infection  as  to  the  act  of  its  working  itself 
into  the  system.  Whatever  acts  by  contagion  acts  im- 
mediately by  direct  personal  contact;  whatever  acts  by 
infection  acts  gradually  and  indirectly,  or  through  the 
medium  of  a  third  body,  as  clothes,  or  the  air  when 
infected. 

Contagious,  Epidemical,  Pestilential.  The  con- 
tagious applies  to  that  which  is  capable  of  being  caught, 
and  ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  touched;  the  epidemical 
to  that  which  is  already  caught  or  circulated,  and 
requires,  therefore,  to  be  stopped;  the  pestilential  to 
that  which  may  breed  an  evil,  and  is,  therefore,  to  be 
removed.  Diseases  are  contagious  or  epidemical;  the 
air  or  breath  is  pestilential. 

To  Contaminate,  Deflic,  Pollute,  Taint,  Corrupt. 
Whatever  is  impure  contaminates;  what  is  gross  and 
vile  in  the  natural  sense  defiles,  and  in  the  moral  sense 
pollutes;  what  is  contagious  or  infectious  corrupts;  and 
what  is  corrupted  may  taint  other  things. 

To  Contemn,  Despise,  Scorn,  Disdain.  Contemn 
signifies  to  pollute  or  render  worthless,  which  is  the  cause 
of  contempt.  Despise  signifies  to  look  down  upon, 
which  is  a  strong  mark  of  contempt;  scorn  signifies 
stripped  of  all  honors  and  exposed  to  derision,  which 
situation  is  the  cause  of  scorn;  disdain  signifies  to  hold 
altogether  unworthy. 

To  Contemplate,  Meditate,  Muse.  Different 
species  of  reflection  are  marked  by  these  terms.  We 
contemplate  what  is  present  or  before  our  eyes;  we 
meditate  on  what  is  past  or  absent.  The  heavens  and 
all  the  works  of  the  Creator  are  objects  of  contemplation; 
the  ways  of  Providence  are  fit  subjects  for  meditation. 
One  muses  on  events  or  circumstances  which  have 
recently  passed. 

Contemptible,  Contemptuous.  Contemptible  is 
applied  to  the  thing  deserving  contempt;  contemptuous 
to  that  which  is  expressive  of  contempt.  A  production 
is  contemptible;   a  sneer  or  a  look  is  contemptuous. 

To  Contend,  Contest,  Dispute.  To  contend  is 
simply  to  exert  a  force  against  a  force;  to  contest  is  to 
struggle  together  for  an  object;  to  dispute,  according 
to  its  original  meaning,  applies  to  opinions  only,  and  is 
distinguished  from  contend  in  this,  that  the  latter 
signifies  to  maintain  one's  own  opinion,  and  the  former 
to  call  in  question  the  opinion  of  another. 

Contentment,  Satisfaction.  Contentment  lies  in 
ourselves;  satisfaction  is  derived  from  external  objects. 
One  is  contented  when  one  wishes  for  no  more:  one  is 
satisfied  when  one  has  obtained  all  one  wishes.  Con- 
tentment is  within  the  reach  of  the  poor  man,  to  whom 
it  is  a  continual  feast;  but  satisfaction  has  never  been 
procured  by  wealth,  however  enormous,  or  ambition, 
however  boundless. 

Continual,  Perpetual,  Constant.  What  is  con- 
tinual admits  of  no  interruption:  what  is  perpetual 
admits  of  no  termination.  There  may  be  an  end  to  that 
which  is  continual,  and  there  may  be  intervals  in  that 
which  is  perpetual.  Constant,  like  continual,  admits 
of  no  interruption,  and  it  also  admits  of  no  change. 
What  is  continual  may  not  always  continue  in  the  same 
state;  but  what  is  constant  remains  in  the  same  state. 

Continual,  Continued.  What  is  continual  may 
have  frequent  pauses;  what  is  continued  ceases  only  to 
terminate. 

Continuance,  Continuation,  Duration.  The  con- 
tinuance is  said  of  that  which  itself  continues;  the  con- 
tinuation of  that  which  is  continued  by  some  other 
agency,  as  the  continuance  of  the  rain,  the  continuation 
of  a  history,  work,  line,  etc.  Things  are  of  long  or  short 
duration  by  comparison. 

To  Continue,  Remain,  Stay.  To  continue  is  asso- 
ciated with  a  state  of  action;  to  remain  with  a  state  of 
rest.  We  are  said  to  continue  to  speak,  or  do  anything, 
to  remain  stationary,  or  in  a  position.  Stay  is  a  volun- 
tary act,  as  to  stay  at  a  friend's,  or  with  a  friend. 


LANGUAGE 


233 


To  Continue,  Persevere,  Persist.  We  continue  from 
habit  or  casualty;  we  persevere  from  reflection  and  tlie 
exercise  of  our  judgment;  we  persist  from  attacliment. 
A  cliild  perseveres  in  a  new  study  until  he  has  mastered 
it;  he  persists  in  making  a  request  until  he  has  obtained 
the  object  of  his  desire. 

Contracted,  Confined,  Narrow.  Contracted  signi- 
fies drawn  into  a  smaller  compass  than  it  might  other- 
wise be  in:  confined  signifies  brought  within  unusu- 
ally small  bounds;  it  is  said  of  that  which  is  made  or 
becomes  so  by  circumstances.  Narrow  is  the  opposite 
of  broad,  in  extent,  scope,  views,  and  resources. 
A  Umb  is  said  to  be  contracted  which  is  drawn  up  by 
disease;  a  situation  is  confined  which  has  not  the 
necessary  or  usual  degree  of  open  space;  a  road  or  a 
mind  is  narrow. 

To  Contradict, Deny.  One  contradicts  in  direct  terms 
by  asserting  something  contrary;  one  denies  byadvancing 
arguments,  or  by  suggesting  doubts  or  difficulties.  These 
terms  may,  therefore,  both  be  used  in  reference  to  dispu- 
tations. We  may  deny  the  truth  of  a  position  by 
contradicting  the  assertions  that  are  advanced  in  its 
support. 

To  Controvert,  Dispute.  To  controvert  has  regard 
to  speculative  points;  to  dispute  respects  matters  of 
fact:  there  is  more  of  opposition  in  controversy;  more 
of  doubt  in  disputing.  A  sophist  controverts;  a  sceptic 
disputes. 

Contumacious,  Rebellious.  The  contumacious  resist 
only  occasionally;  the  rebellious  resist  systematically: 
the  contumacious  stand  only  on  certain  points,  and  oppose 
the  individual;  the  rebellious  set  themselves  up  against 
the  authority  itself. 

Convenient,  Suitable.  Convenient  regards  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  individual;  suitable  respects  the 
established  opinions  of  manlvind,  and  is  closely  con- 
nected with  moral  propriety:  nothing  is  convenient 
which  does  not  favor  one's  purpose;  nothing  is  suitable 
which  does  not  suit  the  person,  place,  and  thing. 

Conversant,  Familiar.  A  person  is  conversant  in 
matters  that  come  frequently  before  his  notice;  .he  is 
familiar  with  such  as  form  the  daily  routine  of  his 
business. 

Conversation,  Dialogue,  Conference,  Colloquy. 
A  conversation  is  always  something  actually  held  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons;  a  dialogue  is  mostly  ficti- 
tious, and  written  as  if  spoken:  any  number  of  persons 
may  take  part  in  a  conversation,  but  a  dialogue  always 
refers  to  the  two  persons  who  are  expressly  engaged. 
A  conference  is  always  specifically  appointed  and  is 
mostly  on  public  concerns.  The  colloquy  has  the  same 
character  as  the  dialogue  but  is  not  confined  to  two 
people. 

Convert,  Proselyte.  Convert  is  more  extensive  in 
its  sense  and  application  than  proselyte:  convert  in  its 
full  sense  includes  every  change  of  opinion,  without 
respect  to  the  subject.  Proselyte,  in  its  original  applica- 
tion, denoted  changes  only  from  one  religious  belief  to 
another;  proselyte  now  means  a  new  convert  to  a 
religion,  a  religious  sect,  or  to  some  particular  system 
or  party. 

To  Convict,  Detect.  A  person  is  convicted  by 
means  of  evidence;  he  is  detected  by  means  of  ocular 
demonstration.  One  is  convicted  of  having  been  tlie 
perpetrator  of  some  evil  deed;  one  is  detected  in  the 
very  act  of  committing  the  deed. 

To  Convict,  Convince,  Persuade.  A  person  may 
be  convicted  of  heresy,  if  it  be  proved  to  the  satisfaction 
of  others;  he  may  be  convinced  that  the  opinion  which 
he  has  held  is  heretical.  So  a  person  may  be  convicted 
who  is  involuntarily  convincecf  of  his  error,  but  he  is 
convinced  if  he  is  made  sensible  of  his  error  without 
any  force  on  his  own  mind.  What  convinces  binds; 
what  persuades  attracts:  our  persuasion  respects  matters 
of  belief  or  practice. 

Convivial,  Social.  The  prominent  idea  in  con- 
vivial is  that  of  sensual  indulgence;  the  prominent 
idea  in  social  is  that  of  enjoyment  from  an  intercourse 
with  society.  We  speak  of  convivial  meetings,  convivial 
enjoyments,  or  the  convivial  board;  but  social  inter- 
course, social  pleasure,  social  amusements,  and  the 
like. 

To  Copy,  Transcribe.  To  copy  respects  the  matter ; 
to  transcribe  respects  simply  the  act  of  writing.  What 
is  copied  must  be  taken  immediately  from  the  original, 
witli  which  it  must  exactly  correspond;  what  is  tran- 
scribed may  be  taken  from  the  copy,  but  not  necessarily 
in  an  entire  state.  A  copier  should  be  very  exact;  a 
transcriber  should  be  a  good  writer. 
,  Copy,  Model,  Pattern,  Specimen.  The  term  copy 
IS  applied  to  that  which  is  delineated,  as  writings  or 
pictures,  which  must  be  taken  faithfully  and  literally; 
a  model  is  that  which  may  be  used  as  a  guide  or  a  rule; 


the  pattern  regards  solely  the  outward  form  or  the  color 
of  anything  that  is  made  or  manufactured;  the  specimen 
is  any  portion  of  a  material  which  serves  to  show  the 
quality  of  that  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 

Coquette,  Jilt.  The  coquette  makes  a  traffic  of  her 
own  cnarms  by  seeking  a  multitude  of  admirers;  the 
jilt  sports  with  the  sacred  passion  of  love,  and  barters 
it  for  tlie  gratification  of  any  selfish  propensity. 

Correct,  Accurate.  What  is  done  by  the  exercise 
of  the  judgment  is  said  to  be  correct,  as  a  correct  style, 
a  correct  writer;  what  is  done  by  the  effort  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  more  properly  accurate,  as  accurate  observa- 
tions, an  accurate  survey. 

Correction,  Discipline,  Punishment.  As  correc- 
tion and  discipline  have  commonly  required  punishment 
to  render  them  efficacious,  custom  has  affixed  to  them 
a  strong  resemblance  in  their  application,  although  they 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  obvious  marks  of 
difference.  The  prominent  idea  in  correction  (v.  to  cor- 
rect) is  that  of  making  right  what  has  been  wrong.  In 
discipline,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of  instructing  or 
regulating.  In  punishment,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of 
inflicting  pain.  We  remove  an  evil  by  correction;  we 
prevent  it  by  discipline. 

To  Correspond,  Accord.  To  correspond  is  to 
answer  or  conform  to  the  description  of  something  else. 
Things  that  correspond  must  be  alike  in  size,  shape, 
color,  and  every  minute  particular.  Appearance  and 
reality  seldom  correspond.  To  accord  is  to  make  to  agree 
or  correspond,  to  suit  one  thing  to  another.  Tilings 
that  accord  must  be  suited  to  each  other.  His  disposi- 
tion accords  with  his  looks. 

Cost,  Expense,  Price,  Charge.  The  cost  is  what 
a  thing  costs,  or  what  is  to  be  laid  out  for  it ;  the  expense 
is  that  which  a  person  actually  lays  out;  the  price  is 
that  which  a  thing  may  fetch  or  which  it  may  be  worth; 
the  charge  is  that  which  a  person  or  a  thing  is  charged 
with.  We  do  a  thing  at  our  own  cost,  but  at  another's 
expense;  we  can  never  set  a  price  on  anything  until  we 
have  ascertained  what  it  has  cost  us,  nor  can  we  know 
or  defray  the  expense  until  the  charge  be  made.  In  the 
moral  acceptation,  the  attainment  of  an  object  is  said 
to  cost  much  pains;  a  thing  is  persisted  in  at  the  expense 
of  health,  of  honor,  or  of  life.  The  sacrifice  of  a  man's 
quiet  is  the  price  which  he  must  pay  for  the  gratification 
of  his  ambition. 

To  Countenance,  Sanction,  Support.  Persons  are 
countenanced;  things  are  sanctioned;  persons  or  things 
are  supported.  Persons  are  countenanced  in  their  pro- 
ceedings by  the  apparent  approbation  of  others;  meas- 
ures are  sanctioned  by  the  consent  or  the  approbation  of 
others  who  have  due  authority;  measures  or  persons 
are  supported  by  every  means  which  may  forward  the 
object. 

Courage,  Fortitude,  Resolution.  Courage  respects 
action;  fortitude  respects  passion:  a  man  has  courage 
to  meet  danger,  and  fortitude  to  endure  pain.  Resolution 
simply  marks  the  will  not  to  recede:  we  require  resolu- 
tion not  to  yield  to  the  first  difficulties  that  offer. 

To  Cover,  Hide.  The  ruling  idea  in  the  word  cover 
is  that  of  throwing  or  putting  something  over  a  body; 
in  the  word  hide  is  that  of  keeping  carefully  to  one's 
self,  from  the  observation  of  others. 

Cover,  Shelter,  Screen.  Cover  includes  the  idea 
of  concealing;  shelter  comprehends  that  of  protecting 
from  some  immediate  or  impending  evil;  screen  includes 
that  of  warding  off  some  trouble. 

Credit,  Favor,  Influence.  These  terms  mark  the 
state  we  stand  in  with  regard  to  others  as  flowing  out  of 
their  sentiments  toward  ourselves:  credit  arises  from 
esteem;  favor  from  good-will  or  affection;  influence 
from  either  credit  or  favor,  or  external  circumstances. 
Influence  is  employed  in  directing  others:  weak  people 
easily  give  their  credit,  or  bestow  their  favor,  by  which 
an  influence  is  gained  over  them  to  bend  them  to  the 
will  of  others. 

Crime,  Vice,  Sin.  A  crime  is  a  social  offense;  a 
vice  is  a  personal  offense.  Every  action  which  does 
injury  to  others,  either  individually  or  collectively,  is  a 
crime;  that  which  does  injury  to  ourselves  is  a  vice. 
Crime  consists  in  a  violation  of  human  laws;  vice  in  a 
violation  of  the  moral  law;  sin  in  a  violation  of  the 
Divine  Law. 

Criminal,  Culprit,  Malefactor,  Felon,  Convict. 
When  we  wish  to  speak  in  general  of  those  who  by  offenses 
against  the  laws  or  regulations  of  society  have  exposed 
themselves  to  punishment,  we  denominate  them  crimi- 
nals; when  we  consider  them  as  already  brought  before 
a  tribunal,  we  call  them  culprits;  when  we  consider 
them  in  regard  to  the  moral  turpitude  of  their  character, 
as  the  promoters  of  evil  rather  than  of  good,  we  entitle 
them  malefactors;  when  we  consider  them  as  offending 
by  the  grosser  violations  of  the  law,  they  are  termed 


234 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


felons;  when  we  consider  them  as  already  under  the 
sentence  of  the  law,  we  denominate  them  convicts. 

Criterion,  Standard.  The  criterion  is  employed 
only  in  matters  of  judgment;  the  standard  is  usecf  in 
the  ordinary  concerns  of  life.  The  former  serves  for 
determining  the  characters  and  qualities  of  things;  the 
latter  for  defining  quantity  and  measure. 

Cruel,  Inhuman,  Barbarous,  Brutal,  Savage. 
A  person  is  cruel  who  neglects  the  creature  he  should 
protect  and  take  care  of;  he  is  inhuman  if  he  withholds 
from  him  the  common  marks  of  tenderness  or  kindness 
which  are  to  be  expected  from  one  human  being  to 
another;  he  is  barbarous  if  he  finds  amusement  in 
inflicting  pain;  he  is  brutal  or  savage  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  aggravation  which  accompany  the 
act  of  torturing. 

Crying,  Weeping.  Crying  arises  from  an  impatience 
in  suffering  corporeal  pains;  weeping  is  occasioned  by 
mental  grief. 

Cultivation,  Culture,  Civilization,  Refinement. 
Cultivation  is  with  more  propriety  applied  to  the  thing 
that  grows;  culture  to  that  in  which  it  grows.  The 
cultivation  of  flowers  will  not  repay  the  labor  unless  the 
soil  be  prepared  by  proper  culture.  Civilization  is  the 
first  stage  of  cultivation;  refinement  is  the  last.  We 
civilize  savages  by  divesting  them  of  their  rudeness, 
and  giving  them  a  knowledge  of  such  arts  as  are  requisite 
for  civil  society;  we  refine  them  by  the  introduction  of 
the  liberal  arts. 

To  Cure,  Heal,  Remedy.  To  cure  is  employed  for 
what  is  out  of  order;  to  heal  for  that  which  is  broken. 
Diseases  are  cured,  wounds  are  healed;  the  former  is  a 
complex,  the  latter  is  a  simple  process.  Whatever 
requires  to  be  cured  is  wrong  in  the  system;  whatever 
requires  to  be  healed  is  occasioned  externally  by  violence, 
and  requires  external  applications.  To  remedy,  in  the 
sense  of  applying  remedies,  has  a  moral  application; 
an  omission,  a  deficiency,  or  a  mischief,  requires  to  be 
•remedied. 

Cure,  Remedy.  A  cure  is  performed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  remedy. 

Curious,  Inquisitive,  Prying.  Curious  respects 
all  objects  that_  can  gratify  the  mclination,  taste,  or 
understanding;  inquisitive  respects  such  things  only  as 
satisfy  the  understanding;  a  prying  temper  is  unceasing 
in  its  endeavors  to  get  acquainted  with  the  secrets  of 
others. 

Cursory,  Hasty,  Slight,  Desultory.  An  author 
will  take  a  cursory  view  of  those  points  which  are  not 
necessarily  connected  with  his  subject;  an  author  who 
takes  a  hasty  view  of  a  subject  will  mislead  by  his  errors; 
he  whjL  takes  a  slight  view  will  disappoint  by  the  shal- 
lowness of  his  information.  Between  cursory  and 
desultory  there  is  the  same  difference  as  between  run- 
ning and  leaping:  we  run  in  a  line,  but  we  leap  from 
one  part  to  another;  so  remarks  that  are  cursory  have 
more  or  less  connection,  but  remarks  that  are  desultory 
are  without  any  coherence. 

Custom,  Habit.  Custom  is  a  frequent  repetition  of 
the  same  act;  habit  the  effect  of  such  repetition.  Cus- 
tom supposes  an  act  of  the  will;  habit  implies  an  invol- 
untary movement.  A  custom  is  followed ;  a  habit  is  ac- 
quired. 

Custom,  Fashion,  Manner,  Practice.  Custom 
is  authoritative;  it  stands  in  the  place  of  law,  and 
regulates  the  conduct  of  men  in  the  most  important 
concerns  of  life.  Fashion  is  arbitrary  and  capricious;  it 
decides  in  matters  of  trifling  import.  Manners  are 
rational;  .they  are  the  expressions  of  moral  feelings. 
Practice  signifies  actual  doing  or  the  thing  done :  it  may 
be  the  practice  of  a  person  to  do  acts  of  charity,  as  the 
occasion  requires;  but,  when  he  uniformly  does  a  par- 
ticular act  of  charity  at  any  given  period  of  the  year, 
it  is  properly  denominated  his  custom. 

Daily,  Diurnal.  Daily  is  the  colloquial  term  which 
is  applicable  to  whatever  passes  in  the  daytime;  diurnal 
is  the  scientific  term,  which  applies  to  what  passes 
within  or  belongs  to  the  astronomical  day. 

Danger,  Peril,  Hazard.  Danger  signifies  the 
chance  of  a  loss;  peril  signifies  either  to  go  over  or  to 
perish;  as,  a  critical  situation,  a  rude  trial,  which  may 
terminate  in  one's  ruin.  In  all  walks  of  life  we  are  in 
danger;  the  explorer  undergoes  perils.  Hazard  respects 
the  possibility  of  either  good  or  evil.  When  we  run  the 
hazard  of  a  battle,  we  may  either  win  or  lose. 

Daring,  Bold.  He  who  is  daring  provokes  resist- 
ance and  courts  danger;  but  the  bold  man  is  contented 
to  overcome  the  resistance  that  is  offered  to  him.  A  man 
may  be  bold  in  the  use  of  words  only;  he  must  be  daring 
in  actions:  he  is  bold  in  the  defense  of  truth;  he  is 
daring  in  military  enterprise. 

Darlt,  Obscure,  Dim,  Mysterious.  Dark  is 
opposed  to  light;    obscure  to  bright.     What  is  dark  is 


altogether  hidden;  what  is  obscure  is  not  to  be  seen 
distinctly,  or  without  an  effort.  Dim  expresses  a  de- 
gree of  darkness,  but  it  is  employed  more  in  relation 
to  the  person  seeing  than  to  the  object  seen.  Any  intri- 
cate affair,  which  involves  the  characters  and  conduct 
of  men,  may  be  mysterious. 

Deadly,  Mortal,  Fatal.  Deadly  is  applied  to  what 
is  productive  of  death;  mortal  to  what  terminates  in 
or  is  liable  to  death;  fatal  applies  not  only  to  death,  but 
to  everything  which  may  be  of  serious  consequence. 

To  Debate,  Deliberate.  These  terms  equally  mark 
the  acts  of  pausing  or  withholding  the  decision,  whether 
applicable  to  one  or  many.  To  debate  (v.  to  controvert, 
dispute)  supposes  always  a  contrariety  of  opinion:  to 
deliberate  (v.  to  consult,  deliberate)  supposes  simply 
the  weighing  or  estimating  the  value  of  the  opinion  that 
is  offered. 

Debility,  Infirmity,  Imbecility.  Debility  is  con- 
stitutional, or  otherwise;  imbecility  is  always  constitu- 
tional; infirmity  is  accidental,  and  results  from  sickness 
or  a  decay  of  the  frame.  Debility  may  be  either  general 
or  local;  infirmity  is  always  local;  imbecility  always 
general. 

Debt,  Due.  Debt  is  commonly  applied  to  that 
which  is  owing  from  the  person  spoken  of ;  due  is  always 
applied  to  that  which  is  owing  to  the  person:  to  pay 
one's  debts,  and  receive  one's  due. 

Decay,  Decline,  Consumption.  What  is  decayed 
is  fallen  or  gone;  what  declines  leads  toward  a  fall,  or 
is  going.  Consumption  (v.  to  consume)  implies  a  rapid 
decay. 

Deceit,  Deception.  A  person  is  said  to  be  guilty  of 
deceit  who  has  sought  to  deceive  another  for  his  own 
purposes;  but  deceptions  may  be  practiced  in  a  diver- 
sity of  ways,  and  from  a  diversity  of  motives.  Deceitful 
and  deceptive  are  employed  with  this  distinction:  a 
person  is  said  to  be  deceitful,  and  a  thing  deceptive. 

Deceit,  Fraud,  Guile.  Deceit  is  practicecf  only  in 
private  transactions;  fraud  is  practiced  toward  bodies 
as  well  as  individuals,  in  public  as  well  as  in  private.  A 
child 'practices  deceit  toward  its  parents;  frauds  are 
practiced  upon  government.  Guile  marks  a  strong  de- 
gree of  moral  turpitude  in  the  individual;  guileless  is 
applied  to  characters  which  are  the  most  diametrically 
opposed  to,  and  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from, 
that  which  is  false. 

Deceiver,  Impostor.  A  deceiver  is  any  one  who 
practices  any  sort  of  deception;  but  an  impostor  is  a 
deceiver  who  studiously  deceives  by  putting  on  a  false 
appearance. 

Decency,  Decorum.  Decency  respects  a  man's 
conduct;    decorum,  his  behavior. 

Decided,  Determined,  Resolute.  A  man  who  is 
decided  remains  in  no  doubt;  he  who  is  determined  is 
uninfluenced  by  the  doubts  or  questions  Df  others;  he 
who  is  resolute  (v.  to  determine,  resolve)  is  uninfluenced 
by  the  consequences  of  his  actions. 

Decided,  Decisive.  Decided  marks  that  which  is 
actually  decided;  decisive  that  which  appertains  to 
decision.  A  person's  aversion  or  attachment  is  decided; 
a  sentence,  a  judgment,  or  a  victory,  is  decisive. 

Decision,  Judgment,  Sentence.  A  decision  has  no 
respect  to  the  agent;  it  may  be  said  of  one  or  many; 
it  may  be  the  decision  of  the  court,  of  the  nation,  of  the 
public,  of  a  particular  body  of  men,  or  of  a  private 
individual.  But  a  judgment  is  given  in  a  public  court, 
or  among  private  individuals.  A  sentence  is  passed  in 
a  court  of  law,  or  at  the  bar  of  the  public. 

To  Declaim,  Inveigh.  Declaim  signifies  literally  to 
cry  aloud  in  a  set  form  of  words;  inveigh  involves 
injurious  censure  or  reproach.  Public  men  and  public 
measures  are  subjects  for  the  declaimer;  private  indi- 
viduals afford  subjects  for  inveighing  against. 

To  Declare,  Publish,  Proclaim.  In  declaring,  the 
leading  idea  is  that  of  speaking  out  that  which  passes 
in  the  mind;  in  publishing,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of 
making  public  or  common ;  in  proclaiming,  the  leading 
idea  is  that  of  crying  aloud.  Facts  and  opinions  are 
declared;  events  and  circumstances  are  published;  the 
measures  of  government  are  proclaimed. 

Decree,  Edict,  Proclamation.  A  decree  is  a  more 
solemn  and  deliberative  act  than  an  edict;  on  the  other 
hand,  an  edict  is  more  authoritative  than  a  decree. 
A  decree  is  the  decision  of  one  or  many-  an  edict  speaks 
the  will  of  an  individual:  councils  and  senates,  as  well 
as  princes,  make  decrees;  despotic  rulers  issue  edicts. 
An  edict  is  peculiar  to  a  despotic  government;  a  procla- 
mation is  common  to  a  monarchical  and  aristocratic 
form  of  government. 

To  Dedicate,  Devote,  Consecrate,  Hallow.  There 
is  something  more  solemn  in  the  act  of  dedicating  than 
in  that  of  devoting;  but  less  so  than  in  that  of  conse- 
crating.    To  dedicate  and  devote  may  be  employed  in 


LANGUAGE 


235 


both  temporal  and  spiritual  matters;  to  consecrate  and 
hallow  only  in  the  spiritual  sense.  We  may  dedicate  or 
devote  anything  that  is  at  our  disposal  to  the  service 
of  some  object;  but  the  former  is  employed  mostly  in 
regard  to  superiors,  and  the  latter  to  persons  without 
distinction  of  rank.  We  dedicate  a  house  to  the  service 
of  God;  we  devote  our  time  to  the  benefit  of  our  friends, 
or  to  the  relief  of  the  poor.  We  may  dedicate  or  devote 
ourselves  to  an  object:  the  former  always  implies  a 
solemn  setting  apart  springing  from  a  sense  of  duty; 
the  latter  an  entire  application  of  oneself  from  zeal 
and  affection.  To  consecrate  is  to  declare  sacred  by 
means  of  religious  ceremony.  The  church  is  conse- 
crated;  particular  days  are  hallowed. 

Deduction,  Abatement.  Both  these  words  imply 
a  taking  off  from  something.  A  person  may  make  a 
deduction  in  an  account  for  various  reasons,  but  he 
makes  an  abatement  in  a  demand  when  it  is  objected 
to  as  excessive. 

To  Deface,  Disfigure,  Deform.  To  deface  is  an 
act  of  destruction;  it  is  the  actual  destruction  of  that 
which  has  before  existed.  To  disfigure  is  either  an  act 
of  destruction  or  an  erroneous  execution,  which  takes 
away  the  figure.  To  deform  is  altogether  an  imperfect 
execution,  which  renders  the  form  what  it  should  not  be. 

Defective,  Deficient.  Defective  expresses  the  qual- 
ity or  property  of  having  a  defect;  deficient  is  employed 
with  rega:rd  to  the  thing  itself  that  is  wanting.  A  book 
may  be  defective,  in  consequence  of  some  leaves  being 
deficient.  A  deficiency  is,  therefore,  often  what  consti- 
tutes a  defect. 

To  Defend,  Protect,  Vindicate.  A  person  may  be 
defended  in  any  particular  case  of  actual  danger  or 
difficulty;  he  is  protected  from  what  may  happen  as 
well  as  what  does  happen.  Defense  respects  the  evil 
that  threatens;  protection  involves  the  supply  of  neces- 
sities and  the  affording  comforts.  Vindicate  respects 
a  form  of  defense  only  in  the  moral  sense  of  the  word. 
Acts  of  importance  are  defended;  those  of  trifling  import 
are  commonly  vindicated. 

Defendant,  Defender.  The  defendant  defends  him- 
self (v.  to  defend) ;    the  defender  defends  another. 

Defender,  Advocate,  Pleader.  A  defender  exerts 
himself  in  favor  of  one  that  wants  support.  An  advocate 
signifies  one  who  is  called  to  speak  in  favor  of  another; 
he  exerts  himself  in  favor  of  any  cause  that  offers.  A 
pleader,  from  plea  or  excuse,  signifies  him  who  pleads 
in  behalf  of  one  who  is  accused  or  in  distress. 

Definite,  Positive.  Definite  signifies  that  which  is 
defined,  or  has  the  limits  drawn  or  marked  out;  positive 
that  which  is  placed  or  fixed  in  a  particular  manner. 
Definite  is  said  of  things  as  they  present  themselves  or 
are  presented  to  the  mind,  as  a  definite  idea,  a  definite 
proposal.  Positive  is  said  of  a  person's  temper  of  mind; 
a  person  is  positive  as  to  his  opinions,  or  an  assurance 
is  positive  which  serves  to  make  one  positive. 

Deity,  Divinity.  Deity  signifies  a  divine  person; 
divinity  signifies  the  divine  essence  or  power. 

Dejection,  Depression,  Melanclioly.  Depression 
is  but  a  degree  of  dejection.  Slight  circumstances  may 
occasion  a  depression;  distressing  events  occasion  a 
dejection:  the  death  of  a  near  and  dear  relative  may 
be  expected  to  produce  dejection  in  persons  of  the 
greatest  equanimity.  Melancholy  is  a  disease  which 
nothing  but  clear  views  of  religion  can  possibly  correct. 

To  Delegate,  Depute  —  Delegate,  Deputy.  To 
delegate  is  applied  to  the  power  or  the  office  which  is  given ; 
depute  to  the  person  employed.  Parents  delegate  their 
oflBce  to  the  instructor;  persons  are  deputed  to  act 
for  others.  A  delegate  is  the  person  commissioned, 
who  is  bound  to  act  according  to  his  commission;  the 
deputy  is  the  person  deputed,  who  acts  in  the  place  of 
another,  but  may  act  according  to  his  own  discretion 
or  otherwise,  as  circumstances  require. 

To  Deliver,  Rescue,  Save.  One  may  be  delivered 
from  any  evil,  whether  great  or  small,  and  in  any  man- 
ner. To  rescue  is  to  deliver  from  a  great  impending 
danger  or  immediate  evil,  as  to  rescue  from  the  hands 
of  robbers,  or  from  the  jaws  of  a  wild  beast.  To  save 
signifies  to  keep  from  evil. 

To  Demand,  Require.  We  demand  that  which 
is  owing  and  ought  to  be  given;  we  require  that  which 
we  wish  and  expect  to  have  done.  The  creditor  makes 
a  demand  on  the  debtor;  the  master  requires  a  certain 
portion  of  duty  from  his  servant. 

To  Demur,  Hesitate,  Pause.  We  demur  from 
doubt  or  difficulty;  we  hesitate  from  an  undecided  state 
of  mind;  we  pause  from  circumstances.  Demurring  is 
a  matter  of  prudence,  it  is  always  grounded  on  some 
reason;  hesitating  is  rather  a  matter  of  feeling,  and  is 
oftener  faulty  than  otherwise.  When  a  request  of  a 
dubious  nature  is  made  of  us,  we  hesitate  in  complying 
with  it. 


Demur,  Doubt,  Hesitation,  Objection.  Demurs 
often  occur  in  matters  of  deliberation;  doubt  in  regard 
to  matters  of  fact;  hesitation  in  matters  of  ordinary 
conduct;  and  objections  in  matters  of  common  consid- 
eration. Artabanes  made  many  demurs  to  the  proposed 
invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes.  Doubts  have  been  sug- 
gested respecting  the  veracity  of  Herodotus  as  a  his- 
torian. It  is  not  proper  to  ask  that  which  cannot  be 
granted  without  hesitation.  There  are  but  few  things 
which  we  either  attempt  to  do  or  recommend  to  others 
that  are  not  liable  to  some  kind  of  an  objection. 

To  Denote,  Signify.  Denote  is  employed  with  re- 
gard to  things  and  their  characters;  signify  with  regard 
to  the  thoughts  or  movements.  A  letter  or  character 
may  be  made  to  denote  any  number,  as  words  are  made 
to  signify  the  intentions  and  wishes  of  the  person. 

To  Deny,  Refuse.  To  deny  respects  matters  of  fact 
or  knowledge;  to  refuse,  matters  of  wish  or  request. 
We  deny  what  immediately  relates  to  ourselves;  we 
refuse  what  relates  to  another. 

To  Deplore,  Lament.  Deplore  is  a  much  stronger 
expression  than  lament:  the  former  calls  forth  tears 
from  the  bitterness  of  the  heart;  the  latter  excites  a 
cry  from  the  warmth  of  feeling.  Deploring  indicates 
despair;   lamenting  marks  only  pain  or  distress. 

Deponent,  Evidence,  Witness.  All  these  words 
are  properly  applied  to  judicial  proceedings,  where  the 
deponent  testifies  generally  to  facts  either  in  causes  or 
otherwise.  The  evidence  consists  either  of  persons  or 
things,  which  are  brought  before  the  court  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  doubtful  matter  clear;  the  witness  is 
always  a  person  who  bears  witness  to  any  fact  for  or 
against  another. 

Deposit,  Pledge,  Security.  The  term  deposit  has 
most  regard  to  the  confidence  we  place  in  another; 
pledge  has  most  regard  to  the  security  we  give  for  our- 
selves; security  is  a  form  of  pledge.  A  security  is 
whatever  makes  a  person  secure  against  a  loss,  and  in 
the  ordinary  acceptation  consists  of  any  instrument  or 
written  document  which  legally  binds  a  person. 

Depravity,  Depravation,  Corruption.  All  these 
terms  are  applied  to  objects  which  are  contrary  to  the 
order  of  Providence.  But  the  term  depravity  character- 
izes the  thing  as  it  is;  the  terms  depravation  and  corrup- 
tion designate  the  making  or  causing  it  to  be  so.  Deprav- 
ity, therefore,  excludes  the  idea  of  any  cause;  depra- 
vation always  carries  us  to  the  cause  or  external  agency: 
hence  we  may  speak  of  depravity  as  natural,  but  we 
speak  of  depravation  as  the  result  of  circumstances. 
There  is  a  depravity  in  man  which  nothing  but  the 
grace  of  God  can  correct.  The  introduction  of  obscenity 
on  the  stage  tends  greatly  to  the  depravation  of-morals. 
Bad  company  tends  to  the  corruption  of  a' young  man's 
morals. 

Depth,  Profundity.  Depth  is  indefinite  in  its  sig- 
nification; and  profundity  is  a  positive  and  considerable 
degree  of  depth.  Moreover,  the  word  depth  is  applied 
to  objects  in  general;  profundity  is  confined  in  its 
application  to  moral  objects. 

To  Derive,  Trace,  Deduce.  The  act  of  deriving  is 
immediate  and  direct;  that  of  tracing  a  gradual  process; 
that  of  deducing  a  ratiocinative  process.  We  discover 
causes  and  sources  by  derivation ;  we  discover  the  course, 
progress,  and  commencement  of  things  by  tracing;  we 
discover  the  grounds  and  reasons  of  things  by  deduction. 

Desert,  Merit,  Worth.  Desert  is  taken  for  that 
which  is  good  or  bad ;  merit  for  that  which  is  good  only. 
We  deserve  praise  or  blame;  we  merit  a  reward.  Worth 
is  that  which  is  absolutely  valuable;  it  must  be  sought 
for  on  its  own  account. 

To  Design,  Purpose,  Intend,  Mean.  To  design  is 
to  plan  something  studied  and  methodical,  it  requires  re- 
flection; to  purpose  is  to  propose  or  set  before  the 
mind;  to  intend  signifies  the  act  to  which  the  mind 
bends  or  inclines.  We  purpose  seriously;  we  intend 
vaguely;  we  set  about  that  which  we  purpose;  we  may 
delay  that  which  we  have  only  intended.  Mean,  which 
is  a  term  altogether  of  colloquial  use,  differs  but  little 
from  intend,  except  that  it  is  used  for  matters  requiring 
but  little  thought. 

To  Desire,  Wish,  Long  for.  Hanker  after.  Covet. 
To  desire  is  imperious ;  it  demands  gratification :  to  wish 
is  less  vehement;  it  consists  of  a  strong  inclination. 
To  long  for  expresses  strong  and  continued  desire ;  to 
hanker  after  is  to  desire  that  which  is  seC  out  of 
one's  reach;  to  covet  is  to  desire  that  which  belongs 
to  another,  or  what  it  is  in  his  power  to  grant. 

To  Desist,  Leave  Off.  To  desist  is  voluntary  or 
involuntary;  to  leave  off  is  voluntary.  We  are  fre- 
quently obliged  to  desist;  but  we  leave  off  at  our  option. 
He  who  annoys  another  must  be  made  to  desist ;  he  who 
does  not  wish  to  offend  will  leave  off  when  requested. 

Despair,  Desperation,  Despondency.     Despair  is 


236 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


a  state  of  mind  produced  by  the  view  of  external  circum- 
stances; desperation  and  despondency  may  be  the  fruit 
of  the  imagination:  the  former,  therefore,  always  rests 
on  some  ground;  the  latter  are  sometimes  ideal.  Des- 
peration marks  a  state  of  vehement  and  impatient  feel- 
mg;  despondency  is  a  disease  of  the  mind,  which  noth- 
ing but  a  firm  trust  in  Providence  can  obviate. 

Destiny,  Fate,  Lot,  Doom.  Destiny  is  used  in 
regard  to  one's  station  and  walk  in  life;  fate  in  regard 
to  what  one  suffers;  lot  in  regard  to  what  one  gets  or 
possesses  ;  and  doom  is  the  final  destiny  which  termi- 
nates unhappily,  and  depends  mostly  upon  the  will  of 
another.  Destiny  is  marked  out;  fate  is  fixed;  a  lot  is 
assigned;    a  doom  is  passed. 

Destiny,  Destination.  Destiny  is  the  point  or  line 
marked  out  in  the  walk  of  life;  destination  is  the  place 
fi.xed  upon  in  particular:  as  every  man  has  his  peculiar 
destiny,  so  every  traveler  has  his  particular  destination. 
Destiny  is  altogether  set  above  human  control;  destina- 
tion is,  however,  the  specific  act  of  an  individual,  either 
for  himself  or  another. 

To  Destroy,  Consume,  Waste.  To  destroy  is  to 
reduce  to  nothing  that  which  has  been  artificially  raised 
or  formed,  as  to  destroy  a  house;  to  consume  is  to  use 
up,  as  to  consume  food,  or  merchandise;  to  waste  is  to 
expend  unnecessarily,  extravagantly,  to  spend  to  no 
purpose,  as  to  waste  time  or  property. 

Destruction,  Ruin.  Destruction  is  an  act  of  imme- 
diate violence;  ruin  is  a  gradual  process.  A  thing  is 
destroyed  by  some  external  action  upon  it;  a  thing 
falls  to  ruin  of  itself. 

To  Detect,  Discover.  Detect  is  always  taken  in  a 
bad  sense;  discover  in  an  indifferent  sense.  A  person 
is  detected  in  what  he  wishes  to  conceal;  a  person  or  a 
thing  is  discovered  that  has  been  previously  unknown 
or  unperceived. 

To  Determine,  Resolve.  We  determine  how  or 
what  we  shall  do;  this  requires  examination  and  choice. 
We  resolve  that  we  will  do  what  we  have  determined 
upon;    this  requires  a  firm  spirit. 

To  Deviate,  Wander,  Swerve,  Stray.  Deviate 
always  supposes  a  direct  path  which  is  departed  from ; 
wander  includes  no  such  idea.  The  act  of  deviating  is 
commonly  faulty;  that  of  wandering  is  indifferent. 
To  swerve  is  to  deviate  from  that  which  one  holds  right; 
to  stray  is  to  wander  in  the  same  bad  sense.  Men  swerve 
from  their  duty  to  consult  their  interest;  the  young 
stray  from  the  path  of  rectitude  to  seek  that  of  pleasure. 

To  Devise,  Bequeath.  In  the  technical  sense,  to 
devise  is  to  give  lands  by  a  will  duly  attested  according 
to  law;  to  bequeath  is  to  give  personalty  after  one's 
death  by  a  less  formal  instrument. 

To  Dictate,  Prescribe.  Dictate,  from  the  Latin 
"dictatus"  and  "dictum"  (a  word),  literally  signifies 
to  make  a  word  for  another;  and  prescribe  signifies  to 
write  down  for  another  (v.  to  appoint) :  thus  the  former 
of  these  terms  is  used  technically  for  a  principal  who 
gets  his  secretary  to  write  down  his  words  as  he  utters 
them;  and  the  latter  for  a  physician  who  writes  down 
for  his  patient  what  he  wishes  him  to  take  as  a  remedy. 
They  are  used  figuratively  for  a  sort  of  counsel  given  by 
a  superior;  to  dictate  is,  however,  a  greater  exercise  of 
authority  than  to  prescribe.  -He  who  dictates  speak« 
with  an  adventitious  authority;  he  who  prescribes  has 
the  sanction  of  reason. 

Dictate,  Suggestion.  Dictate  signifies  the  thing 
uttered,  and  has  an  imperative  sense;  suggestion  signifies 
the  thing  intimated,  and  conveys  the  idea  of  its  being 
proposed  secretly  or  in  a  gentle  manner.  These  terms 
are  Doth  applied,  with  this  distinction,  to  acts  of  the  mind. 
When  conscience,  reason,  or  passion  present  anything 
forcibly  to  the  mind,  it  is  called  a  dictate;  when  any- 
thing enters  the  mind  in  a  casual  manner,  it  is  called  a 
suggestion. 

Dictionary,  Encyclopaedia.  The  definition  of 
words,  with  their  various  changes,  modifications,  uses, 
acceptations,  and  applications,  are  the  proper  subjects  of 
a  dictionary;  the  nature  and  properties  of  things,  with 
their  construction,  uses,  powers,  etc.,  are  the  proper 
subjects  of  an  encyclopa;dia. 

Dictionary,  Lexicon,  Vocabulary,  Glossary, 
Nomenclature.  I>exicon  is  a  species  of  dictionary  ap- 
propriately applied  to  the  dpad  languages.  Dictionary 
IS  applied  to  the  words  of  a  modern  language.  A  vocabu- 
lary is  a  partial  kind  of  dictionary,  which  may  compre- 
hend a  simple  list  of  words,  with  or  without  explanation, 
arranged  in  order  or  otherwise.  A  glossary  is  an  explana- 
tory vocabulary,  which  commonly  serves  to  explain  the 
obsolete  terms  employed  in  any  old  author.  A  nomen- 
clature is  literally  a  list  of  names,  and  in  particular  a 
reference  to  proper  names. 

To  Die,  Expire.  Die  desipfnates  in  general  the  ex- 
tinction of  being.     Expire  designates  the  last  action  of 


life  in  certain  objects.  Plants  and  trees  die.  The  flame 
of  a  lamp  expires. 

Difference,  Variety,  Diversity,  Medley.  Differ- 
ence and  variety  seem  to  lie  in  the  things  themselves; 
diversity  and  medley  are  created  either  by  accident  or 
design:  a  difference  may  lie  in  two  objects  only;  a  va- 
riety cannot  exist  without  an  assemblage:  a  difference 
is  discovered  by  means  of  a  comparison  which  the  mind 
forms  of  objects  to  prevent  confusion;  variety  strikes  on 
the  mind,  and  pleases  the  imagination  with  many  agree- 
able images.  Diversity  arises  from  an  assemblage  of  ob- 
jects naturally  contrasted;  a  medley  is  produced  by  an 
assemblage  of  objects  so  ill  suited  as  to  produce  a  ludi- 
crous effect. 

Diflrerence,  Distinction.  Difference  (v.  difference) 
lies  in  the  thing;  distinction  is  the  act  of  the  person :  the 
former  is,  therefore,  to  the  latter  as  the  cause  to  the  effect. 
The  distinction  rests  on  the  difference:  those  are  equally 
bad  logicians  who  make  a  distinction  without  a  difference, 
or  who  make  no  distinction  where  there  is  a  difference. 
A  difference  is  either  external  or  internal;  a  distinction 
is  always  external :  the  former  lies  in  the  thing,  the  latter 
is  designedly  made.  We  have  differences  in  character,  and 
distinction  in  dress. 

Difference,  Dispute,  Altercation,  Quarrel.  A 
difference,  as  distinguished  from  the  others,  is  generally 
of  a  less  serious  and  personal  kind ;  a  dispute  consists  not 
only  of  angry  words,  but  of  much  ill  blood  and  unkind  of- 
fices; an  altercation  is  a  wordy  dispute,  in  which  differ- 
ence of  opinion  is  drawn  out  into  a  multitude  of  words;  a 
quarrel  is  the  most  serious  of  all  differences,  which  leads 
to  every  manner  of  violence. 

Different,  Distinct,  Separate.  Different  is  op- 
posed to  similar;  there  is  no  difference  between  ob- 
jects absolutely  alike.  Distinct  is  opposed  to  identical; 
there  can  be  no  distinction  where  there  is  only  one  and 
the  same  being.  Separate  is  opposed  to  things  united; 
there  can  be  no  separation  between  objects  that  coalesce 
or  adhere. 

Different,  Unlike.  Different  is  positive,  unlike  is 
negative:  we  look  at  what  is  different  and  draw  a  com- 
parison; but  that  which  is  unlike  needs  no  comparison. 
A  thing  is  said  to  be  different  from  every  other  thing,  or 
unlike  anything  seen  before. 

DlflBcuities,  Embarrassments,  Troubles.  These 
terms  are  all  applicable  to  a  person's  concerns  in  life. 
Difficulties  may  relate  to  the  obstacles  that  arise  in  con- 
ducting a  business.  Embarrassments  may  relate  to  the 
confusion  attending  a  state  of  debt.  Troubles  may  relate 
to  the  pain  which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  not 
fulfilling  engagements  or  answering  demands. 

Difficulty,  Obstacle,  Impediment.  Difficulty 
signifies  not  easy  to  be  done;  obstacle  signifies  the  thing 
that  stands  in  the  way  between  a  person  and  the  object 
he  has  in  view;  impediment  signifies  something  that 
entangles  the  feet.  A  difficulty  interferes  with  the  com- 
pletion of  any  work;  an  obstacle  interferes  with  the  at- 
tainment of  any  end;  an  impediment  interrupts  the 
progress,  and  prevents  the  execution  of  one's  wishes. 

Diffuse,  Prolix.  Both  mark  defects  of  style  op- 
posed to  brevity.  The  diffuse  is  properly  opposed  to  the 
precise;  the  prolix  to  the  concise  or  laconic.  A  diffuse 
writer  is  fond  of  amplification,  the  prolix  writer  is  fond 
of  circumlocution,  minute  details,  and  trifling  particu- 
lars. 

To  Digress,  Deviate.  Both  in  the  original  and  the 
accepted  sense,  these  words  express  going  out  of  the 
ordinary  course.  We  digress  only  in  a  narrative,  whether 
written  or  spoken;  we  deviate  in  actions  as  well  as  in 
words,  in  our  conduct  as  well  as  in  writings. 

To  Dilate,  Expand.  A  bladder  dilates  on  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  or  the  heart  dilates  with  joy.  Knowledge 
expands  the  mind,  or  a  person's  views  expand  with  cir- 
cumstances. 

Diligent,  Expeditious,  Prompt.  Diligent  marks 
the  interest  one  takes  in  doing  something;  he  is  diligent 
who  loses  no  time,  who  keeps  close  to  the  work  from 
inclination.  Expeditious  marks  the  desire  one  has  to 
complete  the  thing  begun.  Prompt  marks  one's  desire 
to  get  ready;  he  is  prompt  who  sets  about  a  thing  with- 
out delay,  so  as  to  make  it  ready. 

Direction,  Address,  Superscription.  A  direction 
may  serve  to  direct  to  places  as  well  as  to  persons.  An 
address  is  never  used  but  in  direct  application  to  the  per- 
son. A  superscription  has  more  respect  to  the  thing  than 
to  the  person.  A  direction  is  given  to  such  as  go  in  search 
of  persons  and  places.  An  address  is  put  either  on  a  card, 
a  letter,  or  in  a  book.  A  superscription  is  placed  at  the 
head  of  other  writings,  or  over  tombs  and  pillars. 

Direction,  Order.  Direction  contains  most  of  in- 
struction in  it;  order  most  of  authority.  Directions 
should  be  followed ;    orders  obeyed. 

Disaffection,  Disloyalty.     Disaffection  may  be  said 


LANGUAGE 


237 


with  regard  to  any  form  of  government ;  disloyalty  with 
regard  to  monarchy,  obligations,  or  vows.  Many  were 
disaffected  to  the  usurpation  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  because 
they  would  not  be  disloyal  to  their  king. 

To  Disappear,  Vanish.  A  thing  disappear  seither 
gradually  or  suddenly;  it  vanishes  of  a  sudden;  it  dis- 
appears in  the  ordinary  course  of  things;  it  vanishes  by 
an  unusual  effort,  a  supernatural  or  a  magic  power. 

To  Disapprove,  Dislilte.  Disapprove  is  an  act  of 
the  judgment;  dislike  is  an  act  of  the  will  or  of  the  affec- 
tion. To  approve  or  disapprove  is  peculiarly  the  part 
of  a  superior,  or  one  who  determines  the  conduct  of 
others;  to  dislike  is  altogether  a  personal  act,  in  which 
the  feelings  of  the  individual  are  consulted. 

Disbelief,  Unbelief.  Disbelief  properly  implies  the 
believing  that  a  thing  is  not,  or  refusing  to  believe  that 
it  is.  Unbelief  expresses  properly  a  believing  the  con- 
trary of  what  one  has  believed  before:  disbelief  is  most 
applicable  to  the  ordinary  events  of  life;  unbelief  to  seri- 
ous matters  of  opinion. 

To  Disclaim,  Disown.  To  disclaim  is  to  throw  off 
a  claim;  to  disown  is  not  to  admit  as  one's  own. 

Discord,  Strife.  Discord  consists  mostly  in  the  feel- 
ing; strife  consists  mostly  in  the  outward  action.  Dis- 
cord evinces  itself  in  various  ways,  by  looks,  words,  or 
actions;   strife  displays  itself  in  words  or  acts  of  violence. 

To  Discover,  Manifest,  Declare.  We  discover 
by  any  means  direct  or  indirect;  we  manifest  by  un- 
questionable marks;  we  declare  by  express  words: 
talents  and  dispositions  discover  themselves;  particular 
feelings  and  sentiments  manifest  themselves;  facts, 
opinions,  and  sentiments  are  declared. 

Discredit,  Disgrace,  ReproacI),  Scandal.  Dis- 
credit interferes  with  a  man  s  respectability;  disgrace 
marks  him  out  as  an  object  of  unfavorable  distinction; 
reproach  makes  him  a  subject  of  adverse  criticism ; 
scandal  makes  him  an  object  of  offense  or  even  of 
abhorrence. 

To  Discuss,  Examine.  Discuss  signifies  to  shake 
asunder  or  to  separate  thoroughly  so  as  to  see  the  whole 
composition;  examine  is  used  where  the  judgment  holds 
the  balance.  Discussion  is  altogether  carried  on  by 
verbal  and  personal  communication ;  examination  pro- 
ceeds by  reading,  rejection,  and  observation. 

Disgust,  Loatlilng,  Nausea.  Disgust  is  less  than 
loathing,  and  loathing  than  nausea.  When  applied  to 
sensible  objects  we  are  disgusted  with  dirt;  we  loathe 
the  smell  of  food  if  we  have  a  sickly  appetite;  we  nause- 
ate medicine.  When  applied  metaphorically,  we  are 
disgusted  with  affectation;  we  loathe  the  endearments 
of  those  who  are  offensive;  we  nauseate  all  the  enjoy- 
ments of  life,  after  having  made  an  intemperate  use  of 
them,  and  discovered  their  inanity. 

Dishonest,  Knavish.  What  is  dishonest  violates 
the  established  laws  of  man;  what  is  knavish  supposes 
peculiar  art  and  design  in  the  accomplishment. 

Dishonor,  Disgrace,  Shame.  Dishonor  deprives 
a  person  of  those  outward  marks  of  honor  which  men 
look  for  according  to  their  rank  and  station;  disgrace 
deprives  a  man  of  the  favor  and  the  kindness  which  he 
has  heretofore  received  from  others.  Shame  is  occasioned 
by  direct  moral  turpitude,  or  by  that  of  which  one  ought 
to  be  ashamed. 

Tp  Disjoint,  Dismember.  A  limb  of  the  body  may 
be  disjointed  if  it  be  so  put  out  of  the  joint  that  it  cannot 
act;  but  the  body  itself  is  dismembered  when  the  differ- 
ent limbs  or  parts  are  separated  from  each  other. 

Dislilce,  Disinclination.  Dislike  applies  to  what  one 
has  or  does;    disinclination  only  to  what  one  does. 

To  Dismay,  Daunt,  Appall.  We  are  dismayed  by 
alarming  circumstances;  we  are  daunted  by  terrifying  cir- 
cumstances; we  are  appalled  by  horrid  circumstances. 

Disorder,  Disease,  Distemper,  Malady.  In  a 
general  sense  disorder  is  altogether  indefinite;  but  in  its 
restricted  sense  it  expresses  less  than  all  the  rest:  it  is 
the  mere  commencement  of  a  disease.  Disease  compre- 
hends every  serious  and  permanent  disorder  in  the  animal 
economy,  and  is,  therefore,  of  universal  application. 
The  disorder  is  slight,  partial,  and  transitory;  the  disease 
is  deep-rooted  and  permanent.  The  disorder  may  lie  in 
the  extremities;  the  disease  lies  in  the  humors  and  the 
vital  parts.  Distemper  is  used  for  such  particularly  as 
throw  the  animal  frame  most  completely  out  of  its  tem- 
per or  course,  and  is  consequently  applied  properly  to 
virulent  disorders,  such  as  the  small-pox.  Malady  has  less 
of  a  technical  sense  than  the  other  terms;  it  refers  more 
to  the  suffering  than  to  the  state  of  the  body. 

Disparity,  Inequality.  Disparity  applies  to  two 
objects  which  should  meet  or  stand  in  coalition  with  each 
other;  inequality  is  applicable  to  those  that  are  com- 
pared with  each  other.  The  disparity  of  age,  situation, 
and  circumstances  is  to  be  considered  with  regard  to  per- 
sons entering  into  a  matrimonial  connection:    the  in- 


equality m  the  portion  of  labor  which  is  to  be  performed 
by  two  persons  is  a  ground  for  the  inequality  of  their 
recompense. 

Dispassionate,  Cool.  Dispassionate  is  taken  nega- 
tively, it  marks  merely  the  absence  of  passion ;  cool  is 
taken  positively,  it  marks  an  entire  freedom  from  pas- 
sion. When  we  meet  with  an  angry  disputant  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  dispassionate,  in  order  to  avoid  quarrels;  in 
the  moment  of  danger  our  safety  often  depends  upon  our 
coolness. 

To  Dispel,  Disperse.  Dispel  is  a  more  forcible  ac- 
tion than  disperse:  we  destroy  the  existence  of  a  thing 
by  dispelling  it;  we  destroy  merely  the  junction  by  dis- 
persing it. 

To  Dispense,  Distribute.  Dispense  is  an  indis- 
criminate action;  distribute  is  a  particularizing  action : 
we  dispense  to  all;    we  distribute  to  each  individually. 

Displeasure,  Anger,  Disapprobation.  Displeas- 
ure is  always  a  softened  and  gentle  feeling;  anger  is  al- 
ways a  harsh  feeling,  and  sometimes  rises  to  vehemence 
and  madness.  Displeasure  is  always  produced  by  some 
adequate  cause,  real  or  supposed;  but  anger  may  be 
provoked  by  every  or  any  cause,  according  to  the  temper 
of  the  individual.  Displeasure  is  an  act  of  the  will,  it  is 
an  angry  sentiment;  disapprobation  is  an  act  of  the 
judgment,  it  is  an  opposite  opinion. 

Disposal,  Disposition.  Disposal  is  a  personal  act; 
it  depends  upon  the  will  of  the  individual:  disposition 
is  an  act  of  the  judgment;  it  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  things.  The  removal  of  a  thing  from  oneself  is 
involved  in  a  disposal;  the  good  order  of  the  things  is 
comprehended  in  their  disposition. 

To  Dispose,  Arrange,  Digest.  We  may  dispose 
ordinary  matters  by  simply  assigning  a  place  to  each; 
in  this  manner  trees  are  disposed  in  a  row.  We  arrange 
and  digest  by  an  intellectual  effort.  We  arrange  by  put- 
ting those  together  which  ought  to  go  together;  and 
we  digest  by  both  separating  that  which  is  dissimilar, 
and  bringing  together  that  which  is  similar:  in  this 
manner  books  are  arranged  in  a  library  according  to 
their  size  or  their  subject;  the  materials  for  a  literary 
production  are  digested. 

Disposition,  Temper.  Disposition  is  permanent 
and  settled;  temper  may  be  transitory  and  fluctuating. 
The  disposition  comprehends  the  springs  and  motives  of 
actions;  the  temper  influences  the  action  of  the  moment: 
it  is  possible  and  not  infrequent  to  have  a  good  disposi- 
tion with  a  bad  temper,  and  vice  versa. 

Disposition,  Inclination.  We  may  always  expect 
a  man  to  do  that  which  he  is  disposed  to  do ;  but  we  can- 
not always  calculate  upon  his  executing  that  to  which 
he  is  fnerely  inclined.  We  indulge  a  disposition;  we 
yield  to  an  inclination.  The  disposition  comprehends 
the  whole  state  of  the  mind  at  the  time;  an  inclination 
is  particular,  referring  always  to  a  particular  object. 

To  Disregard,  Neglect,  Slight.  We  disregard  the 
warnings,  the  words,  or  opinions  of  others;  we  neglect 
their  injunctions  or  their  precepts.  To  disregard  re- 
sults from  the  settled  purpose  of  the  mind;  to  neglect 
from  a  temporary  forgetf ulness  or  oversight.  Slight  is  al- 
together an  intentional  act  toward  an  individual. 

Dissension,  Contention,  Discord.  A  collision  of 
opinions  produces  dissension;  a  collision  of  interests 
produces  contention;  a  collision  of  humors  produces 
discord. 

Distant,  Far,  Remote.  Distant  is  used  to  designate 
great  space;  far  only  that  which  is  ordinary.  Astrono- 
mers estimate  that  the  sun  is  ninety-four  millions  of 
miles  distant  from  the  earth;  a  person  lives  not  very  far 
off,  or  a  person  is  far  from  the  spot.  Remote  expresses 
the  relative  idea  of  having  disappeared  from  sight. 

To  Distinguish,  Discriminate.  To  discriminate 
is  in  fact  to  distinguish  specifically;  hence  we  speak  of 
a  distinction  as  true  or  false,  but  of  a  discrimination  as 
nice.  We  distinguish  by  means  of  the  senses  as  well  as  by 
the  understanding;  we  discriminate  by  the  understanding 
only. 

Distinguished,  Conspicuous,  Noted,  Eminent, 
Illustrious.  A  thing  is  distinguished  in  proportion  as 
it  is  distinct  or  separate  from  others;  it  is  conspicuous 
in  proportion  as  it  is  easily  seen ;  it  is  noted  in  proportion 
as  it  is  widely  known.  Eminent  applies  to  those  things 
which  set  a  man  high  in  the  circle  of  his  acquaintances; 
illustrious  applies  to  that  which  makes  him  shine  before 
the  world. 

Distress,  Anxiety,  Anguish,  Agony.  Distress  is 
the  pain  felt  when  in  a  strait  from  which  we  see  no  means 
of  extricating  ourselves;  anxiety  is  that  pain  which 
one  feels  on  the  prospect  of  an  evil.  Distress  always  de- 
pends upon  some  outward  cause;  anxiety  often  lies  in 
the  imagination;  anguish  arises  from  the  reflection  on 
the  evil  that  is  past ;  agony  springs  from  witnessing  or 
suffering  intense  mental  or  bodily  pain. 


238 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


To  Distress,  Harass,  Perplex.  A  person  is  dis- 
tressed either  in  his  outward  circumstances  or  liis 
feeUnes;  he  is  harassed  mentally  or  corporeally;  he  is  per- 
plexed in  his  understanding,  more  than  in  his  feelings.  A 
depnvation  distresses;  provocations  and  hostile  meas- 
ures harass ;  stratagems  and  ambiguous  measures  perplex . 

Distrust,  Suspicion,  Diffidence.  Distrust  is  said 
either  of  ourselves  or  of  others;  suspicion  is  said  only  of 
others;  diffidence  only  of  ourselves.  To  be  distrustful 
of  a  person  is  to  impute  no  good  to  him ;  to  be  suspicious 
of  a  person  is  to  impute  positive  evil  to  him.  As  regards 
oneself,  a  person  may  distrust  his  own  powers  for  the 
execution  of  a  particular  office,  or  have  a  distrust  of 
himself  in  company;  he  has  a  general  diffidence,  or  he 
is  naturally  diffident. 

To  Disturb,  Interrupt.  We  may  be  disturbed 
either  inwardly  or  outwardly;  we  are  interrupted  only 
outwardly:  our  minds  may  be  disturbed  by  disquieting 
reflections,  or  we  may  be  disturbed  in  our  rest  or  in  our 
business  by  unseemly  noises. 

To  Divide,  Separate,  Part.  That  is  divided  which 
has  been  or  fias  Seen  conceived  to  be  a  whole ;  that  is 
separated  which  might  be  joined.  An  army  may  be 
divided  into  two  or  three  divisions  or  portions:  the  di- 
visions are  frequently  separated  in  their  march.  To  part 
is  to  divide  or  separate  into  distinct  portions  or  pieces. 

To  Divide,  Distribute,  Share.  We  divide  the 
thing;  we  distribute  to  the  person.  To  share  is  to  make 
into  parts,  the  same  as  divide,  and  it  is  to  give  those 
parts  to  some  persons,  the  same  as  distribute:  but  the 
person  who  shares  takes  a  part  himself;  he  who  dis- 
tributes gives  it  all  to  others. 

Doctrine,  Precept,  Principle,  A  doctrine  requires 
a  teacher;  a  precept  requires  a  superior  with  authority; 
a  principle  requires  only  a  maintainer  or  a  holder.  A 
doctrine  is  always  framed  by  some  one;  a  precept  is 
enjoined  or  laid  down  by  some  one;  a  principle  lies  in 
the  thing  itself.  A  doctrine  is  composed  of  principles; 
a  precept  rests  upon  principles  or  doctrines. 

Doctrine,  Dogma,  Tenet.  A  doctrine  rests  on  the 
authority  of  the  individual  by  whom  it  is  framed;  a 
dogma  on  the  authority  of  the  body  by  whom  it  is  main- 
tained; a  tenet  rests  on  its  own  intrinsic  merits.  A 
tenet  is  a  species  of  principles  maintained  in  matters  of 
opinion  by  persons  in  general. 

To  Doubt,  Question.  Doubt  lies  altogether  in  the 
mind ;  it  is  a  less  active  feeling  than  question :  by  the 
former  we  merely  suspend  decision ;  by  the  latter  we 
actually  demand  proofs  in  order  to  assist  us  in  deciding. 
We  may  doubt  in  silence;  we  cannot  question  without 
expressmg  it,  directly  or  indirectly:  we  doubt  the  truth 
of  a  position;  we  question  the  veracity  of  an  author. 

Doubt,  Suspense.  Doubt  respects  that  which  we 
should  believe;  suspense  that  which  we  wish  to  know 
or  ascertain.  We  are  in  doubt  for  the  want  of  evidence; 
we  are  in  suspense  for  the  want  of  certainty.  Doubt  inter- 
rupts our  progress  in  the  attainment  of  truth;  suspense 
impedes  us  in  the  attainment  of  our  objects. 

To  Draw,  Drag,  Haul,  or  Hale,  I*ull,  Plucl<,  Tug. 
Draw  expresses  here  the  idea  common  to  the  first  three 
terms,  namely,  of  putting  a  body  in  motion  from  behind 
oneself  or  toward  oneself.  To  drag  is  to  draw  a  thing 
with  violence,  or  to  draw  that  whicli  makes  resistance; 
to  haul  is  to  drag  it  with  still  greater  violence.  To  pull 
signifies  only  an  effort  to  draw  without  the  idea  of  mo- 
tion; horses  pull  very  long  sometimes  before  they  can 
draw  a  heavily  laden  cart  uphill.  To  pluck  is  to  pull 
with  a  sudden  twitch  in  order  to  separate;  to  tug  is  to 
pull  with  violence. 

Dream,  Reverie.  Dreams  and  reveries  are  alike 
opposed  to  the  reality,  and  have  their  origin  in  the 
imagination;  but  the  former  commonly  passes  in  sleep, 
and  the  latter  when  awake. 

Dull,  Gloomy.  Sad,  Dismal.  When  applied  to 
natural  objects,  dull  and  gloomy  denote  the  want  of 
necessary  light  or  life:  in  this  sense  metals  are  more  or 
less  dull  according  as  they  are  stained  with  dirt:  the 
weather  is  dull  when  the  sun  is  obscured  by  clouds,  and 
gloomy  when  the  atmosphere  is  darkened  by  fogs  or 
thick  clouds.  Dismal  denotes  not  merely  the  want  of 
that  which  is  necessary,  but  also  the  presence  of  that 
which  is  repugnant  to  the  senses;  as,  a  countenance  or 
a  sound  may  be  dismal.  Sad  is  not  applied  so  much 
to  sensible  as  moral  objects;    the  lo.ss  of  a  parent  is  sad. 

Durable,  Lasting,  Permanent.  Durable  is  natur- 
ally said  of  material  substances;  and  lasting  of  those 
which  are  spiritual,  although  in  ordinary  discourse 
sometimes  they  exchange  offices.  Permanent  applies 
more  to  the  affairs  of  men.  That  which  perishes  quickly 
is  not  durable;  that  which  ceases  quickly  is  not  lasting; 
that  which  is  only  for  a  time  is  not  permanent. 

Durable,  Constant.  What  is  durable  is  so  from 
its  inherent  property;   what  is  constant  is  so  by  the 


power  of  the  mind.     No  durable  connections  can  be 
formed  where  avarice  or  lust  prevails. 

Duty,  Obligation.  Duty  has  to  do  with  the  con- 
science, and  arises  from  the  natural  relations  of  society; 
an  obligation  arises  from  circumstances,  and  is  a  species 
of  duty.  He  who  guarantees  to  pay  a  sum  of  money 
contracts  an  obligation.  He  who  marries  contracts  new 
duties. 

Ease,  Quiet,  Rest,  Repose.  Ease  and  quiet 
respect  action  on  the  body;  rest  and  repose  respect  the 
action  of  the  body.  Ease  denotes  an  exemption  from 
any  painful  agency  in  general;  quiet  denotes  an  exemp- 
tion from  that  in  particular  which  noise,  disturbance, 
or  the  violence  of  others  may  cause;  rest  simply  denotes 
the  cessation  of  motion;  repose  is  that  form  of  rest 
which  is  agreeable  after  labor. 

Easy,  Ready.  Easy  marks  the  freedom  of  being 
done;  ready  the  disposition  or  willingness  to  do.  The 
former  refers  mostly  to  the  thing  or  the  manner,  the 
latter  to  the  person. 

To  Eclipse,  Obscure.  Heavenly  bodies  are  eclipsed 
by  the  intervention  of  other  bodies  between  them  and 
the  beholder;  things  are  in  general  obscured  which  are 
in  any  way  rendered  less  striking  or  visible.  So,  figur- 
atively, real  merit  is  eclipsed  by  the  intervention  of 
superior  merit;  it  is  often  obscured  by  an  ungracious 
e.xterior  in  the  possessor,  or  by  his  unfortunate  circum- 
stances. 

Education,  Instruction,  Rreeding.  Instruction 
and  breeding  are  to  education  as  parts  to  a  whole.  In- 
struction respects  the  communication  of  knowledge, 
and  breeding  respects  the  manners  or  outward  conduct; 
education  comprehends  not  only  botfi  these,  but  the 
formation  of  the  mind,  the  regulation  of  the  heart,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  principles.  Good  instruction  makes 
one  wiser;  good  breeding  makes  one  more  polished  and 
agreeable;   good  education  makes  one  really  good. 

To  Effect,  Produce,  Perform.  To  produce  signi- 
fies to  bring  something  forth  or  into  existence;  toper- 
form  to  do  something  to  the  end.  To  effect  is  to  produce 
a  result  by  performing.  Whatever  is  effected  is  the 
consequence  of  a  specific  design;  it  always  requires, 
therefore,  a  rational  agent  to  effect.  What  is  produced 
may  follow  incidentally,  or  arise  from  the  action  of  an 
irrational  agent  or  an  inanimate  object;  what  is  per- 
formed is  done  by  specific  efforts. 

Effusion,  Ejaculation.  An  effusion  cominonly 
flows  from  a  heated  imagination  uncorrected  by  the  judg- 
ment ;  it  is,  therefore,  in  general  not  only  incoherent 
but  extravagant  and  senseless.  An  ejaculation  is  produced 
by  the  warmth  of  the  moment,  but  never  without  refer- 
ence to  some  particular  circumstance.  Enthusiasts 
are  full  of  extravagant  effusions;  contrite  sinners  will 
often  express  their  penitence  in  pious  ejaculations. 

Elderly,  Aged,  Old.  The  elderly  man  has  passed 
the  meriaian  of  life;  the  aged  man  is  fast  approaching 
the  term  of  our  existence;  the  old  man  has  already 
reached  this  term,  or  has  exceeded  it. 

Eligible,  Preferable.  What  is  eligible  is  desirable 
in  itself,  what  is  preferable  is  more  desirable  than  another. 

Embarrassments,  Perplexities,  Entanglements. 
Embarrassments  depend  altogether  on  ourselves;  the 
want  of  prudence  and  presence  of  mind  is  the  common 
cause.  Perplexities  depend  on  extraneous  circumstances 
as  well  as  on  ourselves;  extensive  dealings  with  others 
are  mostly  attended  with  perplexities.  Entanglements 
arise  mostly  from  the  evil  designs  of  others. 
~  Emissary,  Spy.  Both  these  words  designate  a  per- 
son sent  out  by  a  body  on  some  public  concern  among 
their  enemies;  but  they  differ  in  their  office  according 
to  the  etymology  of  the  words.  The  emissary  is  sent 
so  as  to  mix  with  the  people  to  whom  he  goes,  t9  be  in 
all  places,  and  to  associate  with  every  one  individually 
as  may  serve  his  purpose.  The  spy  takes  his  station 
wherever  he  can  best  perceive  what  is  passing;  he 
keeps  himself  at  a  distance  from  all  but  such  as  may 
particularly  aid  him  in  the  object  of  his  search.  The 
emissary  is  generally  employed  by  those  who  have  some 
illegitimate  object  to  pursue;  spies,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  employed  by  all  regular  governments  in  a  time  of 
warfare. 

Empire,  Reign,  Dominion.  Empire  signifies  com- 
naand,  or  the  power  exercised  in  commanding;  it  properly 
refers  to  the  country  or  the  people  commanded:  reign 
signifies  the  act  of  reigning;  it  refers  to  the  individual 
who  reigns.  Dominion  may  be  applied  in  the  proper 
sense  to  the  power  which  man  exercises  over  the  brutes 
or  inanimate  objects,  and  figuratively  to  the  power  of  the 
passions. 

To  Employ,  Use.  We  employ  whatever  we  take 
into  our  service,  or  make  subservient  to  our  convenience 
for  a  time;  we  use  whatever  we  entirely  devote  to  our 
purpose. 


LANGUAGE 


239 


Encomium,  Eulogy,  Panegyric.  We  bestow 
encomiums  upon  any  work  of  art  or  production  of  genius, 
witliout  reference  to  the  performer;  we  bestow  eulogies 
on  the  exploits  of  a  hero,  who  is  of  another  age  or  country ; 
but  we  write  panegyrics  either  in  a  direct  address,  or 
in  direct  reference  to  the  person  who  is  panegyrized. 
The  encomium  is  produced  by  merit,  real  or  supposed ; 
the  eulogy  may  spring  from  admiration  of  the  person 
eulogized;  the  panegyric  may  be  mere  flattery,  resulting 
from  servile  dependence. 

To  Encourage,  Embolden.  To  encourage  is  to  give 
courage,  and  to  embolden  is  to  make  bold;  the  former 
impels  to  action  in  general,  the  latter  to  that  which  is 
more  difficult  or  dangerous. 

To  End,  Terminate,  Close.  To  end  is  indefinite 
in  its  meaning  and  general  in  its  application.  Terminate 
and  close  are  modes  of  ending:  to  terminate  is  to  end 
finally;  to  close  to  end  gradually.  Whatever  is  begun 
will  end,  and  it  may  end  in  any  way;  but  wliat  terminates 
is  that  which  has  been  designedly  brought  to  an  end. 
A  string,  a  line,  a  verse,  etc.,  may  end;  but  a  road  is  said 
properly  to  terminate. 

To  Endeavor,  Aim,  Strive,  Struggle.  An  endeavor 
springs  from  a  sense  of  duty;  we  endeavor  to  do  that 
which  is  right,  and  avoid  that  which  is  wrong.  Aiming 
is  the  fruit  of  an  aspiring  temper;  the  object  aimed  at 
is  always  something  superior  either  in  reality  or  imagina- 
tion. Striving  is  the  consequence  of  an  ardent  desire; 
the  thing  striven  for  is  always  conceived  to  be  of  impor- 
tance. Struggling  is  the  efTect  of  necessity;  it -is  propor- 
tioned to  the  difficulty  of  attainment;  the  thing  strug- 
gled for  is  indispensably  necessary. 

Endeavor,  Effort,  Exertion.  Endeavor  expresses 
little  more  than  this  common  idea,  being  a  term  of  gen- 
eral import.  Effort  and  exertion  are  particular  modes 
of  endeavor,  the  former  being  a  special  strong  endeavor, 
the  latter  a  continued  strong  encieavor. 

Energy,  Force,  Vigor.  With  energy  is  connected 
the  idea  of  activity;  with  force  that  of  capability;  with 
vigor  that  of  health.  Energy  lies  only  in  the  mina ;  force 
and  vigor  are  the  property  of  either  body  or  mind. 

To  Enlarge,  Increase,  Extend.  Enlarge  is  applied 
to  dimension  and  extent ;  increase  is  applicable  to  quanti- 
ty, signifying  to  become  greater  in  size  by  the  junction  of 
other  matter;  extend  signifies  to  make  greater  in  space. 
We  speak  of  enlarging  a  house,  a  room,  premises,  or 
boundaries;  of  increasing  an  army,  or  property,  capital, 
expense,  etc.;  of  extending  the  boundaries  of  an  empire. 
Enmity,  Animosity,  Hostility.  Enmity  lies  in 
the  heart;  it  is  deep  and  malignant.  Animosity,  from 
animus,  a  spirit,  lies  in  the  passions;  it  is  fierce  and 
vindictive.  Hostility,  from  hostis,  a  political  enemy, 
lies  in  the  action;  it  is  mischievous  and  destructive. 
Enmity  is  altogether  personal;  hostility  respects  public 
or  private  measures;  enmity  often  lies  concealed  in  the 
heart,  and  does  not  betray  itSelf  by  any  open  act  of 
hostility. 

Enormous,  Prodigious,  Monstrous.  The  enor- 
mous contradicts  our  rules  of  estimating  and  calculating; 
the  prodigious  raises  our  minds  beyond  their  ordinary 
standard  of  thinking;  the  monstrous  contradicts  nature 
and  the  course  of  things.  What  is  enormous  excites 
our  surprise  or  amazement;  what  is  prodigious  excites 
our  astonishment;  what  is  monstrous  does  violence  to 
our  senses  and  understanding. 

Enougli,  Sufficient.  He  has  enough  whose  desires 
are  satisfied ;  he  has  sufficient  whose  wants  are  supplied. 
Enough  is  in  German  genug,  which  comes  from  gen- 
ugen,  to  satisfy.  Sufficient,  in  Latin  sufficiens,  parti- 
ciple of  sufficio,  compounded  of  sub  and  facio,  signifies 
made  or  suited  to  the  purpose. 

Enterprising,  Adventurous.  The  enterprising 
character  conceives  great  projects,  and  pursues  objects 
that  are  difficult  to  be  obtained;  the  adventurous 
character  is  contented  with  seeking  that  which  is  new, 
and  placing  himself  in  dangerous  and  unusual  situations. 
Epitiiet,  Adjective.  Epithet  is  the  technical  term 
of  the  rhetorician;  adjective  that  of  the  grammarian. 
The  same  word  is  an  epithet  as  it  qualifies  the  sense; 
it  is  an  adjective  as  it  is  a  part  of  speech.  Thus,  in  tlie 
phrase,  "Alexander  the  Great,"  great  is  an  epithet,  inas- 
much as  it  designates  Alexander  in  distinction  from 
all  other  persons;  it  is  an  adjective  as  it  expresses  a 
quality  in  distinction  from  the  noun,  Alexander,  which 
denotes  a  thing. 

Equal,  Even,  Equable,  Uke,  or  Alike,  Uniform. 
Equal  is  said  of  degree,  quantity,  number,  and  dimen- 
sions, as  equal  in  years;  even  is  said  of  the  surface  and 
position  of  bodies;  a  board  is  made  even  with  another 
board.  Like  is  said  of  accidental  qualities  in  things,  as 
alike  in  color  or  in  feature;  uniform  is  said  of  tnings 
only  as  to  their  fitness  to  correspond;  those  which  are 
unlike  in  color,  shape,  or  make,  are  not  uniform,  and 


cannot  be  made  to  match  as  pairs.  Equable  is  used  only 
in  the  moral  acceptation,  in  which  All  the  others  are 
likewise  employed. 

Error,  Mistake,  Blunder.  Error  in  its  universal 
sense  is  the  general  term,  since  .every  deviation  from 
what  is  right  in  rational  agents  is  termed  error.  Into 
whatever  we  attempt  to  do  or  think  error  will  be  sure  to 
creep.  The  other  terms  designate  modes  of  error,  which 
refer  mostly  to  the  common  concerns  of  life:  mistake 
is  an  error  of  choice;    blunder  an  error  of  action. 

Error,  Fault.  Error  respects  the  act;  fault  respects 
the  agent:  an  error  may  lie  in  the  judgment,  or  in  the 
conduct;   but  a  fault  lies  in  the  will  or  the  intention. 

Eruption,  Explosion.  Eruption  is  the  coming  into 
view,  by  a  sudden  bursting;  explosion  signifies  bursting 
out  with  a  noise:  hence  of  flames  there  will  be  properly 
an  eruption,  but  of  gunpowder  an  explosion. 

To  Estimate,  Compute,  Rate.  To  estimate  is  to 
obtain  the  aggregate  sum  in  one's  mind,  either  by  an 
immediate  or  a  progressive  act ;  to  compute  is  to  obtain 
the  sum  by  the  gradual  process  of  putting  together 
items;  to  rate  is  to  fix  the  relative  value  in  one's  mind 
by  deduction  and  comparison.  A  builder  estimates  the 
expense  of  building  a  house  on  a  given  plan;  a  pro- 
prietor of  houses  computes  the  probable  aiminution  in 
the  value  of  his  property  in  consequence  of  wear  and 
tear;  the  surveyor  rates  the  present  value  of  lands  or 
houses. 

Eternal,  Endless,  Everlasting.  The  eternal  is  set 
above  time;  the  endless  lies  within  time.  That  is  prop- 
erly eternal  which  has  neither  beginning  nor  end;  that 
is  endless  which  has  a  beginning,  but  no  end;  that 
which  is  everlasting  has  neither  interruption  nor  cessa- 
tion. 

To  Evade,  Equivocate,  Prevaricate.  We  evade 
by  artfully  turning  the  subject  or  calling  off  the  atten- 
tion of  the  inquirer;  we  equivocate  by  the  use  of  ex- 
pressions of  double  interpretation ;  we  prevaricate  by  the 
use  of  loose  and  indefinite  expressions.  We  avoid  giving 
satisfaction  by  evading;  we  give  a  false  satisfaction  by 
equivocating;   we  give  dissatisfaction  by  prevaricating. 

Event,  Incident,  Accident,  Adventure,  Occur- 
rence. These  terms  are  expressive  of  what  passes  in 
the  world,  which  is  the  sole  signification  of  the  term 
event ;  while  to  that  of  the  other  terms  are  annexed 
some  accessory  ideas.  An  incident  is  a  personal 
event;  an  accident  an  event  which  happens  by  the 
way;  an  adventure  an  extraordinary  event;  an  occur- 
rence an  ordinary  or  domestic  event.  Event,  in  its 
ordinary  and  limited  acceptation,  excludes  the  idea  of 
chance;  accident  excludes  that  of  design;  incident, 
adventure,  and  occurrence  are  applicable  in  both  cases. 

To  Exact,  Extort.  To  exact  is  to  demand  perempto- 
rily; it  is  commonly  an  act  of  injustice:  to  extort  is 
to  get  with  violence;    it  is  an  act  of  tyranny. 

Exact,  Nice,  Particular,  Punctual.  To  be  exact 
is  to  arrive  at  perfection;  to  be  nice  is  to  be  free  from 
faults;  to  be  particular  is  to  be  nice  in  certain  particu- 
lars; to  be  punctual  is  to  be  exact  in  certain  points. 
We  are  exact  in  our  conduct  or  in  what  we  do;  nice 
and  particular  in  our  mode  of  doing  it;  punctual  as  to 
the  time  and  the  season  for  doing  it. 

Example,  Pattern,  Ensample.  The  example  must 
be  followed  generally;  the  pattern  must  be  followed 
particularly,  not  only  as  to  what  but  how  a  thing  is  to 
be  done:  the  former  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  judgment; 
the  latter  to  guide  the  actions.  The  ensample  is  a  form 
of  example,  the  word  being  employed  only  in  the  solemn 
style. 

Example,  Instance.  The  example  is  set  forth  by 
way  of  illustration  or  instruction;  the  instance  is  ad- 
duced by  way  of  evidence  or  proof. 

To  Excite,  Incite,  Provoke.  To  excite  is  said  more 
particularly  of  the  inward  feelings;  incite  is  said  of  the 
external  actions;  provoke  is  said  of  both.  A  person's 
passions  are  excited;  he  is  incited  by  any  particular 
passion  to  a  course  of  conduct;  a  particular  feeling  is 
provoked,  or  one  is  provoked  to  a  particular  step  by 
some  feeling. 

Excursion,  Ramble,  Tour,  Trip,  Jaunt.  Excur- 
sion signifies  going  out  of  one's  course;  a  ramble  (from 
roam)  is  a  going  without  any  course  or  regular  path; 
a  tour,  from  the  word  turn  or  return,  is  a  circuitous 
course;  a  trip,  meaning  a  quick,  light  step,  is  properly  a 
pedestrian  excursion  or  tour,  or  any  journey  of  short 
duration ;  those  who  have  no  better  means  of  spending 
their  time  make  jaunts. 

To  Excuse,  Pardon.  We  excuse  a  person  by  ex- 
empting him  from  blame;  we  pardon  by  giving  up 
tho  punishment  of  the  offense  one  has  committed.  We 
excuse  a  small  fault;  we  pardon  a  great  fault:  we 
excuse  that  which  personally  affects  ourselves;  we 
pardon  that  which  offends  against  morals. 


240 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


To  Execute,  Fulflll,  Perform.  To  execute  is  to 
bring  about  an  end;  it  involves  active  measures,  and  is 
peculiarly  applicable  to  that  which  is  extraordinary,  or  to 
that  which  requires  particular  spirit  and  talents.  Schemes 
of  ambition  are  executed.  To  fulfill  is  to  satisfy  a  moral 
obligation.  We  fulfill  tlie  duties  of  citizens.  To  perform 
is  to  carry  through  by  simple  action  or  labor;  it  is  more 
particularly  applicable  to  the  ordinary  and  regular  busi- 
ness of  life.     We  perform  a  work  or  a  task. 

To  Exercise,  Practice.  We  exercise  in  that  where 
the  powers  are  called  forth;  we  practice  in  that  wliere 
frequency  and  habitude  of  action  are  requisite. 

Exigency,  Emergency.  The  exigency  is  more  com- 
mon, but  less  pressing;  the  emergency  is  imperious 
when  it  comes,  but  comes  less  frequently.  A  prudent 
traveler  will  never  carry  more  money  with  him  than 
what  will  supply  the  exigencies  of  his  journey;  in  case 
of  an  emergency  he  will  borrow  of  his  friends  rather  than 
risk  his  property. 

To  Exonerate,  Exculpate.  The  first  is  the  act  of 
another;  the  second  is  one's  own  act.  We  exonerate 
him  upon  whom  a  charge  has  lain,  or  who  has  the  load 
of  guilt;  we  exculpate  ourselves  when  there  is  any 
danger  of  being  blamed:  circumslances  may  sometimes 
tend  to  exonerate;  the  explanation  of  some  person  is 
requisite  to  exculpate. 

Expediency,  Fitness.  The  expediency  of  a  thing 
depends  altogether  upon  the  outward  circumstances; 
the  fitness  is  determined  by  a  moral  rule. 

To  Explain,  Expound,  Interpret.  Single  words  or 
sentences  are  explamed;  a  whole  work,  or  considerable 
parts  of  it,  is  expounded;  the  sense  of  any  writing  or 
symbolical  sign  is  interpreted. 

Expedient,  Resource.  The  expedient  is  an  arti- 
ficial means;  the  resource  is  a  natural  means.  A  cun- 
ning man  is  fruitful  in  expedients;  a  fortunate  man 
abounds  in  resources. 

To  Explain,  Illustrate,  Elucidate.  To  explain  is 
simply  to  render  intelligible;  to  illustrate  and  elucidate 
are  to  give  additional  clearness.  Everything  requires 
to  be  explained  to  one  who  is  ignorant  of  it;  but  the 
best  informed  will  require  to  have  abstruse  subjects 
illustrated,  and  obscure  subjects  elucidated. 

To  Expostulate,  Remonstrate.  We  expostulate 
in  a  tone  of  authority;  we  remonstrate  in  a  tone  of  com- 
plaint. He  who  expostulates  passes  a  censure,  and 
claims  to  be  heard;  he  who  remonstrates  presents  his 
case  and  requests  to  be  heard. 

Extraneous,  Extrinsic,  Foreign.  The  extraneous 
is  that  which  forms  no  necessary  or  natural  part  of 
anything.  The  extrinsic  is  that  which  forms  a  part  or 
has  a  connection  with  a  thing,  but  only  in  an  indirect 
forin;  it  is  not  an  inherent  or  component  part.  The 
foreign  is  that  which  forms  no  part  whatever,  and  has  no 
kind  of  connection  with  an  object  or  an  incident. 

Extraordinary,  Remarkable.  The  extraordinary 
is  that  which  is  out  of  the  ordinary  course,  but  it  does 
not  always  excite  remark,  and  is  not,  therefore,  remark- 
able, as  when  we  speak  of  an  extraordinary  loan;  on 
the  other  hand,  when  the  extraordinary  conveys  the 
idea  of  what  deserves  notice,  it  expresses  what  is  re- 
markable. 

Extravagant,  Prodigal,  Lavish,  Profuse.  The 
extravagant  man  spends  his  money  without  reason; 
the  prodigal  nian  spends  it  in  excesses.  One  may  be 
extravagant  with  a  small  sum  where  it  exceeds  one's 
means;  one  can  be  prodigal  only  with  large  sums. 
Lavish  and  profuse  are  properly  applied  to  particular 
actions,  the  former  to  denote  an  expenditure  more  or 
less  wasteful  or  superfluous,  the  latter  to  denote  a  full 
supply  without  any  sort  of  scant. 

Exuberant,  Luxuriant.  These  terms  are  both  ap- 
plied to  any  flourishing  growth  or  abundance:  exuber- 
ance expresses  the  excess ;   luxuriance  the  perfection. 

Facetious,  Conversable,  Pleasant,  Jocular,  Jo- 
cose. Facetious  may  be  employed  either  for  writing 
or  conversation;  the  rest  only  in  conversation.  The 
facetious  man  deals  in  that  kind  of  discourse  which  may 
excite  laughter;  a  conversable  man  may  instruct  as 
well  as  amuse.  The  pleasant  man  says  everything  in  a 
pleasant  manner;  his  pleasantry  even  on  the  most 
delicate  subject  is  without  offense.  The  person  speaking 
is  jocose;  the  thing  said,  or  the  manner  of  saying  it, 
is  jocular. 

Factious,  Seditious.  Factious  is  an  epithet  to 
characterize  the  tempers  of  men;  seditious  character- 
izes their  conduct.  The  factious  man  attempts  to 
raise  himself  into  importance,  he  aims  at  authority, 
and  seeks  to  interfere  in  the  measures  of  government; 
the  seditious  man   attempts  to  excite  others,   and   to 

E revoke  their  resistance  to  established  authority:    the 
rst  wants  to  be  a  law-giver;    the  second  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  be  a  law-breaker. 


Fair,  Clear.  Fair  is  used  in  a  positive  sense;  clear 
in  a  negative  sense:  there  must  be  some  brightness  in 
what  is  fair;  there  must  be  no  spots  in  what  is  clear. 
The  weather  is  said  to  be  fair,  which  is  not  only  free 
from  what  is  disagreeable,  but  somewhat  enlivened  by 
the  sun ;  it  is  clear  when  it  is  free  from  clouds  or  mists. 
Faith,  Creed.  These  words  are  synonymous  when 
taken  for  the  thing  trusted  in  or  believed;  but  they 
differ  in  this:  faith  has  always  a  reference  to  the  prin- 
ciple in  the  mind;  creed  respects  the  thing  which  is  the 
object  of  faitli. 

Faith,  Fidelity.  Faith  here  denotes  a  mode  of 
action,  namely,  in  acting  true  to  the  faitli  which  others 
repose  in  us;  fidelity,  a  disposition  of  the  mind  to  ad- 
here to  that  faith  which  others  repose  in  us.  We  keep 
our  faith;    we  show  our  fidelity. 

Faithful,  Trusty.  Faithful  respects  the  principle 
altogether;  it  is  suited  to  all  relations  and  stations, 
public  and  private.  Trusty  includes  not  only  the  prin- 
ciple, but  the  mental  qualifications  in  general;  it  applies 
to  those  in  whom  particular  trust  is  to  be  placed.  It  is 
the  part  of  a  Christian  to  be  faithful  to  all  his  engage- 
ments; it  is  a  particular  excellence  in  a  servant  to  be 
trusty. 

Faithless,  Perfidious,  Treacherous.  A  faithless 
man  is  faithless  only  for  his  own  interest;  a  perfidious 
man  is  expressly  so  to  the  injury  of  another.  Perfidy 
may  lie  in  the  will  to  do;  treachery  lies  altogether  in 
the  thing  done.  A  friend  is  perfidious  whenever  he 
evinces  his  perfidy;  but  he  is  said  to  be  treacherous 
only  in  the  particular  instance  in  whicli  he  betrays  the 
confidence  and  interests  of  another. 

Fall,  Downfall,  Ruin.  Fall  applies  to  that  which 
has  been  erect;  downfall  to  that  which  has  been  ele- 
vated. Everything  which  is  set  up,  although  as  trifling 
as  a  stick,  may  have  a  fall ;  but  we  speak  of  the  downfall 
of  the  loftiest  trees  or  the  tallest  spires.  A  man  may  re- 
cover from  his  fall,  but  his  downfall  is  commonly  followed 
by  the  entire  ruin  of  his  concerns,  and  often  of  himself. 
Fallacious,  Deceitful,  Fraudulent.  The  fallacious 
has  respect  to  falsehood  in  opinion;  deceitful  to  that 
which  is  externally  false:  our  hopes  are  often  fallacious; 
the  appearances  of  things  are  often  deceitful.  Falla- 
cious, as  characteristic  of  the  mind,  excludes  the  idea 
of  design;  deceitful  excludes  the  idea  of  mistake;  fraud- 
ulent is  a  gross  species  of  the  deceitful. 

Fame,  Reputation,  Renown.  Fame  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  object,  good,  bad,  or  indifferent;  reputa- 
tion is  applied  only  to  real  eminence  in  some  depart- 
ment; renown  is  employed  only  fojr  extraordinary  men 
and  brilliant  exploits. 

Fame,  Report,  Rumor,  Hearsay.  Fame  serves 
to  form  or  establish  a  character  either  of  a  person  or  a 
thing;  it  will  be  good  or  bad,  according  to  circumstances: 
the  fame  of  our  Saviour's  miracles  went  abroad  through 
the  land.  A  report  serves  to  communicate  information 
of  events;  it  piay  be  more  or  less  correct  according  to 
the  veracity  or  authenticity  of  the  reporter.  A  rumor 
serves  the  purposes  of  fiction ;  it  is  more  or  less  vague 
according  to  the  temper  of  tlie  times  and  the  nature  of 
the  events.  The  hearsay  serves  for  information  or  in- 
struction, and  is  seldom  so  incorrect  as  it  is  familiar. 

Famous,  Celebrated,  Renowned,  Illustrious. 
Famous  signifies  literally  liaving  fame  or  the  cause  of 
fame;  it  is  applicable  to  that  which  causes  a  noise  or 
sensation;  to  that  which  is  talked  of,  written  upon, 
discussed,  and  thought  of;  to  that  which  is  circulated 
among  all  ranks  and  orders  of  men.  Celebrated  signifies 
literally  kept  in  the  memory  by  a  celebration  or  memo- 
rial, and  is  applicable  to  that  which  is  praised  and 
honored  with  solemnity.  Renowned  signifies  literally 
possessed  of  a  name,  and  is  applicable  to  whatever 
extends  the  name,  or  causes  the  name  to  be  often  re- 
peated. Illustrious  signifies  literally  what  has  or  gives 
a  luster;    it  is  applicable  to  whatever  confers  dignity. 

Fanciful,  Fantastical,  Whimsical,  Capricious. 
Fanciful  is  said  of  that  which  is  irregular  in  the  taste  or 
judgrnent;  fantastical  is  said  of  that  which  violates  all 
propriety,  as  well  as  regularity:  the  former  may  consist 
of  a  simple  deviation  from  rule;  the  latter  is  something 
extravagant.  Whimsical  is  a  form  of  the  fanciful  in 
regard  to  one's  likes  or  dislikes;  capricious  respects 
errors  of  temper,  or  irregularities  of  feeling. 

Fancy,  Imagination.  The  fancy  employs  itself 
about  things  without  regarding  tlieir  nature;  but  the 
imagination  aims  at  tracing  a  resemblance,  and  getting 
a  true  copy.  The  fancy  consequently  forms  combina- 
tions, either  real  or  unreal,  as  chance  may  direct;  but 
the  imagination  is  less  often  led  astray.  The  fancy  is 
busy  in  dreams,  or  when  the  mind  is  in  a  disordered 
state;  but  the  imagination  is  supposed  to  act  when  the 
intellectual  powers  are  in  full  play. 

Fatigue,    Weariness,    Lassitude.     Fatigue   is    an 


LANGUAGE 


241 


exhaustion  of  the  animal  or  mental  powers;  weariness  is 
a  wearing  out  of  the  strength,  or  a  breaking  of  the  spirits ; 
lassitude  is  a  general  relaxation  of  the  animal  frame. 

Fearful,  Dreadful,  Frightful,  Tremendous,  Ter- 
rible, Terrific,  Horrible,  Horrid.  A  contest  is  fear- 
ful when  the  issue  is  important,  but  the  event  doubtful; 
the  thought  of  death  is  dreadful  to  one  who  feels  him- 
self unprepared.  The  frightful  is  less  than  the  tremen- 
dous; the  tremendous  than  the  terrible;  the  terrible 
than  the  horrible.  Shrielvs  may  be  frightful;  thunder 
and  lightning  may  be  tremendous;  the  roaring  of  a  lion 
is  terrible;  tlie  glare  of  his  eye  terrific;  the  actual  spec- 
tacle of  killing  is  horrible  or  horrid.  We  may  speak  of 
a  frightful,  dreadful,  terrible,  or  horrid  dream;  or 
frightful,  dreadful,  or  terrtble  tempest;  dreadful,  ter- 
rible, or  horrid  consequences. 

To  Feel,  be  Sensible,  Conscious.  To  feel  is  said 
of  the  whole  frame,  inwardly  and  outwardly;  it  is  the 
accompaniment  of  existence:  to  be  sensible  is  said  only 
of  the  senses.  It  is  the  property  of  all  living  creatures 
to  feel  pleasure  and  pain  in  a  greater  or  less  degree; 
those  creatures  which  have  not  the  sense  of  hearing  will 
not  be  sensible  of  sounds.  One  is  conscious  only  of  what 
passes  inwardly;  we  are  conscious  of  having  fallen 
short  of  our  duty. 

To  Feign,  Pretend.  One  feigns  in  order  to  gain 
some  future  end:  a  person  feigns  sickness  in  order  to 
be  excused  from  paying  a  disagreeable  visit.  One  pre- 
tends in  order  to  serve  a  present  purpose:  a  child  who 
wishes  to  excuse  himself  for  his  idleness  pretends  to 
have  lost  his  book. 

To  Felicitate,  Congratulate.  Felicitate  signifies  to 
make  happy,  and  is  applicable  only  to  ourselves;  con- 
gratulate is  applicable  either  to  ourselves  or  others: 
we  felicitate  ourselves  on  having  escaped  the  danger; 
we  congratulate  others  on  their  good  fortune. 

Female,  Feminine,  Eflfeminate.  In  the  female 
character  we  expect  to  find  that  which  is  feminine.  The 
female  dress,  manners,  and  habits,  have  engaged  the 
attention  of  all  essayists,  from  the  time  of  Addison  to  the 
present  period.  The  feminine  is  natural  to  the  female; 
the  effeminate  is  unnatural  to  the  male. 

Ferocious,  Fierce,  Savage.  Ferocious  marks  the 
untamed  character  of  a  cruel  disposition ;  fierce  has  a 
greater  mixture  of  pride  and  anger  in  it;  savage 
marks  a  more  permanent,  but  not  so  violent  a  sentiment 
of  either  cruelty  or  anger  as  the  two  former.  Ferocity 
and  fierceness  are  in  common  applied  to  the  brutes,  to 
designate  their  natural  tempers:  savage  is  mostly  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  natural  tempers  of  man,  when 
uncontrolled  by  the  force  of  reason  and  a  sense  of  religion. 

Fervent,  Ardent.  The  affections  are  properly  fer- 
vent; the  passions  are  ardent:  we  are  fervent  in  feeling, 
and  ardent  in  acting. 

Final,  Conclusive.  Final  designates  simply  the 
circumstance  of  being  the  last;  conclusive  the  mode  of 
finishing  or  coming  to  the  last.  A  determination  is  final 
which  is  to  be  succeeded  by  no  other;  a  reasoning  is  con- 
clusive that  puts  a  stop  to  further  question. 

To  Find,  Discover,  Invent.  The  merit  of  finding 
or  inventing  consists  in  newly  applying  or  modifying 
the  materials,  which  exist  separately;  the  merit  of 
discovering  consists  in  removing  the  obstacles  which 
prevent  us  from  knowing  the  real  nature  of  the  thing. 
Imagination  and  industry  are  requisite  for  finding  or 
inventing;  acuteness  and  penetration  for  discovering. 
Find  is  applicable  to  the  operative  arts;  invent  to  the 
mechanical;    discover  to  the  speculative. 

To  Find  Fault  With,  Blame,  Object  To.  We  find 
fault  with  a  person  for  his  behavior ;  we  find  fault  with  our 
house  or  servant ;  we  blame  a  person  for  his  temerity  or 
his  improvidence;  we  object  to  a  measure  that  is  pro- 
posed. We  find  fault  with  or  blame  that  which  has 
been  done;  we  object  to  that  which  has  been  or  is  to  be 
done. 

Fine,  Delicate,  Nice.  Fine,  in  the  natural  sense, 
denotes  smallness  in  general.  Delicate  denotes  a  degree 
of  fineness  that  is  agreeable  to  the  taste.  Thread  is  said 
to  be  fine;  silk  is  said  to  be  delicate,  when  to  fineness  of 
texture  it  adds  softness.  Nice  is  said  of  what  is  agreeable 
to  the  appetite. 

Finite,  Limited.  Finite  is  the  natural  property  of 
things;  and  limited  is  the  artificial  property:  the  former 
is  opposite  only  to  the  infinite;  but  the  latter,  which  lies 
within  the  finite,  is  opposed  to  the  unlimited  or  the  in- 
finite. This  world  is  finite,  and  space  infinite;  the  power 
of  a  prince  is  limited. 

Firm,  Fixed,  Solid,  Stable.  Firm  (v.  constancy). 
Fixed  denotes  the  state  of  being  secure;  solid,  in  Latin 
solidus,  comes  from  solum,  the  ground,  which  is  the  most 
solid  thing  existing;  stable  (v.  constancy).  That  is 
firm  which  is  not  easily  shaken;  that  is  fixed  which  is 
fastened  to  something  else,  and  not  easily  torn;    that  is 


solid  which  is  able  to  bear,  and  does  not  easily  give  way; 
that  is  stable  which  is  able  to  make  a  stand  against  re- 
sistance, or  the  effects  of  time. 

Fit,  Apt,  Meet.  A  house  is  fit  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  family  according  to  the  plan  of  the  builder; 
the  young  mind  is  apt  to  receive  either  good  or  bad  im- 
pressions. Meet  is  a  term  of  rare  use,  except  in  spiritual 
matters  or  in  poetry:  it  is  meet  to  offer  our  prayers  to 
the  Supreme  Disposer  of  all  things. 

Flatterer,  Sycophant,  Parasite.  The  flatterer  is 
one  who  flatters  by  words.  The  sycophant  and  the  para- 
site are  therefore  always  flatterers,  and  something  more, 
for  the  sycophant  adopts  every  mean  artifice  by  which  he 
can  ingratiate  himself,  and  the  parasite  submits  to  every 
degradation  and  servile  compliance  by  which  he  can  ob- 
tain his  base  purpose. 

Flexible,  Pliable,  Pliant,  Supple.  Flexible  is  used 
in  a  natural  or  moral  sense;  pliable  in  the  familiar  sense 
only;  pliant  in  the  higher  and  moral  application  only. 
What  can  be  bent  in  any  degree,  as  a  stick,  is  flexible; 
what  can  be  bent  as  wax,  or  folded  like  cloth,  is  pliable. 
Supple,  whether  in  a  proper  or  a  figurative  sense,  is  an 
excess  of  pliability;  what  can  be  bent  backward  and  for- 
ward, like  osier  twig,  is  supple. 

To  Fluctuate,  Waver.  To  fluctuate  conveys  the 
idea  of  strong  agitation;  to  waver,  that  of  constant 
motion  backward  and  forward.  When  applied  in  the 
moral  sense,  to  fluctuate  designates  the  action  of  the 
spirits  pr  the  opinions;  to  waver  is  said  only  of  the  will 
or  opinions. 

To  Follow,  Succeed,  Ensue.  Follow  and  succeed 
are  used  of  persons  and  things;  ensue  of  things  only. 
Follow,  in  respect  of  persons,  denotes  the  going  in  order; 
succeed  denotes  the  going  or  being  in  the  same  place 
immediately  after  another:  many  persons  may  follow 
one  another  at  the  same  time;  but  only  one  individual 
properly  succeeds  another.  Ensue  is  used  in  specific  cases ; 
quarrels  too  often  ensue  from  the  conversations  of  violent 
men  who  differ  either  in  religion  or  politics. 

To  Follow,  Pursue.  The  idea  of  going  after  any 
object  in  order  to  reach  or  obtain  it  is  common  to  these 
terms,  but  under  different  circumstances:  to  follow  a 
person  is  mostly  with  a  friendly  intention ;  to  pursue  with 
a  hostile  intention. 

Follower,  Adherent,  Partisan.  A  follower  is  one 
who  follows  a  person  generally;  an  adherent  is  one  who 
holds  to  his  cause;   a  partisan  is  the  follower  of  a  party. 

Folly,  Foolery.  Folly  is  the  abstract  of  foolish,  and 
characterizes  the  thing;  foolery  is  the  abstract  of  fool, 
and  characterizes  the  person.  Young  people  are  per- 
petually committing  follies  if  not  under  proper  control; 
fashionable  people  lay  aside  one  foolery  only  to  take  up 
another. 

Fool,  Idiot,  Buffoon.  Fool  is  doubtless  connected 
with  our  word  foul,  in  German  faul,  which  is  either  nasty 
or  lazy,  and  with  the  Greek  word,  which  signifies  worthless 
or  good  for  nothing.  Idiot  comes  from  the  Greek  word 
signifying  either  a  private  person  or  one  that  is  rude  and 
unskilled  in  the  ways  of  the  world.  Buffoon,  in  French 
"  bouffon,"  is  in  all  probability  connected  with  our  word 
beef,  buffalo,  and  bull,  signifying  a  senseless  fellow. 
The  fool  is  either  naturally  or  artificially  a  fool;  the 
idiot  is  a  natural  fool;  the  buffoon  is  an  artificial  fool. 
Whoever  violates  common-sense  in  his  actions  is  a  fool; 
whoever  is  unable  to  act  according  to  common-sense  is  an 
idiot;  whoever  intentionally  violates  common-sense  is  a 
buffoon. 

Foolhardy,  Adventurous,  Bash.  The.  foolhardy 
man  ventures  in  defiance  of  consequences;  the  adven- 
turous man  ventures  from  a  love  of  the  arduous  and  the 
bold;    the  rash  man  ventures  for  want  of  thought. 

Force,  Violence.  The  arm  of  justice  must  exercise 
force  in  order  to  bring  offenders  to  a  proper  account; 
one  nation  exercises  violence  against  another  in  the  act 
of  carrying  on  war.  Force  is  mostly  conformable  to  rea- 
son and  equity;  violence  is  always  resorted  to  for  the 
attainment  of  that  which  is  unattainable  by  law:  force 
is  always  something  desirable;  violence  is  always  some- 
thing hurtful.  We  ought  to  listen  to  arguments  which 
have  force  in  them;  we  endeavor  to  correct  the  violence 
of  all  angry  passions. 

Forefathers,  Progenitors,  Ancestors.  Fore- 
fathers signifies  our  fathers  before  us,  and  includes  our 
immediate  parents;  progenitors  signifies  those  begotten 
before  us,  exclusive  of  our  immediate  parents;  ancestors 
is  said  of  those  from  whom  we  are  remotely  descended. 

To  Foretell,  Predict,  Prophesy,  Prognosticate. 
We  may  foretell  common  events,  although  we  cannot 
predict  or  prophesy  anything  important:  one  foretells 
by  a  simple  calculation  or  guess.  To  predict  and  prophesy 
are  extraordinary  gifts:  one  predicts  by  a  supernatural 
power,  real  or  supposed;  one  prophesies  by  means  of 
inspiration.     To  prognosticate  is  an  act  of  the  under- 


242 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


standing;  it  is  guided  by  outward  symptoms  as  a  rule. 
A  physician  prognosticates  the  crisis  of  a  disorder  by  the 
symptoms  discoverable  in  the  patient. 

Forgetfulness,  Oblivion.  Forgetfulness  character- 
izes the  person,  or  that  which  is  personal;  oblivion  the 
state  of  tne  thing:  the  former  refers  to  him  who  forgets; 
the  latter  to  that  which  is  forgotten. 

To  Forgive,  Pardon,  Absolve,  Remit.  Individuals 
forgive  each  other  personal  offenses;  they  pardon  of- 
fenses against  law  and  morals:  the  former  is  an  act  of 
Christian  charity;  the  latter  an  act  of  clemency.  To 
remit  is  to  refrain  from  inflicting;  it  lias  more  par- 
ticular regard  to  the  punishment;  it  is  granted  either 
by  the  prince  or  magistrates;  it  arrests  the  execution 
of  justice.  To  absolve  is  to  free  from  penalty  either 
by  the  civil  judge  or  the  ecclesiastical  minister;  it  re- 
establishes the  accused  in  the  rights  of  innocence. 

To  Form,  Fashion,  Mold,  Shape.  As  everything 
respects  a  form  when  it  receives  existence,  so  to  form 
conveys  the  idea  of  producing.  When  we  wish  to  repre- 
sent a  thing  as  formed  in  any  distinct  or  remarkable 
way,  we  may  speak  of  it  as  fashioned.  God  formed  man 
out  of  the  oust  of  the  ground;  he  fashioned  him  after 
his  own  image.  When  we  wish  to  represent  a  thing  as 
formed  according  to  a  precise  rule,  we  should  say  it  was 
molded;  thus  tne  habits  of  a  man  are  molded  at  the 
will  of  a  superior.  When  we  wish  to  represent  a  thing 
as  receiving  the  accidental  qualities  which  distinguish 
it  from  others,  we  talk  of  shaping  it. 

Form,  Ceremony,  Kite,  Observance.  Form  re- 
spects all  determinate  modes  of  acting  and  speaking, 
that  are  adopted  by  society  at  large,  in  every  transaction 
of  life;  ceremony  respects  those  forms  of  outward  be- 
havior which  are  made  the  expressions  of  respect  and 
deference;  rite  and  observance  are  applied  to  national 
ceremonies  in  matters  of  religion.  Every  country  has 
adopted  certain  rites  founded  upon  its  peculiar  religious 
faith,  and  prescribed  certain  observances  by  which 
individuals  can  make  a  public  profession  of  their  faith. 

Formidable,  Dreadful,  Terrible,  Shocking.  The 
formidable  acts  neither  suddenly  nor  violently;  the 
dreadful  may  act  violently,  but  not  suddenly:  thus  the 
appearance  of  an  army  may  be  formidable;  but -that  of 
a  field  of  battle  is  dreadful.  The  terrible  and  the  shock- 
ing act  both  suddenly  and  violently;  but  the  former  acts 
both  on  the  senses  and  the  imagination,  the  latter  on  the 
moral  feelings:  thus,  the  glare  of  a  tiger's  eye  is  terrible; 
the  unexpected  hews  of  a  friend's  death  is  shocking. 

Forsaken,  Forlorn,  Destitute.  To  be  forsaken 
(v.  to  abandon)  is  to  be  deprived  of  the  company  and 
the  assistance  of  those  we  have  looked  to ;  to  be  forlorn  is 
to  be  forsaken  in  time  of  difficulty,  to  be  without  a  guide 
in  an  unknown  road;  to  be  destitute  is  to  be  deprived 
of  the  first  necessaries  of  life. 

To  Forswear,  Perjure,  Suborn.  To  forswear  is 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  oaths;  to  perjure  is  employed  only 
for  such  oaths  as  have  been  administered  by  the  civil 
magistrate.  A  soldier  forswears  himself  who  breaks  his 
oath  of  allegiance  by  desertion;  a  man  perjures  himself 
in  a  court  of  law  who  swears  to  the  truth  of  that  which 
he  knows  to  be  false.  Suborn  signifies  to  make  to  for- 
swear: a  perjured  man  has  all  the  guilt  upon  himself; 
but  he  who  is  suborned  shares  his  guilt  with  the  suborner. 

To  Foster,  Cherish,  Harbor,  Indulge.  These 
terms  are  all  employed  here  in  the  moral  acceptation, 
to  express  the  idea  of  giving  nourishment  to  an  object. 
To  foster  in  the  mind  is  to  keep  with  care  and  positive 
endeavors;  as  when  one  fosters  prejudices  by  encourag- 
ing everything  which  favors  them:  to  cherish  in  the 
mind  is  to  hold  dear  or  set  a  value  upon;  as  when  one 
cherishes  good  sentiments,  by  dwelling  upon  them  with 
inward  satisfaction.  To  harbor  is  to  allow  room  in  the 
mind,  and  is  generally  taken  in  the  worst  sense,  for  giving 
admission  to  that  which  ought  to  be  excluded ;  as  when 
one  harbors  resentment  by  permitting  it  to  have  a  resting- 
place  in  the  heart:  to  indulge  in  the  mind  is  to  give  the 
whole  mind  to  it,  to  make  it  the  chief  source  of  pleasure ; 
as  when  one  indulges  an  affection,  by  making  the  will 
and  the  outward  conduct  bend  to  its  gratifications. 

Foundation,  Ground,  Basis.  A  report  is  said  to  be 
without  any  foundation  which  has  taken  its  rise  in  mere 
conjecture,  or  in  some  arbitrary  cause  independent  of  all 
fact.  A  man's  suspicion  .is  said  to  be  without  ground 
when  not  supported  by  the  shadow  of  external  evi- 
dence: both  foundation  and  basis  are  the  lowest  parts 
of  any  structure;  but  the  former  lies  under  ground,  the 
latter  stands  above.  The  foundation  supports  some  large 
and  artificially  erected  pile;  the  basis  supports  a  simple 
pillar. 

Fragile,  Frail,  Brittle.  Man,  corporeally  considered 
is  a  fragile  creature,  his  frame  is  composed  of  fragile  ma- 
terials; mentally  considered,  he  is  a  frail  creature,  for  he 
is  liable  to  every  sort  of  frailty.     Fragile  applies  to  what- 


ever will  break  from  the  effects  of  time;  brittle  to  that 
which  will  not  bear  a  temporary  violence. 

Frank,  Candid,   Ingenuous,  Free,   Open,  Plain. 

The  frank  man  is  under  no  constraint ;  his  tnoughts  and 
feelings  are  both  set  at  ease,  and  his  lips  are  ever  ready 
to  give  utterance  to  the  dictates  of  his  heart :  the  candid 
man  has  nothing  to  conceal;  he  speaks  without  regard 
to  self-interest  or  any  partial  motive;  he  speaks  nothing 
but  the  truth.  The  ingenuous  man  throws  off  all  disguise ; 
lie  scorns  all  artifice,  and  brings  everything  to  light;  he 
speaks  the  whole  truth.  Free,  open,  and  plain  have  not  so 
high  an  office  as  the  first  tliree.  The  frank,  free,  and  open 
men  all  speak  without  constraint;  but  the  frank  man  is 
not  impertinent  like  the  free  man,  nor  indiscreet  like  the 
open  man.  The  frank  man  speaks  only  of  what  concerns 
himself;  the  free  man  speaks  of  what  concerns  others; 
the  open  man  says  all  he  knows  and  thinks,  from  the  in- 
considerate levity  of  his  temper.  The  plain  man  speaks 
plainly  but  truly;  he  gives  no  false  coloring  to  his 
speech. 

Free,  Liberal.  To  be  free  signifies  to  act  or  think 
at  will;  to  be  liberal  is  to  act  according  to  the  dictates 
of  an  enlarged  heart  and  an  enlightened  mind. 

Free,  Familiar.  To  be  free  is  to  be  disengaged  from 
all  the  constraints  which  the  ceremonies  of  social  inter- 
course impose;  to  be  familiar  is  to  be  upon  the  footing 
of  a  friend,  of  a  relative,  or  of  one  of  the  same  family. 

Free,  Exempt.  Free  is  applied  to  everything  from 
which  any  one  may  wish  to  be  free;  but  exempt,  on  the 
contrary,  is  applied  to  those  burdens  which  we  should 
share  with  others. 

Freedom,  Liberty.  Freedom  is  personal  and  private; 
liberty  is  public.  The  freedom  of  the  city  is  the  privilege 
granted  by  the  city  to  individuals;  the  liberties  of  the 
city  are  the  immunities  enjoyed  by  the  city. 

"To  Frequent,  Resort  "To,  Haunt.  Frequent  is 
more  commonly  used  of  an  individual  who  goes  often  to 
a  place;  resort  and  haunt  of  a  number  of  individuals. 
A  man  may  frequent  a  theater,  a  club,  or  any  other  social 
meeting,  innocent  or  otherwise;  people  from  different 
quarters  may  resort  to  a  fair,  a  church,  or  any  other  place 
where  they  wish  to  meet  for  a  common  purpose;  but 
those  who  haunt  any  place  go  to  it  in  privacy  for  some 
bad  purpose. 

To  Frieliten,  Intimidate.  The  danger  that  is  near 
or  before  the  eyes  frightens;  that  which  is  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance intimidates. 

Funeral,  Obsequies.  We  speak  of  the  funeral  as 
the  last  sad  office  which  we  perform  for  a  friend;  it  is 
accompanied  by  nothing  but  by  mourning  and  sorrow. 
We  speak  of  obsequies  as  the  greatest  tribute  of  respect 
which  can  be  paid  to  the  person  of  one  who  was  high  in 
station  or  public  esteem. 

To  Gape,  Stare,  Gaze.  Gape  and  stare  are  taken  in 
an  ill  sense:  the  former  indicates  the  astonishment  of 
gross  ignorance;  the  latter  not  only  ignorance  but  im- 
pertinence. Gaze  is  taken  always  in  a  good  sense,  as  in- 
dicating a  laudable  feeling  of  astonishment,  pleasure,  or 
curiosity. 

To  Gather,  Collect.  To  gather  signifies  to  bring' 
things  of  a  sort  together;  to  collect  annexes  also  the  idea 
of  l)inding  or  forming  into  a  whole.  We  gather  that  which 
is  scattered  in  different  parts:  tlius  stones  are  gathered 
into  a  heap;    vessels  are  collected  so  as  to  form  a  fleet. 

General,  Universal.  What  is  general  includes  the 
greater  part  or  number;  what  is  universal  includes  every 
individual  or  part. 

Genteel,    Polite.     Gentility    respects    rank    in    hfe; 

Coliteness  the  refinement  of  the  mind  and  outward 
ehavior.  A  genteel  education  is  suited  to  the  station 
of  a  gentleman;  a  polite  education  fits  for  polished 
society  and  conversation,  and  raises  the  individual 
among  his  equals. 

Gentle,  Tame.  Any  unbroken  horse  may  be  gentle, 
but  not  tame;  a  horse  that  is  broken  in  will  be  tame, 
but  not  always  gentle.  Gentle  signifies  literally  well- 
born, and  is  opposed  either  to  the  fierce  or  tlie  rude; 
tame  is  opposed  either  to  the  wild  or  the  spirited. 

Gift,  Present,  Donation.  The  gift  is  an  act  of 
generosity  or  condescension;  it  contributes  to  the  benefit 
of  the  receiver :  the  present  is  an  act  of  kindness  courtesy 
or  respect;  it  contributes  to  the  pleasure  of  the  receiver. 
The  ^ift  is  private,  and  benefits  the  individual;  the 
donation  is  public,  and  serves  some  general  purpose. 
What  is  given  to  relieve  the  necessities  of  any  poor  per- 
son is  a  gift;  what  is  given  to  support  an  institution  is 
a  donation. 

To  Give,  Grant,  Bestow.  The  idea  of  communi- 
cating to  another  what  is  our  own,  or  in  our  power,  is 
common  to  these  terms;  tliis  is  the  whole  signification 
of  give.  To  grant  is  to  give  at  one's  pleasure;  to  bestow 
is  to  give  from  a  certain  degree  of  necessity.  We  give 
money,    clothes,    food,    or    whatever    is     transferable. 


LANGUAGE 


243 


Granting  is  confined  to  such  objects  as  afford  pleasure 
or  convenience;  bestowing  is  applied  to  such  objects 
only  as  are  necessary  to  supply  wants,  which  always 
consist  of  that  which  is  transferable. 

To  Give,  Present,  Offer,  Exhibit.  We  give  to 
our  domestics;  we  present  to  princes;  we  offer  to  God;  we 
give  to  a  person  what  we  wish  to  be  received ;  we  present 
to  a  person  what  we  think  agreeable.  A  poem  is  said  to 
exhibit  marks  of  genius. 

To  Give  Up,  Abandon,  Resign,  Forego.  To  give 
up  is  applied  to  familiar  cases;  abandon  to  matters  of 
importance:  one  gives  up  an  idea,  an  intention,  a  plan, 
and  the  like;  one  abandons  a  project,  a  scheme,  a 
measure  of  government.  A  man  gives  up  his  situation 
by  a  positive  act  of  his  choice ;  he  resigns  his  office  when 
he  feels  it  inconvenient  to  hold  it.  So,  likewise,  we  give 
up  expectations,  and  resign  hopes;  we  resign  that 
wnich  we  have,  and  we  forego  that  which  we  might 
have. 

Glaring,  Barefaced.  Glaring  designates  the  thing; 
barefaced  characterizes  the  person:  a  glaring  falsehood 
is  that  which  strikes  the  observer  in  an  instant  to  be 
a  falsehood ;  a  barefaced  lie  or  a  falsehood  betrays  the 
effrontery  of  him  who  utters  it. 

Glimpse,  Glance.  A  glimpse  is  the  action  of  the 
object  appearing  to  the  eye;  a  glance  is  the  action  of 
the  eye  seeking  the  object.  One  catches  a  glimpse  of 
an  object;   one  casts  a  glance  at  an  object. 

Glory,  Honor.  Glory  is  something  dazzling  and 
widely  diffused;  honor  is  something  less  splendid,  but 
more  solid.  Glory  impels  to  extraordinary  efforts  and 
to  great  undertakings;  honor  induces  to  a  discharge  of 
one's  duty. 

To  Glory,  Boast,  Vaunt.  To  glory  is  to  exult  or 
to  rejoice;  to  boast  is  to  set  forth  to  one's  advantage; 
to  vaunt  is  to  set  oneself  up  before  others.  To  glory 
is  more  particularly  the  act  of  the  mind,  the  indulgence 
of  the  internal  sentiment;  to  boast  denotes  rather  the 
expression  of  the  sentiment;  to  vaunt  is  properly  to 
proclaim  praises  aloud,  and  is  taken  either  in  an  indif- 
ferent or  in  a  bad  sense. 

Godlilie,  Divine,  Heavenly.  Godlike  is  a  more 
expressive,  but  less  common  term  than  divine:  the 
former  is  used  only  as  an  epithet  of  peculiar  praise  for 
an  individual;  divine  is  generally  employed  for  that 
which  appertains  to  a  superior  being,  in  distinction  from 
that  which  is  human.  A  heavenly  being  denotes  the 
angels  or  inhabitants  of  heaven,  in  distinction  from 
earthly  beings.  As  divine  is  opposed  to  human,  so  is 
heavenly  to  earthly. 

Good-nature,  Good-humor.  Good-nature  and 
good-humor  both  imply  the  disposition  to  please  and 
be  pleased;  but  the  former  is  habitual  and  permanent, 
the  latter  is  temporary  and  partial.  The  former  lies  in 
the  nature  and  frame  of  the  mind,  the  latter  in  the 
state  of  the  humors  or  spirits. 

To  Govern,  Rule,  Regulate.  The  exercise  of 
authority  enters  more  or  less  into  the  signification  of 
these  terms;  but  to  govern  implies  the  exercise  likewise 
of  judgment  and  knowledge.  To  rule  implies  rather 
the  unqualified  exercise  of  power,  the  making  the  will 
the  rule.  A  king  governs  his  people  by  means  of  wise 
laws  and  an  upright  administration;  a  despot  rules 
over  a  nation  according  to  his  arbitrary  decision.  To 
regulate  is  to  govern  or  control  simply  by  judgment; 
the  word  is  applicable  to  things  of  minor  moment,  where 
the  force  of  authority  is  not  so  requisite:  one  governs 
the  affairs  of  a  nation,  or  a  large  body  where  great 
interests  are  involved;  we  regulate  the  concerns  of  an 
individual. 

Government,  Administration.  Both  these  terms 
may  be  employed  either  to  designate  the  act  of  governing 
and  administering,  or  the  persons  governing  and  admin- 
istering. In  both  cases  government  has  a  more  exten- 
sive meaning  than  administration:  the  former  includes 
every  exercise  of  authority;  administration  implies  only 
that  exercise  of  authority  which  consists  in  putting 
the  laws  or  the  will  of  another  in  force.  When  we 
speak  of  the  government,  as  it  respects  the  persons, 
it  implies  the  whole  body  of  constituted  authorities; 
and  the  administration,  only  that  part  which  puts  in 
execution  the  intentions  of  the  whole. 

Grace,  Charm,  Elegance,  Grace  is  altogether 
corporeal ;  charm  is  either  corporeal  or  mental :  the  grace 
qualifies  the  action  of  the  body;  the  charm  is  an  inherent 
quality  in  the  body  itself.  A  lady  moves,  dances,  and 
walks  with  grace ;  the  charms  of  her  person  are  equal  to 
those  of  her  mind.  A  graceful  figure  is  rendered  so  by 
the  deportment  of  the  body.  A  comely  figure  has  that  in 
itself  which  pleases  the  eye.  Grace  is  a  quality  pleasing 
to  the  eye;  but  elegance  is  a  quality  of  a  higher  nature, 
and  inspires  admiration.  Elegant  is  applicable,  like 
graceful,  to  the  motion  of  the  body,  or  like  comely  to 


the  person,  and  is  extended  in  its  meaning  also  to  lan- 
guage, and  even  to  dress. 

To  Gratify,  Indulge,  Humor.  To  gratify  is  a 
positive  act  of  the  choice;  to  indulge  is  a  negative  act 
of  the  will,  a  yielding  of  the  mind  to  circumstances.  One 
gratifies  his  desires  or  appetites;  he  indulges  his  humors, 
or  indulges  in  pleasures.  We  gratify  and  indulge  others 
as  well  as  ourselves,  and  mostly  in  the  good  sense.  To 
gratify  is  for  the  most  part  in  return  for  services; 
it  is  an  act  of  generosity:  to  indulge  is  to  yield  to  the 
wishes  or  be  lenient  to  the  infirmities  of  others;  it  is 
an  act  of  kindness  or  good-nature.  To  humor  is  mostly 
taken  in  a  bad  sense. 

Gratuitous,  Voluntary.  Gratuitous  is  opposed  to 
that  which  is  obligatory;  voluntary  is  opposed  to  that 
which  is  compulsory,  or  involuntary. 

Grave,  Serious,  Solemn.  Grave  expresses  more 
than  serious;  it  does  not  merely  bespeak  the  absence  of 
mirth,  but  that  heaviness  of  mind  which  is  displayed 
in  all  the  movements  of  the  body.  Serious,  on  the 
other  hand,  bespeaks  no  depression,  but  simply  steadi- 
ness of  action,  and  a  refrainment  from  all  that  is  jocular. 
A  judge  pronounces  the  solemn  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion in  a  solemn  manner;  a  preacher  delivers  many 
solemn  warnings  to  his  hearers. 

Great,  Lai^e,  Big.  Great  applies  to  all  sorts  of 
dimensions  by  which  things  are  measured:  large  may 
apply  to  generous  giving;  it  usually  refers  to  magni- 
tude, bulk,  or  scope.  Big  denotes  great  as  to  ex- 
pansion or  capacity.  A  house,  a  room,  is  great  or 
large;  an  animal  or  a  mountain  is  great  or  big;  a  road, 
a  city,  a  street,  and  the  like,  is  termed  great  rather 
than  large.  We  may  speak  of  a  large  portion,  or  of  a 
mind  big  with  conception. 

Great,  Grand,  Sublime.  These  terms  are  synony- 
mous only  in  their  moral  application.  Great  simply 
designates  extent;  grand  includes  hkewise  the  idea  of 
excellence  and  superiority.  A  great  undertaking  char- 
acterizes only  the  extent  of  the  undertaking;  a  grand 
undertaking  bespeaks  its  superior  excellence.  Sublime 
designates  the  dimensions  of  height.  A  scene  may  be 
either  grand  or  sublimfe;  it  is  grand  as  it  fills  the  imagina- 
tion with  its  immensity;  it  is  sublime  as  it  elevates  the 
imagination  beyond  the  surrounding  and  less  important 
objects. 

To  Groan,  Moan.  Groan  is  a  deep  sound  produced 
by  hard  breathing;  moan  is  a  plaintive,  long-drawn 
sound  produced  by  the  organs  of  utterance.  The  groan 
proceeds  involuntarily  as  an  expression  of  severe  pain, 
either  of  body  or  mind;  the  moan  proceeds  often  from 
the  desire  of  awakening  attention  or  exciting  compassion. 

Gross,  Coarse.  These  terms  are  synonymous  in  the 
moral  application.  Grossness  of  habit  is  opposed  to 
delicacy;  coarseness  to  softness  and  refinement.  A  per- 
son becomes  gross  by  an  unrestrained  indulgence  of  his 
sensual  appetites,  particularly  in  eating  and  drinking; 
he  is  coarse  from  the  want  of  polish  either  as  to  his  mind 
or  manners. 

To  Guard,  Defend,  Watch.  To  guard,  in  its 
largest  sense,  comprehends  both  watching  and  defending, 
that  is,  both  the  preventing  the  attack  and  the  resisting 
it  when  it  is  made.  In  the  restricted  sense,  to  guard  is 
properly  to  keep  off  an  enemy;  to  defend  is  to  drive  him 
away  when  he  makes  the  attack.  Watch,  like  guard, 
consists  in  looking  to  the  danger,  but  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  the  use  of  any  means  to  prevent  the  danger: 
he  who  watches  gives  an  alarm. 

Guard,  Guardian.  The  guard  only  defends  against 
external  evils;  the  guardian  takes  upon  him  the  office 
of  parent,  counselor,  and  director. 

To  Guess,  Conjecture,  Divine.  We  guess  that  a 
thing  actually  is;  we  conjecture  that  which  may  be: 
we  guess  that  it  is  a  certain  hour;  we  conjecture  as  to  the 
meaning  of  a  person's  actions.  To  guess  and  to  con- 
jecture are  natural  acts  of  the  mind.  To  divine,  in  its 
proper  sense,  is  a  supernatural  act;  in  this  sense  impos- 
tors in  our  time  presume  to  divine  in  matters  that  are 
set  above  the  reach  of  human  comprehension.  "The 
term  is,  however,  employed  to  denote  a  kind  of  guessing 
in  different  matters,  as  to  divine  the  meaning  of  a  mys- 
tery. 

Guest,  Visitor,  or  Visitant.  Guest  signifies  one 
who  is  entertained;  visitor  or  visitant  is  the  one  who 
pays  the  visit.  The  visitor  simply  comes  to  see  the 
person,  and  enjoy  social  intercourse;  but  the  guest  par- 
takes also  of  hospitality. 

Guise,  Habiti  The  guise  is  that  which  is  unusual, 
and  often  only  occasional;  the  habit  is  that  which  is 
usual  among  particular  classes.  A  person  sometimes 
assumes  the  guise  of  a  peasant,  in  order  the  better  to 
conceal  himself;  he  who  devotes  himself  to  the  clerical 
profession  puts  on  the  habit  of  a  clergyman. 

Habitation,  Home,  House,  Residence.  Habitation 


244 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


implies  merely  a  dwelling-place;  house  refers  to  a  build- 
ing constructed  purposely  for  dwelling  therein.  Home 
is  usually  restrictetl  to  mean  an  endeared  dwelling  as 
the  scene  of  domestic  ties  and  family  life.  Residence  is 
a  more  formal,  though  less  exact,  term  than  house. 

To  Happen,  Chance.  Happen  respects  all  events, 
without  including  any  collateral  idea;  chance  compre- 
hends likewise  the  idea  of  the  cause  and  order  of  events. 
Whatever  comes  to  pass  happens,  whether  regularly  in 
the  course  of  things,  or  particularly  and  out  of  the  order; 
whatever  chances,  happens  altogether  without  concert, 
intention,  and  often  without  relation  to  any  other  thing. 

Happy,  Fortunate.  Both  words  are  applied  to 
the  external  circumstances  of  a  man:  the  former 
conveys  the  idea  of  that  which  is  abstractly  good ;  the 
latter  implies  rather  what  is  agreeable  to  one's  wishes. 
A  man  is  happy  in  his  marriage;  he  is  fortunate  in  his 
trading  concerns.  Happy  excludes  the  idea  of  chance; 
fortunate  excludes  the  idea  of  personal  effort. 

Harbor,  Haven,  Port.  The  idea  of  a  resting-place 
for  vessels  is  common  to  these  terms.  Harbor  carries 
with  it  little  more  than  the  common  idea  of  affording  a 
resting  or  anchoring  place;  haven  conveys  the  idea  of 
security;  port  conveys  the  idea  of  an  enclosure.  A 
haven  is  a  natural  harbor;   a  port  is  an  artificial  harbor. 

Hard,  Firm,  Solid.  That  is  hard  which  will  not 
yield  to  a  closer  compression;  that  is  firm  which  will 
not  yield  so  as  to  produce  a  separation.  Ice  is  hard,  as 
far  as  it  respects  itself,  when  it  resists  every  pressure; 
it  is  firm,  with  regard  to  the  water  which  it  covers, 
when  it  is  so  closely  bound  as  to  resist  every  weight  with- 
out breaking.  Hard  and  solid  respect  the  internal 
constitution  of  bodies,  and  the  adherence  of  the  com- 
ponent parts;  but  hard  denotes  a  much  closer  degree  of 
adherence  than  solid:  the  hard  is  opposed  to  the  soft; 
the  solid  to  the  fluid. 

Hardly,  Scarcely.  Where  the  idea  of  practica- 
bilitj;  predominates,  hardly  seems  most  proper;  where 
the    idea   of    frequency    predominates,    scarcely   seems 

g referable.  One  can  hardly  judge  of  a  person's  features 
y  a  single  and  partial  glance;  we  scarcely  ever  see  men 
lay  aside  their  vices  from  a  thorough  conviction  of  their 
enormity. 

To  Hasten,  Accelerate,  Speed,  Expedite,  Dis- 
patch. To  hasten  expresses  little  more  than  the  gen- 
eral idea  of  quickness  in  moving  toward  a  point;  thus, 
he  hastens  who  runs  to  get  to  the  end  of  his  iourney. 
Accelerate  expresses,  moreover,  the  idea  of  bringing 
something  to  a  point;  thus,  every  mechanical  business 
is  accelerated  by  the  order  and  distribution  of  its  several 
parts.  The  word  speed  includes  not  only  quick  but 
forward  movement.  He  who  goes  with  speecf  goes  effectu- 
ally forward,  and  comes  to  his  journey's  end  the  soonest. 
This  idea  is  excluded  from  the  term  haste,  which  may 
often  be  a  planless,  unsuitable  quickness.  Hence  the 
■proverb,  "The  more  haste,  the  worse  speed."  Expedite 
arnd  dispatch  are  terms  of  higher  import,  in  applica- 
tion to  the  most  serious  concerns  in  life:  expedite 
expresses  a  process,  a  bringing  forward  toward  an  end; 
dispatch  implies  a  putting  an  end  to,  making  a  clear- 
ance. We  do  everything  in  our  power  to  expedite  a 
business;  we  dispatch  a  great  deal  of  business  within 
a  given  time. 

To  Hasten,  Hurry.  To  hasten  and  to  hurry  both 
imply  to  move  forward  with  quickness  in  any  matter; 
the  former  may  proceed  with  some  design  and  good 
order,  but  the  latter  always  supposes  perturbation  and 
irregularity. 

To  Hate,  Detest.  To  hate  is  a  personal  feeling 
directed  toward  the  object  independently  of  its  quali- 
ties; to  detest  (v.  to  abhor)  is  a  feeling  independent 
of  the  person,  and  altogether  dependent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  thing.  One  hates,  but  does  not  detest, 
the  person  who  has  done  an  injury  to  oneself;  and 
one  detests,  rather  than  hates,  the  person  who  has  done 
injuries  to  others. 

Hateful,  Odious.  Hateful  is  properly  applied  to 
whatever  violates  general  principles  of  morality;  lying 
and  swearing  are  hateful  vices.  Odious  is  more  commonly 
applied  to  such  things  as  affect  the  interests  of  others^ 
and  bring  odium  upon  the  individual. 

Haughtiness,  Disdain,  Arrogance.  Haughtiness 
is  founded  on  the  high  opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves ; 
disdain,  on  the  low  opinion  we  have  of  others;  arro- 
gance is  the  result  of  both,  but  if  anything,  more  of  the 
former  than  of  the  latter.  Haughtiness  and  disdain  are 
properly  sentiments  of  the  mind,  and  arrogance  a  mode 
of  acting  resulting  from  a  state  of  mind. 

To  Have,  Possess.  To  have  is  sometimes  to  have 
in  one's  hand  or  within  one's  reach;  but  to  possess  is 
to  have  as  one's  own.  A  clerk  has  the  money  which  he 
has  fetched  for  his  employer;  the  latter  possesses  the 
money  which  he  has  the  power  of  turning  to  his  use. 


To  Hazard,  Risk,  Venture.  He  who  hazards  an 
opinion  or  an  assertion  does  it  from  presumptuous  feel- 
ings and  upon  slight  grounds;  chances  are  rather  against 
him  than  for  him  that  it  may  prove  erroneous.  He  who 
risks  a  battle  does  it  often  from  necessity;  he  chooses 
the  lesser  of  two  evils;  although  the  event  is  dubious, 
yet  he  fears  less  from  a  failure  than  from  inaction. 
He  who  ventures  on  a  mercantile  speculation  does  it 
from  a  love  of  gain. 

Healthful,  Wholesome,  Salubrious,  Salutary.^ 
Healthful  is  applied  to  exercise,  to  air,  situation,  climate, 
and  most  other  things  except  food,  for  which  wholesome 
is  commonly  substituted.  The  life  of  a  farmer  is  reckoned 
the  most  healthful;  the  simplest  diet  is  the  most 
wholesome.  Healthful  and  wholesome  are  rather  nega- 
tive in  their  sense;  salubrious  and  salutary  are  positive. 
That  is  healthful  and  wholesome  which  does  no  injury  to 
the  health;  that  is  salubrious  which  serves  to  improve 
the  health;  that  is  salutary  which  serves  to  remove 
a  disorder. 

To  Heap,  Pile,  Accumulate,  Amass.  To  heap  is 
an  indefinite  action ;  it  may  be  performed  with  or  with- 
out order:  to  pile  is  a  definite  action  done  with  design 
and  order;  thus  we  heap  stones,  or  pile  wood.  To  ac- 
cumulate is  properly  to  bring  or  add  heap  to  heap, 
which  is  a  gradual  and  unfinished  act;  to  amass  is  to 
form  into  a  mass,  which  is  a  single  complete  act.  A  man 
may  accumulate  guineas  or  anything  else  in  small  quan- 
tities, but  he  properly  amasses  wealth. 

Hearty,  Warm,  Sincere,  Cordial.  There  are 
cases  in  which  it  may  be  peculiarly  proper  to  be  hearty, 
as  when  we  are  supporting  the  cause  of  religion  and 
virtue;  there  are  other  cases  in  which  it  is  peculiarly 
proper  to  be  warm,  as  when  our  affections  ought  to  be 
roused  in  favor  of  our  friends.  In  all  cases  we  ought  to 
be  sincere,  when  we  express  either  a  sentiment  or  a 
feeling;  it  is  peculiarly  happy  to  be  on  terms  of  cordial 
regard  with  those  who  stand  in  any  close  relation  to  us. 
The  man  himself  should  be  hearty;  his  heart  should  be 
warm;   professions  should  be  sincere;   a  reception  cordial. 

Heed,  Care,  Attention.  Heed  (v.  to  attend)  ap- 
plies to  matters  of  importance  to  one's  moral  conduct; 
care  (v.  care,  solicitude)  to  matters  of  minor  import. 
A  man  is  required  to  take  heed;  a  child  is  required  to 
take  care:  the  former  exercises  his  understanding  in 
taking  heed;  the  latter  exercises  his  thoughts  and  his 
senses  in  taking  care.  We  speak  of  giving  heed  and 
paying  attention:  the  former  is  applied  only  to  that 
which  is  conveyed  to  us  by  another,  in  the  shape  of  a 
direction,  a  caution,  or  an  instruction;  the  latter  is 
said  of  everything  which  we  are  said  to  perform. 

Heinous,  Flagrant,  Flagitious,  Atrocious.  A 
crime  is  heinous  which  seriously  offends  against  the 
laws  of  men;  a  sin  is  heinous  which  seriously  offends 
against  the  will  of  God.  An  offense  is  flagrant  which  is 
in  direct  defiance  of  established  opinions  and  practice. 
It  is  flagitious  if  a  gross  violation  of  the  moral  law,  or 
coupled  with  any  grossness.  A  crime  is  atrocious  which 
is  attended  with  any  aggravating  circumstances. 

To  Help,  Assist,  Aid,  Succor,  Relieve.  Help 
signifies  to  do  good  to;  assist  signifies  to  place  one- 
self by  another  so  as  to  give  him  our  strength ;  aid  sig- 
nifies to  profit  toward  a  specific  end;  succor  signifies 
to  run  to  the  help  of  anyone;  relieve  signifies  to  alle- 
viate. We  help  a  person  to  prosecute  his  work,  or  help 
him  out  of  a  difficulty;  we  assist  in  order  to  forward  a 
scheme,  or  we  assist  a  person  in  the  time  of  his  embar- 
rassment ;  we  aid  a  good  cause,  or  we  aid  a  person  to 
make  his  escape;  we  succor  a  person  who  is  in  danger; 
we  relieve  him  in  time  of  distress. 

To  Hesitate,  Falter,  Stammer,  Stutter.  A  per- 
son who  is  not  in  the  habit  of  public  speaking,  or  of 
collecting  his  thoughts  into  a  set  form,  will  be  apt  to 
hesitate  even  in  familiar  conversation;  he  who  first 
addresses  a  public  assembly  will  be  apt  to  falter.  Chil- 
dren who  first  begin  to  read  will  stammer  at  hard  words; 
one  who  has  an  impediment  in  his  speech  will  stutter 
when  he  attempts  to  .speak  in  a  hurry. 

Heterodoxy,  Heresy.  To  be  of  a  different  persua- 
sion is  heterodoxy ;  to  have  a  faith  of  one's  own  is  heresy. 

High,  Tall,  Lofty.  High  expresses  the  idea  of 
extension  upward,  which  is  common  to  them  all.  What 
is  tall  is  high,  but  what  is  high  is  not  always  tall;  that 
which  attains  considerable  height  by  growing  is  tall: 
a  thing  may  be  high  because  on  a  pedestal.  Lofty  is  said 
of  that  which  is  extended  in  breadth  as  well  as  in  height. 
We  say  that  a  house  is  high,  a  chimney  tall,  a  room 
lofty. 

To  Hinder,  Stop.  To  hinder  is  to  interfere  with  the 
progress  of  a  person  or  a  thing;  to  stop  refers  simply 
to  the  cessation  of  motions. 

To  Hold,  Keep,  Detain.  Retain.  To  hold  is  a 
physical  act;    it  requires  a  degree  of  bodily  strength, 


LANGUAGE 


245 


or  at  least  the  use  of  the  limbs:  to  keep  is  simply  to 
have  by  one  at  one's  pleasure.  Detain  and  retain  are 
modes  of  Iceeping:  the  former  signifies  keeping  back 
what  belongs  to  another;  the  latter  signifies  keeping  a 
long  time  for  one's  own  purpose. 

To  Hold,  Occupy,  Possess.  We  hold  a  thing  for 
a  long  or  a  short  time;  we  occupy  it  for  a  permanence: 
we  hold  it  for  ourselves  or  others;  we  occupy  it  only  for 
ourselves.  We  hold  it  for  various  purposes;  we  occupy 
only  for  the  purpose  of  converting  it  to  our  private  use. 
To  occupy  is  only  to  hold  under  a  certain  compact; 
but  to  possess  is  to  hold  as  one's  own. 

Holiness,  Sanctity.  Holiness  is  to  the  mind  of  a 
man  what  sanctity  is  to  his  exterior,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  holiness  to  a  certain  degree  ought  to  belong 
to  every  man  professing  Christianity;  but  sanctity,  as 
it  lies  in  the  manners,  the  outward  garb,  and  the  de- 
portment, is  becoming  only  to  certain  persons,  and  at 
certain  times. 

Hollow,  Empty.  That  is  hollow  which  has  an 
empty  space,  or  cavity,  as  a  hollow  tree.  That  which 
has  nothing  in  it  is  empty,  as  an  empty  chair. 

Holy,  Sacred,  Divine.  Whatever  is  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  religion  and  religious  worship, 
in  its  purest  state,  is  holy,  unhallowed  by  a  mixture  of 
inferior  objects,  and  elevated  in  the  greatest  possible 
degree,  so  as  to  suit  the  nature  of  an  infinitely  perfect 
and  exalted  Being.  The  sacred  derives  its  sanction  from 
human  institutions,  and  is  connected  rather  with  our 
moral  than  with  our  religious  duties.  What  is  holy  is 
altogether  spiritual,  and  abstracted  from  the  earthly. 
The  divine  is  often  contrasted  with  the  human ;  but  there 
are  many  human  things  which  are  denominated  divine. 
What  is  divine,  therefore,  may  be  so  superlatively 
excellent  as  to  be  conceived  of  as  having  the  stamp  of 
inspiration  from  the  Deity. 

To  Honor,  Reverence,  Respect.  To  honor  is  only 
an  outward  act;  to  reverence  is  either  an  act  of  the  mind 
or  is  the  outward  expression  of  a  sentiment;  to  respect  is 
mostly  an  act  of  the  mind,  though  it  may  admit  of  being 
expressed  by  some  outward  act.  We  honor  God  by 
adoration  and  worship;  we  honor  our  parents  by  obey- 
ing them  and  giving  them  our  personal  service;  we 
reverence  our  Maker  by  cherishing  in  our  minds  a  dread 
of  offending  Him;  we  respect  a  person  or  a  thing  that 
is  lofty,  worthy,  or  honorable. 

Hot,  Fiery,  Burning,  Ardent.  In  the  figurative 
application,  a  temper  is  said  to  be  hot  or  fiery;  rage  is 
burning;  the  mind  is  ardent  in  pursuit  of  an  object. 
Zeal  may  be  hot,  fiery,  burning,  or  ardent;  but  in  the 
first  three  cases  it  denotes  the  intemperance  of  the 
mind  when  heated  by  religion  or  politics.  The  latter  is 
admissible  so  long  as  it  is  confined  to  a  good  object. 

Human,  Humane.  The  human  race  or  human 
beings  are  opposed  to  the  irrational  part  of  the  creation ; 
a  humane  race  or  a  humane  individual  is  opposed  to 
one  that  is  cruel  and  fond  of  inflicting  pain. 

Humble,  3Iodest,  Submissive.  A  man  is  humble 
from  a  sense  of  his  comparative  inferiority  to  others  in 
point  of  station  and  outward  circumstances;  or  he  is 
humble  from  a  sense  of  his  imperfections,  and  a  con- 
sciousness of  not  being  what  he  ought  to  be.  He  is  mod- 
est, inasmuch  as  he  sets  but  little  value  on  his  qualifi- 
cations, acquirements,  and  endowments.  Between 
humble  and  submissive  there  is  this  prominent  feature 
of  distinction,  that  the  former  marks  a  temper  of  mind, 
the  latter  a  mode  of  action:  we  may  be  submissive 
because  we  are  humble;  but  we  may  likewise  be  sub- 
missive from  fear,  from  interested  motives,  and  the  like. 

Humor,  Temper,  Mood.  The  humor  is  so  fluc- 
tuating that  it  varies  in  the  same  mind  perpetually; 
but  the  temper  is  so  far  confined  that  it  always  shows 
itself  to  be  the  same  whenever  it  shows  itself  at  all. 
The  humor  makes  a  man  different  from  himself;  the 
temper  makes  him  different  from  others :  hence  we 
speak  of  the  humor  of  the  moment;  of  the  temper  of 
youth  or  of  old  age.  Humor  and  mood  agree  in  denot- 
ing a  particular  and  temporary  state  of  feeling;  but 
they  differ  in  the  cause:  the  former  is  attributable 
rather  to  the  physical  state  of  the  body,  and  the  latter 
to  the  moral  frame  of  the  mind.  Mood  is  a  temporary 
or  capricious  state  or  condition  of  the  mind  in  regard 
to  passion  or  feeling.  There  is  no  calculating  on  the 
humor  of  a  man;  it  depends  upon  his  mood  whether  he 
performs  ill  or  well. 

Hurtful,  Pernicious,  Noxious,  Noisome.  Be- 
tween hurtful  and  pernicious  there  is  the  same  distinc- 
tion as  between  hurting  and  destroying:  that  which  is 
hurtful  may  hurt  in  various  ways;  but  that  which  is 
pernicious  necessarily  tends  to  destruction.  Confinement 
is  hurtful  to  the  health;  bad  company  is  pernicious  to 
the  morals.  Noxious  and  noisome  are  forms  of  the 
hurtful:    that  which  is  noxious  inflicts  a  direct  injury; 


that  which  is  noisome  inflicts  it  indirectly.  Noxious 
insects  are  such  as  wound ;  noisome  vapors  are  such 
as  tend  to  create  disorders. 

Idea,  Thought,  Imagination.  The  idea  is  the 
simple  representation  of  an  object;  the  thought  is  the 
reflection;  and  the  imagination  is  the  combination  of 
ideas.  We  have  ideas  of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  all 
material  objects;  we  have  thoughts  on  moral  subjects; 
we  have  imaginations  drawn  from  the  ideas  already 
existing  in  the  mind. 

Ideal,  Imaginary.  The  ideal  is  not  directly  op- 
posed to,  but  abstracted  from,  the  real:  the  imaginary, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  directly  opposed  to  the  real ;  it 
is  the  unreal  thing  formed  by  the  imagination.  Ideal 
happiness  is  the  happiness  which  is  formed  in  the  mind 
without  having  any  direct  and  actual  prototype  in 
nature;  the  imaginary  is  that  which  is  opposite  to 
some  positive  existing  reality.  The  pleasure  which  a 
lunatic  derives  from  the  conceit  of  being  a  king  is  alto- 
gether imaginary. 

Idle,  Lazy,  Indolent.  One  is  termed  idle  who  will 
do-nothing  useful;  one  is  lazy  who  will  do  nothing  at 
all  without  great  reluctance;  one  is  indolent  who  does 
not  care  to  do  anything  or  set  about  anything. 

To  Illuminate,  Illumine,  Enlighten.  We  illumi- 
nate by  means  of  artificial  lights:  the  sun  illuminates 
the  world  by  its  own  light.  Preaching  and  instruction 
enlighten  the  minds  of  men.  Illumine  is  but  a  poetic 
variation  of  illuminate. 

Imminent,  Impending,  Threatening.  All  these 
terms  are  used  in  regard  to  some  evil  that  is  exceedingly 
near:  imminent  conveys  no  idea  of  duration;  impend- 
ing excludes  the  idea  of  what  is  momentary.  A  person 
may  be  in  imminent  danger  of  losing  his  life  in  one 
instant,  and  the  danger  may  be  over  the  next  instant; 
but  an  impending  danger  is  that  which  has  been  long 
in  existence  and  gradually  approaching.  A  threatening 
evil  gives  intimations  of  its  own  approach:  we  perceive 
the  threatening  tempest  in  the  blackness  of  the  sky. 

To  Impair,  Injure.  To  impair  is  a  progressive 
mode  of  injuring;  to  injure  is  to  do  harm  either  by 
degrees  or  by  an  instantaneous  act.  Straining  of  the 
eyes  impairs  the  sight,  but  a  blow  injures  rather  than 
impairs  the  eye. 

Imperious,  Lordly,  Domineering,  Overbearing. 
A  person's  temper  or  his  tone  is  denommated  imperious; 
his  air  or  deportment  is  lordly;  his  tone  is  domineering. 
Overbearing  is  employed  for  men  in  the  general  relations 
of  society,  whether  superiors  or  equals.  A  man  of  an 
imperious  temper  and  some  talent  will  frequently  be 
so  overbearing  in  the  assemblies  of  his  equals  as  to  awe 
the  rest  into  silence. 

To  Implicate,  Involve.  Implicate,  from  plico,  to 
fold,  denotes  to  fold  into  a  thing;  and  involve,  from 
Volvo,  to  roll,  signifies  to  roll  into  a  thing:  by  this 
explanation  we  perceive  that  to  implicate  marks  some- 
thing less  entangled  than  to  involve;  for  that  which 
is  folded  may  be  folded  only  once,  but  that  which  is 
rolled  is  turned  many  times.  In  apphcation,  therefore, 
to  human  affairs,  people  are  said  to  be  implicated  who 
have  taken  ever  so  small  a  share  in  a  transaction;  but 
they  are  involved  only  when  they  are  deeply  concerned. 

To  Impugn,  Attack.  He  who  impugns  may  some- 
times proceed  insidiously  and  circuitously  to  undermine 
the  faith  of  others;  he  who  attacks  always  proceeds 
with  more  or  less  violence.  When  there  are  no  argu- 
ments wherewith  to  impugn  a  doctrine,  it  is  easy  to 
attack  it  with  ridicule  and  scurrility. 

Inability,  Disability.  The  inability  lies  in  the 
nature  of  the  thing,  and  is  irremediable;  the  disability 
lies  in  the  circumstances,  and  may  sometimes  be  removed. 

Inadvertency,  Inattention,  Oversight.  Anyone 
may  be  guilty  of  inadvertencies,  since  the  mind  that  is 
occupied  with  many  subjects  equally  serious  may  be 
turned  so  steadily  toward  some  that  others  may  escape 
notice;  but  inattention,  which  designates  a  direct  want 
of  attention,  is  always  a  fault,  and  belongs  only  to  the 
young,  or  to  such  as  are  thoughtless  by  nature.  An  over- 
sight is  properly  a  species  of  inadvertency,  which  arises 
from  looking  over,  or  passing  by,  a  thing:  we  must  be 
guarded  against  oversights  in.  business,  as  their  conse- 
quences may  be  serious. 

Inclination,  Tendency,  Propensity,  Proneness. 
All  these  terms  are  employed  to  designate  the  state  of 
the  will  toward  an  object.  Inclination  denotes  its  first 
movement  toward  an  object;  tendency  is  a  continued 
inclination;  propensity  denotes  a  still  stronger  leaning 
of  the  will;  and  proneness  characterizes  an  habitual  and 
fixed  state  of  the  will  toward  an  object.  Propensity 
and  proneness  both  designate  a  downward  direction, 
and  consequently  refer  only  to  that  which  is  bad  and 
low:  a  person  has  a  propensity  to  drinking,  and  a 
proneness  to  lying. 


246 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


To  Inclose,  Include.  A  yard  is  inclosed  by  a  wall; 
particular  goods  are  included  in  a  reckoning. 

To  Inconvenience,  Annoy,  Molest.  We  incon- 
venience in  small  matters,  or  oy  omitting  such  things 
as  might  be  convenient;  we  annoy  or  molest  by  doing 
that  which  is  positively  painful:  we  are  inconvenienced 
by  a  person's  absence;  we  are  annoyed  by  his  presence 
if  he  renders  himself  offensive;  we  are  molested  by  that 
which  is  weighty  and  oppressive.  The  rude  insults  of 
ill-disposed  persons  may  molest. 

To  Increase,  Grow.  To  increase  is  either  a  gradual 
or  an  instantaneous  act;  to  grow  is  a  gradual  process: 
a  stream  increases  by  the  addition  of  other  waters;  but 
if  we  say  that  the  river  or  the  stream  grows,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  grow  by  some  regular  and  continual  process  of 
receiving  fresh  water,  as  from  the  running  in  of  different 
rivulets  or  smaller  streams. 

To  be  Indebted,  Obliged.  Indebted  is  more  bind- 
ing and  positive  than  obliged :  we  are  indebted  to  who- 
ever confers  an  essential  service;  we  are  obliged  to 
him  who  does  us  any  service.  A  man  is  indebted  to 
another  for  the  preservation  of  his  life ;  he  is  obliged  to 
him  for  an  ordinary  act  of  civility. 

Indifferent,  Unconcerned,  Regardless.  Indiffer- 
ent respects  only  the  will,  unconcerned  either  the  will  or 
the  understanding,  regardless  the  understanding  only. 
We  are  indifferent  about  matters  of  minor  consideration ; 
we  are  unconcerned  or  regardless  about  serious  matters 
that  have  remote  consequences.  An  author  will  seldom 
be  indifferent  about  the  success  of  his  work;  he  ought 
not  to  be  unconcerned  about  the  influence  which  nis 
writings  may  have  on  the  public,  or  regardless  of  the 
estimation  in  which  his  own  character  as  a  man  may  be 
held. 

Indubitable,  Unquestionable,  Indisputable,  Un- 
deniable, Incontrovertible,  Irrefragable.  When  a 
fact  is  supported  by  such  evidence  as  admits  of  no  kind 
of  doubt,  it  is  termed  indubitable;  when  the  truth  of  an 
assertion  rests  on  the  authority  of  a  man  whose  character 
for  integrity  stands  unimpeached,  it  is  termed  unques- 
tionable authority;  when  a  thing  is  believed  to  exist  on 
the  evidence  of  every  man's  senses,  it  is  termed  unde- 
niable ;  when  a  sentiment  has  always  been  held  as  either 
true  or  false,  without  dispute,  it  is  termed  indisputable; 
when  arguments  have  never  been  refuted  in  any  degree, 
they  are  termed  incontrovertible;  when  arguments  have 
never  been  satisfactorily  answered,  they  are  termed 
irrefragable. 

Indulgent,  Fond.  Indulgence  lies  more  in  forbear- 
ing from  the  exercise  of  authority;  fondness  in  the  out- 
ward behavior  and  endearments:  they  may  both  arise 
from  an  excess  of  kindness  or  love.  An  indulgent  parent 
is  seldom  a  prudent  parent;  a  fond  parent  is  foolishly 
tender  and  loving.  All  who  have  the  care  of  young  people 
should  occasionally  relax  from  the  strictness  of  the  dis- 
ciplinarian and  show  an  indulgence  where  a  suitable 
opportunity  offers.  A  fond  mother  takes  away  from  the 
value  of  indulgences  by  an  invariable  compliance  with 
the  humors  of  her  children. 

Infamous,  Scandalous.  Infamous  and  scandalous 
are  both  said  of  that  which  is  calculated  to  excite  great 
displeasure  in  the  minds  of  all  who  hear  it,  and  to  degrade 
the  offenders  in  the  general  estimation.  But  the  infamous 
seems  to  be  that  which  produces  greater  publicity  and 
more  general  reprehension  than  the  scandalous,  conse- 
quently it  is  more  serious  in  its  nature,  and  a  greater 
violation  of  good  morals. 

To  Inform,  Instruct,  Teach.  To  inform  is  the  act 
of  persons  in  all  conditions;  to  instruct  and  teach  are 
the  acts  of  superiors,  either  on  one  ground  or  another: 
one  informs  by  virtue  of  an  accidental  superiority  or 
priority  of  knowledge;  one  instructs  by  virtue  of  superior 
knowledge  or  superior  station ;  one  teaches  by  virtue  of 
superior  knowlecfge,  rather  than  of  station. 

Information,  Intelligence,  Notice,  Advice.  In- 
formation is  knowledge  communicated  from  one  person 
to  another;  intelligence  is  the  active  principle  of  the 
mind  by  which  one  is  made  to  understand;  notice  is 
that  which  brings  a  circumstance  to  our  knowledge; 
advice  signifies  that  which  is  made  known. 

Ingenuity,  Wit.  Ingenuity  comprehends  invention ; 
wit  is  the  fruit  of  the  imagination,  which  forms  new  and 
sudden  conceptions  of  things.  One  is  ingenious  in  mat- 
ters either  of  art  or  science;  one  is  witty  only  in  matters 
of  sentiment. 

Ingenuous,  Ingenious.  We  love  the  ingenuous 
character  on  account  of  the  qualities  of  his  heart;  we 
admire  the  ingenious  man  on  account  of  the  endowments 
of  his  mind.  One  is  ingenuous  as  a  man,  or  ingenious  as 
an  author.  A  man  confesses  an  action  ingenuously;  he 
defends  it  ingeniously.  The  ingenuous  man  is  frank, 
candid;  the  ingenious  man  is  clever,  skillful. 

Injustice,  Injury,  Wrong.     The  violation  of  justice. 


or  a  breach  of  the  rule  of  right,  constitutes  injustice; 
but  the  quantum  of  ill  which  falls  on  the  person  consti- 
tutes injury.  A  wrong  partakes  both  of  injustice  and 
injury;  it  is,  in  fact,  an  injury  done  by  one  person  to 
another  in  express  violation  of  justice. 

Inside,  Interior.  The  term  inside  may  be  applied 
to  bodies  of  any  magnitude,  small  or  large;  interior  is 
peculiarly  appropriate  to  bodies  of  great  magnitude. 
We  may  speak  of  the  inside  of  a  nutshell,  but  not  of  its 
interior.  The  interior  of  the  church  was  beautifully 
decorated. 

To  Insinuate,  Ingratiate,  A  person  who  insinuates 
adopts  every  art  to  steal  into  the  good-will  of  another; 
but  he  who  ingratiates  adopts  natural  means  to  con- 
ciliate good-will. 

Insinuation,  Reflection.  An  insinuation  always 
deals  in  half  words;  a  reflection  is  commonly  open. 
They  are  both  leveled  at  the  individual  with  no  good 
intent:  the  insinuation  is  general,  and  may  be  em- 
ployed to  convey  any  unfavorable  sentiment;  the  re- 
flection is  particular,  and  commonly  passes  between 
intimates  and  persons  in  close  connection. 

To  Insist,  Persist.  Both  these  terms  being  derived 
from  the  Latin  "  sisto,"  to  stand,  express  the  idea  of  rest- 
ing or  keeping  to  a  thing;  but  insist  signifies  to  rest  on  a 
point,  and  persist  signifies  to  keep  on  with  a  thing,  to 
carry  it  through.  We  insist  on  a  matter  by  maintaining 
it;    we  persist  in  a  thing  by  continuing  to  do  it. 

Insolvency,  Failure,  Bankruptcy.  Insolvency  is 
a  state;  failure,  an  act  flowing  out  of  that  state;  and 
bankruptcy  an  effect  of  that  act.  Insolvency  is  a  con- 
dition of  not  being  able  to  pay  one's  debts;  failure  is  a 
cessation  of  business,  from  the  want  of  means  to  carry 
it  on;  and  bankruptcy  is  a  legal  surrender  of  all  one's 
remaining  goods  into  the  hands  of  one's  creditors,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  real  or  supposed  insolvency. 

Instant,  Moment.  A  dutiful  child  comes  the  instant 
he  is  called;  a  prudent  person  embraces  the  favorable 
moment.  When  they  are  both  taken  for  the  present 
time,  instant  expresses  a  much  shorter  space  than  mo- 
ment. 

Insurrection,  Sedition,  Rebellion,  Revolt.  There 
may  be  an  insurrection  against  usurped  power,  which  is 
always  justifiable;  but  sedition  and  rebellion  are  leveled 
against  power  universally  acknowledged  to  be  legitimate. 
Insurrection  is  always  open;  it  is  a  rising  up  of  many 
in  a  mass,  but  it  does  not  imply  any  concerted,  or  any 
specifically  active  measure.  Rebellion  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  sedition;  the  scheme  of  opposition  which  has 
been  digested  in  secrecy  breaks  out  into  open  hostilities, 
and  becomes  rebellion.  Revolt  is  mostly  taken  either  in 
an  indifferent  or  a  good  sense  for  resisting  a  foreign  do- 
minion which  has  been  imposed  by  force  of  arms. 

Intellect,  Genius,  Talent.  Intellect  is  the  power  or 
faculty  of  knowing,  improved  by  cultivation  and  ex- 
ercise; in  this  sense  we  speak  of  a  man  of  intellect,  or  of 
a  work  that  displays  great  intellect.  Genius  is  the  par- 
ticular bent  of  the  intellect  which  is  born  with  a  man,  as 
a  genius  for  poetry,  painting,  music,  etc.  Talent  is  a 
particular  mode  of  intellect  which  qualifies  its  possessor 
to  do  some  things  better  than  others,  as  a  talent  for  learn- 
ing languages,  a  talent  for  the  stage,  etc. 

Interchange,  Reciprocity.  Interchange  is  an  act; 
reciprocity  is  an  abstract  property:  by  an  interchange 
of  sentiment,  friendships  are  engendered;  the  recip- 
rocity of  good  services  is  what  renders  them  doubly 
acceptable  to  those  who  do  them,  and  to  those  who 
receive  them. 

Interest,  Concern.  We  have  an  interest  in  what- 
ever touches  or  comes  near  to  our  feelings  or  our  external 
circumstances;  we  have  a  concern  in  that  which  de- 
mands our  attention.  Interest  is  that  which  is  agreeable; 
concern,  on  the  other  hand,  is  something  involuntary  or 
painful. 

Interval,  Respite.  The  terra  interval  respects  time 
only;  respite  includes  the  idea  of  ceasing  from  action  for 
a  time.  Intervals  of  ease  are  a  respite  to  one  who  is  op- 
pressed with  labor. 

Intervention,  Interposition.  The  hght  of  the  moon 
is  obstructed  by  the  intervention  of  the  clouds;  the  life 
of  an  individual  is  preserved  by  the  interposition  of  a 
superior. 

To  Intrude.'Obtrude.  To  intrude  is  to  go  into  any 
society  unasked  and  undesired;  to  obtrude  is  to  put  one- 
self in  the  way  of  another  by  joining  the  company  and 
taking  a  part  in  the  conversation  without  invitation  or 
consent. 

Invalid,  Patient.  An  invalid  is  so  denominated 
because  he  lacks  his  ordinary  share  of  health  and  strength; 
the  patient  is  one  who  is  laboring  under  some  bodily 
suffering. 

To  Invest,  Endue,  or  Endow.  One  is  invested  with 
that  which  is  external;    one  is  endued  with  that  which 


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247 


is  internal.  We  invest  a  person  with  an  office  or  a  dig- 
nity: a  person  is  endued  with  good  quahties.  Endow  is 
but  a  variation  of.  endue,  and  yet  it  seems  to  have  ac- 
quired a  distinct  office:  we  may  say  that  a  person  is 
endued  or  endowed  with  a  good  understanding;  but  as 
an  act  of  the  imagination  endow  is  not  to  be  substituted 
for  endue,  for  we  do  not  say  that  it  endows  but  endues 
things  with  properties. 

Irrational,  Foolish,  Absurd,  Preposterous. 
Irrational  is  applicable  more  frequently  to  the  thing  tlian 
to  the  person,  to  the  principle  than  to  the  practice. 
Foolish,  on  the  contrary,  is  commonly  applicable  to  the 
person  as  well  as  to  the  thing,  to  the  practice  rather  than 
to  the  principle;  absurd  is  applied  to  anything,  however 
trivial,  which  in  the  smallest  degree  offends  our  under- 
standing: the  conduct  of  children  is  theref9re  often 
foohsh,  but  not  absurd  and  preposterous.  It  is  absurd 
for  a  man  to  persuade  another  to  do  that  which  he  in 
like  circumstances  would  object  to  do  himself;  it  is 
preposterous  for  a  man  to  expose  himself  to  the  ridicule 
of  others,  and  then  be  angry  with  those  who  will  not 
treat  him  respectfully. 

Irreligious,  Profane,  Impious.  All  nien  who  are 
not  positively  actuated  by  principles  of  religion  are  ir- 
religious. Profanity  and  impiety  are,  however,  of  a  still 
more  heinous  nature;  they  consist  not  in  the  mere  ab- 
sence of  regard  for  religion,  but  in  a  positive  contempt  for 
it  and  open  outrage  against  its  laws.  The  profane  man 
treats  what  is  sacred  as  if  it  were  profane;  the  impious 
man  is  directly  opposed  to  the  pious  man:  the  former 
is  filled  with  defiance  and  rebellion,  against  his  Maker; 
the  latter  is  filled  with  love  and  fear. 

Jealousy,  Envy,  Suspicion.  We  are  jealous  of 
what  is  our  own;  we  are  envious  of  what  is  another's. 
Jealousy  fears  to  lose  what  it  has;  envy  is  pained  at 
seeing  others  have  that  which  it  wants  for  itself.  Sus- 
picion denotes  an  apprehension  of  injury,  has  more  of 
distrust  in  it  than  jealousy;  the  suspicious  man  is  al- 
together fearful  of  the  intentions  of  another. 

Journey,  Travel,  Voyage.  Journey  signifies  the 
course  that  is  taken  in  the  space  of  a  day,  or,  in  general, 
any  comparatively  short  passage  from  one  place  to  an- 
other. Travel  signifies  such  a  course  or  passage  as  re- 
quires labor,  and  causes  fatigue;  in  general,  any  long 
course.    Voyage  is  now  confined  to  passages  by  sea. 

Joy,  Gladness,  Mirtli.  What  creates  joy  and  glad- 
ness is  of  a  permanent  nature;  that  which  creates  mirth 
is  temporary:  joy  is  the  most  vivid  sensation  in  the  soul; 
gladness  is  the  same  in  quality,  but  inferior  in  degree. 
Joy  is  awakened  in  the  mind  by  the  most  important 
events  in  life. 

Judgment,  Discretion,  Prudence.  Judgment  is 
conclusive;  it  decides  by  positive  inference;  it  enables 
a  person  to  discover  the  truth.  Discretion  is  intuitive; 
it  discerns  or  perceives  what  is  in  all  probability  right. 
A  person  who  exercises  prudence  does  not  inconsiderately 
expose  himself  to  danger:  a  measure  is  prudent  that 
guards  against  the  chances  of  evil;  the  impetuosity  of 
youth  naturally  impels  them  to  be  imprudent. 

Justness,  Correctness.  We  estimate  the  value  of 
remarks  by  their  justness,  that  is,  by  their  accordance  to 
certain  admitted  principles.  Correctness  of  outline  is  of 
the  first  importance  in  drawing;  correctness  of  dates 
enhances  the  value  of  a  history. 

To  Keep,  Preserve,  Save.  The  idea  of  having  in 
one's  possession  is  common  to  all  these  terms,  which  is, 
however,  the  simple  meaning  of  keep.  To  preserve 
signifies  to  keep  with  care,  and  free  from  all  injury;  to 
save,  from  safe,  is  to  keep  laid  up  in  a  safe  place,  and 
free  from  destruction. 

Keeping,  Custody.  The  keeping  amounts  to  little 
more  than  having  purposely  in  one's  possession;  but 
custody  is  a  particular  kind  of  keeping,  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  an  escape.  Inanimate  objects  rnay  be  in 
one's  keeping;  but  a  prisoner,  or  that  which  is  in  danger 
of  getting  away,  is  placed  in  custody. 

To  Know,  Be  Acquainted  Wltii.  We  may  know 
things  or  persons  in  various  ways;  we  may  know  them 
by  name  only,  or  we  may  know  their  internal  properties 
or  characters,  etc.  One  is  acquainted  with  either  a  per- 
son or  a  thing  only  in  a  direct  manner,  and  by  an  im- 
mediate intercourse  in  one's  own  person. 

Knowledge, Science,  Learning,  Erudition.  Knowl- 
edge is  a  general  term  which  simply  implies  the  thing 
known;  science  is  the  department  of  systematized 
knowledge;  learning  is  that  kind  of  knowledge;  which 
one  derives  from  schools,  or  through  the  medium  of 
personal  instruction ;  erudition  is  scholastic  knowledge 
obtained  by  profound  research. 

Land,  Country.  The  term  land,  in  its  proper  sense, 
excludes  the  idea  of  habitation;  the  term  country  ex- 
cludes that  of  the  earth,  or  the  parts  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed:   hence  we  speak  of  the  land,  as  rich  or  poor,  ac- 


cording to  what  it  yields;    of  a  country,  as  rich  or  poor, 
according  to  what  its  inhabitants  possess. 

Lai^e,  Wide,  Broad.  A  field  is  said  to  be  wide  both 
from  its  figure  and  from  the  extent  of  its  space  in  the 
cross  directions.  In  like  manner,  a  house  is  large  from 
its  extent  in  all  directions;  it  is  said  to  be  wide  from  the 
extent  which  it  runs  in  front.  What  is  broad  is  in  sense, 
and  mostly  in  application,  wide.  Large  is  opposed  to 
small;    wide  to  close;    broad  to  narrow. 

Laudable,  Praiseworthy,  Commendable.  Things 
are  laudable  in  themselves;  they  are  praiseworthy  or 
commendable  in  this  or  that  person:  that  which  is 
laudable  is  entitled  to  encouragement  and  general  ap- 
probation. An  honest  endeavor  to  be  useful  to  one's 
family  or  oneself  is  at  all  times  laudable.  What  is 
praiseworthy  obtains  the  respect  of  all  men. 

To  Lay  or  Talce  Hold  Of,  Catch,  Seize,  Snatch. 
To  lay  or  take  hold  of  is  here  the  generic  expression;  it 
denotes  simply  getting  into  one[s  possession,  which  is 
the  common  idiea  in  the  signification  of  all  these  terms, 
which  differ  in  regard  to  the  motion  in  which  the  action  is 
performed.  To  catch  is  to  lay  hold  of  with  an  effort; 
to  seize  is  to  lay  hold  of  with  violence;  to  snatch  is 
to  lay  hold  of  by  a  sudden  effort. 

To  Lead,  Conduct,  Guide.  One  leads  by  helping  a 
person  onward  in  any  manner,  as  to  lead  a  child  by  the 
hand;  conduct  and  guide  are  different  modes  of  lead- 
ing, the  former  by  virtue  of  one's  office  or  authority,  the 
latter  by  one's  knowledge  or  power,  as  to  conduct  an 
army,  to  guide  a  traveler  in  an  unknown  country. 

To  Lean,  Incline,  Bend.  In  the  proper  sense,  lean 
and  incline  are  both  said  of  the  position  of  bodies;  bend 
is  said  of  the  shape  of  bodies.  That  which  leans  rests  on 
one  side,  or  in  a  sideward  direction;  that  which  inclines, 
leans  or  turns  only  in  a  slight  degree;  that  which  bends, 
forms  a  curvature. 

To  Lfeave,  <Quit,  Relinquish.  We  leave  that  to 
which  we  may  intend  to  return ;  we  quit  that  to  which 
we  return  no  more;  we  relinquish  it  unwillingly:  we  leave 
persons  or  things;    we  quit  and  relinquish  things  only. 

Leavings,  Remains.  Leavings  are  the  consequence 
of  a  voluntary  act;  they  signify  what  is  left:  remains 
are  what  follow  in  the  course  of  things;  they  are  the 
residue. 

Letter,  Epistle.  Letter  is  a  term  altogether  fa- 
miliar; it  may  be  used  for  whatever  is  written  b.v  one 
friend  to  another,  even  those  which  were  written  by  the 
ancients,  as  the  letters  of  Cicero,  Pliny,  and  Seneca.  In 
strict  propriety  epistle  is  more  formal  than  letter.  An 
epistle  is  a  written  message  or  communication  usually 
of  serious  import;  it  is  usually  applied  to  the  ancient 
letters  of  sacred  character  or  of  literary  excellence,  as 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul. 

To  Lie,  Lay.  To  lie  is  neuter,  and  designates  a  state. 
To  lay  is  active,  and  denotes  an  action  on  an  object;  "it 
is  properly  to  cause  to  lie.  A  thing  lies  on  the  table;  some 
one  lays  it  on  the  table. 

To  Lift,  Heave,  Hoist.  We  lift  with  or  without 
an  effort;  we  heave  and  hoist  always  with  an  effort. 
We  lift  a  child  up  to  let  him  see  anything  more  distinctly; 
workmen  heave  the  stones  or  beams  which  are  used  in 
a  building;    sailors  hoist  the  long-boat  into  the  water. 

Likeness,  Resemblance,  Similarity,  or  Simili- 
tude. Likeness  respects  either  external  or  internal 
properties;  resemblance  respects  only  the  external 
properties;  similarity  respects  the  circumstances  or 
properties.  We  speak  of  a  likeness  between  two  persons; 
of  a  resemblance  in  the  cast  of  the  eye;  of  a  similarity 
in  age  and  disposition.  Similitude  is  a  higher  term  than 
similarity  when  used  in  a  moral  sense. 

To  Linger,  Tarry,  Loiter,  Lag,  Saunter.  To 
linger  is  to  stop  altogether,  or  to  move  but  slowly  forward ; 
to  tarry  is  properly  to  suspend  one's  movements:  the 
former  proceeds  from  reluctance  to  leave  the  spot  on 
which  we  stand;  the  latter  from  motives  of  discretion. 
To  loiter  is  to  move  slowly  and  reluctantly.  To  lag  is  to 
move  more  slowly  than  others.  To  saunter  is  alto- 
gether the  act  of  an  idler;  those  who  have  no  object 
in  moving  either  backward  or  forward  will  saunter  if 
they  move  at  all. 

Little,  Small,  Diminutive.  What  is  little  is  so  in 
the  ordinary  sense  in  respect  to  size;  it  is  properly 
opposed  to  great:  the  small  is  that  which  is  less  than 
others  in  point  of  bulk;  it  is  opposed  to  the  large.  "The 
diminutive  is  that  which  is  less  than  it  ought  to  be;  as, 
a  person  is  said  to  be  diminutive  in  stature  who  is  below 
the  ordinary  stature. 

Living,  Benefice.  We  speak  of  a  living  as  a  resource 
immediately  derived  from  the  parish,  in  distinction 
from  a  curacy,  which  is  derived  from  an  individual;  we 
speak  of  a  benefice  in  respect  to  the  terms  by  which  it 
is  held,  according  to  the  ecclesiastical  law. 

Lodging,   Apartment.      A   lodging,   or  a  place  to 


248 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


dwell  in,  comprehends  single  rooms,  or  many  rooms, 
or  in  fact  any  place  which  can  be  made  to  serve  the 
purpose;   apartment  respects  only  suites  of  rooms. 

Look,  Glance.  We  speak  of  taking  a  look,  or 
casting  a  glance. 

Look,  Appearance.  The  look  of  a  thing  respects  the 
impressions  which  it  makes  on  the  senses,  that  is,  the 
manner  in  which  it  looks;  its  appearance  implies  the 
simple  act  of  its  coming  into  sight. 

To  Lose,  niiss.  What  is  lost  is  supposed  to  be  entirely 
and  irrecoverably  gone;  but  what  is  missed  may  be 
only  out  of  sight  or  not  at  hand  at  the  time  when  it  is 
wanted. 

Madness,  Frenzy,  Rage,  Fury.  Madness  is  a  con- 
firmed derangement  in  the  organ  of  thought;  frenzy 
is  only  a  temporary  derangement  from  the  violence  of 
any  disease  or  from  any  other  cause.  Rage  refers  more 
immediately  to  the  agitation  that  exists  within  the  mind ; 
fury  refers  to  that  which  shows  itself  outwardly:  a  per- 
son contains  or  stifles  his  rage;  but  his  fury  breaks  out 
into  some  external  mark  of  violence. 

Magnificence,  Splendor,  Pomp.  Magnificence  lies 
not  only  in  the  number  and  the  extent  of  the  objects 
presented,  but  in  the  degree  of  richness  as  to  their  coloring 
and  quality.  Splendor  is  but  a  characteristic  of  magnifi- 
cence, attached  to  such  objects  as  dazzle  the  eye  by  the 
quantity  of  light,  or  by  the  beauty  and  strength  of  color- 
ing.    Pomp  signifies  in  general  formality  ana  cereirlony. 

To  3Iake,  Form,  Produce,  Create.  To  make  is 
the  most  general  and  unqualified  term;  to  form  signi- 
fies to  give  a  form  to  a  thing,  that  is,  to  make  it  after  a 
given  form;  to  produce  is  to  bring  forth  into  the  light, 
to  call  into  existence;  to  create  is  to  bring  into  existence 
by  an  absolute  exercise  of  power. 

Malevolence,  Maliciousness,  Malignity.  Male- 
volence has  a  deep  root  in  the  heart,  and  is  a  settled  part 
of  the  character;  we  denominate  the  person  malevolent, 
to  designate  the  ruling  temper  of  his  mind.  Maliciousness 
may  be  applied  as  an  epithet  to  particular  parts  of  a 
man's  character  or  conduct;  one  may  have  a  malicious 
joy  or  pleasure  in  seeing  the  distresses  of  another. 
Malignity  is  not  so  often  employed  to  characterize  the 
person  as  the  thing;  the  malignity  of  a  design  is  esti- 
mated by  the  degree  of  mischief  which  was  intended  to 
be  done. 

Manly,  Manful.  Manly,  or  like  a  man,  is  opposed 
to  juvenile,  and  of  course  applied  properly  to  youths; 
but  manful,  or  full  of  manhoocl,  is  opposed  to  effeminate, 
and  is  applicable  more  properly  to  grown  persons. 

Manners,  3Iorais.  Manners  (v.  air,  manner)  re- 
spect the  minor  forms  of  acting  with  others  and  toward 
others;  morals  include  the  important  duties  of  life.  By 
an  attention  to  good  manners  we  render  ourselves  good 
companions;  by  an  observance  of  good  morals  we  become 
goocf  members  of  society. 

Mark,  Trace,  Vestige,  Footstep,  Track.  The 
mark  is  said  of  a  fresh  and  uninterrupted  line;  the 
trace  is  said  of  that  which  is  broken  by  time:  a  carriage 
in  driving  along  the  sand  leaves  marks  of  the  wheels, 
but  in  a  short  time  all  traces  of  its  having  been  there 
will  be  lost.  The  vestige  is  a  species  of  mark  or  trace 
caused  by  the  feet  of  men,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing, 
by  the  works  of  active  industry,  as  the  vestiges  of  build- 
ings. Footstep  is  employed  only  for  the  steps  of  an 
individual.     The  track  is  made  by  the  steps  of  many. 

Martial,  Warlike,  3Iilitary,  Soidior-like.  We 
speak  of  martial  array,  martial  preparations,  martial 
law,  a  court  martial;  but  of  a  warlike  nation,  meaning 
a  nation,  which  is  fond  of  war;  a  warlike  spirit  or  tem- 
per, also  a  warlike  appearance,  inasmuch  as  the  temper 
18  visible  in  the  air  and  carriage  of  a  man.  We  speak 
of  military  in  distinction  from  naval,  as  military  ex- 
peditions, military  movements,  and  the  like.  The  con- 
duct of  an  individual  is  soldier-like  or  otherwise. 

Meeting,  Interview.  Meeting  is  the  act  of  coming 
into  the  company  of  anyone;  interview  is  a  personal 
conference,  usually  a  formal  meeting  for  consultation, 
as  an  interview  with  the  president.  A  meeting  is  an 
ordinary  concern  and  its  purpose  familiar;  meetings 
are  daily  taking  place  between  friends. 

Memory,  Remembrance,  Recollection,'  Remi- 
niscence. Memory  is  the  power  of  recalling  images 
once  made  in  the  mind;  remembrance  is  the  exercise 
of  memory  in  a  conscious  agent,  and  may  be  the  effect 
of  repetition  or  habit;  recollection  carries  us  back  to 
distant  periods.  Reminiscence  is  altogether  an  abstract 
exercise  of  the  memory,  which  is  employed  on  purely 
intellectual  ideas  in  distinction  frorrt  those  which  are 
awakened  by  sensible  objects:  the  mathematician  makes 
use  of  reminiscence  in  deducing  unknown  truths  from 
those  which  he  already  knows. 

Mercantile,  Commercial.  Mercantile,  from  mer- 
chandise,  respects  the  actual  transaction    of    business 


or  a  transfer  of  merchandise  by  sale  or  purchase.  Com- 
mercial comprehends  the  theory  and  practice  of  ex- 
change: hence  we  speak  in  a  peculiar  manner  of  a  mer- 
cantile house,  a  mercantile  situation,  and  the  like;  but 
of  a  commercial  education,  a  commercial  people,  and 
the  like. 

Minister,  Agent.  The  minister  gives  his- counsel, 
and  exerts  his  intellectual  powers  in  the  service  of 
another;  but  the  agent  executes  the  orders  or  commis- 
sions given  him:  a  minister  is  employed  by  government 
in  political  affairs;  an  agent  is  employed  by  individuals 
in  commercial  and  pecuniary  affairs. 

To  Mix,  Mingle,  Blend,  Confound.  Mix  is  here 
a  general  and  indefinite  term,  signifying  simply  to  put 
together;  but  we  may  mix  two  or  several  things.  We 
mingle  several  objects:  things  are  mixed  so  as  to  lose 
all  distinction;  but  they  may  be  mingled  and  yet  retain 
a  distinction.  To  blend  is  only  partially  to  mix,  as  colors 
blend  which  fall  into  each  other.  To  confound  is  to  mix 
in  a  wrong  way.  as  objects  of  sight  are  confounded  when 
they  are  erroneously  taken  to  be  joined. 

Modesty,  Bashfulness,  Diffidence.  Modesty  is  a 
proper  distrust  of  ourselves;  bashfulness  is  a  state  of 
feeling  which  betrays  itself  in  a  downcast  look  or  a  timid 
air;  diffidence  is  a  culpable  distrust.  Diffidence  alto- 
gether unmans  a  person,  and  disqualifies  him  for  his  duty. 

Moisture,  Humidity,  Dampness.  Moisture  is 
used  in  general  to  express  any  small  degree  of  infusion 
of  a  liquid  into  a  body;  humidity  is  employed  scien- 
tifically to  describe  the  state  of  having  any  portion  of 
such  liquid:  hence  we  speak  of  the  moisture  of  a  table, 
the  moisture  of  paper,  but  of  the  humidity  of  the  air,  or 
of  a  wall  that  has  contracted  moisture  of  itself.  Damp- 
ness is  that  form  of  moisture  that  arises  from  the 
gradual  contraction  of  a  liquid  in  bodies  capable  of 
retaining  it;   in  this  manner  a  cellar  is  damp. 

Money,  Casti.  Money  is  applied  to  everything 
which  serves  as  a  circulating  medium;  cash  is,  in  a  strict 
sense,  used  for  coin  only. 

Motion,  Movement.  We  speak  of  a  state  of  motion 
as  opposed  to  a  state  of  rest,  of  perpetual  motion,  the 
laws  of  motion,  and  the  like.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
say,  to  make  a  movement  when  speaking  of  an  army, 
a  general  movement  when  speaking  of  an  assembly. 

Moving,  Atfecting,  Patiietic.  The  good  or  bad 
feelings  may  be  moved;  the  tender  feelings  only  are 
affected.  A  field  of  battle  is  a  moving  spectacle;  the 
death  of  a  friend  is  an  affecting  spectacle.  The  pathetic 
applies  only  to  what  is  addressed  to  the  heart;  hence 
an  address  is  pathetic. 

Mutual.  This  word  is  often  confounded  with  com- 
mon. Mutual  is  used  in  referring  to  a  thing  that 
belongs  to  only  two  people,  as,  John  and  I  have  a 
mutual  dislike;  he  dislikes  me  and  I  dislike  him.  We 
cannot  say  John  and  I  have  a  mutual  dislike  for  Mary. 
Common  is  used  with  reference  to  a  third  object  or  per- 
son, as,  Mary  is  our  common  friend;  she  is  your  and 
my  friend.  It  is  wrong  to  say  Mary  is  our  mutual 
friend.  Dickens's  use  of  this  word  in  "  Our  Mutual 
Friend"  is  condemned  by  many  good  authorities. 

To  Name,  Call.  Name  is  employed  for  distinguish- 
ing or  addressing  one  by  name.  To  call  signifies  properly 
to  address  one  loudly,  consequently  we  may  name  with- 
out calling,  when  we  only  mention  a  name  in  conversa- 
tion;  and  we  may  call  without  naming. 

Native,  Natural.  Of  a  person  we  may  say  that 
his  worth  is  native,  to  designate  that  it  is  some  valuable 
property  which  is  born  with  him;  that  it  is  natural,  as 
opposed  to  that  which  is  acquired  or  otherwise. 

Necessity,  Necessary.  Necessity  is  the  mode  or 
state  of  circumstances,  or  the  thing  which  circum- 
stances render  necessary;  the  necessary  is  that  which 
is  absolutely  and  unconditionally  indispensable.  Habit 
and  desire  create  necessities;  nature  only  requires 
necessaries. 

To  Neglect,  Omit.  To  neglect  is  to  disregard,  to 
treat  with  little  or  no  attention  or  respect;  to  omit  is 
to  leave  out,  to  leave  unnoticed  or  undone.  We  neglect 
an  opportunity,  we  neglect  the  means,  the  time,  the  use, 
and  the  like;  we  omit  a  word,  a  sentence,  a  figure,  and 
the  line  may  be  omitted  or  otherwise,  as  convenience 
requires. 

Neigiiborhood,  Vicinity.  Neighborhood  is  em- 
ployeo  in  reference  to  the  inhabitants,  or  in  regard  to 
inhabited  places,  to  denote  nearness  of  persons  to  each 
other  or  to  objects  in  general;  but  vicinity  is  employed 
to  denote  nearness  of  one  object  to  another,  whether 
person  or  thing. 

New,  Novel,  3Iodem,  Fresh,  Recent.  All  these 
epithets  are  applied  to  what  has  not  long  existed.  New 
expresses  this  idea  simply  without  any  qualifications; 
novel  is  something  strange  or  unexpected;  the  modern 
is  the  thing  of  to-day,  as  distinguished  from  that  which 


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249 


existed  in  fonner  times;  the  fresh  is  that  which  is  so 
new  as  not  to  be  the  worse  for  use,  or  that  which  has  not 
been  before  used  or  employed;  the  recent  is  that  which 
is  so  new  as  to  appear  as  if  it  were  just  made  or  done. 

News,  Tidings.  News  is  unexpected;  it  serves  to 
gratify  idle  curiosity:  tidings  are  expected;  they  serve 
to  allay  anxiety.  In  time  of  war  the  public  is  eager 
after  news;  and  they  who  have  relatives  in  the  army 
are  anxious  to  have  tidings  of  them. 

To  Nominate,  Name.  To  hominate  and  to  name 
are  both  to  mention  by  name:  the  former  is  to  men- 
tion for  a  specific  purpose;  the  latter  is  to  mention 
for  general  purposes.  Persons  only  are  nominated; 
things  as  well  as  persons  are  named :  one  nominates  a 
person  in  order  to  propose  him,  or  appoint  him,  to  an 
office;  but  one  names  a  person  casually,  in  the  course 
of  conversation,  or  one  names  him  in  order  to  make 
some  inquiry  respecting  him. 

To  Notice,  Remark,  Observe.  To  notice  is  a  more 
cursory  action  than  to  remark;  we  may  notice  a  thing 
by  a  single  glance,  or  on  merely  turning  the  head. 
To  remark  supposes  a  reaction  of  the  mind  on  an 
object.  We  observe  things  in  order  to  judge  of  or  draw 
conclusions  from  them,  as  to  observe  the  condition  of 
the  weather.  We  remark  things  as  matters  of  fact,  as 
to  remark  the  manner  of  a  speaker. 

Numeral,  Numerical.  Numeral,  or  belonging  to 
number,  is  applied  to  a  class  of  words  in  grammar,  as 
a  numeral  adjective  or  a  n\imeral  noun;  numerical,  or 
containing  number,  is  applied  to  whatever  other  objects 
respect  number,  as  a  numerical  difference,  where  there 
is  a  difference  between  any  two  numbers,  or  a  difference 
expressed  by  numbers. 

Obedient,  Submissive,  Obsequious.  One  is  obedi- 
ent to  command,  submissive  to  power  or  the  will,  obse- 
quious to  persons.  Obedience  is  always  taken  in  a  good 
sense. 

To  Object,  Oppose.  To  object  to  a  thing  is  to  pro- 
pose or  start  something  against  it;  but  to  oppose  it  is 
to  set  oneself  up  steadily  against  it. 

Obnoxious,  Offensive.  In  the  sense  of  giving 
offense,  obnoxious  implies  as  much  as  hateful,  offensive 
little  more  than  displeasing.    A  man  is  obnoxious  to  a 

Earty,  whose  interest  or  principles  he  is  opposed  to; 
e  may  be  offensive  to  an  individual  merely  on  account 
of  his  manners  or  on  account  of  any  particular  actions. 

To  Observe,  Watch.  We  observe  a  thing  in  order 
to  draw  an  inference  from  it;  we  watch  anything  in 
order  to  discover  what  may  happen:  we  observe  with 
coolness;    we  watch  with  eagerness. 

Occasion,  Opportunity.  The  occasion  is  that  which 
determines  our  conduct,  and  leaves  us  no  choice;  it 
amounts  to  a  degree  of  necessity.  The  opportunity  is  that 
which  invites  to  action;  it  tempts  us  to  embrace  the 
moment  for  taking  the  step. 

Occasional,  Casual.  Occasional  carries  with  it 
more  the  idea  of  unfrequency,  and  casual  that  of  unfix- 
edness,  or  the  absence  of  all  design.  Our  acts  of  charity 
may  be  occasional;  but  they  ought  not  to  be  casual. 

Offender,  Delinquent.  Those  who  go  into  a  pro- 
hibited place  are  offenders;  those  who  stay  away  when 
they  ought  to  go  are  delinquents. 

Offspring,  Progeny,  Issue.  Offspring  is  a  familiar 
term  applicable  to  one  or  many  children;  progeny  is 
employed  only  as  a  collective  noun  for  a  number;  issue 
is  used  in  an  indefinite  manner  without  particular  regard 
to  number.  When  we  speak  of  the  children  themselves 
we  denominate  them  the  offspring;  when  we  speak  of 
the  parents,  we  denominate  the  children  their  prog- 
eny. The  issue  is  said  only  in  regard  to  a  man  that  is 
deceased;  his  property  descends  to  his  male  issue  in  a 
direct  line. 

Omen,  Prognostic,  Presage.  The  omen  and  prog- 
nostic are  both  drawn  from  external  objects;  the  presage 
is  drawn  from  one's  own  feelings.  The  omen  is  drawn 
from  objects  that  have  no  necessary  connection  with  the 
thing  they  are  made  to  represent;  it  is  the  fruit  of  the 
imagination,  and  rests  on  superstition.  The  prognostic, 
on  the  contrary,  is  a  sign  which  in  some  degree  partakes 
of  the  quality  of  the  thing  denoted. 

Opinionated  or  Egotistic,  Conceited,  Egotistical. 
An  opinionated  man  is  not  only  fond  of  his  own  opinion, 
but  full  of  his  own  opinion;  he  has  an  opinion  on  every- 
thing, which  is  the  best  possible  opinion.  A  conceited 
man  has  a  conceit  or  an  idle  fond  opinion  of  his  own 
talent;  it  is  not  only  high  in  competition  with  others, 
but  it  is  so  high  as  to  be  set  above  others.  The  egotistical 
man  makes  himself  the  darling  object  of  his  own  con- 
templation ;  he  admires  and  loves  himself  to  that  degree 
that  he  can  talk  and  think  of  nothing  else. 

Option,  Choice,  The  option  or  the  power  of  choos- 
ing is  given;  the  choice  itself  is  made:  hence  we  say  a 
.  thing  is  at  a  person's  option,  or  it  is  his  own  option,  or 


the  option  is  left  to  him,  in  order  to  designate  his  freedom 
of  choice  more  strongly  than  is  expressed  by  the  word 
choice  itself. 

Orifice,  Perforation.  These  terms  are  both  scien- 
tifically employed  to  designate  certain  cavities  in  the 
human  body;  but  the  former  respects  that  which  is 
natural,  the  latter  that  which  is  artificial.  All  the  vessels 
of  the  human  body  have  their  orifices,  which  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  open  or  close  of  themselves.  Surgeons 
frequently  make  perforations  into  the  bones. 

Outward,  External,  Exterior.  Outward,  or  in- 
clined to  the  out,  after  the  manner  of  the  out,  indefinitely 
describes  the  situation;  external  is  employed  only  in 
regard  to  such  objects  as  are  conceived  to  be  independent 
of  man  as  a  thinking  being:  hence,  we  may  speak  of  the 
outward  part  of  a  building,  of  a  board,  and  the  like; 
but  of  external  objects  acting  on  the  mind,  or  of  an  ex- 
ternal agency.  When  we  speak  of  anything  which  has 
two  coats,  it  is  usual  to  designate  the  outermost  by  the 
name  of  the  exterior. 

To  Paint,  Depict.  To  paint  is  employed  either 
literally  to  represent  figures  on  paper,  or  to  represent 
circumstances  and  events  by  means  of  words;  to  depict 
is  used  only  in  this  latter  sense,  but  the  former  word  ex- 
presses a  greater  exercise  of  the  imagination  than  the 
latter.  It  is  the  art  of  the  poet  to  paint  nature  in  lively 
colors;  it  is  the  art  of  the  historian  or  the  narrator  to 
depict  a  real  scene  of  misery  in  strong  colors. 

Part,  Piece,  Patch.  Things  may  be  divided  into 
parts  without  any  express  separation;  but  when  divided 
into  pieces  they  are  actually  cut  asunder:  hence  we  may 
speak  of  a  loaf  as  divided  into  twelve  parts  when  it  is  con- 
ceived only  to  be  so;  and  divided  into  twelve  pieces 
when  it  is  really  so.  The  patch  is  that  which  is  always 
broken  and  disjointed,  a  something  imperfect:  many 
things  may  be  formed  out  of  a  piece;  but  the  patch  only 
serves  to  fill  up  a  chasm. 

Particular,  Individual.  Particular  is  much  more 
specific  than  individual:  the  particular  confines  us  to 
one  object  only  of  many;  the  individual  may  be  said  of 
any  one  object  among  many. 

Peace,  Quiet,  Calm,  Tranquillity.  Peace  implies 
an  exemption  from  public  or  private  broils;  quiet  im- 
plies a  freedom  from  noise  or  interruption.  Calm  is  a 
form  of  quiet,  which  respects  objects  in  the  natural 
or  the  moral  world;  it  indicates  the  absence  of  violent 
motion  as  well  as  violent  noise;  it  is  that  state  which 
more  immediately  succeeds  a  state  of  agitation.  Tran- 
quillity expresses  the  situation  as  it  exists  in  the  present 
moment,  independently  of  what  goes  before  or  after; 
it  is  sometimes  applicable  to  society,  sometimes  to  natural 
objects,  and  sometimes  to  the  mind. 

Pellucid,  Transparent.  Pellucid  is  said  of  that 
which  is  pervious  to  the  light,  or  of  that  into  which  the 
eye  can  penetrate;  transparent  is  said  of  that  which  is 
bright  throughout.  A  stream  is  pellucid;  it  admits  of 
the  light  so  as  to  reflect  objects  but  it  is  not  transparent 
to  the  eye. 

Penurious,  Economical,  Saving,  Sparing,  Thrifty, 
Niggardly.  To  be  economical  is  a  virtue  in  those  who 
have  but  narrow  means.  He  who  is  saving  when  young 
will  be  avaricious  when  old.  To  be  sparing  is  to  use 
frugally  or  stintingly;  thrifty  suggests  careful  manage- 
ment; penurious  means  miserly  or  sparing  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  money;  niggardly  is  spending  or  letting  go 
in  the  smallest  possible  quantities. 

To  Perpetrate,  Commit.  One  may  commit  offenses 
of  various  degrees  and  magnitude;  but  one  perpetrates 
crimes  only,  and  those  of  the  more  heinous  kincl. 

Pillar,  Column.  The  word  pillar  is  the  most  general 
in  its  application  to  any  structure,  whether  rude  or  other- 
wise; the  term  column,  on  the  other  hand,  is  applied  to 
whatever  is  ornamental,  as  the  Grecian  order  of  columns. 

Piteous,  Doleful,  Woeful,  Rueful.  Piteous  is  ap- 
plicable to  one's  external  expression  of  bodily  or  mental 
pain;  a  child  makes  piteous  lamentations  when  it  suffers 
from  hunger,  or  has  lost  its  way.  Doleful  applies  to  those 
sounds  which  convey  the  idea  of  pain;  there  is  some- 
thing doleful  in  the  tolling  of  a  funeral  bell  or  in  the  sound 
of  a  muffled  drum.  Woeful  applies  to  the  circumstances 
and  situations  of  men ;  a  scene  is  woeful  in  which  we  wit- 
ness a  large  family  of  young  children  suffering  under  the 
complicated  horrors  of  sickness  and  want.  Rueful  applies 
to  the  outward  indications  of  inward  sorrow  depicted  in 
the  looks  or  countenance. 

Pity,  Compassion.  Pity  is  excited  principally  by 
the  weakness  or  degraded  condition  of  the  subject;  com- 
passion by  his  uncontrollable  and  inevitable  misfortunes. 

Playful,  Gamesome,  Sportive.  Playful  is  appli- 
cable to  youth  or  childhood,  when  there  is  the  greatest 
disposition  to  play.  Gamesome  and  .sportive  are  ap- 
plied to  persons  of  maturer  years,  the  former  in  the  bad 
sense,  and  the  latter  in  the  good  sense.     A  person  may 


250 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


be  said  to  be  gamesome  who  gives  in  to  idle  jests,  or 
sportive  who  indulges  in  harmless  sport. 

To  Poise,  Balance.  To  poise  is  properly  to  keep 
the  weight  froni  pressing  on  either  side;  to  balance  is  to 
adjust  or  equalize  two  forces.  The  idea  of  bringing  into 
an  equilibrium  is  common  to  both  terms.  A  thing  is 
poised  as  respects  itself;  it  is  balanced  as  respects  other 
things. 

Poison,  Venom.  A  poison  must  be  administered 
inwardly  to  have  its  effect;  a  venom  will  act  by  an  ex- 
ternal application:  the  juice  of  the  hellebore  is  a  poison; 
the  tongue  of  the  adder  and  the  tooth  of  the  viper  contain 
venom. 

Politeness,  Polish,  Refinement.  Politeness  and 
polish  do  not  extend  to  anything  but  externals;  refine- 
ment applies  as  much  to  the  mind  as  to  the  body.  Rules 
of  conauct,  and  contact  with  good  society,  will  make  a 
man  polite;  lessons  in  dancing  will  serve  to  give  a 
polish;  refined  manners  or  principles  will  naturally  arise 
out  of  refinement  in  men. 

Position,  Posture.  The  position  is  that  in  which  a 
body  is  placed  in  respect  to  otner  bodies,  as  the  standing 
with  one's  face  or  back  to  an  object  is  a  position;  but  a 
posture  is  that  position  which  a  body  assumes  in  respect 
to  itself,  as  a  sitting  or  reclining  posture. 

To  Pour,  Spill,  Shed.  We  pour  with  design;  we  spill 
by  accident:  we  pour  water  over  a  plant  or  a  bed;  we 
spill  it  on  the  ground.     Shed  refers  to  great  quantities. 

Powerful,  Potent,  Mighty.  Powerful  is  applicable 
to  strength  as  well  as  to  power:  a  powerful  man  is  one 
who  by  size  and  make  can  easily  overpower  another;  a 
IX)werful  person  is  one  who  has  much  in  his  power.  Po- 
tent is  used  only  in  this  latter  sense,  in  which  it  expresses 
a  larger  extent  of  power:  a  potent  monarch  is  much  more 
than  a  powerful  prince.  Mighty  expresses  a  still  higher 
degree  of  power;  might  is  power  unlimited  by  any  con- 
sideration or  circumstance.  A  giant  is  called  mighty  in 
the  physical  sense;  genius  which  takes  everything  within 
its  grasp  is  said  to  be  mighty. 

To  Press,  Squeeze,  Pinch,  Gripe.  The  forcible 
action  of  one  body  on  another  is  included  in  all  these 
terms.  In  the  word  press  this  is  the  only  idea ;  the  rest 
differ  in  the  circumstances.  We  may  press  with  the  foot, 
the  hand,  or  any  particular  limb.  One  squeezes  com- 
monly with  the  hand.  One  pinches  either  with  the  fingers 
or  with  an  instrument  constructed  in  a  similar  form;  one 
pipes  with  teeth,  claws,  or  any  instrument  that  can  gain 
hold  of  the  object. 

Presumptive,  Presumptuous,  Presuming.  A 
presumptive  heir  is  one  presumed  or  expected  to  be  heir; 
presumptive  evidence  is  evidence  founded  on  some  pre- 
sumption or  supposition;  so  likewise  presumptive  rea- 
soning. But  a  presumptuous  man.  a  presumptuous 
thought,  a  presumptuous  behavior,  all  indicate  an  over- 
confidence  in  regard  to  one's  own  powers;  a  man  is  pre- 
suming inasmucn  as  he  is  disposed  to  take  unwarranted 
liberties. 

To  Prevent,  Anticipate.  To  prevent  is  literally  to 
come  beforehand,  and  anticipate  to  take  beforehand: 
the  former  is  Employed  for  actual  occurrences ;  the  latter 
as  much  for  calculations  as  for  actions.  To  prevent  is 
the  act  of  a  person  toward  other  persons  or  things:  to 
anticipate  is  the  act  of  a  being  either  toward  himself  or 
another.  In  this  sense  God  is  said  to  prevent  man  by 
interposing  so  as  to  direct  his  purposes  to  the  right 
object  or  in  the  right  direction. 

Previous,  Preliminary,  Preparatory,  Introduc- 
tory. Previous  applies  to  actions  and  proceedings  in 
general,  as  a  previous  question,  a  previous  inquiry,  a 
previous  determination.  Preliminary  is  employed  only 
for  matters  of  contract:  a  preliminary  article,  a  pre- 
liminary condition,  are  what  precede  the  final  settlement 
of  any  question.  Preparatory  is  employed  for  matters 
of  arrangement:  the  disposing  of  men  in  battle  is  pre- 
paratory to  an  engagement.  Introductory  is  employed 
for  matters  of  science  or  discussion:  remarks  are  in- 
troductory to  the  main  subject  in  question. 

Principle,  Motive.  The  principle  lies  in  conscious 
and  unconscious  agents;  the  motive  only  in  conscious 
agents:  all  nature  is  guided  by  certain  principles;  man 
is  put  into  action  by  certain  motives. 

Privacy,  Retirement,  Seclusion.  Privacy  is  op- 
posed to  publicity;  he  who  lives  in  privacy  is  one  who 
follows  no  public  line,  who  lives  so  as  to  be  little  known: 
retirement  is  opposed  to  openness  or  freedom  of  access; 
he  who  lives  in  retirement  withdraws  from  -the  society 
of  others,  he  lives  by  himself.  Seclusion  is  the  excess  of 
retirement;  he  who  lives  in  seclusion  bars  all  access  to 
himself,  he  shuts  himself  from  the  world. 

Proceeding,  Transaction.  Proceeding  signifies  lit- 
erally going  before ;  and  transaction  the  thing  carried 
through:  the  former  implies,  therefore,  something  that 
is  going  forward;  the  latter  something  that  ia  already 


done.  We  are  witnesses  to  the  whole  proceeding;  we 
inquire  into  the  whole  transaction. 

Production,  Performance,  Work.  The  term  pro- 
duction cannot  be  employed  without  specifying  or  re- 
ferring to  the  source  from  which  it  is  brought  forth,  or 
the  means  by  which  it  is  brought  forth,  as  the  produc- 
tion of  art,  the  production  of  the  inventive  faculty.  A 
performance  cannot  be  spoken  of  without  referring  to 
the  individual  by  whom  it  has  been  executed;  hence  we 
speak  of  this  or  that  person's  performance.  When  we 
wish  to  specify  anything  that  results  from  work  or  labor, 
it  is  termed  a  work:  in  this  manner  we  speak  either  of 
the  work  of  one's  hands,  or  of  a  work  of  the  imagi- 
nation. 

Profligate,  Abandoned,  Reprobate.  A  profligate 
man  has  lost  all  by  his  vices,  and  consequently  to  his 
vices  alone  he  looks  for  regaining  the  goods  or  the  for- 
tune which  he  has  squandered ;  as  he  has  nothing  to  lose, 
and  everything  to  gain  in  his  own  estimation,  by  pursuing 
the  career  of  his  vices,  he  surpasses  all  others  in  his  un- 

Erincipled  conduct.  An  abandoned  man  gives  up  to 
is  passions,  which,  having  the  entire  sway  over  him, 
naturally  impel  him  to  every  excess.  The  reprobate 
man  is  one  who  has  been  reproved  until  he  becomes 
insensible  to  reproof,  and  is  given  up  to  the  malignity 
of  his  own  passions. 

Prominent,  Ccmsplcuous.  What  is  prominent  is, 
in  general,  on  that  very  account  conspicuous;  but  many 
things  may  be  conspicuous  which  are  not  expressly 
prominent.  Nothing  is  prominent  except  that  which 
projects  beyond  a  certain  line;  everything  is  conspicuous 
which  may  be  seen  by  many. 

Promise,  Engagement.  Word.  In  protnises  the 
faith  of  an  individual  is  admitted  upon  his  word,  and 
built  upon  as  if  it  were  a  deed;  in  engagements  the  in- 
tentions of  an  individual  for  the  future  are  all  that  are 
either  implied  or  understood.  As  a  promise  and  an 
engagement  can  be  made  only  by  words,  word  is  often 
used  for  either,  or  for  both,  as  the  case  requires. 

Proportionate,  Commensurate,  Adequate.  Pro- 
portionate is  here  a  term  of  general  use;  the  others  are 
particular  terms,  employed  in  a  similar  sense,  in  regard 
to  particular  objects.  That  is  proportionate  which  rises 
as  a  thing  rises,  and  falls  as  a  thing  falls;  that  is  com- 
mensurate which  is  made  to  rise  to  the  same  measure  or 
degree;  that  is  adequate  which  is  sufficient  to  meet  the 
requirements. 

To  Provide,  Procure,  Furnish,  Supply.  Provide 
and  procure  are  both  actions  that  have  a  special  reference 
to  the  future;  furnish  and  supply  are  employed  for  that 
which  is  of  immediate  concern.  One  provides  a  dinner 
in  the  contemplation  that  some  persons  are  coming  to 
partake  of  it;  one  procures  help  in  the  contemplation 
that  it  may  be  wanted.  We  furnish  a  room,  as  we  find  it 
necessary  for  the  present' purpose.  One  supplies  a  family 
with  any  article  of  domestic  use. 

To  Publish,  Promulgate,  Divulge,  Reveal,  Dis- 
close. To  publish  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms, 
conveying  in  its  extended  sense  the  idea  of  making 
known;  it  is  in  many  respects  indefinite:  we  may 
publish  to  many  or  few.  To  promulgate  is  always  to 
make  known  to  many.  We  may  publish  that  which  is 
a  domestic  or  a  national  concern ;  we  promulgate  proper- 
ly only  that  which  is  of  general  interest;  we  divulge 
things  intended  to  be  kept  secret;  we  commonly  divulge 
the  secrets  or  the  crimes  of  another;  we  reveal  the  secret 
or  the  mystery  of  a  transaction;  we  disclose  from 
beginning  to  end  an  affair  which  has  never  before  been 
known  or  accounted  for. 

To  Put,  Place,  Lay,  Set.  To  put  is  a  general  term 
meaning  to  bring  to  a  position :  we  may  put  a  thing 
into  one's  room,  one's  desk,  one's  pocket,  and  the  like. 
To  place  is  to  put  in  a  specific  manner,  and  for  a 
specific  purpose:  one  places  a  book  on  a  shelf.  To  lay 
and  to  set  are  still  more  specific  than  place,  the  former 
being  applied  only  to  such  things  as  can  be  made  to  lie, 
and  set  only  to  such  as  can  be  made  to  stand:  a  book 
may  be  said  to  be  laid  on  the  table  when  placed  in  a  down- 
ward position,  and  set  when  placed  on  one  end. 

Qualification,  Accomplishment.  The  qualifica- 
tion serves  the  purpose  of  utility;  the  accomplishment 
serves  to  adorn :  by  the  first  we  are  enabled  to  make  our- 
selves useful ;  by  the  second  we  are  enabled  to  make  our- 
selves agreeable. 

Quarrel,  Broil,  Feud.  Quarrel  is  the  general  and 
ordinary  term;  broil  and  feud,  including  active  hostility, 
are  particular  terms.  The  idea  of  a  variance  between 
two  or  more  persons  is  common  to  these  terms;  but  the 
former  respects  the  complaints  and  charges  which  are 
reciprocally  made.  Broil  respects  the  confusion  and  the 
entanglement  which  arise  from  a  contention  and  a  col- 
lision of  interests;  feud  respects  the  hostilities  which 
arise  out  of  the  variance. 


LANGUAGE 


251 


Question,  Query.  Questions  and  queries  are  both 
put  for  the  salce  of  obtaining  an  answer.  A  question 
may  be  for  a  reasonable  or  an  unreasonable  cause;  a 
query  is  mostly  a  rational  question:  idlers  may  put 
questions  from  mere  curiosity;  learned  men  put  queries 
for  the  sake  of  information. 

Radiance,  Brilliancy.  Radiance  denotes  the  emis- 
sion of  rays,  and  is,  therefore,  peculiarly  applicable  to 
bodies  naturally  luminous,  like  tlie  heavenly  bodies; 
brilliancy  denotes  the  whole  body  of  light  emitted,  and 
may,  therefore,  be  applied  equally  to  natural  and  arti- 
ficial light. 

Rapacious,  Ravenous,  Voracious.  Rapacious  is 
the  quality  peculiar  to  beasts  of  prey,  or  to  what  is  like 
beasts  of  prey.  A  lion  is  rapacious  when  it  seizes  on  its 
prey;  it  is  ravenous  in  the  act  of  consuming  it.  The 
word  ravenous  respects  the  haste  with  which  one  eats ; 
the  word  voracious  respects  the  quantity  which  one 
consumes.  A  ravenous  person  is  loath  to  wait  for  the 
dressing  of  his  food ;  he  consumes  it  without  any  prepara- 
tion: a  voracious  person  not  only  eats  in  haste,  but  he 
consumes  great  quantities,  and  continues  to  do  so  for  a 
long  time. 

Rashness,  Temerity,  Haste,  Precipitancy.  Rash- 
ness is  a  general  and  mdefinite  term,  m  the  significa- 
tion of  which  an  improper  celerity  is  the  leading  idea: 
in  the  signification  of  temerity,  the  leading  idea  is  want 
of  consideration,  springing  mostly  from  an  overweening 
confidence,  or  a  presumption  of  character.  Haste  and 
precipitancy  are  but  modes  or  characteristics  of  rashness, 
and  consequently  employed  only  in  particular  cases,  as 
haste  in  regard  to  our  movements,  and  precipitancy  in 
regard  to  our  measures. 

Ready,  Apt,  Prompt.  Ready  is  in  general  applied 
to  that  which  has  been  intentionally  prepared  for  a  given 
purpose;  prompt  is  applied  to  that  which  is  at  hand  so 
as  to  answer  the  immediate  purpose;  apt  is  applied  to 
that  which  is  fit,  or  from  its  nature  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  effects. 

To  Reclaim,  Reform.  Reclaim  signifies  to  call 
back  to  its  right  place  that  which  has  gone  astray;  re- 
form signifies  to  form  anew  that  which  has  changed  its 
form:  they  are  allied  only  in  their  application  to  the 
moral  character.  A  man  is  reclaimed  from  his  vicious 
courses  by  the  force  of  advice  or  exhortation;  he  may 
be  reformed  by  various  means,  external  or  internal. 

To  Recline,  Repose.  When  we  recline  we  put  our- 
selves into  a  particular  position;  but  when  we  repose  we 
put  ourselves  into  that  position  which  will  be  easiest. 

To  Recover,  Retrieve,  Repair,  Recruit.  We  re- 
pair that  wiiich  has  been  injureu;  we  recruit  that  which 
has  been  diminished;  we  recover  property  from  those 
who  wish  to  deprive  us  of  it;  we  retrieve  our  misfor- 
tunes, or  our  lost  reputation. 

Recovery,  Restoration.  Recovery  (v.  to  recover) 
is  the  regaining  of  any  object  which  has  been  lost  or 
missing;  restoration  is  the  getting  back  what  has  been 
taken  away,  or  that  of  which  one  has  been  deprived. 
What  is  recovered  may  be  recovered  with  or  without 
the  use  of  means;  the  restoration  is  effected  by  foreign 
agency. 

Reform,  Reformation.  Whatever  undergoes  such 
a  change  as  to  give  a  new  form  to  an  object  occasions 
a  reform;  when  such  a  change  is  produced  in  the  moral 
character,  it  is  termed  a  reformation:  the  concerns  of  a 
state  require  occasional  reform;  those  of  an  individual 
require  reformation. 

To  Refuse,  Decline,  Reject,  Repel,  Rebufif.  We 
refuse  what  is  asked  of  us,  for  want  of  inclination  to 
comply;  we  decline  what  is  proposed  from  motives  of 
discretion;  we  reject  what  is  offered  to  us,  because  it 
does  not  fall  in  with  our  views.  To  repel  is  to  reject  with 
violence;  to  rebuff  is  to  refuse  with  contempt,  or  with 
what  may  be  considered  as  such. 

To  Relax,  Remit.  In  regard  to  our  attempts  to  act, 
we  may  speak  of  relaxing  our  endeavors,  and  remitting 
our  labors  or  exertions;  in  regard  to  our  dealings  with 
others,  we  may  speak  of  relaxing  in  discipline,  relaxing 
in  the  severity  or  strictness  of  our  conduct,  and  of 
remitting  a  punishment  or  a  sentence. 

To  Repeat,  Recite,  Rehearse,  Recapitulate.  To 
repeat  is  to  say  or  utter  again;  to  recite  is  to  repeat  in 
a  formal  manner;  to  rehearse  is  to  repeat  or  recite  by 
way  of  preparation;  to  recapitulate  is  to  repeat  the 
chapters  or  principal  heads  of  any  discourse. 

To  Repress,  Restrain,  Suppress.  To  repress  is  to 
press  back  or  down ;  to  restrain  is  to  strain  back  or  down : 
the  former  is  the  general,  the  latter  the  specific  term. 
We  always  repress  when  we  restrain,  but  not  vice  versa. 
Repress  is  used  mostly  for  pressing  down,  so  as  to  keep 
that  inward  which  wants  to  make  its  appearance. 
Restraint  is  an  habitual  repression  by  which  a  thing  is 
kept  down.     To  suppress,  which  is  to  keep  under,  or 


keep  from  appearing  or  being  perceptible,  is  also  used 
in  respect  to  ourselves  or  others,  as  to  repress  one's 
feelings,  to  suppress  laughter,  sighs,  etc. 

Reproach,  Contumely,  Obloquy.  The  idea  of 
contemptuous  or  angry  treatment  of  others  is  common  to 
all  these  terms;  reproach  is  the  general  term,  contumely 
and  obloquy  are  the  particular  terms.  Reproach  is 
either  deserved  or  undeserved;  the  name  of  Puritan  is 
applied  as  a  term  of  reproach  to  such  as  affect  greater 
purity  than  others.  Contumely  is  always  undeserved; 
it  is  the  insolent  resistance  to  authority.  Obloquy  is 
always  supposed  to  be  deserved ;  it  is  applicable  to 
those  whose  conduct  has  rendered  them  objects  of 
general  censure,  and  whose  name,  therefore,  has  almost 
become  a  reproach. 

To  Restore,  Return,  Repay.  We  restore  upon  a 
principle  of  equity;  we  return  upon  a  principle  of 
justice  and  honor;  we  repay  upon  a  principle  of  un- 
deniable right.  We  cannot  always  claim  that  which 
ought  to  be  restored;  but  we  can  not  only  claim  but 
enforce  the  claim  in  regard  to  what  is  to  be  returned  or 
repaid. 

To  Retard,  Hinder.  We  retard  or  make  slow  the 
progress  of  any  scheme  toward  completion;  we  hinder 
or  keep  back  the  person  who  is  completing  the  scheme: 
we  often  retard  a  person,  therefore,  by  hindering  his 
progress;  but  we  frequently  hinder  a  person  without 
expressly  retarding  him. 

Right,  Claim,  Privilege.  Right,  in  its  full  sense, 
is  altogether  an  abstract  thing  which  is  independent  of 
human  laws  and  regulations;  claims  and  privileges  are 
altogether  connected  with  the  establishments  of  civil 
society.  We  have  often  a  claim  to  a  thing  which  is  not 
in  our  power  to  substantiate;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
claims  are  set  up  in  cases  which  are  totally  unfounded 
on  any  right.  Privileges  are  rights  granted  to  individuals, 
depending  either  on  the  will  of  the  grantor,  or  on  the 
circumstances  of  the  receiver,  or  on  both;  privileges  are, 
therefore,  partial  rights  transferable  at  the  discretion 
of  persons  individually  or  collectively. 

Royal,  Regal,  Kingly.  Royal  signifies  belonging 
to  a  king,  in  its  most  general  sense;  regal  signifies 
appertaining  to  a  king,  in  its  particular  application; 
kingly  properly  signifies  like  a  king.  A  royal  carriage, 
a  royal  residence,  royal  authority,  all  designate  the 
general  and  ordinary  appurtenances  of  a  king.  Regal 
government,  regal  state, Tegal  power,  denote  the  peculiar 

Eroperties  of  a  king;  kingly  always  implies  what  ia 
ecoming  a  king,  or  after  the  manner  of  a  king:  a  kingly 
crown  is  such  as  a  king  ought  to  wear. 

Rural,  Rustic.  Rural  applies  to  all  country  objects 
except  man;  it  is,  therefore,  always  connected  with  the 
charms  of  nature :  rustic  applies  only  to  persons,  or  to 
what  is  personal,  with  reference  to  the  country;  it  is, 
therefore,  generally  associated  with  the  want  of  culture. 

Safe,  Secure.  We  may  be  safe  without  using  any 
particular  measures ;  but  none  can  reckon  on  any  degree 
of  security  without  great  precaution.  A  person  may  be 
very  safe  on  the  top  of  a  coach ;  but  if  he  wish  to  be 
secure  from  falling  off,  he  must  be  fastened. 

Salute,  Salutation,  Greeting.  A  salute  may  con- 
sist either  of  a  word  or  an  action;  salutations  pass  from 
one  friend  to  another:  the  salute  may  be  either  direct 
or  indirect;  the  salutation  is  always  direct  and  personal. 
Guns  are  fired  by  way  of  a  salute.  Bows  are  given  in  the 
way  of  a  salutation.  Greeting  is  frequently  a  particular 
mode  of  salutation  adopted  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
indicative  of  great  joy  or  satisfaction  in  those  who  greet. 

To  Satisfy,  Please,  Gratify.  What  satisfies  is  not 
always  calculated  to  please;  nor  is  that  which  pleases 
that  which  will  always  satisfy:  plain  food  satisfies  a 
hungry  person;  it  does  not  please  him  when  he  is  not 
hungry.  To  gratify  is  to  please  in  a  high  degree,  to  pro- 
duce a  vivid  pleasure:  we  may  be  pleased  with  trifles; 
but  we  are  commonly  gratified  with  such  things  as  act 
strongly  either  on  the  senses  or  the  affections. 

Seaman,  Waterman,  Sailor,  Mariner.  All  these 
words  denote  persons  occupied  in  navigation:  the  sea- 
man, as  the  word  implies,  follows  his  business  on  the  sea; 
the  waterman  is  one  who  gets  his  livelihood  on  fresh 
water.  The  sailor  and  the  mariner  are  both  specific 
terms  to  designate  the  seaman :  every  sailor  and  every 
mariner  is  a  seaman,  although  every  seaman  is  not  a 
sailor  or  a  mariner.  The  former  is  one  who  is  employed 
about  the  laborious  part  of  the  vessel;  the  latter  is  one 
who  traverses  the  ocean  to  and  fro,  who  is  attached  to 
the  water,  and  passes  his  life  upon  it. 

Secret,  Hidden,  Latent,  Occult,  Mysterious. 
What  is  secret  is  known  to  some  one;  what  is  hidden 
may  be  known  to  no  one:  it  rests  in  the  breast  of  an 
individual  to  keep  a  thing  secret;  it  depends  on  the 
course  of  things  if  anything  remains  hidden.  The  latent 
is  the  secret  or  the  concealed,  in  cases  where  it  ought  to  be 


252 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


open:  a  latent  motive  is  that  which  a  person  inten- 
tionally, though  not  justifiably,  keeps  to  himself.  An 
occult  science  is  one  that  is  hidden  from  the  view  of 
persons  in  general,  which  is  attainable  by  but  few; 
occult  causes  or  qualities  are  those  which  lie  too  remote 
to  be  discovered  by  the  inquirer.  The  operations  of 
Providence  are  said  to  be  mysterious,  as  they  are  alto- 
gether past  our  finding  out. 

To  See,  Perceive,  Observe.  The  eye  sees  when 
the  mind  is  absent;  the  mind  and  the  eye  or  other 
senses  perceive  in  conjunction:  hence,  we  may  say  that 
a  person  sees,  but  does  not  perceive.  We  observe  not 
merely  by  a  simple  act  of  the  mind,  but  by  its  positive 
and  fixed  exertion. 

To  Seem,  Appear.  Seem  is  said  of  that  which  is 
dubious,  contingent,  or  future;  appear,  of  that  which 
is  actual,  positive,  and  past.  A  thing  seems  strange 
which  we  are  led  to  conclude  as  strange  from  what  we 
see  of  it;  a  thing  appears  clear  when  we  have  a  clear 
conception  of  it. 

Sensualist,  Voluptuary,  Epicure.  The  sensualist 
lives  for  the  indulgence  of  his  senses;  the  voluptuary  is 
devoted  to  his  pleasures,  and,  as  far  as  these  pleasures 
are  the  pleasures  of  sense,  the  voluptuary  is  a  sensualist. 
The  epicure  is  one  who  makes  the  pleasures  of  sense  his 

fod,  and  in  this  sense  he  is  a  sensualist  and  a  voluptuary. 
n  the  application  of  these  terms,  however,  the  sensual- 
ist is  one  who  is  a  slave  to  the  grossest  appetites;  the 
voluptuary  is  one  who  studies  his  pleasures  so  as  to  make 
them  the  most  valuable  to  himself;  the  epicure  is  a 
kind  of  voluptuary  who  practices  more  than  ordinary 
refinement  in  the  choice  of  his  pleasures. 

Sequel,  Close.  When  a  work  is  published  in  dis- 
tinct parts,  those  which  follow  at  the  end  may  be  termed 
the  sequel;  if  it  appears  all  at  once,  the  concluding 
pages  are  the  close. 

Servant,  Domestic,  Menial,  Drudge.  In  the  term 
servant  is  included  the  idea  of  service  performed;  in 
the  term  domestic,  the  idea  of  one  belonging  to  the 
house  or  family;  in  the  word  menial  is  includeof  the  idea 
of  labor;  and  in  the  term  drudge,  that  of  wearisome  labor. 

Shade,  Shadow.  Both  these  terms  express  that 
darkness  which  is  occasioned  by  the  sun's  rays  being 
intercepted  by  any  body:  shade  simply  expresses  the 
absence  of  light;  shadow  signifies  also  the  figure  of  the 
body  which  intercepts  the  light. 

Sharp,  Acute,  Keen.  The  general  property  ex- 
pressed by  these  epithets  is  that  of  sharpness,  or  an 
ability  to  cut.  The  term  sharp,  in  German  scharf ,  from 
scheren,  to  cut,  is  generic  and  indefinite;  the  two  others 
are  modes  of  sharpness  differing  in  the  circumstance  or 
in  the  degree.  Acute  is  not  only  more  than  sharp  in  the 
common  sense,  but  signifies  also  sharp-pointed :  a  knife 
may  be  sharp;  but  a  needle  is  properly  acute.  Things 
are  sharp  that  have  either  a  long  or  a  pointed  edge;  but 
keen  is  applicable  only  to  the  long  edge,  and  that  in 
the  highest  degree  of  sharpness:  a  common  knife  may 
be  sharp;  but  a  razor  or  a  lancet  is  properly  said  to  be 
keen. 

Short,  Brief,  Concise,  Succinct,  Summary.  We 
may  term  a  stick,  a  letter,  or  a  discourse,  short.  We 
speak  of  brevity  only  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  speech; 
conciseness  and  succinctness  as  to  the  matter  of  speech; 
summary  as  to  the  mode  either  of  speaking  or  of"  acting. 
The  brief  is  opposed  to  the  prolix;  the  concise  and  the 
succinct  to  the  diffuse;  the  summary  to  the  circum- 
stantial or  ceremonious. 

Show,  Exhibition,  Representation,  Sight,  Spec- 
tacle. A  show  consists  of  that  which  merely  pleases 
the  eye;  it  is  not  a  matter  either  of  taste  or  art,  but 
merely  of  curiosity:  an  exhibition,  on  the  contrary, 
presents  some  effort  of  talent  or  some  work  of  genius; 
and  a  representation  sets  forth  the  image  or  imitation 
of  something  by  the  power  of  art.  Hence  we  speak  of  a 
show  of  wild  beasts,  an  exhibition  of  paintings,  and  a 
theatrical  representation;  sights  and  spectacles  present 
themselves  to  view.  Whatever  excites  notice  is  a  sight; 
a  spectacle,  on  the  contrary,  is  that  kind  of  sight  which 
has  something  in  it  to  interest  either  the  heart  or  the 
head  of  the  observer:  processions  are  sights;  battles  or 
bull-fights  are  spectacles. 

Siclt,  Sickly,  Diseased,  Morbid.  Sick  denotes  a 
partial  state,  sickly  a  permanent  state  of  the  body,  a 
proneness  to  be  sick.  He  who  is  sick  may  be  made  well; 
but  he  who  is  sickly  is  seldom  really  well.  Sickly  ex- 
presses a  permanent  state  of  indisposition  unless  other- 
wise qualified;  but  diseased  expresses  a  violent  state  of 
derangement  without  specifying  its  duration.  Sickly 
and  morbid  are  applied  to  the  habitual  state  of  the 
feelings  or  character:  a  sickly  sentimentality;  a  morbid 
sensibility.  Morbid  is  used  in  no  other,  except  in  a 
technical  sense. 

Sign,  Signal.     The  sign  enables  us  to  recognize  an 


object;  it  is,  therefore,  sometimes  natural :  signal  serves 
to  give  warning;    it  is  always  arbitrary. 

Simple,  Single,  Singular.  We  may  speak  of  a 
simple  circumstance  as  independent  of  anything;  of  a 
single  instance  or  circumstance  as  unaccompanied  by 
any  other;  and  of  a  singular  instance  as  one  that  rarely 
has  its  like. 

Simulation,  Dissimulation.  Simulation  is  the 
making  oneself  like  what  one  is  not;  and  dissimulation 
is  the  making  oneself  appear  unlike  what  one  really 
is.  The  hypocrite  puts  on  the  semblance  of  virtue  to 
recommend  himself  to  the  virtuous;  the  dissembler 
conceals  his  vices  when  he  wants  to  gain  the  simple  or 
the  ignorant  to  his  side. 

Slack,  Loose.  Slack  is  said  only  of  that  which 
is  tied,  or  that  with  which  anything  is  tied;  loose  is 
said  of  any  substances,  the  parts  of  which  do  not  adhere 
closely. 

To  Slant,  Slope.  Slant  is  said  of  small  bodies  only; 
slope  is  said  indifferently  of  all  bodies,  large  and  small. 
A  book  may  be  made  to  slant  by  lying  in  part  on  another 
book  on  a  desk  or  a  table;  but  a  piece  of  ground  is  said 
to  slope. 

To  Slip,  Slide,  Glide.  To  slip  is  an  involuntary, 
and  slide  a  voluntary,  motion:  those  who  go  on  the 
ice  in  fear  will  slip;  boys  slide  on  the  ice  by  way  of 
amusement.  To  slip  and  slide  are  lateral  movements 
of  the  feet;  but  to  glide  is  the  movement  of  the  whole 
body,  and  just  that  easy  motion  which  is  made  by 
slipping,  sliding,  flying,  or  swimming:  a  person  glides 
along  the  surface  of  tlie  ice  when  he  slides;  a  vessel 
glides  along  through  the  water. 

To  Soak,  Drench,  Steep.  A  person's  clothes  are 
soaked  in  rain  when  the  water  has  penetrated  every 
thread;  he  hirnself  is  drenched  in  the  rain  when  it  has 
penetrated,  as  it  were,  his  very  body.  Steep  respects  a 
manner  of  soaking  employed  as  an  artificial  process.  Soak 
is,  however,  a  permanent  action  by  which  hard  things  are 
rendered  soft;  steep  is  a  temporary  action  by  which 
soft  bodies  become  penetrated  with  a  liquid:  thus  salt 
meat  requires  to  be  soaked;  fruits  are  steeped  in  brandy. 

Social,  Sociable.  Social  people  seek  others;  so- 
ciable people  are  sought  for  by  others. 

Solicitation,  Importunity.  Solicitation  is  general; 
importunity  is  particular:  importunity  is  trouble- 
some solicitation.  Solicitation  is  itself  indeed  that 
which  gives  trouble  to.  a  certain  extent,  but.it  is  not 
always  unreasonable.  There  may  be  cases  in  which 
we  may  yield  to  the  solicitations  of  friends,  to  do 
that  which  we  have  no  objection  to  being  obliged  to  do; 
but  importunity  is  that  solicitation  which  never  ceases 
to  apply  for  that  which  it  is  not  agreeable  to  give. 

Solitary,  Desert,  Desolate.  Solitary  simply  de- 
notes the  absence  of  all  beings  of  the  same  kind :  thus  a 
place  is  solitary  to  a  man  where  there  is  no  human  being 
but  himself.  Desert  conveys  the  idea  of  a  place  made 
solitary  by  being  shunned,  from  its  unfitness  as  a  place 
of  residence.  Desolate  conveys  the  idea  of  a  place  made 
solitary,  or  bare  of  inhabitants,  and  all  traces  of  habita- 
tion, by  violent  means. 

Sound,  Sane,  Heaitliy.  Sound  is  extended  in  its 
application  to  all  things  that  are  in  the  state  in  which 
they  ought  to  be,  so  as  to  preserve  their  vitality:  thus, 
animals  and  vegetables  are  said  to  be  sound  when  in 
the  former  there  is  nothing  amiss  in  their  breath,  and  in 
the  latter  in  their  root.  Healthy  expresses  more  than 
either  sound  or  sane:  we  are  healthy  in  every  part, 
but  we  are  sound  in  that  which  is  essential  to  life.  He 
who  is  sound  may  live,  but  he  who  is  healthy  enjoys 
life:  sane  is  applicable  to  human  beings,  in  the  same 
sense,  but  with  reference  to  the  mind;  a  sane  person  is 
opposed  to  one  that  is  insane. 

To  Speak,  Say,  Tell.  To  speak  may  simply  consist 
in  uttering  an  articulate  sound;  but  to  say  is  to  com- 
municate some  idea  by  means  of  words:  a  child  begins 
to  speak  the  moment  it  opens  its  lips  to  utter  any  ac- 
knowledged sound;  but  it  will  be  some  time  before  it 
can  say  anything.  To  say  is  to  communicate  that  which 
passes  in  out  own  minds,  to  express  our  ideas  and  feelings 
as  they  rise.  To  tell  is  to  communicate  events  or  circum- 
stances respecting  ourselves  or  others. 

To  Spread,  Expand,  Diffuse.'  To  spread  may  be 
said  of  anything  which  occupies  more  space  than  it  has 
done,  whether  by  a  direct  separation  of  its  parts,  or  by 
an  accession  to  the  substance;  but  to  expand  is  to  spread 
by  means  of  extending  or  unfolding  the  parts.  A  mist 
spreads  over  the  earth;  a  flower  expands  its  leaves. 
To  diffuse  is*to  scatter,  to  cause  to  spread,  as  to  diffuse 
information. 

Staff,  Stay,  Prop,  Support.  Anything  may  be 
denominated  a  staff  which  holds  up  after  the  manner  of 
a  staff,  particularly  as  it  respects  persons:  bread  is  said 
to  be  the  staff  of  life.     The  stay  makes  a  thing  secure 


LANGUAGE 


253 


for  the  time  being,  it  keeps  it  in  its  place.  A  prop  is 
usually  of  a  temporary  nature,  a  support  is  more  per- 
manent. Every  pillar  on  which  a  building  rests  is  a 
support ;  the  timbers  which  keep  a  damaged  structure 
from  falling  are  props.  Whatever  supports,  that  is, 
bears  the  weight  of  an  object,  is  a  support,  whether  in 
a  state  of  motion  like  a  staff,  or  in  a  state  of  rest  like  a 
stay  or  a  prop. 

To  Stain,  Soil,  Sully,  Tarnish.  All  these  terms 
imply  the  act  of  diminishing  the  brightness  of  an  object, 
but  the  term  stain  denotes  sornething  grosser  than  the 
other  terms,  and  is  applied  to  inferior  objects.  Things 
which  are  not  remarkable  for  purity  or  brightness  rnay 
be  stained,  as  hands  when  stained  with  blood.  Nothing 
is  sullied  or  tarnished  but  what  has  some  intrinsic  value. 
A  fine  picture  or  piece  of  writing  may  be  easily  soiled  by 
a  touch  of  the  finger.  The  finest  silver  is  the  soonest 
tarnished:  hence,  in  the  moral  application,  a  man's  life 
may  be  stained  by  the  commission  of  some  gross  immo- 
rality;  his  honor  may  be  sullied,  or  his  glory  tarnished. 

State,  Realm,  Commonwealth.  The  ruling  idea 
in  the  sense  and  application  of  the  word  state  is  that  of 
government  in  its  most  abstract  sense;  affairs  of  state 
may  either  respect  the  internal  regulations  of  a  country, 
or  they  may  respect  the  arrangements  of  different  states 
with  each  other.  The  term  realm  is  employed  for  the 
nation  at  large,  but  confined  to  such  nations  as  are 
monarchical  and  aristocratical.  The  term  commonwealth 
refers  rather  to  the  aggregate  body  of  men  and  their 
possessions,  than  to  the  government  of  a  country:  it  is 
the  business  of  the  minister  to  consult  the  interests  of 
the  commonwealth. 

To  Stir,  Move.  We  may  move  in  any  manner,  but 
to  stir  is  to  move  so  as  to  disturb  the  rest  and  com- 
posure either  of  the  body  or  the  mind. 

Story,  Tale.  The  story  is  either  an  actual  fact  or 
something  feigned;  the  tale  is  frequently  feigned. 
Stories  are  circulated  respecting  accidents  and  occur- 
rences which  happen  to  persons.  Tales  of  distress  are 
told  by  many  merely  to  excite  compassion. 

Stream,  Current,  Tide.  All  rivers  are  streams, 
which  are  more  or  less  gentle  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ground  through  which  they  pass.  The  force  of  the 
current  is  very  much  increased  by  the  confinement  of 
any  water  between  rocks,  or  by  means  of  artificial  im- 
pediments. The  tide  is  high  or  low,  strong  or  weak,  at 
different  hours  of  the  day;  when  the  tide  is  high,  the 
current  is  strongest. 

To  Strengthen,  Fortify,  Invigorate.  Whatever 
adds  to  the  strength,  be  it  in  ever  so  small  a  degree, 
strengthens;  exercise  strengthens  either  body  or  mind: 
whatever  gives  strength  for  a  particular  emergency  for- 
tifies; religion  fortifies  the  mincl  against  adversity:  what- 
ever adds  to  the  strength,  so  as  to  give  a  positive  degree 
of  strength,  invigorates;  morning  exercise  in  fine  weather 
invigorates. 

Strict,  Severe.  He  who  has  authority  over  others 
must  be  strict  in  enforcing  obedience,  in  keeping  good 
order,  and  in  encouraging  attention  to  duty;  but  it  is 
possible  to  be  very  severe  in  punishing  those  who  are 
under  us,  and  yet  to  be  very  lax  in  all  matters  that  our 
duty  demands  of  us. 

Strife,  Contention.  Strife  is  mostly  used  for  verbal 
conflict,  in  which  each  person  strives  against  the  other  by 
the  use  of  contumelious  or  provoking  expressions.  Con- 
tention is  used  for  an  angry  striving  with  others,  either 
in  respect  to  matters  of  opinion  or  matters  of  claim,  in 
which  each  party  seeks  to  get  the  better  of  the  other. 

Successive,  Alternate.  The  successive  may  be 
accidental  or  intentional;  the  alternate  is  always  inten- 
tional. It  may  rain  for  three  successive  days,  or  a  fair 
may  be  held  for  three  successive  days.  Trees  are  placed 
sometimes  in  alternate  order,  when  every  other  tree  is 
of  the  same  size  and  kind. 

To  Surround,  Encompass,  Environ,  Encircle. 
We  may  surround  an  object  by  standing  at  certain  dis- 
tances all  round  it;  in  this  manner  a  person  may  be 
surrounded  by  other  persons;  a  garden  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall.  To  encompass  is  to  surround  in  the  latter 
sense,  and  applies  to  objects  of  a  great  or  indefinite 
extent:  the  earth  is  encompassed  by  the  air.  To  sur- 
round is  to  go  round  an  object  of  any  form,  whether 
square  or  circular,  long  or  short;  but  to  environ  and 
to  encircle  carry  with  them  the  idea  of  forming  a  circle 
round  an  object.  Thus  a  town  or  a  valley  may  be  envi- 
roned by  hills,  a  basin  of  water  may  be  encircled  by  trees, 
or  the  head  may  be  encircled  by  a  wreath  of  flowers. 

Sympathy,  Compassion,  Commiseration,  Con- 
dolence. Sympathy  has  the  literal  meaning  of  fellow- 
feeling,  that  is,  a  kindred  or  like  feeling,  or  feeling  in 
oompany  with  another.  Compassion,  commiseration,  con- 
dolence signify  a  like  suffering,  or  a  suffering  in  company. 
Sympathy  preserves  its  original  meaning  in  its  application, 


for  we  laugh  or  cry  because  of  sympathy.  Compassion  is 
altogether  a  moral  feeling,  which  makes  us  enter  into  the 
distresses  of  others.  We  may,  therefore,  sympathize  with 
others,  without  essentially  serving  them;  but,  if  we  feel 
compassion,  we  naturally  turn  our  thoughts  toward 
relieving  them.  Commiseration  is  awakened  toward 
those  who  are  in  an  abject  state  of  misery.  Condolence 
supposes  an  entire  equality,  and  is  often  produced  by 
some  common  calamity. 

Taste,  Genius.  Taste  seems  to  designate  the  capac- 
ity to  derive  pleasure  from  an  object;  genius  designates 
the  power  we  have  for  accomplishing  any  object. 

To  Tease,  Vex,  Taunt,  Tantalize,  Torment.  To 
tease  is  applied  to  that  which  is  most  trifling;  torment 
to  that  which  is  most  serious.  We  are  teased  by  a  fly 
that  buzzes  in  our  ears;  we  are  vexed  by  the  careless- 
ness and  stupidity  of  our  servants;  we  are  taunted  by 
the  sarcasms  of  others;  we  are  tantalized  by  the  fair 
prospects  which  only  present  themselves  to  disappear 
again;  we  are  tormented  by  the  importunities  of  trouble- 
some beggars. 

Tenacious,  Pertinacious.  To  be  tenacious  is  to 
hold  a  thing  close,  to  let  it  go  with  reluctance ;  to  be  per- 
tinacious is  to  hold  it  out  in  spite  of  what  can  be  advanced 
against  it.  A  man  of  a  tenacious  temper  insists  on  trifles 
that  are  supposed  to  affect  his  importance;  a  perti- 
nacious temper  insists  on  everything  which  is  apt  to 
affect  his  opinions. 

Tenet,  Position.  The  tenet  is  the  opinion  which  we 
hold  in  our  minds;  the  position  is  that  which  we  lay 
down  for  others.  Our  tenets  may  be  hurtful,  our  posi- 
tions false. 

Thankfulness,  Gratitude.  Our  thankfulness  is 
measured  by  the  number  of  our  words;  our  gratitude 
is  measured  by  the  nature  of  our  actions.  A  person 
who  afterward  proves  very  ungrateful  may  appear  very 
thankful  at  the  time. 

Thick,  Dense.  We  speak  of  thick  in  regard  to  hard 
or  soft  bodies,  as  a  thick  board  or  thick  cotton ;  we  speak 
of  thick  in  regard  to  solid  or  liquid  bodies,  as  a  thick 
cheese  or  thick  milk:  we  use  the  term  dense  mostly  in 
regard  to  the  air  in  its  various  forms,  as  a  dense  air. 

To  Think,  Suppose,  Imagine,  Believe,  Deem. 
We  think  a  thing  right  qr  wrong;  we  suppose  it  to  be 
true  or  false;  we  imagine  it  to  be  real  or  unreal.  In 
regard  to  moral  points,  in  which  case  the  word  deem 
may  be  compared  with  the  others,  to  thinlc  is  a  conclu- 
sion drawn  from  certain  premises.  I  think  that  a  man  has 
acted  wrongly.  To  suppose  is  to  take  up  an  idea  ar- 
bitrarily or  at  pleasure;  to  imagine  is  to  take  up  an  idea 
by  accident,  or  without  any  connection  with  the  truth  or 
reality.  To  deem  is  to  form  a  conclusion;  things  are 
deemed  hurtful  or  otherwise  in  consequence  of  observa- 
tion. We  think  as  the  thing  strikes  us  at  the  time;  we 
believe  from  a  settled  deduction. 

Threat,  Menace.  We  may  be  threatened  with  either 
small  or  great  evils ;  but  we  are  menaced  only  with  great 
evils. 

Timely,  Seasonable.  The  former  signifies  within 
the  time,  that  is,  before  the  time  is  past;  the  latter  ac- 
cording to  the  season,  or  what  the  season  requires.  A 
timely  notice  prevents  that  which  would  otherwise  hap- 
pen; mercy  and  kindness  are  seasonable  in  the  time  of 
affliction. 

Torment,  Torture.  Torture  is  an  excess  of  torment. 
We  may  be  tormented  by  a  variety  of  indirect  means; 
but  we  are  mostly  said  to  be  tortuerd  by  the  direct  means 
of  the  rack,  or  similar  instrument. 

To  Transfigure,  Transform,  Metamorphose. 
Transfigure  is  to  make  to  pass  over  into  another  figure; 
transform  and  metamorphose  are  to  put  into  another 
form:  the  former  is  said  only  of  spiritual  beings,  and  par- 
ticularly in  reference  to  our  Saviour;  the  other  two  terms 
are  applied  to  that  which  has  a  corporeal  form.  Trans- 
formation is  commonly  applied  to  that  which  changes 
its  outward  form ;  in  this  manner  a  harlequin  transforms 
himself  into  all  kinds  of  shapes  and  likenesses.  Meta- 
morphosis is  applied  to  the  form  internal  as  well  as  exter- 
nal, that  is,  to  the  whole  nature. 

Trembling,  Tremor,  Trepidation.  Trembling  ex- 
presses any  degree  of  involuntary  shaking  of  the  frame, 
from  the  affection  either  of  the  body  or  the  mind ;  cold, 
nervous  affections,  fear,  and  the  like  are  the  ordinary 
causes  of  trembling.  Tremor  is  a  slight  degree  of  trem- 
bling, which  arises  mostly  from  a  mental  affection ;  when 
the  spirits  are  agitated,  the  mind  is  thrown  into  a  tremor 
by  any  trifling  incident.  Trepidation  is  more  violent  than 
either  of  the  two,  and  springs  from  the  defective  state  of 
the  mind;  it  shows  itself  in  the  action,  or  the  different 
movements  of  the  body,  rather  than  in  the  body. 

To  Trouble,  Disturb,  Molest.  Trouble  is  the  most 
general  in  its  application;  we  may  be  troubled  by  the 
want  of  a  thing,  or  troubled  by  that  which  is  unsuitable: 


254 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


we  are  disturbed  and  molested  only  by  that  which 
actively  troubles.  Pecuniary  wants  are  the  greatest 
troubles  in  life.  Trouble  may  be  permanent;  disturb- 
ance and  molestation  are  temporary,  and  both  refer  to 
the  peace  which  is  destroyed.  A  disturbance  rufHes  or 
throws  out  of  a  tranquil  state;  a  molestation  burdens  or 
bears  hard  either  on  the  body  or  the  mind. 

Truth,  Veracity.  Truth  belongs  to  the  thing;  ve- 
racity to  the  person:  the  truth  of  the  story  is  admitted 
upon  the  veracity  of  the  narrator. 

To  Turn,  Bend,  Twist,  Distort,  Wring,  Wrest, 
Wrench.  We  turn  a  thing  by  moving  it  from  one  point 
to  another;  thus  we  turn  the  earth  over.  To  bend  is 
simply  to  change  direction;  thus  a  stick  is  bent,  or  a 
body  may  bend  its  direction  to  a  certain  point.  To  twist 
is  to  bend  many  times,  to  make  many  turns.  To  distort 
is  to  turn  or  bend  out  of  the  right  course;  thus  the  face 
is  distorted  in  convulsions.  To  wring  is  to  twist  with 
violence;  thus  linen  which  has  been  wetted  is  wrung. 
To  wrest  or  wrench  is  to  separate  from  a  body  by  means 
of  twisting;  thus  a  stick  may  be  wrested  out  of  the  hand, 
or  a  hinge  wrenched  off  the  door. 

To  Turn,  Wind,  Whirl,  Twirl,  Writhe.  Turn  is 
to  cause  to  rotate;  wind  is  to  turn  a  thing  round  in  a 
regular  manner;  whirl,  to  turn  it  round  in  a  violent  man- 
ner; twirl,  to  turn  it  round  in  an  irregular  and  unmeaning 
way;  writhe,  to  turn  round  in  convolution  within  itself. 

Unbelief,  Infidelity,  Incredulity.  The  Jews  are 
unbelievers  in  the  mission  of  our  Saviour;  the  Turks  are 
infidels,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  believe  in  the  Bible: 
Deists  and  Atheists  are  likewise  infidels,  inasmuch  as 
they  set  themselves  up  against  Divine  revelation.  Well- 
informed  people  are  always  incredulous  of  stories  respect- 
ing ghosts  and  apparitions. 

Understanding,  Intellect,  Intelligence.  Under- 
standing is  employed  to  describe  a  familiar  and  easy 
power  or  operation  of  the  mind  in  forming  distinct  ideas 
of  things.  Intellect  is  employed  to  mark  the  same 
operation  in  regard  to  higher  and  more  abstruse  objects. 
Understanding  applies  to  the  first  exercise  of  the 
rational  powers:  it  is  therefore  aptly  said  of  children 
and  savages  that  they  employ  their  understandings  on 
the  simple  objects  of  perception.  Intellect,  being  a 
matured  state  of  the  understanding,  is  most  properly 
applied  to  the  efforts  of  those  who  have  their  powers  in 
fuU  vigor;  we  speak  of  understanding  as  the  character- 
istic distinction  between  man  and  brute.  Intellect  is 
applied  merely  to  human  power,  and  intelligence  to  the 
spiritual  power  of  higher  beings,  as  the  intelligence  of 
angels;  so,  when  applied  to  human  beings,  it  is  taken 
in  the  most  abstract  sense  for  the  intellectual  power: 
hence  we  speak  of  intelligence  as  displayed  in  the  coun- 
tenance of  a  child  whose  looks  evince  that  he  has  exerted 
his  intellect,  and  thereby  has  proved  that  it  exists. 

Unless,  Except.  Unless,  which  is  equivalent  to  if 
less,  if  not,  or  if  one  fail,  is  employed  only  for  the  partic- 
ular case;  but  except  has  always  a  reference  to  some 
feneral  rule,  of  whicn  an  exception  is  hereby  signified: 
shall  not  doit  unless  he  asks  me;  no  one  can  enter 
except  those  who  are  provided  with  tickets. 

Unspeakable,  Ineffable,  Unutterable,  Inexpres- 
sible. The  unspeakable  is  said  of  objects  in  general, 
particularly  of  those  which  are  above  human  concep- 
tion, and  surpass  the  power  of  language  to  describe,  as 
the  unspeakable  goodness  of  God.  Ineffable  is  said  of 
such  objects  as  cannot  be  painted  in  words  with  ade- 
quate force,  as  the  ineffable  sweetness  of  a  person's 
look.  Unutterable  and  inexpressible  are  extended  in 
their  signification  to  that  which  is  incommunicable  by 
signs  from  one  being  to  another:  grief  is  unutterable 
which  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  the  sufferer  by  any  sounds 
to  bring  home  to  the  feelings  of  another;  grief  is  inex- 
pressible which  is  not  to  be  expressed  by  looks,  or  words, 
or  any  sign. 

Unworthy,  Worthless.  Unworthy  is  a  term  of 
less  reproach  than  worthless:  the  former  signifies  not 
to  be  worthy  of  praise  or  honor;  the  latter  signifies 
to  be  without  all  worth,  and  consequently  in  the  fullest 
sense  bad.  There  are  many  unworthy  members  in 
every  religious  community;  but  every  society  that  is 
conducted  upon  proper  principles  will  take  care  to 
exclude  worthless  members. 

Usage,  Custom,  Prescription.  Usage  is  what 
one  has  been  long  accustomed  to  do;  custom  (v.  custom) 
is  what  one  generally  does;  prescription  is  what  is  indi- 
cated by  usage  to  be  done.  The  usage  acquires  force  and 
sanction  by  dint  of  time;  the  custom  acquires  sanction 
by  the  frequency  of  its  being  done  or  by  the  numbers  doing 
it;  the  prescription  acquires  force  by  the  authority 
which  prescribes. 

To  Utter,  Speak,  Articulate,  Pronounce.  Utter, 
from  out,  signifies  to  put  out;  that  is,  to  send  forth  a 
sound:     this,  therefore,  is   a   more   general   term   than 


speak,  which  is  to  utter  an  intelligible  sound.  We  may 
utter  a  groan;  we  speak  words  only,  or  that  which  is 
intended  to  serve  as  words.  Speak,  therefore,  is  only 
a  form  of  utterance;  a  dumb  man  has  utterance,  but 
not  speech.  Articulate  and  pronounce  are  modes  of 
speaking.  To  articulate,  from  articulum,  a  joint,  is  to 
pronounce  distinctly  the  letters  or  syllables  of  words; 
this  is  the  first  effort  of  a  child  beginning  to  speak. 
Pronounce  is  a  formal  mode  of  speaking. 

To  Value,  Prize,  Esteem.  To  value  is  to  estimate  the 
worth,  real  or  suppositious,  relative  or  absolute,  of  a 
thing;  in  this  sense  men  value  gold  above  silver,  or  an 
appraiser  values  goods.  Prize  and  esteem  are  taken 
only  as  mental  actions :  the  former  is  taken  in  reference  to 
sensible  or  moral  objects ;  the  latter,  only  to  moral  objects. 
We  may  value  books  according  to  their  market  price, 
or  we  may  value  them  according  to  their  contents:  we 
prize  books  only  for  their  contents;  in  this  sense 
prize  is  a  much  stronger  term  than  value. 

Venial,  Pardonable.  Venial  is  applied  to  what 
may  be  tolerated  without  express  disparagement  to  the 
individual,  or  without  direct  censure;  but  the  pardonable 
is  that  which  may  only  escape  severe  censure,  but  cannot 
be  allowed:  garrulity  is  a  venial  offense  in  old  age; 
levity  in  youth  is  pardonable  in  single  instances. 

View,  Survey,  Prospect.  We  take  a  view  or  survey; 
the  prospect  presents  itself:  the  view  is  of  an  indefinite 
extent;  the  survey  is  always  comprehensive  in  its  nature. 
Ignorant  people  take  but  narrow  views  of  things;  the 
capacious  mind  of  a  genius  takes  a  survey  of  all  nature. 
Our  prospects  are  very  delusive.  Sometimes  our  pros- 
pects depend  upon  our  views,  at  least  in  matters  of 
religion.  He  who  forms  erroneous  views  of  a  future 
state  has  but  a  wretched  prospect  beyond  the  grave. 

Violent,  Furious,  Boisterous,  Vehement,  Impet- 
uous. A  inan  is  violent  in  his  opinions,  violent  in  his 
nrieasures,  violent  in  his  resentments;  he  is  furious  in 
his  anger,  or  has  a  furious  temper;  he  is  vehement  in 
his  affections  or  passions,  vehement  in  love,  vehement 
in  zeal,  vehement  in  pursuing  an  object.  Violence 
transfers  itself  to  some  external  object  on  which  it  acts 
with  force;  but  vehemence  respects  that  manner  of 
violence  which  is  confined  to  the  person  himself:  we 
may  dread  violence,  because  it  is  always  liable  to  do 
mischief.  Impetuosity  is  rather  the  extreme  of  violence 
or  vehemence.  An  impetuous  attack  is  an  excessively 
violent  attack;  an  impetuous  character  is  an  exces- 
sively vehement  character.  Boisterous  is  said  of  the 
manner  and  of  the  behavior  rather  than  of  the  mind. 

Wakefulness,  Watchfulness,  Vigilance.  Wakeful- 
ness is  an  affair  of  the  body,  and  depends  upon  the  temper- 
ament; watchfulness  is  an  affair  of  the  will,  and  depends 
upon  the  determination.  Some  persons  are  more  wakeful 
than  they  wish  to  be;  few  are  as  watchful  as  they  ought 
to  be.  Vigilance  expresses  a  high  degree  of  watchful- 
ness. A  sentinel  is  watchful  who  on  ordinary  occasions 
keeps  good  watch;  but  it  is  necessary  for  him,  on  extra- 
ordinary occasions,  to  be  vigilant,  in  order  to  detect 
whatever  may  pass. 

To  Want,  Need,  Lack.  To  want  is  to  be  without 
that  which  contributes  to  our  comfort,  or  is  an  object 
of  our  desire;  to  need  is  to  be  without  that  which  is 
essential  to  our  existence  or  our  purposes.  To  lack 
expresses  little  more  than  the  general  idea  of  being  with- 
out, unaccompanied  by  any  collateral  idea;  it  is  usual 
to  consider  what  we  want  as  artificial,  and  what  we  need 
as  natural  and  indispensable.  What  one  man  wants  is 
a  superfluity  to  another;  but  that  which  is  needed  by  one 
is  in  like  circumstances  needed  by  all. 

Wave,  Billow,  Surge,  Breaker.  Those  waves 
which  swell  more  than  ordinarily  are  termed  billows; 
those  waves  which  rise  higher  than  usual  are  termed 
surges;  those  waves  which  dash  against  the  shore,  or 
against  vessels,  with  more  than  ordinary  force,  are 
termed  breakers. 

Weak,  Feeble,  Infirm.  We  may  be  weak  in  body 
or  mind;  but  we  are  feeble  and  infirm  only  in  the  body: 
we  may  be  weak  from  disease,  or  weak  by  nature;  both 
equally  convey  the  gross  idea  of  a  defect.  But  the 
terms  feeble  and  infirm  are  qualified  expressions  for 
weakness:  an  old  man  is  feeble  from  age;  he  may  like- 
wise be  infirm  in  consequence  of  sickness. 

Weight,  Burden,  Load.  A  person  may  sink  under 
the  weight  that  rests  upon  him;  a  platform  may  break 
down  from  the  weight  upon  it:  a  person  sinks  under 
his  burden  or  load;   a  cart  breaks  down  from  the  load. 

Whole,  Entire,  Complete,  Total,  Integral.  Whole 
excludes  subtraction;  entire  excludes  division;  com- 
plete excludes  deficiency.  A  whole  orange  has  had  nothing 
taken  from  it;  an  entire  orange  is  not  yet  cut;  and  a 
complete  orange  is  grown  to  its  full  size.  Total  is  the 
opposite  of  partial.  Integral  is  applied  now  to  parts  or 
numbers  not  broken. 


LANGUAGE 


265 


Wicked,  Iniquitous,  Nefarious.  It  is  wicked 
to  deprive  another  of  his  property  unlawfully,  under 
any  circumstances;  but  it  is  iniquitous  if  it  be  done  by 
fraud  and  circumvention;  and  nefarious  if  it  involves 
any  breach  of  trust. 

To  Will,  Wish.  We  can  will  nothing  but  what  we 
can  effect;  we  may  wish  for  many  things  which  lie  above 
our  reach. 

Wisdom,  Prudence.  Wisdom  directs  all  matters 
present  or  to  come;  prudence,  which  acts  by  foresight, 
directs  what  is  to  come.  Rules  of  conduct  are  framed 
by  wisdom,' and  it  is  the  part  of  prudence  to  apply  these 
rules  to  the  business  of  life. 

Wonder,  Miracle,  Marvel,  Prodigy,  Monster. 
Wonders  are  natural;  miracles  are  supernatural.  The 
whole  creation  is  full  of  wonders;  the  Bible  contains 
an  account  of  the  miracles  which  happened  in  those  days. 
Wonders  are  real;  marvels  are  often  fictitious;  prodigies 
are  extravagant  and  imaginary;  monsters  are  violations 
of  the  laws  of  nature.  The  production  of  a  tree  from  a 
grain  of  seed  is  a  wonder;  but  the  production  of  a  calf 
with  two  heads  is  a  monster. 

Work,  Labor,  Toil,  Drudgery,  Task.  Every 
member  of  society  must  work  for  his  support,  if  he  is  not 
in  independent  circumstances.  The  poor  are  obliged  to 
labor  for  their  daily  subsistence;   some  are  compelled  to 


toil  incessantly  for  the  pittance  which  they  earn.  Drudg- 
ery falls  to  the  lot  of  those  who  are  the  lowest  in  society. 
A  man  wishes  to  complete  his  work;  he  is  desirous  of 
resting  from  his  labor;  he  seeks  for  a  respite  from  his 
toil;  he  submits  to  drudgery.  Task  is  a  work  imposed 
by  others,  and  is,  consequently,  more  or  less  burden- 
some. 

Writer,  Author.  Writer  refers  us  to  the  act  of  writ- 
ing; author  to  the  act  of  inventing.  There  are,  there- 
fore, many  writers,  who  are  not  authors;  but  there  is 
no  author  of  books  who  may  not  be  termed  a  writer. 
Compilers  and  contributors  to  periodical  works  are 
properly  writers,  though  not  always  entitled  to  the  name 
of  authors.  Poets  and  historians  are  properly  termed 
authors  rather  than  writers. 

Youthful,  Juvenile,  Puerile.  Youthful  signifies 
full  of  youth,  or  in  the  complete  state  of  youth;  juvenile 
signifies  the  same;  but  puerile  signifies  literally  boyish. 
Hence  the  first  two  terms  are  taken  in  an  indifferent 
sense;  but  the  latter  in  a  bad  sense,  or  at  least  always 
in  the  sense  of  what  is  suitable  to  a  boy  only:  thus  we 
speak  of  youthful  vigor,  youthful  employments,  juvenile 
performances,  juvenile  years,  and  the  like:  but  puerile 
objections,  puerile  conduct,  and  the  like.  We  expect 
nothing  from  a  youth  but  what  is  juvenile;  we  are  sur- 
prised and  dissatisfied  to  see  what  is  puerile  in  a  man. 


WORDS  AND  PHRASES   FROM  THE   CLASSIC  AND 
MODERN   LANGUAGES 


GREEK   AND    LATIN 
ab  extra.  From  without. 
ab  incunabUis,  From  the  cradle. 
ab  initio.  From  the  beginning. 
ab  origine,  From  the  origin  or  commencement. 
ab  ovo.  From  the  egg;   from  the  very  beginning. 
ab  ovo  usque  ad  mala  (lit.,  from  the  egg  to  the  apples,  a 

term  borrowed  from  Roman  banquets,  which  began 

with  eggs  and  ended  with  fruit),  From  beginning  to 

end;   from  first  to  last. 
absena  hceres  non  erit  (The  absent  one  will  not  be  the  heir). 

Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind. 
absit  invidia,  Let  there  be  no  ill-will;  envy  apart. 
ab  uno  disce  omnes     (From  one  example  judge  of  the 

rest).  From  a  single  instance  infer  the  whole. 
ab   urbe    condita.    From    the    building  of  the  city,  i.  e., 

Rome.     [A.  U.  CJ 
a  capite  ad  calcem,  From  head  to  heel. 
a  cnice  salus.  Salvation  by  or  from  the  cross. 
ad  arbitrium.  At  vfiW;   at  pleasure. 
ad  calendas  grcBcas,  At  the  Greek  calends,  i.  e.,  never. 

(The  Greeks  had  no  calends.) 
ad  captandum  vulgus.  To  attract  or  please  the  rabble. 
a  Deo  et  rege,  From  God  and  the  king. 
ad  extremum.  To  the  extreme;  at  last. 
ad  gustum.  To  one's  taste, 
adhominem,  Personal;   to  the  individual, 
o  die.  From  that  day. 
ad  intemecionem.  To  extermination. 
ad  libitum.  At  pleasure. 
ad  modum,  In  the  manner  of. 
ad  muUos  annas.  For  many  years. 
ad  nauseam.  So  as  to  disgust  or  nauseate. 
ad  patres.  Gathered  to  his  fathers;  dead. 
ad  rem.  To  the  purpose;  to  the  point. 
adscriptus  glebce,  attached  to  the  soil. 
adsum,  I  am  present;  I  am  here. 
ad  summum,  To  the  highest  point  or  amount. 
ad  unguem,  To  a.  nicety;   exactly. 
ad  unum  omnes,  To  a  man. 

ad  virumque  paralus.  Prepared  for  either  event  or  case. 
ad  vivum,  Lilie  life;  to  the  life. 
oegrescit  medendo,  It  becomes  worse  from  the  remedies 

employed, 
mqiiabiliter  et  diligenter.  Equably  and  diligently. 
mquo  animo.  With  a  calm  mind. 
(Blaiis  sucB,  Of  his  or  her  age. 
a  fortiori.  For  the  stronger  reason. 
age  quod  agis.  Do  what  you  are  doing;  attend  to  your 

business. 
alere  flammam,  To  feed  the  flame. 
alloi  kamon,  alloi  onanto  (Gr.),    Some    toil,    others    reap 

the  advantage. 
alma  mater.  Kind  or  benign  mother.      (Specifically  one's 

college  or  university.) 
alter  ego.  Another  self. 
alter  ipse  amicus,  A  friend  is  another  self. 
alterum  tantum.  As  much  more. 
amantium  ires  amoris  integratio.  Lovers'  quarrels  are  the 

renewing  of  love. 
a  maximis  ad  minima,  From  the  greatest  to  the  least. 


amicus  humani  generis,  A  friend  of  the  human  race. 

amicus  usque  ad  aras,  A  friend  even  to  the  altar  (of  sacri- 
fice), i.  e.,  To  the  last  extremity. 

amor  patriae.  Love  of  country;  patriotism. 

anangka  d'  oude  theoi  machontai  (Gr.),  Not  even  the 
gods  can  fight  against  necessity. 

andron  epiphanon  pasa  ge  taphos  (Gr.),  All  the  world  is 
a  burial-place  for  illustrious  men. 

aner  ho  pheugon  kai  palin  machesetai  (Gr.),  The  man 
who  flies  shall  fight  again.  (A  line  said  to  have  been 
written  by  Demosthenes  as  an  excuse  for  his  running 
away  and  leaving  his  shield  behind  him  at  the  battle 
of  CheronEca,  338  B.  C.) 

anguis  in  herba,  A  snake  in  the  grass;  a  false  friend;  an 
unforeseen  danger. 

animo  et  fide,  Courageously  and  faithfully. 

anno  cetalis  suce.  In  the  year  of  his  or  her  age. 

anno  Christi,  In  the  year  of  Christ.     [A.  C] 

anno  humance  salutis.  In  the  year  of  man's  redemption. 
[A.  H.  S.] 

anno  salutis,  In  the  year  of  redemption.     [A.  S.] 

anno  urbis  conditce.  In  the  year  from  the  time  the  city — 
i.  e.,  Rome  —  was  built. 

annus  mirabilis,  A  year  of  wonders.  (Often  applied  in 
English  History  to  the  year  1666,  noteworthy  for 
the  war  with  the  Dutch,  the  Plague,  and  the  Great 
Fire  of  London.  See  Dryden's  poem  "Annus 
Mirabilis.") 

ante  bellum.  Before  the  war. 

ante  lucem,  Before  daybreak. 

ante  meridiem.  Before  noon. 

a  posse  ad  esse.  From  possibility  to  reality. 

a  posteriori.  From  what  follows;  from  effect  to  cause. 

a  priori,  From  what  goes  before ;   from  cause  to  effect. 

aptestos  pithos  (Gr.),  A  cask  that  will  never  fill;  an  endless 
job.  (The  allusion  is  to  the  Danaides,  who,  for  the  mur- 
der of  their  husbands,  were  condemned  to  draw  water 
in  sieves.) 

arbiter  elegantiarum,  A  judge  or  authority  in  matters  of 
taste. 

arcana  cmlestia.  Celestial  secrets. 

arcana  imperii.  State  secrets. 

ardentia  verba.  Words  that  burn ;   glowing  language. 

argumentum  ad  crumenam,  (An  argument  to  the  purse). 
An  appeal  to  one's  interests.. 

argumentum  ad  invidiam,  (An  argument  to  envy),  An 
appeal  to  low  passions. 

argumentum  ad  judicium.  An  argument  appealing  to  the 
judgment. 

argumentum  baculinum,  (The  argument  of  the  cudgel), 
An  appeal  to  force. 

ariston  men  hudor  (Gr.) ,  Water  is  the  chief  of  the  elements, 
i.  e.,  as  being  the  origin  of  all  things.  (In  the  'Theogony 
of  Hesiod,  Oceanus  and  Thetis  are  regarded  as  the 
parents  of  all  the  deities  who  presided  over  Nature.) 

ars  est  celare  artem.  True  art  is  to  conceal  art. 

ars  longa,  vita  brevis.  Art  is  long,  life  is  short. 

artium  magister.  Master  of  arts. 

asinus  ad  lyram  (lit.,  an  ass  at  the  lyre).  An  awkward 
fello'tv. 

at  apes  non  fracta.  But  hope  is  not  yet  crushed. 


256 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


audi  alteram  partem,  Hear  the  other  side. 

aurea  mediocrUas,  The  golden  mean. 

atU  Ccesar  aut  nitllus,  Kther  Caesar  or  nobody;    either  in 

the  first  place  or  nowhere. 
aut  vincere  aut  mori.  To  conquer  or  die ;  death  or  vic- 
tory. 
auxilium  ab  alto.  Help  from  on  high. 
a  verbis  ad  verbera.  From  words  to  blows. 
avito  viret  honore,   He   flourishes  on   the  honors  of  his 

ancestors. 
beatce  memoriw.  Of  blessed  memory. 
bella!  horrida  bella,  Warl   horrid  war. 
bella  matribus  detestata.  War,  so  detested  by  mothers. 
bellum  intemecinum,  A  war  of  extermination. 
bene  ordase  est  bene  studuisse,  To  have  studied  well  is  to 

have  prayed  well. 
bis  dot  giii  cito  dot.    He  gives  twice  who  gives  quickly  or 

opportunely. 
bis  peccare  in  bello  non  licet.  One  must  not  blunder  twice 

in  war. 
bis  pueri  senes.  Old  men  are  twice  boys, 
bona  fide.  In  good  faith. 
bona  fides.  Good  faith. 
brevi  manu  (With  a  short  hand),  Offhand;    extempore; 

summarily. 
brevis  esse  laboro,  obscurus  fio,  If  I  labor  to  be  brief,  I 

become  obscure. 
cadit  quaestio.   The  question  falls;   there  is  no  discussion. 
cceca  est  invidia,  Envy  is  blind. 
camera  desunt.  The  rest  is  wanting. 
cceteris  paribus.  Other  things  being  equal. 
Candida  Pax,  White-robed  Peace. 

carUabit  vacuus  coram  latrone  viator.  The  penniless  trav- 
eler will  sing  in  the  presence  of  the  highwayman;    a 

man  who  has  nothing  has  nothing  to  lose. 
cantate    Domino,    Sing    unto    the    Lord.     (The   opening 

words  of  many  Psalms.     Vulgate.) 
carpe  diem.  Usually  explained,  according  to  popular  ideas 

of  Epicurean  philosophy,  as  —  Enjoy  the  present  day ; 

but    capable    of    higher    interpretation  —  Seize    the 

present  opportunity;  improve  time. 
casus  belli,  A  cause  justifying  war;  a  ground  of  war. 
causa  sine  qua  non.  An  indispensable  cause. 
cedant  arma  togrn.  Let  arms  yield  to  the  gown ;  let  violence 

give  place  to  law. 
chremat  'aner  (Gr.),  Money  makes  the  man. 
circuitus  verborum,  A  circumlocution. 
circulus  in  probanda,  A  circle  in  the  proof:    the  fallacy  of 

using  the  conclusion  as  one  of  the  premises;    a  vicious 

circle. 
darior  e  tenebris,  Brighter  from  obscurity. 
clarum  et  venerabile  nomen.  An  illustrious  and  venerable 

name. 
cogiio,  ergo  sum,  I  think,  therefore  I  exist. 
comitas  inter  gentes.  Comity  between  nations. 
commune  bonum,  A  common  good. 
communibus  annis.  On  the  annual  average  ;  one  year  with 

another. 
com,rr^uni  consensu.  By  common  consent. 
conditio  sine  qua  non.  An  indispensable  condition. 
conjunctis  viribus.  With  united  powers. 
consensus  facit  legem.  Consent  makes  the  law.     (If  two 

persons  make  an  agreement  in  good  faith  and  with 

full  knowledge,  the  law  will  insist  on  its  being  carried 

out.) 
consilio  et  animis.  By  wisdom  and  courage. 
consilio  et  prudentia.  By  wisdom  and  prudence. 
constantia  et  virtute.  By  constancy  and  virtue. 
consuetudo   pro   lege   servalur.  Custom   is   held    as    law. 

(The  English  common  law  is   based   on  immemorial 

usage.) 
contra  bonos   mores.  Contrary  to  good  morals. 
copia  verborum,  A  plentiful  supply  of  words;    flow  of 

language. 
coram  nobis.  In  our  presence. 
coram  non  judice.  Before  a  person  who  is  not  a  judge; 

not  before  the  proper  tribunal. 
crambe  repetita.  Cabbage  warmed  up  the  second  time; 

hence  used  proverbially  for  any  tedious  repetition  of  a 

truism,  an  old  story,  etc. 
credat  Judceus  Apella,  Let  the  (superstitious)  Jew  Apella 

believe  it;  tell  that  to  the  marines. 
crede  quod  habes,  et  habes.  Believe  that  you  have  it,  and 

you  have  it. 
credo,  quia  absurdum,  ((Corrupted  from  a  passage  in  Ter- 

tuUian),  I  believe  it,  because  it  is  absurd. 
credula  res  amor  est.  Love  is  ready  to  believe. 
crescii  amor  nummi,  quantum,  ipsa  pecunia  crescit,  The 

love  of  money  grows  as  our  wealth  increases. 
crescit  eundo.  It  increases  as  it  goes. 
crescit  sub  pondere  virtus,  Virtue  increases  under  every 

oppression. 
creta  an  carbone  notandum.  To  be  marked  with  chalk  or 


charcoal.     (The    Romans   marked    lucky   days   with 

white,  and  unlucky  ones  with  black.) 
crui,  A  cross;  a  difficulty;  a  stumbling-block ;    a  puzzle; 

e.  fir.,  crux  criticorum,  crux  maihematicorum,  crux  tnedi- 

corum,  The  puzzle  of  critics,  mathematicians,  physi- 
cians. 
cucullus  non  facit  monachum.  The  cowl  does  not  make 

the  monk;  don't  trust  to  appearances. 
cut  bono?  (A  maxim  of  Cassius,  quoted  by  Cicero),  For 

whose     advantage?      Generally    used,    however,    as. 

What  is  the  good  of  it? 
cui  Fortuna  ipsa  cedit.  To  whom  Fortune  herself  yields. 
culpam  poena  premit  comes.  Punishment  follows  hard  on 

crime. 
cum  grano,  cum  grano  salis.  With  a  grain  of  salt;    with 

some  allowance  or  modification. 
cum  privilegio,  With  privilege. 
cum  tacent,  clamant.  Although   they  keep    silence,  they 

cry  aloud ;     their    silence    is    more    e.xpressive    than 

words. 
curiosa  felidtas,  Nice  felicity  of  expression  (applied  by 

Petronius  Arbiter,  cxviii,  5,  to  the  writings  of  Horace) ; 

happy  knack. 
currenle  calamo.  With  a  running  pen ;  offhand. 
da  locum  melioribus.  Give  place  to  your  betters. 
damnant  quod  non  irUelligunt,  They  condemn  what  they 

do  not  understand. 
dare  pondus  fumo.  To  give  weight  to  smoke;    to  impart 

value  to  that  which  is  worthless;  to  attach  importance 

to  trifles. 
data  et  accepta.  Expenses  and  receipts. 
date  obolum  Belisario,  Give  an  obolus  to  Belisarius.     (It 

is  said  that  this  general,  when  old  and  blind,  was 

neglected  by  Justinian,  and  obliged  to  beg.     Gibbon 

treats  the  story  as  a  fable.) 
Davus   sum,   non   CEdipus,  I   am   Davus,   not   CEdipus. 

I  am  no  conjurer;    I  am  a  bad  hand  at  riddles. 
deceptio  visus.  An  optical  illusion. 
decori  decus  addit  avito.  He  adds  honor  to  the  ancestral 

honors. 
de  die  in  diem.  From  day  to  day. 
de  guslibus  non  est  disputandum,  There  is  no  disputing 

about  tastes. 
Dei  gratia,  By  the  grace  of  God.     [D.  G.] 
de  jure.  By  the  law;  by  right. 
de  lana  caprina.  About  goat's  wool;    hence  about  any 

worthless  object. 
delenda  est  Carthago,  Carthage  must  be  utterly  destroyed. 

(A  phrase  with  which  Cato  the  Elder  urged  the  Roman 

people  to  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  which  he  looked 

on  as  a  dangerous  rival  to  Rome.) 
de  minimis  non  curat  lex,  The  law  does  notr  concern 

itself  with  trifles. 
de  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.  Let  nothing  be  said  of  the 

dead  but  what  is  good. 
de  nihilo  nihil,  in  nihilum  nil  posse  reverti.  From  nothing 

nothing   is   made,    and    nothing   that   exists    can   be 

reduced  to  nothing.     (The  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of 

matter.) 
de  novo,  Anew. 
de  omnibus  rebus,  et  quibusdam  aliis.  About  everything, 

and  something  more  besides.    (Applied  ironically  to  an 

immature  literary  production,   in   which  very  many 

subjects  are  treated.) 
Deo  adjuvante,   non  timendum.  With  the  help  of  God, 

there  is  nothing  to  be  afraid  of. 
Deo  duce.  With  God  for  a  leader. 
Deo  favente.  With  the  favor  of  God. 
Deo  gratias.  Thanks  be  to  God. 
Deo  juvante.  With  the  help  of  God. 
Deo  monente,  God  giving  warning. 
Deo,  non  fortuna.  From  God,  not  from  Chance. 
Deo  volente,  God  willing. 
de  profundis.  Out  of  the  depths.     (The  first  words  of 

Ps.  cxxix —  Vulg.) 
desinit   in   piscem   mulier   formosa   superne,  A   woman, 

beautiful  above,  has  a  fish's  tail.     (A   description   of 

an  incongruous  style.) 
diskrambe  thanatos  (Gr.),  Cabbage,  twice  over,  is  death; 

repetition  is  tedious. 
dii  majorum  gentium.  The  gods  of  the  superior  houses; 

the  twelve  superior  gods. 
dii  penates.    Household  gods. 
disjecta  membra.  Scattered  remains. 
docendo  disdmus.  We  learn  by  teaching. 
Dominus  vobiscum.  The  Lord  be  with  you.     (The  words 

in  which  the  priest  blesses  the  people  in  the  Roman 

Church.) 
domus  et  placens   uxor.  Home  and  the  good  wife. 
do  ut  des,  I  give  that  you  may  give;    the  principle  of 

reciprocity. 
dram<Ui»  personae,  The  characters  of  the  play. 


LANGUAGE 


257 


dulce  eat  deaipere  in  loco,  It  ia  pleasant  to  play  the  fool 

at  times. 
dulce  el  decorum  est  pro  patrid  mori,  It  is  sweet  and  glori- 
ous to  die  for  one's  country. 
dum  spiro,  spero.  While  I  breathe,  I  hope. 
dum  vivimus,  vivamus,  Let  us  live  while  we  live;    i.  e., 

Let  us  enjoy  life. 
durante  vita.  During  life. 
ecce  homo.  Behold  the  man.     (Indicative  of   the  giving 

up  of  Christ  to  the  people  by  Pilate.) 
e  flamma  cibum  petere.  To  seek  food  from  the  flames ;  to 

pick  the  remnants  of  food  from  the  funeral  pyre;  to  be 

reduced  to  the  last  extremity. 
ego  et  rex  meus,  My  king  and  I.     (An  expression  attrib- 
uted  to    Cardinal   Wolsey,    and    unjustly   made    the 

subject  of  a  charge  against  liim,  as  if  he  had  written 

"I  and  my  King.") 
eheu!    fugaces  labuntur  anni,  Alas!    our  fleeting   years 

pass  away. 
elapso  tempore,  The  time  having  elapsed. 
en  nukti  boule  (Gr.),  In  the  night  there  is  counsel ;  sleep  on  it. 
era  oino  aletheia  (Gr.),  In  wine  there  is  truth. 
eo  animo,   With  that  design. 
eo  nomine.  By  that  name. 
e  pluribua  unum.  One  out  of,  or  composed  of,   many. 

(The  motto  of  the  United  States  of  America.) 
epulis  accumbere  divum,  To  sit  down  at  the  banquets  of 

the  gods. 
e  re  nata.  According  to  the  exigency. 
esse  quam  videri,  To  be,  rather  than  to  seem. 
est  modus  in  rebus.  There  is  a  middle  course  in  all  things. 
esto  perpetua,  Let  it  endure  forever. 
esto  quod  esse  videria.  Be  what  you  seem  to  be. 
e  tan,  e  epi  tan  (Gr.),  Either  this,  or  upon  this;  either  bring 

this  back,  or  be  brought  home,  dead,  upon  it.     (The 

words  of  a  Spartan  mother  when  she  gave  a  shield  to 

her  son  going  on  military  service.) 
et  ccBtera,  And  the  rest. 

et  id  genua  omne,  And  everything  of  the  sort. 
et  sequentes,  et  sequentia.  And  tliose  that  follow. 
et  sic  de  ccderis.  And  so  of  the  rest. 
et  sic  de  similibus.  And  so  of  similar  things. 
et  tu.  Brute!  And  thou  also,  Brutus.     (Usually  given  as 

the  last  words  of  Julius  C»sar,  when  he  saw  Brutus 

amongst  his  murderers.) 
eventua   stuUdrum   magister.  Fools   must    be    taught    by 

experience. 
ex  abundantia,  Out  of  the  abundance. 
ex  adverso,  From  the  opposite  side. 
ex  cequo  et  bono.  According  to  what  is  right  and  good. 
ex  animo,  Heartily;  sincerely. 
ex  capite.  From  the  head ;  from  memory. 
ex  cathedra.   From    the    chair    or  pulpit;     spoken   with 

authority;  by  virtue  of  office. 
excelsior.  Higher;  more  elevated. 
exceptio  probat  regulam.  The  exception  proves  the  rule. 

(If  the  case  in  point  .were  not  an  exception,  there 

would  be  no  rule.) 
exceptia    excipiendis,  Due    exceptions     (or    allowances) 

having  been  made. 
ex  concesso,  Fr6m  what  has  been  conceded. 
ex  curia.  Out  of  court. 
ex  delicto,  From  the  crime. 

exegi  monumentum  cere  perennius,    I  have  reared  a  monu- 
ment more  lasting  than  brass.     (.\  prophetic  estimate 

by  Horace  of  the  value  of  his  poems.) 
exempla  sunt  odiosa.  Examples  are  offensive. 
exempli  gratia.  By  way  of  example.     [E.  G.] 
exeunt.  They  go  out. 
exeunt  omnes.  All  go  out. 
ex  facto  jus  oritur.  The  law  arises  from  the  fact.     (Till 

the  nature  of  the  offense  is  known,  the  law  cannot  be 

set  in  motion.) 
exii.  He  (or  she)  goes  out. 

exitus  acta  probat,.  The  result  justifies  the  deed. 
ex  mera  gratia,  Through  mere  favor. 
ex  mero  motu.  Of  his  own  free  will. 
ex  necessitate  rei.  From  the  urgency  of  the  case. 
ex  officio.  By  virtue  of  office. 
ex  parte.  On  one  part  or  side. 
ex  pe.de  Herculem,  You  may  judge  of  Hercules  by  his 

foot;   the  whole  by  the  part. 
experientia  docet  stultos.  Experience  teaches  even  fools. 
experimenlum  crucis.  The   experiment   of   the   cross;     a 

decisive  experiment;  a  crucial  test. 
experto  crede,  Believe    one   who    has   tried    it,    or  who 

speaks  from  experience;    experto  crede  Roberto,  Believe 

Robert,  who  has  tried  it,  or  who  speaks  from  experience. 
expertus  metuit.  Having  had  experience  of  it,  he  dreads 

it;   a  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire. 
ex  post  facto,  After  the  deed  is  done;  retrospective. 
expresaia  verbis,  In  express  terms. 
ex  quocunque  capite,  For  whatever  reason. 


ex  tacito,  Tacitly. 

extempore.  Offhand;  without  preparation. 

extinctus  amdbilur  idem.  This  same  man  will  be  loved 

after  his  death. 
extra  muros.  Outside  the  walls. 

ex  ungue  leonem.  You  may  tell  the  lion  by  his  claws. 
faber  quisque  fortunae  suae.  Every  man  is  the  architect  of 

his  own  fortune;     hence,  faber  fortune  auce,   a   self- 
made  man. 
facile  eat  inventis  addere.  It  is  easy  to  improve  what  has 

been  already  invented. 
facile  princeps.  The  acknowledged  chief;  one  who  stands 

indisputably  first. 
facilis  est  descensua  Averni,  The  descent  to  hell  is  easy; 

it  is  easy  enough  to  get  into  trouble. 
fac  aimile.  An  exact  imitation. 

fcBces  populi,  fcex  populi.  The  scum  of  the  population. 
fama  clamosa,  A  current  scandal. 
fama  nihil  eat  celeriua,  Nothing  travels  more  swiftly  than 

scandal. 
fama  semper  vivat.  May  his  fame  last  forever. 
fas  est  et  ab  hoste  doceri.  It  is  right  to  be  taught  even  by 

an  enemy;  you  may  get  a  hint  from  the  other  side. 
fata  obstant.  The  Fates  oppose. 

fata  viam  invenient.  The  P'ates  will  find  out  a  way. 
fax  merUis  incendium  glorioe,  The  passion  for  glory  is  the 

torch  of  the  mind. 
felicitas  muUos  habet  amicoa.  Prosperity  has  many  friends. 
felo  de  se,  One  who  commits  self -felony;  a  suicide. 
feroB  naturcB,  Of  a  wild  nature;   applied  to  wild  beasts. 
festina  lente,  Make  haste  slowly;  cfon't  be  impetuous. 
fiat  experimentum  in  corpore  vili.  Let  the  experiment  be 

made  on  a  body  of  no  value. 
fiat  justitia  mat  caelum.  Let   justice  be  done  though  the 

heavens  should  fall. 
fiat  lux.  Let  there  be  light. 
fide  et  amore,  By  faith  and  love. 
fide  et  fiducia.  By  fidelity  and  confidence. 
fide  et  fortitudine.  By  fidelity  and  fortitude. 
fidei  coticula  crux.  The  cross  is  the  touchstone  of  faith. 
fidei  defensor.  Defender  of  the  faith. 
fide,  non  armis.  By  faith,  not  by  force  of  arms. 
fijde,  sed  cut  vide,    Trust,  but  see  whom   you  are   trust- 
ing. 
fidea  et  justitia.  Fidelity  and  justice. 

fides  Punica,  Punic  faith;    treachery.     (Among  the  Ro- 
mans the  bad  faith  of  the  Carthaginians  was  notorious.) 
fidus     Achatea,  Faithful    Achates    (the    companion    of 

.(Eneas) ;  a  true  friend. 
fiAua  et  audax.  Faithful  and  bold. 
fieri  facias,  A  legal  paper  authorizing  execution  on  the 

goods  of  a  debtor. 
filius  nulliua,   A   son   of  nobody;    an   illegitimate  son. 

(He   has  no  legal  rights  as  a  son  in  respect  to  the 

inheritance  of  property.) 
filiua  terrcB.    A  son  of  the  earth;  one  of  low  origin. 
finis  coronal  opus.  The  end  crowns  the  work. 
flagrante  bello,  While  the  war  was  raging;   during  hostil- 

ities. 
flagrante  delicto.  In  the  commission  of  the  crime;    in  the 

very  act. 
flamma  fumo  eat  proxima.  Flame  is  akin  to  fire;    where 

there's  smoke  there's  fire. 
flecti,  non  frangi.  To  be  bent,  not  broken. 
flosculi  aententiarum.  Flowers  of  fine  thoughts. 
faenum  habet  in  comu.  He  has  hay  on  his  horn  (the  mark 

put  on  a  bull  to  show  he  was  savage) ;   beware  of  him. 
fona  et   origo  malorum.  The   source  and  origin   of  our 

miseries. 
forensis  atrepitua.  The  clamor  of  the  forum;    "Brawling 

courts,  and  dusty  purlieus  of  the  Law." 
forte  acutum  salua  ducum,  A  strong  shield  is  the  safety  of 

leaders. 
fortea  fortuna  juvat.  Fortune  favors  the  brave. 
forti  et  fideli  nihil  difficile.  Nothing  is  difficult  to  the  brave 

and  faithful. 
fortiter  et  rede.  With  fortitude  and  rectitude. 
fortiter,  fideliter,  feliciter,  Boldly,  faithfully,  successfully. 
fortiter  in  re,  With  firmness  in  action. 
fortuna  favet  fatuis.  Fortune  favors  fools. 
fortunae  filius,   A  spoiled  child  of  Fortune. 
frangas,  non  fiectes.  You  may  break  me,  but  you  shall  not 

bend  me. 
fraus  pia,  A  pious  fraud. 
fronii  nulla  fides.  There  is  no  trusting  the  features;  don't 

trust  to  appearances. 
fruges  consumere  nati.  Born  to  consume  the  fruits  of  the 

earth;  born  only  to  eat. 
fugit  irreparabile  tempus,  Irrecoverable  time  glides  away. 
fuimus  Troea,  We  once  were  Trojans;   we  have  seen  bet- 
ter days. 
fuit  Ilium,  There  once  was  a  Troy;   Troy  was,  but  is  no 

more ;  the  place  is  gone. 


258 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


fumum  et  opes,  strepitumque  Romce,  The  smoke,  the  show, 
the  rattle,  of  the  town  (Rome). 

functus  officio.  Having  discharged  his  duties;  hence,  out 
of  office. 

furor  arma  ministrat,  Rage  provides  arms;  one  uses  any 
weapon  in  a  rage. 

furor  loquendi,  A.  rage  for  speaking. 

furor  poeticus.  Poetical  fire. 

furor  scribendi,  A  rage  for  writing. 

gallice,  In  French. 

gaudeamus  igUur,  Therefore,  let  us  rejoice.  (The  burden 
of  a  Macaronic  song.) 

gaudet  tentamine  virtus,  Virtue  rejoices  in  temptation. 

genius  loci,  The  genius  or  presiding  spirit  of  the  place. 

gens  togata,  Applied  first  to  Roman  citizens,  as  wearing 
the  toga,  the  garment  of  peace;  hence,  civilians 
generally. 

glaukas  eis  Alhenas  (Gr.),  Owls  to  Athens.  (The  owl  was 
sacred  to  Minerva,  the  guardian  divinity  of  Athens; 
hence,  owls  were  abundant,  so  that  the  proverb  is  like 
"  to  carry  coals  to  Newcastle.") 

glossa  diple,  A  double  tongue. 

gloria  in  excelsis  Deo,  Glory  to  God  in  the  highest. 

gloria  Petri,  Glory  be  to  the  Father. 

gnothi  seaidon{GT.),  Know  thyself.  (A  precept  inscribed  in 
gold  letters  over  the  portico  of  the  temple  at  Delphi. 
Its  authorship  has  been  ascribed  to  Pythagoras,  to 
several  of  the  wise  men  of  Greece,  and  to  Phemonoe, 
a  mythical  Greek  poetess.  According  to  Juvenal, 
this  precept  descended  from  heaven.) 

gradu  diverso,  via  una.  The  same  road  by  different  steps. 

gradus  ad  Pamassum,  A  step  to  Parnassus;  aid  in  writ- 
ing Latin  poetry ;  a  work  on  Latin  verse-making  con- 
taining rules  and  examples. 

gratia  placendi,  For  the  sake  of  pleasing. 

gratis  dictum,  Mere  assertion. 

graviora  manent.  Greater  afflictions  are  in  store;  the 
worst  is  yet  to  come. 

graviora  quwdam  sunt  remedia  periculis.  Some  remedies 
are  worse  than  the  disease. 

grex  venalium,  A  venal  throng. 

gxdta  cavat  lapidem,  non  vi,  sed  soepe  cadendo.  The  drop 
hollows  out  the  stone  by  frequent  dropping,  not  by 
force;  constant  persistence  gains  the  end. 

haud  longis  irUervallis,  At  frequent  intervals. 

he  gloss'  omomoch',  he  de  phren  anomotos  (Gr.),  My  tongue 
has  sworn,  but  my  mmd  is  unsworn;  I  have  said  it, 
but  don't  mean  to  do  it. 

helluo  librorum,  A  devourer  of  books;  a  bookworm. 

heu  pietas.'  heu  prisca  fides,  Alas  !  for  piety  I  Alas  I  for 
our  ancient  faith. 

hiatus  valde  deflendus,  A  gap  or  deficiency  greatly  to  be 
deplored.  (Words  employed  to  mark  a  blank  in  a  work, 
but  often  used  of  persons  whose  performances  fall 
short  of  their  promises.) 

hie  et  ubique.  Here  and  everywhere. 

hicjacet.  Here  lies;     sepultus,  buried. 

hie  labor,  hoc  opus  est.  Here  is  labor,  here  is  toil. 

hie  sepultus.  Here  flies]  buried. 

hinc  nice  lacrimae,  Hence  these  tears;  this  is  the  cause  of 
the  trouble. 

hodie  mihi,  eras  tibi,  It  is  my  lot  to-day,  yours  to-morrow. 
(A  line  often  found  in  old  epitaphs.) 

hoi  polloi  (Gr.),  The  many,  the  common  people. 

homo  foetus  ad  unguem.  Usually  quoted  thus,  though  the 
proper  form  is  ad  unguer  factus  homo.  A  highly  pol- 
ished, accomplished  man.  (The  expression  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  practice  in  sculptors,  who,  in  modeling, 
give  the  finishing  touch  with  the  nail;  or  from  joiners, 
who  test  the  accuracy  of  joints  in  wood  by  the  nail.) 

homo  multarum  literarum,  A  man  of  many  letters;  a  man 
of  extensive  learning. 

homo  solus  aut  deus  aut  dcemon,  A  man  to  live  alone  must 
be  either  a  god  or  a  devil. 

homo  sum;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto,  I  am  a  man ; 
and  I  consider  nothing  that  concerns  mankind  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference  to  me. 

hon  hoi  theoi  philousin  apothneskei  neos  (Gr.) ,  (A  fragment 
from  Menander.)    He  whom  the  gods  love  dies  young. 

honores  mutant  mores,  Honors  change  manners. 

honos  habet  onus.  Honor  is  burdened  with  responsibility. 

horce  canonicce.  Canonical  hours;  prescribed  times  for 
prayers. 

horresco  referens,  I  shudder  as  I  tell  the  story. 

hortus  siccus,  A  dry  garden;  a  collection  of  dried  plants; 
an  herbarium. 

hos  ego  versiculos  feci,  tulii  alter  honores  (Virgil,  on  the 
occasion  when  some  verses  he  had  written  on  the  shows 
at  Rome  were  unjustly  claimed  by  Bathyllus,  who 
was  rewarded  for  them),  I  wrote  these  lines,  another 
lias  borne  away  the  honor. 

humanum  est  errare.  To  err  is  human. 

hunc  lu  caveto.  Beware  of  him. 


id  genus  omne.  All  that  class.  (A  contemptuous  expres- 
sion for  the  dregs  of  the  population.) 

ignorantia  non  excusat  legem,  Ignorance  is  no  plea 
against  the  law. 

ignoratio  elenchi.  Ignorance  of  the  point  in  dispute.  (The 
logical  fallacy  of  arguing  to  the  wrong  point.) 

ignoli  nulla  cupido.  There  is  no  desire  for  that  which  is 
unknown;    our  wants  are  increased  by  knowledge. 

ignotum  per  ignotius,  (To  explain)  a  thing  not  under- 
stood by  one  still  less  understood. 

Ilias  malorum.  An  Iliad  of  woes;  a  host  of  evils.  (From 
the  fact  that  the  siege  of  Troy  lasted  ten  years.) 

imitatores,  servum  pecus.  Ye  imitators;    a  servile  herd. 

immedicabile  vulnus,  An  incurable  wound;  an  irrepar- 
able injury. 

imo  pectore.  From  the  bottom  of  one's  heart. 

impari  marte,  With  unequal  military  strength. 

impedimenta,  Luggage;  the  baggage  of  an  army. 

imperium  in  imperio,  A  government  existing  within 
another.  (Said  of  a  power  set  up  against  constituted 
authority.) 

implicUe,  By  implication. 

impos  animi,  Of  weak  mind. 

in  actu.  In  the  very  act;  in  reality. 

in  (Bternum,  For  ever. 

in  articulo  mortis.  At  the  point  of  death. 

in  camera.  In  the  judge's  chamber;  in  secret. 

in  capite,  In  chief. 

in  coelo  quies.  There  is  rest  in  heaven. 

incredulus  odi.  Being  incredulous,  I  cannot  endure  it. 

in  curia.  In  court. 

inde  irce.  Hence  this  resentment. 

in  dubio.  In  doubt. 

in  cequilibrio.  In  equilibrium. 

in  esse.  In  being. 

in  extenso.  At  length. 

in  extremis.  In  very  bad  circumstances;  at  the  point  of 
death. 

infandum,  regina,  jubes  -renovare  dolorem.  You  command 
me,  O  Queen,  to  revive  unspeakable  grief. 

in  flagrante  delicto.  In  the  commission  of  the  act. 

in  forma  pauperis.  As  a  poor  man. 

infra  dig.,  infra  dignitatem.  Beneath  one's  dignity. 

in  futuro.  In  future;  henceforth. 

in  hoc  signo  vinces.  In  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer. 
(The  motto  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  Con- 
stantine  after  his  vision  of  a  cross  in  the  heavens 
just  before  his  decisive  battle  with  Maxentius,  A.  D. 
312.) 

in  limine.  On  the  threshold;  preliminarily. 

in  loco.  In  the  place;   upon  the  spot;  in  the  place  of. 

in  loco  parentis.  In  the  place  of  a  parent. 

in  medias  res.  In  the  very  midst  of  things. 

in  memoriam.  In  memory  of. 

in  nomine.  In  the  name  of. 

in  nubibus,  In  the  clouds;  hence,  undefined,  uncertain, 
vague. 

in  nuce.  In  a  nutshell. 

in  omnia  paratus,  Prepared  for  all  things. 

inopem  copia  fecit.  Abundance  has  made  him  poor. 

in  pace.  In  peace. 

in  perpetuam  rei  memoriam,  In  everlasting  remembrance 
of  the  event. 

in  perpetuum.  For  ever. 

in  pleno.  In  full. 

in  posse,  In  possible  existence. 

in  propria  persona.  In  one's  own  person, 

in  puris  naturalibus,  In  a  state  of  nature;    stark  naked. 

in  re,  In  the  matter  of. 

in  rerum  natura.  In  the  nature  of  things. 

in  saecula  sctculorum.  For  ever. 

insciiia  est  adversum  stimulum  calces.  It  is  mere  folly  to 
kick  against  the  spur. 

in  situ.  In  its  proper  position. 

in  statu  quo.  In  its  former  state. 

in  suspenso.  In  suspense. 

in  te,  Domine,  speravi  (Ps.  xxxi,  Vulg.),  In  thee,  O  Lord, 
have  I  put  my  trust. 

inter  alia,  Among  other  things. 

inter  arma  leges  silent.  In  the  time  of  war  the  laws  are 
silent. 

inter  canem  et  lupum,  Between  the  dog  and  the  wolf; 
twihght. 

interdum  vulgus  rectum  videt.  Sometimes  the  rabble  see 
what  is  right. 

inter  nos.  Between  ourselves. 

inter  pocula.  At  one's  cups. 

in  terrorem.  In  terror;   as  a  warning. 

inter  se,  Amongst  themselves. 

inter  spem  et  metum,  Between  hope  and  fear. 

in  totidem  verbis.  In  so  many  words. 

in  toto.  In  the  whole;  entirely. 

intra  muros,  Within  the  walls. 


LANGUAGE 


259 


in   transitu.  On  the  passage ;  in  course  of  transit. 

intra  parietes,  Within  the  walls;  private. 

in  usum  Delphini,   For  the  use  of  the  Dauphin. 

in  utroque  fidelis.  Faithful  in  both. 

in  vacuo.  In  a  vacuum. 

in  verba  magistri  jurare.  To  swear  to  a  master's  words; 

to  accept  opinions  upon  authority. 
inverse  ordine,  In  an  inverse  order. 
in  vino  Veritas,  In  wine  there  is  truth.     (When  a  person 

is  under  the  influence  of  wine  he  shows  himself  in  his 

true  colors.) 
invito  Minerva,   Minerva   (Goddess    of  Wisdom)   being 

unwilling;  hence,  without  genius. 
ipse  dixit.  He  himself  has  said  it;  a  mere  assertion. 
ipsissima  verba,  The  identical  words. 
ipso  facto,  By  the  fact  itself. 
ipso  jure,  By  the  law  itself. 
ira  furor  brevis  est.  Anger  is  a  brief  madness. 
ita  est,  It  is  so. 

ita  lex  scripta  est.  Such  is  the  written  law. 
italice.  In  Italian  characters. 
jacta  alea  est.   (The  exclamation  of  Julius  Casar  when  he 

passed  the  Rubicon.)     The  die  is  cast. 
jam  redit  et  Virgo,  redeunt  Salumia  regna,  Now  the  Virgin 

and  the  Saturnian  age  return.     (Of  the  reign  of  Astraea, 

the  Goddess  of  Justice,  in  the  Golden  Age.) 
januis  clausis.  With  closed  doors;  in  secret. 
joci  causa.  For  the  sake  of  a  joke. 
jubilate  Deo  (Ps.  c.  1),  O  be  joyful  in  the  Lord. 
jucundi  acti  labores,  The  remembrances  of  past  labor  is 

sweet. 
judicium  Dei,  The  judgment  of  God. 
judicium   parium   aut  leges  terrce   (Magna   Chaita),  The 

judgment  of  our  peers  or  the  laws  of  the  land. 
jure  divino.  By  divme  law. 
jure  humano.  By  human  law. 
juris  peritus.  One  learned  in  the  law. 
juris  utriusque  doctor.  Doctor  of  both  laws,  i.  e.,  of  canon 

and  civil  laws. 
jus  canonicum,  Canon  law. 
jus  civile.  The  civil  law. 
jus  divinum.  The  divine  law. 

JUS  et  norma  loquendi.  The  law  and  rule  of  speech. 
jus  gentium.  The  law  of  nations. 
jus  gladii.  The  right  of  the  sword. 
jus  possessionis.  The  right  of  possession. 
jus  proprietatis.  The  right  of  property. 
JUS  summum  soepe  summa  malitia  est,  E.xtreme  law  is 

often  extreme  wrong. 
kairon  gnothi  (Gr.),  Know  your  opportunity.      (A  saying 

of  Pittacus,  one  of  the  Wise  Men  of  Greece.) 
kat'  exochen  (Gr.),  Pre-eminently. 
labitur  et  labetur  in  omne  volubilis  cevum.  It  glides  on,  and 

will  glide  on  for  ever. 
laborare  est  orare.  Work  is  prayer. 
labor  ipse  voluptas,  Labor  itself  is  a  pleasure. 
labor  omnia  vindt.  Labor  overcomes  all  difficulties. 
laborum  dulce  lenimen.  The  sweet  solace  of  our  labors. 
lapis  philosophorum.  The  philosopher's    stone. 
lapsus  calami,  A  slip  of  the  pen. 
lapsus  lingucE,  A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
lapsus  memoriw,  A  slip  of  the  memory. 
lares  et  penates.  Household  gods. 
lateat  scintillula  forsan.  Perchance  some  small  spark  may 

lie   concealed.     (The   motto   of   the   Royal    Humane 

Society.) 
latine  dictum,  Spoken  in  Latin. 
laudari  a  viro  laudato,  To  be   praised   by   a  man   that 

is  praised,  i.  e.,  by  an  eminent  man. 
laudationes  eorum  qui  sunt  iib  Homero  laudati.  Praises 

from  those  who  were  themselves  praised  by  Homer. 
laudator  temporis  acti,  One    who   praises    the    good    old 

days. 
laudum  immensa  cupido.  An  insatiable  desire  for  praise. 
laus  Deo,  Praise  to  God. 
lector  benevole.  Kind,  or  gentle,  reader. 
legatus  a  latere  (A  legate  from  the  side  [of  the  Pope]).  A 

papal  legate. 
lex  loci,  The  law  of  the  place. 

lex  non  scripta.  The  unwritten  law;    the  common  law. 
lex  scripta.  The  written  or  statute  law. 
lex  talionis.  The  law  of  retaliation. 
lex  terroe.  The  law  of  the  land. 
licentia  vatum,  The  license  allowed  to  poets. 
limcB  labor  et  mora.  The  labor  and  delay  of  the  file;    the 

slow  and  laborious  polish  of  a  literary  work. 
lis  litem  general,  Strife  begets  strife. 
liXem  lUe  resolvere.  To  settle  strife  by  strife;    to  end  one 

controversy  by  another. 
lite  pendente.  During  the  trial. 

litera  scripta  manet.  The  written  character  remains. 
loci  communes.  Common  places. 
loco  citato,  In  the  place  quoted. 


locus  classicus,  A  classical  passage;    the  acknowledged 

place  of  reference. 
locus  criminis.  The  scene  of  the  crime. 
locus  in  quo.  The  place  in  which. 
longo  intervallo,  By  or  with  a  long  interval. 
lucidus  ordo,  A  perspicuous  arrangement. 
lucri  causa,  For  the  sake  of  gain. 
lupum  auribus  teneo,  1  hold  a  wolf  by  the  ears;  I  have 

caught  a  Tartar. 
lupus  est  homo  homini,  Man  is  a  wolf  to  his  fellow-man; 

one  man  preys  on  another. 
lupus  in  fabula.  The  wolf  in  the  fable;    talk  of  the  devil 

and  he  will  appear. 
lusus  naturce,  A  freak  of  nature;    a  deformed  animal  or 

plant. . 
magister  ceremoniarum,  A  master  of  the  ceremonies. 
magna  civitas,  m.agna  solitudo,  A  great  city  is  a  great 

solitude. 
magnce  spes  altera  Romce,  A  second  hope  of  mighty  Rome. 

(Any  young  man  of  promise.) 
magna  est  Veritas  et  proevalebit.  Truth  is  mighty,  and  will 

prevail. 
magna  est  vis  consuetudinis.  Great  is  the  power  of  habit. 
magnas  inter  opes  inops.  Poor  in  the  midst  of  great  wealth. 
magnum  bonum,  A  great  good. 
magnum  opus,  A  great  undertaking;   the  great  work  of  a 

man's  life. 
magnum  vectigal  est  parsimonia,  Thrift  is  itself  a  good 

income. 
mala  fide.  With  bad  faith;  treacherously. 
mali  exempli.  Of  a  bad  exaniple. 

mali  principii  malus  finis,   The  bad  end  of  a  bad  be- 
ginning. 
m,alis  avibus.  With  unlucky  birds,  i.  e.,  with  bad  omens. 
malo  modo.  In  an  evil  manner. 
malus  pudor.  False  shame. 
manibus  pedibusque.  With  hands  and  feet;    tooth  and 

nail. 
manu  forti,  With  a  strong  hand. 
manu  propria.  With  one's  own  hand. 
mare  clausurn,  A  closed  sea;   a  bay. 
mars  gravior  sub  pace  latet,  A  more  serious  warfare  is 

concealed  by  seeming  peace. 
materiem  superabat  opus.  The  workmanship  was  more 

valuable  than  the  raw  material. 
mediocria  firma.  Moderate  things  are  surest. 
medio  tutissimus  ibis,  You  will  travel  safest  in  a  middle 

course. 
mega  biblion  mega  kakon  (Gr.),  (Adapted  from  a  maxim 

of  Callimachus),  A  big  book  is  a  big  nuisance. 
megale  polis  megale  eremia  (Gr.),  A  great  city  is  a  great 

solitude. 
meden  agan  (Gr.),  Nothing  in  excess. 
me  judice,  I  being  the  judge;  in  my  opinion. 
memor  et  fidelis.   Mindful  and  faithful. 
memoria  in  ceterna,  In  eternal  remembrance. 
mens  agitat  molem,  A  mind  informs  the  mass.     (Used  by 

Virgil    in    a   pantheistic    sense   of   the   world;     often 

applied  to  an  unwieldy,  dull-looking  person.) 
mens  sana  in  corpore  sano,  A  sound  mind  in  a  healthy 

body. 
mens  sibi  conscia  recti,  A  mind   conscious    of  ^ts  own 

rectitude. 
meo  pericuto.  At  my  own  risk. 
meo  voto.  At  my  own  wish. 
metron  ariston  (Gr.),  Moderation    is   best.     (A  favorite 

saying  of  the  philosopher  Cleobulus.) 
mia  chelidon  ear  ou  poiei  (Gr.),  One  swallow  does  not 

make  a  spring. 
mihi  cura  fuluri.  My  care  is  for  the  future. 
mirabile  dictu.  Wonderful  to  relate. 
mirabile  visu,  Wonderful  to  see. 
modo  et  forma.  In  manner  and  form. 
modus  operandi,  The  manner  of  working. 
mollia  tempora  fandi,  '1  he  favorable  moment  for  speaking., 
more  majorum,  After  the  manner  of  our  ancestors. 
more  suo.  In  his  usual  manner. 

mors  janua  vitce.  Death  is  the  gate  of  [everlasting]  life. 
mors  omnibus  communis.  Death  is  common  to  all  men. 
mos  pro  lege.  Usage  has  the  force  of  law. 
motu  propria.  Of  his  own  accord. 
multum  in  parvo.  Much  in  little. 
munus  Apolline  dignum,  A  gift  worthy  the  acceptance  of 

Apollo. 
mutatis  mutandis,  The  necessary  changes  being  made. 
mutato    nomine,    de    te   fabula    narraiur.    With    a    mere 

change  of  name  the  story  is  applicable  to  you. 
nasdmur  poeloe,  fimus  oratores,  We  are  born  poets,  we 

become  orators  by  training. 
natale  solum.  The  land  of  one's  birth. 
naturam  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurret,  Though  you 

may  drive  out  Nature  with  a  pitchfork,  she  will  always 

come  back;  inborn  character  is  ineradicable. 


260 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


ne  cede  malia,  sed  contra  audeniior  ilo.  Do  not  vield  to  mis- 
fortunes; on  the  contrary,  go  more  boldly  to  meet 
them. 

necessitas  non  habel  legem,  Necessity  knows  no  law. 

nee  mora,  nee  requies,  Neither  delay,  nor  rest;  without 
intermission. 

nee  pluribus  impar.  No  unequal  match  for  many.  (The 
motto  assumed  by  Louis  XIV.  when  he  planned  the 
subjugation  of  Europe. ) 

nee  prece,  nee  pretio.  Neither  by  entreaty  nor  bribery; 
neither  by  paying  nor  praying. 

nee  scire  /as  est  omnia.  We  are  not  allowed  to  know  all 
things. 

nee  temere,  nee  timide.  Neither  rashly  nor  timidly. 

nefasti  dies,  (Days  on  which  judgment  could  not  be 
pronounced  nor  public  assemblies  be  held.)  Unlucky 
days. 

ne  fronti  crede.  Don't  trust  to  appearances. 

nemine  conlradicente.  No  one  contradicting. 

nemine  dissentiente.  No  one  dissenting. 

nemo  fuit  repente  turpissimus.  No  man  becomes  a  villain 
all  at  once. 

nemo  me  impune  lacessit.  No  one  provokes  me  with 
impunity.     (The  motto  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle.) 

nemo  mortalium  omnibus  horis  sapit.  No  man  is  wise  at 
all  times;  the  wisest  may  make  mistakes. 

nemo  solus  satis  sapit.  No  man  is  sufficiently  wise  of 
himself. 

ne  (non)  plus  ultra,  Nothing  further;  the  uttermost 
point;  perfection. 

ne  puero  gladium,  Do  not  entrust  a  sword  to  a  boy. 

ne  quid  detrimenti  respublica  capiat.  Lest  the  State  suffer 
any  injury.  (The  injunction  given  to  the  Dictator 
when  invested  with  supreme  authority.) 

nervi  belli  pecunia.  Money  is  the  sinews  of  war. 

ne  siUor  ultra  crepidam,- The  shoemaker  should  not  go 
beyond  his  last.  (A  Latin  version  of  a  lebuke  said  to 
have  been  addressed  by  Apelles  to  a  shoemaker  who 
pointed  out  some  errors  in  the  painting  of  a  slipper 
in  one  of  the  artist's  works,  and  then  began  to  criticise 
other  parts  of  the  picture.) 

ne  tentes,  aid  perfice,  Do  not  attempt,  or  carry  it  out 
thoroughly. 

nihil  tetigit  quod  non  omavit,  He  touched  nothing  with- 
out embellishing  it. 

nil  admirari.  To  be  astonished  at  nothing. 

nil  conscire  sibi,  nulla  pallescere  culpa.  To  be  conscious 
of  no  fault,  to  turn  pale  at  no  accusation. 

nil  desperandum,  There  is  no  cause  for  despair;  never 
despair. 

nil  nisi  cruce.  Nothing  but  by  the  cross;  no  reward 
without  suffering. 

nimium  ne  crede  colori,  Do  not  trust  too  much  to  your 
good  looks. 

nisi  Dominus,  frustra  (Ps.  cxxvii,  I.  Vulg.),  Unless  the 
Lord  is  with  us,  our  labor  is  vain. 

nitor  in  adversum,  I  strive  against  opposition. 

nobilitas  sola  est  atque  unica  virtus.  Virtue  is  the  true  and 
only  nobility. 

nolens  volens.  Whether  willing  or  not. 

noli  me  tangere.  Touch  me  not. 

non  cuivis  homini  conlingit  adire  Corinthum,  It  is  not 
ever^  man's  lot  to  go  to  Corinth  (the  headquarters  of 
luxury  and  refinement);  hence,  it  is  not  every  man's 
good  fortune  to  be  able  to  see  great  cities. 

non  deficiente  crumena,  While  the  money  lasts. 

non  est  inventus.  He  is  not  found. 

non  ignara  mali,  miseris  succurrere  disco.  Not  unacquaint- 
ed with  misfortune,  I  learn  to  succor  the  wretched. 

non  libet.  It  does  not  please  me. 

non  multa,  sed  multum.  Not  many  things,  but  much. 

non  nobis  solum  nati  sumus.  We  are  not  born  for  ourselves 
alone. 

non  omne  lidtum  honestum.  Every  lawful  act  is  not 
necessarily  honorable. 

non  omnia  possumus  omnes.  We  cannot,  all  of  us,  do 
everything. 

non  passibus  oequis.  Not  with  equal  steps.  (Sometimes 
applied  to  a  person  who  has  been  outstripped  by 
another  in  the  race  for  fame,  wealth,  etc.) 

non  quis,  sed  quid.  Not  who,  but  what;  measures,  not 
men. 

non  sequitur.  It  does  not  follow;  an  unwarranted  con- 
clusion. 

non  sibi,  sed  patrirp.  Not  for  himself,  but  for  his  native 
land. 

non  sum  qualis  eram,  I  am  not  what  I  once  was. 

nosce  te  ipsum.  Know  thyself. 

noscitur  e  sociis,  A  man  is  known  by  the  company  he 
keeps. 

nota  bene  (N.  B.),  Mark  well. 

novus  homo  (lit.,  a  new  man),  A  mushroom;  an  upstart. 

niidis  verbis.  In  plain  words. 


nulla  dies  sine  linea.  No  day  without  a  line,  i.  e.,  without 

something  done. 
nulli  secundus.  Second  to  none. 
nunc  aut  nunquam.  Now  or  never. 
nunquam  minus  solus  quam  cum  solus.  Never  less  alone 

than  when  alone. 
obiit,  He  (or  she)  died. 
obiter  dictum,  A  thing  said  incidentally;    an  unofficial 

expression  of  opinion. 
obscurum    per    obscurius,  Explaining    an    obscurity    by 

something  still  more  obscure. 
oderint  dum  meluant.  Let  them  hate  so  long  as  they  fear. 

(A  favorite  saying  of  Caligula.) 
odi  profanum  vulgus,  et  arceo,  I  hate  the  vulgar  rabble, 

and  drive  them  away. 
odium  theologicum.  The  hatred  of  theologians. 
offlcina  gentium.  The  workshop  of  the  world. 
o  fortunatos  nimium,  sua  si  bona  norint,  O  more  than 

happy,  if  they  only  knew  their  advantages. 
ohe!  iam  satis.  Oh!  there  is  now  enough. 
omne    ignotum    pro    magnifico.  Everything    unknown    is 

taken  for  magnificent. 
omnem  movere  lapidem,  To  turn  every  stone;    to  make 

every  exertion. 
omne  simile  est  dissimile.  Every  like  is  unlike;    if  there 

were  not  unlikeness  there  would  be  identity. 
omne  solum  forti  patria  est.  Every  land  is  a  brave  man's 

home. 
omne  tulit  punctum  qui  miscuit  utile  dulci.  He  has  gained 

every  point  who  has  mixed  the  useful  and  the  agree- 
able. 
omnia  ad  Dei  gloriam  (1  Cor.  x.  31.  Vulg.),  All  things  for 

the  glory  of  God. 
omnia  mors  ccquat.  Death  levels  all  distinctions. 
omnia  mutantur,  nos  et  mutamur  in  illis.  All  things  are 

subject  to  change  and  we  change  with  them. 
omnia  vincit  amor,  nos  et  cedamus  amori,  Love  conquers 

all  things,  let  us  too  yield  to  love. 
omnia  vincit  labor.   Labor  conquers  all  things. 
omnis  amans  amens.  Every  lover  is  demented. 
operce  pretium  est.  It  is  worth  while. 
ora  et  labora.  Pray  and  work. 
ora  pro  nobis.  Pray  for  us. 
orate  pro  anima.  Pray  for  the  soul  (of). 
orator  fit,  poeta  nascitur.  The  orator  is  made;    the  poet  is 

born. 
ore  rotunda.  With  loud  resounding  voice. 
0  tempora,  o  mores,   Alas  for  the  times  and  the  manners. 
otiosa  sedulitas.  Laborious  trifling. 
otium  cum  dignitaie.  Ease  with  dignity. 
otium  sine  dignitate.  Ease  without  dignity. 
pace.  By  leave  of;  with  the  consent  of. 
pace  tua.  By  your  leave. 
pacta  conventa.  The  conditions  agreed  on. 
pallida  mors  cequo  pulsat  pede  pauperum  tabernas  regum- 

que  turres.  Pale  Death,  with  impartial  foot,  knocks  at 

the  cottages  of  the  poor  and  the  palaces  of  kings. 
palmam  qui  meruit  ferat.  Let  him  bear  the  palm  who  has 

deserved  it. 
par  negotiis  neque  supra.  Equal  tb,  but  not  above  his 

business. 
par  nobile  fratrum,  A  noble  pair  of  brothers;    a  well- 
matched  pair. 
pars  pro  toto.  The  part  for  the  whole. 
particeps  criminis,    A  partaker  in  the  crime;    an  acces- 
sory. 
parturiunt  monies,  nascetur  ridiculus  mus.  The  mountains 

are  in  labor;    a  ridiculous  mouse  will  be  born. 
parva  componere  magnis.  To  compare  small  things  with 

great  ones. 
pater  familiar.  The  father  of  the  family. 
pater  noster.  Our  father. 
pater  patrice.  The  father  of  his  country.   (A  title  bestowed 

by  the  Roman  Senate  on  Cffisar  Octavianus  Augustus.) 
pathemata  mathemata  (Gr.),  One  learns  by  suffering. 
patres   conscripti,  The   Conscript    Fathers;     the   Roman 

Senate.     (Often  jocularly  applied  to  the  members  of 

a  town  council.) 
patris  gar  esti  pas  hin  an  pratte  lis  en.  Every  land  where  a 

man  is  successful  is  his  native  land. 
pax  orbis  terrarum.  The  sovereignty  of  the  world.     (A 

legend  of  frequent  occurrence  on  Roman  coins.) 
pax  Romana,  The  Roman  Empire. 
pax  vobiscum.  Peace  be  with  you. 
peithein  dora  kai  theous  logos  (Gr.),  Gifts  persuade  even 

the  gods,  as  the  proverb  says. 
per,  By,  through,  by  means  of. 

per  ambages.    By    circuitous    ways;     with    circumlocu- 
tion. 
per  angusta  ad  augusta.  Through  trial  to  triumph. 
per  aspera  ad  astra.  Through  rough  ways  to  the  stars; 

through  suffering  to  renown. 
per  fas  d,  nefas.  Through  right  and  wrong. 


LANGUAGE 


261 


perfervidum  ingenium   Scotorum,  The   intensely   earnest 

character  of  the  Scotch. 
per  gradus,  Gradually. 

periculum  in  mora,  There  is  danger  in  delay. 
per  interim,  In  the  meantime. 
per  mare,  per  terras.  By  sea  and  land. 
per  saltum.  By  a  leap;  by  fits  and  starts. 
per  se.  In  itself;  for  its  own  sake. 
petitio  principii,  A  begging  of  the  question. 
placet.  It  seems  right;  it  is  approved  of.     (The  formula 

by  which  the  members  of  an  Oecumenical  Council  or 

a   University   senate   record   affirmative   votes.     The 

negative  formula  is  non  placet.) 
poeta  nascitur,  non  fit.  The  poet  is  born,  not  made. 
pondere,  non  numero,  By  weight,  not  by  number. 
pons  asinorum,  The  bridge  of  asses. 
populus  vult  decipi,   decipiatur.  The   people  wish  to  be 

deceived,  let  them  be  deceived. 
post  bellum  auxilium,  Aid  after  the  war. 
post  equitem  sedet  atra  cura.  Black  care  sits  behind  the 

rich  man  on  horseback ;    riches  and  high  position  bring 

cares. 
prvemonilus,  prcemunitus,  Forwarned,  forearmed. 
prima  facie,  At  the  first  glance. 
principia,  non  homines.  Principles,  not  men. 
principiis  obsta,  Resist  the  first  advances. 
prior  tempore,  prior  jure,  First  in  point  of  time,  first  by 

right;  first  come  first  served. 
pro  oris  et  focis,  For  our  altars  and  hearths;    for  our 

homes. 
prohaium  est,  It  is  proved. 
probitas  laudatur  et  alget,  Honesty  is  praised,  and  left  to 

starve. 
pro  bono  publico,  For  the  public  good. 
pro  Deo  et  ecclesia.  For  God  and  the  Church. 
pro  forma.  As  a  matter  of  form. 
proh  pudor.  For  shame. 
pro  memoria.  As  a  memorial. 
pro   rege,   lege,   grege,  For   the    king,    the   law,    and   the 

people. 
pugnis  et  calcibus.  With  fists  and  heels;    with  might  and 

main. 
punica  fides,  Punic  faith;  treachery. 
quae  fuerunt  vilia  mores  sunt.  What  were  once  vices  are 

now  in  fashion. 
quce  nocent,  docent.     Things  which  injure,  instruct;    we 

are  taught   by   painful   experience;     what   pains   us, 

trains  us. 
qualis  ab  incepto  processerit  et  sibi  constet,  as  he  begins, 

let  him  go  on,  and  be  consistent  with  himself. 
qualis  rex,  talis  grex.  Like  king,  like  people. 
qualis  vita,  finis  ita,  As  life  is,  so  will  its  end  be. 
quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit,  As  long  as  he  behaves  himself; 

during  good  behavior. 
quandoque  bonus  dormilat  Homerus,  Even  good  Homer 

nods  sometimes;  the  wisest  make  mistakes. 
quanti  est  sapere.  How  valuable  is  wisdom. 
quantum  libet.  As  much  as  you  like. 
quantum  meruit.  As  much  as  he  deserved. 
quantum  mvialua  ab  illo,  How  changed  from  what  he 

was. 
quem  dt  diligunt  adolescens  morilur.  He  whom  the  gods 

love  dies  young. 
quid  faciendum?  What  is  to  be  done? 
quid  nunc?  What  now?  what  news? 
quid  pro  quo.  One  thing  for  another;  an  equivalent. 
quid  rides?  Why  do  you  laugh? 
qui  nimium   probat,    nihil   probat.  He   who    proves   too 

much  proves  nothing. 
qui  non  proficit,  deficit,  He  who  does  not  advance,  loses 

ground. 
quis  custodiet  ipsos  custodes?  Who  shall  keep  the  keepers? 
qui  tacet  consentire  videtur.    He  who  keeps  silent  is  as- 
sumed to  consent;  silence  gives  consent. 
qui  timide  rogal  docet  negare,  He  who  asks  timidly  courts 

denial. 
quoad  hoc,  To  this  extent. 
quo  animo.  With  what  intention. 
quocunque  jaceris  stabit,  Wherever  you  throw  it,  it  will 

stand.     (The  motto  of  the  Isle  of  Man.) 
quocunque  modo,  In  whatever  manner. 
quocunque  nomine,  Under  whatever  name. 
quod  avertat  Deus!  God  forbid  1 

quod  bene  notandum.  Which  is  to  be  especially  noted. 
quod  erat  demonstrandum.  Which  was  to  be  proved.     [Q. 

E.  D.] 
quod  erat  faciendum.  Which  was  to  be  done.     [Q.  E.  F.] 
quod  hoc  sibi  vult?  What  does  this  mean? 
quod  non  opy,s  est,  asse  carum  est    (a  saying    of    Cato, 

quoted  by  Seneca),    What  is  not  necessary  is  dear  at 

a  penny. 
quod  vide  [q.  v.].  Which  see. 
quo  fata  vacant.  Whither  the  Fates  call. 


quo  fas  et  gloria  ducurU,  Where  duty  and  glory  lead. 
quorum  pars  m.agna  fui,  Of  whom  I  was  an  important 

part. 
quos  Deus  vult  perdere,  prius  dementat  (probably  altered 

from  a  passage  in  Euripides),  Those  whom  God  wills 

to  destroy  he  first  deprives  of  their  senses. 
quot  homines,  tot  sententice.  Many  men,  many  minds. 
rara  avis  in  terris,  nigroque  simillima  cygno.  An  extremely 

rare  bird,  and  very  like  a  black  swan  (supposed  not 

to  exist).     The  first  four  words  are  often  used  ironi- 
cally. 
ratione  soli.  According  to  the  soil. 
recte  et  suaviter,  Justly  and  mildly. 
rectus  in  curia.  Upright  in  court ;  with  clean  hands. 
redolet   lucerna.  It   smells  of  the   lamp.     (Said   of   any 

labored  literary  production.) 
re  infecta,  The  business  being  unfinished. 
relata  refero,  I  tell  the  tale  as  I  heard  it. 
religio  loci.  The  spirit  of  the  place. 
rem.  acu  tetigisti.  You  have  touched  the  matter  with  a 

needle;  you  have  described  it  accurately. 
remis  velisque.    With   oars   and    sails;     with    all    one's 

might. 
requiescat  in  pace,  May  he  rest  in  peace. 
res    angusta    domi,  Narrowed    circumstances    at    home; 

limited  means. 
res  est  sacra  miser,  A  man  in  distress  is  a  sacred  object. 
res  gestCB,  Things  done;    exploits. 

res  judicata,  A  matter  decided ;    a  case  already  settled. 
respice  finem.  Look  to  the  end. 
resurgam,  I  shall  rise  again. 
ridere  in  stomacho,  To  laugh  inwardly;    to  laugh  in  one's 

sleeve. 
ride  si  sapis.  Laugh  if  you  are  wise. 
rixatur  de  lana  scepe  caprina.  He  often  quarrels  about 

goats'  wool,  i.  e.,  trifles. 
mat  caelum,.  Let  the  heavens  fall. 

rvdis  indigestaque  moles,  A  rude  and  undigested  mass. 
rus  in  urbe,  A  residence  in  or  near  town,  with  many  of  the 

advantages  of  the  country. 
rusticus  expected  dum  defluat    amnis,   at    ille   labitur,   et 

labetur  in  omne  volubllis  cevum.   The  peasant  waits  till 

the  river  shall  cease  to  flow,  but  it  glides  on,  and  will 

glide  on  forever. 
sal  atticum,  Attic  salt,  i.  e.,  wit. 
salvo  jure,  Without  prejudice. 
salvo  pudore,  Without  offense  to  modesty. 
sapere  aude.  Dare  to  be  wise. 

sat  cito,  si  sat  bene.  Quickly  enough  if  well  enough. 
satis  eloquenticB,  sapientice  parum,  Eloquence  enough,  but 

too  little  wisdom. 
satis  superque.  Enough,  and  more  than  enough. 
sat  pulchra,  si  sat  bona.  Fair  enough  if  good   enough; 

handsome  is  that  handsome  does. 
secundum  artem.  According  to  the  rules  of  art. 
semel   abbas,    semper   abbas.  Once  an  abbot,    always   an 

abbot. 
semel  insanivimus  omnes.  We  have  all  been  mad  at  some 

time. 
semper  avarus   eget.  The   avaricious   man   is   always   in 

want. 
semper  fidelis.  Always  faithful. 
semper  idem,  Always  the  same. 
semper  paratus.  Always  prepared. 
semper  timidum.  scelus.  Crime  is  always  fearful. 
sequiturque  patrem,  non  passibua  cequis.  He  follows  his 

father,  but  not  with  equal  steps. 
sero  venientibus  ossa,  The  bones  for  those  who  come  late; 

those  who  come  late  get  the  leavings. 
serus  in  ccelum  redeas.  May  it  be  long  before  you  return 

to  heaven ;  long  life  to  you. 
servare  modum,.  To  keep  within  bounds. 
servus  servorum  Dei,  The  servant  of  the  servants  of  God. 

(One  of  the  titles  of  the  pope.) 
sic  eunt  fata  hominum.  Thus  go  the  destinies  of  men. 
sic  itur  ad  astra,  Thus  do  we  reach  the  stars. 
sic  passim.  So  in  various  places. 
sic  semper  tyrannis.  Ever  thus  to  tyrants. 
sic  transit  gloria  mundi.  So  the  glory  of  this  world  passes 

away.     (The  first  words  of  a  sequence  said  to  have 

been  used  at  the  installations  of  the  popes.) 
sicut  ante,  As  before. 
sicut  patribus,  sit  Deus  nobis.  May  God  be  with  us,  as 

he  was  with  our  fathers. 
sic  volo,  sic  jubeo,  stat  pro  ratione  voluntas.  Thus  I  will, 

thus  I  command,  my  pleasure  stands  for  a  reason. 
sic  vos  non  vobis.  Thus  do  ye,  but  not  for  yourselves. 

(The  commencement  of  each  of  four  verses  which  Virgil 

wrote,    but   left   incomplete,    on    the   occasion   when 

Bathyllus  claimed  some  lines  really  written  by  the 

poet,  who  alone  was  able  to  complete  the  verses,  and 

thus  prove  their  authorship.      Used   of    persons  by 

whose  labors  others  have  unduly  profited.) 


262 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


si  Deua  nobiscum,  guis  contra  nosf  If  God  be  with  us, 

who  shall  be  against  us? 
sile  el  philosophus  esto,  Hold  your  tongue,  and  you  will 

pass  for  a  philosopher. 
simile  gaxulet  simili,  lAke  loves  like. 
similia  similibus  curantur.  Like  things  are  cured  by  like. 

(The  principle  of  homceopathy.) 
si  monumentum,   requiris,  circumspice.  If    you   seek    my 
monument,  look  around.     (The  epitaph  of  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  of  which  he  was 
the  architect.) 
simplex   munditiis,  Simple,    in    neat   attire;     neat,    not 

gaudy. 
sine  cura,  Without  care  or  change. 
sine  dubio,  Without  doubt. 
sine  mora,  Without  delay. 
sine  prcejudicio,  Without  prejudice. 
sine   qua   non.  Without    which,    not;    an    indispensable 

condition. 
si  parva  licet  componere  magnis.  If  it  be  lawful  to  com- 
pare small  things  with  great. 
sit  tibi  terra  levis,  May  the  earth  lie  light   upon   thee. 
(An  inscription  often  found  on  Roman  tombstones; 
frequently  abbreviated  to  S.  T.  T.  L.) 
at  vis  pacem,  para  bellum,  If  you  wish  for  peace,  prepare 

for  war. 
Skene  pas  ho  bios  (Gr.),  Life  is  a  stage. 
soliludinem  faciunt,  pacem  appellant,  I'hey  make  a  wilder- 
ness and  call  it  peace. 
sophen  de  miso  (Gr.),  1  hate  a  blue-stocking. 
spes  sibi  guisque.  Let  each  man's  hope  be  in   himself; 

let  him  trust  to  his  own  resources. 
speude  bradeos    (Gr.),  Make  haste  slowly.      (A    favorite 

saying  of  Augustus  Ca>sar.) 

splendide  mendax,  Nobly  untruthful;    untrue  for  a  good 

object.     (Often  used  ironically  of  an  unblushing  liar.) 

spone  sua,  Spontaneously;    of   one's  (or  its)  own  accord. 

spretcB  injuria  forma,  Tiie  affront  offered  to  her  slighted 

beauty.      (In    allusion    to    the    resentment    of    Juno 

because  Paris  gave  the  golden  apple  to  Venus  as  the 

prize  of  beauty.) 

slat  magni  nominis  umbra.  He  stands  the  shadow  of  a 

mighty  name. 
slat   nominis   umbra.  An    adaptation    of   the   preceding, 

used  by  "  Junius  "  as  the  motto  of  his  Letters, 
status  quo,  status  in  quo,  statu  quo.  The  state  in  which. 
status  quo  ante  bellum.  The  state  in  which  the  bellige- 
rents were  before  war  commenced. 
sta,  viator,  heroem.  calcas.  Stop,  traveler,  thou  treadest 
on  a  hero's  dust.      (The  epitaph  inscribed  by  Conde 
over  the  grave  of  his  great  opponent,  Merci.) 
stemmata  quid  jaciunlf  Of  what  value  are  pedigrees? 
studium    immane     loquendi.  An     insatiable     desire     for 

talking. 
sua  cuique  voluptas.  Every  man  has  his  own  pleasures. 
suaviter  in  modo,  jortiler  in  re.  Gentle  in  manner,  reso- 
lute in  execution. 
sub  colore  juris.  Under  color  of  law. 
sublala   causa,   tollitur  effectus.  The   effect    ceases   when 

the  cause  is  removed. 
sub  poena.  Under  a  penalty. 
sub  rosa.  Under  the  rose;  secretly. 
sub  silentio,  In  silence;  without    formal    notice    being 

taken. 
sub  specie,  Under  the  appearance  of. 
sub  voce.  Under  such  or  such  a  word. 
sui  generis.  Of  its  own  kind;   unique. 
summum  jus,  summa  injuria  est.  The  rigor  of  the  law  is 

the  height  of  oppression. 
sum.ptibus  publicis.  At  the  public  expense. 
suo  m,arte,  By  his  own  powers  or  skill. 
suppressio  veri,  suggestio  falsi.  The  suppression   of  the 

truth  is  the  suggestion  of  a  falsehood. 
surgit  amari  aliquid.  Something  bitter  arises. 
suum  cuique.  Let  each  have  his  own. 
situs  cuique  mos.  Every  one  has  his  own  particular  habit. 
tangere  ulcus.  To  touch  a  sore;    to  reopen  a  wound. 
tantcene  animis  ccelestibus  irce.  Can  such  anger  dwell  in 

heavenly  minds? 
telum  imbelle  sine  ictu,  A  feeble  dart,  devoid  of   force. 

(Applied,  fig.,  to  a  weak  argument.) 
tempori  parendum.  We  must  move  with  the  times. 
tempus  edax  rertim.  Time  the  devourer  of  all  things. 
tempus  fugit.  Time  flies. 

tempus  omnia  revelat.  Time  reveals  all  things. 
tenax  propositi,  Plrm  of  purpose. 
teres  atque  rotundus,  A  man  polished  and  complete. 
terra  cotta.  Baked  clay. 
terra  firma,  The  firm  land ;  the  continent. 
terra  incognita.  An  unknown  land. 

tertium.  quid,  A  third  something  (produced  by  the  union 
of  two  different  things,  or  the  collision  of  two  opposing 
forces). 


teste.  By  the  evidence  of. 

timeo  Danaos  et  dona  ferentes,  I   fear  the  Greeks,  even 

when  they  bring  gifts.     (Used  of  distrusting  the  kind- 
ness of  a  foe.) 
to  kalon  (Gr.),  The  beautiful. 
to  prepon  (Gr.),   What  is  becoming  or  decorous. 
tot  homines,  quot  sententiae.  So  many  men,  so  many  minds. 
trahit  sua  quemque  voluptas,  Each  man  is  led  by  his  own 

taste. 
transeat  in  exemplum.  Let  it  pass  into  a  precedent. 
tria  juncta  in  uno.  Three  joined  in  one  (the  motto  of  the 

Order  of  the  Bath). 
trium,  literarum  homo,  A  man  of  three  letters;    a  thief 

(fur  being  Latin  for  thief). 
Troja  fuil,  Troy  was;  Troy  has  perished. 
Tros   Tyriusve  mihi  nullo  discmnine  agetur,  Trojan   or 

Tyrian  shall  have  the  same  treatment  from  me. 
truditur  dies  die.  One  day  follows  hard  on  another. 
uberrima  fides.  Implicit  faitli. 
ubi  bene  ibi  patria,  Where  one  is  well  off,  there  is  his 

country. 
ubi  jus  incertum,  ibi  jus  nullum.  Where  the  law  is  uncer- 
tain, there  is  no  law. 
ubi  mel  ibi  apes.  Where  the  honey  is,  there  are  the  bees. 
ubi  tres  medici,  duo  athei,  Where  there  are  three  physi- 
cians there  are  two  atheists. 
ultima  ratio  regum.  The  last  argument  of  kings  (engraved 

on  French  cannon  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.). 
ultimus  Romanorum,  The  last  of  the  Romans.    (Used  by 

Brutus  of  Cassius.) 
unguibus  et  rostro,  With  claws  and  beak. 
unguis  in  ulcere,  A  nail  in  the  wound,  to  keep  it   open. 
urbein  lateritiam  invenit,  marmoream  reliquit.  He  found 

the  city  (Rome)  brick,  but  left  it  marble. 
usque  ad  nauseam.  To  disgust. 
usus  loquendi,  Usage  in  speaking. 
ut  ^nfra,  As  stated  or  cited  below. 
uti  possidetis.  As  you  now  possess.     (A  diplomatic  phrase 

meaning  that  at  the  termination  of  hostilities  the  con- 
tending parties  are  to  retain  whatever  territory  they 

may  have  gained  during  the  war.) 
ut  supra.  As  stated  or  cited  above. 
vade  in  pace.  Go  in  peace. 
vce  victis.  Woe  to  the  conquered.     (Said  to  have  been 

the  exclamation  of  Brennus,  when  he  threatened  to 

exterminate  the  Romans.) 
-jvaleat  quantum  valere  potest,  Let  it  pass  for  what  it  is 

worth. 
Vare,  legiones  redde.  Varus,  give  back  my  legions.      (A 

frequent    exclamation    of    Cffisar    Augustus    when    he 

thought   of   the   defeat   and   slaughter  of   Quinctilius 

Varus  with  three  legions  by  the  Germans.     Often  used 

of  a  commander  who  has  recklessly  sacrificed  troops, 

or  of  a  financier  who  has  wasted  funds.) 
varies  lectiones.  Various  readings. 
.varium  et  mutabile  semper  femina.  Woman  is  always  a 

changeable  and  capricious  thing. 
veluii  in  speculum.  As  in  a  mirror. 
venalis  populus,  venalis  curia   patrum.  The   people  and 

the  senators  are  equally  venal. 
vendidit  hie  auro  patriam,  He  sold  his  country  for  gold. 
venenum  in  auro  bibitur.  Poison  is  drunk  out  of  gold; 

the  rich  run  more  risk  of  being  poisoned  than  the  poor. 
venia  necessitati  datur,  Pardon  is  granted  to  necessity; 

necessity  has  no  law. 
venienti  occurrite  morbo.  Meet  the  coming  disease;    take 

it  in  time;  prevention  is  better  than  cure. 
venit  summa  dies  et  ineluctabile  tempus,  The  last  day  has 

come,  and  the  inevitable  doom. 
veni,  vidi,  vici,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.     (The  laconic 

despatch   in   which   Julius   Ccpsar   announced    to   the 

Senate  his  victory  over  the  Pharnaces.) 
ventis  secundis.  With  favorable  winds. 
vera  incessu  patuii  dea.  She  stood  revealed,  an  undoubted 

goddess  in  her  walk. 
perbum  sat  sapienti,  A  word  is  sufficient  for  a  wise  man. 
Veritas  odium  parii.  Truth  begets  hatred. 
veritatis   simplex   oratio   est,  The    language    of    truth    is 

simple. 
vestigia  .    .    .   nuWareirorsum,  No  signs  of  any  returning, 

usually  translated,  no  stepping  back. 
vexata  qucestio,  A  disputed  question. 
via  media,  A  middle  course. 

via  trita,  via  tutissima,  The  beaten  path  is  safest. 
victrix  causa  dis  placuit,  sed  victa  Catoni,  The  winning 

cause  was  pleasing  to  the  gods,  the  conquered  one  to 

Cato. 
video    meliora    proboque,    deteriora    sequor,    I     see    and 

approve  the  better  course,  but  I  follow  the  worse. 
vidit  et  erubuii  lympha  pudica  Deum,  The  modest  water 

saw  its  God  and  blushed.     (On  the  miracle  at  Cana 

in  Galilee.) 
vi  et  armis.  By  main  force. 


LANGUAGE 


263 


villus  argentum  eat  auro,  virttUibus  aurum.  Silver  is  of 

less  value  than  gold,  gold  than  virtue. 
vincet  amor  patrice,  The  love  of  country  will  prevail. 
vir  bonus  dicendi  peritus,  A  good  man  skilled  in  the  art 

of  speaking.      (The  Roman  definition  of  an  orator.) 
viresque  acquirit  eundo.  She  (Rumor)  gains  strength  as 

she  travels. 
Virgilium  vidi  tantum,  I  only  saw  Virgil;    I  was  not  inti- 
mate with  tlie  great  man. 
virtiUe  officii,  By  virtue  of  one's  office. 
virum  voliiare  per  ora.  To  hover  on  the  lips  of  men;    to 

be  in  everybody's  mouth. 
vis  comica.  Comic  power  or  talent. 
vis  consilii  expers  mole  ruit  sua,  Force,  without  judgment, 

falls  by  its  own  weight. 
vita  hominis  sine  Uteris  mors  est.  The  life  of  man  without 

literature  is  death. 
vitam,  im.pendere  vero.  To  risk  one's  life  for  the  truth. 
vix  ea  nostra  voco,   I  scarcely  call  these  things  our  own. 
vixere  fortes  ante  Agamemnona,  Brave  men  lived  before 

Agamemnon. 
volenti  non  fit  injuria.  No  injury  is  done  to  a  consenting 

party. 
vox  clamantis  in  deserto.  The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the 

wilderness. 
vox  et  preeterea  nihil,  A  voice  and  nothing  more;    a  mere 

sound;    hence,  fine  words  without  weight  or  meaning. 
vox  faucibus  hcesU,  His  voice  died  in  his  throat;    he  was 

dumb  with  amazement. 
vox  populi,  vox  Dei  (an  old  proverb  quoted   by  William 

of   Malmesbury  in  the  Twelfth  Century),  The  voice  of 

the  people  is  the  voice  of  God. 
vultus   animi  janua  et   tabula.  The   countenance   is   the 

portrait  and  picture  of  tlie  mind. 
zonam  perdidit.  He  has  lost  his  purse;    he  is  in  distressed 

circumstances. 

MODERN  LANGUAGES 

Phrases  not  designated  are  from  the  French;  those  from 
other  languages  are  distinguished  thus:  (Ger.)=:  Ger- 
man;  (It.)  ^Italian;  and  (Sp.)  =  Spanish. 

a  bon  marche.  Cheap. 

absence  d'esprit.  Absence  of  mind. 

d  cheval.  On  horseback. 

a  che  vuole,  non  mancano  modi  (It.), Where  there's  a  will, 

there's  a  way. 
(l  compte.  On  account. 

d  corps  perdu.  Headlong;    neck  or  nothing, 
d  convert,   Under  cover;  protected;  sheltered. 
a  deux  mains  (for  both  hands),   Having  a  double   office 

or  employment. 
adieu,  la  voiture,  adieu,  la  boutique  (good-bye,  carriage; 

good-bye,  shop).  All  is  over. 
a  discretion.  At  discretion;  unrestrictedly. 
a  droits.  To  the  right. 
affaire  d'amour,  A  love  affair. 
affaire  d'honneur.  An  affair  of  honor;  a  duel. 
affaire  du  coeur.   An  affair  of  the  heart;  a  love  affair. 
d  fin.  To  the  end  or  object, 
d  fond,  To  the  bottom;  thoroughly, 
d  forfait.  By  contract;    by  the  job. 
d  gauche,  To  the  left, 
d  genoux.  On  one's  knees, 
d  grands  frais,  At  great  expense, 
d  haute  voix,  Aloud. 
a  huis  clos.  With  closed  doors;   secretly 
aide-toi,  et  le  Ciel  V  aidera.  Help  yourself,  and  Heaven 

will  help  you. 
d  r abandon.  Disregarded;  uncared  for. 
d  la  belle  etoile.  Under  the  canopy  of  heaven ;  in  the  open  air. 
d  la  bonne  heure.    Well-timed;  in  good  time;   favorably, 
d  I'abri,  Under  shelter, 
d  la  campaqne.  In  the  country, 
d  la  carte.  By  the  card, 
d  la  derobee.  Stealthily, 
d  la  frangaise,  In  French  fashion, 
d  la  grecque.  After  the  Greek  fashion, 
d  la  mode.    In  the  fashion;    according  to  the  custom  or 

fashion, 
d    la    Tartufe,     Like   Tartufe  (the   hypocritical    hero   of 

Molifere's  comedy,  Tartufe).    Hence,  hypocritically. 
al  buon  vino  non  bisognafrascailt.) ,  Good  wine  needs  no 

bush, 
d  I'envi,  With  emulation. 
al  fresco  (It.),   In  the  open  air. 
d  I'improviste,  Unawares;  on  a  sudden. 
Alles  hat  seine  Zeit  (Ger.),  All  in  good  time. 
allez-vous  en.  Away  with  you;  be  off. 
allons.  Come  on. 

Allzuviel  ist  ungesund  (Ger.),    Too  much  of  a  good  thing, 
d  I'outrance,  To  the  death. 
al  piu  (It.).  At  most. 


d  main  armee.  By  force  of  arms. 

am  Anfang  (Ger.),   At  the  beginning. 

amar  y  saber  no  puede  ser  (Sp.),    No  one  can  love  and  be 

wise  at  the  same  time. 
dme  de  boue  (lit.,  soul  of  mud),  A  base-minded  person. 
amende  honorable.   Fit  reparation;   a  satisfactory  apology, 
d  merveille.  Marvellously;  extraordinarily. 
ami  de  cour  (lit.,  a  friend  of   the  court),    A  false  friend; 

one  who  is  not  to  be  depended  on. 
ami  de  peuple.   Friend  of  the  people. 
amour  propre,  Vanity;  self-love. 
ancien  regime,  The  former  condition  of  things, 
d  outrance.  To  the  last  extremity, 
d  pas  de  geant.  With  a  giant's  stride, 
d  perte  de  vue.  Till  out  of  sight, 
d  peu  pres.  Nearly, 
d  pied.  On  foot. 

d  point.  Just  in  time;   exactly;  exactly  right, 
d  prima  vista  (It.),   At  the  first  glance, 
d  propos.  To  the  point, 
d  propos  de  rien  (lit.,  apropos  to  nothing).  Motiveless; 

for  nothing  at  all. 
argent  comptarU,  Ready  money. 

arriere  pensee,  Mental  reservation;     unavowed  purpose, 
d  tort  et  d  travers.  At  random. 
au  bon  droit.  To  the  just  right. 
au  bout  de  son  Latin,  At    the  end  of   his  Latin;    to  the 

extent  of  his  knowledge. 
au  contraire,  On  the  contrary. 

au  courant.  Well  acquainted  with:  well  informed. 
au  desespoir,  In  despair. 
au  fait.  Expert. 
au  fond.  To  the  bottom. 
au  gratin.  With  cheese. 
au  jus,  With  the  natural  juice. 
au  pis  aller.  At  the  very  worst. 
au  reste.  As  for  the  rest. 
au  revoir.  Till  we  meet  again. 

aussitot  dit,  aussitot  fait.  No  sooner  said  than  done. 
autant  d'hommes,  autant  d'avis.  Many  men,  many  minds. 
autre  droit.  Another's  right. 
autre  fois,  Another  time. 
autre  vie.  Another's  life. 
aut  vincere  aut  mori.  Victory  or  death. 
aux  armes.  To  arms. 

avant  propos.  Preface;  introductory  matter, 
d  volonte.  At  pleasure. 
a  vostra  salute  (It.),  To  your  health, 
d  votre  sante.  To  your  health. 
a  vuestra  salud  (Sp.),  To  your  health. 
ballon  d'essai,  A  balloon  sent  up  to  test  the  direction  of 

air-currents;    hence,  anything  said  or  done    to   gauge 

public  feeling  on  any  question. 
bas  bleu,    A  blue-stocking;    a  woman  who  seeks  a  repu- 
tation for  learning. 
beau-ideal,  A  model  of  ideal  perfection. 
beaux  esprits.  Men  of  wit,  or  genius. 
bel  esprit,  A  wit;  a  genius. 
benedetto  e  quel  male  che  vien  solo   (It.),   Blessed  is  the 

misfortune  that  comes  alone. 
ben-trovato  (It.),  Well  invented. 
bete  noire  (lit.,  a  black  beast),  A  bugbear. 
billet  doux,  or  billet  d'amour,  A  love  letter. 
bizarre.  Odd;  fantastic. 

blanc  mange  (a  delicate  dessert),  White  jelly. 
blase.  Surfeited.  / 

bon  ami.  Good  friend. 
bon  bon,  A  sweet-meat;   confectionery. 
bon  gre,  mal  gre,  With  good  or   bad    grace;    willing  or 

unwilling. 
bonhomie.  Good-natured  simplicity. 
bon  jour,  Good  day;  good  morning. 
bon  mot,  A  witticism. 

bonne  et  belle.   Good  and  handsome.     (Of  a  woman.) 
bonne  foi,  Good  faith. 
bon  soir.  Good  evening. 
bon  ton.  High  fashion;  first-class  society. 
boudoir,  A  small  private  apartment. 
bouillon.  Soup. 
brevete.  Patented. 
cap-ci-pie.  From  head  to  foot. 
carte  blanche.   Full  power. 
castello  che  da  orecchia  si  vuol  rendere  (It.),   The  fortreps 

that  parleys  soon  surrenders. 
cela   va   sans  dire,  That   goes    without  saying;    that  is 

understood. 
ce  n'  est  que  le  premier  pas  qui  coUte,   It  is  only  the  first 

step  that  is  difficult, 
c'  est  d  dire.  That  is  to  say. 

c'  est  une  autre  chose.  That  is  quite  another  thing. 
chacun  d  son  goQ,t,  Everyone  to  his  taste. 
chacun  tire  de  son  cote.  Everyone  inclines  to  his  own  side 

or  party. 


264 


THE   STANDARD    DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


chanson,  A  song. 

chapeau,  A  hat. 

chapeau  de  bras,  A  military  cocked  hat. 

chapelle  ardenle.   The  chamber  where  a  dead  body  Hes  in 

state. 
chateau,  A  castle. 

chauffeur.  Driver  of  an  automobile. 
chef,  Man  cook. 
chef-d'ceuvre,  A  masterpiece. 
chemin  de  fer  (lit.,  iron  road),  A  railway. 
chere  amie,  A  dear  (female)  friend;  a  lover. 
che  sard,  sard  (It.),  What  will  be,  will  be. 
cfieval  de  bataiUe  (lit.,  a    war-horse).    Chief   dependence 

or  support;  one's  strong  point. 
chi  tace  confessa  (It.),    He  who  keeps  silent  admits  his 

guilt. 
ci  gil.   Here  lies.    (A  common  inscription  on  tombstones.) 
comme  il  faut,  Proper;  as  it  should  be. 
comment  vous  portez  voiis.  How  are  you? 
compagnon  de  voyage,  A  traveling  companion. 
compte  rendu.  An  account  rendered ;  a  report. 
con  amore  (It.),  With  affection;  very  earnestly. 
concours.  Competition  (as  for  a  prize) ;  contest. 
con  diligema  (It.),  With  diligence. 
con  dolore  (It.),  With  grief;  sadly. 
conseil  de  famille,  A  family  council  or  consultation. 
conseil  d'etat,  A  council  of  state;  a  privy  council. 
consomme,  A  clear  soup. 
contretemps.  An  awkward  mishap. 
cordon  sanitaire.  A  line  of  sentries  to  prevent,  as  far  as 

possible,  the  spread  of  contagion  or  pestilence.    (Used 

also  of  other  precautionary  measures.) 
couleur  de  rose,  Rose  color. 
coup,  A  stroke. 
coup  de  grace,    A  finishing-stroke.     (Formerly  applied  to 

the  fatal  blow  by  which  the  executioner  put  an  end  to 

the  torments  of  a  culprit  broken  on  the  wheel.) 
coup  de  main,  A   sudden  attack,   enterprise,   or   under- 
taking. 
coup  de  maitre,  A  master-stroke. 
coup  d'  essai,  A  first  attempt. 
coup  d'  elat,    A  stroke  of  policy;    a  sudden  and  decisive 

blow  (usually  inflicted  by  unconstitutional  means). 
coup  d'  oeil,  A  rapid  glance. 
coup  de  pied,  A  kick. 
coup  de  plume,  A  literary  attack. 
cojip  de  soleil,  A  sunstroke. 
coup  de  theatre,  A  theatrical  effect. 
courage  sans  peur,  Fearless  courage. 
coute  qii'il  coute,  C!ost  what  it  may. 
cuisine,  A  kitchen;  cookery. 
dame  d'honneur,  A  maid  of  honor. 

Das  geht  Sie  Nichts  an  (Ger.),  That  does  not  concern  you. 
de  bonne  augure.  Of  good  omen.- 
de  bonne  grace.  With  good  will ;  willingly. 
debris.  Refuse. 
debut.  First  appearance. 

debutante,  A  young  lady  just  entering  society. 
decollete.  Open-breasted. 
degage,  Free,  easy,  without  constraint. 
de  gaiete  de  coeur,  In  sport;  sportively. 
dejedner  a  la  fourchette,  A  meat  breakfast. 
de  mal  en  pis.  From  bad  to  worse. 
demi-tasse,  A  small  cup. 
denouement,  An  unraveling  or  winding  up. 
dernier  ressort,  The  last  resource. 
desagrement.  Something  disagreeable  or  unpleasant. 
detour,  A  circuitous  march. 
di  buona  voloritii  sta  pieno  I'inferno  (It.),  Hell  is  full  of 

good  intentions. 
Dieu  est  toujours  pour  les  plus  pros  bataillons,     God  is 

always   on   the   side   of   the   largest   battalions;    the 

largest  army  has  the  best  chance. 
Dieu  et  mon  droit,  God  and  my  right. 
Dieu  vous  garde,  God  protect  you. 
di  grado  en  grade  (It.),  Step  by  step;  gradually. 
Dios  me  libre  de  hombre  de  un  libra  (Sp.),    God   deliver 

me  from  a  man  of  one  book. 
di  salto  (It.),  By  leaps. 
di  tutti  novella  par  hello  (It.),    Everything    new  seems 

beautiful. 
dolce  far  niente  (It.),  Sweet  idleness. 
dorer  la  pilule.  To  gild  the  pill. 
double  entente.  Double  meaning. 
douceur,  A  bribe. 
durante  vitd,  During  life. 
eau  de  cologne,  Cologne  water. 

eau  de  vie,  The  water  of  life  —  applied  usually  to  brandy. 
eclat.  Splendor,  brilliancy. 

edition  de  luxe,    A  splendid   edition   of    a  book,   hand- 
somely bound,  and  usually  well  illustrated. 
Ehrlich  wcihrt  am  Idngsten  (Ger.),    Honesty  is  the  best 

policy. 


Eile  mit  Weile  (Ger.),    The  more  haste  the  less  speed. 

Eine  Schwalbe  macht  keinen  Sommer  (Ger.),  One  swallow 
does  not  make  a  summer. 

Ein  gebranntes  Kind  scheut  das  Feuer  (Ger.),  A  burnt 
child  dreads  the  fire. 

elite,  A  select  body  of  persons. 

embonpoint,  Roundness;  good  condition. 

en  ami.  As  a  friend. 

en  arrilre.  In  the  rear;  behind. 

en  attendant.  In  the  meantime. 

en  avant.  Forward. 

en  hadinant.  In  sport;  jestingly. 

en  cueros,  en  cueros  vivos  (Sp.),  Naked;  without  clothing. 

Ende  gut,  Alles  gut  (Ger.),  All's  well  that  ends  well. 

en  deshabille,  In  undress;    in  one's  true  colors. 

en  Dieu  est  ma  fiance.  My  trust  is  in  God. 

en  Dieu  est  tout,  In  God  are  all  things. 

en  effet,  Substantially;  really;  in  effect. 

en  famille.  With  one's  family;  at  home. 

enfant  gate,  A  spoilt  child. 

enfants  perdu  (lit.,  lost  children),  A  forlorn  hope. 

erifant  trouve,  A  foundling. 

enfin.  In  short;  finally;  at  last. 

en  flute.  Carrying  guns  on  the  upper  deck  only. 

en  grande  tenue.  In  full  official,  or  evening,  dress. 

en  masse.  In  a  body  or  mass. 

ennui.  Weariness. 

en  passant.  In  passing;  by  the  way. 

enplein  jour,  In  open  day. 

en'gueue.  Immediately  after;  in  the  rear.  Used  speci- 
ally of  persons  waiting  in  line,  as  at  the  door  of  a 
theater,  at  the  ticket-office  of  a  railway  station,  etc. 

en  rapport,  In  harmony,  relation,  or  agreement. 

en  regie.  Regular,  regularly;  in  order. 

en  revanche.  In  return;  as  a  compensation  for. 

en  route.  On  the  way. 

ensemble,  The  whole 

en  suite.  In  company;  in  a  set. 

en  tasse,  In  a  cup. 

entente  cordiale,  A  good  understanding,  especially  be- 
tween two  states. 

entourage,  Surroundings. 

entre  deux  feux.  Between  two  fires. 

entre  deux  vins  (lit.,  between  two  wines),  Half-drunk. 

entree,  Entry;  first  course. 

entremets.  Small  and  dainty  dishes  set  between  the 
principal  ones  at  table. 

entre  nous.  Between  ourselves;   in  confidence. 

en  verite.  In  truth;  really. 

Es  fehlt  mir  Nichts  (Ger.),  Nothing  is  the  matter  with 
me. 

Es  freut  mich  sehr  (Ger.),  I  am  very  glad. 

Es  ist  nicht  Alles  Gold,  was  gliinzt  (Ger.),  All  is  not  gold 
that  glitters. 

esprit  de  corps,  The  animating  spirit  of  a  collective  body 
of  persons,  e.  g.,  of  a  regiment,  the  bar,  the  clergy,  etc. 

esprit  des  lois.  Spirit  of  the  laws. 

esprit  fort,  A  daring  investigiitor;  a  free-thinker. 

Es  thut  mir  sehr  leid  (Ger.).  I  am  very  sorry. 

Ewigkeit  (Ger.),  Eternity. 

faqon  de  parler,  Manner  of  speaking;    phrase;  locution. 

faire  bonne  mine.  To  put  a  good  face  on  the  niatter. 

faire  I'homme  d'importance.    To  give  oneself  airs. 

faire  sans  dire.  To  act  without  ostentation  or  boasting. 

faire  son  devoir.  To  do  one's  duty. 

fait  accompli.  An  accomplished  fact. 

faux  pas,  A  false  step;   an  act  of  indiscretion. 

femme  couverte,  A  married  woman. 

femme  de  chambre,  A  chambermaid. 

femme  de  charge,  A  housekeeper. 

femme  galante,  A  gay  woman ;  a  prostitute. 

femme  sole,  An  unmarried  woman. 

fendre  un  cheveu  en  quatre.  To  split  a  hair  in  four;  to 
make  subtle  distinctions. 

fHe,  A  feast,  festival;  holiday. 

fete',  champetre,  A  rural  out-of-door  feast;  a  festival  in 
the  fields. 

feu  de  joie,  A  bonfire,  or  discharge  of  firearms  as  a  sign 
of  rejoicing. 

fille  de  chambre,  A  chambermaid . 

fille  de  joie,  A  gay  woman;  a  prostitute. 

fille  d'honneur,  A  maid  of  honor. 

fin  de  siccle.  The  end  of  the  century. 

fleur-de-lis.  The  flower  of  the  lily. 

flux  de  bouche.  Inordinate  flow  of  talk;   garrulity. 

fra  Modesto  non  fu  mai  priore  (It.),  Friar  Modest  never 
became  prior. 

frisch  begonnen,  hdlb  gewonnen  (Ger.),  Well  begun  is 
half  done. 

froides  mains,  chaude  amour.  Cold  hands,  warm  heart. 

front  h  front.  Face  to  face. 

fuyez  les  dangers  de  loisir.   Fly   from    the    dangers    of 

.  leisure. 


LANGUAGE 


265 


gaiete  de  coeur,  Gaiety  of  heart. 

garage,    A  place  where  automobiles  are  stored  and  kept 

in  order. 
gargon,  A  lad,  a  waiter. 
garde  a  cheval,  A  mounted  guard. 
garde  du  corps,  A  body  guard. 
garde  mobile,  A  body  of  troops  liable   to    be  called   out 

for  general  service. 
garde  royale,  Royal  guard. 
gardez.  Take  care;  be  on  your  guard. 
gardez-hien.  Take  good  care;  be  very  careful. 
gardez  lafoi,  Keep  the  faith. 
Gehen  sie  Ihres  Weges  (Ger.),  Go  your  way. 
gens  d'armes,  Men-at-arms ;  military  police. 
gens  de  condition.  People  of  rank. 
gens  d'eglise.  The  clergy ;  clerics. 
gens  de  guerre.  Military  men. 
gens  de  lettres.  Literary  men. 
gens  de  lois,  Lawyers. 
gens  de  meme  famille,    People  of  the  same  family ;   birds 

of  a  feather. 
gens  de  peu,  The  lower  classes. 
gentilhomme,  A  gentleman. 
gibier  de  potence,      A   gallows-bird;     one   who   deserves 

hanging. 
giovine  santo,  diavolo  vecchio  (It.),     A  young  saint,  an 

old  devil. 
gitano  (Sp.),  A  gipsy. 
Gleich  und  gleich  gesellt  sich  gem  (Ger.),   Birds  of  a  feather 

flock  together. 
gli  assenti  hanno  torto  (It.),   The  absent  are  in  the  wrong. 
goutte  b,  goutte.  Drop  by  drop. 
gouvernante,  A  governess;    hou.sekeeper. 
grace  h  Dieu,  Thanks  be  to  God. 
grande  chere  ei  beau  feu.      Good    fare    and    a    good    fire; 

comfortable  quarters. 
grande  parure,  grande  toilette.  Full  dress. 
grand  merci.  Many  thanks. 

grosse  tete  et  peu  de  sens,    A  big  bead  and  little  sense. 
guerra  a  cuchillo  (Sp.),  War  to  the  knife- 
guerra,  cominciata,  inferno    scatenato  (It.),   War  begun, 

hell  unchained. 
guerre  a  niort.  War  to  the  death. 
guerre  a  outrance,  War  to  the  uttermost. 
Haben  Sie  Geld  bei  sichf  (Ger.),    Have  you  any  money 

about  you? 
haul  et  bon.  Great  and  good. 
haul  goat.  High  flavor;  elegant  taste. 
haut  ton.  Highest  fashion. 

homme  d'affaires,  A  man  of  business;    an  agent. 
homme  de  bien,  A  good  man;  an  upright  man. 
homme  de  fortune,  A  fortunate  man. 
homme  de  robe,  A  person  in  a  civil  office. 
homme  d' esprit,  A  wit ;  a  genius. 
homme  d'etat,  A  statesman. 
honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense.    Shame  be  to  him  who  thinks 

evil  of  it.     (The  motto  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.) 
hors  de.  combat.  Disabled;  unfit  to  continue  a  contest. 
hors  de  la  lot.  Outlawed. 

hors  de  propos.  Wide  of  the  point;  inapplicable. 
hors  de  saison.  Out  of  season;  unseasonable. 
hors  d'oeuvre,    Out  of  course;    out  of  accustomed  place. 

(Used  substantively  of  small  appetizing  dishes  served 

usually  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal.) 
hotel  de  ville,  A  town-hall. 
hotel  Dieu,  A  hospital. 
hotel  garni.  Furnished  lodgings. 
hurtar  para  dar  por  Dios  (Sp.),    To  steal  in  order  to  give 

to  God. 
Ich  dien  (Ger.),  I  serve. 

idee  fixe,  A  fixed  idea;  intellectual  monomania. 
ignorance  crasse.  Gross  ignorance. 
i  gran  dolori  sono  multi  (It.),  Great  griefs  are  silent. 
t7  a  le  diable  au  corps,  The  devil  is  in  him. 
il  faut  de  V argent.  Money  is  wanting. 
il  n'a  ni  bouche  ni  eperon.     He  has  neither  mouth  nor 

spur;  he  has  neither  wit  nor  courage. 
il  ne  faut  jamais  defier  un  fou.   One  should  never  provoke 

a  fool. 
t7  n'est  sauce  que  d'appetit,  Hunger  is  the  best  sauce. 
il  penseroso  (It.),    The  pensive  man.     (The  title  of  one 

of  Milton's  poems.) 
t7  sent  le  fagot.    He  smells  of  the  faggot ;    he  is  suspected 

of  heresy. 
impoli,  Unpolished;   rude. 
in  bianco  (It.),  In  blank;  in  white. 
in  un  giorno  non  si  fe  'Roma  (It.),    Rome  was  not  built 

in  a  day. 
ir  por  lana,  y  volver  trasquilado  (Sp.),     To  go  for  wool, 

and  come  back  shorn. 
jamais  bon  coureur  ne  fut  pris,    A  good  runner  is  not  to 

be  taken;    old  birds  are  not  to  be  caught  with  chaff. 
je  maintiendrai  le  droit,  I  will  maintain  the  right. 


je  ne  sais  quoi,    1  know  not  what.     (Used  adjectively  of 

something  indefinable,  or  very  difficult  to  define.) 
je  n'oublierai  jamais,  I  will  never  forget. 
je  suis  pret,  I  am  ready. 
jet  d'eau,  A  fountain;  a  jet  of  water. 
jeu  de  mots,  A  play  upon  words;  a  pun. 
jeu  d'esprit,  A  witticism. 
jeu  de  theatre,  A  stage  trick;  clap-trap. 
je  vis  en  espoir,  I  live  in  hope. 

kein  Kreuzer,  kein  Schweizer  (Ger.),  No  money,  no  Swiss. 
la  critique  est  aisee,  I'art   est  difficile.  Criticism    is    easy 

enough,  but  art  is  difficult. 
Lade  nicht  Alles  in  ein  Schiff  (Ger.),    Do  not  ship  all  in 

one  vessel:    do  not  put  all  your  eggs  into  one  basket. 
I'adversite  fait   les  hommes,  et  le  I'bonheur  les  monsires. 

Adversity  makes  men,  and  prosperity  monsters. 
la  fortuna  aiuta  i  pazzi  (It.),  Fortune  helps  fools. 
la  Fortune  passe  partout.     Fortune  passes  everywhere; 

all  men  are  subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of  Fortune. 
laissez  faire.  To  let  alone. 

laissez  nous  faire.    Let  us  act  for  ourselves ;   let  us  alone. 
V allegro  (It.),     The  merry  man.     (The  title  of  one  of 

Milton's  poems.) 
V  amour  et  lafumee  ne  peuvent  se  cacher.    Love  and  smoke 

cannot  be  hidden. 
langage  des  halles,    The   language  of  the  markets;    Bil- 
lingsgate. 
la  patience  est  amere,  mais  son  fruit  est  doux.    Patience  is 

bitter,  but  its  reward  is  sweet. 
la  poverta  k  la  madre  di  tutte  le  arti  (It.),    Poverty  is  the 

mother  of  all  the  arts. 
V argent.  Silver;  money. 
lasciate    ogni   speranza   voi,    che'ntrate    (It.),     All     hope 

abandon  ye,  who  enter  here. 
Lassen  Sie  mich  gehen  (Ger.),  Let  me  alone. 
I'avenir,  The  future. 

la  vertu  est  la  seule  noblesse.    Virtue  is  the  sole  nobility. 
le  beau  monde.  The  world  of  fashion;  society. 
le  bon  temps  viendra.  There's  a  good  time  coming. 
le  coiU  en  ote  le  gout.  The  expense  takes  away  the  pleas- 
ure. 
le  demi-monde.  Women  of  equivocal  reputation  bordering 

between  courtesanship  and  respectability. 
le  grand  monarque.    The  grand  monarch.     (A  title  ap- 
plied to  Louis  XIV.  1643-1715.) 
le  grand  oeuvre.     The  great  work;    the  search  for  the 

philosopher's  stone. 
le  jeu  n'en  vaut  pas  la  chandelle.    The  game  is  not  worth 

the  candle  (by  the  light  of -which  it  is  played);    the 

object  is  not  worth  the  trouble. 
le  monde  est  le  livre  des  femmes.    The  world  is  woman's 

book. 
le  mot  d'enigme.  The  solution  of  the  mystery. 
I'empire  des  lettres.  The  empire  of  letters. 
le  parole  son  feminine,  e  i  fatti  son  maschi  (It.),    Words 

are  feminine,  and  deeds  are  masculine. 
le  pas.  Precedence. 
le  point  de  jour.  Daybreak. 
le  roi  et  I'etat,  'The  king  and  the  state. 
le  roi  le  veut.  The  king  wills  it. 

les  absents''ont  toujours  tort.  The  absent  are  always  wrong. 
Use  majcste,  High  treason. 
les  extremes  se  touchent.  Extremes  meet. 
les  murailles  ont  des  oreilles.  Walls  have  ears. 
les  plus  sages  ne  le  sont  pas  toujours.    The  wisest  are  not 

always  wise. 
I'etoile  du  nord.  The  star  of  the  north. 
le  tout  ensemble.  The  whole  taken  together. 
lettre  de  cachet,      A  sealed   letter  containing  orders;     a 

royal  warrant,  usually  authorizing  the  imprisonment, 

without  trial,  of  a  person  named  therein. 
lettre  de  change.  Bill  of  exchange. 
lettre  de  creance.  Letter  of  credit. 
le  vrai  n'est  pas  toujours  vraisemblable.  Truth  is  not  always 

probable;    truth  is  stranger  than  fiction. 
I'homme  propose,  et  Dieu  dispose,    Man  proposes  and  God 

disposes. 
I'inconnu,  The  unknown. 
I'incroyable,  The  incredible;  the  marvelous.     (The  word 

incroyable  was  applied  substantively  to  the  fops  of 

the  Directory  period  in  the  great  French  Revolution.) 
lingerie.   Linen  goods;     also,    collectively,  all  the  linen, 

cotton,  and  lace  articles  of  a  woman's  wardrobe. 
litterateur,  A  literary  man. 
lo  barato  es  caro  (Sp.),  A  bargain  is  dear. 
I'occhio  del  padrone  ingrassa  il  cavallo  (It.),   The  master's 

eye  fattens  the  horse. 
loyaute  m'oblige.  Loyalty  binds  me. 
ma  chcre.  My  dear  (fem.). 
mademoiselle,  A  young  unmarried  lady. 
maestro  di  color  che  sanno  (It.),     Master  of  those  that 

know.     (Applied  by  Dante  to  Aristotle.) 
mafoi.  Upon  my  faith;  upon  my  word. 


266 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


maintien  le  droit,  Maintain  the  right. 

maison  de  campagne,  A  country  house. 

Tnaison  de  sante,  A  private  asylum  or  hospital. 

maison  de  ville,  A  town  hall. 

maitre  des  basses  ceuvres,  A  nightman. 

maitre  des  hautes  ceuvres.     An  executioner;    a  hangman. 

maitre  d' hotel,  A  house  steward. 

maladie  du  pays,  Home-sickness. 

mal  d  propos.  Out  of  place;  ill  suited. 

mal  de  dents,  Toothacne. 

mal  de  mer,  Sea-sickness. 

mal  de  tete.  Headache. 

mal  entendre,  A  misunderstanding;  a  mistake. 

malgre  nous,  In  spite  of  us. 

malheur  ne  vient  jamais  seul.  Misfortunes  never  come 
singly. 

mardi  gras.  Shrove  Tuesday. 

mariage  de  conscience,  A  private  marriage. 

mariage  de  convenance,  A  marriage  of  convenience;  or 
from  interested  motives. 

matinee,  A  reception,  or  a  musical  or  dramatic  enter- 
tainment, held  in  the  daytime. 

mauvaise  honte.  False  modesty. 

mauvais  goM,  False  taste. 

mauvais  sujet,  A  worthless  fellow. 

mayonnaise,  A  kind  of  salad  dressing  made  with  oil. 

medecin,  gueris-toi  toi-meme,  Physician,  heal  thyself. 

menu.  Bill  of  fare. 

Mir  ist  Alles  einerlei  (Ger.),    It's  all  the  same  to  me. 

mise-en-scene.  The  staging  of  a  play. 

mon  ami,  My  friend. 

Tnon  cher.  My  dear  (fellow). 

monsieur.  Sir;   master;   gentleman. 

mot  du  guet,  A  watchword. 

mots  d'usage.  Words  in  common  use. 

muraglia  bianca,  carta  di  matto  (.It.),  A  white  wall  is  the 
fool's  paper. 

naive.  Having  unaffected  simplicity. 

naivete.  Native  simplicity. 

nee.  Born. 

neglige,  A  morning  dress. 

Neue  Besen  kehren  gut  (Ger.),  A  new  broom  sweeps 
clean. 

ni  I'un  ni  Vautre,  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 

n'importe.  It  is  of  no  consequence. 

noblesse  oblige.  Nobility  imposes  obligations;  much  is  ex- 
pected from  persons  of  good  position. 

nom  de  guerre,  A  war-name;  an  assumed  name;  a  pseu- 
donym. 

nom  de  plume.  An  assumed  title. 

non  mi  ricordo  (It.),  I  do  not  remember. 

non  obstant  clameur  de  haro.    Despite  the  hue  and  cry. 

non  ogni  fiore  fa  buon  odore  (It.),  It  is  not  every  flower 
that  smells  sweet. 

non  vender  la  pelle  dell'  orse  prima  di  pigliarlo  (It.), 
Don't  sell  the  bearskin  before  you  have  caught  the 
bear. 

Noth  kennt  kein  Gebot  (Ger.),    Necessity  knows  no  law. 

notre  dame.  Our  Lady,  the  Virgin  Mary. 

n'oubliez  pas.  Don't  forget. 

nous  avons  change  tout  cela,    We  have  changed  all  that. 

nous  verrons.  We  shall  see. 

nouvelles.  News. 

nouvellette,  A  short  tale  or  novel.     , 

nul  bien  sans  peine.  No  pains,  no  gains. 

nulla  nuova,  buona  nuova  (It.),     No  news  is  good  news. 

ogni  bottega  ha  la  sua  malizia  (It.),  Every  shop  has  its 
trick;    there  are  tricks  in  all  trades. 

olla  poarida  (It.),  A  heterogeneous  mixture. 

on  connait  I'ami  au  besoin,  A  friend  is  known  in  time  of 
need. 

on  dit.  They  say. 

oro  k  che  oro  vale  (It.),  That  is  gold  which  is  worth  gold; 
all  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

oublier  je  ne  puis,  I  can  never  forget. 

oui-dire.  Hearsay. 

ouvrage  de  longue  haleine,     A  long-winded  business. 

ouvrier,  A  workman ;   an  artisan. 

par  ci,  par  la.  Here  and  there. 

par  excellenoe,  Preeminently. 

par  exemple.  For  instance. 

parole  d'honneur,  Word  of  honor. 

partout.  Everywhere. 

parvenu.  An  upstart. 

pas  a  pas,  Step  by  step. 

passe,  Worn  out. 

pate  de  foie  gras,  A  pie  made  (in  Strassburg)  from  the 
livers  of  geese. 

peine  forte  et  dure.  Very  severe  punishment;  a  kind  of 
judicial  torture 

penchant,  Inclination;  liking. 

pensee,  A  thought  expressed  in  terse  vigorous  language. 

per  (It.),  For;  through;  by. 


per  contante  (It.),  For  cash. 

per  contra  (It.),  On  the  contrary. 

pcre  de  famille.  The  father  of  the  family. 

perdu.  Lost. 

per  mese  (It.),  By  the  month. 

per  pill  strade  si  va  a  Roma  (It.),    There  are  many  roads 

to  Rome. 
petit,  Small. 

petit  coup,  A  small  mask;  a  domino. 
petit  maitre,  A  little  master;  a  fop. 
peu-a-peu.  Little  by  little;   by  degrees. 
pied  h  terre,  A  resting-place;   a  temporary  lodging. 
pigliar  due  colombi  a  unafava  (It  ),  To  catch  two  pigeons 

with  one  bean;    to  kill  two  birds  with  one  stone. 
pis  alter.  The  worst  or  last  shift. 
poco  a  poco  (It.),  Little  lay  little;  by  degrees. 
point  d'appui.  Prop;  point  of  support. 
pommes  de  terre,  Potatoes  (apples  cf  the  earth). 
pot-pourri,  A  medley. 

pour  acquit.    Paid;   settled.     (The  usual  form  of  receipt.) 
pour  faire  rire.  To  excite  laughter. 
pour  faire  visite.  To  pay  a  visit. 
pour  passer  le  temps,  To  while  away  the  time. 
pour  prendre  congs.  To  take  leave.     (Usually  abbreviated  ' 

to  P.  P.  C.) 
prendre  la  lune  avecles  dents.   To  seize  the  moon  in  one's 

teeth;  to  aim  at  impossibilities. 
presto  maturo,  presto  marcio  (It.),    Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten. 
pret  d'accomplir.  Ready  to  accomplish. 
pret  pour  mon  pays.  Ready  for  my  country. 
preux  chevalier,  A  brave  knight.  ' 

prima  donna.  Leading  lady  singer  in  an  opera. 
protege.  One  protected  by  another. 
puree,  A  thick  soup. 
puree  aux  croutons,     A  thick  soup  with  small  cubes  of 

toasted  bread. 
quelque  chose.  Something;  a  trifle. 
qui  a  bu  boira,   The  tippler  will  go  on  tippling;    it  is  hard 

to  break  off  bad  habits. 
quien  poco  sabe,  presto  lo  reza   (Sp.),    He    who    knows 

little  soon  tells  it. 
quien  sabeT  (Sp.),  Who  knows? 
qu'il  soil  comme  il  est  desire.  Let  it  be  as  desired. 
qui  m'aime  aime  mon  chien.    Love  me,  love  my  dog. 
qui  n'a  sante,  n'a  rien.     He  who  has  not  health,  has 

nothing. 
qui  va  la  f  Who  goes  there  ? 
qui  vivef  Who  goes  there? 
raison  d'ftat,  A  state  reason. 
raison  d'etre.  The  reason  for  a  thing's  existence. 
regime.  Mode  or  style  of  rule  or  management. 
rendezvous,  A  place  of  meeting. 

respondez  s'il  vous  plait  (r.  s.  v.  p.),    Reply  if  you  please. 
respondre  en  Normand,   To  answer  in  Norman;    to  speak 

evasively. 
resume,  A  summing  up. 
rete  nuova  non  piglia  uccello  vecchio  (It.),     A  new  net 

won't  catch  an  old  bird. 
revenons  a  nos  moutons.    Let  us  return  to  our  sheep ;    let 

us  come  back  to  our  subject. 
rien  n'est,  beau  que  le  vrai,     There,  is  nothing  beautiful 

but  truth. 
rira  bien  qui  rira  le  dernier.    He  laughs  well  who  laughs 

last. 
rire  entre  cuir  et  chair,  rire  sous  cape.    To  laugh  in  one's 

sleeve. 
robe  de  chambre,    A  dressing-gown;   a  morning-gown. 
robe  de  nuit,  A  night-dress. 
role,  A  part  in  a  performance. 
rouge.  Red  coloring  for  the  skin. 
ruse  de  guerre,  A  military  stratagem. 
sanan  cuchilladas,  mas  no  malas  palabras  (Sp.),    Wounds 

from  a  knife  will  heal,  but  not  those  from  the  tongue, 
sons  ceremonie.  Without  ceremony. 
sans  peur  et  sans  reproche.    Fearless  and  stainless. 
sans  rime  et  sans  raison.    Without  rhyme  or  reason. 
sans  souci,  Free  from  care. 
sauve  qui  peut.  Save  yourselves. 
savant,  A  man  of  science. 
savoir  faire.  Tact. 
savoir  vivre.  Good  breeding. 

sdegno  d'amante  poco  dura  (It.),  A  lover's  anger  is  short- 
lived. 
seance,  A  sitting. 
selon  les  regies.  According  to  rule. 
sempre  il  mal   non  vien  per  nuocere  (It.),  Misfortune   is 

not  always  an  evil. 
se  non  t  vero,  h  ben  trovato  (It.),  If  it   is   not  true,  it  is 

cleverly  invented.   . 
Sie  sehen  gut  aus  (Ger.),  You  look  well. 
soiree.  An  evening  party. 

souffler  le  chaud  et  le  froid.    To  blow  hot  and  cold. 
so  viel  ich  weiss  (Ger.),  As  far  as  I  know. 


LANGUAGE 


267 


Sturm  und  Drang  (Ger.),  Storm  and  stress. 

table  d'hote,  Table  of  the  host. 

tdche  sans  tache,  A  work  without  a  stain. 

tanl  mieux.  So  much  the  better. 

tant  pis,  So  much  the  worse. 

tel  maUre,  tel  valet,  Like  master,  like  man. 

tete-a-tete,  A  conversation  between  two  parties. 

tiens  h  la  verite.  Maintain  the  truth. 

liens  tafoi.  Keep  thy  faith. 

toujours  perdrix.  Always  partridges;     the    same    thing 

over  and  over  again. 
toujours  pret,  Always  ready. 
tour  deforce,  A  feat  of  strength  or  skill. 
tourner  casaque.    To  turn  one's  coat;    to  change  sides. 
tout-h-fait.  Wholly;  entirely. 
tout-a-l'heure.  Instantly. 
tout  au  contraire.  On  the  contrary. 
tout-h-vous.  Entirely  yours. 
tout  tfien  ou  rien.  All  or  nothing. 
tout-de-suite.  Immediately. 
tout  ensemble.  The  whole. 
tout  le  monde  est  sage  apr'es  coup.      Everybody  is   wise 

after  the  event. 
traduttori,  traditori  (It.),  Translators  are  traitors. 
trousseau.  Wedding  outfit. 
tutte  le  strade  conducono  a  Roma  (It.),    All  roads  lead  to 

Rome. 
Uebung  macht  den  Meister  (Ger.),  Practice  makes  perfect. 


un  bienfait  n'est  jamais  perdu,    A  kindness  is  naver  lost. 

un  sot  a  triple  etage,  A  consummate  fool. 

un  "  tiens"  vaut  mieux  que  deux  "  tu  I'aurns,"   One  "  take 

it"  is  worth  two  "you  shall  have  it";    A  bird  in  the 

hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 
valet  de  chambre,  An  attendant. 

vedi  Napoli  e  poi  mori  (It.),    See  Naples   and  then  die. 
verite  sans  peur.  Truth  without  fear. 
Viele  Hiind'machen  bald  ein  End'  (Ger.),     Many  hands 

make  quick  work. 
vi  et  armis.  By  force  of  arms;  by  violence. 
vigueur  de  dessus.  Strength  from  on  high. 
vino  dentro,  senno  furore  (It.),    When  the  wine  is  in,  the 

wit  is  out. 
vis  a  vis.  Face  to  face. 
vive  la  bagatelle.  Success  to  trifles. 
vive  le  roi,  Long  live  the  king. 
voila.  See  there;  there  is;   there  are. 
voila  tout.  That's  all. 

voila  une  autre  chose.    That's  quite  another  thing. 
voir  le  dessous  des  cartes.    To  see  the  face  of  the  cards; 

to  be  in  the  secret. 
vous  y  perdrez  vos  pas.  You  will   have   your  walk    for 

nothing;   you  will  lose  your  labor  over  it. 
Was  fe hit  Ihnenf  (Ger.),   What  is  the  matter  with  you? 
Wie  die  Arbeit,  so  der  Lohn  (Ger.),  As  the  labor,  so  the 

reward. 
Zeitgeist  (Ger.),  The  spirit  of  the  age. 


WORDS  OFTEN  MISPRONOUNCED 

It   is  in  the  delicate  but    firm    utterance  of   the  unaccented  vowels  with  correct   sound  that   the  cultured 
person  is  most  surely  distinguished  from  the  uncultured. —  Richard  Grant  White. 

KEY  TO  THE  VOWEL  SOUNDS 
d,  as  in  farm,  father;  d,  as  in  ask,  fast;  &,  as  in  at,  fat;  a,  as  in  day,  fate;  d,  as  in  care,  fare; 
?,  as  in  met,  set;  e,  as  in  me,  see;  S,  as  in  her,  ermine;  I,  as  in  pin,  sin;  i,  as  in  pine,  line;  5,  as  in 
not,  got;  Oj  as  in  note,  old;  6,  as  in  for,  fought;  6,  as  in  sole,  only;  d,  as  in  fog,  orange;  o,  sound 
cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  English.  The  English  sound  of  u  in  hum  and  burnt  is  perhaps 
the  nearest  equivalent  to  o;  do,  as  in  cook,  look;  6d,  as  in  coon,  moon;  u,  as  in  cup,  duck;  u,  as 
in  use,  amuse;  •&,  as  in  fur,  urge;  ii  sound  cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  English.  The  English 
sound  of  u  in  luke  and  duke  resembles  the  original  sound. 


abdomen,  Sh-dd'-men,  not  Sh'-do-rrien. 

Abercromby,  db'-Sr-krum-bl. 

abstemious,  db-ste'-mt-Us,  not  &b-stem'-l-us. 

abstractly,  &b'-str&kt-li. 

acclimate,  &k-kli'-mat,  not  Hk'-kllm-at. 

accompaniment,    dk-kiim'-pdn-lm-int,    not    d,k- 

kump'-ntm-ent. 
accouchement,  dk-kdosh-maN' . 
accouter,  Sk-kob'-Kr,  not  &k-kow'-tSr. 
accrue,  &k-kru',  not  &k-kr6o'. 
acetylene,  a-set'-il-en;  &s'-et-U-cn. 
Achsean,  d-ke'-dn. 
acoustic,  d-kow'-stik  or  d-koo'-stlk. 
across,  d-kros',  not  d-krdst'. 
acts,  dkts,  not  &ks. 
address  (n.),  dd-dres'. 
address  (vb.),  dd-dres'. 
adjectively,  dd'-jek-dv-U. 
adjourn,  dd-jUrn'. 
admirative,  dd-mi'-rd-tiv. 
Adonis,  d-do'-nis,  not  a-ddn'-Xs. 
adult,  d-duW,  not  dd'-illt. 
adventure,  dd-vent'-yur. 
adverse,  dd'-vSrs. 
aerometer,  d-lr-6m.'-e-ter. 
iEschylus,  es'-kil-Us,  not  cs'-ku-lUs. 
Africanus,  df-rik-a'-niis. 
again,  d-gen',  not  d-gan'. 
against,  d-genst',  not  d-gdnst'. 
agile,  df-il,  not  Sf-il. 
Agincourt,  dzh-d^-kobr' . 
Agricola,  d-grik'-o-ld. 
Aida,  d-^-dd. 

ailment,  dl'-ment,  not  al'-mUnt. 
aisle,  ll. 


h  I'Anglaise,  d  IdN-gldz'. 

alas,  d-lds',  not  d-lds'. 

albino,  dl-bl'-no. 

Alcott,  Sl'-kut,  not  dl'-kut. 

algebra,  dl'-je-brd,  not  dl'-je-brd. 

algebraist,  dl'-je-hrd-ist. 

Algernon,  dl'-fir-nun. 

Algonquin,  dl-gdn'-kwin. 

alien,  dl'-yen,  not  d'-U-hfi. 

allopathist,  dl-ldp'-dthAst,  not  dl'-ld-pdth-ist. 

allusion,  dl-lu'-zhun,  not  dl-lod'-zhiin. 

alma  mater,  dl'-md  ma'-Kr,  not  dl'-md  md'-tSr. 

almond,  d'-mund. 

alpaca,  dl-pdk'-d,  not  dl-d-pdk'-d. 

alterative,  dl'-tSr-d-tiv. 

alternately,  dl-tSr'-ndt-ti,  not  dl'-tSr-nat-ll. 

ameliorate,  d-mcl'-yo-rdt,  not  d-me'-li-o-rdt. 

amenable,  d-me'-nd-bl,  not  d-men'-d-bl. 

ament,  dm'-ent. 

ammonia,  dm-mo'-ni-d,  not  dm-mo'-nyd. 

Ampere,  dN-pdr'. 

anaemic,  d-nem'-ik,  not  d-ne'-mtk. 

anarchist,  dn'-dr-Mst. 

anchor,  dng'-kSr. 

Andromache,  dn-drom'-d-ke. 

Angelus,  dn'-je-lus. 

animalcule,  dn-lm-dl'-kul,  not  dn-im^dV-ku-le. 

antarctic,  dnt-drk'-tik,  not  dnt-dr'-tik. 

Antilles,  dn-til'-ez  or  dN-tel'. 

Antiochus,  dn-tl'-o-kus,  not  dn-ti-ok'-us. 

Antipater,  dn-tip'-d-ter. 

anxiety,  dng-zl'-e-ti,  not  dngk-si'-e-tl. 

anxious,  dngk'-shiis,  not  dng'-shus. 

Apache,  d-pd'-chd. 

aperient,  d-pe'-ri-ent. 


268 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


aperture,  dp'-Sr-tur. 

apostle,  a-pds'-l,  not  d-p8s'-l,  nor  d-p6s'-tl. 

apotheosize,  Hp-o-the'-o-slz. 

apparatus,  dp-pd-ra'-tiis,  not  Sp-pd-ra'-tUs. 

appellate,  &p-pcl'-lat. 

appendicitis,  hp-pen-dls-i'-tis. 

appetitive,  dp'-pe-ti-tiv. 

appreciation,  dp-pre-shl-d'-shun. 

apricot,  a'-prX-kdt,  not  6p'-ri-k6t. 

apropos,  dp'-ro-po,  not  &p-rd-pd'. 

aqua,  a'-kwd. 

aquarium,  d-kwa'-ft-Um,  not  d-kwd'-rl-Um. 

aqueduct,  dk'-we-dukt,  not  &k'-we-duk. 

Arab,  &r'-&b. 

archangel,  drk-an'-jel,  not  arch-an'-jU. 

archbishop,  drch-blsh'-dp,  not  drch'-b1sh-6p. 

archduke,  arch-duk',  not  drch'-duk. 

archfiend,  drch'-fend,  not  drch-fend' . 

archipelago,  dr-kt-pel'-d-go,  not  dr-chi-pW-d-go. 

architect,  dr'-kl-tekt,  not  dr'-chX-tekt. 

arctic,  drk'-tik,  not  dr'-flk. 

Argive,  dr'-jlv,  not  dr'-giv. 

arid,  dr'-td,  not  a'-rld. 

Aristotle,  dr'-ls-tM-l,  not  &r-Xs-tdt'-l. 

Armida,  dr-me'~dd. 

ascetic,  ds-set'-lk. 

ask,  dsk,  not  &sk. 

askance,  ds-kdns',  not  &s-kdns\ 

asphalt,  ds-fdW,  not  ds'-fdlt. 

astrakhan,  ds-trd-k&n' ,  not  ds'-trd-k&n. 

atheneum,  dth-c-ne'-iim,  not  d-the'-ne-Um. 

attache,  dt-td-shd'. 

attacked,  dt-tdkl',  not  d,t-t&k'-iM. 

attorney,  dt-tur'-nl. 

aunt,  ant,  not  cinf,  nor  dnt. 

aurora  borealis,  6-rd'-rd  bo-re-d'-Us. 

automobile,  d-to-mo'-bil;    Fr.  pron.,  o-to-mo-bel' . 

automobilist,  o-to-mo'-bU-ist. 

avoirdupois,  dv-Sr-du-poiz' ,  not  dv-Sr-du-poi' . 

Avon,  d'-v6n,  not  &v'-6n. 

"  Stratford-on-A  ron." 
awakening,  d-wak'-hi-'ing. 
Baal,  bd'-dl. 
bacillus,  bd-siV-iis. 
backslide,  b&k-slld' ,  not  bdk'-slld. 
backslider,  b&k-sll'-dSr,  not  bdk'-sll-dSr. 
bade,  bdd,  not  fcad. 
Baden,  bd'-din. 

banana,  bd-nd'-nd,  not  b&n-dn'-d. 
Bancroft,  b&n'-krdft,  not  b&ng'-krdft. 
bandoline,  bdn'-do-lin,  not  bdn-do-len'. 
Bangkok,  bdng-kdk'. 
banquet,  bdng'-kwU,  not  bdn'-kwet. 
Bantam  (Java),  bdn-tdm'. 
baptism,  bdp'-tXzm,  not  bdp'-tlz-Um. 
bargain,  bdr'-gen,  not  bdr'-gun. 
Barnegat,  bdr-ne-gdt'. 
barrel,  bdr'-rel,  not  bdr'-rul. 
basin,  ba'-sn,  not  bd'-sXn. 
basket,  bds'-kB,  not  bds'-ket. 
bath,  6(i</i,  not  63</i. 
Baton  Rouge,  bdt'-un  robzh;    Fr.  pron.,  bd-ton' 

robzh: 
Bayard  (Thomas  F.),  bi'-drd,  not  ba'-drd. 
Beatrice,    be'-a-trls,    not    be-a'-trls,    nor    be-dV- 

rls. 
Beauchamp  (Fr.),  bo-shdi^'. 
Beauchamp  (Eng.),  be'-chdm. 

"The  Beauchamp  Tower." 
because,  be-k6z'. 


bedstead,  bed'-stM,  not  bM'-stXd. 
Beelzebub,  be-el'-ze-bUb,  not  bcl'-ze-bub. 
been,  bin. 

Beethoven  van,  van  ba'-to-ven. 
believe,  be-lev',  not  blev. 
belles-lettres,  bU-let'-tZr. 
bellows,  bel'-iis. 
Beloochistan,  bel-6d-chls-tdn' . 
beloved  (adj.),  be-luv'-ed. 
beloved  (part.),  be-lUvd'. 
Bengal,  ben-gol',  not  ben'-gdl. 
benignant,  be-nlg'-ndnt,  not  be-nl'-ndnt. 
Bethsaida,  beth-sd'-ld-d. 
betrothal,  be-trdth'-dl,  not  be-tro'-thdl. 
bicycle,  bi'-sik-l,  not  bl'-si-kl. 
biennial,  bi-en'-i-dl. 
Bigelow,  blg'-U-lo,  not  hig'-lo. 
bijou,  be-zhob'. 
billet-doux,  bW-d-dob. 
bindery,  bind'-Sr-i,  not  bind'-rl. 
Bingen,  bXng'-en,  not  bXng'-gln. 
"  fimgren-on-the-Rhine." 
biographer,  bi-dg'-rd-flr. 
biography,  bi-6g'-rd-fl. 
biology,  bi-5l'-d-fi,  not  bl-dV-o-fi. 
biparous,  blp'-d-rus. 
bismuth,  bXz'-muth,  not  bls'-mUth. 
bitumen,  bX-tu'-men,  not  bXt'-yu-nien. 
blackguard,  bldg'-gdrd,  not  bldk'-gdrd. 
blanch,  bldnch,  not  bldnch. 
blanc  mange,  bla  m6nj'. 
blas6,  bld-zd'. 

blasphemous,  blds'-fe-mus,  not  blds-fe'-mUs. 
blast,  bldst,  not  bldst. 
blessed  (adj.),  bUs'-ed. 
blessed  (part.),  bUst. 
Blois,  blwd. 

boisterous,  bois'-tSr-us,  not  bois'-trUs. 
bolero,  bo-la'-ro. 
Boleyn  (Anne),  bool'-Xn. 
bona-fide,  bo'-nd  fl'-de,  not  bo'-nd  fid. 
Bouheur  (Rosa),  bo-nor',  not  bdn'-ur. 
bon  marche,  boN  mdr-shd'. 
bonnet,  bdn'-et,  not  bun'-et. 
borrow,  bdr'-ro,  not  bdr'-ru. 
Boswell,  bdz'-wel. 

boudoir,  bob-dwor';   Fr.  pron.,  bob-dwdr'. 
Boulogne,  bob-Ion';  Fr.  pron.,  bod-l6n'-yu. 
bouquet,  boo-ka'  or  bob'-kd,  not  bo-kd'. 
Bourbon  (island  and  dynasty),  bodr'-biin. 
bovine,  bb'-vin,  not  bo'-ven. 
Bowdoin  (College),  bo'-dn. 
bow-legged,  bd'-Ugd,  not  bd'-leg-ed. 
Bremen,  brem'-en;  Ger.  pron.,  brd'-min. 
brigand,  brXg'-dnd,  not  brXg-dnd'. 
bristle,  brXs'-l,  not  brXst'-l. 
bronchitis,  brdn-kl'-tXs. 
Bronte  (Charlotte),  br6n'-te. 
Brookline,  brook'-lin. 
Brougham,  brdo'-dm  or  broom. 
Bryn-Mawr  (Wales),  brun-mowr'. 
Bryn-Mawr  (Penna.),  brXn-mar'. 
Bucephalus,  bu-sef'-id-lus. 
Buchanan,  buk-dn'-dn  or  bu-kdn'-dn. 
bufTet  (cupboard),  bobf-d'. 
bungalow,  bung'-gd-lo. 
bureaucracy,  bu-ro'-krd-sX. 
Burgundy,  biir'-gun-dX,  not  bilr-gun'-dX. 
burlesque,  bilr-Usk',  not  bUr'-Usk. 
Burmese,  bUr-mez'  or  bUr-mes'. 


LANGUAGE 


269 


business,  biz'-n^s,  not  hlz'-l-n^s. 

butcher,  hobch'-ir,  not  boo'-chSr. 

Cabot,  kSb'-U,  not  k&b-dt'. 

Caedmon,  ked'-mdn  or  kM'-mdn. 

Ca?sarea  Philippi,  ses-d-re'-d  fil-lp'-pl. 

cafe,  kd-fa'. 

Cains,  ka'-yus. 

Calais,  kd-la'. 

calf,  kaf,  more  properly  kdf. 

caliph,  kd'-Uf. 

calm,  kdm,  not  k&m. 

calve,  kdv,  not  kdf. 

calyx,  kd'-llks,  not  k&l'-lks. 

Camille,  kd-meV. 

campagna,  kdm-pdn'-yd. 

cancel,  k&n'-sel,  not  k&n'-sl. 

candelabra,  k&n-de-ld'-brd,  not  k&n-de-ld'-brd. 

canine,  kd-nin'. 

caflon,  k&n'-yun  or  kdn-yon'. 

cantalever,  k&n'-td-lev-er. 

Canton  (U.  S.),  k&n'-t6n. 

Canute,  kd-nut'. 

canyon,  kdn'-yun. 

capitulate,  kd-pW-yu-ldt,  not  kd-pich'-ob-ldt. 

caret,  kd'-rU  or  kar'-et. 

caricature,  k&r'-'ik-d-tur. 

Carnegie  (Andrew),  kdr-neg'-e. 

Carnot,  kdr-no'^ 

Carolinian,  k&r-o-Un'-T^&n,  not  kdr-o-ll'-nl-dn. 

carte-blanche,  kdrt-bldnsh' . 

Carthaginian,   kdr-thA-fin'-1-Q,n,   not  kdr-thd-je'- 

n1-&n. 
cartridge,  kar'-trij,  not  k&t'-flj. 
Casabianca,  kd-sd-be-dN'-kd. 
cashmere,  k&sh'-mer. 
casino,  kd-se'~no. 
Castanet,  kds'-td-net. 
catalogue,  h&t'-d-l6g,  not  k&t'-d-ldg. 
catalpa,  kd-tSl'-pd,  not  kd-tdl'-pd. 
catch,  k&ch. 

catchup,  k&ch'-up,  not  kcch'-up. 
catechism,  k&t'-e-kizm,  not  k&t'-e-klz-um. 
catsup,  k&t'-siip. 
Cavalleria  Rusticana,  kd-v&l-ld-re'-d  rdos-te-kd'- 

nd. 
caveat,  kd'-ve-&t,  not  kdv'-e-dt. 
Celebes  (islands),  seV-e-biz. 
celestial,  sel-es'-chSl. 
cello,  chel'-lo. 

cemetery,  sem'-e-t^r-t,  not  sem'-e-tri. 
centennial,  sen-ten' -ni-&l,  not  sen-ten' -ySl. 
century,  sen'-tu-ri. 
ceramic,  se-rdm'-lk,  not  ke-rdm'-tk. 
cerebrum,  ser'-e-bruvi,  not  se-re'-brum. 
Cesarean,  se-zd'-re-dn,  not  se-zdr-e'-dn. 
Chaldean,  k&l-de'-dn,  not  kdl'-de-dn. 
challis,  sMl'-ti. 
chamois,  sh&m'-i. 
champagne,  sh&m-pdn'. 
Chantilly,  shda-tel-ye'  or  shdN-te-ye'. 
chaos,  kd'-6s. 
chaperon,  sh&p'-^r-on. 
charge  d'affaires,  shdr-zhd'  d&j-jdr'. 
Charlemagne,  shdr-le-mdn' . 
Charon,  kd'-rdn,  not  chd'-r5n. 
Charybdis,  kd-rib'-dls. 
chasm,  kdzm,  not  kdz'-Um. 
chasten,  cha'-sn,  not  ch&s'-n,  nor  chds'-tn. 
chastise,  ch&s-tiz',  not  chds'-tlz. 
chastisement,  ch&s'-tiz-m^nt,  not  chds-flz'-rriint. 


Chaucer,  cho'-sSr,  not  chow'-str. 

chauffeur,  sho-jiir'. 

chef,  shef. 

Chelsea,  chel'-se,  not  chel'-sc-d. 

Cheltenham,  chelt'-num. 

chemise,  she-mez'. 

chemisette,  shem-c-zct'. 

chenille,  she-net'. 

cherubim,  cher'-u-btm,  not  cker'-iib-im. 

chestnut,  ches'-nut,  not  cMst'-nut. 

cheviot  (cloth),  chev'-e-ut. 

chicken,  chik'-en,  not  chik'-n. 

chiffon,  shtf-fdn'. 

chiffonier,  shlf-dn-er'. 

children  chil'-dren,  not  chU'-dern. 

Chiron,  kl'-rdn. 

chiropodist,  kl-rdp'-o-dlst. 

chisel,  chiz'-el,  not  chlz'-l. 

Chisolm,  cKlz'-Um. 

Chopin,  sho-pdii'. 

chorister,  kdr'-ls-tSr,  not  ko'-rtst-Sr. 

chorus,  kd'-rUs,  not  kor'-Us. 

chyle,  kil. 

chyme,  kim. 

Cienfu^gos,  se-en-fwa'-gos. 

cinchona,  sin-ko'-nd,  not  sin-chd'-nd. 

circuit,  sir'-klt,  not  sSr'-kut. 

citadel,  sit'-d-dl,  not  sit'-d-del. 

civil,  siv'-il,  not  siv'-l. 

clairvoyant,  kldr-voi'-dnt. 

clandestine,  kl&n-des'-tXn. 

clapboard,  kl&b'-ord,  not  kldp'-bord. 

Clapham,  kldp'-um. 

clarinet,  kldr'-tn-et. 

cleanly  (adj.),  klen'-U. 

cleanly  (adv.),  klen'-U. 

clematis,  klem'-d-tis,  not  kle-md'-tis. 

Cleopatra,  kle-o-pd'-trd,  not  kle-o-pd'-trd,  nor  kle- 

d-pdt'-rd. 
clique,  kUk,  not  kUki 
Clive,  kliv. 
clothes,  kloihz. 
cocaine,  kd'-kd-tn. 
Cocytus,  ko-si'-tus. 
codeine,  kd-de'-Xn. 

cognomen,  k6g-no'-men,  not  kSg'-no-mSn. 
coiffure,  kwd-filr'. 

colander,  kUl'-&n-dSr,  not  kdl'-dn-dir. 
Colchester,  kol'-ches-tSr,  not  kdl'-ches-tSr. 
cold-chisel,  kold'-chiz-U. 
Coleridge,  kdl'-rlj. 
Colosseum,  kdl-5s-se'-iim. 
column,  kol'-um,  not  kdl'-yum. 
comeliness,  kum'-U-nes,  not  kom'-li-nes. 
comely,  kum'-U,  not  kom'-li. 
commiserate,  k5m-miz'-Sr-dt,  not  kdm-mXs'-Sr-dt. 
commodious,  kdm-md'-di-us,  not  kSmr-nio'-jus. 
commune  (n),  kdm'-mun. 
comparable,  k5m'-pd-rd-bl,  not  k5m-pdr'-d-bl. 
complex,  k(5m'-pleks,  not  k5m-pleks'. 
comport,  kSm-port'. 
comptroller,  kSn-tro'-lSr. 
concrete  (n.  and  adj.),  kdn'-kret. 
concrete  (vb.),  kdn-kret'. 
condolence,  kdn-do'-lens,  not  kdn'-do-lens. 
confidant,  kdn-fld-dnt' ,  not  kdn'-fid-dnt. 
congenial,  kdn-jen'-ydl. 
congregate,  k6ng'-gre-gdt. 
Congress,  kdng'-gres. 
connoisseur,  k6n-nis-sur'  or  k5n-nXs-s6dr' . 


270 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


conquest,  kdng'-kwest,  not  k5n'-kwest. 
conscientious,  kdn-shi-en'-shus,     not    kGn-si-en'- 

shus. 
conservatoire,  koN-ser-vd-tiocir' . 
considerable,  kdn-sid'-Sr-d-bl,  not  kun-sld'-ra-bl. 
consignee,  k6n-sin-e'. 
constable,  kUn'-std-bl,  not  kdn'-std-bl. 
Consuelo,  koN-su-a-lo' . 
consul,  kdn'-sul,  not  kown'-siil. 
contemplative,    kdn-tem'-pla-ttv,    not    kdn'-tem- 

pla-tlv. 
continuity,  kdn-tl-nu'-U-l. 
contractor,  k5n-tr&k'-tSr. 
contretemps,  ko's-tru-tciN' . 
conversant,  kdn'-vSr-s&nt,  not  k5n-vSr'-s&nt. 
coquet,  ko-ket'. 
coral,  kdr'-dl,  not  ko'-r&l. 
cordial,  kor'-jS.l  or  kord'-y&l.  . 
Cordova,  kor'-do-va. 
cornet,  kor'-n'it,  not  kdr-nW. 
corolla,  ko-r5l'-A. 
corps  (military),  kor;  pi.,  korz. 
cortege,  kor-tazh'. 
Cortez  (Fernando),  kdr'-tez. 
cosmetic,  kdz-mit'-lk,  not  k5s-met'-lk. 
cote  (n.),  kot,  not  kdt. 
cotillion,  ko-tXl'-yun. 
coup6,  koo-pa'. 
Courbet,  koor-ba'. 
courteous,  kHrt'-e-Us. 
cousin,  kuz'-n,  not  kuz'-\n. 
covetous,  kUv'-U-us,  not  kuv'-e-chUs. 
Coxsackie,  kddk-s6'-ke. 
craunch,  krdnch,  not  krunch. 
creche,  krdsh. 

credence,  kre'-dens,  not  krM'-^ns. 
credulous,  krM'-yu-lus,  not  kr^j'-od-liia. 
creek,  krek,  not  krlk. 
Creighton,  kra'-tun. 
crematory,  krem'-d,-to-rl. 
Crito,  krl'-to. 

crouch,  krowch,  not  krobch. 
Cruikshank,  krdbk'-sh&ngk. 
cuisine,  kwe-zen'. 

culinary,  ku'-lin-a-rl,  not  kul'-ln-a-rl. 
cupboard,  kUb'-bSrd. 
cupola,  ku'-po-ld,  not  ku'-pd-lo. 
curator,  ku-rd'-tSr. 
Cuyahoga,  kl-d-ho'-gi. 
cycle,  sl'-kl,  not  sXk'-l. 
Czerny,  cher'-ne. 

daguerreotype,  dd-ger'-d-tip,  not  dd-ger'-e-o-tlp. 
damage,  d&m'-dj,  not  d&m'-ij. 
Damrosch,  ddm'rosh,  not  ddm'-rush. 
Danish,  dd'-nlsh,  not  ddn'-ish. 
Dartmouth,  ddrt'-mMh,  not  ddrt'-mowth. 
data,  dd'-td,  not  dd'-td. 
daub,  dob,  not  d6b. 
debutante,  dd-bu-tont'. 
decade,  dek'-dd,  not  de-kdd'. 
decent,  de'-s^nt,  not  de'-sUnt. 
decollete,  dd-kdl-td',  not  dd-kdl'-td. 
deficit,  def'-ls-lt,  not  de-fts'-lt. 
deign,  dan. 

delirious,  de-Ur'-l-iis,  not  de-W-fi-Us, 
Delsarte,  del-sart',  not  del'-sdrt. 
depths,  depths,  not  deps. 
desideratum,  de-sid-lr-d'-tum,    not    de-sXd-^r-d'- 

tum. 
despicable,  dSs'-plk-d-bl,  not  de-splk'-d-bl. 


destine,  des'-ttn. 

different,  dlf -fir-hit,  not  dlf'-rHnt. 

digitalis,  dlj-l-td'-Rs,  not  dlj-l-td'-Us. 

diploma,  dl-pld'-mA,  not  dl-plo'-md. 

direct,  dl-rekt',  not  dl-rekt'. 

discourse,  dis-kors',  not  dis'-kors. 

discretion,  dls-kresh'-Hn. 

disease,  diz-cz',  not  dls-ez'. 

disputant,  dls'-pu-t&nt,  not  dls-pu'-t&nt. 

district,  dls'-trlkt,  not  de'-strlkt. 

diverge,  dlv-Srf,  not  dl-vSrj'. 

divulge,  div-ulj',  not  dl'-vulj. 

domain,  do-mdn',  not  do'-mdn. 

donkey,  ddng'-kX,  not  dung'-kl. 

Doric,  ddr'-ik,  not  dd'-rlk. 

Doris,  do'-ris. 

douche,  doosh. 

drawers,  dro'-lrz,  not  drdrz. 

drought,  drowt. 

drowned,  drownd. 

Duncan,  dUng'-k&n,  not  dun'-k&n. 

Fames  (Emma),  dmz,  not  emz. 

eau  de  cologne,  o  dU  ko-lon'. 

eczema,  ek'-ze-md,  not  Sk-ze'-md. 

Edam,  d-ddm',  not  e'-d&m. 

Eden,  e-dn,  not  e'-den. 

education,  M-yu-kd'-shUn,  not  ej-ob-kd'-shUn. 

Eiffel  (Tower),  ?/'-/ei. 

eleven,  e-Uv'-n,  not  Uv'-n. 

Elgin,  el'-gin,  or  el'-ftn. 

dlite,  a-Ze<'. 

elongate,  e-l6ng'-gdt,  not  e-ldn'-gdt. 

femile,  d-niel'. 

enchant,  en-chdnt',  not  Sn-cMnt'. 

encore,  dng-kdr', 

engine,  en'-ftn,  not  en'-jin. 

enquiry,  in-kwl'-rl,  not  In'-kwir-l. 

erasure,  e-rd'-zhur,  not  e-rd'-shdr. 

Erebus,  er'-e-bus. 

erysipelas,  er-l-sip'-e-l&s,  not  Ir-l-slp-'e-lds. 

etiquette,  et'-X-ket. 

Eustachian,  yu-std'-kX-dn 

exaggeration,  egz-dj-Sr-d'-shiin. 

examine,  egz-dm'-Xn,  not  eks-dm'-Xn. 

example,  igz-dm'-pl. 

exist,  egz-Xst',  not  eks'-Xst. 

exit,  Iks'-Xt,  not  €§z'-Xt. 

exogenous,  iks-6j'-e-nus. 

expedient,  eks-pe'-dX-ent,  not  iks-pe'-j^nt. 

expiratory,  iks-plr'-d-td-r\. 

exquisite,  eks'-kwXz-Xt,  not  iks-kwXz'-Xt. 

extant,  eks'-tdnt,  not  iks-t&nt'. 

ex-tempore,  eks-tem'-po-re,  not  eks-iem'-por. 

Eyre  (Jane),  dr,  not  ?r. 

factory,  f&k'-to-rX,  not  fdk'-trl. 

falcon,  fo'-kn. 

Falkland,  fbk'-l&nd. 

family,  Jdm'-i-U,  not  fdm'-Vl. 

faucet,  fo'-sU,  not  fds'-et. 

Fauntleroy,  font'-le-roi,  not  junt'-l-roi. 

Faure,  /or. 

favorite,  fa'-vZr-Xt,  not  fd'-vSr-it. 

fecund,  fek'-find,  not  fe'-kund. 

fellow,  fel'-lo,  not  fel'-lu. 

feminine,  fem'-Xn-Xn,  not  f^m'-Xn-ln. 

f6te,  /ai. 

fianc6,  fe-dN-sd'. 

fiancee,  fe-dN-sd'. 

fibril,  /i'-6rlZ,  not  /l6'-r«. 

finance,  fXn-dns',  not  fi'-n&ns. 


LANGUAGE 


271 


finances,  fln-dns'-Hz,  not  fi'-n&ns-^z. 

financial,  fln-&n'-sh&l,  not  fl-n&n'-sh&l. 

financier,  fin-&n-ser',  not  fi'-n&n-ser. 

florid,  fldr'-ld,  not  flo'-rid. 

florin,  fldr'-ln,  not  flo'-rln. 

forbade,  for-b&d',  not  for-bad'. 

forest,  f6r'-est,  not  fdr'-ust. 

forum,  fo'-rum,  not  for'-ilm. 

fragile,  fr&j'-il,  not  fr&j'-ll. 

franchisement,  fr&n'-chiz-ment. 

frappe,  frd-pa'. 

friends,  jrendz,  not  frenz. 

friendship,  frend'-shlp,  not  fren'-shlp. 

Froebel,  fro'-bel- 

frontier,  frdn'-ter,  not  frun'-ter. 

Froude,  frood. 

fuel,  }u'-el,  not  fu'-iil. 

fungi,  fun'-jl,  not  fung'-gl. 

furniture,  fur'-nU-yur. 

gallery,  g&l'-ir-l,  not  g&V-rt. 

Galway,  gol'-wa,  not  g&l'-wa. 

gamut,  gd.m'-ut,  not  ga'-mut. 

gangrene,  g&ng'-gren,  not  g&n'-gren. 

garage,  gi-rdzh'. 

garrulous,  g&r'-rdb-lus. 

gastritis,  g&s-trl'-tis. 

gather,  g&th'-tr,  not  geth'-Sr. 

gazetteer,  g&z-et-er',  not  ga-zU'-Sr. 

generally,  jen'-Sr-dl-l,  not  jen'-rd.l-l. 

Gennesaret  (Lake),  gen-nes'-d-ret. 

gentlemen,  jen'-tl-men,  not  jen'-ll-mun. 

genuine,  jen'-yu-ln,  not  jin'-yu-ln. 

gerund,  jer'-und,  not  je'-rund. 

get,  get,  never  git. 

ghastly,  gdst'-ll,  not  g&st'-li. 

gist,  jist,  not  ^is<. 

gladiolus,  gld-dl'-o-lus. 

Gladstone,  gl&d'-stun,  not  glad'-ston. 

glottis,  gldt'-ls,  not  glo'-tis. 

glycerine,  gUs'-lr-ln,  not  gtts'-Sr-en. 

gneiss,  nis. 

Goethe  von,  fon  go'-tS. 

Goliath,  gd-li'-&th,  not  go-ll'-d. 

gondola,  g6n'-do-ld,  not  gon-do'-ld. 

gone,  gSn. 

Gounod,  gob-no'. 

government,  guv'-Srn-ment,  not  guv'-Sr-mint. 

granddaughter,  gr&nd'-do-tSr,  not  griin'-do-tSr. 

grandson,  gr&nd'-sun,  not  gr&n'-sun. 

grasp,  grdsp,  not  gr&sp. 

gratis,  grd'-tls,  not  gr&t'-ls. 

Greenwich  (Eng.),  gren'-vj. 

Greenwich  (U.  S.),  gren'-wich. 

grimace,  gfim-as',  not  grim'-as. 

grimy,  grl'-mi,  not  grim'-i. 

grisly,  griz'-tl,  not  gris'-lt. 

haemoglobin,  hlm-o-glO'-bin. 

Haiti,  hd'-tl. 

handbook,  Mnd'-bobk,  not  Mn'-bddk. 

Hawaii,  ha-wi'-e. 

Hawaiian,  ha-vn'ydn. 

hearth,  hdrth,  not  hSrth. 

Heidelberg,  hl'-del-bera. 

height,  hit,  not  hlth. 

Heine  (Heinrich),  hin'-rtK  hl'-ne. 

heinous,  haf-nus,  not  he'-nus. 

helm,  Mlm,  not  hel'-Um. 

Henlopen  (Cape),  hen-lo'-pen. 

heraldic,  he-r&l'-dxk,  not  her'-&l-dik. 

herring,  h^ing,  not  her'-in. 


Hiawatha,  hi-d-w6'-thd,  not  he-d-wd'-thd. 

highwayman,  hl'-wd-mdn,  not  hl-wd'-m&n. 

history,  his'-to-ri,  not  hls'-tri. 

homestead,  hom'-sted,  not  hom'-stid. 

homoeopathist,  ho-me-dp'-d-thist. 

honest,  dn'-est,  not  dn'-ust. 

honorable,  dn'-dr-d-bl,  not  dn'-rd-bl. 

hoof,  /loo/,  not  /ido/. 

horrid,  h6r'-rU,  not  hor'-rtd. 

horseradish,  hors'-r&d-lsh,  not  hors'-red-lsh. 

hovel,  hdv'-el,  not  huv'-el. 

hundred,  hun'-dred,  not  hun'-dird. 

hydraulics,  hl-drd'-liks,  not  hl-drdl'-lks. 

hypocrisy,  hip-dk'-ris-'l. 

ice-cream,  is'-krem,  not  is-krem'. 

idiosyncrasy,  id-l-o-slng'-krd-sl. 

ignoramus,  Ig-no-ra'-mUs,  not  Ig-no-rd'-mUs. 

illustrate,  U-lus'-trat,  not  W-lus-trat. 

impious,  im'-pi-Us,  not  Im-pi'-us. 

importune,  lm-p6r-tun' . 

impotent,  Im'-po-tent,  not  Im-po'-tent. 

inaugurate,  ln-6'-gu-rat,  not  In-o'-gur-at. 

incomparable,  ln-k6m'-pd-rd-bl,  not  In-kdm-pdr' 

d-bl. 
Indian,  W-di-dn  or  Ind'-y&n. 
indisputable,  In-dls'-pu-td-bl,    not    Tn-c/Ts-pu'-M- 

industry,  m'-dus-irt,  not  In-dus'-trX. 

infamous,  In'-fd-mus. 

Ingelow  (Jean),  /m  In'-je-lo. 

innocent,  In'-no-sent,  not  In'-no-sHnt. 

inquiry,  In-kwi'-rl,  not  In'-kwir-l. 

insatiable,  in-sd'-shd-bl  or  In-sd'-shi-d-bl. 

instead,  in-sted',  not  In-stld'. 

interesting,  tn'-tSr-est-lng,  not  ^n-tSr-est'-tng. 

international,  m-tSr-ndsh'-Un-dl,    not    In-tSr-nd'- 

shun-dl. 
inundate,  m-Un'-ddt,  not  In'-un-dat. 
Iroquois,  Ir-o-kwoi'. 
Isinglass,  I'-zing-glds,  not  I'-Zif^n-yWs. 
Islip,  is'-lip. 

Italian,  l-t&l'-y&n,  not  l-tdl'-ydn. 
italic,  l-t&l'-tk,  not  i-t&l'-lk. 
ivory,  I'-vo-ri,  not  z'-vr?. 
jardiniere,  zhdr-de-nydr' . 
Jekyll  (Dr.),  je'-kxl,  not  jek'-\l. 
Jesuit,  jez'-yu-lt,  not  jSzh'-yu-it. 
jocund,  jdk'-und. 
joist,  /ois^,  not  /ois. 
jostling,  ids'-ling,  not  jdst'-llng. 
judgment,  jUf-ment,  not  jUf-munt. 
jugular,  ju'-gu-lSr,  not  jug'-yu-lSr. 
just  (adv.),  JMsf,  never  /es<. 
kaleidoscope,  kd-ll'-do-skop. 
kept,  A;epi,  not  A;ep. 
kettle,  A;ei'-Z,  not  «?<'-/. 
Khiva,  ke'-vd. 
kiln,  A;?Z,  not  A;?Zn. 
kinetograph,  kl-ne'-to-grdf. 
kitchen,  kich'-^n,  not  klch'-n. 
kumiss,  kdd'-mXs. 

laboratory,  Idb'-o-rd-to-rt,  not  l&b' -ra-to-ri. 
laborer,  Id'-bSr-Sr,  not  Id'-brSr. 
Lalla  Rookh,  Id'-ld-rdok,  not  Id-ld-rodk'. 
L' Allegro,  Id-ld'-gro. 

lamentable,  Idm'-ent-d-bl,  not  Id-ment'-d-bl. 
Lancaster,  Idngk'-ds-ter,  not  l&n'-k&s-t^r. 
language,  l&ng'-gwdj,  not  Idng'-gvnj. 
languor,  IQng'-gwSr. 
Laocoon,  ld-6k'-o-6n,  not  Id-o-kdon'. 


272 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


laryngitis,  Idr-in-jl'-tXs,  not  Idr-ln-je'-i'ls. 

larynx,  Idr'-ingks  or  la'-flngks. 

Latin,  l&t'-ln. 

laudanum,  l6'-dd-niim. 

laugh,  Idf. 

laundress,  Idn'-dres. 

lava,  la'-v&  or  la'-vd,  not  l&v'-d. 

learned  (adj.),  ISr'-nM. 

learned  (part.),  ISrnd. 

legate,  leg'-at,  not  le'-gdt. 

Leicester,  Us'-tir. 

Leigh  (Aurora),  le,  not  la. 

length,  length,  not  Vtnth. 

leper,  hp'-Sr. 

lettuce,  M'-'is,  not  IW-iis. 

library,  ll'-hrd-rl,  not  ll'-brl. 

licorice,  Uk'-o-rls,  not  llk'-o-rXsh. 

lief,  lef,  not  lev. 

Ligny  (Battle  of),  len-ye'. 

lingerie,  l&n-zMr-ef. 

Liszt  (Franz),  jrants  Ust. 

literature,  Rt'-Sr-d-tur. 

lithographer,  Utfp-dg'-rd-fSr,  not  tith'-6-grSf-Sr. 

Llewellyn,  loo-el'-ln. 

longevity,  Idn-j^v'-lt-l. 

long-lived,  Idng'-livd,  not  Idng'-tivd. 

Lorelei,  lo'-rd-ll. 

Lyceum,  ll-se'-Um,  not  ll'-se-um. 

mackerel,  mdk'-Sr-H,  not  mdk'-rH. 

magazine,  mdg-d-zen'. 

magna  charta,  mdg'-nd  kdr'-td. 

magnolia,  mdg-no'-U-d,  not  m&g-noV-yd. 

malign,  md-lln'. 

mallow  (marsh),  m&l'-o,  not  ni^l'-d. 

malpractice,  mdl-prdk'-fis,  not  mdl'-prdk-tls. 

mamma,  md-md'  or  md'-md. 

mandamus,  mdn-dd'-niiis,  not  m&n-ddm'-iis. 

mange,  mdnj,  not  mdnj. 

mania,  md'-ni-d,  not  mdn'-yd. 

maniacal,  md-ni'-dk-dl,  not  ma'-ni-dk-dl. 

manoeuvre,  md-no^-vr. 

manufactory,  mdn-yu-jdk'-to-rl,  not  mdn-yu-fdk'- 

tu-rl. 
Maracaybo,  md-ra-ki'-bo. 
Mardigras,  mdr-de-grd' . 
Maria  Theresa,  md-rl'-d  te-r^-sd. 
Marie  Antoinette,  md-re'  da-twd-nW. 
maritime,  mdr'-U-lm. 
marquis,  mdr'-kwls;  Fr.  pron.  mdr-ke'. 
Marseilles,  mdr-sdlzf. 
masculine,  mds'-ku-Un,  not  mds'-ku-lln. 
mask,  mdsk,  not  m&sk. 
massage,  mds'-dj  or  md-sdzh'. 
masseur,  md-sSr'  (Fr.  md-sor'). 
masseuse,  md-sSz'  (Fr.  md-soz'). 
matron,  md'-trdn,  not  m&t'-r6n. 
mattress,  m&tf-res. 
mausoleum,  md-so-le'-iim. 
mauve,  mov. 
measure,  niezh'-ur. 
mediaeval,  me-dl-e'-vdl. 
memory,  mSm'-o-rl,  not  nH^m'-rl. 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  m^'-dU-son  bdr-tol'-de. 
meningitis,  men-ln-jl'-tls. 
Mephistopheles,  Mef-ls-tdf'-e-lez. 
meringue,  me-rdng'. 
metric,  met'-rik,  not  me'-trlk. 
Mignon,  men-ydn'. 
migraine,  rii-grdn\ 
milch,  milch,  not  milk. 


minuet,  mln'-yU-it,  not  mln-yu-W. 

mischievous,  mis'-che-vUs,  not  mls-che'-vHs. 

misconstrue,  mls-kdn'-strii,  not  mls-kdn-stru'. 

miserable,  mlz'-Sr-d-bl,  not  mlz'-rd-bl. 

Mis^rables  (Les),  Id  m,e-zd-rd'-bl. 

mistletoe,  miz'-l-to,  not  mls'-l-to. 

mitten,  mU'-tin,  not  mlt'-n. 

modiste,  mo-dest'. 

moire,  mwa-rd'. 

monologue,  m8n'-d-l5g,  not  mo'-no-log. 

monomania,     mdn-d-md'-nl-d,     not    mo-nd-md'' 

nl-d. 
musicale,  mu-ze-kdV. 
mystery,  mls'-tSr-l,  not  mls'-trl. 
mythology,  mlth-dl'-o-jl,  not  ml-thdl'-o-ft. 
nasal,  nd'-zdl. 
natural,  ndt'-yu-rdl. 
nature,  ndt'-yur. 

nausea,  nd'-she-d  or  nd'-shd,  not  n6'-se-d. 
necessarily,  n^'-^s-ser-ll-l,  not  ni^s-is-ser'-ll-l. 
n6e,  nd. 

n6glig6,  nd-gU-zhd'. 
Neilson,  nel'-sun. 
nephritis,  ne-fri'-tls. 
nervine,  nSr'-vln,  not  nSr'-ven. 
Neufch4tel,  nd-shd-teV. 
neuralgia,  nu-rdl'-fi-d,  not  nii-rdl'-jd. 
nicety,  nl'-se-tl,  not  nls'-tl. 
nom  de  plume,  ndN  dU  plum. 
nominative,  ndm'-ln-d-tlv,  not  ndm'-nd-tli'. 
nonchalant,  ndti-shd-ldN' . 
nonpareil,  nOn-pd-rW ,  not  n5n-pd-rel' . 
Northampton,  n&rih-dmp'-tun,  not   north-hdmp^' 

tUn. 
Norwich  (Eng.),  ndr'-lj. 
Norwich  (U.  S.),  n&r'-wlch  or  nOr'-lch. 
Nottingham,  ndt'-lng-Um. 
noxious,  ndk'-shus,  not  ndk'-shl-Us. 
nuisance,  nu'-sdns,  not  nob'-sdns. 
nuptial,  niip'-shdl,  not  nUp'-chdl. 
Nuyts  (Islands),  nits. 
nymph,  nlmf. 
oaths,  othz,  not  dths. 
oatmeal,  dt'-mel,  not  ot-meV. 
obeisance,  d-be'-sdns  or  o-bd'-sdns. 
obelisk,  db'-e-ttsk,  not  8b'-llsk. 
obesity,  d-bis'-lt-l,  not  6-bes'-lt-l. 
Obi,  o'-be. 

objurgate,  db-jHr'-gdt^  not  db'-jHr-gdt. 
occult,  6k-kult',  not  6k'-kult. 
octave,  dk'-tdv,  not  6k'-tlv. 
Odyssey,  dd'-ls-e,  not  6-dls'-e. 
office,  df'-fis. 
often,  Hf'-n,  not  6f'-t^n. 
olden,  old'-n,  not  old'-en. 
oleander,  o-le-dn'-dSr,  not  d'-le-dn-dSr. 
Ole  Bull,  o'-le  bool. 
olfactory,  6l-fdk'-to-ri,  not  dl-fdk'-trl. 
orchid,  dr'-kld,  not  or'-chld. 
ordeal,  6r'-de-dl,  not  6r-de'-dl. 
ordinarily,  Or'-din-d-rl-tt,  not  Cr-dln-d'-rl-U. 
orthopedic,  6r-lho-ped'-lk. 
oust,  owst,  not  dost. 
overalls,  o'-vlr-6lz,  not  d'-vir-h6lz. 
Ovid,  dv'-ld,  not  o'-vld. 
Oyer,  d'-ySr,  not  oi'-ySr. 
pajama,  pd-jd'-mA. 
palatial,  pd-ld'-shdl,  not  p&l-dsh'-dl. 
palmistry,  pdV-mls-trl,  not  pd'-mls-trl. 
panacea,  pfira-d-se'-d. 


LANGUAGE 


273 


panorama,     p&n-o-rd'-md   or   p&n-o-ra'-md,    not 

pdn-o-r&m'-d. 
papa,  pd-pd'  or  pu'-pd. 
papier-mach6,  pdp-yd'  mu-shd'. 
papyrus,  pd-pi'-rus,  not  p&p'-tr-us. 
paresis,  p&r'-c-sls,  not  pd-re'-sls. 
parliament,  pdr'-ltm-ent. 
rarsifal,  pdr'-slf-dl. 
T^a.Ti\c\]y\e,  pdr'-tl-sip-l,  not  pdrt'-sip-l. 
partner,  pdrt'-nSr,  not  pdrd'-nSr. 
partridge,  pdr'-trlj,  not  p&t'-rij. 
passe,  pd-sd', 
Pasteur,  pas-tor'. 
patron,  pd'-trUn,  not  p&t'-run. 
pedagogue,  ped'-d-gdg. 
pedometer,' pe-dom'-e-tSr. 
penchant,  pdN-shdN'. 
pergola,  per'-go-ld. 
perhaps,  pSr-Mps',  not  prdps. 
peritonitis,  plr-l-to-ni'-tis,  not  pcr-\-to-ne'-Vis. 
perpetuity,  pSr-pe-tu'-i-ti. 
persist,  pSr-slst',  not  pSr-zXst'. 
perspicuity,  plr-spl-ku'-'i-ti. 
perspiration,    pSr-spXr-d'-shun,    not    prSs-ptr-d'- 

shiin. 
petite,  pS-tet'. 
pharyngitis,  j&r-ln-jl'-tts: 
phial,  fi'-dl. 

phosphorus,  {6s'-f6r-us,  not  fOs-fo'-rUs. 
photographer,  fo-t5g'-rd-flr. 
photogravure,  fd-to-grd-viir' . 
physicist,  flz'-\s-lst. 
piano,  pe-d'-no. 

picture,  pik'-tur,  not  plk'-chUr. 
plague,  pldg,  not  pleg. 
plait,  plat. 
Pleiades,  pW-yd-dez. 
pneumatics,  ■nu-m&t'-lks. 
po6m,  po'-em,  not  po'-Um. 
polliwig,  pol'-l-voig,  not  p6l'~l-wdg. 
polygamy,  pd-ttg'-d-mi,  not  p6l'-lg-a-ml. 
posthumus,  pdst'-hu-mus. 
potato,  po-ta'-to,  not  po-td'-tu. 
precedence,  pre-se'-dens,  not  pres'-e-dSns. 
predicament,     prc-dlk'-d-ment,     not     pSr~dlk'-d- 

ment. 
preface  (n),  pref'-ds. 
preferable,  pref'-Sr-d-bl,  not  pre-fSr'-d-bl. 
prelate,  prel'-dt,  not  pre'-ldt. 
president,  prez'-l-dent,  not  prez'-l-dunt. 
pretence,  pre-tens' ,  not  pre'-tens. 
prettily,  prlt'-il-l,  not  pret'-U-l. 
preventive,  pre-vent'-lv. 
prima  donna,  pre'-md  ddn'-nd. 
prodigious,  pro-dli'-Us. 
program,  pro'-gr&m,  not  pro'-grum. 
propinquity,  pro-ping' -kwit-t. 
prosperous,  prds'-pSr-us,  not  pros'--prus. 
prot^g^,  pro-td-zhd' . 

Protestant,  pr5t'-^s-tdnt,  not  prdd'-Ss-t&nt. 
psalm,  sdm. 

rsalms  (Book  of),  sdmz,  not  sdmz. 
pseudonym,  su'-do-nXm. 
psychic,  si'-kik. 
publicist,  puh'-Us-\st. 
Puebla,  pweb'-ld. 

pumpkin,  pump'-kln,  not  pung'-kin. 
Pythagoras,  pith-dg'-d-r&s,  not  pl-tMg'-o-r&s. 
quarrel,  kwdr'-el,  not  kwor'-el. 
quash,  kwbsh,  not  kw&sh. 


Queenstown,  kwenz'-tUn,  not  kwenz'-iown. 

queup,  kyu. 

Quito,  ke'-to. 

qui  vive,  ke  vev',  not  kwe  vev'. 

quoit,  kwoit  or  koit. 

quorum,  kwd'-ruvi,  not  kwdr'-Um. 

raceme,  rd-sem'. 

radish,  rdd'-ish,  not  red'-lsh, 

rajah,  rd'-jd  or  rd'-jd. 

rancor,  r&ng'-kSr,  not  r&n'-kSr. 

ransack,  r&n'-sdk,  not  r&m'-s&k. 

recipe,  res'-lp-e. 

reconnoiter,  rek-dn-oi'-tSr,  not  re-kdn-oi'-tSr. 

referable,  rcf'-er-d-bl,  not  re-fSr'-d-bl. 

regalia,  re-gd'-tt-d. 

regime,  rd-zhem'. 

relict,  rel'-lkt. 

renaissance,  re-nd'-s&ns;    Fr.  pron.,  rii-nd-sdNs'. 

rendezvous,    ren'-de-vdo;    Fr.  pron.,  rdN'-dd-v6d. 

reparable,  rep'-d-rd-bl,  not  re-pdr'-d-bl. 

repertoire,  rep-Sr-twdr;  Fr.  pron.,  rd-pdr-twdr' . 

reputable,  rcp'-yu-td-bl. 

requiem,  re'-kwl-em. 

research,  rc-scrch',  not  rv'-sSrch. 

resource,  rc-sors',  not  re'-sors. 

r^sumd,  rd-zdb-md' ;  Fr.  pron.,  rd-zii-md'. 

reverend,  rev'-Sr-end,  not  rcv'-er-^nt. 

revocable,  rcv'-o-kd-bl,  not  re-vo'-kd-bl. 

rheumatism,  ru'-md-tizm,  not  rdbvi'-d-t\zm. 

rinse,  rins,  not  rens. 

robust,  ro-biist',  not  ro'-bust. 

Rochefort,  r5sh-fdr'. 

Roentgen,  ront'-gen. 

roil,  roil,  not  ril. 

roof,  roof,  not  rwf. 

Roosevelt,  rCs'-vclt,  not  rdos'-v^lt. 

root,  root,  not  root. 

rostrum,  ros'-trum,  not  ro'-strum. 

rutabaga,  ru-id-bd'-gd. 

sachem,  sd'-chem,  not  s&chf-em. 

sacrament,  sdk'-rd-m^nt,  not  sd'-krd-ment. 

sacrilegious,  s&k-rtl-e'-jus,  not  s&k-rll-lf-ixs. 

sagacious,  sd-gd'-shUs,  not  sd-g&sh'-tis. 

said,  sed. 

salary,  sdV-d-ri,  not  sdl'-rX. 

salmon,  s&m'-Hn. 

salve,  (ointment)  sdv. 

sanatorium,  s&n-d-td'-rl-um. 

sanguine,  sdng'-gwin,  not  s&n'-gwin. 

San  Juan,  sdn  hoo-dn'. 

sarcophagus,  sdr-k6j'-d-giis. 

sarsaparilla,  sdr-sd-pd-r\l'-d,  not  s&s-pd-rXV-d. 

satin,  s&t'-in,  not  sdt'-n. 

Satsuma,  s&t-sob'-vid. 

savage,  sdv'-dj,  not  s&v'-lj. 

says,  sez,  not  sdz. 

scalene,  skd-len',  not  skd'-len. 

scared,  skdrd,  not  skdrt. 

Schley,  shll. 

seance,  se'-dns;  Fr.  pron.,  sd-dNs'. 

seckel  (pear),  sek'-l,  not  sik'-l. 

secretary,  sek'-re-td-rl,  not  sek'-e-td-rl. 

Seine  (river),  sdn. 

separable,  sep'-d-rd-bl. 

sequin,  se'-kwin,  not  s^k'-wln. 

sesame,  ses'-d-me. 

several,  sev'-Sr-dl,  not  sev'-r&l. 

shriek,  shrek,  not  srek. 

signora,  sen-yo'-rd. 

since,  sins,  not  sgns. 


274 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


singing,  sXng'-Xng,  not  sXng'-ln. 

Sistine  (Chapel),  sis' -tin  or  sls'-ten.  , 

sleek,  slek,  not  sttk. 

slept,  slept,  not  slep. 

snout,  snowt,  not  snoot. 

sofa,  so'-fd,  not  so'-fU. 

soften,  sbf'-n. 

solace,  sdl'-as,  not  so'-las. 

solarium,  so-la'-rl-um. 

solecism,  s6l'-e-sizin,  not  so'-le-slzm.  » 

solemn,  sdl'-em,  not  sdl'-Um. 

sonata,  so-na'-td. 

soprano,  so-pra'-no,  not  so-pr&n'-o. 

souvenir,  soo-vU-ner'  or  soov'-ner. 

species,  spe'-shez,  not  spe'-shl-ez. 

spirit,  splr'-lt,  not  splr'-ut. 

spoon,  spoon,  not  spdbn. 

spouse,  spowz. 

stead,  s<ed,  not  stXd. 

steady,  sted'-l,  not  stld'-l. 

St.  Louis  (Missouri),  san<  l6d'-ls  or  sa«i  /oo'-l. 

stoicism,  sto'-ls-lzm,  not  sto'-lk-lzm. 

stomach,  stum'-ak,  not  stUm'-lck. 

suede,  swad. 

suite,  s«;e<,  not  sut. 

sumach,  su'-m&k  or  shu'-m&k. 

supple,  sup'-l,  not  s6b'-pl. 

suppose,  sup-poz',  not  spoe. 

surprise,  sur-priz',  not  sup-prlzf. 

Suwanee  (River),  su-w6'-ne. 

swept,  swept',  not  sti>?p. 

syringe,  sir'-lnj,  not  slr-lnj'. 

syrup,  slr'-up. 

table-d'hote,  ta'-bl-dot. 

tallyho,  t&l'-U-ho,  not  t&l-R-ho'. 

Tannhauser,  tdn'-hoi-zSr. 

taxidermist,  t&k'-sl-dSrm-Xst. 

technique,  tSk-nek/. 

telegraphy,  te-Ug'-rd.-fl. 

temperament,     tSm'-pSr-d-mhit,     not     iem'-prd- 

rr^nt. 
temperature,  tem'-p^r-d-tur,  not  t^m'-prd-tur. 
temporarily,  thn'-po-ra-rl-li,  not  t^m-po-ra'-rl-ll. 
tenet,  t^n'-H,  not  te'-nU. 
tepid,  tep'-ld,  not  te'-pld. 
Terra  del  Fuego,  th^-ra  dU  fu-e'-go. 
t6te-a-t§te,  tat-d-tdt'. 
Thames  (river  in  England),  t(^mz. 
theater,  the'-d-tSr,  not  the-a'-tSr. 
Thoreau,  tho'-ro. 

three-legged,  thre'-Kgd,  not  thre'-lSg-M. 
thresh,  thresh. 
Tolstoi,  tdl'-stoi. 

to-morrow,  too-mdr'-ro,  not  tdb-mdr'-rU. 
tongs,  tdngz. 

tonsilitis,  tdn-sXl-i'-fis,  not  tdn-sll-e'-tls. 
tortious,  t&r'-shus. 
tour,  toor. 

tout-ensemble,  toot  dN-sdti'-bl. 
toward,  to'-Srd,  not  towdrd'. 
transmigrate,  trdns'-ml-grat,  not  trdns-ml'-grat. 
traveler,  trdv'-U-Sr,  not  tr&v'-lSr. 
treacle,  tre'-kl,  not  trlk'-l. 
trichina,  trik-l'-nd. 
tricycle,  tn'-slk-l,  not  tri'-si-kl. 
trilobite,  tri'-lo-bit,  not  trW-o-blt. 
trousseau,  trob'-so'. 
Trovatore,  II,  el  tro-vd-to'-ra. 
turnip,  tHr'-nlp,  not  tHr'-nUp. 
Tuskeegee,  tUs-ke'-ge. 


ultimatum,  tH-tlm-d'-tUm,  not  Ul-tlm-d'-tUm. 

umbrella,  um-brel'd,  not  Um-bSr-H'-d. 

uncivil,  ■Q.n-siv'-ll,  not  Hn-slv'-ul, 

unctuous,  Ungkl'-yu-Hs. 

undersigned,  Hn-dSr-sind' ,  not  iin-dSr-zmd' . 

uninterested,  Hn-ln'-tSr-est-M. 

unlearned  (adj.),  Hn-lSr'-ned,  not  Hn-lirnd' . 

unlearned  (part.),  Un-Urnd',  not  un-Ur'-ned. 

unprecedented,  Un-pres'-e-dent-M. 

untoward,  Un-td'-Srd,  not  Un-to-wdrd' . 

Urquhart,  Hr'-kwurt. 

used,  uzd,  not  ust. 

usually,  yu'-zhu-&l-l,  not  yu'-zh&l-l. 

usurp,  yu-zurp',  not  yu-s^rp'. 

vagary,  vd-ga'-rl,  not  va'-gd-rl. 

vagrant,  vd'-gr&nt,  not  v&g'-r&nt.        * 

Valkyrie,  v&l-ku'-re-a. 

vanquish,  v&ng'-kwlsh,  not  v&n'-kwlsh. 

vase,  vds  or  vdz. 

vaudeville,  vod'-xHl;  Fr.  pron.,  vod-veV. 

vehement,  ve'-he-ment. 

veinous,  va'-nils,  not  ve'-nUs. 

velvet,  vW-vU,  not  vW-vUt. 

venous,  ve'-nUs,  not  va'-nUs. 

ventriloquist,  ven-trW-o-kwist. 

version,  vSr'-shiln,  not  vSr'-zhUn. 

vessel,  v^s'-sel,  not  ves'-l. 

veterinary,  vet'-Sr-ln-d-rl,  not  vW-rln-d-rl. 

vice  versa,  m'-se  vSr'-sd,  not  vis'-vSr-sd. 

victim,  vlk'-tlm,  not  vW-tum. 

Victor  Hugo,  vek-t&r'  ii-go'. 

Vienna,  vl-in'-d,  not  vl-en'-d. 

vis-a-vis,  vSz-d-ve'. 

vitriol,  vlt'-rl-Ul,  not  vlt'-rul. 

Vladivostock,  vld-de-vos-tok' . 

volatile,  vdl'-d-til,  not  vdl'-d-tel,  nor  v6l'-d-til. 

volume,  vdl'-yum. 

voluntarily,  vdl'-Un-ta-rH-l,  not  vdl-un-td'-rll-l 

waft,  wdft,  not  wdft. 

wainscot,  wans'-kbt. 

was,  w6z,  not  wUz. 

wasp,  w6sp,  not  w6sp. 

water,  wd'-tir,  not  wdt'-Sr, 

Wednesday,  wem'-da,  not  wed'-n^s-da. 

which,  huHch,  not  t/;?c/i. 

whisk,  hwlsk,  not  it>([sA;. 

whole,  Mi,  not  hoi. 

whooping  (cough),  hoop'-lng,  not  hobp'-lng. 

widow,  wld'-o,  not  wld'-H. 

Wilhelmina,  vll-hel-me'-nd. 

window,  wln'-do,  not  win'-du. 

Windsor,  wtn'-zor,  not  wlnd'-zor. 

wistaria,  wls-ta'-rl-d,  not  w;is-/e'-rT-d. 

women,  wlm'-^n,  not  wlm'-ln. 

wondering,  wHn'-dSr-lng,  not  wun'-dring. 

wont  (custom),  wiJn<. 

won't  (will  not),  Ti;dn<. 

Worcester  (Eng.),  woos'-tSr. 

Worcester  (U.  S.),  wobs'-tir. 

Worcestershire,  wobs'-ttr-shlr. 

wrath,  rath,  not  r&th. 

wrestler,  r^s'-lSr,  not  rlst'-W: 

Xenophon,  zen'-o-fdn. 

yacht,  y5t. 

yellow,  ycl'-lo,  not  yU'-lU. 

yew,  yu. 

yolk,  yoZA;  or  yoA;. 

Ypsilanti,  Ip-sll-dn'-tl. 

Zeus,  0MS,  not  ze'-Hs. 

zodiacal,  zo-dl'-dk-dl,  not  zo'-di-dk-Sl, 


I 


VICTOR   HUGO 


LITERATURE 


History  and  literature  are  kindred  sciences; 
both  are  the  written  story  of  Ufe  which  has  been 
lived.  History  places  before  us  the  life  of  action, 
and  the  heroes  of  history  are  chiefly  pioneers, 
statesmen,  soldiers,  merchants,  inventors,  leaders 
of  industry.  Literature  presents  the  inner  life 
of  thought  and  emotion  and  ideals.  Its  pages 
are  written  for  us  by  historians  and  novelists 
and  poets  and  philosophers.  Both  through 
deed  and  word,  history  and  literature  reveal  to 
us  the  life  of  a  nation. 

But  the  life  of  a  nation  is  not  an  individual 
thing.  There  is  an  intercourse  of  nations,  as 
well  as  an  interdependence.  Literature,  as 
well  as  history,  reveals  the  influence  of  this 
universal  contact.  It  is  only  by  a  survey  of  all 
literatures  that  any  single  literature  can  be 
appreciated  or  understood.  The  following  tables 
and  discussions  present  such  a  survey. 

COMPARATIVE    VIEW   OF 

ANCIENT   ORIENTAL 

LITERATURES 

2000   B.  C.  TO    1500   B.  C. 

INDLA..  Earliest  Vedic  hymns  in  Sanskrit.  These 
Vedic  hymns  were  probably  sung  or  repeated  for  a  thou- 
sand years  before  they  were  committed  to  writing. 

PERSIA.     Earliest  metrical  hymns. 

CHINA.  Development  of  ideo-phonetic  writing.  Odes, 
hymns,  laws,  historic  documents  preserved  by  imperial 
decree. 

HEBREW.  Age  of  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs. 
Book  of  Job. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  Cuneiform  in- 
scriptions on  stone  slabs,  and  on  brick  and  clay  tablets, 
delicate  inscriptions  on  glass  and  metal.  Chaldean 
account  of  the  deluge  compiled  about  2000  B.  C. 

Golden  age  of  Babylonian  literature  and  rise  of  Assy- 
rian literature. 

ARABIA.  War-loving  tribes  roving  over  the  table 
lands  of  Arabia  produced  an  oral  literature  of  pastorals, 
rude  songs,  and  triumphal  odes. 

EGYPT.  Hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  monuments 
and  papyri.  Hermetic  books  (treaties  on  alchemy, 
magic,  etc.). 

Book  of  the  Dead,  Ptah-Hotep's  moral  treatise. 

1500   B.  C.  TO    1000   B.  C. 

INDIA.  Collection  of  Vedic  hymns,  embodying 
the  system  of  philosophy;  The  Institutes  of  Manu, 
regulating  moral  and  social  life. 

PERSIA.  Age  of  Zoroaster.  Compilation  of  the 
Zend,  the  only  existing  monument  of  a  once  extensive 
literature. 

CHINA.  The  Five  Great  Classics  of  Antiquity;  the 
most  important  of  these  is  the  Book  of  Changes. 

HEBREW.  The  Age  of  Moses  and  the  Pentateuch. 
Hebrew  anthems  and  elegies  and  wisdom  literature, 
culminating  in  the  psalms  of  David  and  proverbs  of 
Solomon. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  Preservation  of 
records  in  royal  libraries. 

Inscriptions  elaborately  wrought  on  stone  and  terra 
cotta.  Chief  cities  made  depositories  of  royal  libraries. 
Babylonian  literature  rich  in  fiction,  astrology,  law, 
grammar,  history,  mathematics,  etc. 

ARABIA.  Inscriptions  on  walls,  tombs,  dikes,  and 
bronze  tablets. 

EGYPT.  Great  library  founded.  Golden  Age  of 
Rameses.  Literature  rich  in  epic  poetrj',  odes,  ballads, 
hymns,  romances,  fables,  history,  science,  etc. 

1000   B.  C.  TO   500   B.  C. 
INDIA.     Ancient    Vedic    translations    contained    in 
great  epics  and  lyrics.     The  Ramayana  and  the  Maha- 


bharata  are  called  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  of  the 
Sanskrit.     Dramas,  tales,  fables,  and  epigrams  abound. 

PERSIA.  Preservation  and  enlargement  of  books 
of  sacred  literature.     Compilation  of   the  Zend-Avesta. 

CHINA.  Age  of  Confucius.  A  period  of  great  liter- 
ary activity.  Compilation  of  the  sacred  learning  of  the 
Chinese  by  Confucius  and  the  introduction  of  higher 
ethical  ideals. 

HEBREW.  Songs  of  lamentation  and  prophetic 
books  of  the  period  of  the  captivity.  The  Idylls  of 
Ruth  and  Esther. 

ASSYRIA.  Decline  of  Babylonia  and  revival  of 
arts  and  sciences  in  Assyria. 

ARABIA.  Increase  of  learning  among  the  Arabs, 
Development  of  language  and  literature.  Three  poets, 
Amru-el-Kais,  Tarafah,  and  Antar. 

EGYPT.  Age  of  decline.  Simplified  form  of 
writing  introduced. 


LITERATURE   OF  INDIA 

The  literature  of  India  is  vast  beyond  all  com- 
prehension. The  library  of  one  of  the  kings  is 
said  to  have  contained  so  many  books  that  a 
hundred  Brahmans  were  employed  in  taking 
care  of  it,  and  a  thousand  dromedaries  were 
required  to  convey  it  from  place  to  place. 
Literary  activity  in  India  is  as  great  to-day  as 
in  the  past,  and  vast  stores  of  learning  are  ac- 
cumulated there. 

The  most  ancient  of  Hindu  literatures  is  the 
Sanskrit,  a  branch  of  the  Indo-European  group 
of  languages,  which  includes  the  Persian,  Greek, 
Latin,  Teutonic,  Slavonic,  Celtic,  and  Scandi- 
navian. The  Sanskrit  is  supposed  to  bear  the 
closest  resemblance  to  the  primitive  language, 
from  which  all  this  group  of  languages  sprung. 
It  is  the  sacred  language  of  the  Brahmans,  and. 
although  classed  to-day  among  the  dead  lan- 
guages, it  is  kept  alive  in  the  conversation  and 
writings  of  the  priestly  caste.  It  has  furnished 
a  rich  storehouse  for  European  scholars. 

Sanskrit  appears  in  its  most  ancient  form  in 
the  Vedas,  which  date,  at  least,  one  thousand 
years  before  Christ;  these  Vedic  hymns  were 
probably  sung  and  recited  many  hundred 
years  before  they  were  committed  to  writing. 
The  history  of  Sanskrit  literature  divides  into 
two  periods,  the  Vedic  and  the  classic.  These 
periods  partly  overlap  each  other,  but  the  later 
Vedic  works  are  distinguished  by  the  subjects 
with  which  they  deal  and  by  their  archaic  style. 

The  word  Veda  means  "knowledge,"  books 
of  knowledge.  These  sacred  books  of  the  Brah- 
mans are  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  Rig- 
Veda,  or  lore  of  praise  (hymns);  (2)  Yajur-Veda, 
lore  of  prayer  (sacrificial  rites) ;  (3)  Sama-Veda, 
or  lore  of  tunes  (chants);  and  (4)  Atharva-Veda, 
devotional  services  (incantations),  to  be  used 
in  sacrifices  and  other  religious  offices.  The 
last  three  Vedas  are  medley  extracts  from 
the  Rig- Veda.  Each  Veda  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  first  consisting  of  prayers,  and 
the  second  of  commandments.  Six  branches 
of  Vedic  science  are  included  under  the  term 
Vedanga;  namely,  phonetics,  music,  grammar, 
etymology,  astronomy,  ceremonials.  These 
books  also  contain  legends    and    philosophical 


278 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


and  Bcientific  discussions,  as  well  as  religious 
teachings,  for  the  Sanskrit  literature  belongs 
to  an  imaginative  and  creative,  as  well  as  to  a 
serious  and  thoughtful,  people. 

An  ancient  Hindu  work  of  great  importance 
is  the  Code  of  Manu,  dating  at  least  one  thou- 
sand years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  in- 
stitutes of  Manu  regulated  the  moral  and  social 
life  of  the  people,  and  prescribed  punishments. 
Purity  of  life  was  strictly  enjoined. 

Two  interesting  epic  poems  belong  to  the 
classic  period,  the  Mahabharata,  a  semi-his- 
torical poem,  treating  of  ancient  rivalries  and 
wars,  and  the  Ramayana,  a  religious  poem, 
describing  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The 
later  Sanskrit,  dating  about  one  hundred  before 
Christ,  is  varied  in  its  theme;  however,  it 
lacks  the  dignity  of  thought  which  characterizes 
the  early  Sanskrit. 

Many  speculative  philosophies  have  had  their 
birth  in  India,  some  of  them  in  strict  opposition 
to  the  teaching  of  the  Vedas.  Five  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era  a  newer  and  purer 
religion  was  taught  by  a  monk  of  royal  birth. 
He  was  afterwards  known  as  Buddha,  the 
Enlightened  One.  He  taught  his  people  to  live 
in  charity,  one  with  another,  to  practice  truth 
and  morality,  to  overthrow  caste,  and  to  abolish 
Brahman  sacrifices.  The  sacred  books  of 
Buddha  are  called  the  Tripitaka ;  one  of  them  is 
metaphysical,  one  disciplinary,  and  one  contains 
the  discourses  of  Buddha.  They  are  written 
in  a  dialect  of  the  later  Sanskrit,  and  are  very 
voluminous,  containing  more  than  five  times 
as  much  matter  as  in  both  the  New  and  the  Old 
Testament.  The  followers  of  Buddha  are  said 
to  number  over  three  hundred  millions.  Bud- 
dhism is  not  only  one  of  the  great  religions  of 
India,  but  it  has  millions  of  followers  in  Thibet, 
China,  Japan,  Corea,  and  all  the  countries  of 
the  far  East.  It  would  be  impossible  to  ac- 
knowledge the  full  indebtedness  of  Western 
literatures  to  the  literary  thought  of  India. 
We  have  borrowed  from  every  department, 
but  nowhere  have  we  found  richer  treasures 
than  in  romance  and  fairy  tale.  Stories  written 
in  far-away  India  have  been  the  delight  of  our 
story-tellers;  many  of  the  fairv  tales  of  our 
nurseries  were  first  written  for  the  joy  of  some 
Hindu  child.  India  is  rich  in  literary  treasures, 
and  we  are  richer  because  we  have  borrowed 
from  these  treasures. 

PERSIAN   LITERATURE 

The  earliest  language  of  Persia  is  the  Zend, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Sanskrit.  The 
Vedic  Aryans  and  the  Zend-speaking  Aryans 
originally  belonged  to  one  community,  and 
spoke  one  language.  Both  language  and  litera- 
ture reveal  this  unity  of  origin.  We  find  simi- 
larities in  their  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Like 
the  Sanskrit  of  India,  the  earliest  literature  of 
Persia  is  preserved  for  us  in  the'  sacred  writings. 
These  are  known  as  the  Zend-Avesta,  or  com- 
mentary and  text. 

The  Avesta  is  among  the  most  important  of 
the  sacred  writings  found  in  the  whole  range  of 
Indo-European  literatures.  These  writings  are 
attributed  by  the  Persians  to  Zoroaster,  who 
lived  probably  twelve  or  fifteen  centuries  before 


the  Christian  era.  Jjittle  is  known  of  Zoroaster, 
but  it  is  said  that  like  Buddha  he  was  the  great 
teacher  who  reformed  the  religious  system  of 
his  country.  The  Parsees,  or  Fire-Worshipers 
of  India  and  Persia,  are  to-day  the  followers  of 
Zoroaster. 

The  Avesta,  though  attributed  to  Zoroaster, 
is  not  the  work  of  a  single  man,  but,  like  the 
Vedas,  is  made  up  from  fragments,  which  had 
been  repeated  orally,  and  thus  brought  down 
through  generations.  It  is  a  collection  of  pro- 
fessed revelations,  instructions  concerning  ways 
of  living,  prayers  and  confessions  made  to  some 
Supreme  Being  and  to  inferior  gods,  simple 
hymns,  some  of  which  are  grand,  both  in  word 
and  thought.  The  Avesta  recognizes  One 
Supreme  Being,  and  exhorts  to  a  pure  way  of 
living.  "  Forsake  the  wrong,"  says  Zoroaster, 
"  and  choose  one  of  the  two  spirits,  Good  or 
Base ;   you  cannot  serve  both." 

Besides  the  Zend-Avesta,  there  are  two  other 
sacred  books,  one  a  book  of  prayers  and  hymns, 
and  the  other  prayers  to  the  Genii  of  the  days. 
The  religion  of  Zoroaster  prevailed  for  many 
years  in  Persia.  The  Greeks  adopted  some  of 
the  ideas  into  their  philosophy,  and  through 
them  its  influence  was  extended  over  Europe. 

When  the  Greeks  under  Alexander  (.331  B.  C.) 
conquered  Persia  and  burned  the  capital  at 
Persepolis,  they  destroyed  many  inscriptions 
and  valuable  records  in  the  great  library,  which 
had  been  collected  by  the  Persian  kings.  After 
the  Greek  conquest,  the  Persian  language  was 
forced  to  give  place  to  the  language  of  their 
conquerors,  first  the  Greek,  and  then  the  Arabic 
speech  of  the  Mohammedans. 

In  the  Ninth  Century,  A.  D.,  native  dynasties 
were  restored,  and  from  this  time  dates  modern 
Persian  literature,  which  flourished  for  nine 
centuries.  But  the  literature  of  modern  Persia 
is  very  unlike  that  of  the  ancient  Empire. 
Greek  thought,  together  with  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  Arabia  and  the  religion  of  Mohammed, 
had  transformed  the  life  and  spirit  of  the  people, 
and  we  find  an  entirely  different  literature  in 
this  later  period.  Satires,  love  ditties,  songs, 
and  religious  hymns  appeared;  many  names 
of  minstrels  who  belonged  to  the  Tenth  Cen- 
tury are  found.  The  first  Persian  poet  who 
impressed  his  stamp  upon  every  form  of  poetry 
was  Rudagi.  About  1000  A.  D.,  Prince  Cabus 
is  quoted  as  the  author  of  the  "Perfection  of 
Rhetoric"  and  also  of  poems.  A  generation 
later  Anvari  wrote  much  verse  in  honor  of  the 
king.  To  these  same  centuries  belong  Dakiki 
and  Firdausi,  court  poets;  Tabari,  court  his- 
torian; Sadi,  the  great  moral  teacher;  Hafiz, 
the  writer  of  love  lyrics  and  pleasure  songs; 
Omar  Khayyam,  well  known  from  the  excel- 
lent translations  of  his  quatrains  into  English 

CHINESE   LITERATURE 

The  literature  of  China  leads  us  back  to  the 
remotest  past  in  an  almost  unbroken  line  of 
writings.  The  prose  writings  of  the  Chinese 
philosophers,  the  plain,  grave,  and  concise 
rendering  of  moral  maxims,  and  the  primeval 
poetry,  including  the  oldest  temperance  ode 
in  the  world,  were  preserved  in  the  Sacred 
Books,  edited  by  Confucius. 


LITERATURE 


279 


The  first  published  book  on  record  in  China  is 
the  "  Book  of  Changes,"  dating  originally  about 
1150  B.  C.  Little  is  known  of  this  mysterious 
book,  but  it  was  evidently  a  treatise  on  philos- 
ophy; centuries  later  it  became  the  founda- 
tion for  a  book  of  divination.  The  "Book  of 
History"  is  a  compilation  made  by  Confucius 
from  old  manuscripts,  records  of  years  between 
2400  B.  C.  and  700  B.  C.  The  "  Book  of  Rites," 
the  real  guide  of  Chinese  life,  was  also  compiled 
from  ancient  sources  and  is  said  to  be  the  work 
of  a  duke  living  sometime  between  1200  B.  C. 
and  1100  B.  C.  This  "Book  of  Rites"  is  still 
the  ceremonial  which  is  the  soul  of  the  Chinese. 
These  are  the  most  important  of  the  books 
known  as  the  "Five  Classics."  Following  these 
are  the  "Four  Books,"  all  by  followers  and 
pupils  of  Confucius.  Together  they  form  a 
body  of  records  or  annals,  written  in  brief  para- 
graphs with  no  literary  form;  they  are  simple 
statements  of  fact  or  doctrine.  They  might  be 
considered  mere  curiosities  of  literature,  but  for 
their  unbounded  influence  over  a  great  nation. 
This  influence  is  easily  understood  upon  closer 
acquaintance  for  the  recorded  sayings,  or  con- 
versations, contain  the  essence  of  wisdom.  The 
educated  classes  committed  to  memory  pages 
from  the  Classical  Books,  while  the  wise  maxims 
became  as  familiar  to  the  people  as  nursery 
songs.  The  aim  of  all  these  writings  was  to 
build  lofty  principles  of  thought  and  action 
which  should  govern  men  in  every  relation  of 
life.  "The  Great  Learning,"  based  upon  the 
older  teachings,  shows  political  knowledge  and 
judgment  in  its  suggestions.  These  great  books 
directed  the  people  with  such  words  as: 

"The  ancients,  wishing  to  order  the  empire, 
first  ordered  well  their  own  states.  Wishing  to 
order  well  their  states,  they  first  regulated  their 
families.  Wishing  to  regulate  their  families, 
they  first  cultivated  their  persons.  Wishing  to 
cultivate  their  persons,  they  first  rectified  the 
heart." 

"What  a  man  dislikes  in  his  superiors,  Ipt 
him  not  display  in  the  treatment  of  his  inferiors." 

"  Learn  the  past,  and  you  will  know  the 
future." 

Commentaries  by  the  thousands  have  been 
written  on  these  books,  and  form  a  great  body 
in  Chinese  libraries. 

Mencius  (372  B.  C),  the  last  and  greatest 
apostle  of  Confucius,  has  been  called  the  Plato 
of  his  nation.  He  was  the  first  to  maintain 
the  goodness  of  human  nature  unmolded  by 
education.  The  spirit  inherent  in  the  Chinese 
classics  was,  "Walk  in  the  trodden  paths  and 
seek  wisdom  from  ancient  teachings."  Mencius 
threw  his  influence  into  society  about  him,  in- 
sisted upon  changes  in  his  degenerate  age,  and 
used  humor  and  satire  to  sharpen  his  discussions. 

Printing  was  invented  in  China  about  600 
A.  D.,  and  was  then  chiefly  used  in  publication 
of  chronicles  of  information  or  history.  Each 
dynasty  has  its  official  chronicle,  making  a  his- 
tory of  the  nation  from  the  Third  Century  B.  C. 
to  the  middle  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

The  system  of  Chinese  education  has  tended 
to  compress  the  minds  of  the  students  into  a 
narrowness  of  thought,  but  this  helped  obser- 
vation of  detail  and  may  account  for  the  value 


of  their  topographical  works,  which  are  scarcely 
equaled  in  any  other  literature.  Historical 
and  literary  encyclopedias  are  well  arranged 
and  have  been  closely  studied  by  European 
authors,  who  speak  highly  in  their  praise. 

The  first  great  thoughts  of  this  seemingly 
prosaic  and  practical  people  were  put  in  the 
form  of  poetry,  and  their  songs  and  ballads  date 
back  beyond  any  knowledge  of  authors.  In  the 
time  of  Confucius  (551-478  B.  C.)  there  was 
an  official  collection  of  some  3,000  songs,  which 
he  arranged,  and  from  which  he  made  his  "  Book 
of  Odes."  The  subjects  of  these  odes  are  from 
the  everyday  life  and  simple  ways  of  antiquity. 
They  are  written  in  rhyme  and  give  most  pleasing 
pictures  with  delicate  touches.  Epic  poetry, 
conspicuous  in  India,  is  wholly  lacking  in 
China,  the  historical  romance  taking  its  place. 
Dramas  abound,  but  in  very  primitive  form, 
while  didactic  poems  are  common,  oflScial  docu- 
ments being  sometimes  issued  in  this  form. 

In  China  is  found  the  philosophy  of  Confucius, 
prominently  ethical;  the  philosophy  of  Tao, 
almost  purely  material;  and  the  philosophy 
of  Buddha,  preemmently  metaphysical.  These 
seem  to  hold  a  joint  power  over  the  people; 
effects  of  this  mixture  can  be  traced  in  their 
literature.  Many  discussions  in  moral  philoso- 
phy are  popular  among  Chinese  scholars.  The 
Chinese  have,  also,  romances  of  all  kinds,  light 
poetry,  and  works  on  history,  geography,  and 
travel.  They  are  a  reading  people.  Trans- 
lators are  bringing  books  out  from  their  hoard 
of  treasures,  helped  by  a  well-executed  diction- 
ary of  the  Chinese  language. 

The  countries  of  Burmah,  Siam,  and  Thibet 
are  related  to  China  by  having  the  same  mono- 
syllabic language.  To  each  of  these  nations  be- 
longs, also,  a  valuable  literature,  reaching  back 
to  antiquity. 

HEBREW   LITERATURE 

Hebrew  literature  stands  first  among  the 
literatures  of  antiquity.  A  universal  significance 
has  been  given  to  it  on  account  of  the  remarkable 
influence  it  has  had  in  forming  the  thought  of 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  nations.  From  it 
we  get  our  Bible,  which  gives  us  our  revelation 
of  God  and  our  fundamental  ideas  of  worship. 
Hebrew  literature  reaches  back  to  remote  an- 
tiquity. It  is  the  story  of  a  people  who  believed 
themselves  selected  by  God  to  be  the  conserva- 
tors of  His  revelation.  It  is  the  marvelous  story 
of  a  race,  which  for  thousands  of  years  endured 
captivity,  dispersion,  wars,  and  persecution  of 
every  kind,  and  yet  preserved  its  nationality, 
its  peculiarities  of  worship,  its  laws  and  language, 
traditions  and  literature.  In  its  deep  religious 
spirit,  in  its  credibility,  and  in  the  vigor  of  its 
poetry,  it  far  surpasses  the  literature  of  any 
other  nation  of  antiquity.  It  constitutes  a 
remarkable  monument  of  the  early  history 
and  spiritual  development  of  the  human  race. 
Hebrew  law  has  been  studied  and  imitated  by 
lawmakers  of  every  nation  and,  like  their  litera- 
ture, is  unsurpassed  in  originality  and  vigor  of 
expression. 

Only  a  small  part  of  the  great  mass  of  Hebrew 
writing  has  come  down  to  us.  Of  this,  the 
most  important  is  that  contained  in  the  Hebrew 


280 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Scriptures.  The  composition  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  extends  from  the 
time  of  David  to  the  Maccabees,  a  period  of  at 
least  900  years.  Before  this,  like  all  ancient 
peoples,  the  Hebrews  by  oral  tradition  handed 
down  their  sagas,  songs,  fragments  of  history, 
inscriptions,  laws,  and  priestly  registers. 

The  prevalent  idea  of  Hebrew  literature  is 
Monotheism.  The  Hebrews  believe  they  are 
a  peculiar  people,  chosen  of  God,  hence  their 
passionate  enthusiasm  for  independence  and 
the  preservation  of  their  nationality.  While 
other  nations  were  creating  their  divinities 
marred  by  human  passions,  and  were  painting 
them  in  the  glowing  colors  of  their  poetry,  as 
engaged  in  wars  and  feasting,  sensuous  love  or 
hate,  revenge  or  revelry,  the  Hebrew  poets 
pictured  their  God  in  the  most  sublime  language, 
simple,  just,  severe.  "  God  is  a  Spirit,  and  they 
that  worship  Him  must  worship  Him  in  spirit 
and  in  truth."  Love  and  wisdom  are  His  at- 
tributes; power  and  majesty  are  His,  and  yet 
paternal  care  and  wisdom.  In  this  contempla- 
tion of  Jehovah  the  Hebrews  reached  the  very 
source  of  enthusiasm,  which  caused  their  poets 
so  fervently  to  utter  the  denunciations  and 
promises  of  the  Eternal  in  a  tone  suited  to  the 
inspired  of  God.  Under  whatever  form  they 
wrote,  law,  prophecy,  history,  lyric  poetry, 
philosophy,  or  speculation,  God  and  His  provi- 
dences are  their  special  theme. 

The  simplest  division  of  the  literature  of  the 
Hebrews  is  into  the  four  following  periods: 

The  first  period  extends  from  remote  an- 
tiquity to  the  time  of  David.  It  includes  all 
the  records  of  patriarchal  civilization  trans- 
mitted by  tradition  previous  to  the  age  of  Moses, 
and  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  with  the  book 
of  Joshua  added.  The  earliest  literature  be- 
longing to  this  period  seems  to  have  been  lyrics 
and  laws  circulated  from  mouth  to  mouth  with- 
out the  aid  of  written  copies,  and  thus  handed 
down  as  oral  tradition  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. As  early  as  the  reign  of  David  a  scribe 
was  attached  to  the  royal  court,  and  from  that 
time  on  we  have  written  records. 

The  second  period  extends  from  the  time  of 
David  to  the  death  of  Solomon.  To  this  period 
we  refer  the  Psalms  of  David,  the  Songs  of  Solo- 
mon, the  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles. 

The  third  period  extends  from  the  death  of 
Solomon  to  the  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  and  to  this  age  belong  the  writings 
of  the  prophets  of  the  captivity  and  the  book 
of  Esther. 

The  fourth  period  extends  from  the  return 
from  the  Babylonian  captivity  to  the  present 
time.  To  this  time  belong  the  writings  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  writings  of  Josephus,  of 
Philo  of  Alexandria,  and  the  rabbinical  literature. 

The  epoch  of  the  captivity  marks  the  beginning 
of  Jewish  literature  properly  so  called  as  distinct 
from  the  earlier  Hebrew.  It  is  founded  on  the 
earlier  and  more  creative  Hebrew.  It  retains 
the  fundamental  religious  thought,  but  both 
language  and  imagination  are  modified  by  con- 
tact with  Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman  civiliza- 
tion, and  by  the  forms  of  Arabic  poetry  and 
scientific  study  as  introduced  from  Europe. 


Since  the  return  from  exile,  Jewish  literature 
has  contributed  richly,  toward  the  cultivation 
of  the  human  mind,  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Jews,  known  as  rabbinical  literature,  lie  con- 
cealed the  richest  treasures  of  centuries. 

The  most  important  of  this  later  literature  is 
the  Talmud.  The  word  Talmud  signifies  learn- 
ing; the  work  itself  is  a  vast  storehouse  of 
learning  and  of  speculation.  It  treats  of  every 
conceivable  subject  and  depicts  incidents  in  the 
life  of  the  people,  not  only  of  the  Jews,  but  of 
other  nations  as  well.  There  are  separate  works 
on  civil  and  criminal  law,  religious  philosophy, 
psychology,  education,  mathematics,  medicine, 
magic,  gardening,  music,  astrology,  zoology, 
geography,  etc.  It  is  enlivened  by  parables, 
jests,  fairy  tales,  ethical  sayings,  and  proverbs. 
It  is  a  great  wilderness  of  themes  in  the  midst 
of  which  are  precious  treasures. 

The  Talmud  is  divided  into  two  great  divisions, 
which  are  kept  distinct,  (1)  the  laws  and  regu- 
lations designated  as  Mishna,  and  (2)  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  laws  designated  as  Gemara.  The 
language  of  the  Mishna  is  Hebrew;  that  of  the 
Gemara,  which  is  of  later  composition,  is  Ara- 
maic. The  Aramaic,  both  in  Palestine  and 
Babylonia,  drove  out  the  Hebrew  as  the  popular 
speech. 

A  remarkable  correspondence  exists  between 
parts  of  the  Talmud  and  the  gospel  writings. 
The  authority  of  the  Talmud  was  long  considered 
second  only  to  the  Bible. 

It  was  not  until  the  second  century  A.  D.  that 
the  writings  contained  in  the  Talmud  were 
systematized  into  a  code.  In  the  Fifth  Century, 
A.  D.,  the  Babylonian  rabbis  composed  new 
commentaries  known  as  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

Sayings  taken  from  the  Talmud : 

"Even  when  the  gates  of  heaven  are  shut  to 
prayer  they  are  open  to  tears." 

"Turn  the  Bible  and  turn  it  again  for  every- 
thing is  in  it." 

"Teach  thy  tongue  to  say,  'I  do  not  know.'" 

"Thy  friend  has  a  friend,  and  thy  friend's 
friend  has  a  friend:    be  discreet." 

"The  soldiers  fight,  and  the  kings  are  heroes." 

During  the  middle  ages  rabbinical  learning 
flourished.  Schools  were  established  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  to  which 
flocked  the  scholars  of  the  world.  In  the  Six- 
teenth Century  there  was  a  great  revival  of  in- 
terest in  the  study  of  Hebrew  language  and 
literature,  and  again  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  several  schools 
for  the  study  of  rabbinical  literature.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  of  these  schools  are  the 
seminaries  at  Padua,  Berlin,  and  Metz. 

BOOKS   OF   THE   BIBLE   ANALYZED 

BOOKS   OF   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

PENTATEUCH 

Genesis.  Account  of  creation,  early  history  of  the 
human  race,  and  story  of  the  patriarchs. 

Exodus.  Account  of  the  exodus  and  the  giving  of 
the  moral  law  by  Moses. 

Leviticus.  Development  of  the  nation  and  insti- 
tution of  priestly  law.    . 

Numbers.  Further  development  and  institution  of 
social  and  political  law. 

Deuteronomy.     Recapitulation  of  history  and  law. 

HISTORIC    BOOKS 

Joshua.  Conquest  of  Canaan,  and  separation  of 
the  tribes. 


LITERATURE 


281 


Judges.  History  of  Israel  under  the  administration 
of  thirteen  Judges. 

Ruth.  An  Idyll  of  Jewish  life  in  the  period  of  the 
judges. 

Samuel.  Establishment  of  the  kingdom  under  Saul 
and  David. 

Kings.  Political  history  of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah 
and  Israel. 

Chronicles.  Priestly  history  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel. 

Ezra.  Continuation  of  Chronicles.  Priestly  restora- 
tion after  the  captivity. 

Nehemiah.  Continuation  of  Ezra.  The  political 
restoration. 

Esther.     A  story  of  the  Hebrew  captivity. 

POETRY 

Job.  A  drama  of  the  soul. 
Psalms.  Book  of  hymns. 
Songs   of   Solomon,     Hebrew  pastoral  poems. 

DIDACTIC   POETRY    OR   BOOKS   OP    WISDOM 

Proverbs.     Practical  moral  maxims. 
Ecclesiastes.     Practical  moral  reflections. 

MAJOR   PROPHETS 

Isaiah.     The  Messianic  prophet. 
Jeremiah.     The  prophet  of  sorrow. 
Ezcklel.     The  priestly  prophet. 
Daniel.     The  apocalyptic  prophet. 


MINOR    PROPHETS 

1. 

Hosea. 

7. 

Nahum. 

2. 

Joel. 

8. 

Habakkuk 

3. 

Amos. 

9. 

Zephaniah. 

4. 

Obadiah. 

10. 

Haggai. 

5. 

Jonah. 

11. 

Zechariah. 

6.' 

Micah. 

12. 

Malachi. 

BOOKS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 
Biography.     Life  of  Christ  as  found  in  the  four  gos- 
pels, Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John. 

Historical.  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church  as 
given  in   the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

Epistles.  Continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Church  as  given  in  the 

PAULINE    EPISTLES 

Romans,  Colossians, 

Corinthians  I  and    II,  Thessalonians  I  and  II, 

Galatians,  Timothy  I  and  II, 

Ephesians.  Titus, 

Phillipians,  Philemon, 

Hebrews. 

GBNERAIi    EPISTLES 

James,  John  I,  II,  III, 

Peter  I.  II,  Jude. 

Prophetical.  The  Apocalypse  or  Book  of  Reve- 
lation. 

ASSYRIO  —  BABYLONIAN 

Cuneiform  inscriptions  which  characterize 
early  Persian  tablets  are  found  abundant  in  the 
Euphrates  Valley,  and  point  to  a  common  Aryan 
origin.  Very  little  is  known  of  Assyrio-Baby- 
lonian  literature,  but  abundant  material  awaits 
the  faithful  student  in  the  inscriptions  scattered 
all  through  the  valley.  The  Persians  preferred 
to  write  on  stone,  but  the  people  of  the  Euphrates 
region  used  the  soft  clay  abundantly  at  hand. 

The  golden  age  of  early  Babylonian  or  Chal- 
dean literature  extends  from  2000  to  1500  B.  C. 
Before  this  period,  however,  important  works 
had  been  written  in  Chaldea.  The  oldest 
Chaldean  book  is  a  work  on  astrology.  The 
oldest  known  specimen  of  Chaldean  writing  is 
a  set  of  bricks  thought  to  have  been  made  about 
2000  B.  C.  A  translation  of  the  inscriptions 
on  the  face  of  one  of  these  bricks  reads  in  this 
way:  "Beltis,  his  lady,  has  caused  Urukh,  the 
pious  chief  and  king  of  Ur,  king  of  the  land  of 
Accad,  to  build  a  temple  to  her."  From  a  vol- 
ume of  Chaldean  hymns,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Rig- Veda,  is  found  a  hymn  written  in  most 


exalted  language  to  Istar,  the  Babylonian  Venus. 
The  Babylonian  cities  very  early  became  the 
seats  of  learning.  Oral  traditions  were  written 
on  clay  tablets  and  these,  collected,  formed  the 
famous  tile  libraries.  These  libraries  were  rich 
in  works  on  ethics,  astrology,  law,  mathematics, 
grammar,  history,  fiction.  As  in  all  the  litera- 
ture of  the  East,  fables  abound. 

With  the  decline  of  Babylon  (1500  B.  C),  the 
Assyrian  empire  takes  its  rise.  For  six  centuries 
the  Assyrians  confined  their  literary  activity 
to  the  old  archives  and  historical  records,  but 
in  the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  II.  (858-823  B.  C.) 
there  was  a  revival  of  learning,  and  Calah  be- 
came the  seat  of  letters.  Later,  the  library 
begun  at  Calah  was  removed  to  Nineveh. 
There  it  reached  vast  proportions  and  under 
Sardanapalus  II.  (668-626  B.  C.)  it  contained 
ten  thousand  engraved  tablets.  This  wonder- 
ful library  contained  grammars,  lexicons,  law- 
books, astrology,  mathematics,  books  of  magic, 
omens,  rituals,  books  of  prayer  and  song.  These 
books  were  all  catalogued  and  put  into  the 
charge  of  librarians  for  the  instruction  of  the 
people.  With  the  fall  of  Nineveh  (607?  B.  C.) 
the  library  was  buried  in  the  ruins  of  the  palace. 

Later,  Babylon  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (604- 
561  B.  C.)  succeeded  as  the  seat  of  power  and  a 
great  revival  of  learning  followed.  Again  a 
great  royal  library  became  the  wonder  of  the 
world,  and  again  it  was  overthrown  and  buried 
in  the  ruins  of  this  later  Babylon. 

Among  the  valuable  records  recovered  from 
these  buried  libraries  are  tablets  which  relate  the 
story  of  the  Creation,  the  Fall  of  Man,  and  the 
Deluge.  These  tablets  must  have  been  copied 
from  older  records,  which  date  earlier  than  the 
Pentateuch. 

ARABIAN   LITERATURE 

The  Arabs  were  a  nomadic  people,  and  among 
such  a  people  literature  and  the  arts  of  peace 
are  of  tardy  development.  Before  the  time 
of  Mohammed,  Seventh  Century  before  Christ, 
these  dwellers  on  the  vast  table-lands  of  Arabia 
had  no  prose  composition,  but  they  were  essen- 
tially a  poetic  people.  They  gave  vent  to  their 
fancies  in  rude  war  songs  and  pastorals  and 
metrical  tales.  Fragments  of  their  verse,  com- 
posed at  least  one  thousand  years  before  Christ, 
have  been  preserved  in  their  inscriptions. 

In  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries,  A.  D.,  poetry 
had  become  to  them  a  refined  art,  and  metrical 
contests  were  yearly  established  at  the  festival 
of  Okad.  The  most  renowned  poets  crowned 
at  these  festivals  were  Antar,  Amru-el-Kais,  and 
Tarafah.  Their  poems  were  suspended  in  pub- 
lic places,  where  all  might  read,  and  the  victors 
were  awarded  prizes  at  the  public  expense. 
Deep  passion,  fertile  imagination,  richness  of 
imagery,  and  metrical  skill  are  the  chief  char- 
acteristics of  all  Arabian  poets.  Their  passion- 
ate tales  of  love,  revenge,  or  war,  rendered  in 
musical  cadences,  have  peculiar  power  over 
the  listener.  They  have  been  repeated  to  us  in 
the  "Thousand  and  One  Nights"  and  in  other 
fanciful  stories  borrowed  throiigh  translation. 

In  the  Seventh  Century,  A.  D.,  dawned  a  new 
era  in  Arabian  life.     It  was  due  to  the  teaching 


282 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


of  a  prophet  Mohammed  or  Mahomet.  The 
doctrine  taught  by  Mohammed  is  called  "  Islam" 
or  "Mohammedanism."  Its  fundamental  prin- 
cipJes  are  contained  in  two  articles  of  belief: 
"There  is  no  God  but  God;  and  Mahomet  is 
God's  apostle."  The  Koran  is  the  name  of  the 
volume  containing  the  doctrines  and  precepts 
of  Mohammed,  in  which  his  followers  place  im- 
plicit confidence.  The  aim  of  the  Koran,  as 
stated,  is  to  bring  all  to  the  obedience  of  Mo- 
hammed as  the  prophet  and  ambassador  of  God, 
who  was  to  establish  the  true  religion  on  earth. 
With  sword  and  pen  Mohammed's  disciples  went 
out  to  their  task  of  conquering  the  world.  The 
story  of  their  wars  has  been  written  in  history, 
but  their  intellectual  conquests  were  as  great. 
In  every  department  of  thought  there  was  new 
life,  and  for  centuries  Arabian  scholars  became 
the  teachers.  They  expounded  the  Koran  and 
their  schools  became  the  centers  of  learning, 
where  science  and  literature  were  encouraged. 

The  Seventh  and  Eighth  Centuries,  during  the 
reigns  of  Haroun  Al-Raschid  and  Al-Mamun, 
are  counted  as  the  golden  age  of  Arabian  letters. 
During  these  centuries  universities  were  estab- 
lished at  Bagdad,  Bokhara,  Bussorah,  and  a  little 
later  in  Spain  and  Italy.  Great  libraries  were 
also  established.  These  universities  contributed 
greatly  to  the  spread  of  knowledge.  They  en- 
couraged the  literature  of  geography  and  travel, 
and  developed  a  clear,  direct,  and  concise  style 
of  writing  history.  They  encouraged  arts  and 
sciences,  and  in  medicine,  astronomy,  geometry, 
arithmetic,  Arabic  scholars  became  the  teachers 
of  the  world.  During  the  Tenth  and  Eleventh 
Centuries,  sometimes  known  as  the  "  dark  ages  " 
of  European  learning,  the  University  of  Cordova 
became  a  refuge  for  scholars. 

The  influence  of  Arabian  literature  on  modem 
thought  is  very  great;  we  cannot  estimate  it. 
The  study  of  Arabic  is  engaging  the  attention 
of  scholars,  not  only  for  its  historic  value  but 
for  its  literary  worth. 

EGYPTIAN   LITERATURE 

The  literary  remains  of  ancient  Egypt  relate 
chiefly  to  its  history  or  its  religion.  Such  re- 
mains consist  of  papyrus  manuscripts,  sculp- 
tures, inscriptions,  and  tablets  found  in  the 
tombs  temples,  and  in  the  ruins.      The  earliest 


characters  used  in  writing  are  the  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions.  The  earliest  of  these  date  as  far 
back  as  twenty-five  centuries  B.  C,  and  the 
latest  as  recent  as  250  A.  D.  Two  other  simpler 
forms  of  writing,  the  hieratic  and  the  demotic, 
succeeded  the  hieroglyphic.  The  difficulty  of 
reading  those  ancient  symbols  made  it  impossible 
for  modern  scholars  to  study  the  literature  of 
ancient  Egypt,  but  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta 
stone,  in  1799,  furnished  a  key  for  the  unlocking 
of  these  treasures. 

Many  inscriptions  have  been  deciphered  by 
aid  of  the  Rosetta  stone,  but  from  a  literary 
point  of  view  they  have  disappointed  expec- 
tations. The  variations  are  meager  and  broken, 
and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  there  is  very 
little  beauty  of  language  or  color  to  the  imagina- 
tion. There  is  no  progressive  development, 
but  a  sameness  of  style  pervades  all  periods  up 
to  the  age  of  Rameses  II.,  at  whose  court  Moses 
was  brought  up  "in  all  the  learning  of  the 
Egyptians." 

The  ancient  Egyptiains  are  spoken  of  by  He- 
rodotus as  "surpassing  all  others  in  the  rever- 
ence they  paid  their  gods."  The  most  important 
religious  work  is  the  funeral  ritual  or  "Book  of 
the  Dead,"  one  of  the  many  sacred  books  some- 
times called  the  "Hermetic  Books."  The  "Book 
of  the  Dead"  contains  a  collection  of  prayers  of 
a  magical  character  and  refers  to  the  future  con- 
dition of  the  disembodied  soul.  Similar  to  the 
"Book  of  the  Dead"  is  the  "Book  of  the  Lower 
Hemisphere."  The  "Book  of  the  Breath  of 
Life"  treats  of  the  resurrection  and  the  sub- 
sequent existence  of  the  soul. 

One  of  the  most  ancient  inscriptions,  Ptah- 
Hotep's  famous  treatise  on  piety  and  filial  obedi- 
ence, recalls  the  proverbs  of  Solomon.  A  few 
hymns  to  Egyptian  deities  have  been  preserved. 
These  are  inferior  to  the  Arabic,  but  have  some 
beauty.  There  are  extant  copies  of  an  epic 
poem  by  Pentaur,  a  writer  of  the  age  of  Rameses 
II.,  a  papyrus  on  geometry  dated  about  1100 
B.  C,  and  a  few  papyri  containing  medical  trea- 
tises. "The  Tale  of  Two  Brothers,"  ,jy  Enna, 
dates  more  than  four  thousand  years  ago.  It  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  fairy  story  in  the  world. 
Legal  documents,  letters,  histories,  biographical 
sketches,  travels,  fables,  parables,  are  all  found 
in  these  fragments  of  ancient  Egyptian  literature. 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


Time 

Attthor 

Representative  Works 

Lived  sometime  betw 
1100  and  850  B.C 
Lived  about  800  B. 
Lived  about  700  B. 

een  1 

C. 
C. 

c. 

Homer 

Hesiod 

Iliad,  Odyssey. 

Works  and  Days,  Theogony. 
Elegies. 

Lived  about  600  B. 

Sappho, 

Lyrics. 

Dates  B.  C. 
640-546 

Thales, 

Astronomy,  Geometry. 

620-564 

Fables. 

582-500 

Philosophy. 

563-478 

I>vrics. 

556-468 

Simonides,     . 
jEschylus,  .    . 

Elegv,  Epigrams,  etc. 

625-456 

\ 

Prometheus  Bound. 
Seven  Against  Thebes. 

522-44.3 

Agamemnon. 
Odes. 

500-428 
495-406 

Anaxagoras 

Astronomy. 

Tragedy.  jAa-.,,. 

LITERATURE 


283 


GREEK   LITERATURE 

Author 

Herodotus, 

Euripides 

Thucydides 

Aristophanes, 

Xenophon, 

Plato 

Demosthenes, 

Aristotle 

Theophrastus 

Epicurus 

Archimedes  of  Syracuse 

Theocritus 


Continued 


Time 


484-424 
480-406 
471-400 
444-380 

434-355 

429-347 

385-322 

384-322 
372-287 
342-270 
287-212 

Lived  about  300  B.  C. 


Representative  Works 


History.  - 

Tragedy,  ]IP,t^gV 
History,  Peloponnesian  War,  etc. 
n^rr,^^,,    i  The  Birds, 
Comedy.  \  ^he  Frogs. 

(  Memorabilia, 
History,  ■<  Cyropsndia, 

(  Anabasis,  etc. 
Dialogues,  ]P^pS_.^^^ 

Orations,  ]Ph"'PrS«,., „,,,,. 

Philosophy,  Organon. 
Philosophy. 
Philosophy. 
Science,  Philosophy. 

T •  „     t  Death  of  Daphnis, 

i^yrics,  -j  pegtival  of  Adonis. 


The  beginning  of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks 
is  lost  in  a  mass  of  fables,  from  their  curious 
habit  of  personifying  every  feeling  or  experi- 
ence. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  of  their  poets  be- 
fore Homer.  The  most  ancient  traditional 
poet  was  Olen.  followed  by  Linus,  Orpheus,  and 
others,  but  the  poems  left  under  their  names 
cannot  be  relied  upon  as  genuine. 

In  the  poetical  legends  of  the  twelve  labors 
of  Hercules,  the  voyage  of  Theseus  and  the  ex- 
pedition of  the  Argonauts  are  the  first  traces 
of  historical  facts,  preserved,  distorted,  and 
obscured  by  fables.  The  story  of  Cadmus  bring- 
ing the  alphabet  to  Greece  makes  one  of  the 
early  tales.  These  stories  were  a  part  of  Greek 
education,  every  one  believed  them,  and  they 
made  up  the  national  religion.  All  this  has  be- 
come a  part  of  the  literature  of  Europe. 

The  Trojan  War  was  the  greatest  event  of  the 
first,  or  heroic,  age,  and  this  was  of  more  im- 
portance to  art  and  poetry  than  to  history. 
The  poems  of  the  first  Grecian  bards  were  written 
to  celebrate  the  heroes  of  this  war,  and  with 
these  began  the  Epic  age  of  Greek  literature. 
From  this  time  date  the  two  great  poems  of 
Homer,  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  which  have 
come  down  to  the  present  day  with  several 
hymns  and  epigrams  of  which  he  was  author. 
Writing  was  unknown;  these  poems  were  first 
circulated  orally,  and  parts  of  them  were  com- 
mitted to  memory  and  recited  by  wandering 
singers.  Even  later,  when  they  had  been  col- 
lected in  writing,  they  were  impressed  upon 
the  memory  and  used  to  excite  patriotism, 
religious  feeling,  and  love  for  the  beautiful. 

The  poems  of  Homer  became  the  foundation 
of  all  Grecian  literature,  and  after  him  a  class 
of  poets  endeavored  to  connect  their  work  with 
his,  calling  themselves  the  Cyclic  poets,  and  in 
their  works  can  be  found  the  whole  cycle  of 
tradition  and  mythology.  They  recite  the 
birth  of  the  gods,  the  creation  of  the  world, 
and  all  the  adventures  of  ancient  times.  From 
these  poems  have  come  the  tales  of  the  Argo- 
nauts and  of  Hercules,  the  events  of  the  Trojan 
War,  and  mythical  legends  telling  the  fate  of 
the  Greeks  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 

Some  authorities  make  Hesiod  contemporary 
with   Homer,   others  place   him   two   or   three 


generations  later.  His  poetry  has  nothing  of 
the  fancy  which  lights  up  the  lines  of  Homer; 
its  object  is  to  give  knowledge.  His  poem, 
"Works  and  Days,"  relates  the  events  of  com- 
mon life  in  practical  fashion,  interspersed  with 
moral  maxims,  and  is,  in  fact,  an  agricultural 
poem.  His  "Theogony  "  is  of  great  importance, 
as  it  contains  the  religious  faith  of  Greece. 
Through  this  poem  the  Greeks  first  found  a 
religious  code. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  Seventh  Century 
epic  poetry  was  the  only  form  in  use  except  the 
early  songs  or  hymns,  and  noble  families  were 
charmed  by  the  recital  of  the  deeds  of  their 
heroes  in  these  epics.  When  republican  move- 
ments began,  these  families  lost  something  of 
power  and  privilege,  a  development  of  individu- 
ality began,  and  a  poet  dared  to  put  his  own 
thoughts  or  feelings  into  verse.  These  poems, 
at  first,  took  the  form  of  elegy  or  epigram.  The 
elegies  of  Solon  (638-559  B.  C.)  were  pure 
expressions  of  his  political  feelings. 

To  add  to  the  pleasures  and  amusements 
sought  after  by  the  Greeks,  lighter  poems  were 
written  intended  to  be  sung  to  accompany  the 
lute,  hence  called  lyrics.  All  lyrical  poetry 
originally  consisted  in  cheerful  songs,  praises  of 
love  and  wine,  and  exhortations  to  enjoy  life. 
In  this  style,  Anacreon  was  the  most  celebrated. 
In  her  Odes,  a  form  of  lyrics,  Sappho  became  an 
object  of  admiratipn  and  Alcman  roused  valor 
by  his  martial  lines.  The  culminafion  of  lyric 
poetry  is  marked  by  two  great  names,  Simonides 
of  Ceos  and  Pindar.  Pindar  was  the  greatest 
of  the  Greek  lyric  poets. 

zEsop's  name  appears  about  570  B.  C,  and 
among  his  well-known  fables  have  been  collected 
those  from  other  sources.  No  metrical  version 
of  these  fables  is  known  to  belong  to  early  times. 

The  philosophers  of  this  time  took  up  prac- 
tical affairs,  and  among  them  were  the  often 
quoted  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece.  Epimenides 
of  Crete  stands  high  on  this  list,  closely  followed 
by  Solon  and  Thales,  and  their  fame  was  earned 
by  wise  judgment  and  skill  shown  in  their  man- 
agement of  the  offices  over  which  they  ruled. 
Their  sayings  also  form  the  body  of  many 
maxims  applied  to  daily  practical  living.  As 
the  nation  grew  intellectually,  a  habit  of  specu- 
lative thought  also  grew,  and  this  became  the 


284 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


period  of  scientific  Greek  literature.  Thales 
headed  the  school  of  Ionic  philosophy  which 
taught  the  material  origin  of  the  Universe. 
The  best-known  advocates  of  this  philosophy 
were  Pherecydes,  Anaxagoras,  and  Diogenes 
of  Apollonia. 

Pythagoras  was  the  founder  of  another  school 
known  under  his  name,  explaining  another 
origin  of  all  things  and  wandering  far  in  specu- 
lative discussions.  Xenophanes,  the  founder 
of  the  Eleatic  school,  adopted  an  ideal  system 
in  contrast  to  the  principle  of  the  Ionic  school, 
founded  on  experience.  Parmenides,  also,  be- 
longed to  this  school;  by  excluding  the  idea 
of  creation  he  fell  into  pantheism.  Zeno,  a 
pupil  of  Parmenides,  was  the  earliest  prose 
writer  among  the  Greek  philosophers. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  Age  of  Seven  Sages, 
some  writers  of  history  appeared,  telling  of  dis- 
tant times  and  events;  the  first  Greek  to  collect 
a  well-written  narrative  of  facts  was  Herodotus 
(484-424  B.  C.)  His  work  comprehends  a 
history  of  nearly  all  the  nations  of  the  world 
at  that  time.  Thucydides,  historian  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  was  also  a  philosopher,  con- 
sidering all  events  in  a  grave  manner,  and  ex- 
pressing himself  in  strong  condensed  sentences. 
The  charming  narration  of  Xenophon  stands 
in  strong  contrast  to  this  energetic  sternness, 
and  in  his  simple,  tranquil  style  is  found  the 
greatest  beauty  of  Greek  prose.  Of  these  three 
historians,  Herodotus  has  been  called  the  first 
artist  in  historical  writing  and  Thucydides  the 
first  thinker.  Xenophon  combined  the  literary 
with  the  practical,  he  wrote  of  men  of  the  past, 
and  of  affairs  of  his  own  time.  His  Anabasis 
is  a  modest  account  of  his  own  leadership  of 
the  Ten  Thousand  in  their  retreat  after  the  battle 
of  Cunaxa. 

Grecian  drama  was  formed  from  popular 
festivals  at  which  rustic  worshipers,  gathering 
around  the  altar  of  some  god,  sang  a  hymn  in 
his  honor,  especially  to  Dionysius,  the  God  of 
Wine.  Those  songs  soon  developed  into  dia- 
logue form,  making  the  elements  of  the  drama. 
iEschylus  (525-456  B.  C.)  is  known  as  the  founder 
of  dramatic  art;  he  divided  the  song,  brought 
skillful  actors,  and  gave  to  each  a  part.  The  three 
greatest  writers  of  Greek  tragedy  were  iEschylus, 


Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  Aristophanes  holds 
the  highest  place  as  writer  of  comedy. 

In  this  same  period  the  prose  literature  of 
Greece  rose  to  its  highest  culture.  Public  speak- 
ing had  been  common  in  Greece,  and,  among 
the  orators  of  Athens,  Pericles,  aided  by  the 
rhetorical  studies  of  the  Sophists,  exerted  great 
influence  upon  the  Greek  mind.  Lysias  gave 
the  new  form  of  plain  style,  Isocrates  estab- 
lished a  school  of  political  oratory,  and  Demos- 
thenes excelled  all,  using  the  common  language 
of  his  own  age  and  country,  and  appealing  to 
the  feelings  and  sentiments  of  his  listeners. 
iEschines  was  the  rival  of  Demosthenes. 

When  Socrates  came  into  philosophy  he  gave 
it  a  new  direction,  taking  the  study  of  human 
nature,  or  psychology,  in  place  of  theories  and 
speculations.  He  left  no  written  record  but 
his  genius  worked  on  his  followers  and  among 
them  Plato  best  expressed  his  principles.  The 
writings  of  Plato  still  stand  first  in  philosophical 
literature,  showing  beauty  of  diction  as  well 
as  power  in  handling  thought.  Aristotle,  a 
pupil  of  Plato's,  holds  a  place  equal  to  that  of 
his  teacher.  His  science  of  reasoning  has  been 
taught  in  all  later  schools.  He  put  into  form 
the  thoughts  of  Plato  and  Socrates,  and  worked 
out  a  complete  system  of  philosophy.  Epicurus, 
bom  about  six  years  after  the  death  of  Plato, 
established  what  is  known  as  the  Epicurean 
School  of  Philosophy.  He  gathered  about  him 
a  remarkable  group  of  men  and  women  and 
taught  the  practical  art  of  living.  His  followers 
became  rivals  of  the  Stoic- School. 

The  practical  mind  of  the  Greeks  found  ex- 
pression in  mathematics  and  engineering.  In 
the  Third  Century  B.  C,  Euclid  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  our  modern  geometry,  and  a  genera- 
tion later  Archimedes  demonstrated  the  prin- 
ciples which  underlie  all  engineering. 

In  146  B.  C,  Greece  fell  under  the  rule  of  her 
conquerors,  and  her  living  literature  died  with 
her  political  independence.  A  few  poets  con- 
tinued to  sing,  and  philosophers  and  historians 
continued  to  write,  as  Menander,  Strabo,  Plu- 
tarch, Epictetus,  Lucian;  but  her  glory  is  in 
the  past,  and  it  is  of  her  early  poets,  dramatists, 

f)hilosophers,  we  speak,  when  we  recall  Greek 
iterature. 


LATIN   LITERATURE 


Time 


B.  C. 

254-184 

239-169 
234-149 
220-130 

185-159 

148-103 
116-  27 
106-  43 
100-  44 

95-  55 

87-  54 

86-  34 

70-  19 

65-  8 

Lived  in  first  century  B.  C 


AUTHOB 


Plautus,     .    . 

Ennius,       .    . 
Cato  the  Elder, 
Pacuvius,  .    .    , 

Terence,     .    .    , 

Lucilius,     .    .    , 
Varro.     ... 
Cicero,    ... 
Caesar,  Julius, 
liUcretius, 
Catullus,    .    . 

Sallust,  .    .    . 

Virgil,  .  .  . 
Horace,  .  . 
Nepos,    .    .    . 


Representative  Works 


I  Aulularia, 
Comedy,  -^  Captivi, 

/  Pseudolus,  etc. 
Annales,  Thyestes,  etc. 
De  Re  Rustica,  Origines. 
Tragedy. 

(  Andrja, 
Comedy,  <.  Phormio, 

(Adelphi,  etc. 
Satires. 

On  Agriculture. 
Orations,  Essays,  Letters. 
Commentaries. 
De  Rerum  Natura. 
Lyrics. 

( Conspiracy  of  Catiline, 
History,  •<  War  with  Jugurtha, 

I  Memoirs. 
Georgics,  ^neid. 
Odes,  Satires,  Letters. 
History,  Biographies. 


LITERATURE 
LATIN   LITERATURE— Continued 


285 


Time 

Author 

Representative  Works 

B.  C.     A.  D. 
59         17 

43         18 

Ovid 

4         65 
A.  D. 

23-  79 

Seneca 

Pliny  the  Elder 

Investigations,  Moralistic  Essays. 

35-  95 

39-  65 

Lucan, 

55-117 

60-140 

Juvenal, 

Satire. 

61-115 

70-140 

475-525 

Boethius .    . 

De  Consolatione  Philosophiae,  Translations. 

The  first  name  in  Latin,  commonly  called 
Roman,  literature  is  that  of  Livius  Andronicus, 
date  about  240  B.  C.  Some  germs  of  poetry 
may  be  found  in  the  traditional  songs  belonging 
to  a  more  ancient  time,  but  these  had  little 
influence  on  real  literature.  The  Roman  mind 
turned  to  practical  living  and  study  of  science 
and  law.  In  other  nations  the  first  literature 
has  been  put  in  the  form  of  poetry;  among  the 
Romans  the  first  literary  effort  was  history. 
These  original  historical  .  documents  were  a 
simple  record  of  facts  with  no  touch  of  opinions 
or  sentiments. 

The  greatest  change  in  the  intellectual  con- 
dition of  the  Romans  came  through  influence 
of  the  Greek  captives,  who  were  employed  to 
teach  their  own  language,  which  soon  became 
a  part  of  the  education  of  a  Roman  noble.  In 
the  year  241  B.  C,  following  the  First  Punic 
War,  Livius  Andronicus,  one  of  the  Greek 
slaves,  substituted  a  drama  in  place  of  the  med- 
ley of  songs  used  in  public  amusements  or  games. 
He  made  the  first  Latin  translation  of  Greek 
in  these  plays,  which  he  himself  wrote  and 
acted.  His  words  became  text-books  in  Roman 
schools  and  were  used  until  the  time  of  Virgil. 
His  immediate  successor,  Nsevius,  also  adapted 
plays  from  the  Greek,  but  the  tastes  of  his  au- 
dience and  the  condition  of  the  language,  de- 
veloped through  business  and  action,  made 
comedy  his  choice.  After  him,  Plautus  and 
Terence  were  the  two  great  comic  poets  of  Rome. 

Ennius  (239-169  B.  C.)  is  known  as  the 
"father  of  Latin  song";  he  gave  a  new  di- 
rection to  Roman  literature,  closely  following 
Greek  models,  and,  turning  from  the  common- 
place to  the  heroic,  he  borrowed  greatly  from 
Homer.  His  Annals,  a  poetical  history  of  Rome, 
was  for  two  centuries  the  national  poem.  En- 
nius was  the  inventor  of  the  name,  satire,  but 
the  sharp,  fierce  satires  of  Lucilius,  written  at 
this  time  against  the  vices  and  follies  of  the 
Romans,  were  more  noted;  fragments  of  them 
still  exist.  Not  one  of  these  poets  was  born 
in  Rome. 

The  name  of  Cato  belongs  partly  to  this  same 
generation,  and  he  represented  the  pure,  native 
element;  prose  belonged  far  more  to  the  genius 
of  Rome  than  poetry.  Cato  heads  the  list  of 
Roman  historians  whose  works  belong  to  litera- 
ture; his  greatest  work,  "Origines,"  was  a  his- 
tory of  all  Italy  from  earliest  times.  His  De  Re 
Rustica  was  a  commonplace  book  on  agriculture 
and  domestic  economy,  written  in  rude  and 
unpolished  style,   but   clear  in  statement  and 


striking  in  illustration.  He  filled  many  high 
offices,  and  was  known  as  an  able  pleader;  he 
was  the  first  to  publish  his  speeches,  ninety  of 
which  have  come  down  to  this  day. 

The  chief  representatives  of  the  next  age  are 
Cicero,  Ca;sar,  Sallust,  Lucretius,  and  Catullus, 
whose  names  still  rank  among  classical  writers. 
Cicero  gave  a  fixed  character  to  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  through  him  oratory  at  Rome  took 
on  a  new  form;  he  was  both  orator  and  critic. 
To  him  philosophy  also  owes  much,  especially 
the  philosophy  adapted  to  practical  applica- 
tion; in  his  letters  he  pictures  Roman  life  of 
his  day  and  with  it  Roman  history.  The  most 
important  work  of  Csesar  is  his  commentaries, 
sketches  made  in  the  midst  of  action.  The 
histories  of  Sallust  are  of  more  value  in  an 
artistic  way  than  as  trustworthy  narrative,  but 
they  rank  high  as  political  studies. 

An  entirely  new  spirit,  arising  from  the  new 
political  life  of  the  nation,  entered  into  the  litera- 
ture of  Rome  during  the  time  known  as  the 
Augustan  Age,  the  most  remarkable  period  of 
Roman  literature.  The  earliest  and  greatest 
poet  of  this  age  was  Virgil,  who  idealizes  national 
glory  in  his  ^Eneid,  and  the  simple,  hardy  life 
of  Italy  in  his  "Bucolics"  and  "Georgics." 
Horace,  the  second  poet  of  his  time,  shows  the 
ways  of  living  and  of  thinking  in  his  "Epistles," 
"Epodes,"  and  "Satires."  The  great  historical 
work  of  Livy  is,  however,  the  most  systematic 
record  of  the  national  life.  Phaedrus,  in  his 
fables,  gave  lessons  suggested  by  those  times ;  but 
with  his  observations  he  had  little  imagination. 

In  the  century  following  the  Augustan  Age 
the  antagonisms  between  the  government  and 
the  makers  of  literature  gave  rise  to  the  satires 
of  Juvenal  and  to  the  somber  history  of  Tacitus. 
In  this  time  we  also  find  Quintilian,  the  great 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  Seneca,  the  author  of  trea- 
tises on  ethics,  and  Pliny  the  Elder,  with  his 
wonderful  natural  history.  The  doctrines  of 
the  Stoics  suited  the  stern  Romans:  Seneca 
studied  the  Stoic  philosophy;  but  his  treatises 
are  records  of  precepts  rather  than  explanations 
of  principles.  To  this  age,  Juvenal,  the  satirist, 
belongs.  With  these  names  the  term  classical, 
signifying  pure  literature,  is  lost.  The  Romans 
began  again  to  write  in  Greek,  and  to  this  Greek 
influence  was  soon  added  that  of  foreign  nations. 
Roman  literature,  as  one  of  the  great  literatures 
of  the  world,  ended. 

The  Latin  Fathers  of  the  Church  followed 
the  philosophy  of  Plato,  adapting  it  to  Chris- 
tianity.    Among    these    were    TertuUian,     St. 


286 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Ambrose,  and  Lactantius,  best  known  by  his 
work  "Divine  Institutes."  St.  Augustine  (354- 
430  A.  D.),  left  his  record  in  his  "City  of  God." 
St.  Jerome  made  a  Latin  version  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

Legal  writers  were  many,  and  from  them 
came  the  "Digest,"  "Code,"  "Institutes,"  etc., 
the  foundation  of  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Roman  Law. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 

The  scant  allusions  to  Scandinavians  found  in 
classical  literature  refer  to  the  people  of  Den- 
mark and  the  southern  part  of  Sweden.  The 
languages  of  the  different  countries  comprising 
Scandinavia  are  closely  allied,  for  the  old  Scandi- 
navian, or  Icelandic,  was  the  literary  language 
of  all  these  lands  until  about  the  year  1100. 

The  northern  sea  rovers,  in  the  Viking  days, 
had  settled  along  the  coasts  of  the  Western  Is- 
lands; when  Iceland  was  discovered,  in  the 
middle  of  the  Ninth  Century,  these  people, 
headed  by  a  widow  of  a  king  of  Dublin,  became 
settlers  in  the  new  land.  From  these  colonies 
came  a  poetry  which  in  beauty  and  power  was 
not  equaled  in  any  Teutonic  language  for  cen- 
turies. This  poetry  took  the  form  of  lays,  dirges, 
battle  songs,  and  songs  of  praise.  In  the 
mass  are  also  found  genealogical  and  mytho- 
logical poems  which  seem  to  have  been  written 
in  honor  of  one  famous  family.  To  a  certain 
shrewdness,  plain  straightforwardness,  and  a 
stern  way  of  looking  at  life  was  added  a  com- 
plex form  and  a  regularity  of  rhythm,  caught 
from  the  Latin  and  the  Celtic  poetry.  Scarcely  a 
name  among  the  authors  of  this  poetry  is  known ; 
the  exact  dates  of  the  writings  cannot  be  found ; 
but  these  poems  were  the  result  of  the  spirit  of 
the  old  Vikings  who  led  lives  of  wild  adventure, 
in  war  and  storm,  coming  into  contact  with  the 
cultivated  imagination  of  the  more  civilized 
races.  The  Saga,  or  prose  epic,  was  also  a 
form  of  literary  expression  in  those  early  days. 

It  has  been  said  that  in  Iceland  the  art  of 
poetry  took  the  place  of  music  and  that  a  mocking 
or  a  laudatory  verse  was  common  writing.  The 
first  generation  of  Icelandic  poets  has  been 
likened  to  the  troubadours  of  other  lands;  nearly 
all  were  of  Celtic  ancestry ;  they  attached  them- 
selves to  the  kings  and  earls  of  neighboring 
lands,  shared  their  adventures,  and  made  verse 
in  which  they  praised  their  victories  and  re- 
corded their  deaths.  The  Saga  was  the  out- 
frowth  of  this  verse  and  is  the  story  of  some 
ero.  In  its  purest  form  it  belongs  to  the  days 
of  the  Eleventh  Century  when  the  descendants 
of  heroes  recited  the  exploits  of  their  ancestors 
and  of  the  great  kings  of  Denmark  and  Norway. 
The  later  Sagas  show  Irish  influence.  When 
these  had  been  transmitted  orally  through  two 
or  three  generations  they  were  written  down 
and  this  became  the  form  followed  by  all  scholars. 
In  the  Thirteenth  Century  the  Saga  was  lost  in 
plain  biography.  A  work  known  as  the  "Sagas 
of  the  Norwegian  Kings"  gives  a  connected 
series  of  biographies  of  the  kings  of  Norway  to 
the  middle  of  the  Twelfth  Century.  This  was 
composed  by  the  Icelandic  historian  Snorri 
Sturluson  (1 179-1241),  the  greatest  author  known 
in    old   Scandinavian   literature.       During   this 


century  the  Norwegian  kings  employed  Ice- 
landers in  translating  the  French  romances  of 
Charlemagne  and  of  Arthur  which  made  the 
"Romantic  Sagas." 

Two  remarkable  collections  in  this  old  litera- 
ture are  known  under  the  title  of  "Edda,"  the 
translation  of  the  word,  or  title,  being  "great- 
grandmother."  The  "  Elder  "  or  poetic  "  Edda  " 
was  collected  in  Iceland.  The  poems  belong  to 
the  Eighth  or  Ninth  Centuries,  and  treat  of  the 
earliest  Scandinavian  legends.  From  the  "Ed- 
das  "  comes  our  knowledge  of  Scandinavian  my- 
thology and  ancient  religious  faith.  In  the 
one  known  as  the  "Prose  or  Younger  Edda"  is 
a  strange  sort  of  history  of  the  gods  or  mythical 
kings.  This  was  probably  written  during  the 
last  half  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  and  completed 
by  Snorri  Sturluson  in  the  year  1222. 

"Annals"  are  the  sole  material  for  the  early 
history  of  Iceland  and  these  end  with  the  year 
1430.  Of  many  theological  works  the  one  most 
noted  was  "John's  Book,"  written  late  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  plain  in  style  and  much 
read.  Proverbs  and  folk-tales  were  plentiful, 
and  have  come  down  to  the  present  day. 

Among  earlier  languages  we  find  no  Swedish, 
and  no  literature  of  Sweden  existed  before  the 
Thirteenth  Century.  The  oldest  form  in  which 
it  is  found  as  a  written  language  is  in  a  series  of 
manuscripts  known  as  the  "Common  Laws." 
Another  code,  "On  Conduct  of  Kings,"  a  hand- 
book of  morals  and  politics,  was  collected. 
Both  of  these  belong  to  the  Thirteenth  Century. 
The  name  of  St.  Bridget,  or  Birgitta,  an  inter- 
esting character  in  history,  is  found  in  connec- 
tion with  religious  works,  the  most  important 
being  a  collection  known  as  "Revelations,"  a 
record  of  her  visions  and  meditations  to  which 
her  father-confessor  added  a  version  of  the  first 
five  books  of  Moses.  The  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  continued  by  the  monk  Budde,  who 
died  in  1484. 

The  earliest  specimens  of  Swedish  poetry  are 
the  folk-songs  of  uncertain  date.  The  first  book 
printed  in  the  Swedish  language  appeared  in  the 
year  1495.  Neither  the  Renaissance  nor  the 
Reformation  much  influenced  literature  in 
Scandinavia.  The  Carmelite  monks,  the  two 
brothers  Petri,  studied  theology  under  Luther 
and  went  back  to  Sweden  to  teach  the  new  faith. 
They  wrote  psalms  and  plays;  Olaus  Petri 
found  time  to  add  an  historical  "Chronicle." 

The  last  half  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  was  a 
blank  save  for  the  literature  connected  with 
the  University  of  Upsala,  which  had  been 
founded  in  the  year  1477;  but  under  the  reign 
of  Charles  IX.  (1604-1611)  literature  gained 
life  with  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country. 
Bur£EUS,  the  royal  librarian,  studied  all  known 
sciences  and  made  a  jumble  of  his  own  convic- 
tions, recording  them  in  several  unreadable 
volumes.  Through  his  patient  study,  however, 
he  roused  interest  in  a  knowledge  of  Scandi- 
navian language  and  mythology.  The  Swedish 
drama  began  during  these  years,  the  greatest 
dramatist  being  Messenius  (1579-1636),  whose 
lyrics  have  something  of  the  charm  of  the  old 
ballads.  His  first  historical  comedy  was  "  Disa," 
and  his  first  tragedy  "Signill."  He  planned  to 
write  the  history  of  his  land  in  fifty  plays,  but 


LITERATURE 


287 


he  finished  only  six.  He  later  plotted  against 
the  government,  was  sentenced  to  prison  for 
hfe,  and  wrote  much  while  in  prison,  including 
a  history  of  Sweden  written  in  Latin.  Contem- 
poraneous with  Messinius  was  Stjernhjelm, 
who  has  borne  the  title  of  "Father  of  Swedish 
Poetry."  He  traveled  over  Europe,  was  made 
a  noble  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  later  at- 
tached to  the  court  in  Stockholm  as  a  sort  of 
poet-laureate.  His  writings  had  much  influence 
on  the  language  itself,  molding  it  into  smooth- 
ness. He  left  works  on  philology  and  wrote 
out  the  letter  "A"  in  the  first  Swedish  diction- 
ary. His  work  shows  German  influence,  and 
his  greatest  poem,  "Hercules,"  is  an  allegory 
written  in  musical  verse  with  Oriental  phrasing 
and  imagery.  He  was  followed  by  poets  who 
wrote  after  French  models,  but  the  majority 
took  Stjernhjelm,  himself,  as  guide,  and  lost  all 
independence. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  (1594-1632)  wrote  pol- 
ished prose  and  his  "Speeches"  hold  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  literature  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  In  the  next  age  was  Rubeck  (1630- 
1702),  a  genius  in  learning,  who  became  famous 
through  all  Europe  for  his  discoveries  in  physi- 
ology before  he  was  twenty-five.  He  also  did 
much  toward  the  practical  improvement  of  the 
University  of  Upsala,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  life.  The  object  of  his  great  work,  "  Atland," 
written  in  Swedish  and  Latin,  was  to  prove  that 
the  fabled  Atlantis  had  been  found  in  the  Swed- 
ish nation.  It  has  been  said  of  these  volumes 
that  they  make  "a  monstrous  hoard  or  cairn 
of  rough-hewn  antiquarian  learning,  now  often 
praised,  sometimes  quoted  from,  and  never  read." 

The  Eighteenth  Century  saw  Swedish  litera- 
ture take  solid  shape.  The  influence  of  France 
and  England  crowded  out  German  and  Italian 
tastes,  and  in  Dalin,  a  leader  of  his  time,  the 
effect  is  plain.  His  "Swedish  Argus"  was 
modeled    on    Addison's    "Spectator,"    and    his 


"Thoughts  About  Critics"  on  the  writings  of 
Pope;  his  epic,  "Swedish  Freedom,"  and  his 
comedy,  "The  Envious  Man,"  show  admiration 
of  the  French.  His  songs  and  shorter  poems 
are  specimens  of  skilled  workmanship.  The 
only  poet  who  compared  with  Dalin  at  this  time 
was  Charlotta  Nordenflycht,  whose  lyrics,  col- 
lected in  1743  under  the  title,  "The  Sorrowing 
Turtledove,"  became  very  popular.  She  set- 
tled in  Stockholm,  presided  over  a  literary  salon, 
and  was  called  "The  Swedish  Sappho." 

Among  other  poets  are  Bellman,  a  writer  of 
odes,  Franzen,  who  left  some  noted  lyrics,  and 
Wallin,  archbishop  of  Upsala,  publisher  of  the 
national  hymn-book. 

In  the  year  1786,  the  Swedish  Academy  was 
formed  after  the  manner  of  the  French  Academy, 
but  with  eighteen  members,  instead  of  forty. 
In  1811,  the  younger  men  .of  Stockholm  founded 
the  Gothic  Society,  intended  for  improvement 
in  literary  work  by  means  of  the  study  of  Scandi- 
navian antiquity.  Two  great  lights  in  this  new 
school  were  Tegner,  the  famous  verse  writer, 
and  Geijer,  more  noted  for  his  prose.  Stagnelius 
has  been  compared  to  Shelley  and  his  mysterious 
death  in  1823  gave  a  romantic  interest  to  his 
name.  Runeberg  (1804-1877)  divides  honors 
with  Tegner,  and  King  Oscar  II.  (born  1829) 
was  a  genuine  poet.  Fredrika  Bremer,  also  a 
writer  of  verse,  is  better  known  through  her 
stories  which  have  been  translated  into  many 
languages. 

As  an  historian  of  Swedish  literature,  Wieselgren 
is  much  quoted.  Anders  Fryxell  (1795-1881) 
wrote  the  great  history  of  the  country  which 
appeared  in  parts,  taking  nearly  sixty  years  in 
the  construction,  and  Schlyter,  born  1795, 
was  the  legal  historian.  Rydberg,  belonging 
a  generation  later,  was  author  of  historical  tales. 
The  general  revival  of  letters,  coming  at  the  end 
of  the  great  wars  of  the  world,  was  slow  in 
Sweden. 


SWEDISH   LITERATURE 


Time 


Author 


Prose 


Poetry 


13027-1373 
1484 
1497-1552 
1499-1573 
1579-1636 
1594-1632 
1598-1672 
1630-1702 
1688-1772 
1707-1780 
1708-1763 
1714-1763 
1718-1763 
1740-1795 
1754-1817 
1759-1808 
1772-1847 
1779-1839 
1779-1848 
1782-1846 
1783-1847 
1789-1877 
1793-1823 
1793-1866 
1795-1881 
1800-1877 
1801-1865 
1804-1877 
1829-1895 


St.  Bridget 

Johannes  Budde,    .    .    . 

Olans  Petri 

Laurentius  Petri,  .  .  . 
Johnannes  Messenius,  . 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  .  . 
Georg  Stjernhjelm,     .    . 

Olaf  Rudbeck 

Emanuel  Swedenborg,  . 

Johan  Ihre, 

Olaf  Dalin 

Jacob  Henrik  Mork,  .  . 
Charlotte  Nordenflycht, 
Karl  M.  Bellman,  .  .  . 
Anna  Maria  Lengen,  .  . 
Thomas  Thorild,  .  .  . 
Franz  Franzen,  .... 
Johan  Olaf  Wallin,  .  . 
Jons  Bersilius,  .... 
Esaias  Tegner,  .... 
Erik  Gustav  Geijer,  .  . 
Gustaf  Gamaelius,  .  .  . 
Erik  Johan  Stagnelius, 
Karl  J.  L.  Almquist,  .  . 
Anders  Fryxell,  .  .  . 
Per  Wieselgren,  ... 
Frederika  Bremer, .  .  . 
Johan  Ludwig  Runeberg, 
Viktor  Rydberg,     . 


Common  Laws 

On  conduct  of  Kings 

Her  "revelations." 

Translation  of  Bible 

Chronicle  of  Swedish  History, 


History  of  Sweden,  .    . 

Speeches 

Philology 

Atland,  Physiology.     . 

Philosophic 

Dictionary,  (Swedish). 
History  of  Sweden,  .  . 
Novels 


Criticisms. 


Chemistry. 


History,  Philology. 
Historical  Novels. 


Novels  (Thorn  Rose,  etc.).  .  . 

History 

History  of  Swedish  Literature. 
Novels 


Historical  Novels. 


Mystery  Play. 
Psalms. 
Poems,  Lyrics. 

Hercules,  Masques. 


Swedish  Freedom,  Poems,  Dramas. 

Lyrics. 

Odes. 

Household  Poems. 

Lyrics. 
National  Hymns. 

Poems  (most  noted). 
Dramas,  Lyrics,  Sonnets. 

Poems. 


288 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


DANISH   LITERATURE 


Time 


Author 


Peose 


Poetry 


1480-1554 
1542-1616 

1607 
1545-1623 
1546-1601 
1587-1637 
1616-1678 
1634-1703 
1684-1754 
1694-1764 
1728-1798 
1736-1806 
1742-1785 
1743-1781 
1744-1812 
1751-1833 
1760-1830 
1764-1826 
1764-1827 
1769-1826 
1773-1856 
1775-1854 
1777-1817 
1777-1851 
1779-1850 


1782-1848 
1783-1872 
1783-1857 
1787-1832 
1789-1852 
1789-1862 
1791-1860 
1791-1862 
1789-1870 
1805-1875 
1809-1876 
1813-1842 


Neils  of  Sorro 

Mikkel  of  St.  Albans,     .. 
Christian  Pedersen,    .    . 

A.  G.  Vedel 

Alfred  Hoitfeld 

Hieronymus  Rauch,  .    . 

Peder  Claussen 

Tycho  Brahe, 

Anders  Arrebo 

Erik  Pontoppidan,     .    . 

Thomas  Kingo 

Ludwig  Holdberg,  .  .  . 
Hans  Adolphus  Brorson, 
Peter  Frederik  Suhm,  . 
Johan  Clemens  Tode,  . 
Johan  Herman  Wessel, 
Johannes  Ewald,  .  .  . 
Werner  Abrahamson,  . 
Neils  Treschow,  .... 
Knud  Lyne  Rahbek,.  . 
Jens  I.  Baggeson,   .    .    . 

O.  C.  Olufsen 

Adolph  Schack-Staffeld, 
Countess  Gyllembourg, . 

Bishop  Mynster 

Peter  Thun  Foerson,  .    . 

Hans  Christian  Oersted, 

Adam   Gottlob   Oehlen- 

schlager 

Steen  Steensen  Bilcher, 
Nikolai  F.  S.  Greendtvig, 
Christian  Molbeck, .  .  . 
Rasmus  E.  Rask,  .  .  . 
Joachim  F.  Schouw,  .  . 
Bernhard  S.  Ingemann, 
Johan  Ludwig  Heiberg, 
Neils  M.  Petersen,  .  .  . 
Henrik  Hertz,  .... 
Hans  Christian  Andersen, 
Frederik  P.  Muller,  .  . 
Solomon  Drier,  .... 


Younger  Edda, 


Tales,  Translation  of  Bible. 

Saxon  Grammar 

Chronicles  of  Denmark.  .    . 


Description  of  Norway. 
Astronomy 


Danish  Grammar.    . 
History  of  the  World. 


History. 
Medical. 


Critical.  .  .  . 
Philosophic.  .  . 
Novels,  Essays, 


Geography,  Political  Economy. 


Novels.  .    . 
Theological. 


Modern  Science. 
Romances,   ■ .    . 


Novels 

Theological,  Political, 

Dictionary 

Grammars 

Geography  of  Plants. 
Novels  (Popular).    . 


History,  etc 

Fairy  Tales,  Only  a  Player,  etc. 
Zoology 


Elder  Edda. 

History  of  Denmark  (rhyme). 

Sacred  Poems. 


Tragedies  (Biblical). 

World's  First  Week. 
Psalms  and  Hymns. 
Hymns. 

Poems. 

King  Christian,  Lyrics,  Tragedies. 

Dramas,  Songs. 
Poems  (humorous). 

Lyrics. 

Translation  of  Shakespere. 


Hakon,  Jarl,   Aladdin,  Gods  of  the 

North,  etc. 
Tour  in  Jutland. 
Poems. 


Lyrics,  Dramas. 
Lyrics,  Satire,  Dramas. 
Dramas,  Poems. 


By  the  oldest  authorities  the  early  Scandi- 
navian language  is  referred  to  as  the  "Danish 
tongue,"  and  what  has  been  noted  as  the  most 
precious  legacy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  historical 
and  poetical,  is  a  collection  of  some  500  poems 
known  as  the  Danish  ballads.  The  language  in 
which  these  poems  were  preserved  is  that  of  the 
Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,  but  they 
are  supposed  to  have  been  composed  between 
the  years  1300  and  1500.  The  University  of 
Copenhagen  was  founded  in  1479  and  the  print- 
ing press  set  up  in  the  city  in  1490. 

Referring  back  to  the  earliest  days,  the  "Ed- 
das"  are  counted  on  lists  of  Danish  literature, 
and  the  story  of  Iceland  is  part  of  the  history 
of  Denmark.  The  years  between  1530  and  1680 
have  been  named  as  the  fourth  period  in  the 
development  of  the  Danish  language;  here  real 
Danish  literature  begins  and  it  was  the  Reforma- 
tion that  first  gave  to  it  the  living  spirit.  In 
this  connection  was  Christian  Pendersen,  who 
worked  up  into  their  present  form  some  half 
mythical  stories,  including  that  of  Ogier;  the 
Dane,  and  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible ;  this 
work  was  carried  on  later  by  Vedel. 

The  first  original  dramatist  was  Rauch,  who 
wrote  some  biblical  tragedies;  Peter  Claussen, 
a  Norwegian  by  birth,  left  the  noted  "Descrip- 
tion of  Norway,"  and  Alfred  Hoitfield  gave  a 
start  in  history  by  his  "Chronicles  of  Denmark," 
printed  in  ten  volumes  between  the  years  1595 
and  1604.  Anders  Arebbo,  writer  of  psalms 
and  hymns,  has  been  called  the  founder  of  Dan- 


ish poetry,  and  other  hymns  were  written  by 
Kingo,  a  Scotchman  by  descent,  who  applied 
Scotch  vigor  to- his  work,  and  his  "Winter  Psal- 
ter" is  considered  a  copy  of  fine  lyrical  writing. 
Another  writer,  Brorson,  published  a  psalm- 
book  in  1740,  in  which  he  added  the  best  of 
Kingo's  to  his  own.  With  these  names  we  reach 
the  end  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Holdberg,  born  in  1684,  and  Oehlenschlager, 
who  dates  nearly  a  century  later,  were  the  au- 
thors who  had  the  strongest  personal  influence 
on  Danish  writings.  Attention  was  first  called 
to  Holdberg  by  the  marked  style  in  his  "His- 
tory of  the  World,"  and  he  was  soon  made  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  He 
wrote  comedies  in  prose  and  verse  which  still 
have  freshness  in  matter  as  well  as  in  style.  Oeh- 
lenschlager created  a  new  form  in  writing  and 
roused  in  the  people  a  sense  of  their  nationality 
through  his  treatment  of  Scandinavian  mythol- 
ogy. Between  these  authors  are  many  noted 
names  and  among  them  Wessel  and  Ewald,  both 
men  of  genius,  and  the  German  poet  and  dram- 
atist, Klopstock,  who  settled  in  Stockholm,  and 
had  great  German  influence  on  Danish  letters. 

Early  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  the  modern 
fabulist,  Hans  Christian  Andersen,  who  seems 
to  belong  to  the  world,  was  born  in  Denmark. 
In  the  year  1835  appeared  his  first  collection  of 
"Fairy  Tales"  and  from  that  time  almost  every 
year  until  his  death,  in  1875,  he  published  one 
or  more  of  these  unique  stories.  He  traveled 
much  about  Europe  and  in  a  series  of  memoirs 


LITERATURE 


289 


he  recorded  his  interesting  impressions.  Dur- 
ing this  century  Neils  Petersen  translated  many 
of  the  sagas ;  Molbeck  edited  the  first  good  Dan- 
ish dictionary;  Schouw,  an  eminent  botanist, 
Dreier  and  Japetus,  well-known  zoologists, 
wrote  on  these  sciences;  Kierkegaard  left  philo- 
sophical works,  and  Nikolia  de  Saint  Aubain 
published  some  charming  romances.  Georg 
Brandes,  belonging  to  the  last  half  of  the  cen- 
tury, stands  conspicuous  in  his  country  as  an 
advocate  for  liberal  culture  and  speculation. 

Norwegian  and  Danish  literatures  are  con- 
nected in  much  the  same  way  as  the  literatures 
of  England  and  America;  there  was  the  same 
desire  of  a  new  nation  to  express  local  emo- 
tions and  condition,  though  using  the  old  lan- 
guage. The  founding  of  the  University  in 
Christiana  in  the  year  1811,  and  the  separation 
of  Norway  from  Denmark  in  1814,  led  to  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  political  independence.  If  all 
Norse  writers  were  taken  from  Danish  literature, 
the  close  connection  between  the  two  would  be 
more  plainly  marked,  for  many  of  the  noted 
names  belong  to  Norway. 

The  first  book  printed  in  Norway  was  an 
almanac  brought  out  in  1643  by  a  wandering 
printer  who  carried  types  from  Copenhagen. 
The  earliest  purely  Norwegian  writer  who  could 
claim  originality  was  the  wife  of  the  pastor 
Bardenbeck  (1634-1716),  who  wrote  several 
volumes  of  religious  poetry,  morbidly  devotional, 
which  became  very  popular.  A  few  real  Nor- 
wegians were  distinguished  in  science :  Gunnerus, 
the  botanist;  Schoning,  the  historian;  and 
Strom,  the  zoologist,  but  these  authors  also 
wrote  in  Latin  and  Danish.  In  the  year  1772 
the  Norwegian  poets  were  so  strong  in  Copen- 
hagen that  they  formed  a  Norwegian  society, 
and  there  is  no  notice  of  anyone  counted  among 
Danish  authors  who  was  born  in  Norway  since 
the  year  1800.  The  first  independent  form  taken 
in  Norwegian  literature  seems  to  be  what 
was  called  the  poetry  of  the  Seventeenth  of 
May,  the  date  on  which  Norway  proclaimed  her 
king. 

The  acknowledged  creator  of  this  new  litera- 
ture was  the  poet  Wergeland  (1808-1845),  who 
urged  the  worth  of  individual  liberty  and  national 
independence,  but  he  was  imaginative  and  lack- 
ing in  knowledge,  and  his  writings  were  coldly 


received  by  critics;  a  volume  of  his  patriotic 
poems,  however,  attracted  readers  and  resulted 
in  making  him  a  power  in  politics.  A  more 
wholesome  influence  was  that  of  Welhaven 
(1807-1873),  whose  first  publications  were  di- 
rected against  Wergeland,  and  raised  a  contro- 
versy that  became  the  topic  of  the  day.  Wel- 
haven preached  conservatism  in  a  collection  of 
satirical  sonnets  called  "The  Dawn  of  Norway," 
and  his  advice  was  soon  appreciated  and  drew 
attention  to  a  wider  field.  He  did  good  work 
both  as  poet  and  critic.  Contemporary  with 
these  poets,  but  taking  no  part  in  the  feud,  was 
Andreas  Munch.  Two  of  his  historical  dramas 
became  quite  popular.  Another  poet,  Landstad, 
was  employed  by  the  government  to  prepare  a 
national  hymn-book  which  was  pubUshed  in  the 
year  1861. 

The  collection  of  old  Norse  folk-tales  made  by 
Abjornsen  and  Bishop  Moe  is  prominent  in  Nor- 
wegian literature.  They  began  by  writing 
down  the  stories  of  the  peasants,  and  publishing 
at  first  in  form  for  children's  reading.  The 
entire  collection  was  gathered,  during  many 
years,  from  minstrels,  boatmen,  and  wanderers 
of  all  sorts,  and  thus  they  preserved  the  ancient 
and  historical  legends. 

Old  Norwegian  laws,  Runic  inscriptions  and 
documents  dealing  with  the  mediaeval  history 
of  the  country  have  also  been  studied  by  other 
writers,  who  have  published  the  results  in  differ- 
ent forms. 

Ibsen  and  Bjornson  were  the  most  prominent 
writers  in  their  generation,  confining  their  work 
almost  entirely  to  the  drama  and  the  novel. 
The  name  of  Bjornson  was  made  famous  by  his 
"Symnove  Solbakkan,"  which  appeared  in  1857, 
and  "  Arne  "  following  in  the  next  year.  These  are 
romantic  and  yet  realistic  stories  of  life  among 
mountain  peasants  written  in  singularly  attract- 
ive style.  He  wrote  other  novels  and  several 
dramas,  among  them  a  little  comedy,  "The 
Newly  Married  Couple,"  which  gained  immedi- 
ate success,  the  drama,  "Sigurd  Slembe,"  also 
adding  to  his  fame.  Of  Ibsen's  dramas  "  Brand  " 
and  "Peer  Gynt,"  studies  of  modern  life,  and 
"The  Doll's  House,"  "Ghosts,"  and  others  are 
well  known.  Norway  has  also  historians,  theo- 
logians, and  scientific  men,  who  made  their  mark 
in  the  literary  world  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 


GERMAN   LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE   WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 

Ulfilas 

Gothic  Bible 

Rolandslied. 

Wolfram  von  Esenbach, 

Nibelungenlied. 

Gudrun. 

1170-1235 

Hartmann  von  Aue,  .    . 
Martin  Luther 

Der  Anne  Heinrich. 

1483-1546  . 
1488-1523 

German  Bible 

Satirical  Verse. 

1494-1576 

1575-1624 

Jacob  Boehm 

Paul  Gerhart 

1607-1676 

Poems,  Hymns. 

1609-1640 

Paul  Fleming 

Poems. 

1655-1728 
1708-1777 
1715-1769 
1717-1768 
1720-1797 

Christian  Thomasius,     . 
Albrecht  Halier,     .    .    . 
Christian  Gellert,    .    .    . 
Johann  Winckelmann, 
Hieronymus  K.  F.  Baron 
von  Munchhausen,     . 

First  German  Periodical  (Ed.)  . 

Scientific 

Fables  (moral), 

History  of  Ancient  Art.      .    .    . 

Fiction 

Poems. 

290 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


GERMAN   LITERATURE 


Time 


Author 


REPRESENTATIVE   WORKS 


Prose 


Poetry  and  Drama 


1724-1803 
1724-1804 

1729-1812 
1729-1781 
1733-1813 
1744-1803 
1747-1794 
1749-1832 

1751-1826 
1759-1805 

1761-1819 
1762-1814 
1763-1825 
1767-1835 
1768-1834 
1769-1860 
1769-1859 
1770-1831 
1772-1829 
1778-1831 
1776-1861 
1777-1843 
■1779-1859 
1781-1830 
1781-1838 
1785-1863 
1786-1859 

1786-1862 
1787-1862 
1788-1860 
1789-1850 
1791-1813 
1799-1856 
1799-1890 
1802-1884 
1805-1871 
1806-1884 

1812-1882 

1814-1873 

1814-1896 

1814-1908 

1816-1895 

1817-1881 

1817-1903 

1817-1895 

1819-1867 

1822-1890 

1830 

1837-1898 

1842-1906 

1848-1904 


F.  G.  Klopstock.  .  .  . 
Immanuel  Kant,    .    .    . 

C.  G.  Heyne 

G.  E.  Leasing, 

Ch.  M.  Wieland.  .  .  . 
Johann  G.  von  Herder, . 

G.  A.  Burger 

Johann  Wolfgang  I 

Goethe, 1 

Johann  Voss 

Frederick  von  Schiller,  . 

August  von  Kotzebue,  . 
Johann  Gottlieb  Fichte, 
Jean  Paul  Richter,  .  . 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt, 
F.  D.  Schleiermacher,  . 
Ernst  M.  Arndt,  .  .  . 
Alexandervon  Humboldt, 
Georg  W.  F.  Hegel,  .  . 
Friedrich  von  Scnlegel,  . 
Barthold  Niebuhr,      .    . 

F.  C.  Schlosser 

Karl  de  la  Mptte  Fouqu^, 

Karl  Ritter 

Johann  R.  Wyss  (Swiss), 
Adalbert  von  Chamisso, 
Jacob  Grimm,  .... 
Wilhelm  Grimm,    .    .    . 


A.  J.  Kerner,  .    .    . ' .  . 

Ludwig  Uhland,     .    .  . 

Arthur  Schopenhauer,  . 

Johann  Neander,    .    .  . 

Karl  T.  Korner,      .    .  . 

Heinrich  Heine,      .    .  . 

Johann  J.  Dollinger,  .  . 

Johann  P.  Lange,  .    .  . 

G.  G.  Gervinua 

Heinrich  Laube,     .    .  . 

Berthold  Auerbach,  .  . 
Luise  Miihlbach,  .  .  . 
Ernst  Curtius,  .  .  .  . 
Eduard  Zeller,  .  .  .  . 
Gustav  Freytag,  .  .  . 
Rudolf  H.  Lotze,  .  .  . 
Theodor  Mommsen,   .    . 

Karl  Vogt 

Albrecht  Schwegler,  .  . 
Heinrich  Schliemann,    . 

Paul  Heyse 

George  M.  Ebers,  .  .  . 
Eduard  von  Hartmann, 
Karl  E.  Franzos,    .    .    . 


Philosophy,    Critique    of    Pure 

Reason 

Critical'  and  Archseological.    .    . 

Laokoon,  etc., 

Agathon 

Philosophic, 


Wilhelm  Meister, 

Elective  Affinities,  etc 

Critical 

History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 


Philosophy 

Hesperus,  Titan,  etc 

Critical 

Philosophy 

History,  Scientific 

Science,  Kosmos,  etc..  Travels. 
Philosophy,  Leben  Jesu.  .  .  . 
History  of  Literature,  Lucinde. 

History  of  Rome,  etc 

Universal  History. 

Undine,  etc 

Geography  (noted) 

Swiss  Family  Robinson.      .    .    . 

Peter  Schlemihl 

German  Mythology,  etc.     .    .    . 

Household    Tales    (with    Jacob 

Grimm) 


Philosophy 

History  of  the  Church. 


Sketches, 

Theology,  History 

Commentaries,  Theology.  .  . 
Critical,  Shakespere,  etc.  .  . 
The  German  War,  and  other 

Novels, 

On  the  Heights,  etc 

Historical  Fiction 

History  of  Greece,  etc.    .    .    . 

Philosophy,  History 

Novels, 

Metaphysik,  Logik 

History 

Scientific 

History  (Rome,  etc.) 

Archaeology 

Novels, 

Orientalism,  Novels 

Philosophy 

Novels,  Travels 


Dramas,  Messiah,  e'tc. 


Minna  von  Barnhelm,  etc. 

Oberon. 

Voices  of  the  People. 

Lenore,  etc. 

Faust,  Tasso,  Lyrics,  etc. 

Translation  of  Iliad,  etc..  Idyl  Luise. 
The  Robbers,  William  Tell,  Wallen- 

stein. 
Comedies. 

Poems. 


Patriotic  Songs,  etc. 


Poems. 


Lyrics. 
Ballads. 


Lyre  and  Sword,  etc. 
Poems. 


Dramas. 


Poems,  Dramas. 


Poems. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  First  Century  the  Ger- 
mans had  ancient  poems  relating  to  their  gods 
and  the  forefathers  of  their  race.  It  is  also 
believed  that  the  stories,  "Reynard,  the  Fox," 
and  "Isengrin,  the  Wolf,"  may  be  traced  back 
to  those  remote  times,  and  were  brought  by  the 
Teutons  from  Asia. 

When  these  tribes  began  to  accept  Christianity, 
the  Church  considered  the  native  German  tra- 
ditions as  heathenish  monstrosities,  and  tried 
to  suppress  them.  Charles  the  Great  was  the 
first  to  check  this  movement  by  putting  together 
the  beginnings  of  a  German  grammar  and  by 
issuing  orders  for  the  collection  and  preservation 
of  old  German  poetry.  The  only  remnants  of  this 
poetry  left  to  us  are  the  Anglo-Saxon  "Beowulf," 
with  a  fragment  of  the  old  high  German  "Hilde- 
brandslied,"  and  the  Icelandic  "Edda." 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Great  and 
his  son,  Louis  the  Pious,  learning  was  zealously 
cultivated  by  the  monks  of  Germany;    schools 


were  established  among  them,  but  the  chief 
subject  of  their  study  was  scholastic  philos- 
ophy. One  of  the  monks,  who  died  in  the  year 
1022,  wrote  original  philosophical  books  and 
translated  works  from  Italy.  As  the  clergy 
became  the  chief  support  of  the  government 
and  connected  with  the  daily  life  of  the  people, 
a  different  class  of  writings  arose.  Scenes  of 
actual  life  were  pictured,  and  the  fiction,  al- 
though it  came  from  the  cells  of  monks  and  the 
cloister  school-rooms,  was  thoroughly  realistic. 
An  example  is  a  work  known  as  the  first  novel  of 
Modern  European  literature,  the  "Rolandslied," 
written  by  an  unknown  monk  about  the  year 
1L30.  In  the  form  of  a  story  of  love  and 
adventure  is  given  a  vivid  picture  of  German 
life  of  that  day. 

There  are  well-written  Latin  histories  belong- 
ing to  the  Eleventh  Century,  but  the  best  thought 
of  that  age  was  expressed  in  architecture  rather 
than  in  writing. 


LITERATURE 


291 


About  the  year  1200,  the  order  of  knights 
took  the  place  of  the  clergy,  leading  in  literature. 
It  was  in  poetry  that  Germany  gained  her  high- 
est distinction,  and  her  most  important  poets 
at  this  time  were  of  the  knightly  class.  The 
crusades  had  much  influence  and  led  to  the 
poetical  romances  of  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth 
Centuries.  Among  the  poets  the  names  of  Wol- 
fram von  Eschenbach  and  Gottfried  of  Stras- 
bourg stand  first,  with  Walter  von  der  Vogel- 
weide  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  them  all. 

A  few  poets  of  this 'age  of  chivalry  took  up 
the  legends  of  their  own  land,  and  the  most 
important  of  them  was  he  who  collected  and 
put  into  shape  the  ancient  ballads  which  make 
up  the  Nibelungen-lied.  Gudrun  is  another 
epic  which  puts  into  form  a  collection  of  legends. 
Latin  was  the  speech  of  scholars  and  poetry 
the  passion  of  writers,  leaving  small  chance  for 
the  growth  of  prose,  but  two  great  collections 
of  local  laws  had  influence  in  gaining  respect 
of  the  Germans  for  their  owji  language,  and 
this  was  the  first  serious  attempt  to  secure  for 
German  prose  a  place  in  literature. 

About  the  middle  of  the  Thirteenth  Century 
preaching  became  an  agency  of  great  power. 
The  new  preaching  orders  of  the  Franciscans 
and  the  Dominicans  were  given  special  privilege 
to  speak  on  any  day  and  in  any  place;  thus  they 
came  in  touch  with  the  people  and  grew  wider 
in  thought.  Most  popular  among  these  preachers 
was  Brother  Berthold,  an  orator  and  a  writer 
of  high  rank.  The  next  early  writer  of  religious 
prose,  Echart,  became  the  founder  of  the  Mystic 
School.  The  most  important  writers  of  the 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  are  the  monks 
of  this  school,  whose  works  form  the  link  be- 
tween the  great  age  of  the  Crusades  and  the 
greater  age  of  the  Reformation.  The  well- 
known  "  Imitation  of  Christ,"  by  Thomas  a 
Kempis  (died  1471),  belongs  to  this  class. 

With  the  Sixteenth  Century  begins  the  modern 
history  and  modern  literature  of  Germany. 
Luther  (1483-1546)  and  the  Reformers  belonged 
to  the  people,  and  in  literature,  not  less  than  in 
religion,  Luther  was  the  commanding  spirit  of 
his  age.  His  greatest  work  was  his  translation 
of  the  Bible,  simple  and  strong,  and  in  a  lan- 
guage that  the  nation  could  understand.  Ger- 
mans instantly  felt  its  charm.  Up  to  this  date 
each  author  had  written  in  a  dialect  with  which 
he  was  familiar.  Luther's  Bible,  for  the  first 
time,  gave  to  the  nation  a  literary  language 
and  a  common  speech.  The  hymns  of  Luther 
are  noted  for  vigor  of  style  and  high  devotional 
feeling.  Melanchthon,  Ulric  von  Hutten,  and 
Zwingle,  with  other  leaders  of  the  movement, 
were  distinguished  scholars.  Arnd  and  Jacob 
Boehm,  theologians,  Hans  Sach,  the  leading 
poet,  Paracelsus  and  Cornelius  Agrippa,  mystic 
philosophers,  belong  to  this  century,  with  Albert 
Durer,  scholar  and  painter,  and  Gesner,  the 
naturalist. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 
Germany  was  desolated  by  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  (1618-1648).  This  desolation  caused  a 
whole  generation  to  grow  up  in  ignorance,  and 
the  religious  lyric  seemed  the  only  class  of  litera- 
ture fitted  to  the  conditions.  Hymns  took  the 
place  of  the  old  ballads.     Paul  Gerhart  (1606- 


1675)  was  the  greatest  hymn  writer  with  many 
worthy  associates  both  among  the  Protestants 
and  the  Jesuits.  Prose  writers  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  were  generally  either  artificial 
or  coarse.  Among  numberless  romances,  one, 
Simplicissimus,  by  Grimmelhausen,  has  qualities 
bordering  on  genius.  In  form  of  fiction  it  is  a 
story  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Under  the  rule  of  Frederick  the  Great,  be- 
ginning in  the  year  1740,  literature  shared  in 
the  general  prosperity.  Prose  writers  on  the- 
ology and  philosophy  grew  more  liberal,  and 
the  poets,  Klopstock  and  Lessing,  changed  the 
tone  of  German  writing.  The  influence  of  Kant 
(1724-1804)  brought  a  host  of  philosophical 
writers  and  critics  with  new  thoughts.  Kant's 
new  ideas  embodied  in  his  work,  "Critique  of 
Pure  Reason,"  and  the  doctrines  he  there  taught, 
or  explained,  have  since  been  known  as  the 
Critical  Philosophy.  Lessing  and  Herder  were 
philosophers  as  well  as  poets,  and  Lessing's 
book,  "  Education  of  the  Human  Race,"  enlarged 
the  field  of  historic  inquiry  in  Germany.  Herder 
had  a  fine  enthusiasm  for  human  happiness  which 
lights  up  both  his  prose  and  poetry.  Fichte 
(1762-1814)  carried  the  new  doctrines  to  ex- 
tremes, teaching  that  the  life  of  the  mind  was 
the  only  real  life ;  while  Schelling,  writing  a  few 
years  later,  in  his  "Philosophy  of  Identity," 
modifies  this  by  supposing  an  intuition  and 
making  it  superior  to  reason.  The  most  pro- 
found philosophical  study  may  be  found  in 
Hazel's  "Absolute  Thought."  This  habit  of 
studying  into  the  mysteries  of  being  made  the 
noted  German  philosophy  that  has  affected 
literature  in  all  covmtries. 

Herder  roused  and  directed  the  young  genius 
of  Goethe  (1749-1832),  thus  helping  to  give  to 
Germany  the  writer  who  holds  place  equal  to 
Shakespere  in  England,  and  Dante  in  Italy: 
Goethe  belongs  to  the  world  rather  than  to  one 
country.  Late  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Herder,  and  Wieland,  settled  at  Weimar, 
making  it  the  center  of  intellectual  life.  Goethe's 
drama,  "Gotz  von  Berlichingen,"  had  given 
him  place  as  poet,  and  his  sentimental  tale,"  The 
Sorrows  of  Werther,"  made  him  known  through- 
out Europe.  During  his  friendship  with  Schiller 
they  wrote  many  ballads  and  lyrics,  but  his 
longer  poem,  "Herman  and  Dorothea,"  was 
more  successful.  "Tasso"  and  "Faust"  are 
best  known  among  his  dramas,  and  "Wilhelm 
Meister"  as  his  philosophical  prose  work. 
Schiller's  tragedy,  "The  Robbers,"  was  received 
with  enthusiasm,  but  its  revolutionary  ardor 
brought  criticism.  Among  his  poems,  "Maid 
of  Orleans,"  "William  Tell,"  and  the  "Song 
of  the  Bell,"  are  the  best  known.  His  "Wallen- 
stein"  is  the  greatest  drama  in  the  German 
language.  Goethe's  narratives  of  travel,  his 
autobiography,  and  his  scientific  works,  are  also 
much  read.  The  principal  prose  works  of  Schiller 
are  "History  of  the  Netherlands"  and  "History 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War."  In  this  period  be- 
long, also,  Voss,  author  of  the  poem  "  Louise," 
and  Burger,  who  wrote  the  well-known  "Leo- 
nore"  and  "The  Wild  Huntsman."  Uhland, 
whose  first  volume  of  poems  was  published  in 
1815,  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  lyrics,  and 
his  epic  of  "Ludwig   der  Baier"    ranks   high. 


292 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Among  other  poets  are  Arndt,  author  of  the 
national  song,  "German  Fatherland,"  Riickert, 
an  Oriental  scholar,  and  Heinrich  Heine,  whose 
collection  of  lyrics,  "Buch  Der  Lieder,"  is  known 
throughout  the  world  of  letters. 

First  among  the  well-known  scientists  of 
Germany  stands  Humboldt,  whose  "Kosmos" 
presents  in  popular  form  the  results  of  years 
of  scientific  work.  Liebig  in  chemistry,  Vir- 
chow  in  biology,  Helmholtz  in  studv  of  sight 
and  sound,  and  Haeckel  with  his  darwinian 
investigations  have  made  their  subjects  in- 
telligible and  interesting  to  the  ordinary  reader. 

In  the  list  of  German  historians  are  the  names 
of  Ranke,  Niebuhr,  and  Dahlmam;  Hausser, 
who  wrote  the  elaborate  "  History  of  Germany  " ; 
Schlosser,  author  of  a  universal  history;  Ne- 
ander,  whose  "Life  of  Christ"  holds  place  with 
his  "History  of  the  Church";  and  Mommsen, 
whose   works   enrich   all   literature.     Historical 


fiction  closely  follows  history,  for  the  novel 
holds  an  important  place  in  Germany.  Tieck, 
as  a  writer  of  romance,  first  attracted  attention 
by  "Bluebeard"  and  "Puss  in  Boots."  In 
later  novels,  he  dealt  with  modern  life,  and,  as- 
sociated with  Schlegel,  a  literary  critic,  he  fin- 
ished a  German  translation  of  Shakespere, 
which  shows  mastery  of  verse,  form,  and  lan- 
guage. E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann,  another  novelist, 
wrote  grotesque,  ghostly  tales;  the  strange 
genius  of  Jean  Paul  Ricliter  shone  out  in  his 
prose  idyll,  "The  Years  of  Wild  Oats,"  and 
"Selections  from  the  Devil's  Papers."  "Hes- 
perus," "Titan,"  and  "Flower,  Fruit,  and  Thorn 
Pieces "  are  his  best,  and  show  striking  effects 
with  simplest  subjects.  Fouqu6  is  noted  as 
author  of  the  little  master-piece  "ITndine"; 
in  later  days,  Freytag,  Auerbach,  and  Paul 
Heyse  claim  attention.  Modem  Germany  is 
rich  in  all  departments  of  literature. 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


TiMF. 


1079-1142 

1160-1213 
1224-1317 
1337-1410 
1431-1484 
1445-1509 
1483-1553 
1509-1564 
1.524-1585 
1533-1592 
1555-1628 
1596-1650 
1606-1684 
1610-1660 
1613-1680 

1621-1695 
1622-1673 

162.3-1662 
1626-1696 
1627-1704 
1632-1704 
1639-1699 
1651-1715 
1657-1757 
1661-1741 
1663-1742 
1668-1747 
1694-1778 

1707-1788 
1712-1778 
1713-1784 
1715-1780 
1719-1776 
1723-1799 
1732-1799 
1737-1814 
1746-1830 
1749-1791 
1757-1820 
1760-1836 
1766-1817 
1767-1839 
1768-1848 

1769-1832 
1772-1837 
1780-1857 
1790-1869 
1792-1867 
1795-1856 
1797-1877 

1798-1857 


Author 


Pierre  AWlard,  .... 

Lorris  and  Meung, .    .    . 

Villehardouin 

Jean  Sire  de  Joinville,   . 

Jean  Froissart,    .... 

Francois  Villon,      .    .    . 

Philippe  de  Comines,.    . 

Francois  Rabelais, .    .    . 

John  Calvin 

Pierre  de  Ronsard,     .    . 

Michel  E.  de  Montaigne, 

Francois  de  Malherbe,  . 

Ren^  Descartes,      .    .    . 

Pierre  Comeille,      .    .    . 

Paul  Scarron 

Francois  de  la  Rochefou- 
cauld  

Jean  de  la  Fontaine, 

Jean    B.    Poquelin  (Mo- 
litre) 

Blaise  Pascal,      .... 

Mme.  de  S^vign^,   .    .    . 

Jacques  Bossuet,    .    .    . 

Louis  Bourdaloue,      .    . 

Jean  Racine, 

Francois  de  la  F^nelon, 

Bernard  Fontenelle,  .    . 

Charles  RoUin,    .... 

Jean  Massillon,   .... 

•Alain  Ren^  le  Sage,   .    . 

Francois  M.  Arouet  (Vol- 
taire),   

Comte  de  Buffon,  .    .    . 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau, 

Denis  Diderot,    .... 

fitienne  de  Condillac,    . 

Iillie  Fr^ron 

Jean  Francois  Marmontel, 

A.  de  Beaumarchais, .    . 
rHenri  B.  de  Saint-Pierre, 

Mme.  de  Genlis,      .    .    . 

Comte  Mirabeau,    .    .    . 

Constantin  de  Volney,  . 

.Claude  Rouget  de  Lisle, 

Mme.  de  Stael,    .... 

Joseph  Francois  Michaud. 

'Francois  Chateau-  I 

briand 1 

Baron  de  Cuvier,    .    .    . 

Francois  Fourier,    .    .    . 

Pierre  de  B^ranger,    .    . 

Alphonse  de  I.iamartine, 

Victor  Cousin 

Jacques  N.  Thierry,  .    . 

Louis  Adolphe  Thiers,  . 

Auguste  Comte 


REPRESENTATIVE  WORKS 


Prose 


Epistles,  Philosophy. 


Conquest  of  Constantinople. 

Chronicles 

Chronicles 


Memoirs 

Philosophy,  Satire.  .    .    . 
Institutes  of  Religion,  etf 


Essays.  .    . 
Philosophy. 


Maxims,  Memoirs. 


Philosophy,  Mathematics. 

Letters 

Sermons,  etc 

Sermons  (Jesuit).     .    .    . 


Tdl^maque,  etc 

Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  etc. 

Histories 

Orations  (religious).     .    .    . 
Gil  Bias,  etc., 


Critical  Essays 

Natural  History 

Fiction,  Philosophy,  Ethics. 
Fiction,  Encyclopedic  (Ed.) 

Metaphysics 

Biography 

Memoirs,  etc 


Paul  and  Virginia 

Novels 

Orations,  etc 

Ruins,  or  Meditations,  etc.. 


Delphine,  Corinne,  etc.  .  .  . 
History  of  the  Crusades,  etc.  . 
Ren^,  Genius  of  Christianity, 

Atala,  etc 

Natural  History 

Socialism  (Fourierism).  .    .    . 


History  of  the  Girondists,  etc.,  . 
Philosophy,  Metaphysics.   .    .    . 

History  of  France,  etc 

French   Revolution,  History   of 

the  Empire,  etc 

Positive  Philosophy 


Poetry  and  Drama 


Chanson  de  Roland. 
Roman  de  la  Rose. 

Ballads. 

Sonnets,  Odes,  etc. 

Poems. 

The  Cid,  Tragedy,  Comedy. 
Comic  Plays,  etc. 

Fables,  Contes,  etc. 

Comedies,  Le  Misanthrope,  etc. 

Tragedy. 
Tragedies. 

Translations. 
Poems,  Dramas. 


C!omedies. 


Marseillaise. 


Lyrics. 
Poems. 


LITERATURE 


293 


FREXCH  LITERATURE  — Continued 


Time 


Author 


REPRESENTATIVE  WORKS 


Prose 


Poetry 


1798-1865 
1798-1874 
1799-1850 

1799-1863 
1802-1885 

1803-1870 

1803-1870 
1804-1857 

1804-1869 
1804-1876 

1805-1859 

1810-1857 

1810-1883 

1811-1872 

1811-1883 

1821-1880 

1821-1890 

1822-1899 

1823-1892 

1824-1895 

1826-1890 

1827 

1828-1893 

1828-1885 

1828-1905 

1831-1908 

1835-1903 

1840-1897 

1840-1902 

1842-1908 

1850 

1850-1893 


Joseph  Xavier  Boniface, 
Jules  Michelet,    .    . 
Honord  de  Balzac, . 

Alfred  Victor  Vigny, 
Victor  Hugo,  .    .    . 

Alexander  Dumas, 

Prosper  Merimee,   . 
Eugene  Sue,    .    .    . 


C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve, 
Mme.  Dudevant  (George 
Sand),  ...... 

Alexis  de  Tocqueville, 
Alfred  de  Musset,  .    . 
Louis  Henri  Martin,  . 
Theophile  Gautier, 
Leonard  S.  J.  Sandeau, 
Gustav  Flaubert,    .    . 
Octave  Feuillet,      .    . 
Emile  Erckmann,  .    . 
J.  Ernest  Renan,    .    . 
Alexander  Dumas  (fils) 
Alexandre  Chatrian,  . 
Pere  Hyacinth,  .    .  " . 
H.  A.  Taine,    .... 

Francois  About,.    .    . 

Jules  Verne ■( 

Victorien  Sardou,  .  .  . 
Paul  du  Chaillu,  .  .  . 
Alphonse  Daudet,  .    .    . 

Emil  Zola 

Francois  Coppee,    .    .    . 
Louis  Viaud  (Pierre  Loti), 
H.  R.  Guy  Maupassant, 


Picciola,  etc 

History  of  France 

Novels,  Comedies  of  Human  Life, 

etc 

Cinq  Mars,  etc 

Novels  (Les  Miserables,  etc).  .  . 
M^,roi=  *  Count  of  Monte  Christo, 
iNOVels  -|  ^jj^gg  Musketeers,  etc. 

Novels 

Mysteries  of    Paris,  Wandering 

Jew 

Criticisms,  etc 

Lelia,  Consuelo,  etc 

Political  Science 

Novels, 

History  of  France 

Criticisms,  Novels, 

Novels 

Novels 

Novels, 

Novels  (with  Chartrain).     .    .    . 

Life  of  Jesus,  etc 

Novels,  Biography 

Novels  (with  Erckmann).  .    .    . 

Orations  (Pulpit) 

History  of  Literature,  etc. .   .    . 

Novels 

20,000  Leagues  Under  the  Sea, 
Round  the  World  in    80  Days, 
etc 

Travels,  Natural  History.  .    .    . 

Novels 

Novels 


Lyrics. 


Poems,  Dramas. 
Poems. 

Dramas. 


Novels,  Travels.    .    . 
Novels,  Short  Stories. 


Dramas. 


Poems,  Dramas. 


The  most  ancient  documents  in  the  French 
language  date  from  the  Ninth  to  the  Eleventh 
Centuries,  but  real  French  literature  began  much 
later.  There  are  a  hundred  of  the  "Chansons 
de  Gestes,"  including  the  famous  "Chanson  de 
Roland."  Their  origin  is  not  known,  but  they 
date  earlier  than  the  songs  of  the  troubadours. 
Following  these  were  the  epics,  "Arthurian 
Romances,"  written  from  the  legends  of  the 
Round  Table,  and  later  the  "Romances  of  An- 
tiquities," also  narrative  forms,  treating  of  the 
conquests  of  Alexander  and  other  classical 
stories.  A  fourth  form  in  prose  and  verse,  in- 
cluded "Shorter  Stories"  which  cannot  be  classi- 
fied. These  four  divisions  make  the  literature 
of  early  France. 

In  earliest  days  poetry  was  used  for  all  literary 
purposes  and  French  verse  is  the  first  in  modern 
European  speech.  "  The  Romance  of  the  Rose," 
a  long  poem  which  is  really  prose,  except  for  the 
measure  of  the  verse,  is  an  ancient  work  that 
gained  the  attention  of  the  people  of  France, 
and  no  book  was  ever  more  popular.  This  was 
written  by  two  authors,  Guillaume  de  Lorris, 
who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury, commenced  it,  and  it  was  continued  and 
finished  by  Jean  de  Meung,  who  died  in  the  year 
1320.  It  is  both  a  love  poem  and  a  satire  and 
put  in  form  of  allegory.  In  it  are  found  the 
characteristics  of  the  later  Middle  Age,  its  mys- 
ticism, its  chivalry,  its  science,  and  its  shrewd 
criticism. 

In  the  Tenth  or  Eleventh  Centuries  Indian 
tales  were  translated  into  Latin,  probably  by 
the  monks,  and  these,  with  legends"  from  Arabia, 


brought  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  became  com. 
mon  to  all  literature.  In  France,  during  the 
Twelfth  and  the  Thirteenth  Centuries,  tales  writ- 
ten in  verse,  the  collection  known  as  "  Fabliaux," 
appeared,  and  these  simple,  gay  stories  are 
treasures  of  invention  from  which  other  nations 
have  often  borrowed.  Among  these  "Reynard 
the  Fox,"  a  poem,  or  a  series  of  poems,  is  well 
known  and  for  two  centuries,  with  its  compan- 
ion, "  Isengrin,  the  Wolf,"  it  formed  the  basis 
for  an  endless  variety  of  songs,  poems,  and 
satires,  moral  applications  and  generalizings. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Fabliaux, 
"Aucassin  and  Nicolette,"  gave  the  subject  for 
the  well-known  opera. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  Latin  comedy  was 
never  lost  and  was  handed  on  chiefly  through 
the  convents,  but  when  the  public  had  forgotten 
ancient  drama  an  impulse  was  given  to  this 
form  of  writing  in  France  by  the  pilgrims  re- 
turning from  the  Crusades.  At  the  end  of  the 
Fourteenth  Century  dramas  were  produced,  called 
the  "Fraternity  of  the  Passion"  and  compre- 
hending the  whole  history  of  Christ.  In  these 
dramas  dialogues  of  the  devils  were  made  to  fill 
in  the  comic  parts.  Other  dramatic  writings 
followed,  based  on  parables  and  historical  parts 
of  the  Bible,  or  they  became  pure  allegory  min- 
gled with  farces,  and  there  is  hardly  an  abstrac- 
tion, a  virtue,  or  a  vice  which  did  not  find  place 
in  these  compositions.  Early  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century  a  comic  company  brought  political  and 
personal  satire  into  their  plays  and  dialogues, 
made  from  the  fables,  and  thus  began  the  Ro- 
mantic Drama  of  Europe. 


294 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


In  all  literatures  of  which  we  have  record, 
prose  is  later  than  verse.  The  document  con- 
taining copy  of  the  oaths  exchanged  between 
Charles  the  Bold  and  Louis  the  German,  in  the 
year  842,  is  probably  the  oldest  French  prose. 
In  the  Tenth  Century  some  charters  were  written 
in  French,  and  in  the  eleventh  the  Laws  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  The  Twelfth  Century  shows 
translation  of  the  Bible  and  the  Romances. 
History  is  the  first  subject  in  prose  writing  and 
is  generally  recorded  in  the  form  of  chronicles. 
Each  of  these  centuries  has,  in  France,  one  gifted 
chronicler  to  describe  it.  Ville-Hardouin  writes  of 
the  Twelfth  Century,  Joinville  of  the  Thirteenth, 
and  Froissart  of  the  Fourteenth.  "Froissart's 
Chronicles,"  though  simple  story,  forms  a  history 
of  the  different  states  of  Europe  from  the  year 
1322  to  the  end  of  the  century.  Phillipe  de 
Comines  (1445-1509)  has  been  noted  as  the  last 
of  the  quartette  of  great  French  mediseval  his- 
torians. He  was  an  annalist,  like  Froissart,  but 
he  was,  also,  a  political  philosopher  and  an  un- 
scrupulous diplomat.  He  dwells  on  character 
rather  than  on  scenes  or  events  in  his  memoirs. 

Standing  equal  with  the  early  histories  in 
French  are  the  short  stories  in  comic  form,  and 
among  these  is  the  "Cent  Nouvelles  Nouvelles," 
which  is  the  first  work  of  literary  prose  in  the 
language.  The  authorship  of  this  collection  of 
tales  is  not  fixed,  the  themes  are  the  old  fables, 
but  this  remarkable  work,  with  its  simple  and 
straightforward  style,  had  great  influence  on 
later  writers  and  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of 
literary  works,  romances  in  miniature,  in  which 
French  writers  excel  all  others. 

The  discovery  of  a  new  continent,  the  down- 
fall of  Constantinople,  and  the  end  of  feudalism 
were  the  great  events  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 
that  changed  the  literary  world  of  France.  The 
invention,  or  use,  of  printing  made  readers  in 
place  of  listeners.  French  enthusiasm  turned  to 
the  study  and  imitation  of  the  ancient  Pagan 
world  and  it  was  this  revival  of  antique  learning 
that  took  the  name  "  Renaissance."  By  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  Century  the  effect  of 
the  Renaissance  was  nearly  lost  in  Italy,  in 
Germany  it  had  only  opened  the  way  to  a  nation- 
al literature  with  little  influence  in  itself,  but  in 
France  this  century  was  filled  with  great  writers 
in  every  line. 

Francis  Rabelais  (1483-1553)  holds  high  rank 
in  the  world,  as  well  as  in  his  own  country,  as  a 
learned  philosopher  and  scholar.  The  work 
which  brought  to  him  popular  fame,  however, 
was  the  "  Lives  of  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel," 
a  tale  of  the  adventures  of  two  gigantic  heroes, 
father  and  son,  with  a  drunken,  fighting,  swag- 
gering monk  and  a  wittv  minstrel  who  played 
practical  jokes.  With  all  this  it  is  a  commen- 
tary on  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and  acts  of  the 
nation  put  into  attractive  literary  form,  a  mirror 
of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  It  was  the  book  of 
the  day  and  went  into  many  editions. 

By  the  side  of  Rabelais  stands  John  Calvin 
(1509-1564),  and  his  work,  "Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  has  been  called  the  text- 
book of  the  Reformation.  This  book,  written 
first  in  Latin,  then  translated  by  the  author, 
had  great  influence  on  future  thought  and  was 
the  beginning  of  an  argumentative  prose.     Cal- 


vin was  severe  both  in  logic  and  doctrine,  and 
turning  from  this  severity,  while  not  believing 
in  the  Church  policy  of  that  day,  many  drifted 
into  skepticism.  The  literature  of  this  skepti- 
cism, or  doubt,  is  best  represented  by  the  "  Es- 
says" of  Montaigne  (1533-1592).  In  these 
essays  he  undermined  all  the  creeds  of  the  day, 
but  offered  nothing  in  their  places.  Inquiry 
and  protest  had  given  way  to  placid  content- 
ment in  the  belief  that  there  was  not  much  to  be 
known  on  these  subjects  and  that  it  did  not 
much  matter. 

The  appe'arance  of  the  "Cid,"  founded  on  the 
Spanish  romance,  changed  the  form  of  dramatic 
writing  and  brought  fame  to  the  author,  Cor- 
neille  (1606-1684).  The  dramas  of  Racine  soon 
followed  and  Moliere  wrote  his  comedies,  in 
which  he  assailed  the  follies  of  society.  The 
best  of  these  are  "Le  Misanthrope"  and  "Tar- 
tuffe."  To  this  time  belongs  the  well-known 
La  Fontaine,  prince  of  fable  writers,  and  Per- 
rault,  who  wrote  prose  tales.  Richelieu,  who 
founded  the  French  Academy  in  1635,  Colbert 
and  Louis  XIV.  were  patrons  of  all  learning,  and 
the  French  language,  distinguished  for  its  clear- 
ness and  flexibility,  became  the  language  of  all 
literary  Europe.  In  this  age  Fpnelon  wrote  his 
famous  "Telemaque,"  which  has  served  as  an 
introduction  to  the  study  of  French  language 
and  literature.  Fenelon,  with  Bourdaloue,  Bos- 
suet,  and  Massillon,  were  brilliant  examples  of  a 
pulpit  oratory  which  has  never  been  surpassed 
in  any  age  or  country. 

Political  and  military  disasters  of  the  last 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  checked  all 
literary  development,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  has  been  named  as  one  of 
the  dead  seasons  of  French  literature.  Later,  a 
kind  of  free-thinking  optimism  arose  and  showed 
itself  most  distinctly  in  the  writings  of  Voltaire 
(1694—1778),  whose  genius  gave  light  to  his  age. 
His  universal  faculty  showed  itself  in  both  verse 
and  prose,  his  plays  and  verse-tales  were  admir- 
able, and  his  epistles  and  satires,  the  best  among 
their  kind,  were  sufficiently  good  to  bring  ban- 
ishment to  their  author.  After  his  long  exile, 
spent  in  England  and  Germany,  he  returned  to 
the  writing  of  history  and  philosophy. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  born  early  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  had,  also,  great  influence  in 
his  literary  world.  He  began  with  dissertations 
on  music,  adding  comedies,  tragedies,  and  prose 
romance.  His  greatest  work,  tiie  "  Confessions," 
was  finished  not  many  years  before  his  death 
(1778).  In  style,  or  manner  of  expression,  his 
writings  hold  absolute  fascination;  he  was  a 
bold  and  independent  thinker,  but  his  sympathy 
with  humanity  saved  him  from  the  cynicism  of 
Voltaire. 

Le  Sage,  the  first  great  novelist  of  this  cen- 
tury, went  to  Spain  for  the  subject  of  his  "Gil 
Bias,"  and  the  Spanish  inspiration  and  manner 
brought  popularity.  Marmontel,  Louvet,  and 
Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre,  author  of  "Paul  and 
Virginia,"  were  also  noted  novel  writers.  The 
brilliant,  sparkling  letters  of  Madame  de  Sevigne 
gave  what  has  been  considered  the  most  com- 
plete record  of  court  and  social  life.  Montes- 
quieu belongs  to  the  first  half  of  this  century, 
and  his  "Spirit  of  Laws"  has  taken  rank  as  a 


LITERATURE 


295 


standard  work  on  jurisprudence.  Beaumar- 
chais  wrote  the  well-known  "Barber  of  Seville." 
Among  the  few  lyric  poets  of  the  time  Lebrun 
and  Ch6nier  stand  worthy  of  mention.  Rouget 
de  Lisle,  in  the  "Marseillaise,"  gave  the  finest 
lyric  known  in  the  language. 

Chateaubriand  filled  many  diplomatic  places 
under  the  Bourbon  rule,  but  was  not  free  from 
exile.  During  his  exile  he  published  his  first 
book  (in  1797),  the  "  Essay  on  Revolutions."  He 
found  the  subject  for  his  "Atala"  while  among 
the  Indians  in  America.  Madame  de  Stael  spent 
the  years  of  the  French  Revolution  in  England 
and  Switzerland,  and  while  there  wrote  essays, 
-dramas,  and  political  pamphlets.  She  is  best 
known  by  her  later  romance,  "Corinne,"  and  by 
her  "De  I'Allemagne."  The  last  brought  Ger- 
man literature  to  the  notice  of  French  readers. 
Beranger  is  named  the  first  song-writer  of  France 
and  his  songs  and  ballads  are  known  in  all 
homes.  These  three  writers  seem  to  stand  be- 
tween the  days  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  and 
the  beginning  of  modern  French  literature. 

Volumes  of  ballads  and  romance  in  verse, 
written  by  Victor  Hugo  and  Alphonse  de  Lamar- 
tine,  belong  to  later  poetry,  and  with  these 
authors  Alfred  de  Musset  claims  place.  Among 
dramatists  are  Gozlan,  Delavigne,  and  Sardou, 
with  others  who  bear  equally  distinguished  names. 


French  historical  and  political  writers  influ- 
ence the  world,  and  of  these  the  best  known 
may  be  Lamartine,  Thiers,  Michelet,  Guizot, 
and  De  Tocqueville.  Cousin  and  Comte  have 
offered  new  views  in  philosophy;  the  name 
Renan  is  known  to  all  interested  in  theo- 
logical questions.  Many  of  these  writers  hold, 
also,  a  place  in  oratory  which  has  risen  to  a 
high  position  in  France. 

The  influence  of  later  French  romance  shows 
in  the  modern  literature  of  all  countries. 
Balzac  (died,  1850)  has  been  considered  one  of 
its  pioneers.  Eugene  Sue  delights  in  subjects 
that  call  fof  exciting  adventure;  his  books, 
"Wandering  Jew"  and  "Mysteries  of  Paris," 
have  been  much  read.  Alexander  Dumas,  well 
known  by  his  "Monte  Cristo"  and  almost 
numberless  semi-historical  romances,  such  as 
"Three  Musketeers,"  was  master  in  his  line;, 
Victor  Hugo  would  stand  as  a  brilliant  writer 
on  the  merits  of  his  wonderful  "  Les  Miserables" 
alone.  This  and  various  other  of  his  romances 
have  been  translated  and  widely  read  in  different 
languages.  Madame  Dudevant,  known  by  her 
readers  as  George  Sand,  was  a  strikingly  original 
writer  of  fiction;  her  "Consuelo,"  "Indiana," 
and  "Andr6"  sliow  a  harmony  of  treatment 
and  simplicity  of  language  that  mark  them  as 
masterpieces. 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


Time 


673-  735 
735-  804 
750 

849-  901 

955-1020 

1095-1143 

1100-1154 

1100-1175 

Lived  in  12th 
Century 
1214-1294 
1300-1372 
1324-1384 
1325-1408 
1330-1400 
1340-1400 

1422-1491 

1430 

1465-1530 
1478-1535 
1484-1536 
1503-1542 
1516-1587 
. 1536-1608 

_  1552-1599 

1552-1618 
1553-1600 
1554-1586 
1559-1634 
1561-1626 
1564-1593 
1564-1616 
1573-1637 
1577-1640 

1579-1625 
1584-1616 

1591-1674 
1593-1633 


Author 


Unknown, 

■Cffidmon, 

£ede 

Alcuin, 

Cynewulf 

Alfred  the  Great,    .    .    . 

^Ifric 

WilUam  of  Malmesbury, 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 


Wace,  Robert,    .    .    . 

Layamon, 

Ormin, 

Bacon,  Roger,  .  .  . 
Mandeville,  Sir  John, 
WycUffe,  John,  .  .  . 
Gower,  John,  .... 
Langland,  William,  . 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey, .    . 

Gaxton,  WJlUam,    .    . 

Malory,  Sir  Thon>as,  . 
Dunbar,  William,  .  . 
More,  Sir  Thomas,.  . 
Tyndale,  William,  .  . 
Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  . 

Foxe,  John 

Sackville,  Thomas,     . 

Spenser,  Edmund, .    . 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  . 
Hooker,  Richard,  .  . 
Sidney,  Sir  Phillip,  . 
Chapman,  George,  .  . 
Bacon,  Francis,  .  .  . 
Marlowe,  Christopher, 
Shakespere,  William, 

Jonson,  Ben 

Burton,  Robert,.    .    . 

Fletcher,  John,  .  .  . 
Beaumont,  Francis,  . 

Herrick,  Robert,  .  . 
Herbert,  George,    .    . 


REPRESENTATIVE   WORKS 


Prose 


Ecclesiastical  History, 
Letters,  Biographies.  . 


Translations 

Homilies,  Grammar 

History  of  Kings  of  England. .    . 

Legendary   History  of    English 

Kings 


Natural  Science,  Philosophy. . 

Travels 

Translation  of  Bible 


Game  and  Play  of  the  Chesse,  . 
Translation  of  History  of  Troy . 
Morte  d'Arthur 


Utopia 

Translation  of  Bible. 


Book  of  Martyrs. 


History  of  the  World. 
Ecclesiastical  Polity. 
Arcadia 


Essays,  Novum  Organum  (phil.). 


Anatomy  of  Melancholy. 


Poetry  and  Drama 


Traveller's  Song. 

Beowulf. 

Paraphase  of  Scripture. 

Poems. 

Christ,  Elene,  Andreas,  etc. 


Romance  of  RoUo, 
Brut  d'Angleterre. 
Chronicles  of  Britain. 
Ormulum  (paraphrase). 


Ballads,  Lover's  Confession. 
Piers,  the  Plowman. 
Canterbury  Tales,  Short  Poems. 


Thistle  and  Rose,  Golden  Targe. 


Sonnets  and  I^yrics. 

Mirror  for  Magistrates. 
Faerie  Queene, 
Shepherd's  Calendar. 


Translation  of  Homer. 

Dramas. 

Dramas,  Sonnets  (37  plays). 

The  Alchemist,  etc. 

(  Philaster, 
Dramas,  K  Maid's  Tragedy, 

( Woman  Hater,  etc. 
Poems. 
The  Temple,  etc. 


296 


THE    STANDARD   DICTIONARY    OF   FACTS 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE  — Continued 


Time 


1593-1683 
1608-1661 

1608-1674 

1612-1680 
1613-1667 
1615-1691 
1628-1688 

1631-1700 

1632-1704 

1633-1703 
1642-1727 
1661-1731 

1667-1745 

1672-1729 

1672-1719 

1683-1765 
1685-1753 
1688-1744 


.Walton^  Izaak, 
Fuller,  Thomas, 

Milton,  John,  . 


1692-1752 

-1743 

1700-1748 

1707-1754 

1709-1784 

1711-1776 
1713-1768 
1716-1771 

1721-1771 

1721-1770 
1723-1790 
1723-1780 

1728-1774 
1729-1797 
1731-1800 
1737-1794 

1740-1795 

1743-1805 

1745-1833 
1751-1816 

1759-1796 
1767-1849 
1770-1850 
1770-1835 
1771-1854 
1771-1832 
1771-1845 
1772-1834 
1774-1843 
1775-1834 
1775-1864 
1775-1817 
1776-1850 

1777-1844 
1777-1859 


r778-1830 
1779-1852 
1784-1859 
1785-1859 

1785-1854 
1788-1824 


Author 


Butler,  Samuel, 
Taylor,  Jeremy,  . 
Baxter,  Richard, 
Banyan,  John,    . 

Dryden,  John,     . 
Locke,  John,   .    . 


Pepys,  Samuel,  .  .  . 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  .  . 
Defoe,  Daniel,     .    .    . 

Swift,  Jonathan,     .    . 

Steele,  Sir  Richard,    . 

Addison,  Joseph,    .    . 

Young,  Edward,  .  . 
Berkeley,  Bishop,  .  . 
Pope,  Alexander,    .    . 

1689-1761      i  Richardson,  Samuel, 


Butler,  Bishop,  . 
Carey,  Henry, 
Thomson,  James, 

Fielding,  Henry, 

Johnson,  Samuel, 

Hume,  David,  . 
Sterne,  Laurence, 
Gray,  Thomas,    . 


Smollett,  T.  George, 

Akenside,  Mark, 
Smith,  Adam,  .  .    . 
Blackstone,  Sir  \Vm. 


REPRESENTATIVE   WORKS 


Prose 


The  Compleat  Angler 

Church  History  of  England,  etc. 


Areopagitica, 


n 


Goldsmith,  Oliver, .  . 

Burke,  Edmund,    .  . 

Cowper,  William,   .  . 

Gibbon,  Edward,   .  . 

Boswell,  James,  .    .  . 

Paley,  William,  .  '.  . 

More,  Hannah,    .    .  . 
Sheridan,  Richard  B., 


Burns,  Robert,  .  .  .  . 
Edgeworth,  Maria,  .  . 
Wordsworth,  William,  . 

Hogg,  James 

Montgomery,  James, .  . 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  .    .    . 

tmith,  Sydney 
oleridge,  Samuel  T.,  . 
outhey,  Robert,    .    .    . 

Lamb,  Charles 

Landor,  Walter  Savage, 

Austen,  Jane 

Porter,  Jane 


Campbell,  Thomas, 
Hallam,  Henry,  .    . 


Hazlitt,  William,    .    . 
Moore,  Thomas,      .    . 

Hunt,  Leigh 

De  Quincey,  Ihomas, 


Wilson,  John, 
Lord  Byron. 


Holy  Living,  etc 

Saint's  Everlasting  Rest.    .    . 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  Holy  War. 


Essay  Concerning   Human  Un- 
derstanding, 
Thoughts  on  Education,  etc.  .    . 

Diary 

Principia,  etc 

Robinson  Crusoe 

Tale  of  a  Tub 

Gulliver's  Travels 

Essays,  (established  The  Tatler). 

■!?■,=«„=  ;„  I  1  he  Tatler 

^^^*y^  I'^l  The  Spectator.  .    .    . 

Philosophy 


Clarissa  Harlowe, 

Pamela , 

Sir  Chas.  Grandison 

Natural  and  Revealed  Religion. 


Tom  Jones,  Amelia, 
Jonathan  Wild,  etc. 

Dictionary 

Rasselas, 

Lives  of  the  Poets,  . 
History  of  England. 
Tristram  Shandy,  . 
Sentimental  Journey. 


Humphrey  Clinker,  .    . 
Roderick  Random,  etc. 


Wealth  of  Nations -  .    . 

Commentaries  on    the   Laws  of 
England 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Essays,    . 

Essays,  Orations 


J 

t 

Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 

Empire 

Life  of  Samuel  Johnson 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  .    .    . 

Natural  Theology . 

Coelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife,  .    . 
Speeches 


Popular  Tales,  etc.  . 
Shepherd's  Calendar, 


Waverley  Novels,  etc 

Sermons,  Essays,  etc 

Essays,  etc 

Biogs.  of  Nelson,  Wesley,  etc.,  . 

Essays  of  Elia,  etc 

Imaginary  Conversations,  etc.. 
Pride  and  Prejudice,  Emma,  etc. 
Scottish     Chiefs,   Thaddeus    of 
Warsaw 


Europe  during  Middle  Ages,  In- 
troduction to  Literature  of 
Europe,  Constitutional  His- 
tory of  England 

Table  Talk,  English  Poets,  etc. . 

Biographies 

Essays,  Sketches,  Memoirs,    .    . 

Confessions  of  an  English 
Opium  Eater,  etc 

Noctes  Ambrosianoe,  etc.,  .    .    . 


Poetry  and  Drama 


L'Allegro  and  11  Penseroso, 

Comus, 

Paradise  Lost,     V 

Paradise  Regainea,  etc. 

Hudibras. 


Translation  of  Virgil, 
St.  Cecilia's  Day,  etc. 


Night  Thoughts. 
Essay  on  Man,  etc. 


Sally  in  our  Alley,  etc. 
The  Seasons,  etc. 


Vanity  of  Human  Wishes. 


Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard, etc. 


Pleasures  of  the  Imagination. 


She  Stoops  to  Conquer, 
Deserted  Village,  etc. 

The  Task, 
John  Gilpin,  etc. 


Sacred  Dramas. 

The  Rivals,  School  for  Scandal,  Lyrics, 

etc. 
Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  etc. 

Tl\e  Excursion,  Poems. 
Pastorals. 
Hymns,  Poems. 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  etc. 

Rime  of  Ancient  Mariner,  etc. 
Poems.  , 

Count  Julian,  Heroic  Idyls,  etc. 


Pleasures  of  Hope,  Lyrics,  etc. 


Lalla  Rookh,  Irish  Melodies,  etc. 
Poems. 


Poems. 
Poems. 


LITERATURE 


297 


ENGLISH 

LITERATURE  —  Continued 

Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE   WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 

1792-1822 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe, 

Queen  Mab,  etc. 

1792-1848 

Marryat,  Capt.  t'red.,    . 

Peter  Simple,  Jacob  Faithful,  etc. 

1793-1835 

Lyrics. 

1794-1871 

Grote,  George,    .... 

History  of  Greece 

1795-1842 

Arnold,  Thomas,    .    .    . 
Carlyle,  Thomas,    .    .    . 

Roman   History,   Sermons,   Es- 

1795-1881 

Frenoh    Revolution,    Cromwell, 
etc 

1795-1821 

|Keats,  John 

Endymion,  Hyperion,  etc. 

1797-1868 

Lover,  Samuel 

Handy  Andy,  ilory  O'More,  .    . 

Songs,  Ballads. 

1798-1827 

Pollock,  Robert 

» 

Course  of  Time. 

Poems. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

1798-1845 

'•Hood,  Thomas,  .... 

1800-1859 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B.,  . 

Essajis^History  of  England,  .    . 

1801-1860 

James,  G.  P.  R.,     ... 

Novels  (historical) 

1802-1856 

Miller,  Hugh 

Old  Red  Sandstone,  Schools  and 
Schoolmasters,  etc 

1802-1876 

Martineau,  Harriet,    .    . 

Political  Economy,  etc.       .    .    . 

1803-1873 

Lytton,  Sir  Edward  Bul- 
wer 

Last  Days  of  Pompeii,   Last  of 
the  Barons,  etc 

1804-1881 

Disraeli,  Benjamin,    .    . 

Lothair,  Vivian  Grey,  etc.  ,    .    . 

1806-1873 

Mill,  John  Stuart:"-.    .    . 

Political  Economy.  .   ■. 

1806-1872 

Lever,  Charles,   .... 

Tom   Burke,  Charles  O'Malley, 
etc 

Origin  of    Species,   Descent    of 
Man 

1809-1882 

Darwin,  Charles,     .    .    . 

1806-1861 

Browning,  Eliz.  Barrett, 

Aurora  Leigh,  Poems. 

1809-1892 

\ 

1809-1890 

Kinglake,  Alex.  Wm.,    . 

Eothen 

1811-1863 

rrhackeray,  Wm.  M.,  .    .   , 

iVanity  Fair,  the  Newcomes.  .    . 

1812-1870 

1  Dickens,  Charles,    .    .    .  ^ 

5avid  Copperfield,  Oliver  Twist, 
^  etc 

1812-1889 

Dramatic  Lyrics,  Poems,  The  R 
and  the  Book. 

ng 

1814-1884 

Reade,  Charles 

Peg    WofBngton,    Cloister    and 
Hearth,  etc 

1815-1902 

Rawlinson,  George,    .    . 

Five  Great  Monarchies 

1815-1882 

Trollope,  Anthony,     .    . 

Barchester  Towers,  etc 

1818-1894 

Froude,  James  Anthony, 

History  of  England 

1819-1875 

Kingsley,  Ch&rles,  .    .    . 

Hypatia,  etc 

Poems. 

1819-1900 

Ruskin,  John,     .... 
Bront(5,  Charlotte,  .   .    . 

Stones  of  Venice,  Modern  Paint- 

1816-1855 

Jane  Eyre,  The  Professor,  etc.   . 

1820-1903 

Spencer,  Herbert,  .    .    . 

First  Principles,  etc 

1819-1880 

Eliot,  George,      .... 

Silas  Marner,  etc.,    J\ 

Spanish  Gypsy,  Poems. 

1820-1893 

Tyndall,  John 

Scientific  Papers 

1822-1888 

►Arnold,  Matthew,  .    .    . 

Essays  and  Criticisms 

Sohrab  and  Rustum,  etc. 

1823-1900 

Muller,  Max 

Science  of  Language,  etc.  .    .    . 

1823-1892 

Freeman,  Edward  A.,    . 

Histories 

1823-1896 

Hughes,  Thomas,   .    .    . 

Tom  Brown  at  Oxford,  etc.    .    . 

1824-1889 

Collins,  Wilkie,   .... 

Woman  in  White,  etc.  X-    •    •    • 
Sir  Gibbie,  Alec  Forbes,  etc.  .  . 

1824-1905 

Macdonald,  George,    .    . 

1825-1895 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henrv, 

Man's  Place  in  Nature;   .... 

1825-1900 

Blackmore,  R.  D 

Lorna  Doone,  etc 

1826-1887 

Muloch,  Dinah  Maria,    . 

John  Halifax,  etc 

Poems. 

1828-1882 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel, 
McCarthy,  Justin,  .    .    . 

The  Blessed  Damozel,  etc. 

1830 

History    of    Our    Own    Times, 

Novels 

1820-1897 

Poems,  High  Tide  on  Coast  of  Lin 
colnshire. 

1831-1891 

•Meredith,  Owen,     .    .    . 

Biography  of  Bulwer-I^ytton,    . 

Lucile. 

1832-1904 

Light  of  Asia,  Poems.  ^ 

1834-1895 

Seeley,  John  Robert, 

Eece  Homo,  etc 

1834-1896 

Morris,  William,      .    .    . 

Essays  on  Art,  etc 

Poems,  Earthly  Paradise. 

1834-1894 

Hamerton,  Philip  I.,.     . 
Green,  John  Richard,    . 

Intellectual  Life 

1837-1883 

History  of  the  English  People.  . 

1837-1909 

Swinburne,    Algernon 
Chas 

Poems. 

1838 

Bryce,  James ^ 

American    Commonwealth,    My 

Impressions  of  S.  Africa,  etc. 

1838-1901 

Besant,  Walter,  .... 

East  London,  etc.,  Novels.     .    . 

1838 

Morley,  John 

English  Men  of  Letters  (Ed.)     . 

1840 

iHardy,  Thomas,     .    .    . 

Tess  of  D'Urbervilles,  etc..  Novels. 

1841-1898 

Black,  William 

In  Silk  Attire,  etc..  Novels.    .    . 

1841-1901 

Buchanan,  Robert  W.,  . 

Alone  in  London 

Poems. 

1850-1894 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis, 

Essays,  Novels, 

Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  etc. 

When  our  forefathers  went  to  England  in 
the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Centuries,  they  carried 
with  them  no  written  language ;  but  the  love  of 
song.  Bards  and  gleemen  accompanied  them 
and  they  sang  the  tales  of  the  Northland.  The 
oldest  of  the  old,  old  songs  which  has  been  pre- 
served for  us  is  "  The  Far-traveler."  "  Beowulf " 
is  their  epic  song.     When  the  heathen  invaders 


after  two  long  centuries  of  struggle  had  become 
possessed  of  the  land  they,  in  their  turn,  came 
under  the  softening  influence  of  Christianity. 
Monasteries  were  built  and  in  these  safe  shelters 
literature  had  a  beginning.  The  glory  of  this 
beginning  belongs  to  Northumbria  in  the  Seventh 
Century.  For  nearly  two  centuries  this  was  the 
seat  of  learning. 


298 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


The  poem  "Beowulf"  has  Teutonic  power 
but  it  is  not  native  to  English  soil.  Caedmon's 
"Paraphrase  of  the  Scriptures"  is  the  first  great 
native  British  poem.  With  Christianity  a  new 
spirit  entered  into  English  poetry. 

Old  English  prose  also  began  in  the  monastery 
of  Northumbria  with  Bede.  His  learning  was 
famed  over  the  whole  of  Europe.  It  is  said  that 
forty-five  works  written  in  Latin  prove  his  in- 
dustry. His  last  work  was  a  "Translation  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John." 

During  the  Ninth  Century  the  greater  part 
of  England  was  wasted  by  the  Danes,  and  litera-" 
ure  almost  perished.  The  long  battle  against 
these  invaders  was  lost  in  Northumbria,  but 
was  gained  for  a  time  by  Alfred  the  Great  in 
Wessex.  Learning  changed  its  seat  from  the 
north  to  the  south,  and  as  Whitby  was  the  cradle 
of  English  poetry  in  the  North,  so  Winchester 
became  the  seat  of  English  prose  in  the  South. 
Alfred  gatliered  scholars  about  him  and  trans- 
lated the  Latin  works  of  Bede,  the  Chronicles 
of  Orosius,  and  added  an  account  of  the  voyages 
of  Othere  and  Wulfstan.  Many  other  works 
were  added  to  the  English  language  in  Alfred's 
time.  "At  Winchester  the  king  took  the  Eng- 
lish tongue  and  made  it  the  tongue  in  which 
history,  philosophy,  law,  and  religion  spoke  to 
the  English  people."  He  also  established  schools 
and  wrote  text-books  for  these  schools,  so  that 
every  free-born  youth  might  attend  to  his  books 
till  he  "could  read  English  writing  perfectly." 

The  next  great  name  in  literature  after  King 
Alfred  is  Alfric.  He  wrote  numerous  ecclesias- 
tical works  and  was  the  first  translator  of  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  Bible.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  Judges,  and 
part  of  Job,  form  the  best  model  we  possess  of 
the  language  at  the  beginning  of  the  Eleventh 
Century.  A  long  line  of  Saxon  Chronicles  con- 
tinues an  unbroken  history  of  the  language  and 
literature  from  Alfred  to  the  death  of  Stephen 
in  1154. 

The  overthrow  of  Saxon  rule  in  England  by 
William  the  Conqueror  is  an  event  of  vast  im- 
portance in  literature  as  well  as  in  history.  For 
a  hundred  years  after  the  conquest  literature 
was  inert.  A  foreign  king  and  an  aristocracy 
of  a  foreign  people  ruled  the  land ;  an  alien  lan- 
guage and  literature  had  been  introduced.  A 
few  generations  of  such  domination  and  then 
there  were  signs  of  returning  life.  The  language 
could  not  die  while  the  bulk  of  the  people  re- 
mained Saxon,  but  it  underwent  a  great  change. 
England  was  still  to  remain  the  land  of  the  Saxon 
tongue,  but  it  was  to  be  a  language  greatly  modi- 
fied by  its  contact  with  the  Latin  of  the  clergy 
and  the  French  of  the  Norman  conquerors.  F'or 
three  hundred  years  after  the  conquest  these 
languages  contended  with  the  Saxon  English 
for  supremacy  in  England.  In  Edward  the 
Third's  reign  it  had  been  fully  demonstrated 
that  the  English  were  to  be  the  ruling  people 
and  parliament  enacted  important  laws  making 
the  English  the  required  language  in  the  law 
courts  and  in  schools. 

But  the  English  of  King  Edward's  time  was 
quite  unlike  the  rude  Saxon  speech  of  "  Beowulf " 
and  "  Caedmon,"  or  the  later  Chronicles.  Pure 
Anglo-Saxon  was  an  energetic  language,   able 


to  express  with  vigor  the  practical  common 
thoughts  of  every  day;  but  it  lacked  delicacy 
and  flexibility  of  expression.  The  Saxon  mind, 
too,  was  lacking  in  quickness  of  thought  and  in 
the  creative  play  of  the  imagination.  It  has 
been  well  said  that  in  this  blending  of  languages 
the  Saxon  furnished  the  dough  and  the  Norman 
French  the  yeast.  Out  of  the  combined  product 
we  get  a  strength  and  flexibility  of  language  that 
belonged  to  neither. 

The  literature  of  England  during  the  Twelfth 
Century  was  almost  entirely  Latin  and  French, 
but  we  go  back  to  it  as  a  rich  source  of  our  story 
telling.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  wrote  twelve 
short  books  in  Latin  which  he  called  "History 
of  the  Kings  of  Briton."  It  is  a  clever  putting 
together  of  Welsh  legends,  a  source  to  which 
we  go  for  some  of  our  King  Arthur  stories. 
These  stories  were  afterward  translated  into 
French  and  later  brought  back  into  English 
verse  by  Laymon  in  his  "Brut  d'Engleterre." 
Later  many  other  stories  were  added  and  other 
cycles  of  romance  were  introduced  into  English 
literature.  There  were  four  of  these  great  ro- 
mantic cycles:  The  first,  already  mentioned, 
are  the  King  Arthur  legends,  to  which  later 
stories  were  added,  as  "Quest  of  the  Graal," 
"Morte  d' Arthur,"  "Romance  of  Sir  Tristam," 
etc.;  the  second,  Charlemagne  and  his  twelve 
peers,  containing  the  stories  of  "  Roland," 
"Charlemagne,"  "Otwell,"  "Siege  of  Milan," 
etc.;  the  third,  the  "Life  of  Alexander,"  ro- 
mantic wonder  stories  from  the  east;  fourth, 
"Siege  of  Troy,"  derived  from  Latin  sources. 
Popular  ballads,  such  as  "Robin  Hood"  and 
"Robert  of  Gloucester's  Rhyming  Chronicles," 
and  lyrics  sung  among  the  people,  kept  the 
love  of  poetry  alive  until  the  greater  burst  of 
song  in  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

From  the  Conquest  there  is  very  little  prose 
writing  in  England  for  the  next  three  centuries, 
but  in  the  Fourteenth  Century  there  were  two 
prose  writers  of  preeminence.  Sir  John  Mande- 
ville  and  John  Wyclif.  Mandeville  wrote  a  most 
popular  book  of  stories  which  he  styled  "The 
Voiage  and  Travaile  of  Sir  John  Mandeville." 
This  book  estabHshed  the  love  of  story  telling. 
John  Wyclif,  next  to  Chaucer,  is  the  greatest 
literary  name  of  the  century.  He  is  the  first 
to  give  a  complete  copy  of  the  Scriptures  to  the 
English  people  in  their  own  tongue.  The 
influence  of  such  a  translation  read  by  all  the 
people  is  to  raise  a  dialect  to  the  dignity  of  a 
national  language.  Besides  this  great  work, 
Wyclif  is  the  author  of  a  large  number  of  ser- 
mons and  polemical  writings.  Contemporan- 
eous with  these  religious  tracts  which  Wyclif 
distributed  so  freely  was  "  Piers  Plowman "  by 
William  Langland.  It  was  a  satire  in  verse 
upon  the  evils  which  had  gained  a  foothold  with- 
in the  Church. 

The  one  name  which  stands  first  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Fourteenth  Centuiy  is  that  of  Geoffrey 
Chaucer.  Some  critics  claim  that  before  him 
there  was  no  permanent  English  verse.  He  is 
therefore  often  called  the  "Father  of  EngHsh 
poetry."  Chaucer's  earlier  poems  are  "Ro- 
maunt  of  the  Rose,"  "  The  Boke  of  the  Duchess," 
and  "  Parlement  of  Briddes."  His  greatest  work 
is  "Canterbury  Tales,"  the  plan  of  which  was 


LITERATURE 


299 


I 


suggested  by  Boccacio's  "Decameron."  The 
"Prologue"  to  the  "Canterbury  Tales"  is  one 
of  the  finest  pieces  of  description  in  our  language. 
Before  Chaucer's  time  English  was  a  language 
of  dialects.  He  wrote  in  the  Midland  dialect 
and  made  that  the  language  of  the  nation. 
Chaucer  died  in  fourteen  hundred,  jugt  three 
hundred  and  thirty-four  years  after  the  Norman 
Conquest.  To  sum  up  the  most  important  liter- 
ary events  of  these  years  we  note  the  develop- 
ment of  the  English  language,  the  translation 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  creation  in  English  of  one 
of  the  world's  great  masterpieces,  the  "Canter- 
bury Tales." 

There  is  to  be  noted  a  comparative  lack  of 
literary  progress  in  the  century  following  Chau- 
cer. There  were  changing  social  conditions  and 
intellectual  and  political  unrest.  The  struggle 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  ab- 
sorbed men's  minds.  These  are  the  reasons  as- 
signed for  the  dearth  of  literature.  To  them  must 
be  added  the  lack  of  a  Hterary  genius.  There 
was  no  one  great  enough  to  succeed  Chaucer. 

The  greatest  prose  work  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury was  Malory's  "Morte  d' Arthur."  This 
is  a  great  prose  epic  of  the  deeds  of  King  Arthur 
and  his  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  Fortu- 
nately for  the  Fifteenth  Century -it  also  estab- 
lished the  printing  press.  In  1477,  Caxton  printed 
the  first  book  in  England.  A  second  complete 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  was  made  by  William 
Tyndale,  early  in  the  Sixteenth  Century, "  and 
the  v/ork  of  the  reformation  was  furthered.  In 
1535,  Miles  Coverdale  published  the  first  printed 
copy  of  the  whole  Bible.  Certain  Italian  in- 
fluences were  at  work  that  were  changing  the 
form  of  our  poetry.  Wyatt  and  Surrey  intro- 
duced the  Italian  sonnet  and  made  use  of  the 
Italian  blank  verse. 

The  Elizabethan  age  is  marked  by  features 
so  distinct  and  so  superior  that  it  has  been  called 
the  "Golden  Age  in  English  literature."  Two 
great  forces  combined  to  make  this  the  greatest 
intellectual  age,  the  Renaissance  and  the  Refor- 
mation. Men's  minds  were  stimulated  and  a 
language  completely  formed  was  ready  at  their 
hand.  There  was  freedom  for  thought  to  ex- 
press itself  and  there  was  variety  in  life  and 
freshness  of  experience  for  the  mind  to  feed  upon. 
The  printing  press  and  travel  and  social  inter- 
course all  stimulated  intellectual  activity.  Life 
was  worth  enjoying  and  there  was  leisure  for 
letters.  It  was  an  age  of  imagination  and  en- 
thusiasm, and  in  the  midst  of  it  all'  geniuses 
were  born.  What  age  ever  produced  two  such 
poets  as  Shakespere  and  Spenser,  unless  it 
might  be  the  "Golden  Age"  of  Greek  splen- 
dor? 

The  non-dramatic  poets  of  the  Elizabethan 
age  are  Thomas  Sackville,  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  also  wrote  a  most 
ambitious  work  in  prose,  the  "Histoiy  of  the 
World." 

Spenser,  the  only  great  non-dramatic  poet  of 
Elizabeth's  reign,  has  been  called  the  successor 
of  Chaucer.  His  first  great  work  is  the  "Sliep- 
ard's  Calendar,"  divided  into  twelve  eclogues, 
one  for  each  month.  His  greatest  work,  the 
"Faery  Queen,"  was  also  divided  into  twelve 
books,  but  only  six  books  and  the  fragment  of 


the  seventh  were  ever  written.  Spenser  has  been 
justly  called  "the  poet's  poet.  He  may  be 
wearisome  to  the  general  reader  who  undertakes 
to  study  him  to-day,  but  the  purity  of  his  imagi- 
•nation,  the  beauty  of  his  verse,  and  the  music 
of  his  rhythm,  have  furnished  models  for  our 
later  poets. 

The  dawn  of  the  drama  in  England  is  found 
in  "Miracle  Plays  and  Mysteries"  which  were 
introduced  soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Following  these  were  the  later  dramatic  recitals, 
the  "MoraHties,"  "Interludes,"  "Masks,"  and 
"Pageants." 

As  early  as  the  Eleventh  Century  miracle 
plays  were  performed  in  the  monasteries  by 
monks  and  choristers.  Later,  companies  of  pro- 
fessional players  traveled  about  the  country 
and  enacted  their  plays  in  the  yards  of  inns. 
In  1575,  the  Puritans  expelled  the  players  from 
the  city  and  theaters  were  built  outside  the 
limits.  Shakespere  was  born  in  1564,  and 
twenty-two  or  three  years  later  made  his  way 
to  London  where  he  was  attracted  by  one  of 
these  forbidden  theaters.  Already  the  English 
drama  had  taken  form  in  the  great  plays  of 
Christopher  Marlowe,  "Tamburlaine  the  Great," 
"Faustus,"  "The  Jew  of  Malta."  The  greatest 
of  these  plays  is  "Faustus."  Marlowe  estab- 
lished the  use  of  blank  verse  in  the  English 
drama,  a  form  of  verse  which  Shakespere 
adopted. 

Tnat  Shakespere  quickly  rose  to  prominence 
in  his  art  we  may  judge  from  the  fact  that  iri 
1592,  when  he  had  been  in  London  not  more 
than  five  or  six  years,  he  was  already  writing 
plays  and  was  the  object  of  a  jealous  attack  by 
one  of  his  rival  playwriters.  At  the  age  of 
forty-nine  he  was  able  to  leave  London  with  a 
competence  and  return  to  his  home  at  Stratford- 
on-Avon.  This  also  argues  for  his  success  as  a 
dramatist.  In  1598,  Francis  Mere  writes  of  the 
growing  fame  of  Shakespere  and  prints  the  titles 
of  a  number  of  his  plays.  Ben  Jonson,  the  sec- 
ond dramatist  of  the  age,  was  his  intimate 
friend.  These  are  facts  worth  knowing  about 
the  personality  of  the  man  who  is  the  greatest 
figure  in  English  literature,  perhaps  in  all  litera- 
ture. 

Taking  the  number  from  the  globe  edition  of 
Shakespere's  dramas,  he  wrote  thirty-four  dif- 
ferent plays,  counting  as  one  play  those  which 
are  written  in  two  parts.  His  dramas  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes:  comedies,  histories, 
tragedies.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  best 
in  each  class.  Everyone  well-read  should  be 
familiar  with  them : 

Comedies:  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream," 
"As  You  Like  It,"  "Merchant  of  Venice," 
"Winter's  Tale,"  "Twelfth  Night,"  "The  Tem- 
pest." 

Histories:  "Richard  III.,"  "Henry  IV.," 
"Henry   V.,"    "Henry   VIIL,"    "King    John," 

Tragedies:  "Hamlet,"  "Macbeth,"  "Lear," 
"  Othello,"  "  Romeo  and  Juliet." 

In  addition  to  his  dramas,  Shakespere  also 
wrote  two  long  narrative  poems,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-four  sonnets.  It  is  said  that  the 
measure  of  Shakespere's  greatness  is  his  univer- 
sality, "not  of  an  age,  but  for  all  time."     Other 


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THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


writers  have  equaled  Shakespere  in  some  one 
quality,  but  he  excels  them  all  in  the  combina- 
tion of  great  qualities. 

Ben  Jonson  wrote  three  great  dramas  which 
will  repay  reading,  "  Volpone,"  "The  Alchemist," 
and  "The  Silent  Woman,"  and  to  these  three 
some  would  add  a  fourth,  "Every  Man  in  His 
Humor."  Jonson  failed  in  his  delineation  of 
character.  He  was  a  critic  of  men's  follies  and 
he  gave  a  distorted  and  incomplete  picture  of 
life.  In  his  delineation  of  women,  where 
Shakespere  was  strongest,  Jonson  utterly  failed. 

The  decay  of  the  drama  began  while  Shake- 
spere was  yet  alive.  The  drama  in  his  hands 
had  been  the  painting  of  the  whole  of  human 
nature,  the  painting  of  characters  as  they  were 
built  up  by  their  natural  bent,  and  by  the  play 
of  circumstance  upon  them.  The  drama,  in 
Ben  Jonson's  hands,  was  the  painting  of  that 
particular  human  nature  which  he  saw  in  his 
own  age;  and  his  characters  are  not  men  and 
women  as  they  are,  but  as  they  may  become 
when  they  are  mastered  by  a  special  bias  of  the 
mind.  In  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  the  women 
are  overdrawn  and  the  men  are  base  in  thought. 
Shakespere's  men  and  women  are 'of  the  types 
of  the  noblest  characters  his  age  produced. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  men  who  adorned 
the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth  was  Sir  Francis 
Bacon,  the  greatest  prose  writer  of  the  age. 
As  courtier  and  scholar  he  adorned  both  this  and 
the  succeeding  reign  of  James  I.  His  political 
success  and  his  political  disgrace  are  familiar 
stories  in  history.  His  enduring  work  is  in 
literature.  He  was  both  poet  and  philosopher. 
His  great  work  in  philosophy  is  magnificent  in 
scope,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  title  "In- 
stauratio  Magna,"  or  "The  Great  Institution  of 
True  Philosophy."  It  is  a  great  work  designed 
to  be  written  in  six  parts,  but  never  finished. 
The  second  part,  "Novum  Organum,"  the  "new 
instrument,"  is  described  as  "the  science  of  a 
better  and  more  perfect  use  of  reason  in  the 
investigation  of  things,  and  of  the  true  aids  of 
the  understanding."  It  sets  forth  the  methods 
to  be  adopted  in  searching  after  truth,  points 
out  sources  of  error,  and  suggests  the  means  of 
at^oiding  errors  in  the  future.  His  entire  phi- 
losophy is  built  upon  the  idea  of  inductive  inves- 
tigation. Bacon  had  so  little  respect  for  the 
English  language  that  he  wrote  his  great  phi- 
losophy in  Latin.  His  "New  Atlantis,"  like  Sir 
Thomas  More's  "Utopia,"  pictures  in  romance 
an  ideal  commonwealth,  some  features  of  which 
have  been  realized  in  our  own  republic.  The 
most  important  among  his  English  works  is  his 
volume  of  essays,  clear,  concise,  practical  in 
observation,  of  profound  wisdom.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  contributed  to  prose  his  ambitious 
"History  of  the  World,"  and  to  poetry  a  few 
beautiful  lyrics. 

With  the  death  of  Bacon,  in  1626,  we  pass 
from  the  glory  of  the  Elizabethan  age  into  the 
Puritan  age.  There  are  some  characteristics 
which  sharply  separate  this  age  from  the  pre- 
ceding. Intense  patriotism,  peace  within  the 
realm,  general  prosperity,  and  much  worldliness 
characterized  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  Stuart 
reign  was  characterized  by  controversy  in  relig- 
ion and  politics,  open  rupture  between  king  and 


parliament  protracted  into  the  Great  Civil  War. 
Puritan  standards  became  triumphant  during 
this  period.  Literature,  which  always  reflects 
life,  presented  the  somber  tone  of  the  age  and 
was  in  large  part  religious.  The  "King  James 
Version  of  the  Bible"  was  printed  in  1611.  It 
is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  influence  of 
this  translation  upon  the  lives  of  the  people  and 
the  language  of  every  day.  The  study  of  the 
Bible  became  so  universal  that  it  colored  the 
imagination  and  the  speech  of  the  common 
people.  Even  those  who  were  irreligious  in 
their  lives  spoke  in  the  language  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

The  great  literature  of  the  Elizab£lJ>an  age 
was  in  poetry.  With  one  exception,  John  Mil- 
ton, the  great  literature  of  the  Puritan  age  was 
in  prose.  But  the  prose  writers  of  the  Puritan 
age  were  not  without  imagination  and  delicacy 
of  humor.  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  by 
some  thought  to  be  the  crowning  work  of  the 
imagination,  is  a  product  of  this  age,  and  during 
the  same  period  Thomas  Fuller  brightens  his 
"History  of  the  Worthies  of  England"  by  irre- 
sistible touches  of  humor,  and  Isaak  Walton 
adds  delight  in  nature  and  rustic  pastime  in  his 
"Complete  Angler";  but  for  the  most  part  the 
world  was  looked  upon  seriously. 

John  Milton  has  been  awarded  the  second 
place  among  the  great  names  in  English  litera- 
ture. He  was  born  eight  years  before  the  death 
of  Shakespere.  It  may  be  that  Shakespere  saw 
the  boy  Milton.  One  likes  to  think  so.  Milton's 
childhood  was  very  happy.  His  parents  trusted 
him  because  they  realized  that  he  was  a  boy  of 
high  ideals.  He  had  every  advantage  of  a  lib- 
eral education  and  of  long  quiet  years  of  study 
at  his  father's  home  in  Horton.  This  was  well 
for  the  years  of  struggle  that  followed.  Milton's 
literary  career  may  be  divided  into  three  periods : 
that  of  his  youth,  his  manhood,  and  his  old  age. 
It  has  been  called  "a  drama  in  three  acts." 
The  first  may  be  stated  in  years  as  extending 
from  1623  to  1640;  the  second,  from  1640  to 
1660;   and  the  third,  from  1660  to  1674. 

The  first  period,  that  of  his  youth,  was  spent 
at  school  and  among  his  family  at  Horton. 
During  this  period  he  wrote  the  "Hymn  on  the 
Morning  of  Christ's  Nativity,"  the  "Masque  of 
Comus,"  "Lycidas,"  "L'AIlegro,"  "II  .Pense- 
roso,"  and  a  number  of  his  sonnets.  Some 
critics  consider  "Comus"  Milton's  finest  poem. 
It  is  perfect  in  lyric  qualities  and  as  an  apothe- 
osis to  virtue  is  lofty  in  conception.  "If  virtue 
feeble  were,  Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her." 

"  Lycidas,"  an  elegy  on  Milton's  class-mate, 
Edward  King,  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  elegies 
in  our  language.  "L'AIlegro"  and  "II  Pense- 
roso"  are  companion  poems;  one  describes  the 
delights  of  social  life,  the  other  the  deep  enjoy- 
ment of  the  scholar  in  seclusion.  These  poems 
will  always  remain  favorites  for  their  beautiful 
imagery  and  their  truthful  study  of  the  emo- 
tions. Milton's  sonnets  have  for  their  theme 
such  subjects  as  religion,  patriotism,  domestic 
afi"ection;  whereas  the  older  poets,  Shakespere, 
Spenser,  Sidney,  Raleigh,  and  their  imitators, 
preferred  to  write  sonnets  on  love.  The  most 
remarkable  of  Milton's  minor  poems  is  the 
"Hymn  on  the  Nativity,"   written   when  the 


LITERATURE 


301 


author  was  only  twenty-one,  yet  nowhere  does 
he  excel  it  in  beauty  of  verce  nor  in  dignity  of 
language. 

The  second  period  of  Milton's  life  may  be 
called  the  time  of  "storm  and  stress."  Thick 
darkness  was  upon  him.  For  twenty  years, 
from  1640  to  1660,  his  life  was  filled  with  relig- 
ious and  political  controversy.  He  was  forced 
to  turn  from  poetry  to  prose,  and  lamenting  it 
he  says:  "I  have  the  use,  as  I  may  account  it, 
but  of  my  left  hand."  His  prose  works  are 
voluminous.  They  are  upon  varied  subjects 
but  upon  one  theme,  liberty.  He  struck  heavy 
blows  for  liberty  in  church  and  state  and  in  all 
the  relations  of  life.  He  pled  for  more  freedom 
of  speech  and  for  more  liberal  ideas  in  educa- 
tion. His  greatest  prose  work  is  the  "Areopa- 
gitica:  A  Speech  for  the  Liberty  of  the  Press." 
In  1652,  at  the  age  of  forty-three,  Milton  be- 
came totally  blind;  but  even  in  his  blindness 
he  served  the  Commonwealth  as  Secretary  for 
Foreign  Tongues  under  Oliver  Cromwell,  the 
Lord  Protector,  and  continued  to  write  his 
burning  pamphlets  against  the  royalists  who 
were  struggling  to  regain  power. 

The  third  period  is  that  which  succeeds  the 
Restoration,  in  1660.  With  the  return  of 
Charles  II.,  the  leaders  of  the  Commonwealth 
had  to  flee  for  their  lives.  Milton's  life  was  at 
first  endangered  and  he  was  concealed  by 
friends.  Later,  he  preferred  retirement  where 
he  might  have  leisure  to  do  the  great  work  of 
his  life.  Here  he  wrote  "Paradise  Lost," 
"Paradise  Regained,"  and  "Samson  Agonistes." 

The  beauty  of  "Paradise  Lost"  has  been 
compared  to  that  of  a  stately  temple,  the  style 
the  loftiest  in  the  whole  range  of  English  poetry. 
Its  scenes  are  laid  in  Heaven  and  Earth  and 
Hell,  its  characters  are  God  and  the  holy  angels, 
Satan  and  his  legions,  and  the  newly  created 
race  of  man.  It  is  almost  inconceivable  how 
any  human  mind  could  have  attempted  it. 
"Paradise  Regained"  and  "Samson  Agonistes" 
show  a  decline  of  power,  though  standing  alone 
they  would  be  great.  In  "Paradise  Regained" 
Christ  is  tempted  in  the  wilderness  and  resists 
Satan.  In  "Samson  Agonistes"  we  have  a 
choral  drama  modeled  upon  the  form  of  the 
Greek.  In  the  greatness  of  his  work,  Milton 
can  be  compared  only  to  the  great  classic  writers, 
Homer  and  Virgil. 

The  second  great  name  in  the  Purjl^n  age  is 
John  Bunyan,  the  prince  of  prose  writers  for  his 
time  and  the  prince  of  story  tellers  for  all 
times.  "  Pilgrim's  Progress "  has  been  pro- 
nounced the  greatest  of  all  allegories.  Bunyan's 
preeminence  is  undoubted.  It  is  not  an  ex- 
aggeration to  repeat  this  estimate  of  him: 
"  What  Shakespere  is  to  English  dramatists, 
what  Milton  is  to  English  epic  poets,  that  John 
Bunyan  is  to  writers  of  English  allegory." 
From  extreme  poverty  and  ignorance  and  years 
of  imprisonment  in  Bedford  jail,  he  rose  to  the 
respected  position  of  pa,stor  over  a  large  church. 
His  biographer  says  of  him,  "The  fame  of  his 
sufferings,  his  genius  as  a  writer,  his  power  as  a 
speaker,  gave  him  unbounded  influence  among 
the  Baptists;  while  the  beauty  of  his  character 
and  the  catholic  liberality  of  his  views  secured 
him   universal    esteem.     His   ministrations   ex- 


tended over  the  whole  region  between  Bedford 
and  London." 

Historically,  one  of  the  greatest  prose  works 
of  the  century  is  Samuel  Pepys'  "Diary."  It 
is  a  gossipy  record  of  nine  years  and  gives  a  life- 
hke  picture  of  the  gay  ana  profligate  portion  of 
society  which  fell  under  his  observation.  The 
reaction  from  Puritanism  led  to  an  extraordinary 
state  of  society  among  the  aristocracy,  whicn 
we  would  not  like  to  picture  to-day.  The  great 
historical  work  of  the  age  is  the  "History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion,"  by  Edward  Hyde,  the  first 
Earl  of  Clarendon.  A  curious  coincidence  marks 
the  birth  and  death  of  Clarendon.  Born  in 
1608  and  died  in  1674,  his  life  is  exactly  co- 
extensive with  John  Milton,  his  great  opponent 
in  the  great  civil  strife.  Clarendon  has  been 
called  the  "Cavalier-prince  of  historic  portrait- 
painters,"  and  Milton  the  "Puritan-prince  of 
epic  poets." 

Chaucer,  Shakespere,  Spenser,  Milton,  royal 
names  in  English  literature,  are  succeeded  by  a 
meager  school  of  artificial  poets.  Dryden  and 
Pope  are  the  representatives  of  this  school. 
Dryden  died  in  1700,  just  three  hundred  years 
after  the  death  of  Chaucer.  The  sweetness  and 
gay  and  kindly  humor  and  tender  sympathies 
which  so  illumine  Chaucer's  poetry,  is  gone 
from  Dryden's  didactic  verse.  His  greatest 
satire  is  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  a  bitter 
arraignment  of  those  who  opposed  the  succes- 
sion of  James,  the  brother  of  Charles  II.,  to  the 
English  throne.  "MacFlecknoe,"  another  satire, 
is  directed  against  a  Whig  poet.  "  All  for  Love," 
a  drama,  is  in  this  same  cold,  critical  vein.  He 
wrote  long  criticisms  in  argumentative  verse 
which  are  utterly  lacking  in  the  true  spirit  of 
poetry.  His  "Hind  and  the  Panther"  and 
"  Religio  Laici "  are  known  to-day  only  as  names. 
The  greatness  of  poetry  cannot  be  expressed  by 
the  critical  spirit.  Dryden's  one  really  admir- 
able poem,  "Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day  or  Alex- 
ander's Feast,"  will  be  remembered  for  its 
lyric  qualities.  His  prose  writings  are  numer- 
ous, and  the  English  in  which  he  wrote  them 
has  become  a  standard  of  good  style  to  all  later 
writers. 

The  English  Revolution  of  1688  secured  peace 
for  the  realm  and  an  opportunity  for  the  devel- 
opment of  arts  and  sciences.  The  investiga- 
tions of  Newton  and  the  development  of  phi- 
losophy under  Locke  mark  this  period. 

Alexander  Pope  is  the  literary  successor  of 
John  Dryden,  and  the  representative  poet  of 
his  time.  He  was  a  precocious  boy  whose  body 
was  "one  long  disease."  Before  he  was  twelve 
years  of  age  he  had  written  an  "  Ode  to  Solitude," 
and  reading  was  his  passion.  To  understand 
Pope  one  must  remember  his  deformity  and  the 
spirit  of  the  time  in  which  he  lived.  The  first 
half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  is  marked  by  a 
low  standard  of  morals.  Political  unrest  and 
political  double  dealing,  coarse  social  life,  dull, 
unimaginative,  brutal,  these  are  the  common 
terms  by  which  it  is  described.  Drunkenness 
was  common  and  morality  laughed  at.  Out  of 
such  conditions  Pope  and  Swift  and  Steele  gath- 
ered the-m&terial  for  their  satires.  Addison 
alone  of  this  distinguished  group  of  writers  kept 
his  genial  nature  and  wrote  what  was  gentle 


302 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


and  mirthful  with  such  grace  that  satire  lost 
its  severity. 

The  literary  faults  of  this  age  are  lack  of  moral 
earnestness  and  enthusiasm.  •  Form  was  pre- 
ferred to  matter.  The  age  was  molded  by 
classical  rules.  It  delighted  in  studied  regu- 
larities. Pope  is  the  great  exponent  of  the 
classic  school.  So  deficient  is  he  in  warmth  of 
feeling  for  man  or  nature,  so  fixed  and  formal 
are  his  lines,  that  it  is  often  questioned  whether 
Pope  was  entitled  to  the  name  of  poet.  But 
whether  poet  or  not,  .Pope  has  enriched  our 
language  bj^  his  epigrammatic  couplets  which 
are  familiar  in  our  common  speech.  Pope  and 
Dryden  have  done  much  for  our  English  in 
raising  the  standard  of  good  speech.  Poems  of 
satire  the  world  will  forget,  but  a  good  laugh 
is  worth  preserving.  "Gulliver's  Travels,"  by 
Jonathan  Swift,  are  even  more  enjoyed  to-day 
than  when  they  were  written,  for  the  sharpness 
of  their  first  intent  is  forgotten. 

The  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  is 
far  more  remarkable  for  its  prose  than  for  its 
poetry.  A  new  and  excellent  field  for  essayists 
was  found  in  the  "Tatler,"  planned  by  Richard 
Steele.  Periodical  papers  containing  news  had 
existed  in  England  from  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War,  but.  this  was  the  first  periodical  designed 
to  have  literary  merit  and  to  discuss  questions 
of  common,  every-day  interest,  containing 
lively  sketches,  anecdotes,  humorous  discus- 
sions. It  was  succeeded  by  the  "Spectator," 
which  appeared  every  week-day  morning  in  the 
shape  of  a  single  leaf  from  March  1,  1711,  to 
December,  1712;  after  a  suspension  it  reap- 
peared three  times  a  week  in  1714,  and  extended 
to  635  numbers.  The  "Guardian"  was  begun 
in  1713,  but  ceased  after  the  176th  number. 
Steele  was  the  principal  contributor  to  the 
"Tatler"  and  "Guardian,"  and  Addison  to  the 
"Spectator,"  but  papers  were  also  furnished  by 
Swift,  Pope,  Berkeley,  and  Hughes.  The  essays, 
especially  those  of  Addison,  were  often  models  of 
grace  and  delicacy,  and  were  highly  influential 
in  correcting  and  refining  the  tone  of  society. 

Prose  fiction  is  another  development  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  Daniel  Defoe  (1661-1731) 
first  gave  to  English  fiction  a  simple,  direct, 
matter-of-fact,  and  human  interest,  and  the 
narrative  of  "  Robinson  Crusoe  "  has  never  been 
excelled.  The  "  Tale  of  a  Tub  "  and  "  Gulliver's 
Travels,"  by  Swift,  "The  History  of  John  Bull," 
by  Arbuthnot,  are  satires  in  the  form  of  fic- 
titious narratives.  The  writings  of  Swift  are 
admirable  for  their  vigor  and  humor.  Under 
his  successors  the  novel  became  more  complex 
and  artistic,  embraced  greater  varieties  of  char- 
acter and  diversities  of  treatment,  and  pictured 
the  artificial  refinements  and  distinctions  of  so- 
ciety. "Joseph  Andrews,"  "Tom  Jones,"  and 
"Amelia,"  by  Fielding,  and  "Pamela,"  "Cla- 
rissa Harlowe,"  and  "Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  by 
Richardson,  were  published  near  the  middle  of 
the  century.  "Peregrine  Pickle,"  "Humphrey 
Clinker,"  and  other  novels  by  Smollett  are  dis- 
tinguished for  coarse,  comic  incidents  and  broad 
humor.  "Tristram  Shandy"  and  "Sentimental 
Journey,"  by  Sterne,  contain  passages  sparkling 
with  wit  and  humor,  also  much  sentimentality. 
The  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  by  Oliver  Goldsmith, 


IS  without  doubt  the  most  delightful  romantic 
novel  of  the  centurj^.  It  is  not  a  book  without 
grave  faults,  but  it  combines  delicate  humor 
with  sweet  human  emotions.  Goldsmith  was  a 
writer  in  every  field  of  invention,  but  he  will  be 
longest  remembered  because  of  the  Vicar  and 
his  family.  His  "Deserted  Village"  and  his 
"Traveler"  contain  passages  that  cannot  be 
forgotten.  So  also  Gray's  "Elegy  Written  in  a 
Country  Churchyard"  and  Collins'  "Odes"  and 
Cowper's  hymns  belong  to  immortal  verse. 

The  Eighteenth  Century,  which  gave  us  the 
modern  essay  and  the  novel,  also  produced 
writers  of  carefully  elaborated  and  finished  his- 
tory: "History  of  England,"  by  David  Hume; 
"  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  by  Gibbon;  and  Robertson's  histories 
of  Scotland,  Germany,  and  America.  There 
was  also  noted  oratory,  Burke,  Fox,  Pitt,  and 
the  philosophy  of  Berkeley,  Paley,  and  Hume, 
and  the  great  prose  works  of  Adam  Smith  and 
William  Blackstone. 

In  striking  personality  and  in  power  to  make 
others  think,  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  was,  without 
doubt,  the  foremost  man  of  literary  London. 
He  was  the  central  figure  around  whom  all  the 
literary  men  and  women  gathered,  the  Nestor 
of  his  age.  Dr.  Johnson  founded  and  carried 
on  as  sole  editor  two  periodicals,  the  "Rambler" 
and  the  "Idler,"  in  the  style  of  the  "Spectator" 
which  Addison  had  made  so  popular.  His  most 
famous  work  was  a  "Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language."  His  critical  estimate  of  poetry 
cannot  be  highly  valued  and  his  criticisms  are 
often  stilted  and  overstrained  in  language.  His 
best  prose  is  his  romance,  "  Rasselas,  the  Prince 
of  Abyssinia."  Johnson  is  better  known  because 
of  his  biographer,  Boswell,  than  for  what  he  wrote. 

The  close  of  the  century,  so  remarkable  for 
its  development  in  prose,  adds  one  great  name 
to  the  poets  already  mentioned,  (Robert  Burns) 
the  Scottish  prince  of  lyric  verse.  Love  of 
nature,  feeling  for  humanity,  he  has  written  for 
us  as  no  other  poet  ever  wrote.  The  poetic 
ideal  of  Gray  and  Collins  and  Cowper  and  Blake 
and  Burns  reacted  against  cold  formalities  in 
verse.  The  joys  and  sorrows  of  life  they  would 
put  into  poetry,  and  as  it  came  from  the  heart 
they  would  have  it  touch  the  heart.  Man  and 
nature  are  the  chosen  themes,  and  man  is  always 
in  the  foreground  with  Burns.  The  songs  of 
Burns  minister  to  every  common  feeling  of  the 
human  heart.  That  he  has  won  his  audience 
is  proven  by  the  fact  that  since  the  day  of  his 
death  his  audiences  have  continually  grown  larger. 
Those  who  read  and  those  who  do  not  read  are 
familiar  with  these  songs:  "Scots  wha  hae  wi' 
Wallace  Bled,"  "Auld  Lang  Syne,"  "Comin' 
Through  the  Rye,"  "Ye  Banks  and  Braes." 

Poetry,  at  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
was  simpler  than  in  the  preceding  generations. 
There  were  songs  of  joy  and  laughter  and  tender 
sympathies.  Imagination  was  given  free  play 
and  it  touched  with  beauty  the  familiar  scenes 
of  every  day. 

The  opening  years  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
ushered  in  a  brilliant  company  of  nature  poets: 
Scott,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey,  Byron, 
Shelley,  Keats,  together  with  Cowper  and  Burns, 
who  died  in  the  closing  years  of  the  last  century, 


LITERATURE 


303 


belong  practically  to-this  group.  There  was  to 
be  noted  a  change  of  ideals.  The  reign  of  the 
epic  and  the  drama  was  past.  Classic  models 
gave  place  to  freer  expression,  more  individuality, 
a  deeper  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of  nature, 
and  more  value  set  upon  the  commonplace. 
Imagination  and  a  larger  sympathy  found 
beauty  in  that  which  had  been  counted  low  and 
mean.  This  was  illustrated  in  the  poems  of 
Burns  and  Cowper.  Sir  Walter  Scott  showed 
this  tendency  in  his  romances.  His  romance 
poems  combine  the  refinements  of  modern  poetry 
with  the  spirit  and  material  of  the  neglected 
border  minstrelsy.  Wordsworth  aimed  to  re- 
new nature  by  bringing  back  poetry  to  truth 
and  nature.  His  verse  is  often  weak,  but  his 
best  poems,  as  "Ode  on  Immortality"  and 
many  of  his  shorter  poems,  are  exquisite  in 
their  simplicity  of  feeling  and  truthfulness  of 
delineation.  Coleridge's  finest  poems  are  "Cris- 
tabel"  and  "Ancient  Mariner."  They  are  un- 
surpassed in  their  strong,  wild  music  and  their 
splendid  imagination.  Southey  contributed  both 
to  prose  and  verse  and  displayed  extensive 
learning.  Byron  was  remarkable  for  strength 
and  passion.  Keats  and  Shelley  were  instinct 
with  love  and  intellectual  sense  of  ideal  beauty. 
"The  Skylark" and  "The  Cloud,"  by  Shelley, are 
perfect  in  their  music  and  their  imagery.  Thomas 
Moore,  sometimes  called  the  "Irish  melodist," 
besides  his  shorter  poems,  wrote  "Lalla  Rookh," 
a  volume  containing  four  Oriental  stories  told 
with  rich  imagery  and  diction.  Thomas  Camp- 
bell wrote  "Pleasures  of  Hope."  Humor  and 
pathos  are  combined  in  the  poems  of  Thomas 
Hood:  "Song  of  the  Shirt,"  "Bridge  of  Sighs," 
"The  Last  Man." 

The  prose  of  this  first  half  of  the  century  also 
takes  high  rank.  Scott  will  always  be  remem- 
bered as  the  creator  of  the  historical  novel, 
Charles  Lamb  for  his  delicate  humor  and  rare 
use  of  language.  His  "Essays  of  Elia"  have 
been  called  the  finest  of  their  kind  in  literature. 
Macaulay's  essays  give  us  fine  examples  of  Eng- 
lish prose.  De  Quincey's  opium  dreams  and 
his  "English  Mail  Coach"  are  also  brilliant 
specimens  of  English.  Mill,  Bentham,  Malthus, 
are  the  chief  contributors  to  philosophical  prose. 

In  1837,  Queen  Victoria  ascended  the  throne. 
From  this  date  until  the  present  time  may  be 
called  the  Vic_tj2jian_age.  This  age  is  not  re- 
markable for  the  development  of  any  new  type 
of  literature  but  for  the  quantity  and  general 
excellence  of  literature  in  every  department. 
Representative  names  of  the  Victorian  age  are 
Browning,  Tennyson,  Matthew  Arnold,  the 
Rossettis,  in  poetry;  Thackeray,  Dickens, 
George  Eliot,  Bulwer,  in  prose  fiction;  Carlyle, 
Macaulay,  Ruskin,  Matthew  Arnold,  Swinburne, 
Leslie  Stephen,  in  essay  writing;  Spencer,  New- 
man, Hamilton,  Darwin,  Tyndall,  Huxley,  Fara- 
day, Mill,  in  philosophy  and  science;  Milman, 
Grote,  Froude,  Freeman,  Buckle,  Green,  and 
Leckey,  in  history. 

Problems  of  life  occupy  the  minds  of  the  Vic- 
torian writers.  It  is  an  age  of  scientific  thought 
and  of  practical  reform.  There  is  a  struggle  of 
the  masses  upward,  a  striving  for  better  govern- 
ment, for  higher  moral  ideals.  Prose  and  poetry 
alike    are    imbued    with    an    ethical    purpose. 


Dickens  desired  to  bring  out  what  he  called 
"the  romantic  aspect  of  familiar  things,"  and 
he  began  with  the  study  of  "vicious  poverty." 
Most  of  Dickens'  novels  were  inspired  by  a 
firm  purpose  to  accomplish  some  reform.  His 
social  creed  has  been  formulated  in  these  words : 
"  Banish  from  earth  some  few  monsters  of  selfish- 
ness, malignity,  and  hypocrisy,  set  to  rights  a 
few  obvious  imperfections  in  the  machinery  of 
society,  in3pire  all  men  with  a  cheery  benevo- 
lence, and  everything  will  go  well  with  this 
excellent  world  of  ours."  While  Dickens  with 
inimitable  humor  and  rare  optimism  was  pre- 
senting the  cause  of  the  submerged  poor,  Thack- 
eray wrote  of  the  follies  of  the  upper  classes  of 
society,  and  George  Eliot  pictured  the  English 
middle  class.  These  great  novelists  with  their 
deep  human  sympathies  pictured  the  inter- 
dependence of  human  beings,  the  relation  that 
every  man  bears  to  his  surroundings.  Thus 
fiction  has  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  social 
ideas  of  the  time,  reflecting  not  only  its  mood, 
but  also  its  important  changes,  showing  thereby 
that  it  has  life  and  does  not  exist  as  a  mere 
literary  form. 

The  vigor  and  idealism  of  the  age  has  been 
splendidly  expressed  by  Browning  and  Tenny- 
son. Carlyle  was  the  mouthpiece  of  the  strongly- 
felt  need  of  heroism.  He  was  by  far  the  greatest 
of  the  Englishmen  of  his  time  who  taught  the 
value  of  sincerity.  Another  author  who  had  a 
great  influence  upon  his  contemporaries  was 
John  Ruskin.  Each  generation  has  its  message 
to  deliver.  Carlyle  and  Ruskin  in  their  criti- 
cisms, one  on  life,  and  one  on  art,  caught  the 
message  of  their  time.  They  would  have  men 
be  true  and  live  up  to  the  best  that  is  in  them. 
They  spoke  as  the  poets  Tennyson  and  Brown- 
ing spoke  of  the  larger  and  truer  meaning  in  life. 
They  believed  in  growth  through  evolution  and 
in  the  possibilites  of  the  individual. 

It  is  impossible  in  ^o  short  an  article  to  select 
and  discuss  the  individual  writers  of  the  Vic- 
torian age.  They  must  be  characterized,  if  at 
all,  in  groups.  Such  a  book  as  this  affords  little 
space  for  library  lists  and  selected  works  of  the 
best  authors  both  in  English  and  American 
literature  and  the  best  known  works  in  foreign 
literatures,  so  that  the  student  who  wishes  to 
continue  his  studies  or  the  general  reader  who 
wishes  the  delight  of  well-selected  reading  should 
consult  a  good  outline  of  English  literature. 
Such  names  as  the  following,  which  belong  to 
evefy  appreciative  study  of  English  literature, 
but  an  extended  notice  of  which  has  necessarily 
been  omitted  here,  will  be  found  well  worthy  of 
the  careful  student  of  his  mother  tongue:  in 
poetry  —  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning,  Edward 
Fitzgerald,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough,  Jean  Ingelow, 
William  Morris,  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne, 
William  Watson,  Rudyard  Kipling;  fiction  — 
Charles  Lever,  Elizabeth  Gaskell,  Charles  Reade, 
Anthony  Trollope,  Charlotte  Bronte,  Charles 
Kingsley,  Wilkie  Collins,  Richard  D.  Blackmore, 
Dinah  Maria  Craike,  George  Meredith,  Thomas 
Hardy,  William  Black,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson, 
Mrs.  Humphrey  Ward,  Hall  Caine,  Rudyard 
Kipling,  George  Macdonald;  essay  and  criti- 
cism —  Leslie  Stephens,  Algernon  Charles  Swin- 
burne, Walter  Pater,  John  Addington  Symonds. 


304 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE 


Time 


1586-1647 
1588-1649 

1612-1672 
1663-1728 
1703-1758 

1706-1790 

1737-1791 
1743-1826 
1752-1832 
1754-1812 
1757-1804 
1758-1843 
1766-1813 
1770-1842 
1771-1810 
1773-1811 
1775-1863 
1779-1843 
1779-1845 
1779-1860 
1780-1842 
1780-1843 


Author 


REPRESENTATIVE  WORKS 


Hooker,  Tliomas,  . 
Winthrop,  John,     . 

Bradstreet,  Anne,  . 
Mather,  Cotton,  .  . 
Edwards,  Jonathan, 


Franklin,  Benjamin,  .   .'. 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  .  . 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  .  .  . 
Freneau,  PhiUp,      .    .    . 

Barlow,  Joel 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  . 
Webster,  Noah,  .... 
Wilson,  Alexander,  .  . 
Hopkinson,  Joseph,  .  . 
Brown,  Charles  Brockden, 
Paine,  Robert  Treat,  .  . 
Beecher,  Lyman,  .  .  . 
.'Mlston,  Washington,     . 

Story,  Joseph 

Paulding,  James  Kirke, 
Channing,  William  E.,  . 
Key,  Francis  Scott,   .    . 


1 780- 1851      I  Audubon,John  James , 


1782-1852 
1782-1858 
1783-1859 

1784-1865 
1784-1868 

1785-1866 
1787-1879 
1788-1866 
1789-1841 
1789-1867 
1789-1851 

1789-1866 
1790-1867 
1791-1865 
1791-1871 
1791-1875 
1792-1852 
1793-1860 
1793-1868 
1793-1879 
1793-1868 

1794-1878 
1795-1820 

1795-1870 

1795-1856 

1796-1865 

1796-1859 

1796-1828 
1796-1865 
1796-1881 
1797-1882 
1798-1870 
1800-1891 
1802-1864 
1802-1880 

1802-1876 

1802-1870 

1803-1882 

1803-1879 

1804-1864 

1805-1877 
1806-1870 
1806-1867 


Webster,  Daniel,  .  .  . 
Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  . 
Irving,  Washington,  .    . 

Worcester,  Joseph  E.,  . 
Allen,  William 

Pierpont,  John 

Dana,  Richard  H.,  .  . 
Campbell,  Alexander,  . 
Hillhouse,  James  A.,  .  . 
Sedgwick,  Catherine  M., 
.Cooper,  James  Fenimore, 


Sparks.  Jared,  .  .  . 
Halleck,  Fitz-Greene, 
Sigourney,  Lydia  H., 
Ticknor,  George,  .  . 
Sprague,  Charles,  .  . 
Payne,  John  Howard, 
Goodrich,  Samuel  G., 
Hall,  James,  .  ♦.  .  . 
Carey,  Henry  Chas.,  . 
Thompson,  Daniel  P., 


Prose 


Sermons,  Survey  of  Church,  etc. 

History  of   New  England  (1630- 

1649) 

Magnalia  (history) 

Freedom  of  the  Will,  Original 

Sin,  etc 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,    .    .    . 
Autobiography,  Essays,  etc.  .    . 


Notes  on  Virginia. 


State  Papers 

Spelling  Book,  Dictionary. 
Ornithology 


Wieland,  Clara  Howard,  etc. 


Sermons,  Political  Addresses.    . 

Lectures  on  Art, 

Commentaries  on  Cons,  of  U.  S. 

Novels 

Essays,  Addresses 


Birds  of  America, 

Quadrupeds  of  America.     .    .    . 

Orations,  etc 

Thirty  Years'  View  (U.  S.  Senate). 

Knickerbocker's  History  of  New 
York,  Sketch  Book,  etc.     .    . 

Dictionary  of  Eng.  Language.  . 

American  Biographical  and  His- 
torical Dictionary 

School  Reader^ 

Lectures  on  Shakespere 

Religious  Debates 

A  New  England  Tale,  etc.  .    .    . 
The  Spy,  Leather  Stocking  'Tales, 

.  etc . 

American  Biographies 


History  of  Spanish  Literature. 


Bryant,  William  Cullen, 
Drake,  Joseph  Rodman, 

Kennedy,  John  P.,     .   . 


Percival,  James  G., 
Wayland,  Francis, .    .   .-< 

Prescott,  William  H.,    --? 

Brainard,  John  G.  C. 
Haliburton,  Thomas  C. 
Palfrey,  John  G.,  .  . 
Parens,  Theophilus, . 
Barnes,  Albert,  .  .  . 
Bancroft,  George,  .    . 

Morris,  Geo.  P 

Child,  Lydia  M 


Bushnell,  Horace,  . 
Prentice,  George  D.,  . 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo 
Abbott,  Jacob,    .    .    . 


Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  ■{ 

[ 
;\bbott,  John  S.  C,    .    . 
Simms,  William  Gilmore, 
Willis,  Nathaniel  P..  .   . 


Peter  Parley  Books,  etc.  .  .  . 
History  of  the  Indian  Tribes.  . 
Principles  of  Political  Econom.v. 
Green  Mountain  Boys,  Histori- 
cal Novels 


Swallow  Barn,  Rob  of  the  Bowl, 
Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  etc..  Mem- 
oirs  


Moral  Science,  PoUtical  Econ- 
omy  

Intellectual  Philosophy 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Con- 
quest of  Peru,  Conquest  of 
Mexico,  etc 

Sam  Slick. 

History  of  New  England.  .  .  . 
Relig.  and  Phil,  of  Swedenborg. 
"  Barnes's  Notes  "  (Bible)..  .  . 
History  of  U.  S.  to  1789.    .    .    . 

Mother's  Book,  Biographies.  .  . 
Nature  and  the  Supernatural,  . 
Moral  Uses  of  Dark  Things.  .  . 
Louisville  Journal  (Ed.),     .    .    . 

Conduct  of  Life, 

Essays,  Representative  Men,  etc. 

Rollo  Books,  etc 

Twice  Told  Tales,  Blithedale  Ro- 
mance,    

Scarlet  Letter,  Wonder  Book,    . 

Marble  Faun,  etc 

Histories,  Biographies,  etc.  .  . 
Novels,  Biography,  etc.,  .  .  . 
Sketches 


Poetry 


Poems. 


Battle  of  the  Kegs. 

Poems  (humorous). 
The  Columbiad,  etc. 


Hail  Columbia. 

Adams  and  Liberty,  Poems, 

Poems. 

Poems. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  Poems. 


Lyrics. 

The  Buccaneer. 

Percy's  Masque,  Hadad. 


Marco  Bozzaris,  Poems. 
Poems. 

The  Family  Meeting,  Poems. 
Home,  Sweet  Home,  etc. 


Poems  (Thanatopsis),  etc. 
The  Culprit  Fay. 


Prometheus,  etc. 


Poems. 


Lyrics. 


Poems. 


Poems. 

Scriptural  Poems,  etc. 


I 


LITERATURE 


305 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE  — Continued 


Time 


Author 


REPRESENTATIVE  WORKS 


Prose 


Poetry 


1807-1882 
1807-1865 
1807-1892 

1809-1894 

1809-1849 
1811-1894 
1811-1896 
I813-1S91 

1814-1877 

1815-1882 

1816-1887 

1816-1889 

1817-1862 
1817-1881 
1817 

1819-1881 

1819-1910 

1819-1891 

1819-1886 

1819-1892 

1821-1885 

1822-1897 

1822-1909 

1822-1891 
1822-1908 

1822-1872 
1823-1893 
1823-1890 

1823 

1824-1906 

1824-1892 
1824-1892 

1825-1878 
1825-1903 
1826-1864 

1827-1905 

1829-1900 

1831-1886 

1831 

1832-1888 

1833-1908 

1833-1885 

1834-1902 

1835-1900 

1835-1910 

1835 
1836-1907 

1837 

1837-1902 

1837 

1838-1905 

1838-1888 

1838-1905 


Longfellow,  H.  W., 
Hildreth,  Richard,  . 
Whittier,  John  G.,  . 


Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  K 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  .    .    . 

McCosh,  James 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher, 
Lossing,  Benson  J.,    .    . 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  .  ^ 

Dana,  Richard  Henry,  Jr., 

Saxe,  John  G.,    .    .    .    . 

Allibone,  Samuel  A.,  .   . -, 

Thoreau,  H.  D.,  .... 
Fields,  James  T.,  .  .  . 
Bigelow,  John,  .      ... 

Holland,  J.  G \ 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,     .    . 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  . 

Whipple,  Edwin  P.,  .    . 

Whitman,  Walt,     ... 

White,  Richard  Grant,  .  -j 

Adams,  William  Taylor, 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  - 

Parton,  James 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  .    . 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan, 

Parkman,  Francis,     .    . 

Boker,  George  H.,  .    .    , 

Higginson,  Thomas  ' 

Wentworth,     .    .    .   .) 


Whitney,  Adeline  D.,     . 

Shea,  John  D.  G 

Curtis,  George  W.,      .   .  \ 

Taylor,  Bayard,  .   .    .    .-; 
Stoddard,  Richard  H.,  . 
Foster,  Stephen  Collins, 

Wallace,  Lew ] 

Warner,    Charles    Dud-  j 
ley "I 

Hayne,  Paul  Hamilton, 


Terhune,  Mary  V., 
Alcott,  Louisa  May,  . 
Stedman,  Edmund  C, 
Mulford,  Elisha, .  .  . 
Stockton,  Frank  R.,  . 
Tyler,  ^Moses  Coit,  .  . 
Clemens,  Samuel  L.,  . 

Abbott,  Lyman,  .  . 
Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey, 

Howells,  William  Dean, 

Eggleston,  Edward,  . 
Burroughs,  John,  .  . 
Dodge,  Mary  Mapes,  . 
Roe,  Edward  Payson, 
Tourg^e,  Albion  W.,  . 


Outre  Mer,  etc 

History  of  U.  S.  to  1821. 


I 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 

etc 

Novels 

The  Gold  Bug 

Intuitions  of  the  Mind,  etc.    .    . 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  etc 

Pictorial  Histories,  etc 

Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  His- 
tory of  the  United  Netherlands. 
Two  Years  before  the  Mast.  .    . 


/ 

Critical  Dictionary  of  Engli-^ih,  . 

Literature  and  Authors 

Walden,  Excursions,  etc.  .  .  . 
Yesterdays  with  Authors.  .  .  . 
Life  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  .  . 
Timothy  Titcomb's  Letters,  .    . 

Arthur  Bonnicastle,  etc 

Social  and  Philosophical  ) 

Papers 1 

Among    My  Books,  My  Study  ( 

Windows 1 

Essays  and  Reviews,  American 

Literature 


Words  and  their  Uses,  .... 
Every  Day  English,  etc.  .  .  . 
Juveniles  (Oliver  Optic).  .  .  . 
The  Man  Without  a  Country,    . 

His  Level  Best,  etc 

Biographies 

Dream  Life,  Reveries  of  a  Bach- 
elor  

Oregon  Trail,  Pioneers  of  France, 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  etc.  .    .    . 


Outdoor  Papers 

Short  Studies  of  American  Au- 
thors, etc 

The  Gayworthys,  Faith  Gartney, 

The  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S. 
Potiphar  Papers,  Life  of  W.  C. 

Bryant,  Prue  and  I,  etc.  .  . 
Northern    Travel,    Greece    and 

Russia,  etc., 

Hannah  Thurston,  etc 

Loves  and  Heroines  of  the  Poets, 


The  Fair  God,  Prince  of  India, 

Ben  Hur 

My  Summer  in  a  Garden,  .  .  . 
Little  Journey  in  the  World,  etc. 

i 

I 

Alone,  Hidden  Path,  etc.,  .  .  . 
Common  Sense  in  the  Household. 
Little  Women,  etc 


The  Nation,  Republic  of  God.   . 
Rudder  Grange,  Squirrel  Inn,    . 

The  Lady  or  the  Tiger,  etc.    . 
History  of  American  literature. 

Innocents  Abroad 

Huckleberry  Finn 

Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Paul,  .    . 

Sermons,  etc 

Marjorie  Daw,  Novels,    .... 
Venetian    Life,   Their   Wedding 

Journey 

The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham,  etc. 
Hoosier  Schoolmaster,  Roxy,  etc. 
WakeRobin,W  inter  Sunshine, etc. 

Hans  Brinker, 

Barriers  Burned  Away,  etc.   .    . 
A  Fool's  Errand,  etc 


Hiawatha,  etc.. 
Household  Poems. 


Household  Poems, 
Maud  Muller,  etc. 


Poems. 

The  Raven,  etc. 


New  Rape  of  the  Lock, 
The  Money  King,  etc. 


Kathrina. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic, 

Later  Lyrics. 

Vision  of  Sir  Launfal, 

Biglow  Papers. 


Leaves  of  Grass. 


The  New  Pastoral,  etc. 
Poems  of  the  War. 


Poems  of  the  Orient. 

Book  of  the  East,  Poems. 
Old  Uncle  Ned, 
Old  Folks  at  Home, 
Old  Dog  Tray,  etc. 


Sonnets  and  Other  Poems, 
Legends  and  Lyrics. 


The  Diamond  Wedding, 
Alice  of  Monmouth,  etc. 


Poems. 


.Along  the  Way. 


306 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE  —  Continued 


Author 

REPRESENTATIVE  WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 

1838-1896 

1839-1902 

1839 
1841 

1842-1901 

1842-1881 

1843 

1844 

1844 

1864-1909 

1847 

Dodge,  Mary  Abigail,    . 

Harte,  Bret -[ 

Schouler,  James,     .    .    . 
Miller,  Joaquin 

Fiske,  John •! 

Lanier,  Sidney 

James,  Henry 

Cable,  George  W 

Ward,  Eliz.  S.  Phelps,  . 
Crawford,  F.  Marion,     . 
Hardy,  Arthur  S 

Country  Living,  Stumbling 

Blocks 

Luck  of  Roaring  Camp 

Gabriel  Conroy,  etc 

History  of  the  U.  S 

Myths  and  Myth  Makers.   .    .    . 

Histories 

The  Boy's  Froissart 

Daisy  Miller,  Portrait  of  a  I-ady, 

etc 

Ole  Creole  Days,  etc 

Gates  Ajar,  etc 

Saracinesca,  etc., 

Passe  Rose,  etc 

The  Heathen      Chinee      and      other 
poems. 

Songs  of  the  Sierras,  etc. 
Poems. 

Ballads. 

American  history  and  American  literature  are 
not  contemporaneous  terms.  American  history 
began  with  the  European  settlement  of  the 
American  continent,  but  the  literature  not  until 
generations  later,  when  the  life  of  the  new  world 
had  created  distinctively  different  ideals  and 
different  currents  of  thought  and  emotion. 
American  literature  was  in  its  origin  simply  a 
branch  of  English  literature  set  in  new  earth. 
Our  intellectual  depehdence  on  England  has 
gradually  lessened,  and  as  we  have  gained  inde- 
pendence in  national  affairs,  national  ideals 
have  grown  clearer  and  our  character  more 
definitely  defined.  This  gradual  change  in 
national  character  has  been  reflected  period  by 
period  in  our  literature,  but  American  literature 
remains  to-day,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  shall 
ever  remain,  a  branch  of  the  great  literature  of 
England  which  binds  together  the  great  body  of 
the  English  speaking  people. 

Periods  of  American  Literature 
I.     The  Colonial  Period,  1607-1765. 
II.     The  Revolutionary  Period,  1765-1789. 

III.     The  Period  of  the  Republic,  1789-1908. 

Colonial  Period,  1607-1765.  It  is 
important  to  remember  that  the  group  of  Eng- 
lish colonies  scattered  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
represented  entirely  separate  communities.  There 
was  no  national  life.  The  literature  of  the 
colonial  period  had  its  beginnings  in  no  one 
center.  Colonial  literature  is  a  literature  of  sec- 
tions, each  reflecting  the  character  of  the  set- 
tlers. 

In  Virginia  education  was  despised.  All  were 
in  eager  search  for  ease  of  life  or  gold.  The 
earliest  writings  in  this  colony  were  news  letters 
and  various  descriptions  of  the  new  and  strange 
country  or  the  story  of  mishaps  and  prosperity, 
written  by  the  settlers  to  their  friends  in  Eng- 
land. Very  little  attempt  was  made  at  beauty 
of  style.  Captain  John  Smith  had  printed  when 
he  returned  to  London  "A  True  Relation  of 
Virginia,"  published  in  1608.  "We  doubt  not," 
he  writes,  "but  by  God's  gracious  assistance, 
and  the  adventurous,  willing  minds  and  speedy 
furtherance  to  so  honorable  an  action  in  after 
times,  to  see  our  nation  enjoy  a  country,  not 
only  exceedingly  pleasant  for  habitation,  but 
also  very  profitable  for  commerce  in  general,  no 
doubt  pleasing  to  Almighty  God,  honorable  to 
our  gracious  sovereign,  and  commodious  gener- 


ally to  the  whole  kingdom."  This  and  other 
writings  of  the  early  Virginia  colonists  form 
very  valuable  historic  documents.  Certain  few 
attempts  at  scholarly  work  were  made,  such  as 
the  translation  of  Ovid's  "Metamoi-phoses,"  by 
George  Sandys,  treasurer  of  the  Virginian  colony 
and  son  of  the  archbishop  of  York. 

Among  the  narratives  and  descriptions  of  the 
country  were  "Good  News  from  Virginia,"  by 
Alexander  Whitaker,  published  in  Ijondon  in 
1613;  and  "Leah  and  Rachel,"  by  John  Ham- 
mond, published  in  1656.  But  books  of  this 
character  cannot  be  said  to  belong  to  the  new 
continent.  They  were  written  by  Englishmen 
and  printed  in  England  to  be  read  by  their 
countrymen. 

Great  importance  was  attached  to  education 
in  the  New  England  colonies.  Schools,  colleges, 
the  printing  press,  were  soon  established.  Books 
and  pamphlets  were  published.  The  first  book 
printed  was  the  "  Bay  Psalm  Book."  Before 
1630  public  instruction  was  compulsory  in  New 
England. 

Among  the  earliest  writings  were  diaries,  his- 
tories, and  descriptions.  The  events  of  the  first 
year  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  were  recorded  in 
the  "Journal  of  William  Bradford  and  Edward 
Winslow,"  vivid  and  full  of  interesting  incidents. 
The  "History  of  Plymouth,"  by  William  Brad- 
ford, for  thirty  years  governor  of  the  colony, 
comes  down  to  1646. 

The  literature  of  New  England  was,  through- 
out the  Colonial  period,  of  a  rehgious  character. 
The  only  questions  of  general  interest  were  ques- 
tions of  theology.  The  writers  of  books  and 
pamphlets  were  men  who  had  fought  for  their 
religious  opinions.  They  had  exiled  themselves 
that  they  might  be  free  to  worship  God  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  their  own  conscience. 
Naturally,  the  first  publications  were  in  defense 
of  their  creed.  Their  only  literary  object  was 
to  explain  divine  truth  as  they  perceived 
it.  Religious  books  and  pamphlets,  therefore, 
form  the  great  bulk  of  the  publications  of  the 
period. 

Most  prominent  among  the  clergy  were  Roger 
Williams,  the  author  of  many  writings,  in  which 
he  boldly  stood  for  liberty  of  conscience;  John 
Eliot,  the  "  Apostle  to  the  Indians  "  and  a  writer 
of  books;  the  Mathers,  father,  son,  and  grand- 
son, who  were  men  of  great  mental  power  and 
voluminous  sermons. 


LITERATURE 


307 


The  three  greatest  names  during  the  Colonial 
period  were:  Cotton  Mather  (1663-1728),  Jona- 
than Edwards  (1703-1758),  Benjamin  Frankhn 
( 1706-1790).  The  nTost  celebrated  book  by  Cot- 
ton Mather  was  the  "Magnalia  Christi  Ameri- 
cana," or  "great  things  done  by  Christ  for  the 
American  people."  Jonathan  Edwards'  princi- 
pal work  is«entitled  "  Inquiry  into  the  Freedom 
of  the  Will."  The  best  known  of  Franklin's 
works  are  his  "Autobiography,"  "Father  Abra- 
ham's Speech,"  and  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac." 
The  early  writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin  fall 
within  the  Colonial  period,  but  his  scate  papers 
and  his  later  works  belong  to  the  Revolutionary 
period.  The  first  newspaper  published  in  Amer- 
ica was  "Pubhc  Occurrences,"  in  1690.  "The 
Boston  News  Letter"  was  published  in  1704; 
"The  Boston  Gazette"  in  1719. 

Revolutionary  Period.  By  the  middle 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  great  changes  were 
manifested  in  the  character  of  the  colonies. 
They  had  become  closer  neighbors  and  they 
had  discovered  that  they  had  much  in  common. 
The  old  isolation  was  broken  down,  and  with 
united  voice  they  protested  against  foreign 
injustice.  The  character  of  the  writings  of  the 
Colonial  period  was  theological,  the  character 
of  the  writings  of  the  Revolutionary  period  was 
political.  The  writers  of  the  day  denounced 
tyranny  and  proclaimed  for  liberty  and  self- 
reliance,  and  thus  laid  the  foundations  for  our 
national  literature.  Already,  for  half  a  century, 
the  weekly  newspapers,  as  well  as  a  few  monthly 
magazines  for  a  decade  or  more,  had  been  pub- 
lishing and  discussing  political  news,  so  that  the 
people  of  the  colonies  had  been  educated  to 
think  and  write  upon  such  subjects.  The  Amer- 
ican colleges  had  contributed  their  share  to  the 
spirit  of  independence,  and  educated  men  were 
ready  to  act  as  leaders.  It  is  not  strange,  there- 
fore, that  the  state  papers  of  the  Revolutionary 
period  form  a  body  of  exceedingly  able  docu- 
ments. "When  your  lordship  looks  at  the 
papers  transmitted  to  us  from  America,"  said 
Chatham,  in  1775,  "when  you  consider  their 
decency,  firmness,  and  wisdom,  you  cannot  but 
respect  their  cause." 

The  greatest  orator  of  Massachusetts  was 
James  Otis;  the  greatest  orator  of  Virginia, 
Patrick  Henry.  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe, 
John  Jay,  Alexander  Hamilton,  all  were  able 
writers.  There  were  some  attempts  at  general 
literature,  history,  essay,  biography,  fiction,  and 
there  were  a  few  poets  of  an  inferior  sort.  The  bal- 
lad literature  of  Revolutionary  days  is  said  to  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  Lord  Chatham.  The 
songs  current  in  America  during  this  era  are  his- 
torically interesting  and  artistically  monotonous. 
They  celebrate  in  rude  verse  the  achievements 
of  native  heroes,  like  "Bold  Hawthorne";  or 
ridicule,  like  "Jack  Brag,"  the  British  Lion;  or, 
like  the  "Fate  of  Burgoyne,"  the  overthrow  of 
vaulting  ambition;  or,  as  in  "Wyoming  Mas- 
sacre," bewail  the  fate  of  the  fallen;  or,  as  in 
"Free  America,"  celebrate  the  triumph  of  the 
good  cause.  Among  the  very  rude  national  an- 
thems of  the  West,  "  Yankee  Doodle  "  is  remark- 
able as  having  been  an  old  Dutch  catch  adapted 
into  an  English  satirical  chant,  and  adopted, 
with   conscious  or   unconscious   irony,   by   the 


Anierican  troops.  "Hail  Columbia"  was  a 
somewhat  later  production,  by  Joseph  Hopkin- 
son;  and  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner,"  by  Fran- 
cis S.  Key,  is  associated  with  the  traditions  of 
the  second  British  War.  As  inspired  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Eighteenth,  though  belonging  in 
date  to  the  early  years  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, we  may  mention  the  "Pilgrim  Fathers" 
of  J.  Pierpont;  Woodworth's  "Old  Oaken 
Bucket";  "Home,  Sweet  Home,"  by  J.  H. 
Payne;  the  humorous  burlesque  of  J.  G.  Saxe, 
"Miss  MacBride";  and  the  verses  of  the  great 
painter  and  romancer,  Washington  AUston, 
with  the  refrain,  "We  are  One."  Francis 
Hopkinson's  "Battle  of  the  Kegs";  Joel 
Barlow's  "Hasty  Pudding";  the  humorous 
"Wants  of  Man,"  by  Quincy  Adams;  the 
"Conquest  of  Canaan,"  and  Columbia,"  also 
by  Quincy  Adams,  are  the  best  verses  of  their 
time. 

Period  of  tlie  Republic.  The  best  en- 
ergies of  the  American  people  have  been  concen- 
trated on  the  development  of  vast  material  re- 
sources and  the  building  of  a  great  nation.  It 
is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  century  of  such 
activity  would  produce  a  literature  equal  to 
that  of  the  Mother  Country  with  her  centuries 
of  assimilation  and  development.  American 
literature  has  no  name  that  can  rank  with  the 
highest.  She  has  never  produced  a  Shakespere 
or  a  Milton,  but  her  long.roU  of  honorable  names 
who  have  written  prose  and  verse  give  promise 
of  the  literature  that  may  be  produced  in  Amer- 
ica when  time  has  ripened  this  nation  and  when 
the  great  genius  shall  be  born. 

The  center  of  literary  production  during  the 
last  century  shifted  from  place  to  place  along 
the  Atlantic  coast.  It  was  first  in  New  York 
and  began  with  the  writers  who  formed  the 
Knickerbocker  school.  From  1830  to  1835  the 
literary  center  shifted  to-  Cambridge  and  Con- 
cord, where  it  remained  for  more  than  half  a 
century.  Since  the  deaths  of  Hawthorne,  Long- 
fellow, Emerson,  Lowell,  Holmes,  the  leaders  of 
the  Concord-Cambridge  school,  there  has  been 
no  one  center  of  literary  preeminence.  New 
writers  have  arisen  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
and  a  general  interest  in  letters  has  been 
diffused. 

With  the  first  decade  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury the  stress  of  war  and  politics  was  relaxed 
and  the  time  was  favorable  for  the  beginnings 
of  our  national  literature. 

The  principal  writers  during  the  pioneer  pe- 
riod of  American  literature  were  Washington 
Irving,  James  Kirk  Paulding,  James  Fenimore 
Cooper,  Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  Fitz-Greene 
Halleck,  William  Cullen  Bryant,  Edgar  Allen 
Poe.  It  was  Washington  Irving  who,  by  his 
"Knickerbocker  History"  and  "Sketch  Book," 
removed  from  us  the  taunt,  "Who  reads  an 
American  Book?"  Cooper  invented  a  new  type 
of  novel  in  his  "Leather  Stocking  Tales,"  and 
Bryant  gave  us  poetry  of  the  new  world.  Edgar 
Allpn  Poe  created  the  music  of  poetry  such  as 
had  never  been  sung. 

The  literary  history  of  New  England  divides 
into  three  periods,  represented  by  three  groups 
of  writers.  First,  the  political  group,  including 
the  great  orators;    second,  the  poets,  and  theo- 


308 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


logians;  third,  poets,  novelists,  essayists,  critics. 
Among  the  orators  and  statesmen  of  the  first 
group  are  Daniel  Webster,  Edward  Everett, 
Kufus  Choate,  Wendell  Phillips,  Charles  Sum- 
ner, all  orators  of  the  anti-slavery  days.  Con- 
temporaneous with  these  were  the  great  orators 
of  the  South:  Henry  Clay,  Robert  Hayne,  John 
C.  Calhoun.  To  the  great  orators  of  the  nation 
must  be  added  the  name  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
who  won  an  enduring  place  by  his  Gettysburg 
speech. 

The  second  New  England  group  includes 
minor  poets  as  well  as  the  great  theologian, 
William  Ellery  Channing;  the  poet  and  painter, 
Washington  Allston,  and  Richard  Henry  Dana, 
for  many  years  editor-in-chief  of  the  "North 
American  Review."  The  third  group  of  New 
England  writers  includes  Emerson,  Hawthorne, 
Longfellow,  Whittier,  Lowell,  Holmes,  and  to 
these  may  be  added  Bronson  Alcott  and  Louisa 
M.  Alcott,  Henry  Thoreau,  William  Ellery  Chan- 
ning, Theodore  Parker,  George  William  Curtis, 
George  Ripley,  and  Margaret  Fuller.  Notable 
among  historical  writers  during  this  half  of  the 
century  are  Richard  Hildreth,  George  Bancroft, 
Francis  Parkman,  John  Lothrop  Motley,  William 
Hickling  Prescott,  John  Fiske,  and  John  Bach 
MacMaster. 

The  period  since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War 
has  been  one  of  great  productiveness  in  literary 
fields,  and  continues  to  show  an  increasing 
rather  than  a  diminishing  tendency.  To  record 
even  the  name  of  every  writer  who  has  been 
thought  worthy  of  favorable  notice  by  competent 
critics  would  be  impossible  in  a  short  review. 
The  importance  of  the  monthly  and  other  mag- 
azines and  reviews  as  vehicles  for  the  first  pub- 
lication of  all  varieties  of  writing,  has  wonder- 
fully developed  and  the  success  of  those  periodi- 
cals which  employ  the  art  of  illustration  is 
especially  notable.  While  the  greater  part  of 
magazine  writing  has  been  of  a  quality  to  en- 
gage chiefly  the  attention  of  desultory  and 
uncritical  readers,  there  is  now  apparent  a 
decided  development  in  the  direction  of  greater 
thoroughness,  sounder  scientific  method,  and 
a  more  acute  and  delicate  art.  This  is  es- 
pecially the  case  in  historical  and  biographical 
studies. 

With  the  dawn  of  the  Twentieth  Century  we 
have  no  promise  of  literature  equal  in  quality  to 
the  best  that  was  produced  in  the  middle  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  but  the  number  of  those 
who  can  write  well  is  exceedingly  large.  Ameri- 
can fiction  of  to-day  is  realistic  and  it  has 
utilized  freely  the  large  resources  of  this  country. 
The  number  of  writers  of  realistic  fiction  can- 
not be  computed,  for  among  them  must  be 
included  the  writers  of  short  stories  with  local 
coloring.  Two  acknowledged  leaders  in  this 
field  are  William  Dean  Howells  and  Henry 
James,  Jr.  Mr.  Howells  is  a  keen  observer  of 
social  life  in  our  principal  cities  and  has  described 
it  in  several  novels  with  depressing  accuracy. 
Mr.  James  has  given  us  a  study  of  the  American 
abroad  in  what  has  been  called  the  "  international 
novel."  Contemporaneous  with  these  are  Thomas 
Bailey  Aldrich  and  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman, 
both  of  them  writers  of  poetry  as  well  as  prose. 
With  the  death  of  Aldrich  in  1907  and  Sted- 


man in  1908,  the  last  of  the  old  school  of  Ameri- 
can critics  may  be  said  to  have  passed  away. 
Mr.  Aldrich  and  Mr.  Stedman  were  not  great 
literary  geniuses,  they  dicP  not  assume  to  be, 
but  they  had  fine  literary  tastes  and  as  editors 
and  essayists  they  educated  the  reading  public. 
Other  writers  of  attractive  stories  are  Edward 
Everett  Hale,  Frank  R.  Stockton,  Elizabeth 
Phelps  Ward,  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman,  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett.  Among  the  essayists  are  Charles 
Dudley  Warner,  John  Burroughs,  Richard 
Henry  Stoddard,  Henry  Van  Dyke,  Donald  G. 
Mitchell,  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  Rich- 
ard Grant  White,  Moses  Coit  Tyler.  Prominent 
among  literary  journalists  and  critics  are  Bar- 
rett Wendell,  Parke  Godwin,  Richard  Watson 
Gilder. 

Western  writers  have  added  to  our  literature 
an  original  vein  of  realism  and  humor;  the 
poems  of  Riley  and  the  novels  of  Edward  Eggle- 
ston  with  their  Hoosier  dialect,  Maurice  Thomp- 
son, Eugene  Field,  Lew  Wallace,  Helen  Hunt 
Jackson,  Cincinnatus  Miller  ("Joaquin  Miller"), 
Francis  Bret  Harte,  and  greatest  of  all,  Samuel 
L.  Clemens  ("Mark  Twain"),  with  his  inimitable 
humor,  have  not  only  given  us  a  literature  of 
the  West  but  a  fund  of  laughter  which  is 
international. 

The  South,  since  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War,  has  awakened  to  greater  intellectual  ac- 
tivity. She  has  a  right  to  be  proud  of  the 
writers  she  has  already  produced  and  to  be 
hopeful  of  her  future.  In  these  years,  when 
poetry  has  been  so  rare  and  prose  essay  and 
the  novel  have  so  multiplied,  the  South  has 
given  us  two  poets  with  unusual  poetic 
power,  Sidney  Lanier  and  Paul  Laurence 
Dunbar.  Sidney  Lanier  was  both  poet  and 
musician  and  had  the  rare  power  of  interpreta- 
tion. In  his  "  Marshes  of  Glynn,"  as  he  saw 
and  felt  them,  he  has  made  us  see  and  feel 
them  too.  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar,  the  poet 
of  the  colored  race,  had  the  lyric  charm  that 
belongs  to  true  poetry.  Some  of  his  exquisite 
poems  will  be  accounted  among  the  best 
that  America  has  produced.  Nowhere  is 
there  a  finer  dialect  poem  than  Dunbar's 
"When  Malindy  Sings,"  a  poem  written  as 
a  delicate  tribute  to  his  own  mother  who 
was  a  negro  slave.  Fiction  has  been  every- 
where the  favorite  form  of  writing  during 
the  last  few  decades,  and  the  South  may 
well  take  satisfaction  in  the  fine  literary 
work  of  such  write/s  as  George  W.  Cable, 
James  Lane  Allen,  Thomas  Nelson  Page, 
Richard  M.  Johnston,  Mary  N.  Murfree  ("Charles 
Egbert  Craddock"),  F.  Hopkinson  Smith,  Joel 
Chandler  Harris  ("Uncle  Remus"),  Winston 
Churchill. 

Three  stages  in  American  literature  have 
been  considered,  the  Colonial  period,  lasting 
two  hundred  years  and  more,  when  literary 
efforts  were  confined  to  feeble  imitation  of 
European  models;  the  second,  the  period 
of  the  Revolution,  when  there  was  great  un- 
rest and  no  creative  literary  genius;  the  third 
period,  that  of  the  Republic,  in  the  midst  of 
which  we  are  to-day  working  out  our  ideals, 
which  will  appear  m  future  American  litera- 
ture. 


LITERATURE 


309 


TABLE   OF  ITALIAN   LITERATURE 


Time 


13th  Century 

13th  Century 
13th  Century 
1265-1321 
1270-1336 
1300-1348 
1304-1374 
1313-1375 
1432-1487 
1449-1492 
1452-1498 
1458-1530 
1469-1527 
1474-1533 
1483-1540 
1480-1562 
1490-1536 
1490-1547 
1496-1556 
1500-1571 
1512-1574 
1544-1595 

1550-1600 
1564-1642 
1568-1639 
1552-1623 
1598-1647 
1670-1744 
1698-1782 
1707-1793 
1672-1750 

1745-1827 
1731-1794 
1749-1803 
1766-1837 
1773-1842 
1778-1827 
1785-1873 
1789-1853 
1798-1837 
1805-1895 


Ristoro  d'Arezzo,   .    .    . 

Fra  Poliano 

P>a  Guittone  d'Arezzo, 

Ahghieri  Dante 

Cjno  de  Pistoia 

Giovanni  Villani,  .  .  . 
Francesco  Petrarch,  .  . 
Giovanni  Boccaccio,  .    . 

Luigi  Pulci 

Lorenzo  de  Medici,  .  . 
Girolamo  Savonarola,  . 
Jacopo  Sannazzaro,  .  . 
Niccolo  Machiavelli,  .  . 
Ludovico  Ariosto,  .  .  . 
Francesco  Guicciardini, 
Matteo  Bandello,  .  .  . 
Francesco  Berni,  .  .  . 
Vittoria  Colonna,  .  .  . 
Jacopo  Nardi,  .  .  .  . 
Benvenuto  Cellini, .    .    . 

Georgio  Vasari 

Torquato  Tasso,     .    .    . 


Giordano  Bruno,    .    .    . 

GaUleo  Galilei 

Tommaso  Campanella,  . 
Pietro  Sarpi,  .  .  •  ..  . 
Bonaventura  Cavalieri, 
G.  Battista  Vico,  .  .  . 
Pietro  Metastasio,  .  .  . 
Carlo  Goldoni,  .... 
Ludovico  Antonio  Mura- 

tori 

Alexandre  Volta,  .  .  . 
Girolamo  Tiraboschi,     . 

Vittorio  Alfieri 

Carlo  G.  Botta 

Jean  Charles  Sismondi, . 

Ugo  Foscolo 

Alessandro  Manzoni,  .    . 

Cesare  Balbo, 

Giacomo  Leopardi,  .  . 
Cesare  Cantu, 


Prose 


Treatise  on  Astronomy  and  Ge- 
ography  

Latin  Chronicle 

Letters, 


Chronicles. 
Letters,  .  . 
Decameron. 


Sermons 

History,  Art  of  War,  The  Prince. 


History,  Politics. 
Novels.  .... 


History  of  Florence.     .    .    . 

Autobiography 

Lives  of  Celebrated  Artists. 


Metaphysics 

Scientific 

Philosophy 

History  of  Council  of  Trent,  etc. 

Geometry 

"Scienza  Nuova. " 


Annals    of    Italy,    Italian 

tiquities 

Scientific 

Literary  History 


Historical,  Story  of  Italy.  .    . 

Historical,  Political 

Miscellaneous, 

Novels 

Hopes  of  Italy,  etc.  (political). 


History  of    Italians,   Historical 
Novels 


Poetry 


Poems. 

Divina  Coojmedia. 

Poems. 

Sonnets. 

Morgante  Maggiore. 

Poems. 

Poems. 

Arcadia. 

Orlando  Furioso. 


Satire  (comic). 
Poems. 


Rinaldo,    Aminta,   Jerusalem   Deliv- 
ered, etc. 


Musical  Dramas. 
Comedies. 


Poems. 


Poems. 
Dramas. 


Poems. 


The  oldest  existing  libraries  have  been  found 
in  Italy  and  in  that  country  have  been  preserved 
the  oldest  and  most  valuable  Greek  and  Latin 
MSS.  Among  these  are  the  palimpsest,  "De 
Republiea,"  of  Cicero,  believed  to  date  as  far 
back  as  the  Third  Century,  the  famous  "Codex 
Vaticanus"  of  the  Fourth  Century,  and  the 
equally  ancient  "Virgil"  and  "Terence."  Italy 
of  the  Middle  Ages  clung  to  classical  traditions 
and  when  at  the  end  of  the  Fifth  Century  the 
fighting  bands  from  the  North  conquered  the 
Roman  world  Latin  thought  held  its  power  while 
political  Rome  was  lost.  During  years  that 
followed  the  Italians  treasured  memories  of 
Rome  and  fought  against  the  encroaching 
Hohenstaufen  Empire,  and  from  this  absorbing 
interest  in  political  questions  they  were  attracted 
by  positive  and  practical  subjects,  especially 
the  study  of  Roman  law.  Those  who  turned 
toward  theology  generally  went  to  Paris  for 
study,  while  in  Italy  the  schools  for  laymen  edu- 
cated scholars  and  writers  who  were  masters  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  such  poets  as  For- 
tunatus.  All  this  kept  alive  a  certain  culture 
in  that  barbarous  age  and  had  great  influence 
on  future  Italian  literature. 

When  legends,  poems,  and  tales,  appeared  in 
other  countries  and  among  other  Latin  peoples, 
Italian  writers  and  students,  still  interested  in 
history  and  law,  copied  these  from  the  French 
and    German,    but    made    the    romance    of    the 


Troubadors  into  serious  history,  written  in  the 
Latin  language.  Even  the  religious  legend, 
so  popular  in  that  age,  was  little  known,  or  ap- 
preciated in  Italy.  Prosaic  lives  of  the  saints, 
historical  chronicles,  and  translations  from 
Aristotle'a  philosophy  and  Marco  Polo's  travels 
were  gathered  into  long  series  of  facts.  This 
hindered  the  literary  growth  of  the  new  language 
and  there  was  no  real  Italian  writing  before  the 
Thirteenth  Century.  Especially  in  the  last  half 
of  that  century  the  new  literature  grew,  in  the 
north  of  Italy  chiefly,  in  the  form  of  religious 
poems  intended  to  be  recited  to  the  people,  and 
in  the  south  in  love  poems  of  ideality,  feeling, 
and  sentiment.  The  stirring  religious  move- 
ment of  that  age,  when  the  two  great  orders  of 
Saint  Francis  and  Saint  Dominic  arose,  influ- 
enced all  Italian  life  and  letters.  Many  poems 
or  hymns  have  been  attributed  to  Francis  of 
Assisi  and  others  to  the  poet,  Jacopone,  who 
was  a  mystic  and  a  most  original  writer. 

At  this  time,  too,  the  religioias  drama  began 
with  an  old  hermit,  Fasani,  who  had  c6me  out 
from  his  cavern  in  the  year  1258,  and  suddenly 
appeared  in  Perugia..  Life  was  hard  in  Italy 
during  these  years,  the  never-ceasing  quarrels 
between  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  the 
frequent  interdicts  and  excommunications  from 
the  popes  and  the  tyrannous  cruelty  of  the  nobles 
added  to  famines  and  plagues,  kept  the  people 
in    constant   fear.     Fasani    added    to   this   un- 


310 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


happy  turbulence  in  Perugia  by  announcing 
himself  as  sent  by  God  to  warn  the  people  of 
terrible  visitations  shown  to  him  in  visions. 
From  these  influences  many  joined '  together 
and  formed  themselves  into  a  society  to  do 
penances  and  their  songs,  connected  with  the 
church  liturgy  and  chanted  in  dialogue  form, 
grew  into  the  first  dramas  in  the  Italian  tongue. 

The  people  of  Tuscany  spoke  a  dialect  closely 
resembling  the  Latin  and  it  became  the  lan- 
guage of  literature.  Under  its  democratic  gov- 
ernment Tuscany  was  the  first  province  of  Italy, 
politically,  and  philosophy  and  science  gained 
a  hold  in  the  cities,  but  prose  was  scanty  during 
the  Thirteenth  Century,  while  poetry  in  various 
forms  was  abundant.  The  first  real  prose  writ- 
ing in  Italian  was  a  scientific  book,  a  treatise 
on  astronomy  and  geography  by  Ristoro.  A 
collection  of  tales  called  the  "Cento  Novelle 
Antiche  "  belongs  to  that  time,  containing  short 
stories  from  history,  ancient  tradition,  the 
Bible,  and  legends.  A  number  of  novels  were 
also  written,  but  they  are  of  little  note  compared 
with  the  rich  legendary  lore  of  other  countries. 

Guittone  d'Arezzo  is  a  name  that  attracts 
attention  in  this  period;  he  wrote  many  poems 
and  some  prose,  mostly  in  the  form  of  letters. 
His  love  for  antiquity,  Roman  tradition,  and 
the  old  language  was  strong;  in  his  researches 
he  went  back  more  than  a  thousand  years  and 
took  Seneca  for  his  model,  trying  to  write  Italian 
in  the  old  Latin  style.  His  subjects  were  moral 
or  religious  and  his,  mixed  style  most  extrava- 
gant and  involved.  All  this  belongs  to  the  age 
of  beginnings. 

During  this  Thirteenth  Century  the  Re- 
formers gained  greatly  in  numbers  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  century  one  sect,  the  Paterini, 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Guelphs,  led  by  a 
Dominican  friar.  Two  columns  in  the  city  of 
Florence  still  mark  the  place  of  the  fearful  mas- 
sacre. Not  many  years  later  the  banished  Ghi- 
bellines  gathered  their  forces,  became  con- 
querors in  their  turn  and  would  have  burned 
the  city  but  for  the  determined  opposition  of 
Farenato  degli  Ubertia,  whose  name  Dante 
afterward  made  immortal.  In  the  year  1282 
the  most  wealthy  guilds  of  the  rich  city  drew 
away  from  all  rule  and  established  a  government 
of  tneir  own,  and  this  year  may  be  considered 
the  data  at  which  a  new  period  of  Italian  litera- 
ture began,  the  period  of  development.  This 
period  saw,  also,  the  beginning  of  Italian  art  in 
Tuscan  lyric  poetry. 

The  poet  and  philosopher,  Cavalcanti,  became 
head  of  the  Ghibellines;  and  when  never-ending 
brawls  wearied  the  people  who  sought  peace,  by 
banishing  the  leaders  of  the  rival  parties,  he  was 
cast  out  among  the  rest  and  died  in  the  year 
1300.  He  wrote  in  prose  on  oratory  and  philos- 
ophy, but  his  poems,  especially  the  love  sonnets 
and  short  songs,  were  most  noted  and  were 
praised  by  Dante,  who  was  his  great  friend. 
Some  of  these  songs  were  simple  and  graceful, 
others  were  heavy  with  metaphysical  ideas  bor- 
rowed from  the  Christian  Fathers  and  ancient 
philosophers.  His  "Canzone  d'Amore"  be- 
came popular  and  was  frequently  published. 
In  the  most  noted  songs  or  ballads,  probably 
written    during    banishment,     his    melancholy 


longing  for  home  and  his  solemn  love  for  the 
lady  of  his  heart  crowded  out  all  subtle  philos- 
ophy. More  than  two  centuries  later  his  com- 
plete poetical  works  were  placed  in  the  libraries 
of  Florence  and  Venice. 

The  works  of  Dante  Alighieri  (126.5-1321), 
stand  as  the  center  of  all  literature  of  his  time. 
In  his  little  book  of  poetry  and  prose,  the  "  Vita 
Nuova,"  are  found  lyrics,  the  form  and  style  of 
which  mark  all  lyrical  poetry  of  that  day.  In 
this  he  idealizes  love,  making  everything  heav- 
enly through  it  as  he  tells  the  story  of  his  own 
love  for  Beatrice,  whom  he  makes  almost  di- 
vine. The  "In  Memoriam"  of  Tennyson  has 
been  likened  to  this  work.  Dante  was  the  most 
illustrious  of  Florentine  citizens  as  well  as  poets, 
and  was  chosen  prior  of  the  republic  in  the  year 
1300.  In  his  immortal  poem,  the  "Divine  Com- 
edy," he  has  preserved  the  names  and  deeds  of 
the  great  men  who  made  Florence  renowned. 
The  parties  contending  for  power  took  new 
names  at  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury, the  Bianchi  representing  the  remnant  of 
the  old  Ghibelline  faction  while  the  Guelphs, 
the  nobles  or  aristocracy,  took  the  name  of  the 
Neri.  Dante,  as  one  of  the  Bianchi,  was,  at  last, 
among  the  proscribed  and  his  life  became  a  per- 
petual pilgrimage  from  one  Italian  town  to 
another. 

The  "Convito"  or  "Banquet"  was  the  work 
of  Dante's  manhood  as  the  "Vita  Nuova"  was 
the  work  of  his  youth.  It  is  made  up  of  three 
treatises,  each  forming  a  commentary,  and  he 

Elanned  to  compose  eleven  more,  which  would 
ave  made  it  a  book  of  universal  knowledge. 
Another  work,  "De  Monarchia,"  written  in 
Latin  in  scholastic  form,  was  meant  to  show 
that  a  universal  monarchy  is  necessary  to  the 
well-being  of  the  world;  this  monarchy  was  to 
be  centered  in  the  Romans.  This  has  been 
called  the  creed  of  Dante's  Ghibellinism.  Be- 
sides his  "Diyina  Commedia  "  there  are  numbers 
of  sonnets,  ballads,  and  short  songs  bearing  the 
poet's  name,  some  of  them  undoubtedly  spu- 
rious. The  letters  of  Dante  have  been  counted 
among  the  most  important  material  for  his 
biography.  He  wrote  to  the  government  of 
Florence  to  complain  of  his  undeserved  exile, 
to  Henry  VII.  urging  to  some  definite  plans  and 
to  the  Italian  cardinals  pleading  for  the  election 
of  an  Italian  pope.  There  are  other  letters 
to  friends  and  to  people  connected  with  his 
work. 

The  contents  and  scope  of  the  wonderful 
poem,  the  ' '  Divine  Comedy, "  are  beyond  the  space 
of  a  short  notice.  From  different  authorities 
we  may  conclude  that  it  was  begun  about  the 
year  1300,  the  "Inferno"  was  finished  in  1314, 
the  "Purgatorio"  completed  in  1318,  and  the  last 
cantos  of  the  "Paradiso"  were  probably  finished 
not  long  before  the  death  of  the  poet.  Dante 
said  of  this  poem  that  he  called  it  a  comedy  be- 
cause it  had  a  sad  beginning  and  a  cheerful  end- 
ing. He  hides  an  allegorical  meaning  under  the 
literal  one  and  in  this  it  is  connected  with  mediae- 
val literature,  but  the  merit  of  the  poem  lies  in 
the  individual  art.  He  took  his  materials  from 
theology,  philosophy,  history,  and  mythology, 
mingled  this  with  hatred  and  love,  and  under 
his  genius  the  dead  became  again  alive.    This 


LITERATURE 


311 


great  poem  fixed  the  destiny  of  Italian  literature 
and  began  the  age  of  the  Renaissance. 

Cino  da  Pistoia  (1270-1336),  son  of  a  noble 
family,  was  also  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Dante.  In  literature  he  continued  in  some  sort 
the  tradition  of  Dante  during  the  interval  be- 
tween him  and  his  successor,  Petrarch.  His 
name  is  found  on  all  lists  of  early  Italian  poets 
and  his  love  poems  are  musical  and  full  of  sweet- 
ness and  quoted  by  critics  as  being  surpassed 
only  by  Dante  himself.  It  has  been  said  that 
in  the  writings  of  Cavalcanto,  Dante,  and  Cino 
da  Pistoia  "the  psychology  of  love  and  of  sor- 
row nearly  reaches  perfection." 

In  histories  of  literature  Petrarch  (1304-1374), 
is  classed  as  one  of  the  four  classical  poets  of 
Italy,  but  he  is  as  well  known  from  his  interest 
in  the  old  Latin  writers  and  his  influence  in  the 
revival  of  learning  in  medigeval  Europe.  His 
father  was  included  in  the  same  edict  of  life- 
long banishment  that  sent  Dante  out  of  Florence 
and  the  boyhood  of  Petrarch  was  spent  in  a 
little  village  of  Tuscany  where  he  acquired  the 
pure  Tuscan  idiom  that  he  afterward  used  with 
so  much  skill  in  odes  and  sonnets.  He  lived  for 
many  years  at  Avignon,  denouncing  the  life  of 
the  papal  court ;  he  traveled  much  in  Europe 
and  in  the  year  1341  he  received  the  poet's 
crown  in  Rome.  He  wrote  works  in  Latin,  the 
most  important  being  in  the  form  of  letters, 
known  as  the  "Epistolse,"  important  as  a  his- 
tory of  his  own  times  as  well  as  an  index  to  his 
own  life  and  mind.  Another  work  in  Latin  was 
a  poem,  "Africa,"  in  which  he  recited  the  wars 
of  Scipio.  In  the  year  1327  he  is  said  to  have 
first  met  Laura,  the  object  of  his  life-long  de- 
votion and  heroine  of  his  poetic  writings.  That 
Laura  really  lived  has  come  to  be  a  belief,  but 
who  Laura  was  cannot  be  definitely  proved; 
she  undoubtedly  lived  at  Avignon.  His  "Can- 
zoniere"  contains  poems  written  during  the 
life-time  of  Laura,  poems  written  after  her 
death,  and  a  third  part  which  seems  to  have 
been  planned  after  the  manner  of  Dante.  While 
these   poems   show   Petrarch   to   have   been   a 

Esychologist,  he  did  not,  like  the  poets  before 
im,  go  into  transcendentalism,  but  kept  within 
human  limits.  Petrarch  had  no  decided  politi- 
cal idea,  but  he  was  a  most  patriotic  Italian, 
and  in  his  mind  connected  the  Italy  of  his  day 
with  the  great  Rome  of  the  days  of  Cicero. 

Boccaccio  (1313-1375)  lacked  nothing  of  Pe- 
trarch's love  for  antiquity  or  his  interest  in  the 
new  Italian  literature.  Great  classical  learning 
shows  in  his  "Genealogia  Deorum,"  where  he 
writes  of  the  Pagan  deities,  making  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  mythological  knowledge.  He  com- 
piled, or  perfected,  works  on  geography,  he 
touched  upon  history  and  wrote  some  minor 
things  in  Latin,  besides  his  Italian  lyrics  and 
longer  poems.  His  famous  Italian  work  was 
the  "Decameron,"  a  collection  of  a  hundred 
novels  related  by  men  and  women  who  had  left 
Florence  during  a  year  of  plague  (1384).  In 
this  the  rude  form  used  in  fable-writing  gave 
place  to  careful  work  on  classic  models  and  was 
.the  beginning  of  an  artistic  style  in  romance. 
Among  authors  who  wrote  collections  of  tales 
in  imitation  of  Boccaccio  were  Fiorentino,  Sac- 
chetti,  and  Sercambi. 


A  chronicle  of  events  dating  between  the 
years  1280  and  1312  was  written  by  Compagni, 
which  is  still  consulted  as  important  authority 
for  that  period  of  Florentine  history.  It  shows 
strong  feeling  and  discusses  the  reasons  of  the 
events  which  evidently  came  under  his  own 
notice.  Villani,  anotner  chronicler,  relates 
events  up  to  1347.  He  traveled  in  France  as 
well  as  Italy,  and  his  chronicle  includes  much 
valuable  knowledge  concerning  both  countries. 
This  was  afterwards  versified  by  Antonio  Pucci 
and  other  versified  history  was  written  during 
this  century  when  every  subject  was  treated 
under  the  form  of  verse.  Many  minor  poets 
also  left  political  works.  In  connection  with  this 
versification  comic  poetry  was  also  developed 
and  carried  on  by  Pucci,  Orgagna,  and  their  fol- 
lowers. These  poems,  comical  as  well  as  his- 
torical, were  meant  to  be  recited  to  the  people 
and  in  them  were  the  beginnings  of  the  romantic 
epics  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  Ariosto's  "Or- 
lando Furioso,"  Bojardo's  "Innamorato,"  and 
others. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (1449-1492),  remembered 
chiefly  as  a  statesman,  was  a  man  of  letters,  and 
left  poems  written  in  the  spirit  of  Dante  and 
older  poets,  while  he  was  a  man  of  his  own  time. 
As  a  classical  scholar  he  shows  the  influence  of 
the  Renaissance  in  Italy.  During  the  Fifteenth 
Century  a  kind  of  literature  started  in  Florence, 
attached  to  popular  festivals  held  in  honor  of 
St.  John,  the  patron  saint  of  the  city.  Al- 
though this  was  in  the  form  of  popular  poetry 
the  names  of  some  of  the  most  important  authors 
are  found  in  connection  with  it  and  it  became 
the  foundation  of  the  Italian  drama.  Against 
this  literary  and  social  movement  the  friar, 
Savonarola,  appeared,  arriving  in  Florence  in 
the  year  1489.  He  took  the  line  of  a  prophet 
and  preached  against  much  of  the  reading  of  the 
day  and  against  the  classical  studies.  In  his 
struggle  with  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  he  directed  his 
attack  against  him  as  a  patron  of  pagan  litera- 
ture rather  than  against  a  political  tyrant. 
Savonarola  has  sometimes  been  considered  as 
a  forerunner  of  the  Reformation,  but  his  prepa- 
ration ot  the  way  for  that  great  German  and 
English  religious  movement  was  no  part  of  his 
plan.  He  desired  a  reform  of  manners,  not  of 
doctrine,  and  had  no  great  merit  as  a  thinker 
or  writer.  He  left  Italian  sermons,  hymns, 
and  ascetic  and  political  treatises. 

Machiavelli  (1469-1527)  and  Guicciardini 
were  leaders  in  history  as  a  science  founded  on 
observation.  Machiavelli  noted  facts,  studied 
other  histories  and  sought  out  reasons,  and  his 
principal  works  are  political  rather  than  histori- 
cal. His  "Principe,"  the  "Prince,"  called  out 
severe  accusations  against  him,  and  has  since 
associated  his  name  with  unscrupulous  politics, 
but  the  book  seems  to  have  been  the  result  of 
the  civil  and  moral  condition  of  Italy  at  that 
time.  His  history  of  Florence  is  still  consulted 
as  standard  authority.  The  "Story  of  Italy," 
by  Guicciardini,  a  history  of  the  time  from  the 
death  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  to  the  year  1534,  is 
full  of  political  wisdom,  and  treats  of  characters 
as  well  as  events.  Following  these  were  Nardi, 
Varchi,  and  Segni,  Tuscan  historians;  Porzio, 
who    wrote    histories    covering    short    periods; 


312 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Bembo,  Paruto,  and  others,  who  arranged 
chronicles  or  annals  of  other  nations. 

The  romances  of  chivalry  versified  by  Pulci 
and  Bojardo  became  the  foundation  of  the 
romantic  epic  formed  by  the  genius  of  Ariosto 
(1474-1533).  His  "Orlando  Furioso"  made 
wonders  and  prodigies  appear  as  truths  and 
facts  and  his  descriptions  were  marked  by 
grace  and  beauty.  The  historical  epic  was  the 
work  of  Tasso  (1544-1595),  who  became  famous 
through  his  poem,  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  the 
story  of  the  liberation  of  the  Sepulchre  by 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  in  the  Eleventh  Century. 
This  poem  ranks  now  as  the  best  heroic  poem 
that  Italy  can  show. 

Tasso  seems  to  stand  between  the  high  de- 
velopment of  the  Renaissance  and  the  period  of 
decadence  in  Italian  literature,  that  began  with 
the  Spanish  rule  in  the  middle  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  The  people  of  Italy  were  oppressed, 
every  high  aspiration  was  checked,  no  freedom 
of  word  or  thought  was  allowed,  and  this  con- 
tinued until  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
This  one  hundred  and  forty  years  is  known  in  the 
history  of  Italian  literature  as  the  Secentismo. 
During  this  time,  however,  some  independent 
thinkers,  such  as  Bruno,  Campahella,  and  Va- 
nani,  opened  the  way  for  the  scientific  triumphs 
of  Galileo  (1564-1642).  He  was  conspicuous 
in  literature  as  well  as  in  science,  a  student  of 
Ariosto,  and  in  his  prose  is  found  the  poet's 
ease,  clearness,  and  elegance.  The  prose  of 
Galileo  has  been  called  the  best  prose  ever  writ- 
ten in  the  Italian  language. 

When  freed  from  Spanish  dominion  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  civil  reforms,  resulting 
from  ideas  quietly  working  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  improved  the  conditions  of  life  m  Italy. 
The  first  sign  in  the  literature  was  in  historical 
and  scientific  prose.  In  history  Muratori  col- 
lected the  chronicles  for  the  years  500  to  1500, 
and  wrote  his  Annali  d'ltalia,  and  Mazzuchelli 
turned  to  literary  history  preparing  for  a  biog- 
raphy of  Italian  writers.  Everything  tended 
toward  improvement  and  the  influence  was 
soon  seen  in  the  drama.  Metastasio  (1689- 
1782)  was  one  of  the  most  pleasing  poets  of  his 
day,  writing  plays,  operas  and  ballets.  Gol- 
doni  revived  comedy  and  Alfieri  (1749-1803) 
raised  tragedy  to  a  high  standard.  "Saul"  is 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece.  Monti  and  Foscolo 
were  followers,  both  inspired  by  patriotism. 
Silvio  Pellico  (1789-1854)  also  wrote  tragedies 
which  were  good  specimens  of  modern  art,  but 
he  is  most  popular  as  author  of  "Lie  Mie  Pri- 
gioni,"  "My  Prisons,"  the  story  of  his  ten  years' 
life  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg.     Manzoni  (1784- 


1873)  and  Niccolini  were  also  popular  writers. 
Giordani,  born  in  1774,  was  the  last  of  the 
writers  known  as  the  classicists. 

Scholars  in  Italy  were  influenced  by  the  ideas 
embodied  in  the  movement  known  as  Romanti- 
cism, especially  strong  in  Germany  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Nineteenth  CenturJ^  Silvio  Pellico, 
Breme,  Berchet,  and  Manzoni  were  prominent 
among  them,  but  the  literary  reform  opposing 
the  classical  studies  of  the  past  took  more  the 
way  of  realism  in  Italy.  Manzoni  was  distin- 
guished in  this  and  from  his  "Promessi  Sposi" 
the  new  form  is  dated.  In  this  the  historical 
novel  grew  into  a  work  of  art,  and  the 
genius  that  created  it  was  first  recognized  by 
Goethe,  and  placed  the  author,  Manzoni,  at  the 
head  of  Italian  literature  of  the  century.  Leo- 
pardi  (1798-1837)  shared  this  honor  by  putting 
into  his  poems  most  realistic  pictures  of  what 
he  saw  and  felt.  Circumstances  had  given  him 
a  dreary  life  and  his  poetry  has  been  quoted  as 
the  poetry  of  despair  in  which  he  surpassed 
even  Shelley  and  Byron.  He  has  also  been 
honored  by  critics  as  the  first  poet  since  Dante 
and  a  most  perfect  writer  of  prose.  Among  his 
poems  are  "Passero  Solitario,"  "Sabato  del 
Villaggio,"  and  "Genestra."  "Operette  Mo- 
rali,"  a  volume  of  discourses  and  dialogues,  was 
his  greatest  prose. 

Botta  (1766-1837)  and  Colletta  (1775-1831) 
wrote  noted  histories  of  their  own  country  and 
to  these  Botta  added  a  history  of  the  American 
Revolution.  These  were  followed  by  "Vespri 
Siciliani,"  a  history  by  Amari,  "Storia  d'ltalia," 
by  Troya,  and  the  "Archivio  Storico  Italiano," 
established  by  Vieusseux,  all  in  the  renewed 
spirit  of  research.  Interest  in  history  was  in- 
spired by  the  noted  Italian  love  of  country  and 
patriotism  led  to  literary  expression.  Among 
authors  connected  with  the  political  revolution 
of  1848  were  Guisti  with  his  popular  satires, 
Guerrazzi,  writing  historical  novels,  Gioberti 
in  polemics,  and  Balbo  making  an  epitome  of 
history. 

Political  geniuses  of  this  century  were  Aleardi 
Prati,  Carducci,  and  Zanella.  Arnaboldi,  also 
a  poet,  has  been  criticised  for  writing  utilitarian 
verse.  Fiction  lists  carry  the  names  of  Barili, 
Farina,  Giovagnoli,  and  Bersezio,  and  biography 
and  history  have  been  made  richer  by  the  work 
of  Zini,  Capponi,  Bartoli,  Villari,  and  Berti, 
with  Fiorentino,  Trezza,  Ferrari,  and  Cossa  in 
general  literature. 

Italian  fiction  has  a  wide  field,  description  in 
travels  is  well  done  as  De  Amicis's  almost  un- 
equaled  works  show,  and  through  translations 
Italy  holds  a  place  in  the  reading  world. 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 

Time 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

1176-1250 

Juan  Lorenzo  Segara,    . 
Gonzalo  de  Berceo,     .    . 

Poem  (on  Alexander  the  Great). 

1198-1268 

Religious  Poems. 

Unknown, 

Early  ballads. 

Unknown 

Don  Juan  Manuel, .    .    . 
Juan  Ruiz  de  Hita,    .    . 
Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala,. 
Marquis  of  Villena,     .    . 
Rodrigo  Yanez,  .... 

Poems  of  the  Cid. 

1282-1349 
1300-1360 

Count  Lucanor  (tales) 

Poems. 

1332-1407 

Court  Rhymes,  Poems. 

1384-1434 
14th  Century 

Jjabors  of  Hercules 

Chronicles  of  Alfonso  XI. 

LITERATURE 


313 


SPANISH    LITERATURE  — Continued 


Time 


Author 


Prose 


Poetry 


1398-1458 
1411-1456 
1474-1566 
1478-1577 

1493-1543 
1503-1536 
1503-1575 
1512-1581 
1528-1591 
1534-1597 
1533-1595 
1536-1623 
1547-1616 

1562-1635 
1569-1631 
1580-1645 
1596-1669 
1600-1681 
1610-1686 
1676-1764 
1702-1754 
1750-1791 
1760-1828 
1775-1848 
1731-1799 
1807-1878 


Lopez  de  Mendoza, 
Juan  de  Mena,  .  . 
Las  Casas,  .... 
Oviedo 


Juan  Boscan 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  . 
Diego  de  Mendoza,     .    . 

Zurita, 

Luis  de  Leon 

Fernando  Herrera,     .    . 

Ercilla, 

Juan  de  Mariana,  .  .  . 
Miguel      de      Cervantes 

Saavedra, 

Lope  de  Vega,  .... 
Guillen  de  Castro,  .  .  . 
Gomez  de  Quevedo,  .  . 
Manuel  de  Villegas,  .  . 
Calderon  de  la  Barca,  . 
Antonio  de  Solis,  .  .  . 
Feyjov  y  Montenegro,  . 
Don  Ignacio  Luzan,  .  . 
Tomas  de  Yriarte, .  .  . 
Leandro  F.  Moratin,  .  . 
Alberto  Lista,  .... 
Ramon  de  la  Cruz,  .  . 
Don  Patricio  de  la  Es- 


Historical 

Natural  and  General  History  of 
Indies 


History  of  Florida, 
History,  Fiction.  . 
Annals  of  Aragon. 


History  of  Spain. 
Don  Quixote,  etc. 


Theology,  Satires, 


Conquest  of  Mexico.     .    .    . 
Scientific  Essays,  Criticisms. 

Art  of  Poetry 

Proverbs 


Criticism. 


cosura Fiction 


Sonnets. 
Labirinto. 


Poems. 
Poems. 


Lyrics  (religious). 

Lyrics. 

Araucana. 


Galatea. 

Dramas,  Lyrics,  etc. 

Dramas. 

Poems. 

Lyrics. 

Dramas. 


Poems. 

Dramas,  Poems. 
Dramas. 
Poems. 


There  is  no  record  of  the  literature  of  Spain 
earlier  than  the  Twelfth  Century.  The  oldest 
manuscript  is  a  fragment  of  a  play  written  for 
the  Church  of  Toledo,  the  earliest  important 
work  the  "Chronicle  of  the  Cid."  Allusions  in 
later  literature  suggest  that  heroic  poetry  may 
have  been  quite  rich,  but  no  poems  are  preserved. 

With  the  heroic  poetry,  taking  subjects  from 
history  and  legends,  there  grew  up  in  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  a  religious  poetry,  written  mostly 
by  monks.  Among  these  Gonzalo  de  Berceo 
wrote  poetical  lives  of  the  saints,  devotional 
poems,  and  religious  hymns.  To  this  century 
also  belongs  a  "  Life  of  St.  Mary  the  Egyptian," 
translated  from  the  French. 

King  Alfonso  X.,  who  reigned  until  1284,  was. 
author  of  the  poem,  "The  Philosopher's  Stone," 
besides  several  prose  works.  Under  his  patron- 
age scientific  compilations  were  made  and  he 
was  the  founder  of  history  written  in  Spanish. 
The  "Cronica  General,"  composed  under  his 
direction,  tells  of  universal  history  from  the 
creation  of  the  world,  in  one  part,  and  of  na- 
tional history  in  another.  This  last  was  called 
"Historia  De  Espana."  The  source  of  the  first 
part  was  Spanish  chroniclers,  who  wrote  in 
Latin,  but  whose  works  were  soon  translated. 
In  the  "Historia  De  Espana"  many  legends 
are  found,  also  the  story  of  the  Cid. 

King  Alfonso's  example  was  followed  by  other 
writers  on  his  models.  About  1390  a  "Chronicle 
of  the  Conqueridores "  was  compiled  by  com- 
mand of  the  grand-master  of  the  Order  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem.  Special  chronicles  of  each 
king  were  also  written.  Among  the  writers  of 
these  comes  Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala,  a  man  who 
shows  literary  culture  and  knowledge  of  ancient 
history,  and  with  him  the  style  of  writing  is 
much  improved.  Besides  these  chronicles  are 
some  biographies  of  important  persons  and  a 
very  curious  book  of  travels,  the  story  of  an 
embassy  sent  by  Henry  III.  to  Tamur,  in  1403, 
evidently  written  by  one  who  led  the  mission. 


Other  writings  in  prose  in  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries  are  generally  filled  with 
maxims  and  short  moral  tales,  a  few  of  Eastern 
origin.  The  best  among  these  Oriental  tales  is 
a  collection  by  Juan  Manuel,  nephew  of  Alfonso 
X.  Juan  Manuel  also  wrote  graver  works  on 
education,  domestic  economy,  and  politics. 

The  principal  French  romances  of  the  Round 
Table  were  translated  and  imitated  in  Spain  in 
the  first  half  of  the  Fourteenth  Century,  and 
notice  of  the  "Book  of  Chivalry,"  in  Spanish 
literature,  shows  that  Spaniards  have  long 
known  this  romance  from  France,  perhaps 
through  Great  Britain. 

In  the  reign  of  John  II.  of  Castile  (1407-1454) 
there  appeared  a  court  poetry,  now  known  as 
the  "Arte  de  Trobat."  This  poetry  was  written 
in  short  pieces  and  in  complicated  verse  form. 
It  was  made  up  of  love  ditties,  debates,  repartees, 
burlesques,  and  satirical  songs.  To  understand 
or  appreciate  these  poems  they  must  be  read  in 
connection  with  the  history  of  the  time.  Men- 
doza, Marquis  of  Santillana,  stands  first  among 
these  courtiers  and  poets,  and  some  of  his  lighter 
poems  are  very  graceful  and  full  of  melody. 
Juan  de  Mena  belongs,  also,  to  those  days,  and 
his  principal  works,  "The  Coronation"  and 
"The  Labyrinth,"  show  the  effect  of  Italian 
influence.  They  also  show  progress  of  the  lan- 
guage in  Spain. 

As  the  beginning  of  Spanish  drama  during 
these  centuries,  dramatic  representations  had 
been  given  at  church  festivals,  with  the  object 
of  explaining  the  ritual  to  the  ignorant.  Gradu- 
ally changing,  dialogue  was  added,  and  about 
the  year  1492  a  book  appeared,  "  La  Celestina," 
written  by  Fernando  de  Rojas,  and  this  most 
astonishing  novel  exhibited,  for  the  first  time, 
persons  of  all  classes,  particularly  the  lowest, 
talking  in  harmony  with  their  natural  surround- 
ings. This  could  not  have  been  represented 
on  the  stage,  but  it  left  its  mark  on  the  drama 
of  the  nation.     It  was  translated  into  various 


314 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


languages,  and,  with  its  liberty  of  thought  and 
expression,  was  a  great  success. 

Two  most  noted  among  dramatic  writers, 
Cervantes  and  Lope  de  Vega,  were  contempora- 
ries. Cervantes,  born  in  1547,  began  writing 
comedies  and  tragedies;  the  first,  "Galatea." 
was  published  in  1584.  His  great  work,  "Don 
Quixote,"  pubHshed  in  1605,  was  immediately 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
"Don  Quixote"  has  been  defined  as  the  social 
romance  of  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Century 
Spain.  Lope  de  Vega  was  a  prodigy  of  learning 
and  imagination.  He  wrote  numberless  dramas 
and  detached  verses,  many  of  which  are  collected 
under  the  name  "Obras  Sueltas." 

The  "Golden  Age"  of  Spanish  literature 
dates  from  the  union  of  Aragon  and  Castile  and 
the  connection  of  the  House  of  Austria,  which 
gave  unity  to  the  literature  of  Spain,  as  well  as 
to  Spanish  politics.  During  this  age  Calderon 
de  la  Barca  (1600-1681)  was  the  head  of  the 
Spanish  drama.  His  plays  are  of  four  kinds: 
sacred  dramas  from  Scriptural  sources,  historical 
dramas,  classic  dramas,  and  pictures  of  society 
and  manners.  The  most  celebrated  are  "The 
Constant  Prince,"  and  "El  Magico  Prodigioso." 
Calderon  was  attached  to  the  court  for  the  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  drama.^  for  the  royal  theater, 
and  in  making  his  story  to  hold  interest  through- 
out, facts  were  no  obstacles. 

With  the  celebrated  Juan  de  Mariana  (1536- 
1623)  a  new  manner  of  writing  history  appeared. 
In  place  of  the  tagging  on  of  one  fact  after  an- 
other, with  no  apparent  connection,  he  wrote 
a  general  survey  of  the  history  of  Spain.  Vari- 
ous accounts  of  more  or  less  important  episodes 
in  the  history  of  the  country  were  written  by 
different  authors  with  reports  of  trans-Atlantic 
conquests.  Gracilasso  de  Vega,  a  descendant 
of  the  Incas,  wrote  a  history  of  Florida,  based 
upon  the  adventures  of  De  Soto.  To  another 
historian,  Solis,  belongs  "Conquest  of  Mexico," 
a  flattering  picture,  and  very  successful.  Go- 
mana,  Oviedo,  and  Las  Casas  left  records  of 
their  adventures  in  the  new  world,  and  on  these 
records  all  history  of  early  Spanish  settlements 
in  America  is  founded.  Letter  writers  are  nu- 
merous in  Spanish  literature,  and  from  collections 
of  letters  may  be  gathered  history  of  the  times 
and  secrets  of  Spanish  policy.  Among  these  is 
Antonio  Perez  (died  1611),  whose  letters  give 
much  information  in  a  gallant  and  sprightly 
fashion. 

Philosophy  was  poorly  represented  in  the.ce 
centuries,  the  few  thinkers  writing  in  Latin, 
and  the  very  existence  of  mathematical  science 
was  unknown. 

Luis  de  Leon  and  Herrera  led  in  lyric  poetry 
during  the  Sixteenth  Century  and  much  of  their 
mspiration  came  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
\fter  these  writers  ballads  grew  to  be  a  delight 
among  the  people,  and  no  poetry  of  modern 
times  nas  been  more  widely  known  or  influenced 
so  thoroughly  all  national  life.  Many  of  these 
ballads  were  by  authors  who  wrote  little  else; 
but  ballads  are  also  found  in  the  works  of  all 
writers  who  wished  for  fame,  or  to  become  of 
interest  among  the  Spanish  people.  The  relig- 
ious poems  of  Quevedo  show  beauty,  but  he  is 
best  known  by  his  prose  satires. 


At  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  in  1700, 
France  had  great  place  in  Spanish  thought; 
French  customs  crept  into  use  and  French  be- 
came the  language  of  the  society  of  the  court. 
Translations  from  the  French  took  the  place  of 
native  work  and  little  advance  was  made. 

Charles  III.  (1759-1788)  gave  new  life  by 
abridging  the  power  of  the  Inquisition  and  al- 
lowing books  to  stand  by  defense  of  author  or 
publisher.  In  these  years  the  poems  of  Moratin, 
the  literary  fables  of  Yriarte,  and  the  "  Life  of 
Friar  Gerund,"  by  Salazar,  were  added  to  the 
literature. 

The  return  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814,  however, 
made  this  of  small  account.  During  fierce  po- 
litical changes  and  long  civil  war  the  political 
pamphlet  was  the  only  book  to  attract  great 
attention.  Jose  de  Larra  (1809-1837)  was  a 
prose  writer  of  talent,  who  gained  reputation 
by  his  "letters"  on  political  subjects.  He  was 
better  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  "  Figaro." 

Among  later  writers  Antonio  de  Trueba  is 
known  by  his  popular  songs  and  short  stories, 
Lista  and  Duran  as  literary  critics,  and  Cam- 
poamor  and  Bequer,  poets.  In  the  novel  we 
find  the  best  contemporary  Spanish  literature. 
Perez  Galdos,  a  writer  of  fiction,  touches  modern 
thought  in  the  conflicting  interests  of  Spanish 
life.  Juan  Valera  is  the  author  of  "Peplta 
Jimenez,"  a  famous  novel,  and  the  stories  of 
Caballero,  though  not  of  equal  merit,  find  trans- 
lators. 

RUSSIAN   LITERATURE 

Going  to  the  foundations  of  Russian  litera- 
ture we  find,  as  in  most  literatures,  the  oral 
tradition  in  the  form  of  poetry.  This  poetry  is 
not  rhyme  but  poetic  in  figures,  and  has  a  sort 
of  cadence  appreciated  by  the  scholar  of  the 
language.  These  tales  of  old  time,  known  as 
bihni,  are  full  of  interest,  many  in  number,  and 
have  been  carried  by  wandering  minstrels  all 
through  the  land,  as  minstrels  have  chanted  the 
songs  and  sagas  of  so  many  peoples.  Thus  we 
find  in  Russian  literature  the  division  of  the 
oral  and  the  written. 

The  oral  literature  of  song  or  tale  has  been 
marked  by  scholars  into  periods,  beginning  with 
that  of  the  old  heroes.  Songs  in  this  period 
reach  to  the  bounds  of  mythology,  for  the  oldest 
heroes  are  represented  as  monstrous  beings  and 
might  be  personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature. 
In  all  these  there  is  also  the  imagery  of  popular 
poetry,  the  terms  "brightest  svm"  used  to  des- 
ignate the  hero,  "damp  earth"  in  connection 
with  a  being  of  evil  propensities,  and  others  like. 
Giants  of  the  mountains  and  serpents  of  the 
caves  are  made  the  subjects,  or  heroes,  of  the 
songs,  and  are  shown  guarding  their  surround- 
ings. The  animal  natures  are  prominent,  as  in 
the  well-known  legendary  characters,  Idolistche 
Poganskoe,  the  great  glutton,  and  Solovei  Raz- 
boinik,  the  nightingale  robber,  with  his  nest  in 
six  oaks,  who  is  the  terror  of  travelers. 

Fabulous  tales  or  legends  centering  around 
the  cruel  tyrant,  their  celebrated  Prince  Vladi- 
mir and  his  introduction  of  Christianity  in  con- 
nection with  the  Greek  Church,  seem  to  mark 
the  second  literary  period.  The  chief  hero  of 
these  is  known  as  Ilya  Murometz,  a  giant  in 


LITERATURE 


315 


form  and  strength  and  performing  gigantic 
deeds.  Vladimir  introduced  the  forms  of  Chris- 
tianity after  his  connection  with  the  Church  at 
Constantinople,  during  the  last  half  of  the  Sev- 
enth Century,  but  no  note  of  its  spirit  is  promi- 
nent in  the  recital  of  his  valorous  performances 
as  given  in  these  tales. 

The  great  commercial  success  of  Novgorod, 
and  its  influence  on  the  country,  seems  to  mark 
a  period  in  the  history  of  Russia  and  a  third 
cycle  in  the  Uterature.  In  this  are  found  the 
stories  of  Sadko,  the  great  merchant,  and  of 
VersiUi  Buslaevich,  of  daring  ventures  and 
grand  results. 

The  period  following  belongs  to  Moscow, 
which  became  the  capital  of  the  future  empire 
in  1300  A.  D.,  and  during  these  years  the  litera- 
ture busied  itself  with  the  autocracy  and  its 
doings.  The  destruction  of  Kazan  by  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  the  conquest  of  Siberia,  the  iron  rule 
of  Ivan,  himself,  with  its  cruelty  and  supersti- 
tion, are  the  foundations  of  the  popular  tradi- 
tions which,  strangely,  show  no  hatred  or  call 
for  revenge.  Mingling  with  these  in  the  later 
years  are  stories  of  the  Cossacks,  which  almost 
make  a  literature  in  themselves.  The  Cossack 
songs  laud  the  glories  of  the  day,  while  they 
also  record  the  sufferings  of  the  people  during 
Turkish  invasion,  the  devastation  carried  by  the 
Mongols,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Cossack 
republic. 

The  arrival  of  Peter  the  Great  on  the  scene  is 
marked  as' plainly  in  literature  as  it  is  in  history. 
The  spirited  poem  on  the  death  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  the  pathetic  story  of  Xenia,  the  tale 
of  Yermak,  the  conqueror  of  Siberia,  were  fol- 
lowed by  songs  in  abundance  celebrating  the 
wonderful  Czar.  The  religious  poems  of  Russia 
are  numerous,  and  in  them  may  ba  found  many 
curious  legends  with  beliefs  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Many  of  these  poems,  with  a  large  department 
of  folk-lore,  belong  to  antiquity  and  offer  a  fine 
field  for  the  student  of  comparative  mythology. 
Belonging  to  the  more  modern  period  some  of 
these  songs  rehearse  the  death  of  Peter  the 
Great  and  the  deeds  of  Napoleon.  The  greater 
amount  of  all  this  poetry  was  not  written,  but 
belonged  to  oral  tradition  until  an  Oxford  stu- 
dent, sent  as  chaplain  with  an  embassy,  early 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  collected  a  few  old 
songs  and  tales  and  put  them  into  writing. 

According  to  authorities,  the  earliest  specimen 
of  the  written  literature  of  Russia  is  a  Codex 
based  on  the  Slavonic  gospels.  This  was  written 
by  order  of  the  Governor  of  Novgorod,  and  dates 
1056  A.  D.  About  twenty  years  later  is  a  sort 
of  Russian  encyclopedia  compiled  from  the 
Greek.  This  bears  the  name  of  Prince  Sviato- 
slaff,  son  of  Olga,  the  first  Christian  sovereign, 
and  the  work  was  done  for  him  by  his  diak,  or 
deacon.  The  style  is  said  to  be  simple  and 
clear.  What  seems  a  strange  mixture  is  found 
in  a  work  considered  one  of  the  best  written  in 
the  language  at  that  time,  known  as  a  "Dis- 
course Concerning  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  " 
and  containing  a  panegyric  on  Prince  Vladimir. 
That  he  was  the  hero  of  so  much  of  the  popular 
poetry  of  Russia  in  that  century,  may  explain 
the  connection.  The  noted  monk,  Theodosius, 
wrote  his  "Instructions,"  discussions  concerning 


the  faith  of  the  Church  and  exhortations  to 
better  living.  Most  of  the  writing  of  those 
years  seems  to  have  been  done  by  monks  and 
churchmen,  and  this  confirms  the  statement  so 
often  met,  that  the' "  beginnings  of  Russian  liter- 
ature are  contemporaneous  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity."  In  this  connection  are 
mentioned  the  missionaries,  Cyril  and  Method. 

The  earliest  Russian  code  of  laws,  the  "  Russ- 
kai  Prav^da,"  is  found  in  the  Chronicle  of  Nov- 
gorod, and  was  first  pubhshed  during  the  reign 
of  the  son  of  Vladimir,  Yaroslaff,  who  died  in 
the  year  1054.  Both  form  and  subject-matter 
of  this  code  show  that  Russia  then  stood  on  a 
level  in  civihzation  with  other  European  coun- 
tries. Nestor,  who  is  known  as  the  patriarch  of 
Russian  hterature,  wrote  his  "Chronicle"  dur- 
ing this  century,  and  it  proved  to  be  the  first  of 
a  lon^  series  of  Russian  annals  recorded  of  many 
towns  and  written  by  many  authors,  mostly  by 
the  cloistered  monks.  These  would  be  as  dry 
reading  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  chronicles  but  for 
the  romantic  stories  and  sagas  bountifully  in- 
cluded in  them.  Travelers  who  visited  the 
Holy  Land  and  India  left  records  of  their  adven- 
tures, and  the  sermons  of  Cyril  and  other  bish- 
ops, written  in  allegorical  style,  are  also  pre- 
served with  many  lives  of  the  saints  and  the 
Fathers.  Some  of  these  have  been  edited  in 
later  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  four  dreary  centuries,  the 
period  of  the  appanages  followed  by  the  yoke 
of  the  Mongols,  the  literature  of  the  country 
began  a  slow  revival.  The  "Story  of  Igor," 
the  manuscript  of  which  was  carefully  preserved 
until  the  burning  of  Moscow  in  1812,  has  been 
of  much  note.  Tt  is  the  story  of  the  early  part 
of  the.  Tenth  Century,  but  it  has  poetic  spirit 
and  holds  interest  for  the  general  reader.  To 
the  time  of  the  terrible  Ivan  (1530-1584)  be- 
longs the  curious  "Domostroi,  the  Book  of 
Household  Management,"  which  became  popu- 
lar. It  is  said  to  be  the  work  of  a  monk,  and 
it  faithfully  pictures  the  ignorance  and  barbar- 
isms of  the  time.  At  this  date  we  also  find  the 
"Chetii  Minei,"  which  is  said  to  have  taken 
twelve  years  in  compiling  from  the  Greek.  It 
was  made  up  of  extracts  from  writings  of  the 
Fathers,  arranged  for  every  day  of  the  year. 

The  printing-press  was  set  up  in  Moscow  in 
the  year  1553,  and  ten  years  later  the  first  book 
was  printed.  This  was  called  the  "Apostel," 
and  contained  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament.  Prince  Kurb- 
ski  was  a  fluent  writer  of  this  time  who  died  in 
exile.  Early  in  the  Seventeenth  Century  ap- 
peared the  "Chronograph"  of  Sergius  Kubasoff, 
a  history  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
day  of  Michael  Romanoff  (1617  A.  D.),  But 
the  most  important  writing  of  that  period  was 
the  "Account  of  Russia"  by  Gregory  Kotoshik- 
hin,  who  fled  to  Poland  about  the  year  1664. 
He  wrote  his  work  in  Sweden,  the  manuscript 
was  preserved  until  1840  and  then  printed. 
These  books  are  considered  an  important  record 
of  Russian  life  before  the  time  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Works  on  philology  and  other  educa- 
tional subjects  were  written  and  the  authors 
generally  banished.  The  patriarch  Nikon  is 
well-known  through  his  struggles  with  the  Czar 


316 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


as  well  as  his  remodeling  of  the  sacred  books 
which  led  to  the  great  religious  schism  of  Russia, 
a  matter  of  history.  The  whole  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  shows  influence  of  Poland,  and 
with  these  men  the  old  Russian  literature  seems 
to  have  ended.  Knowledge  of  the  literature  of 
the  West  made  a  new  or  modern  literature  for 
Russia. 

Simeon  Polotzki  (1628-1680)  was  a  sort  of 
connecting  link  between  the  old  and  the  modem 
period.  He  was  tutor  to  Feoder,  son  of  the 
Czar  Alexis,  had  been  educated  at  Kieff,  then  a 
Polish  district,  but  seems  to  have  known  some- 
thing of  French  literature.  He  wrote  religious 
works,  dramas,  and  doggerels.  During  his  time 
Alexis  made  additions  to  the  "Code  of  Laws" 
and  burned  the  "Books  of  Pedigrees,"  which 
held  histories  of  the  different  branches  of  past 
roj^al  families.  Peter  the  Great,  beginning  his 
reign  in  the  year  1689,  met  the  Polish  element 
that  had  been  so  great  in  its  influence  and  made 
native  Russian  the  language  of  communication 
in  all  business.  He  found  help  toward  intro- 
duction of  new  literary  forms  in  Propocovich,  a 
scientific  scholar,  who  endeavored  to  put  aside 
the  numberless  superstitions  of  the  time  by 
teaching  material  facts  of  science.  Yavorski, 
who  wrote  the  "Rock  of  Faith,"  opposing  Luth- 
erans and  Calvinists,  and  Pososhkoff  with  his 
valuable  treatise  on  political  economy,  under 
the  title  "Poverty  and  Riches,"  were  also  of 
note.  The  indefatigable  writer,  Michael  Lom- 
onosoff,  did  much  to  aid  education  in  Russia 
by  his  personal  influence  as  well  as  by  his  odes, 
tragedies,  essays,  and  slight  histories. 

The  plan  of  Peter  the  Great  to  civilize  Russia 
on  the  model  of  the  nations  of  the  West  reached 
its  climax  under  the  ten  years'  rule  of  Anna 
(died,  1740).  The  influence  of  her  German  ad- 
visers headed  by  Siren,  was  strong  in  all  de- 
partments, but  the  annals  of  the  time  show  little 
literary  progress. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  her  suc- 
cessor, Elizabeth,  Russians  date  a  notable  ad- 
vance in  letters,  the  work  mainly  following 
French  models.  Through  the  influence  of  Ivan 
Shuvaloff  the  University  of  Moscow,  the  oldest 
in  the  country,  was  founded  in  the  year  1755, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  first  theater  at 
St.  Petersburg  was  opened  with  Sumarokoff  as 
director.  He  was  noted  for  his  rhymed  come- 
dies and  tragedies  written  in  French  style.  Up 
to  this  time  only  religious  plays  had  been  al- 
lowed in  the  country. 

Catherine  II.  (reigned  1762-1796)  gathered 
about  her  a  generation  of  court  poets,  most  of 
them  poor  writers  but  urged  to  emulate  Horace, 
Virgil,  and  Homer.  Few  of  them  are  now  re- 
membered even  by  name.  Kherasoff  was  author 
of  two  lengthy  epic  poems  which  are  no  longer 
read,  and  Denis  von  Visin,  evidently  of  German 
blood,  wrote  national  comedy.  The  greatest 
poet  was  Gabriel  Derzhavin  (1743-1816),  who 
has  been  called  Catherine's  poet  laureate.  Of 
his  poems  the  "Ode  to  God,"  "The  Nobleman," 
and  "The  Taking  of  Warsaw"  are  best  known. 
Alexander  Radistcheff  appeared  as  writer  of  "  A 
Journey  to  Moscow,"  in  which  he  noted  the  sad 
condition  of  the  serfs  and  for  which  he  was  sent 
to  Siberia.     The  censorship  of  the  press  became 


severe,  many  foreign  books  were  excluded  and 
for  readers,  as  well  as  authors,  times  grew 
troublous. 

The  form  of  allegorical  writing,  so  common  in 
countries  under  absolute  rule,  was  popular  in 
Russia  and  a  long  list  of  fabulists  was  headed  by 
Ivan  Khemnitzer  (1744-1784),  who  began  with 
translating  and  afterward  wrote  original  tales. 
A  later  author,  Ivan  Kriloff  (1768-1844),  proved 
to  be  the  most  popular  fable-writer  of  the  nation. 
He  resembled  the  French  La  Fontaine  in  char- 
acter and  in  work.  Among  the  earliest  of  real 
romances  or  novel  writers  in  Russia  were  Zago- 
skin  and  Lazhechnikoff,  whose  books  are  still 
read,  long  narratives  of  life  in  their  own  times. 
Among  them  is  "Yari  Miloslaviski,"  a  tale  of 
the  days  when  the  Poles  were  driven  from  Rus- 
sia. Nicholas  Gogol  (1809-1852),  a  native  of 
Little  Russia,  was  the  first  novelist  of  talent  and 
he  described  the  people  and  the  scenery  of  his 
own  district  in  his  "Old  Fashioned  Home"  and 
"Taras  Bulba,"  a  story  of  war  between  Cossacks 
and  Poles.  In  a  curious  tale,  "The  Demon,"  he 
pictured  Kieff  in  the  old  days.  Novels  grew 
popular,  and  we  find  the  names  of  Hersen,  the 
exile,  Goncharoff,  Bulgarin,  and  Dostoievski. 
Count  Tolstoi,  noted  for  many  other  works,  was 
also  a  novelist  and  the  English  translation  of  his 
"Anna  Karenina"  has  been  said  to  be  the  long- 
est novel  in  our  language.  Most  eminent  was 
Ivan  Turgenieff,  in  his  own  time  the  author  best 
known  outside  his  own  country. 

Turgenieff  first  attracted  notice  by  his  interest 
in  the  Russian  peasant  and  his  best  poems  and 
tales  find  subjects  among  the  serfs.  These  have 
been  translated  and  made  for  the  author  his 
reputation  in  Europe.  "  DvorianskoeGnezedo," 
or  "A  Nest  of  Gentle  People,"  has  been  noted  as 
one  of  the  most  pathetic  tales  found  in  any  litera- 
ture. "Nov"  (Virgin  Soil),  and  "Mumu,"  with 
other  minor  stories,  have  been  often  translated 
and  greatly  praised. 

While  Count  Tolstoi  has  written  much  and  on 
many  subjects,  including  religion  and  morals, 
and  become  known  throughout  the  reading 
world,  critics  have  named  as  the  best  of  his  work, 
early  sketches  relating  to  Sebastopol  and  his 
great  prose  epic,  "War  and  Peace."  The  first 
Russian  play  made  on  the  model  of  Shake- 
spere's  dramas  was  "Boris  Godunoff,"  written 
by  Pushkin,  but  many  have  appeared  since  his 
time.  The  impulse  that  came  from  abroad, 
especially  through  acquaintance  with  the  poetry 
of  Gcethe,  Schiller,  Shakespere,  and  later,  that 
of  Byron,  pushed  aside  the  French  models  that 
were  so  often  copied.  Besides  writing  after  the 
models  found  in  other  languages,  Russian  poets 
have  translated  much,  and  the  literature  of  their 
country  is  rich  in  these  reproductions. 

Both  in  number  and  genius  the  novelists  of 
Russia  compare  well  with  other  countries. 
Gogol,  the  first  real  novelist,  has  been  followed 
by  a  series  that  continues  to  the  present  day. 
Dostoevskii  is  quoted  in  connection  with  Tolstoi 
and  Turganieff ;  near  them  are  Goncharov,  Pisem- 
skii,  and  Garshin,  called  a  disciple  of  Tolstoi; 
and  Korolenko,  leader  of  the  optimistic  school. 

Russia  has,  also,  historians  worthy  to  be  known 
as  successors  of  Karamzin,  and  who  have  given 
more  accurate  record  of  fact  if  not  in  his  brilliant 


LITERATURE 


317 


style.  It  has  been  said  that  Russian  historians 
have  been  generally  satisfied  to  write  the  story 
of  their  own  country;  this  they  seem  to  have 
thoroughly  investigated.  They  meet  strict 
censorship  whenever  they  deal  with  history  of 
recent  times.  Among  these,  Kostomaroff  (1817- 
1885)  wrote  much  of  note,  became  obnoxious 
to  the  government,  and  was  banished  for  several 
years  and  forbidden  to  publish  anything.  After 
his  return  in  the  year  1854  he  wrote  several 
works  and  contributed  to  leading  Russian  re- 
views. UstrailofT  published  a  good  and  full 
history  of  his  own  country  but  it  was  not  as 
popular  as  his  "Reign  of  Peter  the  Great,"  in 
which  he  brought  out  several  documents  until 
then  unknown  and  with  them  facts  of  interest. 
He  has  been  called  the  ablest  Russian  historian 
of  his  time. 

Solovieff  (1820-1879)  left  an  unfinished  his- 
tory of  great  length,  which  has  proved  a  mine 
of  information  for  writers  and  scholars.  Others 
have  written  up  particular  periods  or  subjects. 
An  account  of  the  Polish  Rebellion  of  1863, 
which  first  appeared  in  a  Russian  magazine  and 
was  afterward  published  in  book  form,  gave 
some  startling  disclosures  that  caused  its  circu- 
lation to  be  forbidden.  Excavations  in  many 
Karts  of  the  country,  within  the  last  century, 
ave  also  given  light  to  the  pre-historic  period. 

Good  histories  of  Russian  literature  have  been 
written;  these  often  include  philology  and  go 
back  to  older  Slavonic  literature.  A  valuable 
"Explanatory  Dictionary  of  the  Great  Russian 
Language"  was  published  many  years  ago. 
Works  on  ethnology  and  publications  on  natural 
history  have  attracted  attention,  but  moral  and 
mental  philosophy  found  few  interested  authors. 
Scientific  subjects,  law,  and  medicine  have  their 
share  of  students;  works  on  these  subjects 
have  been  translated  from  foreign  languages. 

We  hear  of  the  literature  of  White  Russia 
and  of  Little  Rus.sia,  which  are  really  Russian 
dialects.  Little  Russian  literature  had  no 
separate  existence  until  the  annexation  of  Po- 
land. It  developed  in  a  mass  of  song  and  legend 
with  some  theological  writings,  educational 
works,  and  annals.  In  the  year  1876,  the  Im- 
perial Government  forbade  the  publishing  of  any- 
thing in  Little  Russian ;  both  Poland  and  Russia 
had  long  shown  hostility  toward  this  dialect.  Its 
popular  poetry  is  exceedingly  rich  and  interest- 
mg.  The  poet,  Shevchenko,  gathered  the  old 
songs  of  his  land  as  Burns  gathered  the  lays  of 
Scotland  and,  like  Burns,  he  was  one  of  the  great 
poets.  In  his  youth  he  rejoiced  in  the  traditions 
of  his  native  village  as  he  heard  them  from 
the  priests;  in  his  poetry  he  faithfully  repro- 
duced the  life  of  the  old  days.  The  "story  of 
those  times  is  lightened  by  the  charming  lyrics 
that  he  mixed  with  his  recital.  He  was  ban- 
ished to  Siberia  for  ten  years  (1847-1857),  and 
died  soon  after  his  return.  The  great  cairn  that 
marks  his  grave  has  been  called  the  Mecca  of 
South  Russia.  The  folk-tales  of  Little  Russia 
are  still  recited  by  wandering  peddlers  and  by 
peasants. 

"In  the  literature  of  White  Russia  is  found 
little  besides  a  few  songs,  parts  of  Scripture,  and 
some  law  papers.  The  country  of  this  literature 
is  the  dreariest  in  the  empire. 


JAPANESE    LITERATURE 

In  the  Fifth  Century  letters  and  the  Confucian 
classics  were  carried  into  Japan  through  Corea, 
and  about  the  year  550  A.  D,  Buddhist  mis- 
sionaries settled  in  the  islands.  In  the  Eighth 
Century  Japan  copied  the  Chinese  form  of  cen- 
tralized government  in  place  of  the  ancient 
feudalism;  Japanese  literature,  both  prose 
and  poetry,  dates  from  this  time.  Compilations 
of  historical  facts  are  supposed  to  have  existed 
at  least  100  years  earlier;  two  distinct  works 
are  quoted,  but  neither  have  been  preserved. 

The  earliest  known  Japanese  writing  is  the 
"Kojiki"  or  "Record  of  Ancient  Matters," 
dating  from  the  year  711  A.  D.  The  most  an- 
cient poetry  is  the  "Manyoshiu"  or  "Collection 
of  a  Myriad  Leaves,"  belonging  also  to  the  early 
part  of  the  Eighth  Century.  In  the  preface  to 
the  "Kojiki"  it  is  said  that  the  emperor  who 
reigned  during  the  last  half  of  the  Seventh  Cen- 
tury, trying  to  preserve  all  traditions,  had  all 
the  records  then  existing  carefully  examined, 
corrected,  and  arranged,  but  this  work  was  never 
completely  written,  and  the  memory  of  a  mem- 
ber of  the  imperial  household,  one  Are,  became 
the  only  authority  for  futui-e  references.  About 
twenty  years  later  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
government  compiled  the  work,  mostly  from  the 
words  of  Are,  and  this,  completed,  became  the 
"  Kojiki."  In  the  year  720  another  work,  entitled 
the  "Nihongi"  or  "Japanese  Record,"  was  put 
into  shape.  The  earlier  record  is  largely  pure 
Japanese,  preserving  the  form  and  the  spirit 
of  Japanese  antiquity;  the  other  shows  Chinese 
ideas.  Both  are  really  ancient  histories,  going 
back  to  the  "divine  age,"  and  are  completely 
mixed  with  mythological  legend.  In  them  the 
country  itself  is  named  "land  of  the  gods,"  and 
the  pedigree  of  the  sovereign  is  traced  back  to 
a  Sun  goddess.  These  works  formed  the  basis 
for  many  later  writings  and  numerous  com- 
mentaries. A  noted  edition  of  the  "Kojiki," 
with  an  elaborate  commentary,  was  published 
between  the  years  1789  and  1822.  Many  old 
manuscripts  have  been  pubhshed  in  modern  style. 

Among  later  Japanese  histories  is  the  "Dai 
Nihonshi"  or  "History  of  Great  Japan"  in  240 
books.  This  was  composed  by  the  second  lord 
of  Mito  (1622-1700),  a  noted  patron  of  literature, 
who  collected  a  large  library  of  old  books  from 
temples  and  -shrines,  and  from  among  the  people. 
It  is  said  that  the  lord  of  Mito  had  aid  from 
Chinese  scholars  who  had  fled  to  Japan  to  escape 
their  Manchu  conquerors.  A  doubt  of  the  origin 
of  the  imperial  dynasty  might  endanger  the 
very  foundations  of  the  throne,  and  for  this 
reason  the  national  annals  of  Japan  have  been 
most  carefully  guarded.  The  purpose  of  the 
"Dai  Nihonshi"  was  to  call  attention  to  his- 
torical facts  and  thus  give  new  strength  to  his 
rightful  authority,  which  was  being  usurped 
by  the  Shogun.  The  writing  of  this  history  had 
much  to  do  with  the  revolution  that  came  more 
than  a  century  later.  Following  this,  an  author, 
Rai  Sanyo  (1780-1832),  wrote  the  "Guaishi," 
or  "External  History  of  Japan,"  which  was 
widely  read  by  Japanese  scholars.  There  are 
many  other  historical  works  adapted  for  popular 
reading  and  for  scholars. 


318 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Works  on  local  geography  make  a  large  show- 
ing in  this  literature.  As  early  as  the  Eighth 
Century  the  government  ordered  careful  de- 
scriptions of  every  province  and  village  to  be 
compiled.  These  are  much  like  the  county  his- 
tories of  England  and  the  books  growing  from 
them  are  numberless.  They  include  facts  of 
topography,  natural  history,  origin  of  names, 
local  legends  and  traditions,  records  of  indus- 
tries and  commerce,  and  descriptions  of  temples, 
shrines,  and  monuments;  all  these,  written 
with  minute  detail,  make  works  of  great  length 
and  of  much  historic  interest.  Every  province 
in  Japan  has  places  noted  in  history;  namely, 
monuments,  castle-towns,  temples,  and  other 
memorials  of  past  ages.  The  guide  books 
included  in  this  geographical  section  of  the 
literature  give  the  traveler  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  his  route.  Probably  no  other  country  is  so 
minutely  known  by  its  inhabitants. 

Japanese  classical  poetry  has  always  been  a 
favorite  study;  there  are  many  volumes  writ- 
ten or  collected  by  the  old  nobles.  The  "  Hiaku- 
nin-is-shiu"  or  "Collection  of  One  Hundred 
Poems"  contains  verse  written  by  the  emperors 
themselves.  It  hadjong  been  a  custom  for  schol- 
arly people  to  gather  for  the  purpose  of  passing 
away  time  in  the  making  of  verse.  These  verses 
or  poems  were  kept  in  the  original  manuscripts, 
or  printed  and  made  up  into  numberless  books 
of  minor  poems.  Loyalty  to  country  and  love 
of  its  beauty  make  many  subjects  in  this  verse; 
most  of  the  short  poems  are  simple,  almost 
explanatory  in  form,  and  very  difficult  of  trans- 
lation into  what  we  would  call  poetry.  Some 
of  the  lyrics,  however,  show  quaint  ways  of 
thought  and  happy  modes  of  expression.  The 
editors  of  "Sunrise  Stories"  have  very  cleverly 
succeeded  in  translating  the  peculiar  flavor  of 
Japanese  verse  and  in  keeping  something  of 
Japanese  form.  There  are  no  great  epics  or 
diaactic  poems  in  the  Japanese  language,  and 
the  drama  does  not  hold  large  place.  Popular 
plays,  however,  are  common;  they  are  often 
stilted  in  style,  often  without  plot. 

Religion  and  philosophy  make  a  large  section 
in  the  literature  of  most  countries,  but  no  Jap- 
anese book  yet  read  or  translated  by  a  foreigner 
takes  the  place  held  by  the  religious  books  in 
European  languages.  Nothing  has  thus  far 
undone  the  work  of  the  early  ages,  for  loyalty, 
family  pride,  patriotism,  and  religion  are  all 
one  in  Japan.  The  national,  or  Shinto,  faith 
accounts  for  its  lack  of  a  moral  code  by  teaching 
that  loyal  subjects  of  the  emperor  need  no 
other  moral  guidance.  The  journey  to  the  land 
of  perpetual  youth  is  one  of  the  expressions  in 
their  literature  on  the  philosophy  of  death. 
The  great  body  of  imported  literature,  the 
Confucian  learning,  and  Buddhist  Books  have 
long  been  held  in  high  honor  by  native  students. 

The  "Story  of  My  -Hat,"  probably  written 
seven  hundred  years  ago,  is  a  Japanese  classic, 
which  has  its  great  charm  from  its  simplicity 
of  language  and  its  picture  of  a  most  simple  life. 
It  is  full  of  allusions  to  nature,  telling  of  the 
bright  moon,  the  floating  cloud,  the  fireflies, 
the  notes  of  the  wild-bird,  etc. ;  it  gives  minute 
descriptions  of  natural  surroundings.  Another 
book,    "Tosa    Nikki,"    describing    in    simplest 


language  the  ordinary  life  of  a  traveler  in  the 
Tenth  Century,  is  also  classical.  It  gives  no 
adventure  or  romance  and  no  wise  maxims. 
It  is  simple  narration,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
written  by  a  woman.  In  the  Tenth  Century  the 
learned  men  of  Japan  wrote  only  for  the  well- 
read  and  educated  class  and  were  deep  in  the 
study  of  Chinese.  The  women  of  the  court  kept 
up  their  own  language;  a  large  part  of  the 
best  writings  in  their  literature  was  the  work 
of  women. 

Romances  and  novels  are  by  no  means  un- 
known in  Japan;  their  heroes  and  heroines 
have  thrilling  adventures,  which  are  graphically 

E resented.  Much  of  this  fiction  is  mixed  with 
istory  and  the  tales  date  back  to  one  of  the 
numerous  wars.  Fairy  tales  abound  and  are 
very  artistically  told,  and  short-story  books 
are  common.  These  and  the  books  for  children 
often  take  for  their  subject  some  hero  of  ancient 
times. 

The  mental  equipment  of  this  nation  has 
been  forming  for  centuries;  when  the  Em- 
pire shut  its  ports  and  drew  away  from  the  rest 
of  the  world,  it  had,  within  itself,  resources  of 
food  for  its  intellectual  life.  By  the  opening  of 
these  ports  Japan  was  introduced  into  the  affairs 
of  the  modern  world,  taking  a  stand  among 
the  nations.  Through  the  researches  of  scholars 
the  literature  of  the  West  is  being  enriched  by 
the  imagination  of  the  East,  and  to  this  litera- 
ture Japan  is  giving  a  generous  share,  though 
only  a  fraction  of  the  books  of  this  modern 
Oriental  nation  are  yet  reached  by  Western 
readers.  The  "Wakan  Sansai  Dzuye,"  known 
to  the  world  as  the  "Great  Japanese  Encyclo- 
pedia," is  noted  as  a  necessary  help  to  all  who 
seek  knowledge  of  Japanese  letters.  The  fact 
that  such  a  large  work  has  been  compiled  and 
that  it  is  considered  an  essential  part  of  a  stu- 
dent's equipment  shows  something  of  the  value 
of  Japanese  literature. 

THE    FA3IILY   LIBRARY 

Selecting  books  for  a  family  library  is  re- 
markably like  selecting  food  for  a  family  table, — 
a  very  nice  art,  indeed.  The  cook  must  know 
food  values,  their  preparatign  and  their  economic 
selection,  so  as  to  balance  one  kind  of  food 
against  another  and  furnish  complete  nourish- 
ment. Within  a  narrow  range  of  choice,  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  individual  tastes,  and 
enough  provided  to  satisfy  every  rational  ap- 
petite. So  it  is  in  the  selection  of  books.  What 
is  a  good  book  for  one  may  not  be  a  good  book 
for  another.  A  family  library,  like  a  family 
table,  should  cater  somewhat  to  individual 
tastes;  but  there  are  common  tastes  as  well, 
and  the  well-selected  library  of  even  a  few  books 
may  furnish  joy  for  the  whole  family. 

No  one  list  of  books  can  ever  be  the  best  list. 
It  can  only  be  suggestive  of  the  kind  of  books 
that  belong  to  every  good  list.  A  short  list  of 
books  for  a  family  library  is  appended  here. 

A   SMALL    HOME    LIBRARY 

Title  Publisher  or  Author 

A  Standard  Dictionary. 
A  Good  Encyclopedia. 
Imperial  Atlas  of  the  World,    .   Rand-McNally. 


LITERATURE 


319 


Title  Publisher  or  Author 

History  of  the  United  States,   .   John  B.  McMaster. 

The  United  States  in  Our  Own 

Times, E.  B.  Andrews. 

History    of    Our    Own    Times 

(English) Justin  McCarthj'. 

EngUsh    Lands,    Letters,    and 

Kings  (4  vols.) Donald  G.  Mitchell. 

American     Lands  and     Letters 

(2  vols.) Donald  G.  Mitchell. 

Outlines    of   Universal   History 

(2  vols.) Geo.  P.  Fisher. 

Romance  of  Discovery W.  E.  Griffis. 

Romance  of  Conquest,    ....    W.  E.  Griffis. 

Critical     Period    of    American 

History, John  Fiske. 

History  of  the  English  People,  Green. 

Struggle  for  a  Continent,   .    .    .    Francis  Parkman, 

A  Talk  About  Books,     .    .    .    .    J.  N.  Lamed. 

Natural  Resources  of  the  United 

States Jacob  H.  Patton. 

Holland  and  Its  People,     .    .    .    Edmondo  de  Amicis. 

Spain  and  the  Spaniards,  .    .    .    Edmondo  de  Amicis. 

The  Alhambra Washington  Irving. 

Wayfarers  in  Italy Catharine  Hooker. 

French  By-ways, Clifton  Johnson. 

Fresh  Fields  (English) John  Burroughs. 

A  Corner  of  Cathay A.  M.  Fielde. 

Across  Asia  on  a  Bicycle,  .    .    .    Allen  and  Sachtleben. 

At    the    Rainbow's   End    (The 

Klondike) Alice  Henderson. 

The  Desert  (American),     .    .    .   John  Van  Dyke. 

Hawaiian  America, Caspar  Whitney.  _ 

Thirty  Years  in  Australia,     .    .    Ada  Cambridge. 

Java,  the  Pearl  of  the  East,      .    Mrs.  S.  J.  Higginson. 

Japan,  Its  History  and  Folklore,  W.  E.  Griffis. 

Japanese  Girls  and  Women,  .    .    Alice  M.  Bacon. 

Great  World's  Farm Selina  Gaye. 

Romance  of  Industry  and  In- 
vention  Robt.  Cochrane. 

Men  Who  Made  the  Nation.  .    .    E.  E.  Sparks. 

Literary  Friends  and  Acquaint- 
ances  W.  D.  Howells. 

Yesterdays  with  Authors,  .    .    .   Jas.  T.  Fields. 

My  Summer  in  a  Garden,  .    .    .   Chas.  Dudley  Warner. 

Indoor  Studies, John  Burroughs. 

Outlines  of  English  Literature,  Henry  S.  Pancoast. 

Outlines  of  American  Literature,  Henry  S.  Pancoast. 

Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln,      .    .   John  G.  Nicolay. 

Lincoln,  Master  of  Men,     .    .    .    Alonzo  Rothschild. 

Life  of  William  Penn,     ....   Augustus  Buell. 

The  Mother  of  Washington  and 

Her  Times,      Mrs.  Roger  Pryor. 

The  Making  of  an  American.     .    Jacob  A.  Riis. 

Practical  Garden  Book, .    .    .    .    L.  H.  Bailey. 

A  Woman's  Hardy  Garden,  .    .   Helen  R.  Ely. 

Earth's  Bounty Kate  V.  St.  Maur. 

Sesame  and  Lilies, John  Ruskin. 

The   Development  of  the  Child,  Nathan  Oppenheim. 

Mental  Growth  and  Control.     .    Nathan  Oppenheim. 

Two  Children  of  the  Foot  Hills,  Elizabeth  Harrison. 

Fisherman's  Luck Henry  Van  Dyke. 

Bits  of  Talk  on  Home   Matters,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

Village  Sermons Charles  Kingsley. 

Children's  Rights, Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 

Heredity  and  Christian  Prob- 
lems  Amory  Bradford. 

Prue  and  I George  W.  Curtis. 

The  Brook  Book Mary  Rogers  Miller. 

Three  Acres  and  Liberty,  .    .    .    Bolton  Hall. 

The  Life  of  the  Spirit,    ....   Hamilton  Mabie. 

The  Blue  Flower, Henry  Van  Dyke. 

Marsh  Island, S.  O.  Jewett. 

Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer, .    .    Mark  Twain. 

Fishin'  Jimmy Annie  Trumbull  Slosson. 

Story-tell  Lib Annie  Trumbull  Slosson. 

How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Sarah  Bryant. 

Point  of  Contact Patterson  Du  Bois. 

Solomon       Crow's       Christmas 

Pockets Ruth  McEnery  Stuart. 

Uncle  William, Jennette  Lee. 

Captain  of  the  Gray-horse  Troop,  Hamlin  Garland. 

Ramona, Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

The  Crisis Winston  Churchill. 

Aliens, Mary  Tappan  Wright. 

Wonders      of      the      Colorado 

Desert  (2  vols.) G.  W.  James. 

In  and  Out  of  the  Old  Missions 

of  California, G.  W.  James. 

Certain       Delightful       English 

Towns W.  D.  Howells. 

Prophet   of   the   Great  Smoky 

Mountains, Chas.  Egbert  Craddock. 


Title  Publisher  ok  Author 

The  Scarlet  Letter Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Marble  Faun Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Vesty  of  the  Basins Sarah  P.  M.  Greene. 

John  Halifax Dinah  Mulock  Craik. 

Rudder  Grange, Frank  Stockton. 

The  Widow  O'Callaghan's  Boys,  Gulielma  Zollinger. 

The  Skv  Pilot Ralph  Connor. 

The  Blazed  Trail, Stewart  Edward  White 

Old-town  Folks,  • Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 

Alice  of  Old  Vincennes,      .    .    .  Maurice  Thompson. 

The  Virginian, Owen  Wister. 

Princess  of  Thule, William  Black. 

Adam  Bede George  Eliot. 

Old  Curiosity  Shop Charles  Dickens. 

Annals    of   a    Quiet    Neighbor- 
hood,      George  Macdonald. 

Margaret  Ogilvy James  Barrie. 

Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier-Bush,     Ian  Maclaren. 

Put  Yourself  in  His  Place,     .    .   Charles  Reade. 

Ben  Hur Lew  Wallace. 

Cambridge  Book  of  Poetry  and 

Song, Charlotte  Fiske  Bates. 

Songs  of  Nature John  Burroughs. 

Shakespere's  Plays:  Hamlet,  Merchant  of  Venice,  Mac- 
beth, As  You  Like  It,  Julius  Caesar,  King  Lear,  and 
others,  as  preferred. 

Selected  volumes  of  Household  Poetry. 

BOOKS    FOR    THE    CHILDREN'S    LIBRARY 

"A  wise  mother  and  good  books  enabled  me  to  suc- 
ceed in  life." —  Henry  Clay. 

Note. —  These  books  have  been  carefully 
selected  from  children's  lists,  issued  by  public 
libraries,  and  from  lists  prepared  by  school  de- 
partments. They  are  all  of  them  good  books 
and  children  like  them,  but  they  are  only  a  few 
of  the  many  equally  good  ones  which  can  be 
found  from  the  same  sources. 

PICTURE    BOOKS    AND    RHYME   BOOKS    FOR 
THE    VERY    LITTLE    ONES 
(Children  under  six  years  of  age.) 

Title  Publisher  or  Author 

Babyhood  Days Dutton. 

Little  Sunshine, De  Wolf. 

Cherry-tree  Farm Stokes. 

Children's  Pets Dutton. 

Little  Black  Sambo, Doubleday. 

Five  Minute  Stories Richards. 

Book  of  Nursery  Rhymes,     .    .  Welsh. 

Baby  Days,      Dodge. 

Child  Stories  and  Rhymps,    .    .  Poulsson. 
Mother  Goose :     Old    Nursery 

Rhymes, Warne. 

Rhymes  and  Jingles Norton. 

Caldicott  Picture  Books,    .    .    .  Warne. 

Songs  for  Little  Children,  .    .    .  Smith. 

Sunbonnet  Babies, Rand-McNally. 

Lullaby  Land Eugene  Field. 

FOR   CHILDREN    OF   THE  FIRST   AND  SECOND 
PRIMARY    GRADES 
(From  six  to  eight  years  of  age.) 

Title  Publisher  or  Author 

Five  Mice  in  a  Mouse  Trap,  .    .  Richards. 

Six  Nursery  Classics Welsh. 

Happy  Heart  Familj',    ....  Gerson. 

Asgard  Stories Foster  and  Cummings. 

Stories  of  the  Red  Children,  .    .  Brooks. 

Book  of  Fables, Scudder. 

St.  Nicholas  Christmas  Book,   .  Century. 

Docas,  the  Indian  Boy,      .    .    .  Snedden. 

Grimm's  Fairy  Tales  (2  vols.),.  Wiltse. 
Stories  of   Great  Americans  for 

Little  Americans, Eggleston. 

Book  of  Fables  and  Folk  Stories,  Scudder. 

Fairy  Stories  and  Fables,  .    .    .  Baldwin. 

Andersen's  Fairy  Tales,     .    .    .  Baldwin. 

Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands,     .  Chance. 

Mother  Goose, Greenaway. 

First  Jungle  Book,      Kipling. 

Brownies,  their  Book,     ....  Cox. 
Treasury  of  Stories,  Jingles,  and 

Rhymes, Humphrey. 

Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  .    .    .  Stevenson. 

In  Sunshine  Land, Thomas. 

Rhymes  of  Childhood Riley. 


320 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


FOR   CHILDREN    OF   THE   THIRD    AND 
FOURTH   GRADES 
(From  eight  to  ten  years  of  age.) 

Title  Publisher  or  Author 

Joyous  Story  of  Toto,    ....  Richards. 

Toto's  Merry  Winter,     ....  Richards. 

Jackanapes Ewing. 

Children's  Book Scudder. 

Seven  Little  Sisters, Andre*s. 

Our  Little  Brown  Cousin,      .    .  Wade. 

Our  Little  Indian  Cousin,      .    .  Wade. 

Our  Little  Japanese  Cousin,      .  Wade. 

Our  Little  Russian  Cousin,    .    .  Wade. 

Old  Greek  Stcries Baldwin. 

Adventures  of  a  Brownie,      .    .  Mulock. 

Little  Jarvis Seawell. 

Stories  of   American   Life   and 

Adventure Eggleston. 

Four  Great  Americans Baldwin. 

Mischief's  Thanksgiving,    .    .    .  Coolidge. 
World  and  Its  People  (our  own 

country), Dunton. 

Just  So  Stories Kipling. 

Golden  Windows Richards. 

Uncle  Remus  and  His  Friends,  Harris. 

Boys  of  Other  Countries,  .    .    .  Taylor. 

Book  of  Knight  and  Barbara,    .  Jordan. 

Children's  Life  of  Lincoln,      .    .  Putnam. 

Court  of  King  Arthur,    ....  Green. 

Water  Babies Kingsley. 

Little  Folks'  Lyrics Sherman. 

Songs  Every  Child  Should  Know,  Bacon. 
Poems     Every     Child     Should 

Know, Burt. 

FOR   CHILDREN    OF    THE    FIFTH    AND    SIXTH 
GRADES 
(From  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age.) 
Title  Publisher  or  Author 

Century  Book  of  Famous  Amer- 
icans  Brooks. 

True  Story  of   Christopher  Co- 
lumbus  Brooks. 

True   Story  of    George    Wash- 
ington  Brooks. 

True  Story  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin,      Brooks. 

True  Story  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Brooks. 

Pioneer  Stories  (3  vols.),   .    .    .   McMurry. 

Travels  Through  North   Amer- 
ica with  the  Children,     .    .    .   Carpent*. 

Boys  of  '76  and  Boys  of  '61,     .   Coffin. 

Story  of  the  Greeks Guerber. 

Story  of  the  Romans Guerber. 

Paul  Jones Seawell. 

Robinson  (Jrusoe Defoe. 

Hans  Brinker Dodge. 

Land  of  Pluck Dodge.  / 

The  Land  We  Live  In  (3  vols.).  King.  , ' 

Nelly's  Silver  Mine Jackson.        / 

Tales  of  King  Arthur Farrington.  / 

Zig-Zag  Journeys  (series),.    .    .   Butterworth. 

Little  Cousin  Series  (Italy,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  etc.),     .    .    .   Pub.  by  Page  &  Co. 

Fifty  Famous   Stories    Retold,  Baldwin. 

Story  of  a  Bad  Boy Aldrich. 

Myths      Every    Child     Should 

Know, .   Mabie. 

Legends    Every  Child    Should 

Know, Mabie. 

Wonder-Book  and  Tangle-wood 

Tales Hawthorne. 

Lobo,  Rag  and  Vixen,    ....   Thompson-Seton. 

Squirrels  and  Other  Fur-bearers,  Burroughs. 

Little  Smoke Stoddard. 

Juan  and  Juanita Baylor. 

Heidi    (Home   life  in    Switzer- 
land),     Spyri. 

Little  Women, Alcott. 

Little  Men Alcott. 

Spinning  Wheel  Stories,     .    .    .   Alcott. 

Jack  Hall, Grant. 

Betty  Leicester Jewett. 

Some     Merry     Adventures     of 

Robin  Hood, Pyle. 

King  of  the  Golden  River,     .    .   Ruskin. 

Swiss  Family  Robinson,     .    .    .   Wyss. 

Arctic  Alaska  and  Siberia,     .    .   Aldrich. 

Poems  of  American  Patriotism,  Matthews. 

Golden  Numbers  (Poems),    .    .   Wiggin  and  Smith. 


Baldwin. 
BuUen. 
Kipling. 
Stockton. 


Couch. 

Chas.  and  Mary  Lamb. 


FOR   SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH   GRADES 

(From  twelve  to  fourteen.) 
Title  Publisher  or  Author 

Boys'  Handy  Book  and  Girls' 

Handy  Book Beard. 

Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things,    Champlin. 

Colonial  Days  and  Ways,  .    .    .   Smith. 

Twelve  Americans, ......   Carroll. 

The  Story  of  Washington,     .    .   Seelye. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant Wister. 

Abraham  Lincoln Noah  Brooks. 

Osceola,  Chief  of  the  Seminoles,  Gordon. 

Tecumseh,  Chief  of  the  Shawa- 

nees Gordon. 

Paul  Jones Seawell. 

One  Hundred   Famous    Ameri- 
cans,       Smith. 

Heroes  of  the  Golden  Age, 

Cruise  of  the  Cachalot,  .    . 

Captains  Courageous,     .    . 

Personally  Conducted,    .    . 

Tour  of   the  World   in    Eighty 

Days Verne. 

We  Girls Whitney. 

Land  of  the  Long  Night,   .    .    .    Du  Chaillu. 

World  of  the  Great  Forest,    .    .    Du  Chaillu. 

Historical  Tales  from   Shakes- 
pere 

Stories  from  Shakespere,   .    .    . 

Oakleigh Deland. 

From  Cattleranch  to  College,    .   Doubleday. 

Story  of  Sonny  Sahib,    ....    Cotes. 

Micah  Clarke Doyle. 

Treasure  Island,      Stevenson. 

Two  Young  Homesteaders,   .    .   Jenness. 

Four  Macnicols ,   Black. 

Flamingo  Feather Munroe. 

Polly  Oliver's  Problem,      .    .    .    Wiggin. 

For  the  Honor  of  the  School,    .   Barbour. 

Sharp  Eyes  and  Other  Papers,     Burroughs. 

Birds  Through  an  Opera  Glass,    Merriam. 

Prince  and  Pauper, Mark  Twain. 

Christmas  Stories, Dickens. 

Story  of  King  Arthur Pyle. 

The  Spy  and  the  Leather  Stock- 
ing Tales  (5  vols.),      ....   Cooper. 

Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  Un- 
der the  Sea Vesne. 

Poems  of  American  Patriotism,   Matthews. 

Treasure  Book  of  Verse,    .    .    .   Brackett  and  Eliot. 

FOR   THE   OLDER   BOYS    AND    GIRLS 
Title  Publisher  or  Authob 

Reader's  Handbook  of  Famous  Names,  Brewer. 
Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable,  .  .  .  Brewer. 
Young  Folks'  Cyclopedia  of  Literature 

and  Art Champlin. 

Young    Folks'    Cyclopedia   of    Persons 

and  Places Champlin. 

Age  of  Fable Bulfinch. 

Helps  for  Ambitious  Boys,      Drysdale. 

Boys'  Book  of  Inventions Baker. 

Electricity  for  Everybody Atkinson. 

Discovery  of  America, Fiske. 

War  of  Independence,      ........   Fiske. 

Advance  Guard  of  Western  Civilization,  Gilmore. 

Tramp  Across  the  Continent Lummis. 

Story  of  Our  Continent Shaler. 

Successful  Men  of  To-day, Craft. 

Abraham  Lincoln, Nicolay. 

Stbry  of  Music  and  Musicians Lillie. 

Story  of  the  English Guerber. 

Life  of  Robert  Fulton Knox. 

La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great 

West Parkman. 

Fighting  Phil  (Sheridan) Headley. 

Rough  Riders, Roosevelt. 

The  Raiders Crockett. 

Christmas    in    Four    Quarters    of    the 

Globe, Barber. 

Twelve  Christmas  Sermons Spurgeon. 

Pepacton, Burroughs. 

A  Social  Departure Duncan. 

Explorers  and  Travelers Greeley. 

How  the  Other  Half  Lives Riis. 

Nineteenth  Century Mackenzie. 

Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero,    .    .   Church. 

John  Brent, Winthrop. 

Our  Old  Home Hawthorne. 

The  Roman  and  the  Teuton,  .....   Kingsley. 

Nicholas  Nickleby,    .        . Dickens. 

Being  a  Boy Warner. 

Cuore, D'Amicia. 


HENRY   WOLDMAR   RUOFF,  M.  A.,  LITT.  D.,  D.  C.  L. 
Editor 


LITERATURE 


321 


Title  Publisher  or  Author 

John  Halifax Mulock. 

Shakespere,  the  Boy Rolfe. 

Ranch  Life  and  the  Hunting  Trail,    .    .   Roosevelt. 

A  Roundabout  Journey, Warner. 

Along  the  Florida  Reef Holder. 

Astronomy  with  an  Opera  Glass,    .    .    .    Serviss. 

How  I  Found  Livingstone, Stanley. 

Story  of  My  Life Helen  Keller. 

Standish  of  Standish, Jane  G.  Austin. 

Dr.  Le  Baron  and  His  Daughters, .    .    .   Jane  G.  Austin. 

Judith  Shakespere, Black. 

A  Summer  in  Leslie  Goldthwaite's  Life,  Whitney. 
Ivanhoe,  Rob  Roy,  Kenilworth,  Waver- 

ley Scott. 

Heart  of  the  Ancient  Wood Roberts. 

The  Land  of  Evangeline Roberts. 

Kidnapped, Stevenson. 

David  Balfour Stevenson. 

Huckleberry  Finn Mark  Twain. 

David  Copperfield,  Little  Doi;rit,  .    .    .   Dickens. 

A  Noble  Life Mulock. 

Silas  Marner, Eliot. 

The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,     .    .    .   Hawthorne. 

Window  in  Thrums Barrie. 

Idylls  of  the  King, Tennyson. 

Book  of  Golden  Deeds Yonge. 

Selected  Volumes  of  Household  Poetry,  Longfellow, 
Whittier,  Scott,  and  other  favorites. 

PEN   NAMES  OF  NOTED 
WRITERS 

Pen  Name  Real  Name 

Abbott,  Madeline  Vaughan,  Mrs.  Charles  E.  Bushnell. 

Ackworth,  John Rev.  F.  R.  Smith. 

,\dam,  Madame  (Edmond),  Juliette  Lamber. 

Adams,  Moses Geo.  Wm.  Bagby. 

Adams,  Stephen Michael  Maybrick. 

Adeler,  Max, Charles  Heber  Clark. 

Agate, Whitelaw  Reid. 

A.  K.  H.  B Rev.  A.  K.  H.  Boyd. 

Akers,  Elizabeth Mrs.  E.  M.  Allen. 

A.  L.  O.   E.   (A  Lady  of 

England) Charlotte  M.  Tucker. 

Alexander,  Mrs.,      ....  Mrs.  Annie  French  Hector. 

Allen,  F.  M Edmund  Downey. 

Americus, Francis  Lieber. 

Ames,  Lucia  True,      .    .    .  Mrs.  Lucia  Ames  Mead. 

Amyand,  Arthur Capt.  E.  A.  Haggard. 

Andrews,  Annulet,      .    .    .  Mrs.  J.  Kingsley  Ohl. 

Anstey,  F., F.  Anstey  Guthrie. 

Archibald,  Mrs.  G Mrs.  George  A.  Palmer. 

Armstrong,  Regina,    .    .    .  Mrs.  C.  H.  Niehaus. 

Arnold,  Birch Mrs.  J.  M.  D.  Bartlett. 

Arp,  Bill,      Charles  H.  Smith. 

"  Ashmont," J.  Frank  Perry. 

Atlas, Edmund  Yates. 

"  Aunt  Elmina,"      ....  Mrs.  Isaac  Slenker. 

Ayres,  Alfred Thomas  E.  Osmun. 

Bab W.  S.  Gilbert. 

Ballin,  Ada  S Mrs.  Oscar  G.  D.  Berry. 

Baba,  Ali, Alberigh  Mackay. 

Barnaval,  Louis Charles  De  Kay. 

Barnes,  Catharine  Weed,    .  Mrs.  Henry  Snowden  Ward. 

Bates,  Charlotte  Fiske,  .    .  Mme.  Adolphe  Rog^. 

Baylor,  Frances  Courtenay,  Mrs.  Geo.  S.  Bamum. 

Beard,  Frank Thos.  Francis  Beard. 

Beaumont,  Averil Mrs.  Hunt. 

Bede,  Cuthbert, Rev.  Edw&rd  Bradley. 

Bell,  Acton Anne  Bronte. 

Bell,  Currer Charlotte  Bronte. 

Bell,  Ellis Emily  Bronte. 

Bell,  Lilian Mrs.  Arthur  Hovt  Bogue. 

Bell,  Lura Julia  May  Williamson. 

Bell,  Nancy Mrs.  A.  Geo.  Bell. 

Belloc,  Marie  Adelaide,       .  Mrs.   Frederick  S.   Lowndes. 

Bentzon,  Th^r^se.    ....  Marie  Th^rfese  Blanc. 

Berkeley,  Thusnelda,      .    .  Mrs.  Mary  L.  Metcalfe. 

Bevans,  Neile, Nellie  Bingham  Van  Slinger- 

land. 

Bibliophile S.  A.  Allibone. 

Bickerdyke,  John,  ....  Charles  H.  Cook. 

Bickerstaff,  Isaac,    ....  Swift  and  Steele. 

Biglow,  Hosea J.  R.  Lowell. 

BiUings,  Josh Henry  W.  Shaw. 

Bisland,  Elizabeth,     .    .    .  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Wetmore. 

Blanchan,  Neltje,  .      ...  Mrs.  F.  N.  Doubleday. 

Boldrewood,  Rolf Thos.  Alex.  Bro-wjne. 

Bonehill,  Capt.  Ralph,   .    .  Edwd.  Stratemeyer. 

Boz Charles  Dickens. 

Braddon,  Misa  M.  E.,     .    .  Mrs.  John  Maxwell. 


Pen  Name  Real  Name 

Brannigan,  Calvin,      .    .    .  Jas.  Jeffrey  Roche. 

Breitmann,  Hans Leland,  Charles  Godfrey. 

Briscoe,  Margaret  Sutton, .  Mrs.  A.  J.  Hopkins. 

Brooke,  Magdalen,      .    .    .  M.  H.  M.  Capes. 

Brooks,  Esta Mrs.  E.  P.  Evans. 

"  Brooksby," Capt.  Pennell  Elmhirst. 

Brydges,  Harold James  Howard  Bridge. 

"  Bunny," Carl  E.  Schultze. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  Mrs.  Stephen  Townsend. 

Butt,  Beatrice  May,    .    .    .  Mrs.  W.  H.  Alhusen.     • 

"  C," Mrs.  J.  Farley  Cox. 

Calderwood,  M.,  .    ....  William  F.  Robertson,  M.  D 

Cambridge,  Ada,     ....  Mrs.  Geo.  F.  Cross. 

Carroll,  Lewis Rev.  C.  L.  Dodgson. 

Carter,  Nick J.  Russell  Coryell. 

Carton,  R.  C R.  C.  Critchett. 

Cartwright,  Julia Mrs.  Henry  Ady. 

Caryll,  Ivan, John  Carl. 

Caskoden,  Edw Charles  Major. 

Castlemon,  Harry Charles  A.  Fosdick. 

"  Champ," Jas.  W.  Champney. 

Chester,  Eliza Harriet  Eliza  Paine. 

Chester,  Morley Emily  Underwood. 

"Chicot," Epes  Win throp  Sargent. 

Clark,  Henry  Scott,    .    .    .  Millard  F.  Cox. 

Cleeve,  Lucas Mrs.  Howard  Kingscote. 

Clement,  Clara  Erskine,     .  Mrs.  James  Forbes  Waters. 

Coe,  Captain,       E.  Card  Mitchell. 

Collingwood,  Harry,   .    .    .  W.  J.  C.  Lancaster. 

Collins,  Mabel, Mrs.  Keningale  Cook. 

Collins,  Percy, Price  Collier. 

Colmore,  G Mrs.    Gertrude     Colmore 

Dunn. 

Connor,  Marie Marie  Connor  Leighton. 

Connor.  Ralph Rev.  C.  W.  Gordon. 

Conway,  Hugh F.  J.  Fargus. 

"Coo-ee," W.S.Walker. 

Coolidge,  Susan Sarah  C.  Woolsey, 

Corelli,  Marie,      Eva  Mary  Mackay. 

Cornwall,  Barry B.  W.  Procter. 

CraHdock,  Charles  Egbert,  Mary  N.  Murfree. 

Craik,  Georgiana  M Mrs.  May. 

Crayon,  Geoffrey,    ....  Washington  Irving. 

Crinkle,  Nym, Andrew  C.  Wheeler. 

Cromarty,  Deas, Mrs.  Watson* 

Crowfield,  Christopher,  .    .  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 

Cusack,  George, Grace  Carter-Smith. 

Gushing,  Paul Roland     Alexander     Wood- 

Sey. 

D'Ache,  Caran, Emmanuel  Poire. 

Dacre,  J.  Colne Mrs.  A.  S.  Boyd. 

"  Dagonet," George  R.  Sims. 

Dale,  Alan Alfred  J.  Cohen. 

Dale,  Darley, Francesca  Maria  Steele. 

Daly,  Frederic, Lewis  Frederic  Austin. 

Danbury  Newsman,    ...  J.  M.  Bailey. 

Danby,  Frank Mrs.  Julia  Frankau. 

D'Anvers,  N., Mrs.  A.  Geo.  Bell. 

Dean,  Mrs.  Andrew,    .    .    .  Mrs.  Cecily  Sidgwick. 

De  Burgh,  A., E.  M.  Alborough. 

Deland,  Margaret Mrs.  Lorin  F.  Deland. 

Devoore,  Ann Mrs.  R.  P.  Walden. 

Dix,  Dorothy, Elizabeth  M.  Gilmer. 

Dobson,  Austin, Henry  A.  Dobson. 

Donovan,  Dick Joyce  Emerson  Muddock. 

Dooley,  Martin, Finley  Peter  Dunne. 

Douglas,  George,     ....  George  D.   Brown. 

Douglas,  Marian Annie  Douglas  Greene  Robin- 
son. 

Doyle,  Conan,      Sir  Arthur  C.  Doyle. 

Drinkwater,  Jennie  Maria,  Jennie  Conklin,  M.  D. 

"  Droch,"      Robert  Bridges. 

Duncan,  Sara  Jeannette,    .  Mrs.  Everard  Cotes. 

Dunning,  Charlotte,    .    .    .  Charlotte  D.  Morse. 

"  Duchess,  The,"      ....  Mrs.  Hungerford. 

Egerton,  George Mrs.  R.  Golding  Bright. 

Eichberg,  Annie Mrs.  John  Lane. 

Elia, Charles  Lamb. 

Eliot,  George, Marian  Evans. 

Eliot,  Max Mrs.  Granville  Alden    Ellis. 

Emery,  Clay Clayton  Mayo. 

Ettrick  Shepherd,   ....  James  Hogg. 

Falconer,  Lanoe,      ....  Mary  Elizabeth  Hawkes. 

Fane,  Violet,    ......  Lady  Currie. 

F«rnam,  Ella,      Ella  F.  Pratt. 

K;u(iuharson,  Martha,    .    .  Martha  F.  Finley. 

Fern,  Fanny Sara  P.  Parton. 

Field,  Michael Miss      Bradley     and      Miss 

Cooper. 

Fielding   Howard Charles  W.  Hooke. 

Finn,  Mickey, Ernest  Jarrold. 

"  Fitmoodle," B.  B.  Vallentine. 


322 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY    OF  FACTS 


Pen  Name  Real  Name 

Fleming,  George Julia  Constance  Fletcher. 

Flynt,  Josiah .    .   Josiah  Flynt  Willard. 

Fontenoy,  Marquise  de,     .   Margaret  Owen  Cunliffe. 

Forbes,  Athol Forbes    Alexander    Phillips. 

Forrester,  Francis,      .    .    .   Daniel  Wise. 

Forrester,  Frank Henry  Wm.  Herbert. 

Forrester,  Isola Mrs.  Reuben  Merrifield. 

"  Fra  Elbertus," Elbert  Hubbard. 

France,  Anatole, Jacques  Anatole  Thibault. 

Franbis,  M.  E Mrs.  Frank  Blundell. 

Frank,  Dr J.  Frank  Perry,  M.  D. 

"  G.  G.," Henry  George  Harper. 

Garrett,  Edward,    ....   Mrs.  John  R.  Mayo. 

Gates,  Eleanor, Mrs.  Richard  Walton  TuUy. 

"  Gath," George  Alfred  Townsend. 

George,  G.  M Mrs.  Spurrell. 

Gerard,  Dorothea Mme.  Longard  de  Longarde. 

Gerard,  Emily Mme.  de  Laszowski. 

Gerard,  Morice,    .    .    .   f   .   Rev.  J.  Jessop  Teague. 

Gibbons,  Lucy, Lucy  G.  Morse. 

Gift,  Theo Mrs.  G.  S.  Boulger. 

Gilman,  Winona Mrs.  F.  Schocfrel. 

Gissing,  George J.  Storer  Glouston. 

Glyn,  Elinor Mrs.  Clayton  Glyn. 

Glyndon,  Howard,      .    .    .  Mrs.  Laura  C.  R.  Searing. 

Godfrey,  Hal, Charlotte  O'Conor-Eccles. 

Going,  Maud, E.  M.  Harding. 

Gooch,  Fanny  C,    .    .    .    .    Fanny  C.  G.  Iglehard. 

Goodman,  Maude Mrs.  A.  E.  Scanes. 

Gordon,  A.  M.  R Alexander  Macgregor  Roe. 

Gordon,  Julien, Mrs.  Van  Rensselaer  Cruger. 

Gorki,  Maxime, Alexel    Maximovitch    Pesh- 

kov. 

Graduate  of  Oxford,  .    .    .   John  Ruskin. 

Graham,  John, David  Graham  PhilUps. 

Grand,  Mme.  Sarah,   .    .    .   Mrs.  McFall. 

Gray.  Maxwell Miss  M.  G.  Tuttiett. 

Green,  Anna  Katharine,     .    Mrs.  Charles  Rohlfg. 

Greenwood,  Grace,      .    .    .    Sara  Jane  Lippincott. 

Greville,  Henri, Mme.  Durand. 

,    Grey,  Barton, George  Herbert  Sass. 

^-         Qrier,  Sydney  C Miss  Gregg. 

Qrile,  Dod Ambrose  Bierce.     / 

.    Onbbins,  Nathaniel,    .    .    .   Edward  Spencer  Mott. 

'    "Gyp," Countess  de  Martel. 

^^"H.  H.," Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

~T^    Bajiburton,  Hugh,      .    .    .   James  Logie  Robertson.       ^ 
'   '      Hall,  Owen James  Davis. 

Hamiltun,  Gail, Mary  Abigail  Dodge. 

"  Hard  Pan," Geraldine  Bonner. 

Harland,  Marion,    ....   Mrs.  Mary  V.  Terhune. 

Harrod,  Frances Frances  Forbes-Robertson. 

Hawthorne,  Alice Septimus  Winner. 

Hayes,  Henry, Ellen  Olney  Kirk. 

Hegan.  Alice  Caldwell,  .    .   Mrs.  Cale  Young  Rice. 

Henry,  John, Hugh  McHugh. 

Herbert,  Morgan     ....   Margaret  M.  H.  Mather. 

Heron,  E.  and  H Mrs.  Kenneth  and  Mr.  Hes- 

keth  Prichard. 

Hickson,  Mrs.  Murray,  .    .   Mrs.  S.  A.  P.  Kitcat. 

Hill,  Headon F.  Grainger. 

"  Historicus," Sir  W.  Vernon  Harcourt. 

Hobbes,  John  Oliver, .    .    .   Mrs.  Pearl  Craigie. 

Hofifman,  Prof Angelo  Lewis. 

Hogan,  Ernest Reuben  Crowdus. 

Holdsworth,  Annie  E.,  .    .   Mrs.  Lee-Hamilton. 

"  Holland," E.  J.  Edwards. 

Holloway,  Laura Laura  C.  H.  Langford. 

Holm,  Saxe, Probably  Helen  Hunt  Jack- 
son. 

Hope,  Anthony Anthony  Hope  Hawkins. 

Hope,  Ascot  R R.  Hope  Moncreiff. 

Hope,  Graham Jessie  Hope. 

Hopper,  Nora, Mrs.  Wilfred  H.  Chesson. 

Huntington,  Faye,      .    .    .   Theodosia  T.  Foster. 

Hutchinson,  Ellen  M.,    .    .    Ellen  M.  H.  Cortissoz. 

"Innominate," Mgr.  Eugene  Boeglin. 

"Iota," Mrs.  Mannington  Caffyn. 

"Ironquill," Eugene  F.  Ware. 

Irons,  Ralph Mrs.  S.  C.  Cronwright. 

"  Ivory  Black," Thomas  A.  Janvier. 

"J.  S.  of  Dale," Frederick  J.  Stimson. 

Jay,  W.  L.  M Julia  L.  M.  Woodruff. 

Jean;  Paul J.  P.  F.  Richter. 

Johnson,  Benjamin  P.,  .    .   James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

Johnson,  Effie Mrs.  Orson  Richmond. 

"Josiah  Allen's  Wife,"    .    .   Marietta  Holley. 

"June,  Jenny," Mrs.  David  G.  Croly. 

Keith,  Leslie Grace  L.  K.  Johnston. 

Kendall,  B Baroness  Kurt  von  Kendall. 

Kerr,  Orpheus  C Robert  C.  Newell. 

King,  Katherine  Douglas, .   Mrs.  Burr. 


Pen  Name  Real  Name 

Kirk,  Eleanor, Eleanor  K.  Ames. 

Kirke,  Edmund James  R.  Gilmore. 

Klingle,  George, Mrs.  Holmes. 

KnicKerbocker,  Cholly,  .    .   John  W.  Kellar. 

Knickerbocker,  Diedrich,  .    Washington  Irving. 

"Kron,Karl," Lyman  Hotchkiss  B 

Kvelve, Rasmus  B.  Anderson." 

Laurie,  Annie, Winifred  Black. 

Le  Baron,  Grace,     ....   Mrs.   Henry  Macy  Upham. 

Lee,  Home, Harriet  Parr. 

Lee,  Vernon, Violet  Paget. 

L.  E.  L Letitia  E.  Landon. 

Leslie,  Amy, Lillie  West  Brown. 

Leslie,  Mrs.  Frank,.    .    .    .   Mrs.  Miriam  F.  F.  Wilde. 

Logan,  Celia Mrs.  J.  B.  Connelly. 

Logan,  Olive, Mrs.  W.  Wirt  Sikes. 

Lothrop,  Amy Anna  Bartlett  Warner. 

Loti,  Pierre L.  M.  Julien  Viaud. 

Ludlow,  Johnny Mrs.  Henry  Wood. 

Luska,  Sidney, Henry  Harland. 

Lyall,  Edna Ada  Ellen  Bayly, 

Lys,  Christian Percy  Jas.  Brebner. 

"M.  E.  W.  S.,"    .  ■ .    .    .    .   Mrs.  Jno.  Sherwood. 

Maartens,  Maarten,  .  .  .  J.  N.  W.  van  der  Poorten 
Schwartz. 

Maitland,  Thomas,      .    .    .   R.  Buchanan. 

McManus,  Blanche,     .    .    .    Mrs.  M.  F.  Mansfield. 

MacDermott,  B Robert  M.  Sillard. 

Mackenzie,  Fergus,      .    .    .   James  Anderson. 

Mackie,  Pauline  B Mrs.  Herbert  M.  Hopkins. 

MacLaren,  Ian Rev.  John  MacLaren  Wat- 
son. 

Maclean,  Mona Miss  Todd. 

MacNab,  Frances,  ....   Agnes  Eraser. 

Malet,  Lucas Mrs.  William   Harrison. 

"Maori," .lames  Inglis. 

Marchant,  Bessie Mrs.  J.  A.  Comfort. 

Marlitt,  E., Henriette  Eugenie  John. 

Marlowe,  Charles Harriet  Jay. 

"Marshes,  A  Son  of  the,"  .    Mrs.  Owen  Visger. 

Martin,  Ellis Marah  Ellis  Ryan. 

Martin,  George  Madden,    .    Mrs.  Atwood  R.  Martin. 

Marvel,  Ik Donald  G.  Mitchell. 

Marvel,  Matthew E.  P.  Ackerman. 

Mathers,  Helen Mrs.  Henry  Reeves. 

Maxwell,  Ellen  Blackmer, .    Ellen  B.  Barker. 

May,  Sophie, Rebecca  Sophia  Clarke. 

Meade,  L.  T Mrs.  F.  Toulmin  Smith. 

Meredith,  Owen,      ....   Earl  of  Lytton. 

Merriam,  Florence  A.,    .    .   Mrs.  Florence  M.  Bailey. 

Merriman,  Henry  Seton,    .   Hugh  Stowell  Scott. 

Mignon,  August John  A.  Darling. 

Miller,  Joaquin Cincinnatus  Heine  Miller. 

Miller,  Olive  Thorne,  .    .    .    Harriet  Mann  Miller. 

Millman,  Helen Mrs.  Caldwell  Crofton. 

Miln,  Louise  Jordan,  .    .    .   Mrs.  George  Crichtou  Miln. 

"  Miss  Teerius," Mrs.  Fred  Horner. 

Montbard,  Georges,    .    .    .   Charles  Auguste  Loyes. 

Moore,  Mollie  E.,     ....   Mary  Evelyn  Moore  Davis. 

Mortimer,  Geoffrey,     .    .    .    Walter  M.  Gallichan. 

Morton,  Hugh, Charles  M.  S.  McLellan. 

Mowbray,  J.  P., Andrew  C.  Wheeler. 

Mulholland,  Rosa Lady  Gilbert. 

Mulock,  Miss, Mrs.  G.  L.  Craig. 

Nasby,  Petroleum  V.,     .    .    David  Locke. 

Nesbit,  E Mrs.  Hubert  Bland. 

Newton,  Aubrey,     ....    Ambrose  Winterton. 

Nox,  Owen,      Charles  B.  Cory. 

Nordau,  Max Simon  Sudfeld. 

North,  Christopher,    .    .    .   Prof.  John  Wilson. 

North,  Barclay, William  C.  Hudson. 

O'Dowd,  Cornelius,     .    .    .   Charles  Lever. 

"O.K.," Mme.  Ulga  Kireef  Novikoff. 

Ogden,  Ruth,  < Frances  Otis  Ide. 

Ogilvy,  Gavin J.  M.  Barrie. 

Oldcastle,  John Wilfred  Meynell. 

"Old  Sleuth," Harlan  P.  Halsey. 

O'Neill,  Rose  Cecil,     .    .    .   Mrs.  Harry  Leon  Wilson. 

Optic,  Oliver, Rev.  Wm.  T.  Adams. 

O'Reilly,  Miles Charles  G.  Halpin. 

O'Rell,  Max Paul  Blouet. 

Otis,  James James  Otis  Kaler. 

"Ouida," Louise  de  la  Ramee. 

Owen,  Jean  A Mrs.  Owen  Visger. 

Oxenham,  John Mr.  Dunkerley. 

Palmer,  Lynde, Mrs.  A.  A.  Peebles. 

"Pansy," Isabella  Macdonald  Alden. 

Parley,  Peter Sam.  G.  Goodrich. 

Partington,  Mrs.,     ....    Benj.  P.  Shillaber. 

Paston,  George, Miss  E.  M.  Symonds. 

Patton,  J.  B Edmund  White. 

P'  ul,  John Chas.  Henry  Webb. 


LITERATURE 


323 


Pen  Name  Real  Name 

Perkins,  Eli Melville  D.  Landon. 

Phiz H.  K.  Browne. 

Phoenix,  John George  H.  Derby. 

Pindar,  Peter John  Wolcott. 

Plymley,  Peter Sydney  Smith. 

"Porte  Crayon," David  H.  Strother. 

Powell,  Richard  Stillman,  .  Ralph  Henry  Barbour. 
Prescott,  Dorothy,      .    .    .    Agnes  Blake  Poor. 
Prescott,  E.  Livingston,     .   Edith  K.  Spicer-Jay. 

Prevost,  Francis Harry  F.  P.  Battersby. 

Prout,  Father Francis  S.  Mahony. 

"Q.," Arthur  T.  Qiiiller-Couch. 

Quad,  M .    .    .   C.  B.  Lewis. 

Quinn,  Dan .Mfred  Henry  Lewis. 

Quirinus, Dr.  Dollinger. 

Raimond,  C.  E., Elizabeth  Robins. 

Raine,  Allen Mrs.  Beynon  Puddicombe. 

Raleigh,  Cecil, Mr.  Rowlands. 

Ranger,  Robin, James  M.  Freeman. 

Redden,  Laura  Catherine,     Laura  C.  Searing. 

Reid,  Christian Frances  F.  Tiernan. 

Rheinhardt,  Rudolph  H.,  .  George  Hempl. 

Hidden,  Mrs.  J.  H Mrs.  C.  E-  L.  Riddell. 

"Rita," Mrs.  E.  M.  J.  von  Booth. 

Hives,  Am^lie Princess  Troubetskoi. 

Roy,  Rob John  Macgregor. 

Robertson,  Muirhead,     .    .    Henry  Johnson. 
Robinson,  A.  Mary  F.,   .    .    Mme.  Emile  Duclaux. 

Rosny,  J.  H., The  Brothers  Boex. 

Ross,  Adrian Arthur  Reed  Ropes. 

Ross,  Albert, Linn  Boyd  Porter. 

Ross,  Martin Violet  Martin. 

"Rover," Alfred  Gibson. 

Howe,  Bolton Benj.  C.  Stephenson. 

Howe,  Saville Clement  Scott. 

"Rusticus," J.  K.  Fowler. 

Rutherford,  Mark Wm.  Hale  White. 

St.  Aubyn,  Alan Frances  Marshall. 

St.  Clair,  Victor,      .    .    .    .    G.  Waldo  Browne. 

St.  Laurence, Alfred  Laurence  Felkin. 

Saint  Remy The  Due  de  Morny. 

"Saladin," William  Stewart  Ross. 

Sand,  George, Mme.  Dudevant. 

Sanghamita,  Sister,     .    .    .   Countess   M.  A.  de  S.  Cana- 

varro. 
Saunders,  Marshall,    .    .    .   Margaret  M.  Saunders. 

Schreiner,  Olive Mrs.  S.  C.  Cronwright. 

Seeley,  Charles  Sumner,     .   John  William  Munday. 

Setoun,  Gabriel, Thomas  Nicoll  Hepburn. 

"Sevenoaks," Alfred  S.  Edwards. 

Sharp,  Luke Robert  Barr. 

Shaw,  Flora, Lady  Flora  Lugard. 

Sidney,  Margaret,    ....    Harriett  Mulford  Lothrop. 

Siegerson,  Dora Mrs.  Clement  Shorter. 

Siegvolk,  Paul Albert  Mathews. 


Pen  Name  Real  Namb 

Sinjohn,  John John  Galsworthy. 

Slick,  Sam, T.  C.  Haliburton. 

Smith,  T.  Carlyle,   ....   John  Kendrick  Bangs. 

Spinner,  Alice Mrs.  Augusta  Zelia  Fraser. 

"Spy,"  .........    Leslie  Ward. 

Stanlaw,  Penrhyn Penrhyn  Stanley  Adamson. 

Stepniak S.  Kartcheffsky. 

Sterne,  Stuart Gertrude  Bloede. 

Stewart,  Philip Philip  Robinson. 

"Stonehenge,"^^ J.  H.  Walsh. 

Stretton,  Hesba Hannah  Smith. 

Stuart,  Cosmo, Cosmo Chas.  Gordon-Lennox. 

Stuart,  Esme Miss  Leroy, 

Stuart,  Leslie, T.  A.  Barrett.  • 

Sturgis,  Dinah Mrs.  Belle  A.  Whitney. 

"Surfaceman," Alex.  Anderson. 

Swan,  Annie  S., Mrs.  liurnett  Smith. 

Swift,  Benjamin William  Romaine  Paterson. 

Sylva  Carmen Elizabeth,    Queen  ■  of    Rou- 

mania. 
Symington,  Maggie,    .    .    .   Mrs.  Sarah  M.  Blathwayt. 

Syntax,  Dr Wm.  Coombe. 

Temple,  Hope Mme.  Andre  Messager. 

Thanet,  Octave Alice  French. 

Theuriet,  Andr^, Claude  Adhemar. 

"The  Widow," Teresa  Dean. 

Thomas,  Annie, Mrs.  Pender  Cudlin, 

Thompson,  Wolf,    ....   Ernest  Thompson  ^Se ton. 
Thorn,  Margaret,     ....    Ethel  S.  Cann. 
Thorpe,  Kampa,      ....   Elizabeth  Whitfield  Bellamy. 
Titcomb,  Timothy,     .    .    .   J.  G.  Holland.  ' 

Titmarsh W.M.Thackeray. 

"Tivoli," Horace  W.    Bleackley. 

"Toby,  M.  P.," Henry  W.  Lucy. 

Tottenham,  Blanche  L.,     .   Mrs.  Arthur  Ram. 

Tower,  Martello Commander  F.  M.  Norman. 

Trask,  Katrina, Mrs.  Spencer  Trask. 

Travers,  Graham Dr.  Margaret  Todd. 

"Trois-Etoiles," E.  C.  Grenville-Murray. 

Turner,  Ethel .   Mrs.  H.  R.  Curlewis. 

Twain,  Mark Samuel  L.  Clemens. 

Tyler,  G.  Vere Mrs.  Lachlan  Tyler. 

Tynan,  Katherine Mrs.  H.  A.  Hinkson. 

Tytler,  Sarah Henrietta  Keddie. 

"  Uncle  Charlie," Charles  Welsh. 

"Uncle  Remus," Joel  Chandler  Harris.    . 

Vandegrift,  Margaret,     .    .   Margaret  T.  Janvier. 
Varley,  John  Philip,   .    .    .   Langdon  E.  Mitchell. 

Verne,  Jules M.  Olchewitz. 

Voltaire Francois  Marie  Arouet. 

Ward,  Artemus Charles  F.  Browne. 

Warden,  Florence Mrs.  G.  James.  • 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth, .    .    .   Susan  Warner. 

Winter,  John  Strange,    .    .   Mrs.  H.  E.  V.  Stannard. 

Zadkiel, Capt.  R.  J.  Morrison,  R.N. 


MYTHOLOGY 

The  term  mythology  is  now  used  appropriately  for  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  considers  the  notions  and 
stories,  particularly  amoog  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  respecting  gods  and  demigods,  their  pretended  origin,  their 
actions,  names,  attributes,  worship,  images,  and  symbolical  representations. 

Gods  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  principal  deities  of  each  were  common  to  both,  and  we  can  include 
them  all  in  one  system  of  classification. 

"The  ancient  Greeks  believed  their  gods  to  be  of  the  same  shape  and  form  as  themselves,  but  of  far  greater  beauty, 
strength,  and  dignity.  They  also  regarded  them  as  being  of  much  larger  size  than  men;  for  in  those  times  great 
size  was  esteemed  a  perfection,  supposed  to  be  an  attribute  of  divinities,  to  whom  they  ascribed  all  perfections.  A 
fluid  named  Ichor  supplied  the  place  of  blood  in  the  veins  of  the  gods.  They  were  immortal,  but  they  might 
be  wounded  or  otherwise  injured.  They  could  make  themselves  visible  or  invisible  to  men,  and  assume  the  forms 
of  men  or  of  animals.  Like  men,  they  stood  in  daily  need  of  food  and  sleep.  The  meat  of  the  gods  was  called  Am- 
brosia, their  drink  Nectar.     The  gods,  when  they  came  among  men,  often  partook  of  their  food  and  hospitality. 

"  Like  mankind,  the  gods  were  divided  into  two  sexes;  namely,  gods  and  goddesses.  They  married  and  had  chil- 
dren. Often  a  god  became  enamored  of  a  mortal  woman,  or  a  goddess  was  smitten  with  the  charms  of  a  handsome 
youth;    these  love-tales  form  a  large  portion  of  Grecian  mythology.  ,    •     >  •  ■ 

"To  make  the  resemblance  between  gods  and  men  more  complete,  the  Greeks  ascribed  to  their  deities  all  human 
passions,  both  good  and  evil.  They  were  capable  of  love,  friendship,  gratitude,  and  all  affections ;  on  the  other  hand, 
they  were  frequently  envious,  jealous,  and  revengeful.  They  were  particularly  careful  to  exact  all  due  respect  and 
attention  from  mankind,  whom  they  required  to  honor  them  with  temples,  prayers,  costly  sacrifices,  splendid  pro- 
cessions, and  rich  gifts;    and  they  severely  punished  insult  or  neglect." 

(1)  Superior  Gods. — Jupiter,  Neptune,  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Vulcan,  Janus,  Saturn,  Pluto.  Bacchus,  Juno, 
Minerva,  Diana,  Venus,  Vesta,  Ceres,  Rhea.  (2)  Inferior  Gods.  —  Ccelus,  Sol,  jEoIus,  Plutus,  ^sculapius,  Pan, 
Luna,  Aurora,  Nox,  Iris,  Latona,  Themis,  Nemesis,  Fortuna,  Fama.  Several  gods  peculiar  to  the  Greeks:  Enyo, 
Ergane,  Cotytto,  etc.  Several  gods  peculiar  to  the  Romans:  Priapus,  Terminus,  Vertumnus,  Pomona,  Flora, 
Feronia,  Pales,  etc.  (3)  Mythical  Beings.  —  Titans,  Giants,  Pygmies,  Tritons,  Sirens,  Nymphs,  Muses,  Graces, 
Hours,  Seasons,  Fates,  Furies,  Harpies,  Winds,  Genii,  Somnus,  Mors,  Manes,  Lares.  Penates,  Satyrs,  Fauns,  Gorgons, 
Amazons,  Centaurs,  Minotaur,  Chimsera,  Geryon,  Hydra,  Pegasus,  Scylla,  Charybdis,  Sphinx,  Typhon. 

Most  of  the  heroes  were  aflast  viewed  as  sons  of  gods,  and  often  of  Jupiter  himself.  The  veneration  for  the  heroes 
was,  however,  less  sacred  and  less  universal  than  the  worship  of  the  gods.  The  heroes  received  only  an  annual  com- 
memoration at  their  tombs,  or  in  the  vicinity,  when  offerings  and  libations  were  presented  to  them.  Sometimes 
the  respect  paid  them  exceeded  these  limits,  and  they  were  exalted  to  the  rank  and  honors  of  the  gods.  The  intro- 
duction of  solemnities  in  memory  of  heroes  is  ascribed  to  Cadmus.  , 

(4)  Deified  Heroes.  —  Inachus,  Phoroneus,  Ogyges,  Cecrops,  Deucalion,  Amphictyon,  Cadmus,  Danaus,  Pelops, 
Minos,  Perseus,  Hercules,  Theseus,  Jason,  Castor,  Pollux,  and  heroes  of  the  Theban  and  the  Trojan  Wars,  etc. 


324 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Ach'eron.  Acheron,  Styx,  Cocytus,  and  Phlegethon, 
are  known  as  rivers  of  hell.  These  regions  below  the  earth 
were  considered  as  the  residence  of  departed  souls,  where 
after  death  they  received  rewards  or  punishments  accord- 
ing to  their  conduct  upon  earth. 

Acbil'les.  The  son  of  Peleus  and  Thetis.  In  the 
Trojan  War  he  was  the  most  distinguished  for  his  strength 
and  bravery.  When  Achilles  was  born,  Thetis  plunged 
him  in  the  river  Styx,  which  made  him  invulnerable  in 
every  part  except  the  heel,  by  which  she  held  him.  And 
in  this  heel  he  received  a  fatal  wound. 

A'cis.  The  nymph,  Galatea,  loved  Acis,  the  hand- 
some shepherd,  and  the  monstrous  Cyclop,  Polyphemus, 
sued  in  vain  for  her  favor. 

AcrlsHus.  Son  of  Abas,  King  of  Argos,  grand- 
son of  Lynceus,  and  great-grandson  of  Danaus.  An 
oracle  had  declared  that  Danae,  the  daughter  of  Acrisius, 
would  give  birth  to  a  son  who  would  kill  his  grand- 
father. For  this  reason  he  kept  Danae  shut  up  in  a 
subterranean  apartment,  or  in  a  brazen  tower.  But 
here  she  became  the  mother  of  Perseus,  by  Zeus,  who 
visited  her  in  a  shower  of  gold. 

Actae'on.  Act£eon  was  the  son  of  Aristseus  and 
Autonoe,  daughter  of  Cadmos.  He  was  reared  by 
Chiron,  and    becoming   passionately  fond  of  the  chase, 

gassed  his  days  chiefly  in  pursuit  of  wild  beasts  that 
aunted  Mount  Cithseron. 

Adis'sechen.  In  Indian  mythology  the  serpent  of  a 
thousand  heads  which  hold  the  universe  in  place. 

Adme'tus.  A  king  of  Thessaly,  and  husband  of 
Alcestis,  famous  for  nis  misfortunes  and  his  piety. 
Apollo  tended  the  flocks  of  Admetus  for  nine  years,  when 
he  was  obliged  to  serve  a  mortal  for  having  slain 
the  Cyclops. 

Ado'nls.  A  beautiful  youth,  loved  by  Venus,  and 
slain  by  a  wild  boar  which  he  was  hunting.  Venus  was 
inconsolable  at  his  loss,  and  at  last  obtained  from  Pro- 
serpine that  Adonis  should  spend  six  months  on  earth 
witn  her  and  six  months  among  the  shades.  Adonis  is 
also  the  name  given  to  a  Syrian  god,  who  was  supposed 
to  be  slain  by  a  wild  boar  in  Lebanon,  and  to  revive  every 
year.  He  is  identified  with  the  Greek  Adonis,  beloved 
by  Venus. 

Adram'melech.  God  of  the  people  of  Sepharva'im, 
to  whom  infants  were  burned  in  sacrifice  (Kings  xvii,  31). 
Probably  the  sun. 

Adras'tus.  A  king  of  Argos,  and  the  institutor 
of  the  Nemean  games. 

.^a'cus.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  grandson  of  the  river- 
god  Asopus.  ./Eacus  was  renowned  in  all  Greece  for  his 
justice  and  piety,  and  after  his  death  became  one  of  the 
judges  in  hades. 

^ge'on.  One  of  three  brothers,  huge  monsters, 
with  fifty  heads  and  a  hundred  arms.  According  to 
the  most  ancient  tradition,  JEgeon  and  his  brothers 
conquered  the  Titans  when  they  made  war  upon  the 

fods,  and  secured  the  victory  to  Zeus,  who  thrust  the 
'itans  into  Tartarus,  and  placed  Mgeon  and  his  brothers 
to  guard  them. 

jEge'us.     King  of 'Athens,  and  father  of  Theseus. 

jEglr'.  God  of  the  ocean,  whose  wife  is  Rana.  They 
had  nine  daughters,  who  wore  white  robes  and  veils. 
These  daughters  are  the  billows,  etc. 

.^'gis.  The  shield  of  Jupiter  made  by  Vulcan  was 
so  called,  and  symbolized  "Divine  protection."  The 
shield  of  Minerva  was  called  an  segis  also. 

JE'gle.  The  mother  of  the  graces.  Also  the  name 
of  one  of  the  sisters  of  Phaeton. 

.^lu'rus.  The  cat.  An  Egyptian  deity  held  in  the 
greatest  veneration.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  Diana,  to 
avoid  being  molested  by  the  giants,  changed  herself  into 
a  cat.  The  deity  used  to  be  represented  with  a  cat's 
head  on  a  human  body. 

JEne'SiS.  A  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Anchises  and  the 
goddess  Venus.  When  Troy  fell,  he  quitted  the  city 
with  his  followers,  accompanied  by  his  father  and  son, 
visited  various  countries,  settled  in  Latium,  and  married 
Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus.  To  him  tradition 
ascribes  the  commencement  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

iii'olus.  Under  the  name  of  jEoIus  both  Greeks  and 
Romans  worshiped  a  god  and  ruler  of  winds  and  storms. 
He  was  called  tne  .son  of  Jupiter,  sometimes  of  Neptune, 
and  by  others,  of  Hippotes,  an  ancient  lord  of  the  Lipari 
Isles.  From  Jupiter  he  received  his  authority  over  the 
winds,  which  had  previou-sly  been  formed  into  mythical 
persons,  and  were  known  by  the  names  Zephyrus,  Boreas, 
Notus,  and  Eurus,  and  were  afterwards  eon.sidered  the 
servants  of  ^olus.  He  held  them  imprisoned  in  a  cave 
of  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  let  them 
loose  only  to  further  his  own  designs  or  those  of  others, 
in  awakening  storms,  hurricanes,  find  floods.  He  is 
usually  described  by  the  poets  as  virtuous,  upright,  and 
friendly  to  strangers.     He  is  represented  as  a  vigorous 


man  supporting  himself  in  the  air  by  wings,  and  blowing 
into  a  snell  trumpet  like  a  Triton,  while  his  short  mantle 
is  waving  in  the  wind. 

.(Es'acus.  A  son  of  Priam,  who  was  enamored  of 
the  nymph  Hesperia,  and,  on  her  death,  threw  himself 
into  the  sea,  and  was  changed  by  Thetis  into  a  cormorant. 
.^s'cula'plus.  The  son  of  Apollo  and  Coronis,  the 
daughter  of  a  Thessalian  King.  By  his  father  he  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  the  wise  Centaur,  Chiron,  who 
taught  him  botany,  together  with  the  secret  efficacy  of 
plants.  By  means  of  this  information,  yEsculapius  be- 
came the  benefactor  of  mankind.  In  tradition  he  is  noted 
as  having  awakened  the  dead. 

JEsir,  plural  of  As  or  Asa,  the  celestial  gods  of  Scan- 
dinavia, who  lived  in  Asgard  (god's  ward),  situate  on  the 
heavenly  hills  between  earth  and  the  rainbow.  The 
chief  was  Odin. 

.lEson.  The  father  of  Jason  and  brother  of  Pelias 
who  seized  the  kingdom  rightfully  belonging  to  jEson. 
./Es'tas.  The  god  of  summer  ;  he  is  crowned  with 
corn  and  generally  holds  a  sickle  in  his  hand.  By  poets 
and  artists  the  seasons  are  all  personified.  They  are 
frequently  seen  together  on  relievi,  medals,  and  gems. 
The  artists  have  also  followed  the  poets  in  representing 
the  four  ages  of  life  by  depicting  Ver  (spring),  as  infantile 
and  tender;  jEstas  (summer),  as  young  and  sprightly; 
Autumnus  (autum),  mature  and  manly;  and  Hyems 
(winter),  as  old  and  decrepit. 

JEta,.  A  king  of  Colchis,  was  father  of  Medea. 
Agamem'non.  King  of  Argos,  in  Greece,  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  allied  Greeks  who  went  to  the 
siege  of  Troy.  Agamemnon  married  Clytemnestra,  the 
daughter  of  Tyndareus,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of 
Iphianassa  (Iphigenia).  When  Helen,  the  wife  of  Mene- 
laus,  was  carried  off  by  Paris,  and  the  Greek  chiefs  re- 
solved to  recover  her  by  force  of  arms,  Agamemnon  was 
chosen  their  commander-in-chief. 

Ag'anip'pe.  A  fountain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Helicon, 
in  Bceotia,  consecrated  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  and 
believed  to  have  the  power  of  inspiring  those  who  drank 
of  it. 

Ah'rl'man.  A  deity  of  the  ancient  Persians,  being  a 
personification  of  the  principle  of  evil.  To  his  agency 
were  ascribed  all  the  evils  existing  in  the  world.  Ormuzd 
the  principle  of  good,  is  eternal,  but  Ahriman  is  created, 
and  will  one  day  perish. 

A'Jax.  The  son  of  Telamon,  and  one  of  the  Greek 
heroes  in  Homer's  "Iliad."  He  was  of  great  stature, 
strength,  and  courage,  but  dull  in  mind.  He  killed  him- 
self out  of  vexation  because  the  armor  of  Hector  was 
awarded  to  Ulysses. 

Ak'uman.  The  most  malevolent  of  all  the  Persian  gods. 
Alas'tor.  A  surname  of  Jupiter.  Among  the  lesser 
gods  the  name  Alastor  is  given  to  the  unforgetting, 
revengeful  spirit,  who,  in  consequence  of  some  crime 
perpetrated,  persecutes  a  family  from  generation  to 
generation. 

Alces'tis,  or  Alces'te.  A  daughter'  of  Pelias,  and 
the  wife  of  Admetus.  To  save  her  husband's  life,  she 
died  in  his  stead.  By  request  of  Apollo,  the  gods  had 
granted  eternal  life  to  Admetus  but  on  the  condition, 
that  when  the  appointed  time  came  for  the  good  king's 
death,  some  one  should  be  found  willing  to  die  in  his 
stead.  'This  decree  was  reported  to  Alcestis,  Adrnetus' 
beautiful  young  wife,  who  offered  herself  as  substitute, 
and  cheerfully  gave  her  life  for  her  husband.  But 
immortality  was  too  dearly  bought  at  such  a  price;  and 
Admetus  mourned  until  Hercules,  pitying  his  grief, 
descended  into  hades,  and  brought  her  back. 

Alec'to.  One  of  the  Furies.  She  is  represented  with 
her  head  covered  with  serpents,  and  breathing  ven- 
geance, war,  and  pestilence. 

Alec'tryon.  A  servant  of  Mars,  who  was  changed  by 
him  into  a  cock  because  he  did  not  warn  his  master  of  the 
rising  of  the  sun. 

Al'fadur.  In  Scandinavian  Mythology  the  Supreme 
Being  —  Father  of  all. 

Alphe'os  and  Arethu'sa.  The  Greek  fable  says 
that  Alphe'os,  the  river-god,  fell  in  love  with  the  nymph 
Arethu^a,  who  fled  from  him  in  affright.     Diana  came 

AI  Si-rat'.  A  narrow  bridge  extending  from  this 
world  to  the  next  over  the  abyss  of  hell,  which  must  be 
pas.sed  by  every  one  who  would  enter  paradise. 

Althse'a.  Sister  to  Atalanta,  and  mother  of  Meleager. 
She  caused  the  death  of  her  son  and  killed  herself  in 
remorse.  i.    i-     j  ■ 

Am'azons.  A  nation  of  women-soldiers  who  lived  in 
Scythia.  Hercules  defeated  them,  and  gave  Hippolyte, 
their  queen,  to  Theseus  for  a  wife. 

Ambro'sia.  The  food  of  the  gods;  so  called  because 
it  made  them  not  mortal,  i.  e.,  it  made  them  immortal. 

Amacl'tia.     The  goddess  of  friendship.     In  Greek 


LITERATURE 


325 


mythology  she  was  represented  with  her  head  bare,  her 
dress  open  near  the  heart,  holding  in  her  left  hand  an 
elm,  around  which  a  vine  clung,  .filled  with  clusters 
of  grapes. 

Airi'mon.  One  of  the  names  bestowed  on  Jupiter. 
As  Jupiter  Ammon,  he  was  represented  as  having  the 
horns  of  a  ram. 

Amphi'on.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope,  and  brother 
of  Zethus.  They  were  born  on  Mount  Cithoeron,  and 
grew  up  among  the  shepherds.  When  they  had  learned 
their  origin  they  marched  against  Thebes,  where  Lycus 
reigned,  the  husband  of  their  mother  Antiope,  who  had 
married  Dirce  in  her  stead.  They  took  the  city,  and 
killed  Lycus  and  Dirce,  because  they  had  treated  Antiope 
with  great  cruelty.  After  they  had  obtained  possession 
of  Thebes,  they  fortified  it  by  a  wall.  Amphion  had 
received  a  lyre  from  Mercury,  on  which  he  played  with 
such  magic  skill  that  the  stones  moved  of  their  own 
accord  and  formed  the  wall. 

Ancae'us.  A  son  of  Neptune  who,  having  left  a  cup 
of  wine  untasted  to  pursue  a  wild  boar,  was  killed  by 
it,  which  gave  rise  to  the  proverb,  "There's  many  a  slip 
between  the  cup  and  the  lip." 

Anchi'ses.  King  of  Dardanus  and  father  of  .(Eneas. 
On  the  capture  of  Troy  by  the  Greeks,  ^Eneas  carried  his 
father  on  his  shoulders  from  the  burning  city. 

Androm'ache.  Daughter  of  one  of  the  kings  of 
Thebes,  and  wife  of  Hector. 

Androm'eda.  Andromeda,  to  atone  for  a  crime  of 
which  she  was  guiltless,  was  to  have  become  the  victim 
of  divine  anger.  The  whole  country  was  laid  waste 
with  plagues,  which,  according  to  the  oracle  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  were  not  to  cease  until  Andromeda,  swallowed 
up  by  a  sea-monster,  should,  by  her  death,  expiate 
the  crime  of  her  mother.  Perseus  beheld  the  maiden 
fastened  with  chains  to  a  rock,  and  a  monster  rising 
out  of  the  sea  ready  to  devour  her;  while  her  parents 
stood  on  the  shore  in  despair.  Perseus  rushed  down 
upon  the  monster,  struck  the  deadly  blow,  delivered 
the  fair  maiden  and  obtained  her  as  his  wife.  After  her 
death  she  was  placed  among  the  stars. 

Angurva'del.  Frithiof's  sword,  inscribed  with  Runic 
letters,  which  blazed  in  time  of  war,  but  gleamed  with 
a  dim  light  in  time  of  peace. 

Antae'us.  One  of  the  giant  sons  of  Neptune  whose 
home  was  in  I>ibya.  His  strength  was  invincible  so  long 
as  he  remained  in  contact  with  his  mother  earth.  Once 
lifted  from  the  earth  and  allowed  again  to  touch  it 
his  strength  increased.  One  of  the  exploits  ascribed  to 
Hercules  was  the  exhibition  of  his  strength  in  over- 
coming Antoeus. 

Antig'one.  In  the  story  of  Oedipus,  Antigone  ap- 
pears as  a  noble  maiden,  with  a  truly  heroic  attachment 
to  her  father  and  brothers.  When  Oedipus  had  put  out 
his  eyes,  and  was  obliged  to  quit  Thebes,  he  was  accom- 
panied by  Antigone,  who  remained  with  him  till  he  died 
at  Colonus,  and  then  returned  to  Thebes.  After  her 
two  brothers  had  killed  each  other  in  battle,  and  Creon, 
the  King  of  Thebes,  would  not  allow  Polynices  to  be  buried, 
Antigone  buried  him  by  night,  against  the  orders  of 
Creon,  for  which  offense  he  ordered  her  to  be  buried  alive. 
She,  however,  killed  herself  on  hearing  of  the  sentence. 
The  death  of  Antigone  is  the  subject  of  a  tragedy  written 
by  Sophocles.     (See  Eteocles.) 

Aph'rodite.  One  of  the  names  under  which  Venus 
was  worshiped.  She  was  said  to  be  the  daughter  of 
Zeus,  but  later  poets  frequently  relate  that  she  was 
sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea,  whence  they  derive  her 
name. 

A'pis.  One  of  the  Egyptian  gods  worshiped  under 
the  form  of  an  ox. 

Apol'lo.  According  to  both  Greeks  and  Romans, 
Apollo  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  born  on  the 
island  Delos.  He  was  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  sciences 
and  the  arts,  especially  poetry,  music,  and  medicine. 
They  ascribed  to  him  the  greatest  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow,  which  he  proved  in  killing  the  serpent 
Pytho,  the  sons  of  Niobe,  and  the  Cyclops.  The  last 
achievement  incensed  Jupiter,  and  he  was  banished  from 
Olympus.  During  his  exile  Apollo  abode  as  a  shepherd 
with  Admetus,  King  of  Thessaly.  All  sudden  deaths 
were  believed  to  be  the  effect  of  his  arrows;  and  with 
them  he  sent  the  plague  into  the  camp  of  the  Greeks 
before  Troy.  As  he  had  the  power  of  punishing  men, 
so  he  was  also  able  to  deliver  men,  if  duly  propitiated. 
From  his  being  the  god  who  afforded  help,  he  is  the 
father  of  .(Esculapius,  the  god  of  the  healing.  As  a  god 
of  inspiration  and  prophecy  he  gave  oracles  and  com- 
municated this  gift  to  other  gods  and  to  men.  The  stories 
of  Apollo  in  Greek  mythology  are  much  the  same  as  the 
stories  concerning  Crishna  in  Hindoo  mythology. 

Arach'ne.  A  Mseonian  maid,  named  Arachne,  proud 
of  her  skill  in  weaving  and  embroidery,  in  which  arts 


the  goddess  of  wisdom  had  instructed  her,  ventured  to 
deny  her  obligation,  and  challenged  her  patroness  to  a 
trial  of  skill.  Minerva  accepted  the  challenge  and  they 
met  to  try  their  skill.  Arachne  produced  a  piece  of  clotn 
in  which  the  amours  of  the  gods  were  woven,  and  as  the 
goddess  could  find  no  fault  with  it,  she  tore  the  work  to 
pieces.  Arachne,  in  despair,  hung  herself.  Athena 
loosened  the  rope  and  saved  her  life,  but  the  rope  was 
changed  into  a  cobweb,  and  Arachne  herself  into  a  spider. 

Ares.  The  Greek  god  of  war,  known  as  Mars  by 
the  Romans. 

Arethu'sa.  A  wood  nymph  of  Elis,  in  Greece,  who, 
pursued  by  the  River  Alpheus,  was  changed  into  a 
fountain  and  ran  under  the  sea.  The  waters  of  the 
fountain,  mingled  with  the  river,  rose  again  in  the  foun- 
tain of  Arethusa  in  the  island  of  Ortygia,  near  Syra- 
cuse. According  to  another  version  of  the  same  legend, 
it  was  Diana  herself,  and  not  the  nymph  Arethusa, 
whom  the  ri\^er-god  of  the  Alpheus  pursued;  and  when 
this  pursuit  ended  in  the  island  of  Ortygia,  then  arose 
the  fountain  Arethusa. 

Ar'gonauts.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  enterprises 
of  the  heroic  ages,  one  which  forms  a  memorable  epoch 
in  Grecian  history,  a  sort  of  separation-point  between 
the  fabulous  and  the  authentic,  was  the  Argonautic 
expedition.  This  was  a  voyage  from  Greece  to  Colchis 
in  order  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece,  conducted  by  Jason, 
the  son  of  ^son,  King  of  Thessaly.  The  undertaking 
was  imposed  upon  him  by  his  uncle  Pelias.  He  in- 
vited the  most  illustrious  heros  of  Greece  to  unite  in  the 
expedition,  and  among  those  who  joined  him  were  Her- 
cules, Castor  and  Pollux,  Peleus,  Pirithous,  and  The- 
seus. The  vessel  built  for  the  purpose  was  named  Argos, 
which  after  various  adverse  events  arrived  at  iEa,  the 
capital  of  Colchis. 

Ar'gos.  A  fifty-oared  ship  in  which  Jason  and  his 
companions  made  their  voyage  to  Colchis  in  search  of 
the  golden  fleece.  This  ship  was  built  of  pines  cut  from 
Mount  Pelion,  which,  although  larger  than  any  other 
previously  constructed,  moved  lightly  and  easily,  and 
was  therefore  called  the  Argos  (swift-sailing).  From  her 
name,  those  who  embarked  in  her  were  called  Argonauts. 
The  mast  of  the  Argos  was  taken  from  the  forest  of 
Dodona,  where  the  oaks  were  endowed  with  the  power 
of  making  predictions;  therefore,  the  ship  was  regarded 
as  an  animated  being,  in  accord  v/ith  Fate,  to  which  a 
man  might  commit  himself  with  confidence. 

Ar'gus.  A  fabulous  being  of  enormous  strength, 
who  had  a  hundred  eyes,  of  which  only  two  were  asleep 
at  once,  whence  he  was  named  Panoptes,  or  the  All-seeing. 

Arl'adne.  Daughter  of  Minos,  second  king  of  Crete, 
and  Pasiphae,  fell  in  love  with  Theseus,  who  was  shut  up 
in  the  labyrinth  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur.  She 
gave  Theseus  a  clew  of  thread  by  which  he  extricated 
himself  from  the  windings  of  the  labyrinth. 

Ar'lon.  A  Greek  bard,  who  having  thrown  himself 
into  the  sea  to  escape  from  pirates,  was  taken  up  by 
dolphins,  and  carried  on  their  backs  safe  to  land. 

Ar'temis.  Artemis,  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Leto, 
or  Latona,  and  twin  sister  of  Apollo,  was  the  goddess  of 
chastity,  of  the  chase  and  the  woods. 

As'gard.  In  Scandinavian  mythology  Asgard  repre- 
sents the  city  of  the  gods,  situated  at  the  center  of  the 
universe,  and  accessible  only  by  the  bridge  Bifrost,  i.  e., 
the  rainbow. 

A' sir.  In  Northern  mythology  the  most  powerful, 
though  not  the  oldest,  of  the  deities ;  usually  reckoned  as 
twelve  gods  and  twelve  goddesses.  The  gods  are  —  Odin, 
Thor,  Baldur,  Niord,  Frey,  Tyr,  Bragi,  Heimdall,  Vidar, 
Vali,  Ullur,  and  Forseti ;  the  best-known  of  the  goddesses 
—  Frigga,  Freyja,  Iduna,  and  Saga. 

Astar'te.  Noticed  in  the  Old  Testament  under  the 
name  Ashteroth,  an  ancient  Syrian  deity,  who  was 
adored  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon;  hence  Jeremiah 
calls  her  "  the  queen  of  heaven."  Solomon  built  her  a 
temple  on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

Atalan'ta.  A  maid  of  Arcadia  who  was  forsaken  by  her 
parents  and  reared  in  the  hills.  Found  by  some  hunters 
she  afterward  joined  in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  at  the 
funeral  games  of  Pelias,  she  won  the  prize  in  wrestling. 

Atlan'tis.  A  mythical  island  in  the  west,  mentioned 
by  Plato,  Pliny  and  other  ancient  writers,  and  said  to 
have  sunk  beneath  the  ocean. 

At'las.  One  of  the  Titans,  son  of  lapetus  and  Cly- 
mene.  Being  conquered  by  Jupiter,  he  was  condemned 
to  the  labor  of  bearing  on  his  head  and  hands  the  heaven 
he  had  attempted  to  destroy. 

At'ropos.  One  of  the  three  Parcse,  or  Fates;  the 
one  that  cut  the  thread  of  life.  As  wife  of  Pluto,  and 
queen  of  hell,  Proserpine  presided  over  the  death  of 
mankind;  and  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  ancients, 
no  one  could  die  if  the  goddess  herself,  or  Atropos,  the 
minister,  did  not  cut  ofif  one  of  the  hairs  from  the  head. 


326 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Auge'an  Stables.  The  stables  of  Augeas,  King  of 
Elis,  in  Greece.  In  these  stables  he  had  kept  3,000 
oxen,  and  the  stalls  had  not  been  cleansed  for  thirty 
years.  When  Hercules  was  appointed  to  cleanse  these 
stables,  he  caused  two  rivers  to  run  through  them. 

Augurs.  Men  whose  principal  business  was  to  observe 
the  flight  and  cry  of  birds  from  which  they  predicted 
future  events.  They  also  explained  other  omens  and 
signs. 

Au'rae,  Sylphs,  Nymphs  of  the  air,  a  species  of 
sportive,  hajjpy  beings,  and  well-wishers  to  mankind. 
They  were  winged  and  represented  as  flying. 

Auro'ra.  The  goddess  of  the  morning,  or  of  the 
dawn.  She  is  sometimes  described  as  the  goddess  of 
day.  She  is  represented  as  standing  in  a  magnificent 
chariot,  which  is  sometimes  drawn  by  winged  steeds. 
A  brilliant  star  sparkles  upon  her  forehead ;  while  with 
one  hand  she  grasps  the  reins,  she  holds  in  the  other  a 
lighted  torch. 

Av'atar.  The  incarnation  or  descent  of  the  deity 
Vishnu,  of  which  nine  are  believed  to  be  past.  The 
tenth  is  yet  to  come  when  Vishnu  will  descend  from 
heaven  on  a  white-winged  horse,  and  will  introduce  on 
earth  a  golden  age  of  virtue  and  peace. 

Aver'nus.  Properly,  a  small,  deep  lake  in  Campania, 
occupying  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  almost 
completely  shut  in  by  steep  and  wooded  heights.  The 
entrance  to  the  infernal  regions,  called  Avernus,  is 
described  as  having  around  it  a  host  of  dreadful  forms: 
Disease,  Old  Age,  Terror,  Hunger,  Death,  War,  Discord, 
and  the  Furies,  the  avengers  of  guilt. 

Aza'zel.  According  to  Ewald,  a  demon  belonging 
to  the  pre-Mosaic  religion.  Another  opinion  identifies 
him  with  Satan,  or  the  devil.  Milton  makes  him  Satan's 
standard  bearer. 

Az'rael.  In  the  Jewish  and  the  Mohammedan  my- 
thology, the  name  of  an  angel  who  watches  over  the 
dying,  and  separates  the  soul  from  the  body.  It  means 
in  Hebrew  "help  of  God." 

Ba'al.  In  Hindu  mythology,  god  of  the  sun.  He 
was  worshiped  by  the  Phenicians. 

Bac'chus.     The  god  of  wine. 

Baim'wawa.  In  American  Indian  folk-lore,  the 
sound  of  thunder. 

Bal'der.  The  god  of  peace,  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga. 
He  was  killed  by  the  blind  war-god,  but  was  restored  to 
life  at  the  general  request  of  the  gods. 

Ba'lios.  A  famous  horse  given  by  Neptune  to  Peleus 
as  a  wedding  present,  and  afterwards  given  to  Achilles. 

Bal'mung.  In  Norse  mythology,  the  sword  of  Sieg- 
fried forged  by  Vulcan. 

Ban'shee.  The  domestic  spirit  of  certain  Irish  or 
Scottish  families.  It  was  supposed  to  wail  at  the  death 
of  one  of  the  family.  The  Banshee  is  allowed  only  to 
families  of  pure  stock. 

Bar'guest.  A  frightful  goblin  among  fairies.  It  was 
armed  with  teeth  and  claws,  and  was  an  object  of  terror 
in  the  north  of  England. 

Bay-tree.  The  tree  of  Apollo,  hence  a  shield  against 
lightning.  A  wreath  of  bay-leaves  was  worn  as  pro- 
tection during  thunder-storms.  The  withering  of  a 
bay-tree  was  dreaded  as  an  omen  of  death. 

Beel'zebub.  A  heathen  god  of  evil  at  the  head  of 
nine  ranks  of  demons  and  second  only  to  Satan.  He 
was  also  the  god  of  flies. 

Befa'na.  The  fairy  of  Italian  children,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  fill  their  stockings  with  toys  on  Twelfth  Night. 

Beller'ophon.  A  prince  who  rode  the  winged  horse, 
Pegasus,  controlling  him  with  a  golden  bridle,  the  gift 
of  Minerva.  By  aid  of  Pegasus,  he  killed  the  lion- 
headed  monster,  the  Chimsera. 

Bello'na.  Goddess  of  war.  She  prepared  the  char- 
iot of  Mars  when  he  was  going  to  war,  and  appeared  in 
battles  armed  with  a  whip  and  holding  a  torch. 

Bel'phegor.  A  god  of  evil,  worshiped  by  the 
Moabites.  He  was  an  archfiend  who  had  been  an  arch- 
angel. 

Be'lus.     The  Chaldean  name  of  the  sun. 

Bereni'ce.  Princess  who  vowed  to  sacrifice  her  hair 
to  the  gods,  if  her  husband  returned  in  safety.  She 
suspended  her  hair  in  the  temple  of  the  war-god,  but 
the  winds  wafted  it  to  heaven,  where  it  still  forms  the 
seven  stars  near  the  constellation  Leo. 

Bei^  Folk.  Pagan  spirits  doomed  to  live  on  the 
Scandinavian  hills  till  the  day  of  redemption. 

Ber'tha.  The  white  lady  who  guards  good  German 
children,  but  is  the  terror  of  the  bad,  who  fear  her  iron 
nose  and  big  feet.     She  corresponds  to  the  Italian  Befana. 

Bheem.  One  of  the  five  brotherhoods  of  Indian 
demi-gods,  famous  for  his  strength. 

Bi'frost.  In  Norse  mythology,  a  bridge  between 
earth  and  heaven,  over  which  none  but  the  gods  could 
travel.     It  leads  to  the  palace  of  the  Fates. 


Bil'skirnir.  A  wonderful  palace  built  by  Thor  for 
the  use  of  peasants  after  death. 

Bladud.  A  mythical  king  of  England,  who  built 
the  city  of  Bath,  and  dedicated  the  medicinal  springs 
to  Minerva. 

Bo'reas.  The  name  of  the  north  wind  blowing  from 
the  Hyperborean  mountains.  He  was  son  of  Astraeus 
and  Aurora. 

Bra'gi.  The  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga  and  the  god'  of 
poetry  and  eloquence.  He  is  represented  as  an  old  man 
with  flowing  white  beard. 

Brah'ma.  The  supreme  god  of  the  Hindus,  repre- 
sented with  four  heads  and  four  arms.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  creator  of  the  universe,  and  forms,  with  Vishnu, 
the  preserver,  and  Siva,  the  destroyer,  the  divine  triad. 

Brlareus.  A  giant  with  fifty  heads  and  a  hundred 
hands.  He  hurled  a  hundred  rocks  at  Jupiter  in  a 
single  throw  and  Jupiter  bound  him  under  Mount  ^Etna 
with  a  hundred  chains. 

Bubas'tis.  Name  applied  to  the  cat  as  worshiped 
among  Egyptian  gods. 

Bukada'win.  The  god  of  famine  among  American 
Indians. 

Caa'ba.  Shrine  of  Mecca,  said  by  the  Arabs  to  have 
been  built  by  Ishmael,  assisted  by  his  father  Abraham. 

Caco'dae'moii.  An  evil  spirit  consulted  by  the 
Greeks. 

Ca'cus.  _  A  famous  robber,  son  of  Vulcan  and  Me- 
dusa.    He  is  represented  as  a  three-headed  monster. 

Cad'mus.  The  hero  who,  having  slain  the  dragon 
which  guarded  the  fountain  of  Dirce,  in  Bceotia,  sowed 
the  teeth  of  the  monster.  Then  a  number  of  armed 
rnen  sprang  up  and  surrounded  Cadmus  with  intent  to 
kill  him.  By  the  counsel  of  Minerva,  he  threw  a  precious 
stone  among  the  armed  men,  who,  striving  for  it,  killed 
one  another.  According  to  tradition,  Cadmus  intro- 
duced the  use  of  letters  into  Greece  —  the  alphabet,  as 
introduced  by  him,  consisting  of  sixteen  letters. 

Cadu'ceus.  A  white  wand  carried  by  Roman  officers 
when  they  went  to  treat  for  peace.  It  had  two  winged 
serpents  entwined  round  the  top. 

Cal'chas.  The  son  of  Thestor.  He  was  the  wisest 
of  the  soothsayers  among  the  Greeks  at  Troy.  He  died 
from  grief  on  meeting  with  a  soothsayer  who  proved 
wiser  than  he. 

Calli'opc.  The  Muse  who  presided  over  epic  poetry 
and  rhetoric.  She  is  generally  depicted  using  a  stylus 
and  wax  tablets,  the  ancient  writing  materials. 

Callis'to.  A  nymph  of  Arcadia,  the  mother  of 
Areas,  who  was  changed  into  a  bear  and  placed  in  the 
heavens  as  a  constellation. 

Cal'pe.  One  of  the  two  pillars  of  Hercules.  The 
other  was  named  Abyla.  These  two  were  originally 
only  one  mountain,  which  Hercules  tore  asunder;  he 
then  poured  the  sea  between  them. 

Calyp'so.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Atlas.  When 
Ulysses  was  shipwrecked  on  her  coasts  she  received  him 
with  hospitality,  and  offered  him  immortality  if  he 
would  remain  with  her,  which  he  refused  to  do.  After 
seven  years'  delay  he  was  permitted  to  depart  from 
the  island. 

Cama.  The  god  of  love  and  marriage  in  Indian 
mythology. 

Cani'deo.     The  Hindu  god  of  love. 

Came'nae.  Nymphs  who  prophesied.  Roman  poets 
sometimes  gave  the  name  to  the  Muses. 

Camiria.  Virgin  queen  of  the  Volscians.  She  was 
so  swift  that  she  could  run  over  a  field  of  corn  without 
bending  a  blade,  or  make  her  way  over  the  sea  without 
wetting  her  feet. 

Cano'pus.  The  Egyptian  god  of  water.  The  Chal- 
deans worshiped  fire,  and  sent  all  the  other  gods  a 
challenge,  which  was  accepted  by  a  priest  of  Cano'pus. 
The  Chaldeans  lighted  a  vast  fire.  Then  the  Egyptian 
deity  spouted  out  torrents  of  water  and  quenched  it. 

Cassan'dra.  Daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  She 
was  passionately  loved  by  Apollo. 

Cassiope'ia.  The  chief  stars  of  this  constellation 
form  the  outline  of  a  chair.  Cassiopeia  boasted  that 
the  beauty  of  her  daughter  Andromeda  surpassed  that 
of  the  sea-nymphs.  The  sea-nymphs  complained  to  the 
sea-god  of  this  affront,  and  Andromeda  was  chained  to 
a  rock  to  be  devoured  by  sea-monsters.  Perseus  deliv- 
ered her  and  made  her  his  wife.  The  mother  was  taken 
to  heaven  and  placed  among  the  stars. 

Cas'taly.  A  fountain  on  Mount  Parnassus.  Whoever 
drank  of  its  waters  was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  poetry. 

Castor  and  Pollux.  Brothers,  sons  of  Leda.  Mer- 
cury carried  them  to  Pallena,  where  they  were  educated. 
As  soon  as  they  arrived  at  manhood  they  embarked 
with  Jason  in  quest  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  Pollux 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter,  and  Castor  of  Tyndarus.     Hence 


I 


LITERATURE 


327 


Pollux  was  immortal,  while  Castor  was  subject  to  old 
age  and  death,  like  other  men. 

Caii'ther.  In  Mohammedan  mythology,  the  lake  of 
paradise,  whose  waters  are  as  sweet  as  honey,  as  cold  as 
snow,  and  as  clear  as  crystal;  and  any  believer  who 
tastes  thereof  is  said  to  thirst  no  more. 

Ce'crops.  In  mythology  is  represented  with  upper 
part  of  his  body  human,  the  lower  part  that  of  a  dragon. 
Cecrops  is  said  to  have  founded  Athens,  and  to  have 
divided  Attica  into  twelve  communities,  and  to  have 
introduced  the  first  elements  ok  civilized  life;  he  insti- 
tuted marriage,  abolished  bloody  sacrifices,  and  taught 
his  subjects  how  to  worship  the  gods. 

Cen'taurs.  Monsters,  half  horse,  half  human.  They 
are  especially  celebrated  for  their  contest  with  the  giants 
in  the  mountains  of  Thessaly. 

Cer'berus.  The  three-headed  dog  that  keeps  the 
entrance  of  the  infernal  regions.  He  prevents  the  liv- 
ing from  entering  and  the  shades  from  escaping.  Or- 
pheus lulled  Cerberus  to  sleep  with  his  lyre;  and  the 
Sibyl  who  conducted  ^neas  through  the  Inferno,  also 
threw  the  dog  into  a  sleep  with  cake  seasoned  with 
poppies. 

Ce'res.  The  daughter  of  Saturn,  sister  of  Jupiter 
and  Neptune.  She  was  the  goddess  of  corn,  flowers, 
and  harvest.  She  is  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  dragons  and  crowned  with  poppies.  She  was 
the  mother  of  Proserpine,  who  was  seized  by  Pluto 
while  she  was  gathering  flowers.  Ceres  was  the  Roman 
name  for  mother-earth. 

Cha'os.  The  vacant  space  which  existed  before  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  out  of  which  the  gods,  men, 
and  all  things  arose.  Chaos  was  called  the  mother  of 
Erebus  and  Night. 

Cha'ron.  A  god  of  the  infernal  regions,  son  of  Nox 
and  Erebus,  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the  dead  in  a 
boat  over  the  rivers  Styx  and  Acheron. 

Charyb'dis.  A  woman  who  robbed  travelers  and 
was  turned  by  Jupiter  into  a  dangerous  gulf  on  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  Scylla.  Scylla  and  Charybdis 
are  generally  mentioned  together  to  represent  alterna- 
tive dangers. 

Che'mos.     The  god  of  war  among  the  Moabites. 

Chibia'bos.  A  musician,  ruler  in  the  land  of  spirits, 
and  friend  of  Hiawatha.  Personification  of  harmony 
in  nature. 

Chimae'ra.  A  celebrated  monster  goat,  lion,  and 
dragon,  which  continually  vomited  flames.  It  was 
destroyed  by  Bellerophon. 

Chl'ron.  A  centaur,  son  of  Philyra  and  Saturn.  He 
was  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  medicine,  and  taught 
mankind  the  use  of  plants  and  herbs.  He  was  placed 
among  the  stars  and  is  known  as  Saggitarius. 

Chlo'rls.  The  goddess  of  flowers,  known  as  Flora 
in  Greek  mythology. 

Chou.  An  Egyptian  god  corresponding  to  the  Roman 
Hercules. 

Clmme'rians.  People  living  in  a  land  of  perpetual 
darkness. 

Cir'ce.  A  sorceress.  Daughter  of  Sol  and  Perseis, 
celebrated  for  her  knowledge  of  magic  and  venomous 
herbs.  Ulysses,  on  his  return  from  the  Trojan  war, 
visited  her  coasts,  and  his  companions  were  changed  by 
her  potions  into  swine. 

Clio.     The  muse  who  presided  over  history. 

Clo'tho.  The  youngest  of  the  three  daughters  of 
Jupiter  and  Themis,  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the 
moment  of  birth.  She  helcl  the  distaff  and  spun  the 
thread  of  life. 

Clu'ricaune.  An  Irish  elf,  who  guards  a  hidden 
treasure.  He  has  an  evil  disposition  and  appears  as  a 
wrinkled  old  man. 

Clyt'emnestra.  A  daughter  of  King  of  Sparta; 
married  Agamemnon. 

Clyt'ie.  A  water-nymph  who  loved  the  sun-god, 
Apollo,  and  was  changed  into  a  sunflower.  In  this 
form,  she  turns  always  toward  the  sun. 

Cocy'tus.  A  river  of  the  infernal  regions.  The  un- 
buried  dead  wander  on  its  banks  for  100  years,  and  it 
is  known  as  the  river  of  lamentation. 

Col'chis  or  Colchos.  A  country  of  Asia  famous  for 
the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  and  the  birthplace  of 
Medea. 

Colli'na.     The  goddess  of  the  hills. 

Co'mus.     The  god  of  revelry,  presiding  over  feasts. 

Concor'dia.  The  goddess  of  peace  and  concord,  one 
of  the  oldest  at  Rome.  She  is  represented  holding  a 
sceptre  budding  with  fruit,  and  a  horn  of  plenty.  Camil- 
lus  raised  a  temple  to  this  goddess,  in  the  capitol. 

Consen'tes  Dii.  The  twelve  Etruscan  gods  who 
formed  the  council  of  Jupiter,  consisting  of  six  male 
and  six  female  divinities.  Juno,  Minerva,  Vulcan,  Sat- 
urn, and  Mars  were  among  them. 


Con'sus.  The  god  of  counsel,  a  name  given  to  Nep- 
tune. 

Co'ra.     The  goddess  of  vegetation. 

Coro'nis.  A  king's  daughter  who  was  transformed 
into  a  crow  by  Minerva  when  asking  for  protection 
from  Neptune.  Another  Coronis  was  the  consort  of 
Apollo. 

Cor'ybantes.  Priests  who  served  at  the  worship  of 
the  mother  of  the  gods.  The  name  came  from  their 
habit  of  striking  themselves  in  their  religious  dances. 

Cress'lda.  Daughter  of  Calchas,  the  Greek,  beloved 
by  Troilus,  son  of  Priam.  They  vowed  eternal  fidelity, 
and  as  pledges  Troilus  gave  the  maiden  a  sleeve,  and 
Cressida  gave  the  Trojan  prince  a  glove. 

Creu'sa.  Daughter  of  Priam  and  wife  of  .(Eneas. 
She  was  lost  in  the  city  of  Troy  when  her  husband 
escaped  from  its  flames.  v 

Cro'nos.  The  youngest  of  the  Titans.  Cronos  also 
known  as  the  father  of  Jupiter. 

Cu'pld.  God  of  love,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Venus,  is 
represented  as  a  winged  boy,  naked,  armed  with  a  bow 
and  arrows,  and  often  with  a  bandage  covering  his 
eyes.  He  shot  his  arrows  into  the  hearts  of  both 
gods  and  men.  Like  all  the  gods,  he  put  on  different 
forms  to  suit  his  plans.  He  became  the  husband  of 
Psyche. 

Cyb'ele.  A  goddess,  daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra, 
and  wife  of  Saturn.  She  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
Ceres,  Vesta,  etc.  On  her  birth  she  was  exposed  on  a 
mountain,  where  she  was  tended  and  fed  by  wild  beasts, 
receiving  the  name  of  Cybele  from  the  mountain.  She 
is  represented  on  a  throne  with  lions  at  her  side. 

Cy'clops.  One-eyed  giants  who  forged  the  thunder- 
bolts of  Jove.  Homer  describes  them  as  wild,  insolent, 
lawless  shepherds,  who  devoured  human  beings.  A 
later  tradition  represents  them  as  Vulcan's  assistants. 

Cyp'arls'sus.  A  beautiful  youth,  beloved  by  Apollo, 
whose  favorite  stag  he  inadvertently  killed,  and  who  was 
metamorphosed  into  a  cypress  because  of  his  grief. 

Cyre'ne.  A  water-nymph,  the  mother  of  Aristaeus. 
Her  residence  and  the  visit  of  her  son  are  described  in 
the  fourth  book  of  Virgil's  "Georgics." 

Dsed'alus.  A  great  architect  and  sculptor.  He  in- 
vented the  wedge,  the  axe,  the  level,  and  the  gimlet, 
and  was  the  first  to  use  sails.  He  made  himself  wings 
with  feathers  and  wax,  and  fitted  them  to  his  body 
and  to  his  son  Icarus.  They  sailed  in  the  air,  but  the 
heat  of  the  sun  melted  the  wax  on  the  wings  of  Icarus, 
and  he  fell  into  the  ocean,  which  after  him  has  been 
called  the  Icarian  Sea. 

Dag.  In  mythology  of  the  North  this  name  is  given 
to  the  "radiant  son  of  night."  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  last  of  a  treacherous  race,  the  Hundings. 

Da'gon.  A  Syrian  divinity,  who,  according  to  the 
Bible,  had  richly  adorned  temples  in  several  of  the  Philis- 
tine cities.  He  was  a  national  god  of  the  Philistines, 
formed  in  human  shape  upwards  from  the  waist,  and 
resembling  a  fish  downwards,  with  a  finny  tail. 

Da'gun.  In  Indian  mythology  a  god  who  recon- 
structed the  world  when  it  had  been  destroyed  after 
creation. 

Da'hak.  In  mythology  of  Persia  the  ages  of  the 
world  are  divided  into  periods  of  1,000  years.  When  the 
cycle  is  complete,  the  reign  of  Ormuzd  will  begin,  and 
men  will  be  good  and  happy;  but  this  event  will  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  loosing  of  Dahak,  who  will  break  his  chain 
and  fall  upon  the  world,  and  bring  on  man  the  miost 
dreadful  calamities. 

Dai'koku.  A  mythical  god  invoked  by  Japanese 
workers.  He  is  represented  as  holding  a  full  sack  which 
he  beats  to  bring  from  it  all  useful  articles,  and  the  sack 
never  becomes  empty. 

Dal'tyas.  Among  Hindu  gods  these  are  powerful  to 
work  evil. 

Dan'se.  The  daughter  of  Ancrisuis,  King  of  Argos, 
who  became  the  mother  of  Perseus.  An  Italian  legend 
related  that  Danae  came  to  Italy,  built  the  town 
of  Ardea,  and  married  Pilumnus,  by  whom  she  became 
the  mother  of  Daunus,  the  ancestor  of  Turnus. 

Dana'ides.  The  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus,  King  of 
Argos,  who  married  the  fifty  sons  of  their  uncle,  .iEgyp- 

tU3. 

Daph'ne.  The  goddess  of  the  earth.  Apollo  courted 
her,  but  she  fled  from  him,  and  was,  at  her  own  request, 
turned  into  a  laurel  tree. 

Daph'nis.  A  Sicilian  shepherd,  son  of  Hermes  (Mer- 
cury), by  a  nymph,  was  taught  by  Pan  to  play  on  the 
flute,  and  was  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  bucolic  poetry. 
A  Naiad  to  whom  he  proved  faithless  punished  him  with 
blindness,  whereupon  his  father,  Hermes,  translated  him 
to  heaven. 

Deiph'obus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  After 
the  death  of  Paris,  he  married  Helen,  but  was  betrayed 


328 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


by  her  to  the  Greeks.  N  ext  to  Hector,  he  was  the  bravest 
among  the  Trojans.  On  the  capture  of  Troy  by  the 
Greeks  he  was  slain  and  fearfully  mangled  by  Menelaus. 

De'llus.  A  name  of  Apollo,  from  the  island  in  which 
he  was  born.  The  name  Delia  has  been  traced  to  this 
origin. 

Del'phl.  A  town  on  Mount  Parnassus,  famous  for  its 
oracle,  and  for  a  temple  of  Apollo. 

Del'phos.  The  place  where  the  temple  was  built 
from  which  the  oracle  of  Apollo  wad  given. 

Denie'ter.  The  mother  of  Persephone,  who  was 
evidently  a  goddess  of  the  earth,  whom  some  ancient 
system  married  to  Zeus,  the  god  of  the  heavens. 

De'mogor'gon.  The  tyrant  genius  of  the  soil  or 
earth,  the  life  and  support  of  plants.  He  was  depicted 
as  an  old  man  covered  with  moss,  and  was  said  to  live 
underground. 

Deo.     A  name  sometimes  applied  to  Ceres. 

Derce'tls.  A  Syrian  goddess  who  corresponds  to 
Dagon  of  the  Philistines. 

Dian'a.  An  ancient  Italian  divinity,  whom  the  Ro- 
mans identified  with  the  Greek  Artemis.  Her  worship 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced  at  Rome  by  Servius 
TuUius,  who  dedicated  a  temple  to  her  on  the  Aventine. 
At  Rome  Diana  was  the  goddess  of  light.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  was  born  of  Latona,  or  Leto, 
on  the  island  Delos,  at  the  same  time  with  Apollo.  As  in 
Apollo  the  sun  was  deified  and  adored;  so  was  the  moon 
in  Diana. 

Dlctyn'na.  A  Greek  name  of  Diana.  The  name  is 
connected  with  a  Greek  word  meaning  hunting-net,  and 
refers  to  Diana  as  himtress. 

Di'do.  She  was  daughter  of  the  Tyrian  King  Belus, 
and  sister  of  Pygmalion,  who  succeeded  to  the  crown 
after  the  death  of  his  father.  Dido  was  married  to  her 
wealthy  uncle  Acerbas,  who  was  murdered  by  Pyg- 
malion. Dido  had  vowed  eternal  fidelity  to  her  late 
husband,  and  under  pretense  of  soothing  the  manes  of 
Acerbas  by  sacrifices,  she  erected  a  funeral  pile,  on  which 
she  stabbed  herself  in  presence  of  her  people.  After  her 
death  she  was  worshiped  by  the  Carthaginians  as  a  divinity. 

Dike.  One  of  the  three  guardians  of  life  appointed 
by  Themis,  whose  names  are  Eunomia  (order).  Dike 
(punishment),  Irene  (peace).  Their  office  was  to  pro- 
mote unanimity  by  the  exercise  of  equity  and  justice. 
They  likewise  stand  around  the  throne  of  Zeus,  and  their 
regular  occupation  is  to  open  and  shut  the  gates  of 
heaven,  and   yoke  the  steeds  to  the  chariot  of  the  Sun. 

Dind'ymus.  A  mountain  in  Phrygia,  on  the  frontiers 
of  Galatia,  near  the  town  Pessinus,  sacred  to  Cybele, 
the  mother  of  the  gods,  who  is  hence  called  Dindymene. 

Di'omed.  A  Greek  hero  of  the  Trojan  War,  was  a 
son  of  Tydeus,  and  became  King  of  Argos.  He  was  a 
favorite  of  Minerva,  who,  according  to  Homer,  encour- 
aged him  to  attack  and  wound  both  Mars  and  -Venus, 
who  were  engaged  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans. 

Dlome'des.  The  cruel  tyrant  of  Thrace,  who  fed  his 
mares  on  the  flesh  of  his  guesti,  was  overcome  b3'  Hercules, 
and  was  given  to  the  same  horses  as  food. 

Dio'ne.  The  youngest  of  the  Titan  sisters  and  re- 
puted mother  of  Venus.  The  name  has  also  been  poeti- 
cally applied  to  Venus,  herself. 

DIony'sus.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  the  daughter 
of  Cadmus.  He  was  the  god  of  wine,  and  is  generally 
represented  crowned  with  vine  leaves. 

Dl'rae.     The  avenging  goddesses  of  Furies. 

Dis.  Contracted  from  Dives,  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  Pluto,  and  hence  also  to  the  lower  world. 

Disco r'dla.  A  malevolent  deity  corresponding  with 
the  Greek  "Eris,"  the  goddess  of  contention.  She  was 
driven  from  Heaven  by  Jupiter  because  she  sowed  dis- 
sensions among  the  gods.  At  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and 
Thetis  she  threw  an  apple  among  the  gods,  which  was 
the  primary  cause  of  the  ruin  of  Troy,  and  of  infinite 
misfortunes  to  the  Greeks. 

Dives.  Demons  of  Persian  mythology.  According 
to  the  Koran,  they  are  ferocious  and  gigantic  spirits 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Eblis. 

Dodo'na.  The  most  ancient  oracle  was  that  of  Jupi- 
ter at  Dodona,  a  city  of  the  Molossi,  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Deucalion. 

Do'nar,  A  name  given,  sometimes,  to  Thor,  the 
thunder-god,  in  Norse  mythology. 

Door'ga.     A  goddess  worshiped  among  the  Hindoos. 

Do'rls.  Daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Thetis,  wife  of  her 
brother  Nereus,  and  mother  of  the  Nereides. 

Dra'co.     One  of  the  hounds  of  Acteon. 

Draup'nlr.  The  marvelous  ring  belonging  to  Odin, 
with  which  he  worked  magic.  It  was  burned  on  the 
funeral  pyre  of  his  son  Balder. 

Dro'ma.  The  chain  forged  for  the  purpose  of  bind- 
ing the  Fenris  wolf,  but  which  he  broke.  Hence  the 
proverb,  ".to  dash  out  of  Droma." 


Dry'ads.  Wood  nymphs,  believed  to  be  sent  from 
heaven.  The  Dryads  were  distinguished  from  the 
Hamadryads  in  this,  that  the  latter  were  supposed  to  be 
attached  to  some  particular  tree,  with  which  they  came 
into  being,  lived  and  died;  while  the  former  had  the 
care  of  the  woods  and  trees  in  general. 

Duer'gar.  Dwarfs  who  dwell  in  rocks  and  hills; 
noted  for  their  strength,  subtilty,  magical  powers,  and 
skill  in  metallurgy.  They  are  the  personification  of  the 
subterranean  powers  of  nature. 

Dur'ga.  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  wife  of  Siva,  repre- 
sented as  having  ten  arms. 

E'acus.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Egina,  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  infernal  regions,  who  was  appointed  to  judge  the 
Europeans. 

Eb'lls.  Among  Mohammedans,  name  given  to  the 
prince  of  fallen  angels  who  refused  to  worship  the  man, 
Adam. 

Echno'bas.  One  of  Actoeon's  hounds,  whose  bark 
rose  above  all  other  sounds. 

Ech'o.  A  nymph  who  engaged  the  attention  of  Juno 
by  her  never-ceasing  talk,  allowing  Jupiter  his  freedom, 
mea^nwhile.  Juno  found  out  her  trick  and  accordingly 
punished  her.  Echo  loved  Narcissus;  as  her  love  was 
not  returned,  she  pined  away  until  nothing  remained 
but  her  beautiful  voice.  In  Northern  mythology,  Echo 
is  the  sound  of  the  dwarf's  talk. 

Eck'hardt.  In  German  legends,  Eckhardt  appears 
on  the  evening  of  Maundy  Thursday  to  warn  all  persons 
to  go  home,  that  they  may  not  be  injured  by  the  head- 
less bodies  and  two-legged  horses  which  traverse  the 
streets  on  that  night. 

Ee'tlon.     Wife  of  Hector  and  mother  of  Andromeche. 

Egeon.  A  giant  sea-god,  who  assisted  the  Titans 
against  Jupiter. 

Ege'rla.  A  nymph  from  whom  King  Numa  Pompilius 
was  fabled  to  have  received  his  instructions  respecting 
the  forms  of  public  worship  which  he  established  in 
Rome. 

E'gla.  One  of  the  nine  beautiful  giantesses  seen  by 
Odin  along  the  .sea  shore,  known  as  wave-maidens. 
Her  son  became  guardian  of  Bi-frost,  the  rainbow 
bridge. 

E'gil.  The  Vulcan  of  Northern  mythology,  one  of 
the  three  brothers  who  married  the  swan-maidens.  He 
was  a  great  archer  and  killed  his  brother,  Volund,  by 
command  of  the  king,  and  himself  later  became  a  peasant. 

Eglp'ans.  Rural  deities  who  inhabited  the  forests 
and  mountains,  the  upper  half  of  the  body  being  like 
that  of  a  man,  and  the  lower  half  like  that  of  a  goat. 

E'gls.  Part  of  the  armor  of  Jupiter  used  by  Minerva 
as  a  shield. 

El'ra.  An  attendant  of  the  goddess,  Frigga,  and  a 
skillful  nurse.  She  gathered  herbs  and  plants  for  the 
cure  of  both  sickness  and  wounds  and  taught  the  science 
to  women. 

El'atus.  A  prominent  warrior  among  the  mythical 
people  of  Thessaly  and  the  father  of  Caneus,  whom  Nep- 
tune changed  into  the  form  of  a  man. 

El'begast.  One  of  the  dwarfs  of  Scandinavian  myth- 
ology who  dwelt  in  a  magnificent  palace  under  ground, 
and  drew  their  servants  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth. 

El'ber-lch.  In  the  German  hero  legends  a  dwarf 
who  aided  the  Lombard  Emperor  Otnit  to  win  the 
daughter  of  the  Soldan  of  Syria.  He  is  identical  with 
the  Oberon  of  French  and  English  fairy  mythology. 

Elec'tra.  The  bright  or  brilliant  one.  A  daughter 
of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra,  and  the  sister  of 
Iphigenia.  She  became  the  accomplice  of  Orestes  in 
the  murder  of  their  mother. 

Elf.  The  water  •  sprite,  known  also  as  Elb,  from 
which  the  name  of  the  River  Elbe  is  said  to  be  derived. 
Elves  are  more  properly  known  as  mountain  fairies  or 
those  airy  creatures  that  dance  on  the  grass  or  sit  in 
the  leaves  of  trees  and  delight  in  the  full  moon. 

Ellva'gar,  In  Norse  mythology,  the  name  of  a 
great  stream  in  Chaos,  flowing  from  a  fountain  in  the 
land  of  mist.  This  stream  was  much  frequented  by 
the  elves  at  their  creation. 

Ely'slum.  The  Paradise  of  the  Greeks,  known  also 
as  the  Happyland.  Departed  mortals  were  adjudged  to 
Elysium  or  to  Tartarus  by  the  sentence  of  Minos  and 
his  fellow  judges  in  the  "Field  of  Truth."  Elysium  is 
described  as  adorned  with  beautiful  gardens,  meadows, 
and  groves;  where  birds  ever  warble;  where  the  River 
Eridanus  winds  between  banks  fringed  with  laurel,  and 
"divine  Lethe"  glides  in  a  quiet  valley;  where  the  air 
is  always  pure,  and  the  day  serene;  where  the  blessed 
have  their  delightful  abode. 

Em'bla.  An  elm  tree  found  in  human  form,  by  the 
gods,  according  to  Northern  mythology. 

Empyre'an.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to  ex- 
press the  highest  heaven,  where  the  blessed  enjoy  the 


LITERATURE 


329 


beatific  vision.  Its  name  is  derived  from  its  having 
been  supposed  to  be  the  region  of  fire. 

Encel'adus.  A  Titan,  son  of  Terra,  and  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  giants  who  conspired  against  .Jupiter, 
and  attempted  to  scale  heaven.  He  was  struck  by  Jupi- 
ter's thunderbolts,  and  chained  beneath  Mount  vEtna. 

Endym'ion,  in  Greek  mythology,  is  the  setting  sun 
with  which  the  moon  is  in  love.  One  of  the  many 
renderings  of  his  story  is  that  Endymion  was  a  beautiful 
youth  who  fed  his  flock  on  Mount  Latmos.  One  clear 
night,  Diana,  the  moon,  looked  down  and  saw  him 
sleeping.  The  cold  heart  of  the  goddess  was  warmed 
by  his  beauty,  and  she  came  down  to  him,  kissed  him, 
and  watched  over  him  while  he  slept.  Another  story 
was  that  Jupiter  bestowed  on  him  the  gift  of  perpetual 
youth  united  with  perpetual  sleep.  One  version  of  this 
myth  made  sleep  a  reward  for  piety,  while  another 
version  made  it  a  punishment  for  presuming  to  fall  in 
love  with  Hera. 

Enl'peus.  A  fabled  river  in  Thessaly.  Poseidon 
assumed  the  form  of  the  god  of  this  river  in  order  to 
obtain  possession  of  Tyro,  who  was  in  love  with  Enipeus. 
She  became  the  mother  of  Pelias  and  Neleus. 

En'yo.  One  of  the  gray-maidens  who  became  the 
goddess  of  war,  who  delights  in  bloodshed  and  the 
destruction  of  towns,  and  accompanies  Ares  in  battles. 

Eolu.s.  Known  in  Roman  mythology  as  the  god  of 
the  winds. 

Eos.     The  Roman  name  for  Aurora. 

Ep'aphus.  The  son  of  Zeus  and  lo,  born  on  the 
river  Nile,  after  the  long  wanderings  of  his  mother. 
He  became  king  of  Egypt,  and  built  Memphis. 

Ep'eus.     Noted  as  builder  of  the  Trojan  horse. 

Er'ebus.  A  name  applied  to  the  dark  and  gloomy 
space  under  the  earth  through  which  the  souls  of  the 
dead  were  obliged  to  pass  on  their  way  to  Hades.  The 
name  also  means  Tartarus,  the  prison  house  into  which 
Jupiter  cast  the  Titans,  the  adherents  of  his  father, 
Saturn. 

Erga'tls.  A  name  given  to  Minerva.  It  means  the 
work-woman,  and  was  given  to  the  goddess  because  she 
was  credited  with  having  invented  spinning  and  weaving. 

E'ris.  The  goddess  of  discord;  a  sister  of  Mars, 
and  a  daughter  of  Night;  the  same  as  the  Roman 
"Discordia." 

ErI-king.  Name  given  to  the  king  of  the  elves,  or 
a  spirit  of  the  air.  According  to  tradition,  its  home  is 
in  the  Black  Forest  of  Germany  and  it  appears  as  a 
goblin,  working  harm  and  ruin,  especially  among  children. 

E'ros.  The  Greek  name  of  the  deity  called  "Cupido," 
or  Cupid,  by  the  Romans.  He  is  said  to  have  come 
forth  from  the  egg  of  Night,  floated  on  Chaos,  and  to 
have  inherited  arrows  with  which  he  pierced  all  things, 
thereby  giving  new  life  and  a  torch  with  which  he  lighted 
the  world.      (See  Cupid.) 

■  Erythe'Ja.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Night  appointed 
to  guard  the  golden  apples  in  the  gardens  of  the  Hes- 
perides. 

Erythre'os.  The  Grecian  name  of  one  of  the  horses 
of  Sol's  chariot. 

E'thon.  One  of  the  horses  which  drew  the  chariot 
of  Sol,  the  sun.     The  word  is  Greek  and  signifies  hot. 

Eumae'us.  The  faithful  swine-herd  of  Ulysses, 
whom  Telemachus  consulted  upon  his  return  to  Minerva. 

Eumen'ides.  A  euphemistic  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  Furies,  whose  true  name  of  Erinnyes  they 
were  afraid  to  utter.  They  are  represented  as  the 
daughters  of  Earth  or  of  Night,  and  as  fearful  winged 
maidens,  with  serpents  twined  in  their  hair,  and  with 
blood  dripping  from  their  eyes.  They  dwplt  in  the 
depths  of  Tartarus,  dreaded  by  gods  and  men. 

Euphor'bus.  The  son  of  Panthous,  one  of  the 
bravest  of  the  Trojans,  slain  by  Menelaus,  who  dedi- 
cated his  shield  in  the  temple  of  Hera  (Juno),  near 
Mycenae.  Pythagoras  asserted  that  he  had  once  been 
Euphorbus,  and  in  proof  of  his  assertion  took  down  at 
first  sight  the  shield  from  the  temple  of  Hera. 

Euphros'yne,  One  of  the  three  Graces.  She  speci- 
ally represented  joy,  as  her  sisters  stood  for  splendor 
and  pleasure. 

Euro'pa.  Daughter  of  the  Phenician  King  Agenor, 
or,  according  to  the  Iliad,  daughter  of  Phceni.K. 

Euryd'ice.  The  wife  of  Orpheus,  who  died  from 
the  bite  of  a  serpent.  Orpheus,  disconsolate  at  her  loss, 
determined  to  descend  to  the  lower  world,  and  obtain 
permission  for  his  beloved  Eurydice  to  return  to  the 
regions  of  light.  Armed  only  with  his  lyre,  he  entered 
the  realms  of  Hades,  and  gained  an  easy  admittance  to 
the  palace  of  Pluto.  Orpheus  was  promised  she  should 
return  on  condition  that  he  looked  not  back  till  she 
had  reached  the  upper  world.  When  the  poet  got  to 
the  confines  of  his  journey,  he  turned  his  head  to  see  if 


Eurydice  were  following,  and  she  was  instantly  caught 
back  again  into  Hades. 

Euryl'ochus.  One  of  the  companions  of  Ulysses 
in  his  wanderings,  and  the  only  one  of  them  who  was 
not  changed  by  Circe  into  a  hog. 

Eurys'theus.  The  King  of  Argos  who  appointed 
the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules.  ' 

Eury'tos.  The  god  made  tutor  to  Hercules,  by  Mer- 
cury, who  taught  him  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrows. 

Evad'ne.  Wife  of  Capaneus,  and  mother  of  Sthen- 
elus.  Her  husband  having  been  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Thebes,  she  threw  herself  upon  the  funeral  pile,  and 
was  consumed  with  him. 

Excal'ibar.  (Written  also  Excalibur,  Excaliber.) 
The  name  of  King  Arthur's  sword.  When  about  to 
die,  he  sent  an  attendant  to  throw  the  weapon  into  a 
lake  near  by.  Twice  eluding  the  request,  the  knight 
at  last  complied.  A  hand  rose  from  the  water,  clutched 
the  sword,  and  after  waving  it  three  times  both  sank. 

Fada.  A  f^e  or  kobold  of  the  south  of  France,  some- 
tinies  called  "Hada."  These  house-spirits,  of  which, 
strictly  speaking,  there  are  but  three,  bring  good  luck 
in  their  right  hand  and  ill  luck  in  their  left. 

Faf'nir.  In  Northern  mythology  the  eldest  son  of 
the  dwarf  king,  Hreidmar.  'The  slaying  of  Fafnir  is  the 
destruction  of  the  demon  of  cold  or  darkness  who  had 
stolen  the  golden  light  of  the  sun. 

Fah'fah.  Name  given  to  one  of  the  rivers  of  Para- 
dise in  mythology  of  the  East. 

Fa'lds.     Name  sometimes  applied  to  Druids. 

Fane'sll.  A  mythical  Scandinavian  tribe  far  north, 
whose  ears  were  so  long  that  they  would  cover  their 
whole  body. 

Fates.  In  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  the  Fates 
are  identical  with  the  Parcae.  They  were  three  sisters, 
daughters  of  Night,  whom  Jupiter  permitted  to  decide 
the  fortune  and  especially  the  duration  of  mortal  hfe. 
One  of  them  "Clotho,"  attached  the  thread;  the  second, 
"Lachesis,"  spun  it;  and  the  third,  "Atropos,"  cut  it 
off,  when  the  end  of  life  arrived.  They  were  viewed  as 
inexorable,  and  ranked  among  the  inferior  divinities  of 
the  lower  world.  Their  worship  was  not  very  general. 
The  Parcae  were  generally  represented  as  three  old  wo- 
men, with  chaplets  made  of  wool  and  interwoven  with 
the  flowers  of  the  Narcissus,  wearing  long  robes,  and 
employed  in  their  works:  Clotho  with  a  distaff;  Lachesia 
having  near  her  sometimes  several  spindles;  and  Atropos 
holding  a  pair  of  scissors. 

Faunl.  Rural  deities  represented  as  having  the  legs, 
feet,  and  ears  of  goats,  and  the  rest  of  the  body  human. 
Name  of  Italian  origin. 

Fauns.  Among  the  Romans,  a  class  of  rural  deities 
corresponding  with  the  Greek  '  Pan."  They  were  the 
demi-gods  of  woods  and  forests,  and  hence  called  "syl- 
van deities,"  and  are  represented  with  horned  heads, 
sharp-pointed  ears,  and  with  their  bodies  below  the  waist 
resembling  those  of  goats.  Their  festival  was  celebrated 
at  Rome  on  the  6th  of  December. 

Fay.  A  diminutive  name  applied  to  a  fairy  or  an  ' 
elf. 

Fellc'itas.  A  symbolical,  moral  deity  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  She  was  the  goddess  of  happiness  and 
prosperity,  and  is  frequently  seen  on  Roman  medals, 
in  the  form  of  a  matron,  with  the  staff  of  Mercury  and  a 
cornucopia. 

Feng.  The  name  taken  by  Odin  in  the  capacity  of 
wave-stiller.  Under  this  name  he  teaches  mortals  to 
distinguish  between  good  and  bad  omens  and  to  know 
the  moods  of  the  winds. 

Fenrir  or  Fenris.  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
wolf  of  sin,  meaning  the  goading  of  a  guilty  conscience. 
The  "wolf"  was  the  brother  of  Hel.  When  he  gapes, 
one  jaw  touches  earth  and  the  other  heaven. 

Fero'hers.  The  guardian  angels  of  Persian  mythol- 
ogy. They  are  countless  in  number,  and  their  chief 
tasks  are  for  the  well-being  of  man. 

Fero'nia.  A  goddess  of  fruits,  nurseries,  and  groves 
among  the  Romans.  She  had  a  very  rich  temple  and 
grove  specially  sacred  to  her.  She  was  honored  as  the 
patroness  of  enfranchised  slaves,  who  ordinarily  received 
their  liberty  in  her  temple. 

Fi'des.  The  personification  of  faithfulness,  wor- 
shiped as  a  goddess  at  Rome. 

Flora.  'The  Romans  had  a  particular  goddess  of 
blossoms  and  flowers,  whom  they  worshiped  under  the 
name  of  "Flora."  She  is  said  to  have  been  the  same  as 
the  Grecian  nymph  "Chloris." 

Fortltu'do.  A  deification  of  courage  and  bravery, 
was  one  of  the  moral  deities  of  the  Romans. 

Fortu'na.  Known  also  as  Fortune  and  sometimes 
as  the  goddess  of  Chance,  to  whom  was  ascribed  the  dis- 
tribution and  the  superintendence  of  prosperity  and  ad- 
versity in  general. 


330 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Fortuna'tse.  Known  also  as  "the  Islands  of  the 
Blessed."  The  early  Greeks,  as  we  learn  from  Homer, 
placed  the  Elysian  fields,  into  which  favored  heroes  passed 
without  dying,  at  the  extremity  of  the  earth,  near  the 
River  Oceanus.  In  poems  later  than  Homer,  an  island  is 
spoken  of  as  their  abode;  hence  when  certain  islands  were 
discovered  in  the  ocean,  off  the  western  coast  of  Africa, 
the  name  of  Fortunatse  Insulae  was  applied  to  them. 
They  are  now  called  the  Canary  and  Madeira  Islands. 

Frekl  and  Gerl.  The  two  wolves  of  Odin.  When 
Odin,  seated  on  his  throne,  overlooks  heaven  and  earth, 
his  two  wolves  lie  at  his  feet. 

Frey.  (Scandinavian  mythology.)  The  god  of  the  sun 
and  of  rain,  and  hence  of  fertility  and  peace.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Northern  divinities. 
No  weapons  were  ever  allowed  in  Frey's  temple,  although 
oxen  and  horses  were  sacrificed  to  him.  His  name  was 
connected  with  the  taking  of  any  solemn  oath,  a  heavy 
gold  ring  was  dipped  in  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  and 
the  oath  sworn  upon  the  ring.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  temples  built  to  Frey  was  at  Therva  in  Iceland. 

Frey'ja.  She  was  the  sister  of  Frey,  and  the  wife 
of  Odur,  who  abandoned  her  on  her  loss  of  youth  and 
beauty,  and  was  changed  into  a  statue  by  Odin,  as  a 
punishment.  She  is  known  as  the  Northern  goddess 
of  beauty  and  love;  plants  were  called  Freya's  hair, 
and  the  butterfly,  Freya's  hen. 

Frlg'ga.  In  Scandinavian  mythology  the  wife  of 
Odin,  the  queen  of  the  gods,  and  the  mother  of  Baldur, 
Thor,  etc.  She  sometimes  typifies  the  earth,  as  Odin 
does  the  heavens.  The  Anglo-Saxons  worshiped  her 
as  "Frea."     The  name  survives  in  "  Friday." 

Fro'dl.  The  son  of  Frey,  a  god  of  peace.  Under  his 
direction  two  giantesses  turned  a  pair  of  magic  mill- 
stones which  ground  out  gold  according  to  his  wish  and 
filled  his  coffers.  Excited  by  greed  he  forced  them  to 
labor,  allowing  rest  only  long  enough  for  the  singing  of 
one  verse.  When  Frodi,  himself,  slept,  the  giantesses 
changed  their  song  and  proceeded  to  grind  out  an  army 
of  troops  to  invade  the  land.  These  troops  represent 
the  Vilungs. 

Furies.  Among  the  divinities  of  the  lower  world 
were  three  daughters  of  Acheron  and  Night,  or  of  Pluto 
and  Proserpine,  whose  office  it  was  to  torment  the  guilty 
in  Tartarus,  and  often  to  inflict  vengeance  upon  the  liv- 
ing. The  Greeks  called  them  "Furies."  They  are  also 
known  as  Erinnyes  and  Eumenides. 

Fylgle.  Guardian  spirits  treated  of  in  Norse  my- 
thology. Besides  the  Norns  or  Dises,  who  were  regarded 
as  protective  deities,  the  Norsemen  ascribed  to  each 
human  being  a  guardian  spirit  named  Fylgie,  which 
attended  him  through  life. 

Gaea.  Same  as  Tellus  and  Terra,  a  personification 
of  earth.     Sometimes  written  Ge. 

Galar.  One  of  the  dwarfs  who,  with  his  fellow  dwarf, 
Fialar,  slew  the  giant,  Kvasir,  and  drained  every  drop 
of  his  blood. 

Ganga.     One  of  the  three  Indian  River  goddesses. 

Gang'ler.  The  gate-keeper  in  Odin's  palace  who 
gave  the  explanation  of  the  Northern  mythology  that 
it  might  be  recorded. 

Gany'mede.  A  son  of  Troas,  King  of  Troy,  accord- 
ing to  Homer,  was  the  most  beautiful  of  all  mortals, 
and  was  carried  off  by  the  gods  that  he  might  fill  the  cup 
of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and  live  among  the  immortal  gods. 
Later  writers  state  that  Zeus  himself  carried  him  off, 
in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  or  by  means  of  his  eagle,  from 
Mount  Ida. 

Garm.  A  fierce  dog  that  kept  guard  at  the  entrance 
of  Hel's  kingdom,  the  realm  of  the  dead.  He  could  be 
appeased  by  the  offering  of  a  Hel-cake  which  always 
appeared  in  the  hand  of  one  who,  on  earth,  had  given 
bread  to  the  needy. 

Gauta'tna.     The  chief  deity  of  Burmah. 

Gem'ini.  One  of  the  names  given  to  the  twins. 
Castor  and  Pollux,  under  which  they  were  transported 
to  dwell  among  the  stars. 

Ge'nii.     Protecting  spirits  or  gods. 

Gerda.  Wife  of  Frey,  and  daughter  of  the  frost 
giant,  Gymer.  She  is  so  beautiful  that  the  brightness 
of  her  naked  arms  illuminates  both  air  and  sea. 

Ger'yon  was  a  monster,  said  to  be  the  offspring  of 
Chrysaor  and  Callirhoe,  and  to  have  three  bodies  and 
three  heads.  His  residence  was  in  the  island  of  Gades, 
where  his  numerous  flocks  were  kept  by  the  herdsman, 
Eurythion,  and  guarded  by  a  two-headed  dog,  called 
Orthos.  The  destruction  of  this  monster  formed  one 
of  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules. 

Giall.     The  infernal  river  of  Scandinavian  mythology. 

Glallar  Bridge.  The  bridge  of  death,  over  which 
all  must  pass. 

Glallar  Horn,  The.  Heimdall's  horn,  which  went 
Dut    into   all    worlds    whenever    he    chose  to   blow  it. 


According  to  Northern  mythology,  he  blew  a  long- 
expected  blast  as  a  rallying  call  to  the  battle  which 
ended  the  reign  of  the  gods,  Odin,  Frey,  and  Tyr. 

Gian  ben  Glan.  King  of  the  Ginns  or  Genii,  and 
founder  of  the  Pyramids.  He  was  overthrown  by  Aza'- 
zil  or  Lucifer.     (Arab  superstitions.) 

Giants.  Earth  united  with  Heaven  produced  Oceanos 
and  the  giants  with  fifty  heads  and  a  hundred  hands  — 
by  which  is  meant,  the  personification  of  the  great  powers 
of  nature  —  as  their  names  signify:  CJottos  (eruption), 
Briareos  (hurricane),  and  Gyes  (earthquake),  in  fables 
the  giants  are  beings  of  monstrous  size,  with  dragons' 
tails  and  fearful  countenances.  They  attempted  to 
storm  heaven,  being  armed  with  huge  rocks  and  the 
trunks  of  trees,  but  were  killed  by  the  gods  with  the 
assistance  of  Hercules,  and  were  buried  under  Mount 
jEtna  and  other  volcanoes.  In  Scandinavian  mythology 
they  are  described  as  evil  genii  of  various  forms  and  races, 
enemies  of  the  gods.  They  dwelt  in  a  territory  of  their 
own,  called  Giant-land.  They  had  the  power  of  assum- 
ing divers  shapes,  and  of  increasing  or  diminishing  their 
stature  at  will. 

Ginun'ga-gap.  In  Norse  mythology,  the  vast 
chaotic  gulf  of  perpetual  twilight,  which  existed  before 
the  present  world  and  separated  the  region  of  fog  from 
the  region  of  heat.  Giants  were  the  first  beings  who 
came  to  life  among  the  icebergs  and  filled  this  vast 
abyss. 

Glads'-heim.  A  great  hall  in  the  palace  of  Odin, 
in  which  were  the  twelve  seats  occupied  by  the  gods 
when  holding  council. 

Gla'sir.  A  marvelous  grove  in  the  land  of  Asgard, 
in  which  the  leaves  were  all  of  shimmering  red  gold. 

Glendoveer'.  In  Hindu  mythology,  is  a  kind  of  sylph, 
the  most  lovely  of  the  good  spirits. 

Gnome.  One  of  a  class  of  spirits  or  imaginary  beings 
which  were  supposed  to  tenant  the  interior  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  in  whose  charge  mines,  quarries,  etc.,  were 
left.  Riibezahl,  of  the  German  legends,  is  often  cited  as 
a  representative  of  the  class. 

Golden  Apples,  The.  A  great  treasure  which  was 
thought  to  be  altogether  unattainable,  was  the  golden 
apples  in  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides.  These  gardens 
were  watched  by  a  monstrous  dragon,  and  to  bring  the 
golden  fruit  to  Eurystheus,  was  one  of  the  tasks  which 
Hercules  was  to  accomplish. 

Golden  Fleece.  Ino  persuaded  her  husband,  Ath- 
amas,  that  his  son  Phryxos  was  the  cause  of  a  famine 
which  desolated  the  land,  and  he  ordered  him  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  angry  gods.  Phryxos  made  his  escape 
over  sea  on  a  "ram  which  had  a  golden  fleece."  When 
he  arrived  at  Colchis,  he  sacrificed  the  ram  to  Zeus,  and 
gave  the  fleece  to  King  yEe'tes,  who  hung  it  on  a  sacred 
oak.  It  was  afterwards  stolen  by  Jason  in  his  celebrated 
Argonautic  expedition. 

Gor'gons.  The  three  Gorgons  were  hideous  monsters 
whose  faces  were  so  fearful  that  whoever  looked  oh 
them  became  "congealed  stone."  One  of  these  crea- 
tures. Medusa,  was  slain  by  Perseus,  and  her  head  was 
presented  to  Minerva,  who  placed  it  in  her  shield,  where 
the  face  continued  to  retain  its  petrifying  power. 

Graces.  To  the  rfetinue  of  Venus  belonged  the 
Graces,  servants  and  companions  of  the  goddess.  They 
were  said  to  be  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Eurynome,  or 
according  to  others,  of  Bacchus  and  Venus  herself,  and 
were  three  in  number:  Splendor,  Pleasure,  and  Joy. 
They  were  honored,  especially  in  (jireece,  and  had  tem- 
ples in  the  principal  cities.  Altars  were  often  erected 
to  them  in  the  temples  of  other  gods,  especially  Mercury, 
Venus,  and  the  Muses. 

Grid.  .Wife  of  Odin  and  mother  of  Vidar.  She  lent 
Thor  her  girdle,  staff,  and  glove,  warning  him  to  beware 
of  treachery. 

Gripir.  A  horse-trainer,  servant  of  Odin,  who  could 
foretell  events  of  the  future.  He  could  teach  a  young 
hero  all  that  he  might  need  to  know.  He  is  compared 
to  (3hiron  the  Centaur. 

Groves.  The  Romans  were  accustomed,  like  other 
ancient  nations,  to  consecrate  groves  and  woods  to  the 
gods.  As  many  as  230  sacred  groves  are  enumerated, 
chiefly  within  the  city  of  Rome.  In  Greece,  the  particu- 
lar tract  of  land,  situated  between  Athens  and  Megara, 
was  consecrated  to  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  and  trees  were 
also  set  apart  and  with  ceremony  consecrated  to  some 
god. 

Gyes.  One  of  the  hundred-handed  giants.  (Also 
written  Gyges.) 

Ha'des.  The  Greek  god  of  the  nether  world,  the  son 
of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  the  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Nep- 
tune. He  is  the  same  as  Pluto.  In  ordinary  life  ho 
was  usually  called  Pluto  (the  giver  of  wealth),  because 
people  did  not  like  to  pronounce  the  dreaded  name  of 
Hades.     His    wife  was    Persephone    (Proserpine) ,    the 


p 


LITERATURE 


331 


daughter  of  Demeter,  whom  he  carried  from  the  upper 
world.  In  the  division  of  the  world  among  the  three 
brothers.  Hades  obtained  the  abode  of  the  shades,  over 
which  he  ruled.  Of  all  the  gods  he  was  most  hated  by 
mortals.  The  ensign  of  his  power  was  a  staff,  with  which, 
like  Hermes,  he  drove  the  shades  into  the  lower  world. 
He  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered  the  wearer  in- 
visible, and  which  he  sometimes  lent  to  both  gods  and 
men.  The  Furies  are  called  his  daughters;  the  nymph 
Mintho,  whom  he  loved,  was  metamorphosed  by  Perse- 
phone into  the  plant  called  mint;  and  the  nymph 
Leuce,  whom  he  likewise  loved,  was  changed  by  him 
after  death  into  a  white  poplar.  Being  the  king  of  the 
lower  world,  Pluto  is  the  giver  of  all  the  blessings  that 
come  from  the  earth;  hence  he  gives  the  metals  con- 
tained in  the  earth. 

Ham'adryads.  Nymphs  of  the  woods  who  were 
born  and  died  with  particular  trees.  They  possessed  the 
power  to  reward  and  punish  those  who  prolonged  or 
abridged  the  existence  of  their  special  tree. 

Harmo'nia.  A  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  and 
wife  of  Cadmus.  Harmonia  received  a  present  of  a  neck- 
lace, which  afterwards  became  fatal  to  all  who  possessed 
it. 

Haroe'ris.  The  Egyptian  god,  whose  eyes  are  the 
sun  and  moon. 

Harpies.  Robbers  or  Spoilers,  described  by  Homer 
as  carrying  off  persons,  who  had  utterly  disappeared. 
Hesiod  represents  them  as  fair-locked  and  winged  maid- 
ens; but  subsequent  writers  describe  them  as  disgusting 
monsters,  birds  with  the  heads  of  maidens,  with  long 
claws,  and  faces  pale  with  hunger. 

He'be.  The  goddess  of  youth,  was  daughter  of  Zeus 
and  Hera.  She  was  employed  by  her  mother  to  pre- 
pare her  chariot,  and  harness  her  peacocks,  and  was 
cupbearer  to  all  the  gods. 

Hec'ate.  A  mysterious  divinity  known  as  the  god- 
dess that  troubles  the  reason  of  men;  the  goddess  that 
presides  over  nocturnal  ceremonies,  and  consequently 
over  magic;  hence  her  identity  with  Diana  in  Grecian 
mythology,  and  with  Isis  in  Egyptian. 

Hec'tor.  The  prominent  hero  of  the  Trojans  in 
their  war  with  the  Greeks,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Priam 
and  Hecuba,  and  the  husband  of  Andromache.  He  fought 
with  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks,  and  slew  Patroclus,  the 
friend  of  Achilles.  The  death  of  his  friend  roused 
Achilles  to  the  fight.  The  other  Trojans  fled  before 
him  into  the  city.  Hector  alone  remained  without  the 
walls,  but  when  he  saw  Achilles,  his  heart  failed  him, 
and  he  took  to  flight.  Thrice  he  ran  round  the  city, 
pursued  by  Achilles,  and  fell,  pierced  by  Achilles'  spear. 
Achilles  tied  Hector's  body  to  his  chariot,  and  thus 
dragged  him  into  the  camp  of  the  Greeks.  At  the  com- 
mand of  Zeus,  Achilles  surrendered  the  body  to  the 
prayers  of  Priam,  who  buried  it  at  Troy  with  great 
pomp.  Hector  is  one  of  the  noblest  conceptions  of  the 
poet  of   the   "  Hiad.  " 

Hec'uba.  The  second  wife  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy, 
and  the  mother  of  Paris  and  Hector.  After  the  fall  of 
Troy,  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks  as  a  slave, 
and,  according  to  one  account,  threw  herself  in  despair 
into  the  sea. 

Heini'dal.  In  Northern  tales  a  god,  who  lived  in 
the  celestial  fort  Himinsbiorg,  under  the  farther  extrem- 
ity of  the  bridge  Bifrost,  and  kept  the  keys  of  heaven. 
He  is  the  watchman  or  sentinel  of  Asgard,  sees  even  in 
sleep,  can  hear  the  grass  grow,  and  even  the  wool  on  a 
lamb's  back.  Heim'dall,  at  the  end  of  the  world,  will 
wake  the  gods  with  his  trumpet. 

Helen.  A  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  and  the 
wife  of  Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta.  She  was  the  most 
beautiful  woman  of  her  age,  and  chose  Menelaus  among 
many  suitors.  She  afterward  eloped  with  Paris,  her 
husband's  Trojan  guest,  and  thus  brought  on  the  war 
between  the  Greeks  and  Trojans.  After  the  fall  of  Troy 
she  was  restored  to  Menelaus. 

Hel'enus.  Son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  celebrated 
for  his  prophetic  powers. 

Hel'ice.  A  maid  beloved  of  Jupiter,  and  by  jeal- 
ousy of  Hera  changed  into  a  she-bear. 

Hel'icon.  A  mountain  in  Bceotia  sacred  to  the 
Muses,  from  which  place  the  fountain  Hippocrene  flowed. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  Muses'  Mount.  It  is  part  of  the 
Parnassus,  a  mountain  range  in  Greece. 

He'lios.  The  Greek  sun-god,  who  rode  to  his  palace 
in  Colchis  every  night  in  a  golden  boat  furnished  with 
wings.  This  god  gives  light  both  to  gods  and  men. 
He  sees  and  hears  everything,  and  discovers  all  that  is 
kept  secret. 

Hel'le.  Daughter  of  Athamas  and  Nephele,  and 
sister  of  Phrixus.  When  Phrixus  was  to  be  sacrificed, 
Nephele   rescued    her   two    children,    who    rode    away 


through  the  air  upon  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece, 
the  gift  of  Hermes;  but  Helle  fell  into  the  sea.  The 
episode  gave  the  name  of  the  Hellespont  to  the  part  of 
the  sea  where  Helle  was  drowned.  It  is  now  called  the 
Dardanelles. 

Hel'len,  The  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha,  and 
father  of  .(Eolus,  Dorus,  and  Xuthus.  He  was  King  of 
Phthia  in  Thessaly,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ^olus. 
He  was  the  mythical  ancestor  of  all  the  Hellenes. 

Hell  Shoon.  In  Icelandic  mythology  indispensable 
for  the  journey  to  Valhalla  as  the  obolus  for  crossing 
the  Styx. 

Helmet  of  Hades.  A  helmet  worn  by  Perseus, 
rendering  him  invisible  and  which,  with  the  winged 
sandals  and  magic  wallet,  he  took  from  certain  nymphs, 
who  held  them  in  possession.  After  he  had  slain  Medusa 
he  restored  them  again,  and  presented  the  Gorgon's 
head  to  Minerva,  who  placed  it  in  the  middle  of  her 
shield. 

He'ra.  Greek  name  for  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  known 
among  Romans  as  Juno.  Hera  was  worshiped  in  many 
parts  of  Greece,  but  more  especially  at  Argos,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  which  she  had  a  splendid  temple,  on 
the  road  to  Mycenae.  She  had  also  a  temple  in  Samos. 
Hera  was  usually  represented  as  a  majestic  woman  of 
mature  age. 

Heracli'dae.  Name  given  to  the  descendants  of 
Hercules,  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  Dorians,  con- 
quered the  Peloponnesus  eighty  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Troy,  or  B.  C.  1104,  according  to  mythical 
chronology.  This  legend  represents  the  conquest  of 
the  Achaean  population  by  Dorian  invaders,  who  hence- 
forward appear  as  the  ruling  race  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

Her'cules.  Of  all  the  Grecian  heroes,  no  other  ob- 
tained such  celebrity  as  Hercules,  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Alcmene.  Wonderful  strength  was  ascribed  to  him 
even  in  his  infantile  years.  Eurystheus  imposed  upon 
him  many  difficult  enterprises,  which  he  carried  through 
with  success;  particularly  those  which  are  called  the 
"twelve  labors  '  of  Hercules.  .These  were:  to  kill  the 
Nema-an  lion;  to  destroy  the  Lernaan  hydra;  to  catch 
alive  the  stag  with  golden  horns;  to  catch  the  Eryman- 
thean  boar;  to  cleanse  the  stables  of  Augeas;  to  exter- 
minate the  birds  of  Lake  Stymphalus;  to  bring  alive 
the  wild  bull  of  Crete;  to  seize  the  horses  of  Diomedes; 
to  obtain  the  girdle  of  Hippolyta,  Queen  of  the  Ama- 
zons; to  destroy  the  monster  Geryon;  to  plunder  the 
garden  of  Hesperides,  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon; 
and  to  bring  from  the  infernal  world  the  three-headed 
dog,  Cerberus.  Many  other  exploits  were  ascribed  to 
him,  by  which  he  gave  proof  of  his  extraordinary  strength 
and  exhibited  himself  as  an  avenger  and  deliverer  of 
the  oppressed.  Such  were:  his  slaying  the  robber, 
Cacus;  the  deliverance  of  Prometheus,  bound  to  a  rock; 
the  killing  of  Busiris,  and  the  reseue  of  Alceste  from  the 
infernal  world.  His  last  achievement  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  centaur,  Nessus.  Nessus,  dying,  gave  his 
poisoned  tunic  to  Deianira;  Hercules  afterwards  re- 
ceiving it  from  her,  and  putting  it  on,  became  so  dis- 
eased that  he  cast  himself  in  despair  upon  a  funeral 
pile  on  Mount  ^ta.  The  worship  of  Hercules  became 
universal,  and  temples  were  erected  to  his  honor. 

Hercu'lean  Knot.  A  snaky  complication  on  the 
rod  or  caduceus  of  Mercury,  adopted  by  the  Grecian 
brides  as  the  fastening  of  their  woolen  girdles,  which 
only  the  bridegroom  was  allowed  to  untie. 

Her'la.  A  mythical  king,  the  supposed  leader  of 
The  Wild  Hunt  of  Scandinavian  mythology.  This  was 
known  as  the  Raging  Host  in  Germany  and  as  Herla- 
thing  in  England,  from  the  name,  Herla. 

Her'mes.     A  Greek  name  of  the  god  Mercury. 

Hermi'one.  The  beautiful  daughter  of  Menelaus 
and  Helen.  She  had  been  promised  in  marriage  to 
Orestes  before  the  Trojan  War,  but  Menelaus,  after  his 
return  home,  married  her  to  Neoptolemus  (Pyrrhus). 

Hesper'ldes.  The  Hesperides  are  called  daughters 
of  Night,  because  their  origin  and  existence  are  veiled 
in  darkness.  'Their  names  were  JEgle,  Erytheia,  and 
Arethusa; — and  they  were  appointed  to  guard  the 
golden  apples,  which  were  the  gift  of  Earth  to  Juno  on 
her  wedding  day.  The  celebrated  gardens  of  the  Hes- 
perides abounded  with  fruits  and  were  carefully  guarded 
by  a  dragon,  which  never  slept. 

Hes'penis.  A  supposed  son  or  brother  of  Atlas 
enrolled  among  the  deities  after  death,  and  made 
identical  with  the  Evening  Star. 

Hes'tia.  The  Greek  name  for  Vesta.  She  was  the 
goddess  of  the  domestic  hearth. 

Hippocre'ne.  The  Muses  were  entertaining  them- 
selves in  the  mountain  with  song  and  lyre,  in  so  gay  a 
manner  that  all  could  hear  them.  Poseidon  sent  up 
Pegasus,  charging  him  to  limit  the  mirth  and  noisy 
merriment.     On    arriving    at    the    top    of    the    mount. 


332 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Pegasus  had  only  to  paw  the  ground  to  bring  all  quiet; 
and  from  beneath  his  foot  arose  that  well-known  foun- 
tain which,  from  its  origin,  is  called  Hippocrene. 

Hippol'yta.  Queen  of  the  Amazons,  and  daughter 
of  Mars.  In  classic  fable,  her  sister  Antiope  married 
Theseus.  Hippolyta  was  famous  for  a  girdle  given  her 
by  her  father,  and  it  was  one  of  the  twelve  labors  of 
Hercules  to  possess  himself  of  this  prize. 

Hippoly'tus.  Son  of  Theseus  and  Hippolyte;  he 
was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  chariot,  but  was  raised  to  life 
again  by  Diana,  or  by  .(Esculapius. 

Hlppom'enes.  Son  of  Megareus,  and  great-grand- 
son of  Poseidon  (Neptune),  conquered  Atalanta  in  a 
foot-race.  He  had  three  golden  apples,  which  he 
dropped  one  by  one,  and  which  she  stopped  to  pick 
up.     By  this  delay  she  lost  the  race. 

Hofvarp'nir.  The  fleet  steed  of  Ina,  in  Scandi- 
navian legend,  which  traveled  through  fire  and  air  and 
enabled  this  messenger  of  the  gods  to  see  all  that  was 
happening  on  the  earth. 

Hobomok'o.  An  evil  spirit  known  among  American 
Indians. 

Ho'de-ken.  A  famous  German  kobold,  or  domestic 
fairy  servant;  so  called  from  wearing  a  little  felt  hat 
pulled  down  over  his  face. 

Ho'dur.  In  Norse  mythology,  a  blind  god  who 
destroyed  his  brother,  Baldur,  at  the  instigation  of  Loki, 
without  meaning  to  do  so.  He  is  the  type  of  night  and 
darkness,  as  Baldur  is  of  light  and  day. 

Ho'nir.  In  Asgard  tales,  name  given  to  the  god  of 
mind  or  thought. 

Ho'rae.  Daughters  of  Zeus  and  Themis,  the  god- 
desses of  the  order  of  nature  anti  of  the  seasons,  who 
guarded  the  doors  of  Olympus,  and  promoted  the  fer- 
tility of  the  earth. 

Ho'rus.  The  Egyptian  god  of  the  sun,  who  was 
also  worshiped  in  Greece  and  at  Rome. 

Hu'gin.  One  of  Odin's  two  ravens,  who  carried  him 
news  from  earth,  and  who,  when  not  thus  employed, 
perched  upon  his  shoulders.  The  personification  of 
thought  or  intellect. 

Hu'go'.  A  kind  of  evil  spirit  in  the  popular  super- 
stition of  France  —  a  sort  of  ogre  made  use  of  to  frighten 
children. 

Hundred-eyed.  Argus,  in  Greek  and  Latin  fable. 
Juno  appointed  him  guardian  of  lo,  but  Jupiter  caused 
him  to  be  put  to  death;  whereupon  Juno  transplanted 
his  eyes  into  the  tail  of  her  peacock. 

Hy'aclnthus.  A  youth  beloved  by  Apollo,  and  acci- 
dentally slain  by  him  while  playing  at  quoits.  From 
his  blood  sprang  the  flower  which  bears  his  name. 

Hy'ades.  A  class  of  nymphs  commonly  said  to  be 
seven  in  number. 

Hy'dra.  Name  of  a  monstrous  serpent  in  the  Lake 
Lerna,  with  numerous  heads.  When  one  of  these  heads 
was  cut  off,  another  or  two  others  immediately  grew  in 
its  place,  imless  the  blood  of  the  wound  was  stopped 
by  fire.  The  destruction  of  the  Hydra  was  a  labor  as- 
signed to  Hercules,  which  he  accomplished  by  the  aid 
of  lolaus,  who  applied  lighted  brands  or  a  heated  iron 
as  each  head  was  removed.  The  arrows  of  Hercules, 
being  dipped  in  the  Hydra's  blood,  caused  incurable 
wo\mds. 

Hygel'a.  The  goddess  of  health,  and  a  daughter  of 
jEsculapius,  though  some  traditions  make  her  the  wife 
of  the  latter.  In  works  of  art  she  is  represented  in  a 
long  robe,  feeding  a  serpent  from  a  cup. 

Hy'men  or  Hymenae'us.  One  of  the  imaginary 
companions  of  Venus.     He  presided  over  marriage. 

Hy'mir.  In  mythology  of  Northern  lands,  the  frost- 
giant  who  owned  the  great  kettle  called  "Mile-deep." 

Hyperbo'reans.  A  fabulous  people,  supposed  to 
live  in  a  state  of  perfect  happiness,  in  a  land  of  perpetual 
sunshine. 

Hype'rion.  Son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra.  The  model 
of  manly  beauty,  synonymous  with  Apollo.  The  per- 
sonification of  the  sun.  Hyperion  was  the  father  of 
the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Dawn.  He  is,  therefore,  the  origi- 
nal sun-god,  and  is  painted  with  splendor  and    beauty. 

lac'chus.  The  solemn  name  of  Bacchus  in  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  whose  name  was  derived  from 
the  boisterous  song  called  "lacchus."  In  these  mys- 
teries lacchus  was  regarded  as  the  son  of  Zeus  and 
Ceres,  and  was  distinguished  from  the  Theban  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele. 

lap'etos.  The  father  of  Atlas  and  ancestor  of  the 
human  race,  called  the  progeny  of  lapetos.  By  many 
considered  the  same  as  Japheth,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Noah. 

Ic'arius.  An  Athenian,  who  hospitably  received 
Dionysus  in  Attica,  and  was  taught  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine. 


Ic'aros.  Son  of  Da'dalos,  who  flew  with  his  father 
from  Crete;  but  the  sun  melted  the  wax  with  which 
his  wings  were  fastened  on,  and  he  fell  into  the  sea, 
hence  called  the  Ica'rian. 

Ida.  A  mountain  range  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  scene  of  the  rape  of 
Ganymede  and  of  the  judgment  of  Paris.  In  Homer 
the  summit  of  Ida  is  the  place  from  which  the  gods 
watch  the  battles  in  the  plain  of  Troy.  It  is  an  ancient 
seat  of  the  worship  of  Cybele.  A  mountain  in  Crete, 
known  as  Mount  Ida,  was  closely  connected  with  the 
worship  of  Jupiter. 

Idae'an  Mother.  Cyb'ele,  who  had  a  temple  on 
Mount  Ida,  in  Asia  Minor. 

Idom'eneus.  He  led  the  Cretans  against  Troy,  and 
was  one  of  the  bravest  heroes  in  the  Trojan  War  He 
vowed  to  sacrifice  to  Poseidon  whatever  he  should  first 
meet  on  his  landing,  if  the  god  would  grant  him  a  safe 
return.  This  was  his  own  son,  whom  he  accordingly 
sacrificed.  As  Crete  was  thereupon  visited  by  a  plague, 
the  Cretans  expelled  Idomeneus,  who  went  to  Italy. 

Idun'a  or  Idun'.  Daughter  of  the  dwarf  Svald,  and 
wife  of  Bragi.  She  kept  in  a  box  the  golden  apples 
which  the  gods  tasted  as  often  as  they  wished  to  renew 
their  youth.  Loki  on  one  occasion  stole  the  box,  but 
the  gods  compelled  him  to  restore  it.  Iduna  seems  to 
personify  that  part  of  the  year  when  the  sun  is  north  of 
the  equator.  Her  apples  indicate  fruits  generally.  Loki 
carries  her  off  to  Giant-Land,  when  the  Sun  descends 
below  the  equator,  and  he  steals  her  apples.  In  time, 
Iduna  makes  her  escape,  in  the  form  of  a  sparrow, 
when  the  Sun  again  rises  above  the  equator;  and  both 
gods  and  men  rejoice  in  her  return. 

I'fing.  In  Scandinavian  mythology  the  great  stream 
between  the  earth  and  the  sacred  lands,  whose  waters 
never  froze. 

In'achus.  One  of  the  river-gods,  a  son  of  Oceanus 
and  Tethys,  and  father  of  Phoroneus  and  lo,  was  the 
first  King  of  Argos,  and  said  to  have  given  his  name  to 
the  river  Inachus. 

In'dra.  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  ever  youthful 
god  of  the  firmament,  and  the  omnipotent  ruler  of  the 
elements.  He  is  a  most  important  personage  in  Indian 
fable.  In  the  Vedic  period  of  the  Hindu  religion,  he 
occupied  a  foremost  rank,  and,  though  degraded  to  an 
inferior  position  in  the  Epic,  he  long  enjoyed  a  great 
legendary  popularity.  In  works  of  art,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  riding  on  an  elephant. 

I'o.  The  daughter  of  Inachus,  first  King  of  Argos, 
beloved  by  Zeus,  and  metamorphosed,  through  fear  of 
Hera,  into  a  heifer. 

lola'us.  The  son  of  Iphicles  and  Automedusa. 
Iphicles  was  the  half-brother  of  Hercules,  and  lolaus 
was  the  faithful  companion  and  charioteer  of  the  hero. 

I'ole.  The  daughter  of  Eurytus  of  Oechalia,  beloved 
by  Hercules,  who  tried  to  gain  her  in  marriage  for  him- 
self. Eurytus  promised  his  dau'ghter  to  the  man  who 
should  conquer  him  and  his  sons  in  shooting  with  the 
bow.  Hercules  defeated  them;  but  Eurytus  and  his 
sons,  with  the  exception  of  Iphitus,  refused  to  give  lole 
to  him,  because  he  had  murdered  his  own  children. 

I'on.  The  fabulous  ancestor  of  the  lonians,  son  of 
Xuthus  and  Creusa,  or  of  Apollo  and  Creusa,  grandson 
of  Helen.  According  to  some  traditions  he  reigned  in 
Attica. 

Iphigeni'a.  A  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra,  and  sister  to  Orestes.  Iphigeneia  was  to 
have  been  sacrificed  on  entering  upon  the  expedition 
against  Troy;  but  was  rescued  by  Diana,  who  carried 
her  to  Tauris,  where  she  became  a  priestess  in  her 
temple.  She  was  afterwards  recognized  by  her  brother, 
(Drestes,  and  enabled  to  save  him  with  his  friend,  Pylades. 

Ire'ne.  The  Roman  goddess  of  peace,  and  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Themis,  and  one  of  the    Hora. 

I'rls.  Name  given  among  the  Greeks  to  the  rainbow, 
as  personified  and  imagined  a  goddess.  Her  father  was 
said  to  be  Thaumas,  and  her  mother  Electra,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Oceanus.  Her  residence  was  near  the 
throne  of  Juno,  whose  commands  she  bore  as  messenger 
to  the  rest  of  the  gods  and  to  mortals.  Sometimes,  but 
rarely,  she  was  Jupiter's  piessenger,  and  was  employed 
even  by  other  deities. 

Irus.  The  beggar  of  gigantic  stature,  who  kept 
watch  over  the  suitors  of  Penel'ope.  His  real  name 
was  Ar'neos,  but  the  suitors  nicknamed  him  Irus  because 
he  carried  their  messages  for  them.  Ulysses,  on  his 
return,  felled  him  to  the  ground. 

I'sis.  In  Egyptian  mythology,  the  sister-wife  of 
Osiris.  She  was  originally  the  goddess  of  the  earth, 
and  afterwards  of  the  moon. 

Isme'ne.  Daughter  of  O^'dipus  and  Jocasta.  Antig'- 
one  was  buried  alive  by  the  order  of  King  Creon,  for 
burying  her  brother    Polynices.     Ismene  declared    that 


I 


LITERATURE 


333 


she  had  aided  her  sister,  and  requested  to  be  allowed  to 
share  the  same  punishment.  Denied  of  this,  she  is  said 
to  have  died  from  grief.  The  story  is  told  by  Sopho- 
cles, and  the  modern  artist,  Teschendorf,  has  made  a 
noted  picture  of  the  two  sisters. 

Is'rafll.  Known  among  Arabians  as  the  angel  of 
music,  who  possessed  the  most  melodious  voice  of  all 
God's  creatures.  This  is  the  angel  who  is  to  sound  the 
Resurrection  Trump,  and  make  music  for  the  saints  in 
Paradise.  Israfil,  Gabriel,  and  Michael  were  the  three 
angels  that  warned  Abraham  of  Sodom's  destruction. 

Ith'aca.  In  mythology,  the  island-kingdom  of 
Ulysses.  The  city  of  Ithaca,  the  residence  of  Ulysses, 
was  situated  on  a  precipitous,  conical  hill,  now  called 
"eagle's  cliff,"  occupying  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
isthmus.     Ithaca  was  also  the  home  of  Penelope. 

Ithu'riel.  One  of  the  angels  commissioned  by 
Gabriel  to  search  for  Satan,  who  had  effected  his  en- 
trance into  Paradise. 

Ixi'on,  A  fabled  king  of  Thessaly,  who  became 
father  of  the  Centaurs.  The  story  by  which  he  is  most 
noted  runs:  When  Deioneus  demanded  of  Ixion  certain 
gifts  he  had  promised,  Ixion  treacherously  invited  him 
to  a  banquet,  and  contrived  to  make  him  fall  into  a  pit 
filled  with  fire.  Ixion,  as  a  punishment,  was  chained 
by  Hermes  with  his  hands  and  feet  to  a  wheel,  which 
is  described  as  winged  or  fiery,  and  said  to  have  rolled 
perpetually. 

Jamshid'.  King  of  the  Genii,  famous  for  a  golden 
cup  full  of  the  elixir  of  life.  This  cup,  hidden  by  the 
genii,  was  discovered  while  digging  the  foundations  of 
Persep'olis. 

Ja'nus.  One  of  the  superior  gods  of  the  Romans. 
The  myths  represent  him  as  reigning  over  the  earliest 
inhabitants  of  Italy,  in  the  time  of  Saturn.  It  was  to 
Janus  that  Saturn  fled,  and  under  them  was  the  "golden 
age,"  a  period  of  peace.  To  Janus,  Romulus  dedicated 
that  celebrated  temple,  which  was  always  open  in  time 
of  war,  and  was  closed  with  much  solemnity,  whenever 
there  was  general  peace  in  the  Roman  Empire;  a  thing 
which  happened  but  three  times  during  700  years.  From 
this  deity  the  month  of  January  was  named,  and  the  first 
day  of  the  month  was  sacred  to  him. 

Ja'son.  He  was  a  shoot  of  the  heroic  stem  of  jEoIus, 
but  not  the  son  of  a  god;  and  Juno,  while  she  persecuted 
the  sons  of  Jupiter,  took  him  under  her  especial  protec- 
tion. His  father,  ^son,  who  reigned  at  lolcus,  was  de- 
prived of  the  kingdom  by  his  half-brother  Pelias,  who 
attempted  to  take  the  life  of  the  infant  Jason.  .  He  was 
saved  by  his  friends,  and  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the 
Centaur  Chiron.  When  he  had  grown  up  he  came  to 
lolcus,  and  demanded  the  kingdom,  which  Pelias  prom- 
ised to  surrender  to  him,  provided  he  brought  the  golden 
fleece,  which  was  in  the  possession  of  King  JEetes  in 
Colchis,  and  was  guarded  by  an  ever-watchful  dragon. 
The  greatest  feat  recorded  of  him  is  his  voyage  in  the 
Argo  to  Colchis  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece,  which,  aided 
by  Juno,  he  succeeded  in  doing.  He  married  Medea, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Colchis,  who  was  a  magician, 
and  on  Jason  having  vowed  eternal  fidelity  to  her,  she 
gave  him  charms  to  protect  him  from  danger. 

Jinn.  A  sort  of  fairies  in  Arabian  mythology,  the  off- 
spring of  fire.  They  are  governed  by  a  race  of  kings 
named  Suleyman,  one  of  whom  "built  the  pyramids." 
Their  chief  abode  is  the  mountain  K&f,  and  they  appear 
to  men  under  the  forms  of  serpents,  dogs,  cats,  monsters, 
or  even  human  beings,  and  become  invisible  at  pleasure. 
The  evil  jinn  are  ugly,  but  the  good  are  beautiful.  Ac- 
cording to  fable,  they  were  created  from  fire  two  thou- 
sand years  before  Adam  was  made  of  earth. 

Jord.  Daughter  of  Night  and  mother  of  Thor.  In 
Scandinavian  mythology  the  name  given  to  primitive 
earth. 

Jove.  Known  in  classical  mythology  as  the  god  of 
thunder.  The  name  Jove  is  but  another  appellation, 
rarely  given  to  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Juggernaut  or  Jaggcrnaut.  A  Hindu  god.  The 
temple  of  this  god  is  in  a  town  of  the  same  name  in  Orissa. 

Ju'no.  The  wife. and  sister  of  Jupiter,  daughter  of 
Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  as  wife  of  Jupiter  mistress  of  gods 
and  men.  Her  birthplace  was  assigned  by  the  Greeks 
to  Argos,  or  the  Island  Samos,  and  to  other  spots  in 
Greece,  although  her  story  and  her  worship  were  rather 
of  Phenician  origin.  The  chief  peculiarities  of  her  char- 
acter were  love  of  power  and  jealousy.  The  worship  of 
Juno  was  far  spread,  and  the  number  of  her  temples 
and  festivals  was  very  great.  The  same  goddess  was 
worshiped    among  the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  Hera. 

Ju'piter.  The  highest  and  most  powerful  among  the 
gods.  By  this  god  was  originally  represented  nature 
in  general;  and  finally  the  supreme  existence.  The 
worship  of  Jupiter  was  universal,  and  numerous  tem- 
ples were  erected  to  his  honor.     The  largest   and   the 


most  celebrated  in  Greece  was  that  in  Olympia,  remark- 
able for  its  own  magnificence,  and  for  its  statue  of  Jupiter 
wrought  by  Phidias,  and  for  the  Olympic  games  held  in 
its  vicinity.  His  oracle  in  the  grove  of  oaks  at  Dodona 
was  renowned,  and  considered  the  most  ancient  in  Greece. 
In  Rome  the  capitol  was  specially  dedicated  to  him,  and 
he  had  in  that  city  many  tempjes.  Among  the  Greeks 
he  was  known  as  Zeus. 

Kama.  The  Hindu  god  of  love.  His  wife  is  Rati 
(voluptuousness),  and  he  is  represented  as  riding  on  a 
sparrow,  holding  in  his  hand  a  bow  of  flowers  and  five 
arrows,  each  tipped  with  the  bloom  of  a  flower  supposed 
to  conquer  one  of  the  senses.  His  power  is  so  much 
exalted  that  even  the  god  Brahma  is  said  to  succumb 
to  it. 

Ka'mi.  The  gods  of  ancient  Japan.  The  name,  in 
modern  times,  designates  any  spiritual  saint  and  may 
also  be  applied  to  a  prince. 

Kaswa.  The  camel  admitted  into  Moslem  paradise, 
the  favorite  camel  of  Mahomet  which  fell  on  its  knees 
in  adoration  when  "the  prophet "  delivered  the  last 
clause  of  the  Koran  to  the  assembled  multitude  at  Mecca. 

Kelpie.  In  mythology  of  Scotland,  a  spirit  of  the 
water  seen  in  the  form  of  a  horse.  Each  lake  has  its 
Kelpie. 

Kobold.  A  house-spirit  in  German  superstition.  In 
northern  lands  the  name  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of 
elf  or  dwarf  representing  an  under-ground  spirit.  Prob- 
ably the  same  as  the  Scotch  brownie. 

Koppelberg.  The  hill  which  miraculously  opened 
to  receive  the  children  who  followed  the  Pied  Piper. 
This  belongs  to  mythology,  as  people  in  the  Middle 
Ages  considered  Odin  as  the  leader  of  disembodied 
spirits,  and  from  this  came  the  Pied  Piper.  The  rats 
were  the  restless  souls  of  the  dead,  which  the  Pied  Piper 
released  by  drowning. 

Krlsh'na.  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  eighth  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu.  According  to  some  authorities  he  is 
considered  distinct  from  all  the  Avatars,  as  these  had 
only  a  portion  of  the  divinity,  and  Krishna  was  Vishnu 
himself  in  form  of  "the  Black  One." 

Kro'nos.  Kronos  (Time)  was  the  youngest  of  the 
Titans,  and  as  the  heavens  measure  out  time  to  us,  and 
earth  is  considered  its  beginning,  he  is  said  to  be  born 
of  Uranos  and  Ge.  He  was  generally  worshiped  under 
the  name  of  Saturn. 

Kuve'ra.  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  god  of  riches, 
represented  as  frightfully  deformed,  and  as  riding  in  a 
car  drawn  by  hobgoblins. 

Lach'e-sis.  One  of  the  three  fates;  the  one  that 
spun  the  thread  of  life. 

Ladon.  The  dragon  who  guarded  the  apples  of  the 
Hesperides,  and  was  slain  by  Hercules.  Ladon  is  also  the 
name  of  the  father  of  Daphne  and  Metope. 

Lse'ding.  In  Norse  mythology  the  strong  chain  with 
which  the  wolf,  Fenris,  was  bound.  He  easily  broke  the 
chain  and  from  this  legend  has  grown  the  saying,  "to 
get  loose  out  of  Lading."  A  stronger  chain  was  known 
as  Droma. 

Laer'tes.  Mythical  King  of  Ithaca  and  father  of 
Ulysses.  Laertes  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and 
in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  He  was  still  alive 
when  Ulysses  returned  to  Ithaca,  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 
During  the  absence  of  Ulysses  he  had  withdrawn  to  the 
country  in  grief  and  bowed  with  age,  and  Penelope,  the 
wife  of  Ulysses,  is  represented  as  weaving  the  shroud  of 
her  father-in-law,  the  work  with  which  she  put  aside  her 
many  suitors. 

La'ius.  King  of  Thebes,  son  of  Labdacus,  husband 
of  Jooasta,  and  father  of  Oedipus,  by  whom  he  was 
slain. 

La'mla.  A  monstrous  specter,  which  was  believed 
to  devour  human  beings. 

Laoc'oon.  Son  of  Priam  and  priest  of  Apollo.  He 
opposed  the  reception  of  the  Wooden  Horse  into  Troy, 
thinking  it  some  artifice  of  the  deceitful  Greeks.  He  ana 
his  two  sons  were  killed  by  two  monstrous  serpents  which 
came  from  the  sea.  The  people  believed  that  they  were 
struck  by  the  gods  because  of  their  interference.  The 
death  of  Laocoon  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent and  celebrated  works  of  ancient  sculpture  still 
in  existence;  it  was  discovered  in  1506  at  Rome,  and  is 
now  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  It  is  a  single  block  of 
marble,  and  was  the  work  of  Agesander  of  Rhodes  and 
two  other  sculptors. 

Laodam'a.  The  wife  of  Protesilaus,  who  was  slain 
before  Troy.  She  begged  to  be  allowed  to  converse  with 
her  dead  husband  for  only  three  hours,  and  her  request 
was  granted.  Hermes  (Mercury)  led  Protesilaus  back 
to  the  upper  world ;  and  when  Protesilaus  died  a  second 
time,  Laodama  died  with  him. 

Laom'edon.  The  king  who  built  the  walls  of  Troy 
assisted  by  Neptune  and   Apollo,  who  had  displeased 


334 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Jupiter  and  were  sent  to  work  for  wages.  Neptune  built 
the  walls  of  Troy,  while  Apollo  tended  the  king's  flocks 
on  Mount  Ida.  When  the  two  gods  had  done  their  work, 
LaomedoD  refused  the  reward  he  had  promised  and  ex- 
pelled them  from  his  dominions.  Neptune  sent  a  sea- 
monster  to  ravage  the  country;  and  a  maiden,  chosen 
by  lot,  was  from  time  to  time  sacrificed  to  propitiate  it. 

Liap'ithse.  A  mythical  people  of  Thessaly,  noted 
for  their  defeat  of  the  Centaurs. 

La'res.  Inferior  gods  at  Rome,  and  known  as  do- 
mestic Lares  and  public  I^ares.  There  was  in  every 
house  their  proper  sanctuary  (lararium)  and  altar. 
They  seem  to  have  been  viewed  as  the  spirits  of  the  de- 
parted ancestors,  the  fathers  and  forefathers  of  the  fam- 
ily, who  sought  the  welfare  of  their  descendants.  The 
Lares  and  the  Penates  are  often  confounded,  but  were 
not  the  same.  ".The  Penates  were  originally  gods,  the 
powers  of  nature  personified.  The  Lares  were  originally 
themselves  human  beings,  who,  becoming  pure  spirits 
after  death,  loved  still  to  hover  round  the  dwelling  they 
once  inhabited;  to  watch  over  its  safety,  and  to  guard 
it  as  the  faithful  dog  guards  its  master." 

Lati'nus.  A  king  of  Latium,  son  of  Faunus  and 
the  nymph  Marica,  brother  of  Lavinius,  husband  of 
Amata,  and  father  of  Lavinia,  whom  he  gave  in  marriage 
to  ^neas.  Italy  was  so  called  from  Lavinia,  daughter 
of  Lati'nus  and  wife  of  .(Eneas.  iEneas  built  a  town 
which  he  called  Lavin'ium,  capital  of  La'tium.  Accord- 
ing to  one  account,  Latinus,  after  his  death,  became 
Jupiter  I-atiaris,  just  as  Romulus  became  Quirinus. 

Lat'mus.  A  mountain  in  Cairia.  It  was  the  niytho- 
logical  scene  of  the  story  of  Selene  (Luna)  and  Endy- 
mion. 

Lato'na.  Daughter  of  Coeus,  a  Titan,  and  Phcebe,  and 
by  Jupiter,  the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  The  love 
of  the  king  of  the  gods  procured  for  her  the  hatred  of  Juno. 

Lavin'ia.  The  daughter  of  Latinus  and  Amata,  be- 
trothed to  Turnus,  but  married  to  .^Eneas.  .(Eneas 
founded  the  town  of  Lavinium,  called  after  Lavinia,  the 
daughter  of  Latinus. 

Le'da.  The  mother  of  Helen.  Jupiter  visited  her 
in  the  form  of  a  swan,  and  "Leda  ancl  the  Swan"  has 
been  a  favorite  subject  with  artists.  Correggio  and 
Michael  Angelo  have  both  left  paintings  of  the  same 
subject. 

Lcpra'caun,  The  fairy  shoemaker  of  Ireland,  so 
called  because  he  is  always  seen  working  at  a  single  shoe. 

Les'trlgons.  A  mythical  race  of  giants  who  lived  in 
Sicily.  Ulysses  sent  two  of  his  men  to  request  that  he 
and  his  crew  might  land,  but  the  king  ate  one  and  the 
other  fled.  The  Lestrigons  assembled  on  the  coast  and 
threw  stones  against  Ulysses  and  his  crew.  Ulysses  fled 
with  much  loss. 

Leth'e.  The  river  that  separates  Hades  from  the 
Elysian  fields.  The  Greeks  believed  in  a  magical  power 
of  the  waters  of  this  river,  which  the  souls  of  all  the  dead 
are  obliged  to  taste,  that  they  may  forget  everything 
said  and  done  in  the  earth. 

Lil'ber.  A  name  frequently  given  by  the  Roman 
poets  to  the  Greek  Bacchus  or  Dionysus.  But  the  god 
Liber  and  the  goddess  Libera  were  ancient  Italian  di- 
vinities, presiding  over  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and 
the  fertility  of  the  fields.  Hence  they  were  worshiped 
in  early  times  in  conjunction  with  Ceres.  The  vine  and 
ivy  and  the  panther  were  especially  sacred  to  him. 
Goats  were  usually  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him,  because 
they  are  particularly  injurious  to  the  vine. 

Li'bertas.  The  goddess  of  liberty,  to  whom  several 
temples  were  erected  at  Rome.  Libertas  is  represented 
in  works  of  art  as  a  matron,  with  the  pileus,  the  symbol 
of  liberty,  or  a  wreath  of  laurel.  Sometimes  she  appears 
holding  the  Phrygian  cap  in  her  hand. 

Lib^ssa.     Queen  of  fays  and  fairies. 

Libiti'na.  An  ancient  goddess  of  Rome,  who  pre- 
sided over  the  burial  of  the  dead.  At  her  temple  at 
Rome  everything  necessary  for  funerals  was  kept,  and 
persons  might  there  either  buy  or  hire  such  things. 
Hence  a  person  undertaking  the  burial  of  a  person  (an 
undertaker)  was  called  ".libitinarius,"  and  his  business 
"libitina." 

Liidskial'fa.  The  throne  of  Alfader,  whence  he  can 
view  the  whole  universe. 

L.if,  In  Norse  mythology  the  name  given  to  man 
who  is  to  occupy  the  purified  earth  when  goodness 
resumes  its  sway. 

Lirinau.  In  American  Indian  folk-lore  Lilinau  was 
wooed  by  a  phantom.  She  followed  his  green  waving 
plume  through  the  forest,  and  was  never  seen  again. 

Li'lith.  In  Hebrew  mythology  a  female  specter  who 
lies  in  wait  for  children  in  order  to  destroy  them.  The 
older  traditions  tell  of  Lilith  as  a  former  wife  of  Adam 
and  the  mother  of  demons.  Amulets  were  worn  as  pro- 
tection from  her  powers. 


LiOb  aircin.  In  Irish  mythical  tales  a  fairy  shoe- 
maker resembling  an  old  man,  who  resorts  to  out-of-the- 
way  places,  where  he  is  discovered  by  the  noise  of  hia 
hammer.  He  is  rich,  and  while  anyone  keeps  his  eye 
fixed  upon  him  cannot  escape,  but  the  moment  the  eye 
is  withdrawn  he  vanishes. 

Lo'fen.     The  Scandinavian  god  who  guards  friendship. 

Lof'ua.  The  Scandinavian  goddess  who  reconciles 
lovers. 

liO'kl.     The  great  god  of  fire  in  Norse  mythology. 

Lo'rc-lel'.  In  German  legend  a  siren  who  haunted  a 
rock  of  the  same  name  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
She  combed  her  hair  with  a  golden  comb,  and  sang  a 
wild  song  which  enticed  fishermen  and  sailors  to  destruc- 
tion on  the  rocks  and  rapids  at  the  foot  of  the  precipice. 
In  Northern  mythology  Lorelei  is  represented  as  im- 
mortal, a  daughter  of  the  Rhine,  and  dwelling  in  the 
river  bed. 

Lo'tls.  A  nymph,  who,  to  escape  the  embraces  of 
Priapus,  was  metamorphosed  into  a  tree,  called  after 
her  Lotus. 

Lubins.  A  species  of  goblins  in  Normandy  that  take 
the  form  of  wolves,  and  frequent  churchyards.  They 
are  very  timorous,  and  take  flight  at  the  slightest  noise. 

Lu'cifer.  As  the  bringer  of  light,  is  the  name  of  the 
planet  Venus,  when  seen  in  the  morning  before  sunrise. 
The  same  planet  was  called  "Plesperus,"  when  itappeared 
in  the  heavens  after  sunset. 

Lu'na.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and  Theia, 
and  was  distinct  in  name,  descent,  and  story,  from  Diana, 
who  was  taken  as  goddess  of  the  moon.  To  Luna  was 
ascribed  great  influence  in  relation  to  the  birth  of  men. 
Luna  seems  to  have  been  especially  worshiped  by  the 
Atlantides. 

Lycome'des.  A  king  in  the  Island  of  Scyros,  to 
whose  court  Achilles  was  sent,  disguised  as  a  maiden, 
by  his  mother,  Thetis,  who  was  anxious  to  prevent  his 
going  to  the  Trojan  War.  Some  traditions  say  that 
Lycomedes  treacherously  killed  Thesus  by  throwing 
him  from  a  rock. 

3Iaenalaus.  A  mountain  in  Arcadia,  extending- 
from  Megalopolis  to  Tegea,  celebrated  as  the  favorite 
haunt  of  the  god  Pan.  The  Roman  poets  frequently 
use  the  adjectives  "Maenalius"  and  "Maenalis"  as 
equivalent  to  Arcadian. 

Mae'ra.  The  dog  of  Icarios.  Icarios  having  made 
wine,  gave  it  to  some  shepherds,  who,  thinking  them- 
selves poisoned,  killed  him;  recovering  themselves,  they 
buried  him.  His  daughter,  Erigone,  being  shown  the 
spot  by  his  faithful  dog  Moera,  hung  herself  through 
grief. 

Mam'mon.  In  demonology,  placed  at  the  head  of 
nine  ranks  of  demons.  Also  a  Syriac  word  used  in  the 
Scriptures  to  signify  either  riches  or  the  god  of  riches. 
By  poetic  license,  Milton  makes  Mammon  one  of  the 
fallen  angels. 

Ma'nes.  In  Roman  mythology  these  are  found 
among  the  demons  of  the  Genii.  Although  often  spoken 
of  as  the  spirits  or  souls  of  the  departed,  they  seem  more 
commonly  to  have  been  considered  as  guardians  of  the 
deceased,  whose  office  was  to  watch  over  their  graves, 
and  hinder  any  disturbance  of  their  tranquillity. 

Ma'ni.  Name  given  in  ancient  Norse  mythology  to 
the  moon.  Later  known  as  the  son  of  Mundilfori; 
taken  to  heaven  by  the  gods  to  drive  the  moon-car. 
He  is  followed  by  a  wolf,  which,  when  time  shall  be  no 
more,  will  devour  both  Mani  and  his  sister  Sol. 

Man'itou.     The  great  spirit  of  American  Indians.' 

Mars.  The  god  of  war  and  battles  was  a  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Juno,  and  educated  in  Thrace.  He  was 
viewed  as  presiding  over  rude  and  fierce  war,  the  origin 
of  Which  was  ascribed  to  him,  while  Minerva  had  the 
credit  of  inventing  tactics  and  the  proper  military  art. 
The  Romans  regarded  him  as  the  father  of  Romulus, 
and  the  founder  and  protector  of  their  nation. 

Mar'syas.  The  Phrygian  flute-player  who  challenged 
Apollo  to  a  contest  of  skill,  and,  being  beaten  by  the  god, 
was  flayed  alive  for  his  presumption.  From  his  blqod 
arose  the  river  so  called.  The  flute  on  which  Marsyaa 
played  was  one  A  the' na  had  thrown  away,  and,  being 
filled  with  the  breath  of  the  goddess,  discoursed  most 
excellent  music. 

Max'imu.s.  One  of  the  appellations  of  Jupiter,  being 
the  greatest  of  the  gods. 

Medc'a.  A  daughter  of  jEetes,  skilled  in  charms  and 
witchcraft.  She  had  scarcely  beheld  Jason,  when,  through 
the  influence  and  disposal  of  the  gods,  a  tender  affection 
for  the  hero  was  raised  in  her  bosom,  which  soon  Idndled 
to  a  flame  of  the  most  violent  passion.  Jason  went  to 
the  temple  of  Hecate  to  supplicate  the  mighty  goddess, 
where  he  was  met  by  Meclea.  She  disclosed  her  loye 
to  him,  at  the  same  time  promising  her  assistance  in 
the  dangers  which  threatened  him,  and  her  powerful 


LITERATURE 


335 


help  in  accomplishing  his  glorious  undertaking,  provided 
he  would  swear  fidelity  to  her.  Jason  complied,  and 
Medea,  reciprocating  the  oath,  rendered  the  hero  invin- 
cible by  means  of  her  magical  incantations. 

Medu'sa.  One  of  the  three  Gorgons  whose  hair  was 
entwined  with  hissing  serpents,  and  their  bodies  were 
covered  with  impenetrable  scales:  they  had  wings,  and 
brazen  claws,  and  enormous  teeth,  and  whoever  looked 
upon  them  was  turned  to  stone.  Medusa,  who  alone  of 
the  sisters  was  mortal,  was,  according  to  some  legends, 
at  first  a  beautiful  maiden,  but  her  hair  was  changed 
into  serpents  by  Athena  (Minerva),  in  consequence  of 
her  having  become  by  Poseidon  (Neptune)  the  mother 
of  Chrysaor  and  Pegasus,  in  one  of  Athena's  temples. 
She  was  killed  by  Perseus,  and  her  head  was  fixed  on 
the  shield  of  Minerva.  From  her  blood  sprang  the 
winged  horse,  Pegasus. 

Megae'ra.  One  of  the  Furies;  sometimes  said  to 
personify  a  guilty  conscience.  The  names  of  the  Furies 
were:  Tisiphone,  whose  particular  work  was  to  originate 
fatal  epidemics  and  contagion;  Alecto,  to  whom  was 
ascribed  the  devastations  and  cruelties  of  war;  and 
Megsera,  the  author  of  insanity  and  murders.  Temples 
were  consecrated  to  them  among  both  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans,  and  among  the  latter  a  festival  also. 

Me'gin-glord.  A  magic  belt  worn  bv  the  god  Thor. 
He  once  proposed  to  show  his  strength  by  lifting  great 
weights,  but  when  challenged  to  jfick  up  the  giant's  cat, 
he  tugged  and  strained,  only  to  succeed  in  raising  one 
paw  from  the  floor,  although  he  had  taken  the  precau- 
tion to  enhance  his  strength  as  much  as  possible  by 
tightening  his  belt  Megin-giord. 

Melea'ger,  Son  of  the  Calydonian  King  Oeneus; 
took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  by  his 
skill  in  throwing  the  javelin. 

Mel'ia.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Oceanus  and  mother 
of  Phoroneus,  one  of  the  fabulous  kings  of  Argos. 

Mel'ian  Nymphs.  The  nymphs  sent  to  bear  the 
infant  Jupiter  to  the  cave  on  Mount  Ida. 

Mellcer'tes.  ^  son  of  the  Theban  King  Athamas 
by  Ino.     He  was  metamorphosed  into  a  sea-god. 

Melissa.  A  nymph,  said  to  have  discovered  the  use 
of  honey,  and  from  whom  bees  were  believed  to  have 
received  their  name.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  name  really  came  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 
honey,  and  was  hence  given  to  nymphs. 

Mello'na.  One  of  the  rural  divinities,  the  goddess  of 
bees. 

Mel-pom'e-ne.  One  of  the  Muses.  Melpomene, 
the  Muse  of  tragedy,  was  supposed  to  preside  over 
melancholy  subjects  of  all  kinds. 

Melusi  na.  The  most  noted  among  French  fairies. 
She  was  condemned  to  become  every  Saturday  a  serpent 
from  the  waist  downward,  as  a  punishment  for  having, 
by  means  of  a  charm,  inclosed  her  father  in  a  high 
mountain,  in  order  to  avenge  an  injury  her  mother  had 
received  from  him.  She  married  Raymond,  Count  of 
Poitiers,  and,  having  been  seen  by  him  during  her  loath- 
some transformation  —  in  violation  of  his  solemn  prom- 
ise never  to  visit  her  on  a  Saturday  —  was  immured  in 
a  subterranean  dungeon  of  the  castle  of  Lusignan. 

Mem'non.  A  son  of  Tithonus  and  Aurora,  and  King 
of  Ethiopia.  After  the  fall  of  Hector,  he  went  to  the 
assistance  of  his  uncle,  Priam,  with  ten  thousand  men, 
and  displayed  great  courage  in  the  defense  of  Troy,  but 
was  at  length  slain  by  Ajax,  or  by  Achilles,  in  single 
combat,  whereupon  he  was  changed  into  a  bird. 

3Ien'des.  An  Egyptian  god  like  Pan.  He  was  wor- 
shiped in  the  form  of  a  goat. 

Menela'us.  A  son  of  Plisthenes  or  Atreus,  and 
younger  brother  of  Agamemnon,  was  King  of  Laceda?- 
mon,  and  married  to  the  beautiful  Helen,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Hermione.  His  early  life,  the 
rape  of  his  wife  by  Paris,  and  the  expedition  of  the 
Greeks  to  Asia  to  punish  the  Trojans,  are  related  under 
Agamemnon.  In  the  Trojan  War  Menelaus  killed  many 
Trojans,  and  would  have  slain  Paris  also  in  single  com- 
bat had  not  the  latter  been  carried  off  by  Aphrodite 
(Venus)  in  a  cloud. 

Menoe'eeus.  (1)  A  Theban,  grandson  of  Pentheus, 
and  father  of  Hipponome,  Jocasta,  and  Creon.  (2) 
Grandson  of  the  former,  and  son  of  Creon,  put  an  end 
to  his  life  because  Tiresias  had  declared  that  his  death 
would  bring  victory  to  his  country,  when  the  seven 
Argive  heroes  marched  against  Thebes. 

Mence'tius.  Brother  of  Atlas  and  son  of  one  of  the 
Titans.  On  account  of  his  pride  and  strength  he  was 
killed  by  Jupiter's  lightnings. 

Men'tor.  A  friend  of  Ulysses  in  Ithaca,  whose  form 
Minerva  assumed,  to  give  instructions  to  Ulysses'  son 
Telemachus,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Pylos  and 
Lacedaemon. 


Meph'ls-toph'e-Ies.  One  of  the  seven  chief  devils 
in  the  old  demonology,  the  second  of  the  fallen  arch- 
angels, and  the  most  powerful  of  the  infernal  legions 
after  Satan.  He  figures  in  the  old  legend  of  Dr.  Faustus 
as  the  familiar  spirit  of  that  magician.  To  modern 
readers  he  is  chiefly  known  as  the  cold,  scoffing,  relent- 
less fiend  of  Goethe's  "Faust,"  and  the  attendant  demon 
(Mephistophilis)  in  Marlowe's  "Faustus." 

Mercury.  Has  been  identified  with  the  Greek  Her- 
mes. The  Romans  of  later  times  transferred  all  the 
attributes  and  myths  of  Hermes  to  their  own  god.  [Her- 
mes.] The  Fetiales,  however,  never  recognized  the 
identity;  and,  instead  of  the  "caduceus,"  they  used  a 
sacred  branch  as  the  emblem  of  peace.  The  resem- 
blance between  Mercurius  and  Hermes  is  indeed  very 
slight.  The  worship  of  Mercury  was  very  common 
among  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  many 
temples  were  consecrated  to  him.  At  Rome  there  was 
a  particular  festival  held  for  the  expiation  of  merchants, 
in  honor  of  Mercury. 

Meri'ones.  A  Cretan  hero,  son  of  Molus,  was  one 
of  the  bravest  heroes  in  the  "Trojan  War,  and  usually 
fought  along  with  his  friend  Idomeneus. 

Mer-maids.  Wave  maidens  of  Northern  mythology 
and  classed  with  nymphs  in  Grecian  and  Roman.  They 
were  generally  represented  as  young  and  beautiful  vir- 
gins, partially  covered  with  a  veil  or  thin  cloth,  bearing 
in  their  hands  vases  of  water,  or  shells,  leaves,  or  grass, 
or  having  something  as  a  symbol  of  their  appropriate 
offices.     They  were  attendants  of  the  gods. 

Me'u.  In  Hindu  mythology,  a  sacred  mountain, 
80,000  leagues  high,  situated  in  the  center  of  the  world. 
It  is  the  abode  of  Indra,  and  abounds  with  every  charm 
that  can  be  imagined. 

Mi'das.  In  mythology,  known  as  King  of  Phrygia, 
who  restored  to  Bacchus  his  nurse  and  preceptor  Silenus, 
and  received  as  a  compensation  the  fatal  attribute  of 
turning  into  gold  everything  he  touched.  But  this 
proved  to  be  very  inconvenient,  as  it  prevented  him 
from  eating  and  drinking,  and  he  prayed  that  the  gift 
might  be  revoked.  At  the  command  of  the  god,  he 
washed  in  the  Pactolus,  the  sands  of  which  became,  in 
consequence,  mixed  with  gold.  Another  tradition  is, 
that  in  a  musical  contest  between  Pan  and  Apollo,  he 
gave  judgment  in  favor  of  the  satyr;  whereupon  Apollo 
in  contempt  gave  the  king  a  pair  of  ass's  ears.  Midas, 
hid  them  under  his  Phrygian  cap;  but  his  servant, 
who  used  to  cut  his  hair,  discovered  them,  and  was  so 
pleased  with  the  "joke,"  which  he  durst  not  mention, 
that  he  dug  a  hole  in  the  earth,  and  relieved  his  mind  by 
whispering  in  it,  "Midas  has  ass's  ears." 

Mld'gard.  In  Scandinavian  mythology  the  name 
given  to  the  earth.  Out  of  the  giant's  flesh  they  fash- 
ioned Midgard  (middle  garden),  as  the  earth  was  called, 
which  was  placed  in  the  exact  center  of  the  vast  space, 
and  hedged  all  round  with  Ymir's  eyebrows  which  formed 
its  bulwarks  or  ramparts.  The  solid  portion  of  Midgard 
was  surrounded  by  the  giant's  blood  or  sweat,  which 
now  formed  the  ocean,  while  his  bones  made  the  hills, 
his  flat  teeth  the  cliffs,  and  his  curly  hair  the  trees  and 
all  vegetation. 

Midgard  Sormen  (earth's  monster).  The  great  ser- 
pent that  lay  in  the  abyss  at  the  root  of  the  celestial 
ash.     Child  of  Loki. 

Mi'mir.  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  god  of 
wisdom.  Also  god  of  the  ocean,  which  is  called  "Mir- 
mir's  well,"  in  which  wit  and  wisdom  lay  hidden,  and  of 
which  he  drank  every  morning  from  the  horn  Gjallar. 
Odin  once  drank  from  this  fountain,  and  by  doing  so 
became  the  wisest  of  gods  and  men;  but  he  purchased 
the  privilege  and  distinction  at  the  cost  of  one  eye, 
which  Mimir  exacted  from  him. 

Miner'va.  Under  the  name  of  Minerva  among  the 
Romans  and  of  Athena  among  the  Greeks,  ancient  fic- 
tion personified  and  deified  the  idea  of  high  intelligence 
and  wisdom.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  sprung 
from  his'head.  The  Greeks  ascribed  to  this  goddess  the 
invention  of  many  arts  and  sciences,  which  had  a  great 
influence  on  their  civilization.  She  was  regarded  as 
inventress  of  the  flute,  of  embroidery  and  spinning,  the 
use  of  the  olive,  and  various  instruments  of  war;  in 
short,  of  most  works  indicating  superior  intelligence  or 
skill.  Arachne's  contest  with  her  in  working  with  the 
needle,  and  consequent  despair  and  transformation  are 
beautifully  described  by  Ovid.  The  city  of  Athens  was 
consecrated  to  Minerva,  and  boasted  of  receiving  its 
name   from    her. 

Minos.  Son  of  LycastUs,  and  grandson  of  the  former, 
was  likewise  a  king  and  lawgiver  of  Crete.  In  order  to 
avenge  the  wrong  done  to  his  son  Androgeos  at  Athens, 
he  made  war  against  the  Athenians,  and  compelled 
them  to  send  to  Crete  every  year,  as  a  tribute,  seven 
youths  and  seven  maidens,  to  be  devoured  in  the  laby- 


336 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


rinth  by  the  Minotaurus.  From  Minos  we  have  Minois, 
a  daughter  or  a  female  descendant  of  Minos,  as  Ariadne, 
and  the  adjectives  Minoius  and  Minous,  used  by  the 
poets  as  equivalent  to  Cretan. 

Mlno'taur.  A  celebrated  monster  with  the  head  of 
a  bull  and  the  body  of  a  man.  The  labyrinth  in  which 
it  was  kept  was  constructed  by  Daedalus.  This  monster 
was  slain  by  Theseus,  with  the  assistance  of  Ariadne, 
the  daughter  of  Minos.  [Theseus.]  Daedalus  having 
fled  from  Crete  to  escape  the  wrath  of  Minos,  Minos  fol- 
lowed him  to  Sicily,  and  was  there  slain  by  Cocalus  and 
his  daughters. 

Mith'ras.  In  Persian  mythology,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal gods  of  the  ancient  Persians,  a  personification  of 
the  sun.  He  was  regarded  as  a  mediator  between  the 
two  opposite  deities,  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  or  the  prin- 
ciple of  good  and  the  principle  of  evil. 

MJoJnir.  From  mythology  of  northern  lands.  The 
name  of  Thor's  celebrated  hammer  —  a  type  of  the 
thunderbolt  —  which,  however  far  it  might  be  cast,  was 
never  lost,  as  it  always  returned  to  his  hand;  and  which, 
whenever  he  wished,  became  so  small  that  he  could  put 
it  in  his  pocket. 

Mnemos'yne.  Mother  of  the  Muses  and  goddess  of 
memory.  Jupiter  courted  the  goddess  in  the  guise  of  a 
shepherd. 

Mnes'theus.  A  Trojan,  and  a  companion  of  ^neas 
in  his  voyage  to  Italy;  the  reputed  progenitor  of  the 
family  of  the  Memmii  in  Rome.  At  the  funeral  games. 
by  which  yEneas  celebrated  the  death  of  his  father, 
Anchises,  Mnestheus  took  part  in  a  naval  contest,  and, 
though  not  the  victor,  obtained  a  prize  for  skill  and 
energy. 

Moakkibat.  A  class  of  angels,  according  to  the 
Mohammedan  mythology.  Two  angels  of  this  class  at- 
tend every  child  of  Adam  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave. 
At  sunset  they  fly  up  with  the  record  of  the  deeds  done 
since  sunrise.  Every  good  deed  is  entered  ten  times  by 
the  recording  angel  on  the  credit  or  right  side  of  his 
ledger,  but  when  an  evil  deed  is  reported  the  angel 
waits  seven  hours,  "if  haply  in  that  time  the  evil-doer 
may  repent." 

Moi'rae.  The  Greek  name  for  Parcae  or  the  Fates. 
These  grave  and  mighty  goddesses  were  represented  by 
the  earliest  artists  with  staffs  or  scepters,  the  symbol  of 
dominion. 

Morpheus.  The  son  of  Sleep  and  the  god  of  dreams. 
The  name  signifies  the  fashioner  or  molder,  because 
he  shaped  or  formed  the  dreams  which  appeared  to  the 
sleeper. 

Mowls.  The  bridegroom  of  Snow,  who  (according 
to  American  Indian  tradition)  wooed  and  won  a  beautiful 
bride;  but  when  morning  dawned,  Mowis  left  the  wigwam, 
and  melted  into  the  sunshine.  The  bride  hunted  for  him 
night  and  day  in  the  forests,  but  never  saw  him  more. 

Muses.  Nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne, 
goddesses  of  poetry,  history,  and  other  arts  and  sciences. 
Calliope  was  the  muse  of  eloquence  and  heroic  poetry 
(to  her  the  ancients  gave  precedence) ;  Clio,  of  history ; 
Erato,  of  amorous  poetry;  Euterpe,  of  music;  Mel- 
pomene, of  tragedy;  Polyhymnia,  of  eloquence  and  imi- 
tation; Terpsichore,  of  dancing;  Thalia,  of  comic  and 
lyric  poetry;  and  Urania,  of  astronomy.  Their  usual 
residence  was  Mount  Parnassus  in  Helicon. 

Mysterious  Three,  The,  of  Scandinavian  mythology 
were  "Har"  (the  Mighty),  the  "Like-Mighty,"  and  the 
"Third  Person,"  who  sat  on  three  thrones  above  the 
rainbow.  Then  came  the  "^Esir,"  of  which  Odin  was 
chief,  who  lived  in  Asgard  (between  the  rainbow  and 
earth);  next  come  the  "Vanir,"  or  gods  of  the  ocean, 
air,  and  clouds,  of  which  deities  Niord  was  chief. 

Myr'midons.  The  trusty  followers  of  Achilles.  They 
are  said  to  have  inhabited  originally  the  island  of  JEgina., 
and  to  have  emigrated  with  Peleus  into  Thessaly;  but 
modern  critics,  on  the  contrary,  suppose  that  a  colony 
of  them  emigrated  from  Thessaly  into  ./Egina.  The 
Myrmidons  disappear  from  history  at  a  later  period'. 
The  ancients  derived  their  name  either  from  a  mythical 
ancestor.  Myrmidon,  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Euryme- 
dusa,  and  father  of  Actor;  or  from  the  ants  in  ^Egina, 
which  were  supposed  to  have  been  metamorphosed  into 
men  in  the  time  of  JEacua. 

Na'ids.  The  nymphs  of  fresh  water,  whether  of 
rivers,  lakes,  brooks,  or  springs.  Many  of  these  nymphs 
presided  over  springs,  which  were  believed  to  inspire 
those  who  drank  of  them.  The  nymphs  themselves 
were,  therefore,  thought  to  be  endowed  with  prophetic 
power,  and  to  be  able  to  inspire  men.  Hence  all  per- 
sons in  a  state  of  rapture,  such  as  seers,  poets,  madmen, 
etc.,  were  said  to  be  caught  by  the  nymphs. 

Nar'aka.  The  hell  of  the  Hindus.  It  has  twenty- 
eight  divisions,  in  some  of  which  the  victims  are  mangled 


by  ravens  and  owls;  in  others  they  will  be  doomed  to 
swallow  cakes  boiling  hot,  or  walk  over  burning  sands. 

Narcls'sus.  The  beautiful  youth  Narcissus  was  son 
of  the  river-god  Cephissus  and  the  sea-nymph  Liriope. 
Echo,  who  was  enamored  of  him,  died  of  grief.  But 
Nemesis,  to  punish  him,  caused  him  to  see  his  own  image 
reflected  in  a  fountain,  whereupon  he  became  so  enamored 
of  it  that  he  gradually  pined  away,  until  he  was  meta- 
morphosed into  the  flower  which  bears  his  name.  Ac- 
cording to  another  tradition  Narcissus  had  a  sister  of 
remarkable  beauty,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached. 
She  resembled  him  in  features,  was  similarly  attired, 
and  accompanied  him  in  the  hunt.  She  died  young, 
and  Narcissus,  lamenting  her  death,  frequented  a  neigh- 
boring fountain  to  gaze  upon  his  own  image  in  its  stream. 
The  strong  resemblance  that  he  bore  to  his  sister  made 
his  own  reflection  appear  to  him,  as  it  were,  the  form  of 
her  whom  he  had  lost.  The  gods  looked  with  pity  upon 
his  grief,  and  changed  him  to  the  flower  that  bears  his 
name. 

Nausica'a.  A  daughter  of  Alcinous,  King  of  the 
Phaeacians,  and  Arete,  who  conducted  Ulysses  to  the 
court  of  her  father. 

Nec'tar.  Wine  conferring  immortality,  and  drunk 
by  the  gods. 

Ne'leus.  Son  of  Neptune  and  Tyro,  and  brother  to 
Pelias.  He  became  king  in  Peloponnesus;  was  the  father 
of  twelve  sons,  all  of'whom  were  killed  by  Hercules. 

Neme'an  Lion.  A  monstrous  lion,  near  the  forest 
of  NemEca,  wasted  the  surrounding  country  and  threat- 
ened destruction  to  the  herds.  Hercules  promised  to 
deliver  the  country  of  the  monster,  and  Thespius  re- 
warded Hercules  by  making  him  his  guest  so  long  as  the 
chase  lasted.  Hercules  slew  the  lion,  and  henceforth 
wore  its  skin  as  his  ordinary  garment,  and  its  mouth  and 
head  as  his  helmet.  Others  related  that  the  lion's  skin 
of  Hercules  was  taken  from  the  Nemean  lion.  This  great 
adventure  happened  while  he  was  watching  the  o.\en 
of  his  father. 

Nem'esls.  A  Greek  goddess,  who  measured  out  to 
mortals  happiness  and  misery,  and  visited  with  losses 
and  sufferings  all  who  were  blessed  with  too  many  gifts 
of  fortune.  This  is  the  character  in  which  she  appears 
in  the  earlier  Greek  writers;  but  subsequently  she  was 
regarded,  like  the  Erinyes  or  Furies,  as  the  goddess  who 
punished  crimes. 

Neoptol'emus.  The  son  of  Achilles.  Neoptolemus 
was  reared  in  Scyros,  in  the  palace  of  Lycomedes,  and 
was  brought  from  thence  by  Ulysses,  because  it  had  been 
prophesied  that  Neoptolemus  and  Phiioctetes  were 
necessary  for  the  capture  of  Troy.  At  Troy  Neoptole- 
mus showed  himself  worthy  of  his  great  father.  He  was 
one  of  the  heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse.  At 
the  capture  of  the  city  he  killed  Priam,  and  sacrificed 
Polyxena  to  the  spirit  of  his  fatlier. 

Nep'tune.  The  sea.  In  Roman  mythology  the  di- 
vine monarch  of  the  ocean.  The  principal  exploits  and 
merits  ascribed  to  Neptune  are,  the  assistance  to  Jupiter 
against  the  Titans;  the  building  of  the  walls  and  ram- 
parts of  Troy;  the  creation  and  taming  of  the  horse;  the 
raising  of  the  Island  Delos  out  of  the  sea;  and  the  de- 
struction of  Hippolytus  by  a  monster  from  the  deep. 
He  was  feared  also  as  the  author  of  earthquakes  and  del- 
uges, which  he  caused  or  checked  at  pleasure  by  his 
trident. 

Ne'relds.  Sea-nymphs,  generally  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  Mediterranean.  The  chief  characteristics 
of  these  minor  deities  of  the  sea  were  the  power  of  divina- 
tion and  ability  to  change  their  forms  at  pleasure.  __The 
daughters  of  Nereus  and  Doris  were  the  so-called  "Ne- 
reides," or  sea-nymphs,  fifty  in  number.  They  belonged 
to  the  train  of  Neptune  and  were  subservient  to  his  will. 

Ne'reus.  A  son  of  Pontus  and  Gwa,  and  husband  of 
Doris,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  the  fifty  Nereides. 

Nes'tor.  A  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  and  King  of 
Pylos  in  Triphylia.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Trojan  War,  acting  as  counselor  of  the  other  Grecian 
chiefs,  but  was  equally  distinguished  for  his  valof  in  the 
field  of  battle.  Homer  extols  his  wisdom,  justice,  brav- 
ery, and  eloquence.  He  lived  to  so  great  an  age  that  his 
advice  and  authority  were  deemed  equal  to  those  of  the 
immortal  gods. 

Nlckar  or  Hnlckar.  The  name  assumed  by  Odin 
when  he  personated  the  destroying  principle. 

Nlcneven.  A  gigantic  and  malignant  female  spirit  of 
the  old  popular  Scottish  mythology.  The  hag  is  repre- 
sented as  riding  at  the  head  of  witches  and  fairies  at 
Hallow-e'en. 

Nldhug.  The  dragon  that  gnaws  at  the  root  of  Yggd- 
rasil,  the  tree  of  the  universe  in  Scandinavian  mythology. 

Xlflhelm.  Mist-home  of  old  Norse  mythology.  The 
region  of  endless  cold  and  everlasting  night,  ruled  over 


LITERATURE 


337 


by  Hela.  It  consists  of  nine  worlds,  to  which  are  con- 
signed those  who  die  of  disease  or  old  age.  This  region 
existed  "from  the  beginning"  in  the  North,  and  in  the 
middle  thereof  was  the  well  Hvergelmeer,  from  which 
flowed  twelve  rivers. 

Nl'nus.  The  son  of  Belus,  the  husband  of  Semiramis, 
and  the  reputed  builder  of  Nineveh  and  founder  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy. 

Nl'o-be.  The  daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  the  wife  of 
Amphion,  King  of  Thebes.  Niobe  slighted  the  divinity 
of  Latona,  and  the  latter  engaged  both  her  children. 
Apollo  and  Diana,  to  avenge  her;  they,  by  their  arrows, 
slew  the  seven  sons  and  seven  daughters  of  Niobe,  who 
by  grief  was  changed  into  stone.  She  was  transported 
in  a  whirlwind  to  the  top  of  Mount  Sipylus,  where  she 
has  ever  since  remained,  her  tears  flowing  unceasingly. 

Niord.  The  Scandinavian  sea-god.  He  was  not  one 
of  the  iEsir.  Niord's  son  was  Frey  (the  fairy  of  the 
clouds),  and  his  daughter  was  Freyja.  His  home  was 
Noatun.  Niord  was  not  a  sea-god,  like  Neptune,  but 
the  spirit  of  water  and  air.  The  Scandinavian  Neptune 
was  ji^igir,  whose  wife  was  Skadi.  His  temples  were  near 
the  sea  shore  and  all  aquatic  plants  belonged  to  hifti. 

Ni'sus.  A  Trojan  youth  who  accompanied  jEneas 
to  Italy,  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  and  who  is  celebrated  for 
his  devoted  attachment  to  Euryalus. 

Nix.  Little  creatures  not  unlike  the  Scotch  brownie 
and  German  kobold.  They  wear  a  red  cap,  and  are  ever 
ready  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  the  industrious  and 
thrifty. 

Noko'mls.  Daughter  of  the  moon,  American  Indian 
myths.  Sporting  one  day  with  her  maidens  on  a  swing 
made  of  vine  canes,  a  rival  cut  the  swing,  and  Nokomis 
fell  to  earth,  where  she  gave  birth  to  a  daughter  named 
Weno'nah. 

Nornir  or  Norns.  The  three  fates  of  Scandinavian 
mythology,  past,  present,  and  future.  They  spin  the 
events  of  human  life,  sitting  under  the  ash-tree  Yggdrasil 
(Igg'-dra-sil'),  which  they  carefully  tend.  Their  names 
are  Urda  (the  past),  Verdandi  (the  present),  and  Skulda 
(the  future).  Besides  these  three  Norns,  every  human 
creature  has  a  personal  Norn  or  fate.  The  home  of  the 
Norns  is  called  in  Scandinavian  mythology  "Doomstead." 

Nox.  Goddess  of  night  was  considered  among  the 
ancients  as  one  of  their  oldest  divinities,  and  was  wor- 
shiped by  them  with  great  solemnity.  In  the  temple 
of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  a  famous  statue  of  her.  She 
became  the  mother  of  jEther  (air),  and  Dies  (day). 
She  is  likewise,  according  to  some,  the  mother  of  the 
inexorable  Parcse;  of  the  avenging  Nemesis,  who  pun- 
ishes hidden  crime;  of  the  Furies,  who  torment  the 
wicked;  of  Charon,  the  ferry-man  of  hell;  and  of  the 
twin  brothers.  Sleep  and  Death. 

Nymphs.  The  nymphs  of  ancient  fiction  were  viewed 
as  holding  a  sort  of  intermediate  place  between  men  and 
gods,  as  to  the  duration  of  life;  not  being  absolutely 
immortal,  yet  living  a  vast  length  of  time.  Oceanus  was 
considered  as  their  common  father,  although  the  descent 
of  different  nymphs  is  given  differently.  Their  usual 
residence  was  in  grottoes  or  water-caves.  Their  particu- 
lar offices  were  different,  and  they  were  distinguished 
by  various  names  according  to  the  several  objects  of 
their  patronage,  or  the  regions  in  which  they  chiefly 
resided.  Thus  there  were  the  "Oreades,"  or  nymphs 
of  the  mountains;  "Naiades,"  "Nereides,"  and  "Po- 
tamides,"  nymphs  of  the  fountains,  seas,  and  rivers; 
"Dryades"  and  " Hamadryades,"  nymphs  of  the  woods; 
"Napa^oe,"  nymphs  of  the  vales. 

Oce'anids.  Nymphs  of  the  ocean,  said  to  be  three 
thousand  in  number;    daughters  of  Oceanus. 

Oce'anus.  The  god  of  the  water  which  was  believed 
to  surround  the  whole  earth,  is  called  the  son  of  Heaven 
and  Earth,  the  husband  of  Tethys,  and  the  father 
of  all  the  river-gods  and  water-nymphs.  The  early 
Greeks  regarded  the  earth  as  a  flat  circle,  which  was 
encompassed  by  a  river  perpetually  flowing  round  it, 
and  this  river  was  Oceanus.  Out  of  and  into  this 
river  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  supposed  to  rise 
and  set:  and  on  its  banks  were  the  abodes  of  the  dead. 
Before  Neptune,  Oceanus,  son  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  husband  of  Thetis,  was  honored  as  god  of 
the  sea. 

Odhserlr.  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  mead  or 
nectar  made  of  Kvasir's  blood,  kept  in  three  jars.  The 
second  of  these  jars  is  called  "Sohn,"  and  the  "Bohn." 
Probably  the  nectar  is  the  "spirit  of  poetry." 

Odin.     The  king  of  gods  and  men,  and  the  reputed 

Erogenitor  of  the  Scandinavian  kings.  He  corresponds 
oth  to  the  Jupiter  and  the  Mars  of  classical  mythology. 
As  god  of  war,  he  holds  his  court  in  Valhalla,  surrounded 
by  all  warriors  who  have  fallen  in  battle,  and  attended 
by  two  wolves,  to  whom  he  gives  his  share  of  food; 


for  he  himself  lives  on  wine  alone.  On  his  shoulders 
he  carries  two  ravens,  Hugin  (mind)  and  Munin  (mem- 
ory), whom  he  dispatches  every  day  to  bring  him  news 
of  all  that  is  doing  throughout  the  world.  He  has 
three  great  treasures:  namely,  Sleipnir,  an  eight-footed 
horse  of  marvelous  swiftness;  Gungnir,  a  spear,  which 
never  fails  to  strike  what  it  is  aimed  at;  and  Draupnir, 
a  magic  ring,  which  every  ninth  night  drops  eight  other 
rings  of  equal  value.  The  German  tribes  worshiped 
Odin  under  the  name  of  "Woden."'  The  fourth  day  of 
the  week,  Wednesday  (i.  e.,  Woden's  day),  was  sacred 
to  him. 

O'dur.  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  husband  of 
Freyja,  whom  he  deserted.  He  abandoned  his  wife  on 
her  loss  of  youth  and  beauty,  and  was  punished. 

Odys'seus.     A  Greek  form  of  the  name  Ulysses. 

CEd'i-pus.  He  was  the  son  of  Laius,  King  of  Thebes, 
and  his  wife  Jocasta.  Laius,  having  been  warned  by 
an  oracle  that  his  throne  and  life  were  in  danger  from 
this  son,  gave  him  to  a  herdsman  to  be  killed.  But  his 
life  was  saved,  and  he  was  reared  by  a  peasant.  After- 
wards he  ransomed  Thebes  from  the  Sphinx  by  answer- 
ing her  riddle,  unwittingly  killed  his  own  father,  married 
Jocasta,  and  became  King  of  Thebes.  Subsequently 
discovering  his  parentage,  he  destroyed  his  eyesight, 
and  wandered  away  from  Thebes,  attended  by  his 
daughter,  Antigone,  who  remained  with  him  till  his 
death. 

O'gres  of  nursery  mythology  are  giants  of  very 
malignant  dispositions,  who  live  on  human  flesh. 

Olym'pus.  A  range  of  mountains  in  Thessaly,  the 
abode  of  the  gods.  A  gate  of  clouds,  kept  by  the  god- 
desses named  the  Seasons,  unfolded  to  permit  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Celestials  to  earth,  or  to  receive  them  on 
their  return. 

Ophi'on.  (1)  One  of  the  Titans.  (2)  One  of  the 
companions  of  Cadmus.  (3)  Father  of  the  Centaur 
Amycus,  who  is  hence  called  "Ophionides." 

Ops.  A  goddess  of  plenty,  fertility,  and  power,  the 
wife  of  Saturn,  and  the  patroness  of  husbandry;  iden- 
tical with  Cybele,  or  Rhea. 

Ores'tes.  The  son  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytem- 
nestra.  On  the  murder  of  his  father  by  ./Egisthus  and 
Clytemnestra,  Orestes  was  saved  from  the  same  fate 
by  his  sister  Electra,  who  caused  him  to  be  secretly 
carried  to  Strophius,  King  in  Phocis,  who  was  married 
to  Anaxibia,  the  sister  of  Agamemnon.  There  he  formed 
a  close  and  intimate  friendship  with  the  king's  son, 
Pylades;  and  when  he  had  grown  up,  he  repaired  secreHy 
to  Argos  with  his  friend,  and  avenged  his  father's 
death  by  slaying  Clytemnestra  and  ^gisthus.  After 
the  murder  of  his  mother  he  was  seized  with  madness, 
and  fled  from  land  to  land,  pursued  by  the  Erinyes  or 
Furies.  At  length,  on  the  advice  of  Apollo,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  temple  of  Athena  (Minerva),  at  Athens, 
where  he  was  acquitted  by  the  court  of  the  Areopagus, 
which  the  goddess  had  appointed  to  decide  his  fate. 
(See  Pylades.) 

O-ri'on.  A  mighty  giant  and  hunter,  famous  for  his 
beauty.  Having  come  to  Chios,  he  fell  in  love  with 
Merope,  the  daughter  of  Oenopion;  his  treatment  of 
the  maiden  so  exasperated  her  father,  that,  with  the 
assistance  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  he  deprived  the  giant 
of  his  sight.  Being  informed  by  an  oracle  that  he  should 
recover  his  sight  if  he  exposed  his  eyeballs  to  the  rays 
of  the  rising  sun,  by  following  the  sound  of  a  Cyclops' 
hammer,  he  reached  Lemnos,  where  he  found  Vulcan, 
who  gave  him  Cedalion  as  a  guifle  to  the  abode  of  the 
sun.  After  the  recovery  of  his  sight  he  lived  as  a  hunter 
with  Artemis  (Diana).  Orion  was  slain  by  Diana, 
or,  as  some  say,  by  Jupiter,  and  placed  among  the  stars, 
where  he  forms  the  most  splendid  of  all  the  constella- 
tions, appearing  as  a  giant  wearing  a  lion's  skin  and  a 
girdle,  and  wielding  a  club. 

Orithy'ia.  A  daughter  of  Erechtheus,  beloved  by 
Boreas,  who  carried  her  off  as  she  was  wandering  near 
the  River  llissus.     (See  Boreas.) 

Or'log.  A  god  of  Norse  fable  personifying  the  eternal 
law  of  the  universe,  from  whose  decree  there  was  no 
appeal. 

Ormuzd.  The  name  of  the  supreme  deity  of  the 
ancient  Persians,  and  of  their  descendants,  the  Parsees 
and  Guebers.  He  is  an  embodiment  of  the  principle  of 
good,  and  was  created  by  the  will  of  the  great  eternal 
spirit,  Zervan-Akharana,  simultaneously  with  Ahriman, 
the  principle  of  evil,  with  whom  he  is  in  perpetual  con- 
flict. Ormuzd  is  the  creator  of  the  earth,  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  to  each  of  which  he  originally  assigned  its 
proper  place,  and  whose  various  movements  he  con- 
tinues to  regulate. 

Or'pheus.  The  son  of  Oeagrus  and  Calliope,  lived 
in  Thrace  at  the  period  of  the  Argonauts,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  their  expedition.     Presented  with  the 


338 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


lyre  by  Apollo,  and  instructed  by  the  Muses  in  its  use, 
he  enchanted  with  its  music  not  only  the  wild  beasts, 
but  the  trees  and  rocks  upon  Olympus,  so  that  they 
moved  from  their  places  to  follow  the  sound  of  his 
golden  harp.  After  his  return  from  the  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition, he  took  up  his  abode  in  Thrace,  where  he 
married  the  nymph  Eurydice.  His  wife  having  died  of 
the  bite  of  a  serpent,  he  followed  her  into  the  abodes  of 
Hades.  Here  his  lyre  so  charmed  King  Pluto  tliat 
Eurydice  was  released  from  death  on  the  condition  that 
Orpheus  would  not  look  back  till  he  reached  the  earth. 
He  was  just  about  to  place  his  foot  on  the  earth  when 
he  turned  round,  and  Eurydice  vanished  from  him  in 
an  instant. 

Osl'rls,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  Jupiter  by  Niobe,  find  to  have  ruled  first  over 
the  Argives,  and  afterwards  to  have  become  king  of 
the  Egyptians.  His  wife  was  Isis,  who  is  by  many  said 
to  be  the  same  with  the  lo,  daughter  of  Inachus.  Osiris 
was  at  length  slain  by  Typhon,  and  his  corpse  concealed 
in  a  chest  and  thrown  into  the  Nile.  Isis,  after  much 
search,  by  the  aid  of  keen-scented  dogs,  found  the  body, 
and  placed  it  in  a  monument  on  an  island  near  Memphis. 
The  Egyptians  paid  divine  honor  to  his  memory,  and 
chose  the  ox  to  represent  him,  because,  as  some  say,  a 
large  ox  appeared  to  them  after  the  body  of  Osiris  was 
interred,  or  according  to  others,  because  Osiris  had 
instructed  them  in  agriculture.  Osiris  was  generally 
represented  with  a  cap  on  his  head  like  a  mitre,  with 
two  horns;  he  held  a  stick  in  his  left  hand,  and  in  his 
right  a  whip  with  three  thongs.  Sometimes  he  appears 
with  the  head  of  a  hawk. 

O'tus.  This  giant  and  his  brother,  Ephialtes,  were 
usually  called  the  Aloidae.  They  were  renowned  for 
their   extraordinary  strength  and  daring  spirit. 

Pacto'lus.  The  river  whose  sands  turned  to  gold 
when  Midas  washed  in  the  waters  by  order  of  Bacchus. 

Paimosaid'.  In  American  Indian  myths  a  walking 
thief,  especially  one  who  walks  through  cornfields  about 
harvest  time  to  pluck  the  ears  of  maize  or  corn. 

Palae'mon.  Originally  called Melicertes.  Sonofino; 
called  PalsBmon  after  he  was  made  a  sea-god.  The 
Koman  Portu'nus,  the  protecting  god  of  harbors,  is  the 
same. 

Pa'les.  The  goddess  of  shepherds,  presided  over 
cattle  and  pastures,  whose  festival,  the  Palilia,  was  cele- 
brated on  the  21st  of  April,  the  day  on  which  Rome  was 
founded. 

Palame'des.  A  Greek  hero.  He  was  sent  by  the 
Greek  princes,  who  were  going  to  the  Trojan  War,  to 
bring  Ulysses  to  the  camp,  wno,  to  withdraw  himself 
from  the  expedition,  had  pretended  to  be  insane.  Pala- 
medes  soon  penetrated  the  depeption,  and  Uylsses  was 
obliged  to  join  in  the  war. 

Palla'dium.  A  Trojan  statue  of  the  goddess  Pallas, 
which  represented  her  as  sitting  with  a  spear  in  her  right 
hand,  and  in  her  left  a  spindle  or  distaff.  On  this  statue 
the  fate  of  the  city  was  supposed  to  depend;  for  while 
this  sacred  image  was  kept  intact,  Troy  was  supposed 
to  be  impregnable.  The  Palladium  is  said  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven  near  the  tent  of  llus,  at  the  time  when  that 
prince  was  employed  in  building  the  citadel  of  Ilion  or 
Troy;  and  Apollo,  by  an  oracle,  declared  that  the  city 
should  never  be  taken  whilst  the  Palladium  was  con- 
tained within  its  walls. 

Pal'las.  (1)  One  of  the  giants.  (2)  The  father  of 
Athena,  according  to  some  traditions.  (3)  Son  of  Ly- 
caon,  and  grandfather  of  Evander.  (4)  Son  of  Evander, 
and  an  ally  of  ^Eneas. 

Pallas-Athene.  She  is  in  Homer,  and  in  the  general 
popular  system,  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  skill.  In 
war  she  is  opposed  to  Ares,  the  wild  war-god,  as  the 
patroness  and  teacher  of  just  and  scientific  warfare. 
Therefore  she  is  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks,  and  he  on  that 
of  the  Trojans.  Ulysses  was  her  special  favorite.  As 
the  patroness  of  arts  and  industry  in  general,  Pallas- 
Athene  was  regarded  as  the  inspirer  and  teacher  of  all 
able  artists.  Thus  she  taught  Epius  to  form  the  wooden 
horse,  by  means  of  which  Troy  was  taken;  and  she  also 
superintended  the  building  of  the  ship  Argo. 

Pan.  One  of  the  most  singular  of  the  inferior  gods 
was  Pan,  whose  worship  was  universally  regarded.  He 
was  the  god  of  shepherds  and  herdsmen,  of  groves  and 
fields,  and  whatever  pertained  to  rural  affairs.  His 
worship  was  probably  derived  from  the  Egyptians.  He 
was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Mercury  and  Dryope.  His 
favorite  residence  was  in  the  woods  and  mountains  of 
Arcadia.  From  his  love  to  Syrinx,  who  was  changed 
into  a  reed,  he  formed  his  shepherd-pipe  out  of  seven 
reeds,  and  called  it  by  her  name.  His  pride  in  this  in- 
vention led  him  into  his  unlucky  contest  with  Apollo. 
Pan  was  originally,  among  the  Egyptians,  worshiped 
in  the  form  of  a  goat,  and  under  the  name  of  Mendes. 


In  Greece,  Arcadia  was  especially  sacred  to  him,  and 
here  he  is  said  to  have  given  oracles  on  Mount  Lycaeus. 
His  festivals  were  introduced  by  Evander  among  the 
Romans,  and  by  them  called  Lupercalia.  Goats,  honey, 
and  milk  were  the  usual  offerings  to  Pan.  Pan,  like 
other  gods,  who  dwelt  in  forests  was  dreaded  by  travelers, 
to  whom  he  sometimes  appeared,  and  whom  he  startled 
with  sudden  awe  or  terror.  Hence  sudden  fright,  with- 
out any  visible  cause,  was  ascribed  to  Pan,  and  was  called 
a  panic  fear. 

Pando'ra.  The  first  mortal  female  that  ever  lived. 
She  was  made  of  clay  by  Vulcan,  and  having  received 
life,  all  the  gods  made  presents  to  her.  Venus  gave  her 
beauty  and  the  art  of  pleasing;  the  Graces  gave  her  the» 
power  of  captivating;  Apollo  taught  her  how  to  sing; 
Mercury  instructed  her  in  eloquence  and  brought  her  to 
Epimetheus,  who  made  her  his  wife,  forgetting  the  ad- 
vice of  his  brother  Prometheus,  not  to  receive  gifts  from 
the  gods. 

Parcae.  (The  fates.)  Powerful  goddesses  who  pre- 
sided over  the  birth  and  life  of  mankind.  They  were 
three  in  number,  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos,  daughters 
of  Nox  and  Erebus.  Parcce  is  from  "pars,"  a  lot;  and 
the  corresponding  Moirae  is  from  "meros,"  a  lot.  The 
fates  were  so  called  because  they  decided  the  lot  of  every 
man.  Among  early  peoples  the  superiority  which  they 
ascribed  to  their  deities  consisted  chiefly  in  freedom 
from  bodily  decay,  a  sort  of  immortal  youth,  ability  to 
move  with  wonderful  celerity,  to  appear  and  disappear 
at  pleasure  with  a  noble  and  beautiful  form,  and  to  exert 
an  immediate  influence  upon  the  condition  of  mortals. 
In  these  respects,  however,  their  power  was  limited, 
according  to  the  general  opinion,  being  controlled  by  an 
eternal  and  immutable  relation  of  things,  termed  fate, 
and  to  the  Parcae,  or  fates,  was  attributed  a  power  over 
all  destinies  and  at  times  control  of  the  gods  themselves. 

Paris.  The  son  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy,  and  He-, 
Cuba;  he  was  also  called  Alexander.  The  tradition  ia; 
that  at  the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  the  goddess  of ' 
discord,  who  had  not  been  invited,  showed  her  displeas- 
ure by  throwing  into  the  assembly  of  the  gods,  who  were, 
at  the  nuptials,  a  golden  apple,  on  which  were  the  words: 
"Let  it  be  given  to  the  fairest."  The  apple  was  claimed 
by  Hera  (Juno),  Aphrodite  (Venus),  and  Athena  (Mi- 
nerva). Zeus  (Jupiter),  ordered  Hermes  (Mercury),  to 
take  the  goddesses  to  Mount  Ida,  and  to  intrust  the  de- 
cision of  the  dispute  to  the  shepherd  Paris.  The  god- 
desses accordingly  appeared  before  him.  Hera  promised 
hirn  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  Athena  renown  in  war,  and 
Aphrodite  the  fairest  of  women  for  his  wife.  Paris  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Aphrodite,  and  gave  her  the  golden 
apple.  This  judgment  called  forth  in  Hera  and  Athena 
fierce  hatred  against  Troy.  Under  the  protection  of 
Aphrodite,  Paris  now  sailed  to  Greece,  and  was  hospit- 
ably received  in  the  palace  of  Menelaus  at  Sparta.  Here 
he  succeeded  in  carrying  off  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus, 
who  was  the  most  beautiful  woman  in  the  world.  Hence 
arose  the  Trojan  War.  Paris  fought  with  Menelaus  be- 
fore the  walls  of  Troy,  and  was  defeated,  but  was  carried 
off  by  Aphrodite.  He  is  said  to  have  killed  Achilles, 
either  by  one  of  his  arrows  or  by  treachery. 

Parnassos  (Greek).  Parnassus  (Latin).  A  moun- 
tain near  Delphi,  in  Greece.  It  was  well  wooded;  at  its 
foot  grew  myrtle,  laurel,  and  olive  trees,  and  higher  up 
firs;  and  its  summit  was  covered  with  snow  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  It  contained  numerous  caves, 
glens,  and  romantic  ravines.  It  has  two  summits,  one 
of  which  was  consecrated  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  the 
other  to  Bacchus.  It  was  anciently  called  Larnassos, 
from  larnax,  an  ark.  because  Deucalion's  ark  stranded 
there  after  the  flood.  After  the  oracle  of  Delphi  was 
built  at  its  foot  it  received  the  name  of  Parnassos.  It  ia 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  Apollo  and  the 
Muses,  and  an  inspiring  source  of  poetry  and  song. 

Parthen'ope.  One  of  the  sirens,  whose  dead  body_ 
was  washed  ashore  on  the  present  site  of  Naples.  She' 
threw  herself  into  the  sea  out  of  love  for  Ulysses. 

Patroc'lus.  The  gentle  and  amiable  friend  of  Achilles 
in  Homer's  Iliad. 

Pau'guk.  Name  given  to  the  great  power,  death,  in 
American-Indian  mythology. 

Pau'puk-kee'wls.  In  American-Indian  folk-lore  a 
mischievous    magician,  who    is    pursued    by   Hiawatha, 

goes  through  a  series  of  wonderful  transformations  in 
is  endeavors  to  escape,  and  finally  becomes  an  eagle. 
Pax.     The   goddess   of   peace,  worshiped   in   Greece 
under  the  name  Irene.      Pax  wears  a  crown  of  laurel, 
and  holds  in  her  hand  the  branch  of  an  olive  tree. 

Pe'boan.  In  American-Indian  folk-lore  the  personifi- 
cation of  winter  in  form  of  a  great  giant  who  shook  the 
snow  from  his  hair  and  turned  water  into  stone  by  his 
breath. 


LITERATURE 


339 


Peg'asus.  The  winged  horse  which  sprang  from  the 
blood  of  Medusa  when  her  head  was  struck  off  by  Perseus. 
He  was  called  Pegasus  because  he  made  his  appearance 
near  the  sources  of  Oceanus. 

Pe'leus.  King  of  the  Myrmidons  at  Phthia,  in  Thes- 
saly.  Having,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Tela- 
mon.  murdered  his  half-brother  Phocus,  he  was  expelled 
by  jEacus  from  .^Sgina,  and  went  to  Thessaly.  He  was 
purified  from  the  murder  by  Eurytion,  who  gave  Peleus 
his  daughter  Antigone  in  marriage,  and  a  third  part  of 
his  kingdom. 

Pe'lias.  The  name  of  the  spear  of  Achilles,  which 
was  so  large  that  none  could  wield  it  but  the  hero  himself. 

Pe'li-on.  A  high  mountain  in  Thessaly  celebrated 
in  mythology.  Near  its  summit  was  the  cave  of  the 
Centaur  Chiron.  The  giants,  in  their  war  with  the  gods, 
are  said  to  have  attempted  to  heap  Ossa  and  Olympus 
on  Pelion,  or  Pelion  and  Ossa  on  Olympus,  in  order  to 
scale  heaven.  On  Pelion  the  timber  was  felled  with 
which  the  ship  Argo  was  built. 

Pe'lops.  A  Phrygian  prince,  grandson  of  Jupiter, 
and  son  of  Tantalus.  Expelled  from  Phrygia,  he  came 
to  Elis,  where  he  married  Hippodamia,  daughter  of 
(Enomaus,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.  By  means 
of  the  wealth  he  brought  with  him,  his  influence  became 
so  great  in  the  peninsula  that  it  was  called  after  him 
"the  Island  of  Pelops." 

Pena'tes.  The  Penates  were  also  domestic  or  house- 
hold gods,  but  they  were  not  a  distinct  class  by  them- 
selves, because  the  master  of  the  dwelling  was  allowed 
to  select  any  d^ity  according  to  his  pleasure,  to  watch 
over  his  family  affairs,  or  preside  over  particular  parts 
of  them. 

Penel'ope.  The  faithful  wife  of  Ulysses,  who  being 
importuned,  during  his  long  absence,  by  numerous  suitors 
for  her  hand,  postpones  making  a  decision  among  them 
until  she  shall  have  finished  weaving  a  funeral  pall  for 
her  father-in-law,  La;rtes.  Every  night  she  secretly 
unravels  what  she  has  woven  by  day,  and  thus  puts  off 
the  suitors  till  Ulysses  returns. 

Pe'rl.  Peris  are  delicate,  gentle,  fairy-like  beings  of 
Eastern  mythology,  begotten  by  fallen  spirits.  They 
direct  with  a  wand  the  pure  in  mind  the  way  to  heaven. 
These  lovely  creatures,  according  to  the  Koran,  are  under 
the  sovereignty  of  Eblis;  and  Mohammed  was  sent  for 
their  conversion,  as  well  as  for  that  of  man. 

Per'se.  A  daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  wife  of  Helios 
(the  sun),  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Aeetes, 
Circe,  Pasiphae,  and  Perses. 

Perse'ls.  A  name  given  to  Hecate,  as  the  daughter 
of  Perses  by  Asteria. 

Perseph'one.  The  Greek  name  of  Proserpine. 
Homer  ciescribes  her  as  the  wife  of  Hades  (Pluto),  and 
the  formidable,  venerable,  and  majestic  queen  of  the 
shades,  who  rules  over  the  souls  of  the  dead,  along  with 
her  husband. 

Per'seus.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  early  heroes.  He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Dance, 
educated  by  Polydectus  on  the  Island  Seriphus.  His 
chief  exploit  was  the  destruction  of  the  gorgon  Medusa, 
whose  head  he  struck  off  with  a  sword  given  to  him  by 
Vulcan.  From  the  blood  that  fell,  sprang  the  winged 
horse  Pegasus,  on  which  Perseus  afterwards  passed  over 
many  lands.  Of  his  subsequent  achievements,  the  most 
remarkable  were  his  changing  King  Atlas  into  a  high 
rock  or  mountain,  by  means  of  Medusa's  head,  and  his 
deliverance  of  Andromeda,  when  bound  and  exposed  to 
be  devoured  by  the  sea-monster. 

Phae'dra.  Daughter  of  Minos,  and  wife  of  Theseus, 
who  falsely  accused  her  step-son  Hippolytus. 

Pha'eton.  A  son  of  Sol,  or,  according  to  most  my- 
thologists,  of  PhcEbus  and  Clymene.  Anxious  to  display 
his  skill  in  horsemanship,  he  was  so  presumptuous  as  to 
request  his  father  to  allow  him  to  drive  the  chariot  of 
the  sun  across  the  heavens  for  one  day.  Helios  was 
induced  by  the  entreaties  of  his  son  and  of  Clymene 
to  yield,  but  the  youth  being  too  weak  to  check  the 
horses,  they  rushed  out  of  tlieir  usual  track,  the  chariot 
was  upset,  and  caused  great  mischief;  Libya  was 
parched  into  barren  sands,  and  all  Africa  was  more  or 
less  injured,  the  inhabitants  blackened,  and  vegetation 
nearly  destroyed.  Zeus  killed  him  with  a  fiash  of  light- 
ning, and  hurled  him  down  into  the  River  Eridanus. 
His  sisters,  the  Heliadae  or  Phaethontiades,  who  had 
yoked  the  horses  to  the  chariot,  were  metamorphosed 
into  poplars,  and  their  tears  into  amber. 

Plia'on.  A  boatman  at  Mitylene,  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  an  ugly  old  man;  but  having  carried  Aphro- 
dite (Venus)  across  the  sea  without  accepting  payment, 
the  goddess  gave  him  a  box  of  ointment,  with  which, 
when  he  anointed  himself,  he  grew  so  beautiful  that 
Sappho  became  enamored  of  him;    but  when  the  oint- 


ment had  all  been  used  Phaon  returned  to  his  former 
condition,  and  Sappho,  in  despair,  drowned  herself. 

Philocte'tes.  The  most  celebrated  archer  in  the 
Trojan  War.  lie  was  the  friend  and  armor-bearer  of 
Hercules,  who  bequeathed  to  him  his  bow  and  the  pois- 
oned arrows,  for  having  set  fire  to  the  pile  on  Mount  QSta, 
on  which  Hercules  perished. 

Philomela.  A  daughter  of  Pandion,  King  of  Athens. 
Her  sister  Procne  had  married  Tereus,  King  of  Thrace, 
and  being  seijarated  from  Philomela  spent  her  time  in 
great  melancholy.  Tereus  treated  Philomela  with  great 
cruelty.  In  poetry  we  frequently  find  the  nightingale 
alluded  to  as  Philomela. 

Phce'be.  The  goddess  of  the  moon,  and  sister  of 
Phoebus;    a  name  of  Diana.     See  Diana. 

Phoe'bus.  The  god  of  archery,  prophecy,  and  music; 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  brother  of  Diana 
(Artemis).  He  was  god  of  the  sun,  as  Diana,  his  sister, 
was  the  goddess  of  the  moon. 

Phoenix.  A  fabulous  bird  described  as  being  as  large 
as  an  eagle;  its  head  finely  crested  with  a  beautiful 
plumage,  its  neck  covered  with  gold-colored  feathers,  its 
tail  white,  and  its  body  purple  or  crimson. 

Phyl'lis.  (1)  Adaughterof  King  Sithon  of  Thrace,  who 
hung  herself,  thinking  that  she  was  deserted  by  her  lover, 
and  was  changed  by  the  gods  into  an  almond  tree.  (2) 
A  country  girl  in  Virgil's  third  and  fifth  Eclogues;  hence, 
a  rustic  maiden  in  general. 

Pire'ne.  A  celebrated  fountain  of  Corinth,  at  which 
Bellerophon  is  said  to  have  caught  the  horse  Pegasue. 
It  gushed  forth  from  the  rock  in  the  Acrocorinthus,  was 
conveyed  down  the  hill  by  subterraneous  conduits,  and 
fell  into  a  marble  basin,  from  which  the  greater  part  of 
the  town  was  supplied  with  water.  The  poets  frequently 
used  Pirenis  in  the  general  sense  of  Corinthian. 

Plei'ades.  Means  the  "sailing  stars,"  because  the 
Greeks  considered  navigation  safe  at  the  return  of  the 
Pleiades,  and  never  attempted  it  after  those  stars  dis- 
appeared. The  Pleiades  were  the  seven  daughters  of 
Atlas  and  Pleione,  named  Electra,  Alcyone,  Celaeno, 
Maia,  Sterope,  Taygete,  and  Merope.  They  were  trans- 
formed into  stars,  one  of  which  (Merope),  is  invisible 
out  of  shame,  because  she  alone  married  a  human  being. 
Some  call  the  invisible  star  "Electra,"  and  say  she  hides 
herself  from  grief  for  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  royal 
race  of  Troy. 

Pluto.  He  was  a  second  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  re- 
ceived, as  his  portion  in  the  division  of  empire,  the  in- 
fernal regions,  or  the  world  of  shades.  Under  this  idea 
the  ancients  imagined  the  existence  of  regions  situated 
down  far  below  the  earth.  The  chief  incident  in  the 
history  of  Pluto  is  his  seizure  and  abduction  of  Proser- 

f)ine,  who  thereby  became  his  wife,  and  the  queen  of  the 
ower  world. 

Plu'tus.  The  god  of  riches,  was  probably  of  allegori- 
cal rather  than  mythical  origin,  since  his  name  in  Greek 
is  but  the  common  term  for  wealth. 

Pluvius.  "The  sender  of  rain,"  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
among  the  Romans,  to  whom  sacrifices  were  offered 
during  long-protracted  droughts. 

Podali'rius.  The  son  of  jEsculapius,  and  brother  of 
Machaon,  with  whom  he  led  the  Thessalians  of  Tricca 
against  Troy.  He  was,  like  his  brother,  skilled  in  the 
medical  art. 

Pol'ias.  Meaning  "the  goddess  protecting  the  city," 
a  surname  of  Athena  at  Athens,  where  she  was  wor- 
shiped as  the  protecting  divinity  of  the  acropolis. 

Poii'tes.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  father  of 
Priam  the  younger,  was  slain  by  Pyrrhus. 

Pol'lux.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  brother  to 
Castor. 

Polydo'rus.  (1)  King  of  Thebes,  son  of  Cadmus  and 
Harmonia,  husband  of  Nycteis,  and  father  of  Labdacus. 
(2)  Son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  When  Ilium  was  on  the 
point  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  Priam  in- 
trusted Polydorus  and  a  large  sum  of  money  to  Poly- 
mestor  or  Polymnestor,  King  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus. 

Polyhyrti'nla.  Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne. 
One  of  the  Muses,  who  presided  over  singing  and 
rhetoric. 

Pol'y-phe'mus.  A  son  of  Neptune,  and  one  of  the 
Cyclops,  who  dwelt  in  Sicily.  He  was  a  cruel  monster, 
of  immense  size  and  strength,  and  had  but  one  eye,  which 
was  in  the  middle  of  his  forehead.  He  dwelt  in  a  cave 
near  Mount  Mtna,,  and  fed  his  flocks  upon  the  mountain. 
He  fell  in  love  with>the  nymph  Galatea,  but  as  she  re- 
jected him  for  Acis,  he  destroyed  the  latter  by  crushing 
him  under  a  huge  rock.  When  Ulysses  landed  in  Sicily, 
he,  with  twelve  of  his  companions,  got  caught  in  the 
cave  of  Polyphemus,  and  six  of  the  number  were  eaten 
by  the  tremendous  cannibal.  The  rest  were  in  expec- 
tation of  the  same  fate,  but  their  cunning  leader  enabled 


340 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


them  to  escape,  by  contriving  to  intoxicate  Polyphemus 
and  then  destroying  his  single  eye  with  a  fire-brand. 

Polyx'ena.  The  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba 
was  beloved  by  Achilles. 

Pomo'na.  A  nymph  at  Rome,  who  was  supr)osed  to 
preside  over  gardens  and  to  be  the  goddess  of  fruit  trees. 

Pone'mah.  In  American-Indian  mythology  the 
name  of  the  land  of  the  future  life,  or  the  spirit-land. 

Posel'don,  Called  Neptune  by  the  Romans;  was 
the  god  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter),  and  Hades  (Pluto),  and  it  was  determined 
by  lot  that  he  should  rule  over  the  sea.  The  palace  of 
Posejdon  was  in  the  depth  of  the  sea,  near  ^ga^,  where 
he  kept  his  horses  with  brazen  hoofs  and  golden  manes. 
With  these  horses  he  rides  in  a  chariot  over  the  waves 
of  the  sea,  which  become  smooth  as  he  approaches, 
while  the  monsters  of  the  deep  play  around  his  chariot. 
Poseidon,  in  conjunction  with  Apollo,  is  said  to  have  built 
the  walls  of  Troy  for  Laomedon. 

Prl'am.  King  of  Troy  when  that  city  was  sacked  by 
the  allied  Greeks.  His  wife's  name  was  Hec'uba;  she 
was  the  mother  of  nineteen  children,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  Hector.  When  the  Greeks  landed  on  the  Trojan 
coast  Priam  was  advanced  in  years,  and  took  no  active 
part  in  the  war.  Once  only  did  he  venture  upon  the 
field  of  battle,  to  conclude  tne  agreement  respecting  the 
single  combat  between  Paris  and  Menelaus.  After  the 
death  of  Hector,  Priam  went  to  the  tent  of  Achilles  to 
ransom  his  son's  body  for  burial,  and  obtained  it.  When 
the  gates  of  Troy  were  thrown  open  by  the  Greeks  con- 
cealed in  the  wooden  horse,  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achilles, 
slew  the  aged  Priam. 

Proe'tus.  Twin  brothers  of  Acrisius  and  son  of 
Abas.  In  the  dispute  between  the  two  brothers  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Argos,  Proetus  was  expelled,  whereupon  he 
fled  to  lobates  in  Lycial,  and  married  Antea,  the  daughter 
of  the  latter.  With  the  assistance  of  lobates,  Proetus 
returned  to  his  native  land,  and  Acrisius  gave  him  a 
share  of  his  kingdom,  surrendering  to  him  Tiryns,  Midea, 
and  the  coast  of  Argolis. 

Pro-me'theus.  A  son  of  lapetus  and  Clymene,  the 
brother  of  Epimetheus,  and  the  father  of  Deucalion. 
He  made  men  of  clay,  and  animated  them  by  means  of 
fire  which  he  stole  from  heaven ;  for  this  he  was  chained 
by  Jupiter  to  Mount  Caucasus,  where  an  eagle,  or,  as 
some  say,  a  vulture,  preyed  by  day  upon  his  liver,  which 
grew  again  by  night.  The  word  means  forethought, 
and  one  of  his  brothers  was  Epimetheus  or  afterthought. 

Pros'erpine.  Known  as  Persephone  also.  A  god- 
dess, daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres.  The  seizure  and 
abduction  of  Proserpine  by  Pluto  has  been  subject  of 
many  tales. 

Psy'che.  ".The  soul,"  occurs  in  the  later  times  of 
antiquity  as  a  personification  of  the  human  soul.  Psyche 
was  the  youngest  of  the  three  daughters  of  a  king,  and 
excited  by  her  beauty  the  jealousy  and  envy  of  Venus. 
In  order  to  avenge  herself,  the  goddess  ordered  Cupid  or 
Amor  to  inspire  Psyche  with  a  love  for  the  most  con- 
temptible of  all  men ;  but  Cupid  was  so  stricken  with  her 
beauty  that  he  himself  fell  in  love  with  her.  He  accord- 
ingly conveyed  her  to  a  charming  spot,  where  unseen 
and  unknown  he  visited  her  every  night,  and  left  her  as 
soon  as  the  day  began  to  dawn.  But  her  jealous  sisters 
made  her  believe  that  in  the  darkness  of  night  she  was 
embracing  some  hideous  monster,  and  accordingly  once, 
while  Cupid  was  asleep,  she  drew  near  to  him  with  a  lamp, 
and,  to  her  amazement,  beheld  the  most  handsome  and 
lovely  of  the  gods.  In  the  excitement  of  joy  and  fear,  a 
drop  of  hot  oilfell  from  her  lamp  upon  his  shoulder.  This 
awoke  Cupid,  who  censured  her  for  her  mistrust,  and 
fled.  Psyche's  happiness  was  now  gone,  and  after  at- 
tempting in  vain  to  throw  herself  into  a  river,  she  wan- 
dered about  from  temple  to  temple,  inquiring  after 
her  lover,  and  at  length  came  to  the  palace  of  Venus. 
There  her  real  sufferings  began,  for  Venus  retained  her, 
treated  her  as  a  slave,  and  imposed  upon  her  the  hardest 
and  most  humiliating  labors.  Psyche  would  have  per- 
ished under  the  weight  of  her  sufferings  had  not  Cupid, 
who  still  loved  her  in  secret,  invisibly  comforted  and 
assisted  her  in  her  toils.  With  his  aid  she  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  overcoming  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Venus; 
she  became  immortal,  and  was  united  to  him  forever. 
In  this  pleasing  story  Psyche  evidently  represents  the 
human  soul,  which  is  purified  by  passions  and  misfor- 
tunes, and  thus  prepared  for  the  enjoyment  of  true  and 
pure  happiness.  In  works  of  art  Psyche  is  represented 
as  a  rnaiden  with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly,  along  with 
Cupid  in  the  different  situations  described  in  the  allegory. 
Pukwa'na.  The  smoke  from  the  calumet  or  peace- 
pipe  among  American  Indians.  The  pipe  was  made 
from  stone  found  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi. 
A  quarry,  located  near  the  mountains,  was  famous 
among  the  Indians,  who  had  made  the  adjacent  territory 


neutral  ground.  Here  they  came  and  provided  them- 
selves with  pipes.  To  apply  the  stone  to  any  other  use 
than  that  of  pipe-making  would  have  been  sacrilege  in 
their  mind.  From  the  color,  they  even  fancied  it  to 
have  been  made,  at  the  great  deluge,  out  of  the  flesh  of 
the  perishing  Indian. 

Pukwiidj'ies.  The  pygmies  of  American-Indian 
folk-lore;    little  wild  men  of  the  woods. 

Pygnia'lion.  A  grandson  of  Agenor.  He  made  a 
beautiful  statue,  which  he  feir  so  deeply  in  love  with, 
that  Venus,  at  his  earnest  petition,  gave  it  life.  In  Gil- 
bert's cornedy  of  Pygmalion  and  Galatea,,  the  sculptor 
is  a  married  man,  whose  wife  (Cynisca)  was  jealous  of 
the  animated  statue  (Galatea),  which,  after  enduring 
great  misery,  voluntarily  returned  to  its  original  state. 
This,  of  course,  is  mixing  up  two  Pygmalions,  wide  as 
the  poles  apart. 

Pyl'ades.  Son  of  Anaxibia,  sister  of  Agamemnon. 
His  father  was  King  of  Phocis;  and  after  the  death  of 
Agamemnon,  Orestes  was  secretly  carried  to  his  father's 
court.  Here  Pylades  contracted  that  friendship  with 
Orestes  which  became  proverbial. 

Pyr'amus.  The  lover  of  Thisbe,  who,  on  account 
of  her  supposed  death,  stabbed  himself  under  a  mulberry 
tree.  Thisbe,  afterward,  finding  the  body  of  her  lover, 
killed  herself  on  the  same  spot  with  the  same  weapon; 
and  the  fruit  of  the  mulberry  has  ever  since  been  as  red 
as  blood.     (See  Thisbe.) 

Pyr'rhus.  Known  also  as  Neoptolemus,  a  son  of 
Achilles,  remarkable  for  his  cruelty  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 
He  was  slain  at  Delphi,  at  the  request  of  his  own  wife, 
by  Orestes. 

Pythla.  The  priestess  of  Apollo  and  Delphi.  She  is 
represented  as  crowned  with  laurels  and  seated  on  a  tri- 
pod similarly  adorned  and  placed  over  a  chasm  whence 
arose  a  peculiar  vapor.  Whoever  inhaled  this  intoxicat- 
ing air  was  thrown  into  conviilsive  ravings,  which  were 
thought  to  be  an  evidence  of  divine  inspiration.  The 
prophetic  influence  was  at  first  variously  attributed  to 
different  gods,  but  was  at  length  assigned  to  Apollo  only. 
A  priestess,  called  the  Pythia,  was  appointed  to  inhale 
the  hallowed  air  and  utter  inspired  words,  which  were 
interpreted  by  the  priests. 

Py'thon.  The  monster  serpent  hatched  from  the 
mud  of  Deucalion's  deluge.  He  lived  in  the  caves  of 
Mount  Parnassus,  but  was  slain  by  Apollo,  who  founded 
the  Pythian  games  in  commemoration  of  his  victory, 
and  received  in  consequence  the  surname  Pythiua. 

Rach'aders.  In  Indian  mythology,  the  second  tribe 
of  giants  or  evil  genii,  who  had  frequently  made  the 
earth  subject  to  their  kings,  but  were  ultimately  pun- 
ished by  Shiva  and  Vishnu. 

Radegaste.  In  Slavonic  mythology,  a  tutelary  god 
of  the  Slavi.  The  head  was  that  of  a  cow,  the  breast 
was  covered  with  an  a?gis,  the  left  hand  held  a  spear, 
and  a  cock  surmounted  its  helmet. 

Ragnarok  (twilight  of  the  gods).  The  day  of  doom, 
when  the  present  world  and  all  its  inhabitants  will  be 
annihilated.  Vidar  of  Vali  will  survive  the  conflagration, 
and  reconstruct  the  universe.  In  Scandinavian  my- 
thology is  the  belief  taught  that  after  this  time  the  earth 
or  realm  will  become  imperishable  and  happiness  sure. 

Ra'hu.  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  demon  that  causes 
eclipses.  One  day  Rahu  stole  into  Valhalla  to  quaff 
some  of  the  nectar  of  immortality.  He  was  discovered 
by  the  Sun  and  Moon,  who  informed  against  him,  and 
Vishnu  cut  off  his  head.  As  he  had  already  taken  some 
of  the  nectar  into  his  mouth,  the  head  was  immortal, 
and  he  ever  afterwards  hunted  the  Sun  and  Moon, 
which  he  caught  occasionally,  causing  eclipses. 

Rak'shas.  Evil  spirits  in  Hindu  myths,  who  guard 
the  treasures  of  Kuvera,  the  god  of  riches.  They  haunt 
cemeteries  and  devour  human  beings;  assume  any 
shape  at  will,  and  their  strength  increases  as  the  day 
declines.  Some  are  hideously  ugly,  but  others,  espe- 
cially the  female  spirits,  allure  by  their  beauty. 

Rava'na,  according  to  Indian  mythology,  was  fas- 
tened down  between  heaven  and  earth  for  10,000  years 
by  Siva's  leg,  for  attempting  to  move  the  hill  of  heaven 
to  Ceylon.  He  is  described  as  a  demon  giant  with  ten 
faces. 

Ravens.  According  to  an  oracle  from  the  gods, 
delivered  at  ancient  Athens,  ravens  prognosticate  fam- 
ine and  death  because  they  bear  the  characters  of  Saturn, 
the  author  of  these  calamities,  and  have  a  very  early 
perception  of  the  bad  disposition  of  that  planet. 

Rem'bha.     A  Hindoo  goddess  of  pleasure. 

Rhadaman'thus.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa, 
brother  of  Minos,  and  King  of  Lycia.  He  was  so  re- 
nowned for  his  justice  and  equity,  that,  after  death,  he 
was  made  one  of  the  three  judges  in  the  under-world. 

Rham'nu.s.  A  daughter  of  Nox,  and  otherwise 
known  as  Nemesis.     Having  belonged  with  the  original 


LITERATURE 


341 


deities,  those  mysterious  beings  who  were  regarded 
with  awe  by  gods  and  men,  she  is  allowed  the  same 
rank  among  the  modern  heathen  deities,  and  was  par- 
ticularly worshiped  at  Rhamnus  in  Attica,  where  she 
had  a  celebrated  statue. 

Sat'urn.  This  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the 
gods,  called  Chronos  by  the  Greeks  and  Saturnus  by  the 
Romans.  He  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Uranos  and 
Titiea,  i.  e.,  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  to  have 
possessed  the  first  government  of  the  universe.  His 
wife  was  Rhea,  who  was  his  sister.  Saturn  and  his 
five  brethern  were  called  Titans,  probably  from  their 
mother;  Rhea  and  her  five  sisters  likewise  Titanides. 
Saturn  seized  upon  the  government  of  the  universe  by 
his  superiority  over  his  father  and  brothers ;  yet  pledged 
himself  to  rear  no  male  children;  accordingly  he  is 
represented  as  devouring  his  sons  as  soon  as  born. 
But  this  fate,  three  of  them,  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 
Pluto,  escaped,  through  the  artifice  of  Rhea,  their 
mother,  who  gave  him  stones  to  devour  instead  of  the 
children  at  their  birth.  Jupiter  aided  Saturn  in  recov- 
ering his  throne,  after  he  had  been  driven  from  it  by 
his  brothers,  the  Titans,  and  bound  in  Tartarus.  But 
soon  he  made  war,  himself,  upon  Saturn,  and  seized 
the  government. 

Sa  tyr.  A  sylvan  deity,  or  demi-god,  represented  as 
a  monster,  half  man  and  half  goat;  having  horns  on  his 
head,  a  hairy  body,  with  the  feet  and  tail  of  a  goat. 
They  belong  in  the  train  of  Bacchus,  and  have  been  dis- 
tinguished for  lasciviousness  and  riot.  Although  mortal, 
they  are  superior  to  the  cares  and  sorrows  of  mortal  life. 

Scyl'la.  A  maiden  whose  body  the  enchantress  Circe 
changed  below  the  waist  into  frightful  monsters  always 
barking.  The  old  Greek  story  is,  that  Circe  was  jealous 
of  Scylla,  and  so  deformed  her  by  pouring  the  juice  of 
poisonous  herbs  into  the  water  in  which  she  bathed. 
This  sudden  rnetamorphosis  so  terrified  Scylla,  that  she 
threw  herself  into  the  sea,  and  became  the  rocks  which 
bear  her  name. 

Sedrat.  The  lotus  tree  which  stands  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  invisible  throne  of  Allah.  Its  branches 
extend  wider  than  the  distance  between  heaven  and 
earth.  Its  leaves  resemble  the  ears  of  an  elephant. 
Each  seed  of  its  fruit  encloses  a  houri;  and  two  rivers 
issue  from  its  roots.  Numberless  birds  sing  among  its 
branches,  and  numberless  angels  rest  beneath  its  shade. 

Sile'nus.  The  older  satyrs  were  generally  termed 
Sileni;  but  one  of  these  Sileni  is  commonly  the  Silenus, 
who  always  accompanies  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  whom  he 
is  said  to  have  brought  up  and  instructed.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  jovial  old  man,  with  a  bald  head,  pug  nose, 
and  rubicund  visage,  and  generally  as  intoxicated,  and, 
therefore,  riding  on  an  ass  or  supported  by  satyrs. 
He  was  fond  of  music  and  dancing  and  is  often  accom- 
panied by  the  flute.  But  it  is  a  peculiar  feature  in  his 
character  that  he  was  an  inspired  prophet,  yet,  when 
he  was  drunk  and  asleep  he  was  in  the  power  of  mortals, 
who  might  compel  him  to  prophesy  and  sing  by  sur- 
rounding him  with  cliains  of  flowers.  Like  the  sea- 
gods,  Silenus  was  noted  for  wisdom;  and  it  would, 
therefore,  appear  that  a  Silen  was  simply  a  river-god; 
and  the  name  probably  comes  from  the  Greek  verb, 
signifying  to  roll,  expressive  of  the  motion  of  the  streams. 
The  connection  between  Silenus,  Bacchus,  and  the 
Naiades  thus  becomes  easy  of  explanation,  all  being 
deities  relating  to  moisture. 

Silva'nus  or  Sylva'nus.  A  deity  presiding  over 
woods,  forests,  and  fields.  He  is  also  called  the  pro- 
tector of  the  boundaries  of  fields. 

SI'rens.  They  were  a  sort  of  sea-goddesses,  said  by 
some  to  be  two  in  number,  by  others,  three,  and  even 
four.  Homer  mentions  but  two,  and  describes  them  as 
virgins,  dwelling  upon  an  island,  and  detaining  with 
thern  every  voyager  who  was  allured  thither  by  their 
captivating  music.  They  would  have  decoyed  even 
Ulysses,  on  his  return  to  Ithaca,  but  were  not  permitted. 
By  others  they  were  described  as  daughters  of  the  river- 
god  Achelous,  and  companions  of  Proserpine,  after 
whose  seizure  they  were  changed  into  birds,  that  they 
might  fly  in  search  of  her.  In  an  unhappy  contest 
with  the  Muses  in  singing  they  lost  their  wings  as  a 
punishment.  Others  make  them  sea-nymphs,  with  a 
form  similar  to  that  of  the  Tritons,  with  the  faces  of 
women  and  the  bodies  of  flying  fish.  Their  fabled 
residence  was  placed  by  some  on  an  island  near  Cape 
Pelorus  in  Sicily;  by  others,  on  the  islands  or  rocks 
called  Sirennusa;,  not  far  from  the  promontory  of  Sur- 
rentum  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  Various  explanations  of 
the  fable  of  the  Sirens  have  been  given.  It  is  commonly 
considered  as  signifying  the  dangers  of  indulgence  in 
pleasure. 

Slr'lus.  Known  in  mythology  as  the  faithful  dog  of 
Orioa,  and  set  in  the  heavens  as  a  bright  star  by  Diana 


when  she  mourned  the  display  of  her  archery  which 
caused  Orion's  death. 

Sol.  Although  the  Greeks  and  Romans  worshiped 
Apollo  as  the  god  and  dispenser  of  light,  and  in  view  of 
this  attribute  named  him  Phoebus,  yet  they  conceived 
another  distinct  divinity,  distinguished  from  Apollo 
especially  in  the  earlier  fables,  under  the  literal  name 
applied  to  designate  the  sun,  viz,  Sol.  These  words, 
therefore,  were  employed  to  express  not  only  the  actual 
body  in  the  heavens,  but  also  a  supposed  being  having 
a  separate  and  personal  existence. 

Som'nus.  The  personification  and  god  of  sleep,  ia 
described  as  a  brother  of  Death  and  as  a  son  of  Night. 

Specter  of  the  Brock' en.  Among  German  myths, 
a  singular  colossal  apparition  seen  in  the  clouds,  at  cer- 
tain times  of  the  day,  by  those  who  ascend  the  Brocken, 
or  Blocksberg,  the  highest  mountain  of  the  Hartz  Moun- 
tains. 

Sphinx.  A  monster  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Chi- 
masra,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes.  Seated  on  a 
rock,  she  put  a  riddle  to  every  Theban  that  passed  by, 
and  whoever  was  unable  to  solve  it  was  killed  by  the 
monster.  This  calamity  induced  the  Thebans  to  pro- 
claim that  whoever  should  deliver  the  country  of  the 
sphinx  should  obtain  the  kingdom  and  Jocasta  as  his 
wife.  The  riddle  ran  as  follows:  "What  is  that  which 
has  one  voice,  and  at  first  four  feet,  then  two  feet,  and 
at  last  three  feet,  and  when  it  has  most  is  weakest?" 
CEdipus  explained  the  enigma  by  saying  that  it  was 
man,  who,  when  an  infant,  creeps  on  all  fours,  when  a 
man,  goes  on  two  feet,  and,  when  old,  uses  a  staff,  a 
third  foot.  The  monster  immediately  flung  herself  into 
the  sea  and  perished.  The  form  of  the  so-called  Egyp- 
tian sphinxes  is  that  of  a  winged  lion  with  a  human 
head  and  bust,  always  in  a  lying  attitude,  whereas  the 
Greek  sphinxes  are  represented  in  any  attitude  which 
might  suit  the  fancy  of  the  poet. 

Styx.  The  word,  or  name,  comes  from  the  Greek, 
meaning  to  abhor,  and  Styx  is  called  the  River  of  Hate 
and  represented  as  the  river  of  the  lower  world.  The 
classic  fables  concerning  it  are  of  Egyptian  origin.  It 
was  said  to  flow  nine  times  round  the  infernal  regions. 
The  third  river,  Cocytus,  flows  out  of  the  River  Styx 
and  the  murmur  of  its  waters,  the  sound  of  which  imi- 
tates bowlings,  is  inexpressibly  dismal;  Phlegethon,  the 
fourth  river,  rolls  slowly  along  its  waves  of  fire.  As  a 
•mythical  being,  Styx  is  descrilsed  as  a  daughter  of  Oce- 
anus  and  Tethys.  As  a  nymph,  she  dwelt  at  the  entrance 
of  hades,  in  a  lofty  grotto  which  was  supported  by  silver 
columns.  She  became  the  divinity  by  whom  the  most 
solemn  oaths  were  sworn.  When  one  of  the  gods  had  to 
take  an  oath  by  Styx,  Iris  fetched  a  cup  full  of  water 
from  the  Styx,  and  the  god,  while  taking  the  oath, 
poured  out  the  water. 

Tan'talus.  The  son  of  Jupiter,  and  king  of  Lydia, 
who,  according  to  some  legends,  was  punished  for  be- 
traying the  secrets  of  his  father  by  being  placed  in  a 
lake,  in  the  infernal  regions,  whose  waters  fled  from 
him  when  he  sought  to  quench  his  thirst,  and  amid 
trees  laden  with  fruit,  whose  boughs  avoided  every 
effort  he  made  to  seize  them. 

Tar'tarus.  A  dark  abyss  under  the  earth  in  which 
the  Titans  were  chained  when  their  father  feared  their 
strength.  The  music  of  Orpheus  penetrated  its  depths 
and  caused  the  condemned  to  cease  their  toil.  The 
name  has  come  to  signify  an  inner  region  of  hell,  to 
which  the  gods  sent  the  exceptionally  depraved. 

Tel'amon.  A  son  of  jEacus  and  Endeis,  and  brother 
of  Peleus.  Having  assisted  Peleus  in  slaying  their  half- 
brother  Phocus,  Telamon  was  expelled  from  iEgina,  and 
came  to  Salamis,  where  he  was  made  king.  He  after- 
ward became  the  father  of  Atlas.  Telamon  himself 
was  one  of  the  Calydonian  hunters  and  one  of  the 
Argonauts.  He  was  also  a  great  friend  of  Hercules, 
whom  he  joined  in  his  expedition  against  Laomedon  of 
Troy,  which  city  he  was  the  first  to  enter.  Hercules, 
in  return,  gave  to  him  Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomedon. 

Telem'achus.  The  son  of  Ulysses  and  Penelope. 
He  was  an  infant  when  his  father  went  to  Troy;  and 
when  he  had  been  absent  nearly  twenty  years,  Telema- 
chus  went  to  Pylos  and  Sparta  to  gather  information 
concerning  him.  He  was  hospitably  received  by  Nestor, 
who  sent  his  own  son  to  conduct  Telemachus  to  Sparta. 
Menelaus  also  received  him  kindly,  and  communicated 
to  him  the  prophecy  of  Proteus  concerning  Ulysses. 
From  Sparta  Telemachus  returned  home;  and  on  his 
arrival  there  he  found  his  father,  whom  he  assisted  in 
slaying  the  suitors.      (See  Penelope.) 

The'nus.  The  goddess  of  justice  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  Titanides,  or  daughters  of  Uranus 
and  Titffia.  To  her  is  ascribed  the  first  uttering  of 
oracles,  and  also  the  first  introduction  of  sacrifices. 


342 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Thersi'tes.  The  ugliest,  and  most  scurrilous  of  the 
Greeks  before  Troy.  He  spared,  in  his  revilings,  neither 
prince  nor  chief,  but  directed  his  abuse  principally 
against  Achilles  and  Ulysses.  He  was  slain  by  Achilles 
for  deriding  his  grief  for  Penthesilea.  The  name  is 
often  used  to  denote  a  calumniator. 

The'seus.  He  became  king  of  Athens,  finding  the 
sword  and  sandals  of  his  father,  ^geus.  Of  the  many 
adventures  of  Theseus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  was 
his  expedition  against  the  Amazons.  He  is  said  to  have 
assailed  them  before  they  had  recovered  from  the  attack 
of  Hercules,  and  to  have  carried  off  their  queen,  Antiope. 
The  Amazons,  in  their  turn,  invaded  Attica,  and  pene- 
trated into  Athens  itself,  and  the  final  battle,  in  which 
Theseus  overcame  them,  was  fought  in  the  very  midst 
of  the  city.  Theseus  figures  in  almost  all  the  great 
heroic  expeditions. 

Thes'plan  Maids,  The.  The  nine  Muses.  So  called 
from  Thespia,  in  Bceotia,  near  Mount  Helicon,  often 
called  Thespia  Rupes. 

The'tls.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Nereus  and  Doris, 
was  a  marine  divinity,  and  dwelt  —  like  her  sisters,  the 
Nereids  —  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  with  her  father 
Nereus.  She  there  received  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  on  his 
flight  from  Lycurgus,  and  the  god  in  his  gratitude  pre- 
sented her  with  a  golden  urn.  When  Vulcan  was 
thrown  down  from  heaven,  he  was  likewise  received  by 
Thetis.  Thetis  rejected  the  offers  of  Zeus,  because  she 
had  been  brought  up  by  Hera,  and  the  god,  to  revenge 
himself,  decreed  that  she  should  marry  a  mortal. 

Thor,  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  eldest  son 
of  Odin  and  Frigga;  strongest  and  bravest  of  the  gods. 
He  launched  .the  thunder,  presided  over  the  air  and  the 
seasons,  and  protected  man  from  lightning  and  evil 
spirits.  His  wife  was  Sif  ("love");  his  chariot  was 
drawn  by  two  he-goats;  his  mace  or  hammer  was  called 
Mjolner;  his  belt  was  Megingjard,  whenever  he  put  it 
on  his  strength  was  doubled;  his  palace  was  Thrud- 
vangr.  It  contained  540  halls;  Thursday  is  Thor's  day. 
The  word  means  "Refuge  from  terror." 

Ti'tans.  The  enterprises  of  the  Titans  are  celebrated 
in  the  ancient  fables  of  the  Greeks.  They  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  account  of  Saturn,  to  whom  they  were 
brothers,  being  generally  considered  as  sons  of  Uranus  or 
Coelus  and  Titaea,  or  Gaia.  The  oldest  was  called  Titan, 
and  from  him,  or  their  mother,  they  derived  their  common 
name. 

Titho'nus.  A  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy. 
He  was  so  beautiful  that  Aurora  became  enamored  of 
him,  and  persuaded  the  gods  to  make  him  immortal; 
but,  as  she  forgot  to  ask  for  eternal  youth,  he  became 
decrepit  and  ugly,  and  was,  therefore,  changed  by  her 
into  a  cicada. 

Tit'yus.  A  famous  giant,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Terra. 
His  body  was  so  vast  that  it  covered  nine  acres  of  ground. 
He  had  dared  to  offer  an  insult  to  Juno  and  in  punish- 
ment was  chained  like  Prometheus  while  a  vulture 
feasted  on  his  liver.     He  is  mentioned  by  Virgil. 

Trl'ton.  Son  of  Neptune,  who  dwelt  with  his  father 
and  mother  in  a  golden  palace  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
or,  according  to  Homer,  at  Agae.  Later  writers  de- 
scribe him  as  riding  over  the  sea  on  sea-horses  or  other 
monsters. 

Trolls.  Dwarfs  of  Northern  mythology,  living  in 
hills  or  mounds;  they  are  represented  as  stumpy,  mis- 
shapen, and  humpbacked,  inclined  to  thieving,  and  fond 
of  carrying  off  children  or  substituting  one  of  their  own 
offspring  for  that  of  a  human  mother.  They  are  called 
hill-people,  and  are  especially  averse  to  noise,  from  a 
recollection  of  the  time  when  Thor  used  to  fling  his 
hammer  after  them. 

Truth.  A  daughter  of  Time,  because  Truth  is  dis- 
covered in  the  course  of  Time.  Democritus  says  that 
Truth  lies  hidden  at  the  bottom  of  a  well. 

Troy.  The  classic  poets  say  that  the  walls  of  this 
famous  city  were  built  by  the  magic  sound  of  Apollo's 
lyre. 

Tyr.  In  Norse  mythology,  he  was  a  warrior  deity, 
and  the  protector  of  champions  and  brave  men;  he  was 
also  noted  for  his  sagacity.  When  the  gods  wished  to 
bind  the  wolf  Fenrir,  Tyr  put  his  hand  into  the  demon's 
mouth  as  a  pledge  that  the  bonds-  should  be  removed 
again.  But  Fenrir  found  that  the  gods  had  no  inten- 
tion of  keeping  their  word,  and  revenged  himself  in 
some  degree  by  biting  the  hand  off.  Tyr  was  the  son 
of  Odin  and  brother  of  Thor. 

Ulys'ses.  Called  "Odysseus"  by  the  Greeks,  one  of 
the  principal  Greek  heroes  in  the  Trojan  War,  was  a  son 
of  Laertes,  or,  according  to  a  later  tradition,  of  Sisyphus, 
and  was  married  to  Penelope,  the  daughter  of  Icarius, 
by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Telemachus.  During 
the  siege  of  Troy  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor, 
prudence,  and  eloquence,  and  after  the  death  of  Achilles, 


contended  for  his  armor  with  the  Telamonian  Ajax,  and 
gained  the  prize.  He  is  said  by  some  to  have  devised 
the  stratagem  of  the  wooden  horse.  The  most  celebrated 
part  of  his  story  comes  after  the  Trojan  War.  Among 
his  adventures  he  entered  the  cave  of  the  Cyclops  and 
escaped  with  some  sheep.  One  of  the  gods  gave  to  him 
a  bag  of  winds  which  should  carry  him  home,  but  the 
winds  were  let  loose  and  his  ships  driven  to  an  island 
inhabited  by  the  sorceress  Circe.  After  many  wander- 
ings and  strange  adventures,  a  ship  was  provided  to  con- 
vey him  to  Ithaca,  from  which  he  had  been  absent  twenty 
years.  During  his  absence  his  father  Laertes,  in  grief  and 
old  age,  had  withdrawn  into  the  country;  his  mother  An- 
ticlea  had  died;  his  son  Telemachus  grown  to  manhood, 
arrd  his  wife  Penelope  had  rejected  all  the  offers  that 
had  been  made  to  her  by  the  importunate  suitors  from 
the  neighboring  islands.  In  order  that  he  might  not  be 
recognized,  Athena  metamorphosed  Ulysses  into  an 
unsightly  beggar.  He  was  kindly  received  by  Eumseus, 
the  swineherd,  made  himself  known  to  him,  and  a  plan 
of  revenge  was  resolved  on.  Penelope,  with  great  dif- 
ficulty, was  made  to  promise  her  hand  to  him  who  should 
conquer  the  others  in  shooting  with  the  bow  of  Ulysses. 
As  none  of  the  suitors  were  able  to  draw  this  bow,  Ulysses 
himself  took  it  up,  and,  directing  his  arrows  against  the 
suitors,  slew  them  all.  Ulysses  now  made  himself  known 
to  Penelope.-  The  people  rose  in  arms  against  Ulysses; 
but  Athena,  who  assumed  the  appearance  of  Mentor, 
brought  about  a  reconciliation 

Valhal'la.  In  Scandinavian  mythology  the  palace 
of  immortality  wherein  are  received  the  souls  of  heroes 
slain  in  battle. 

Val'kyrs.  The  battle-maidens  of  Scandinavian 
mythology.  They  were  mounted  on  swift  horses  and 
held  drawn  swords.  They  rushed  with  battle  and  se- 
lected those  destined  to  death  and  conducted  them  to 
Valhalla.  The  number  of  Valkyrs  differs  greatly  ac- 
cording to  the  various  mythologists,  and  ranges  from 
three  to  sixteen,  the  greater  part  of  them,  however, 
naming  only  nine. 

Ve'nus.  The  goddess  of  beauty,  and  mother  of  love. 
She  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea,  and 
was  immediately  carried  to  the  abode  of  the  gods  on 
Olympus,  where  they  were  all  charmed  with  her  extreme 
beauty.  According  to  other  legends  she  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter  and  Dione.  She  bore  as  many  names 
as  there  are  aspects  of  love,  and  finally  they  were  re- 
garded as  the  names  of  different  deities.  Sparrows  and 
doves  were  customarily  yoked  to  her  chariot;  her  girdle 
inspired  all  hearts  with  passion  for  the  wearer;  and  her 
son,  Cupid,  was  her  attendant  and  minister.  The  myrtle 
was  sacred  to  her.  Her  favorite  residence  was  at 
Cyprus. 

Ves'ta.  The  ancient  goddess  of  fire.  .lEneas  was 
believed  to  have  brought  the  eternal  fire  of  Vesta  from 
Troy,  along  with  the  images  of  the  Penates;  and  the 
praetors,  consuls,  and  dictators,  before  entering  upon 
their  official  functions,  sacrificed,  not  only  to  the  Penates, 
but  also  to  Vesta  at  Lavinium.  In  the  ancient  Roman 
house,  the  hearth  was  the  central  part,  and  around  it  all 
the  inmates  daily  assembled  for  their  common  meal 
(coena) ;  every  meal  thus  taken  was  a  fresh  bond  of 
union  and  affection  among  the  members  of  a  family,  and 
at  the  same  time  an  act  of  worship  of  Vesta,  combined 
with  a  sacrifice  to  her  and  the  Penates. 

Vlsh'nu.  In  Hindu  mythology  one  of  the  great  deities 
of  the  Hindu  triad,  ranking  as  the  "Preserver,"  after 
Brahma,  the  "Creator,"  and  before  Siva,  the  "Destroyer." 
It  is  believed  that  he  has  appeared  on  earth  nine  times, 
his  tenth  "avatar,"  or  incarnation,  having  yet  to  come. 

Vul'can.  The  god  of  fire.  Traces  of  the  worship  of 
fire  are  found  in  the  earliest  times. 

Wo'den.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  the  Scandinavian 
god  Odin;    Wednesday  is  called  after  him. ' 

Zem.  The  sacred  well  of  Mecca.  According  to  Arab 
tradition,  this  is  the  very  well  that  was  shown  to  Hagar 
when  with  Ishmael  in  the  desert.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
in  the  heart  of  the  city  of  Mecca. 

Zeus.  Called  "Jupiter"  by  the  Romans,  the  greatest 
of  the  Olympian  gods,  was  a  son  of  Cronus  (Saturnus), 
and  Rhea.  When  Zeus  and  his  brothers  distributed 
among  themselves  the  government  of  the  world  by  lot, 
Poseidon  obtained  the  sea.  Hades  the  lower  world,  and 
Zeus  the  heavens  and  the  upper  regions,  but  the  earth 
became  common  to  all.  According  to  Homer,  Zeus  dwelt 
on  Mount  Olympus  in  Thessaly,  which  was  believed  to 
penetrate  into  heaven  itself.  He  is  called  the  father  of 
gods  and  men.  He  is  the  supreme  ruler,  who  with  his 
counsel  manages  everything ;  the  founder  of  la^v  and 
order,  whence  Dice,  Themis,  and  Nemesis  are  his  as- 
sistants. Everything  good,  as  well  as  bad,  comes  from 
Zeus ;  according  to  his  own  choice  he  assigns  good  or  evil 
to  mortals;   fate  itself  was  subordinate  to  him. 


LITERATURE 


343 


I 


NAMES  IN  FICTION,  LITERARY 
PLOTS,  AND  ALLUSIONS 

A-bad'don.  The  Hebrew  name  of  an  evil  spirit  or 
destroying  angel  called  Apollyon  in  Greek.  In  mediseval 
literature  he  is  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  demons  of 
the  seventh  hierarchy  and  the  one  who  causes  wars 
and  uproars.  Klopstock  has  introduced  him  in  his 
Messiah  under  the  name  of  Abbadona.  He  represents 
him  as  a  fallen  angel  still  bearing  traces  of  his  former 
dignity  and  repenting  of  his  part  in  the  rebellion  against 
God'.  In  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  he  meets  and 
fights  with  Pilgrim. 

AbdaH'ah.  Life  of  Mohammed,  Wa.shingtqn 
Irving.  A  hero  in  Mohammedan  legend.  It  is  said 
that  Abdallah,  the  father  of  Mohammed,  was  so  beauti- 
ful, that,  when  he  married  Amina,  two  hundred  virgins 
broke  their  hearts  from  disappointed  love. 

Ab-di'el.  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  The  name  of 
the  seraph,  who,  when  Satan  stirred  up  a  revolt,  boldly 
withstood  him. 

Abon'de.  A  character  in  French  literature  that 
corresponds  to  our  Santa  Glaus.  She  is  the  good  fairy 
who  comes  at  night,  especially  New  Year's  night,  to 
bring  toys  to  children  while  they  sleep. 

Ab'ou  Hassan.  Arabian  Nights.  As  related  in 
"Arabian  Nights,"  a  merchant  of  Bagdad  who  was  car- 
ried in  his  sleep  to  the  bed  of  the  Caliph  Haroun-al- 
Raschid  and  on  awaking  was  made  to  believe  himself  the 
caliph.  Twice  in  this  way  he  was  made  to  believe 
himself  caliph.  He  afterward  became  in  reality  the 
caliph's  favorite  and  companion. 

A-brax'as.  In  Persian  literature  a  word  denoting 
a  supreme  being.  In  Greek  notation  it  stands  for  the 
number  365.  In  old  tales  or  romances  Abraxas  presides 
over  365  impersonated  virtues,  one  of  which  is  supposed 
to  prevail  on  each  day  of  the  year.  In  the  Second 
Century  the  word  was  employed  by  the  Basilid'ians 
for  the  deity;  it  was  also  the  principle  of  the  Gnostic 
hierarchy,  and  that  from  which  sprang  their  numerous 
jEons. 

Ab'sa-lom.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dryden. 
A  name  given  by  Dryden,  in  his  satirical  poem  "Absalom 
and  Achitophel,"  to  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural 
son  of  Charles  II.  Like  Absalom,  the  son  of  David, 
Monmouth  was  remarkable  for  his  personal  beauty,  his 
popularity,  and  his  undutifulness  to  his  father. 

Ab'solute,  Captain.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A 
character  in  Sheridan's  comedy,  "The  Rivals."  He  is 
distinguished  for  his  gallant,  determined  spirit,  his  quick- 
ness of  speech,  and  dry  humor. 

Absolute,  Sir  Anthony.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
An  amusing  character  in  Sheridan's  "Rivals."  He  is 
represented  as  testy,  positive,  impatient,  and  over- 
bearing, but  yet  of  a  warm  and  generous  disposition. 

Abu'dah.  A  merchant  of  Bagdad.  He  finds  the 
only  way  to  rid  himself  of  the  torment  of  an  old  hag  by 
whom  he  is  haunted  is  "to  fear  God  and  keep  His  com- 
mandments." 

A-ca'di-a.  The  name  said  to  be  derived  from 
"Shubenacadie,  the  name  of  one  of  the  principal  rivers  " 
of  Nova  Scotia:  in  old  grants  called  "  L'Acadie,"  and 
"La  Cadie,"  the  original,  and  now  the  poetic,  name  of 
Nova  Scotia.  In  1755,  the  French  inhabitants  were 
seized,  forcibly  removed,  and  dispersed  among  the  Eng- 
lish colonists  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  Longfellow  has 
made  this  event  the  subject  of  his  poem  "Evangeline." 

A-chit'o-phel.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dry- 
den. Achitophel,  a  nickname  given  to  the  first  Earl 
of  Shaftesbury  by  his  contemporaries,  and  made  use  of 
by  Dryden  in  his  poem  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  a 
satire  designed  as  a  defense  of  Charles  II.  against  the 
Whig  party.  There  is  said  to  be  a  striking  resemblance 
between  the  character  and  career  of  Shaftesbury  and 
those  of  Achitophel,  or  Ahithophel,  the  treacherous  friend 
and  counselor  of  David,  and  the  fellow-conspirator  of 
Absalom. 

A-era'si-a.  Faerie  Queene,  Spenser.  A  witch 
represented  as  a  lovely  and  charming  woman,  whose 
dwelling  is  the  Bower  of  Bliss,  which  is  situated  on  an 
island  floating  in  a  lake  or  a  gulf,  and  is  adorned  with 
everything  in  nature  that  can  delight  the  senses.  The 
word  signifies  intemperance.  She  is  the  personification 
of  senuous  indulgence  and  intoxication.  Sir  Guyon, 
who  illustrates  the  opposite  virtue,  is  commissioned  by 
the  fairy  queen  to  bring  her  into  subjection,  and  to 
destroy  her  residence. 

A'cres,  Bob.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A  character 
in  "'rhe  Rivals"  celebrated  for  his  cowardice  and  his 
peculiar  method  of  allegorical  swearing. 

Acrostic.     A  form  of  verse  in  which  the  first  letters 


of  the  lines  form  a  word,  usually  a  name.  The  Hebrews 
wrote  a  form  of  acrostic  poetry  in  which  the  initial 
letters  made  their  alphabet  in  regular  order.  Some  of 
the  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  are  on  this  plan,  especi- 
ally the  one  hundred  and  nineteenth  psalm. 

Ad'am.  (1)  A  character  frequently  alluded  to  in 
the  "'Talmud."  Many  strange  legends  are  related  of 
him.  He  was  buried,  so  Arabian  tradition  says,  on 
Aboncais,  a  mountain  of  Arabia.  (2)  In  As  You  Like 
It,  Shakespere.  An  aged  servant  to  Orlando  who  offers 
to  accompany  Orlando  in  his  flight  and  to  share  with 
him  his  carefully-hoarded  savings  of  500  crowns.  (3)  In 
Comedy  of  Errors,  Shakespere.  An  oflScer  known 
by  his  dress,  a  skin-coat. 

Adamas'tor.  Lusiad,  Camoens.  (1)  A  hideous 
phantom  described  by  Camoens  as  the  spirit  of  the 
stormy  cape  (Cape  of  Good  Hope).  (2)  One  of  the 
giants  who  invaded  heaven. 

Ad'ams,    Parson.     Joseph    Andrews,    Fielding. 
A  character  in   Fielding's  story  of  "Joseph  Andrews.  '  . 
He  is  distinguished  for  his  goodness  of  heart,  poverty, 
learning,   and  ignorance  of  the  world,   combined  with 
courage,  modesty,  and  a  thousand  oddities. 

Ad'emar  or  Ad'e-ma-ro.  Jerusalem  Delivered, 
Tasso.  An  ecclesiastical  warrior  who  besought  the 
pope  that  he  might  be  sent  on  the  crusades.  He  was 
slain  in  an  attack  on  Antioch  but  in  the  final  attack  on 
Jerusalem  his  spirit  came  with  three  squadrons  of  angels 
to  aid  the  besiegers. 

Adol'pha.  Maid  of  Mariendorpt,  Knowles. 
The  daughter  of  General  Kleiner,  Governor  of  Prague, 
and  wife  of  Idenstein.  She  is  known  for  her  "excess 
of  too  sweet  nature,"  which  Knowles  in  his  romance 
pictures  as  a  fault. 

Ad'o-na'is.  A  poetical  name  given  by  Shelley  to  the 
poet  Keats,  on  whose  untimely  death  he  wrote  an  elegy 
bearing  this  name  for  its  title.  The  name  was  coined  by 
Shelley  probably  to  hint  an  analogy  between  Keats's  fate 
and  that  of  Adonis. 

Adrastus.  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  An 
Indian  prince  from  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  who  aided 
the  King  of  Egypt  against  the  crusaders.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  garment,  a  serpent's  skin.  Adrastus 
was  slain  by  Rinaldo. 

.i4]-ne'as.  The  hero  of  Virgil's  .(Eneid,  son  of  Anchises 
and  the  goddess  of  Venus;  to  him  is  ascribed  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire.  He  is  called  the  "Pious 
Mneaa,"  because  he  carried  his  father  Anchises  on  his 
shoulders  from  burning  Troy. 

.i^neid.  An  epic  of  national  life.  Virgil  introduces 
into  his  poem  the  outlines  of  the  Roman  history,  and  a 
number  of  interesting  episodes.  The  first  three  books 
are  not  arranged  in  the  order  of  time.  The  second  book, 
which  relates  the  downfall  of  Troy,  and  is  the  basis  of 
the  poem,  is  the  first  in  time.  The  third,  which  relates 
the  voyage  of  jEneas,  until  after  his  departure  from 
Sicily  for  Italy,  follows.  The  first,  which  relates  the 
dispersion  of  his  fleet,  and  his  arrival  in  Africa,  with 
his  kind  reception  by  Dido,  succeeds  the  third.  By 
this  change  the  hero  relates  the  downfall  of  his  country, 
and  the  fortunes  of  his  long  and  eventful  voyage.  The 
idea  which  underlies  the  whole  action  of  the  poem  is 
the  great  part  played  by  Rome  in  the  history  of  the 
world. 

Agamem'non.  A  Tragedy  by  .(Eschylus.  The 
first  of  a  triology  consisting  of  Agamemnon,  Choephori, 
and  Eumenides. 

Aga'pida,  Fray  Antonio.  The  imaginary  chronicler 
of  the  Conquest  of  Granada,"  written  by  Washington 
Irving. 

A'glb.  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainment.  The 
third  Calendar  in  the  story  of  "The  Three  Calendars," 
in  the  "Arabian  Nights." 

Ag'nes.  (1)  A  young  girl  in  Moli^re's  "L'Ecole  des 
Femmes,"  who  affects  to  be  remarkably  simple  and 
ingenuous.  The  name  has  passed  into  popular  use,  and 
is  applied  to  any  young  woman  unsophisticated  in  affairs. 
(2)  A  strong  womanly  character  in  David  Copperfield, 
who  proves  a  true  friend  to  David's  "child-wife,"  Dora, 
and  to  David  himself.  Later  Dora  dies  and  David 
marries  Agnes. 

A-gra-man'te  or  Ag'ra-mant.  King  of  the  Moora 
in  Ariosto's  poem  of  "Orlando  Furioso." 

A'gue-cheek,  Sir  Andrew.  Twelfth  Night, 
Shakespere.  A  simpleton  in  "Twelfth  Night,'  to 
whom  life  consists  only  of  eating  and  drinking.  He  is 
stupid  even  to  silliness,  but  so  devoid  of  self-love  or  self- 
conceit  that  he  is  delightful  in  his  simplicity. 

Ah'med,  Prince.  Arabian  Nights.  A  hero  who 
possessed  a  magic  tent  which  would  cover  a  whole 
army  but  might  be  carried  in  the  pocket.  He  also  pos- 
sessed a  magic  apple  which  would  cure  all  diseases. 


344 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


A>Iad'din.  One  of  the  best  known  characters  in  the 
"Arabian  Nights  Tales."  Aladdin  becomes  possessed 
of  a  wonderful  lamp  and  ring.  On  rubbing  them,  two 
genii  appear,  who  are  the  slaves  of  anyone  who  possesses 
the  lamp  and  ring.  They  obey  Aladdin  and  perform 
most  incredible  deeds  by  their  magic. 

AI  A'raf  (HI  a'raf).  The  Mohammedan  limbo.  The 
subject  of  an  uncompleted  poem  by  Edgar  A.  Poe. 

A-Ias'nam.  The  hero  of  a  story  in  the  "Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments"  entitled  "The  History  of 
Prince  Zeyn  Alasnam  and  the  Sultan  of  the  Genii." 
Alasnam  has  eight  diamond  statues,  but  had  to  go  in 
quest  of  a  ninth  more  precious  still,  to  fill  the  vacant 
pedestal.  The  prize  was  found  in  the  lady  who  became 
his  wife,  at  once  the  most  beautiful  and  the  most  perfect 
of  her  race. 

Al-ba'nia,  Al'ba-ny.  A  name  given  to  Scotland  or 
the  Scottish  Highlands  in  old  romances  and  early  his- 
tories. 

Al'bl-on.  An  ancient  name  of  Briton,  now  used  only 
in  poetic  allusion.  Some  say  the  name  is  derived  from 
the  lofty  white  cliffs  on  the  south  coast.  Others  derive 
it  from  the  name  of  a  fabulous  giant,  Albion,  son  of 
Neptune,  who  called  the  island  after  his  own  name,  and 
ruled  it  forty-four  years. 

Albrac'ca.  Orlando  Innamorata,  Bojardo.  A 
castle  of  Cathay  to  which  Angelica  retires  in  grief  at 
being  scorned  and  shunned  by  Rinaldo,  with  whom  she 
is  deeply  in  love.  Here  she  is  besieged  by  Agricane, 
King  of  Tartary,  who  resolves  to  win  her,  notwithstand- 
ing her  indifference  to  his  suit. 

Al-ceste',  Le  Misanthrope,  Mollere.  A  noble 
but  misanthropic  man,  the  hero  of  Moli^re's  comedy. 

Al-cl'na.  Orlando  Innomorato,  Bojardo.  A 
fairy  represented  as  carrying  off  Astolfo.  She  reappears 
in  great  splendor  in  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso." 

Al'dl-bo-ron'tl-phos'co-phor'nl-o.  A  character 
in  Henry  Carey's  burlesque  tragedy  "  Chrononhoton- 
thologos." 

Aldine  Edition.  This  name  is  now  applied  to 
some  elegant  editions  of  English  works.  The  original 
Aldine  editions  were  books  from  the  press  of  Aldus 
Manutius,  printed  in  the  years  1490-1597.  These 
books  have  been  highly  prized  both  for  their  literary 
value  and  their  handsome  exterior.  The  Aldus  printing 
establishment  was  kept  up  for  100  years.  The  distin- 
guishing mark  of  the  Aldine  books  is  an  anchor  entwined 
with  a  dolphin.  Collections  of  these  books  have  been 
made.  Many  of  the  works  are  now  very  rare  and  are 
highly  prized. 

AI'din-ear,  Sir.  A  character  in  an  ancient  legend, 
and  the  title  of  a  celebrated  ballad,  preserved  in  Percy's 
"Reliques,"  This  ballad  relates  how  the  honor  of  Queen 
Elianor,  wife  of  Henry  Plantagenet,  impeached  by  Sir 
Aldingar,  her  steward,  was  submitted  to  the  chance  of  a 
duel,  and  how  an  angel,  in  the  form  of  a  little  child, 
appeared  as  her  champion,  and  established  her  innocence. 

Alexandrian  Codex.  A  manuscript  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  Greek,  which  belonged  to  the  library  of  the 
patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  in  Africa,  A.  D.,  1098.  In 
J628,  it  was  sent  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.,  and  was 
placed  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  on  parchment, 
m  uncial  letters,  and  contains  the  Septuagint  version 
(except  the  Psalms),  a  part  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
the  Epistles  of  Clemens  Romanus.  This  is  much  con- 
sulted by  Biblical  scholars,  especially  in  the  critical 
study  of  the  epistles. 

Alice  Brand.  Lady  of  the  Lake.  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  Alice  signed  Ifrgan  the  dwarf  thrice  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  and  he  became  "  the  fairest  knight  in  all 
Scotland " ;  when  Alice  recognized  in  him  her  own 
brother. 

AI'lan-a-Dale'.  A  friend  of  Robin  Hood's  in  the 
ballad.  He  is  introduced  into  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Ivan- 
hoe  "  as  Robin  Hood's  minstrel. 

All's  Well  that  Ends  Well,  a  comedy  by  Shakes- 
pere.  The  hero  and  heroine  are  Bertram,  Count  of 
Rousillon,  and  Hel'ena,  a  physician's  daughter,  who  are 
married  by  the  command  of  the  king  of  France,  but 
part  because  Bertram  thought  the  lady  not  sufficiently 
well-born  for  him.     Ultimately,  however,  all  ends  well. 

Airworthy,  Mr.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Dis- 
tinguished for  his  benevolence.  This  character  is  said 
to  be  drawn  from  Fielding's  friend  Ralph  Allen. 

Alp.  Siege  of  Corinth,  Byron.  The  hero  of  this 
poem. 

Alph.  Kubla  Khan,  Coleridge.  A  name  invented 
by  Coleridge  and  applied  to  a  river  mentioned  in  this  poem. 

Al'qui-fe.  A  personage  that  figures  in  all  the  books 
of  the  lineage  of  Amadis  as  a  powerful  wizard. 

Al-Ralcin'.  A  fabulous  dog  connected  with  the 
legend  of  the  "Seven  Sleepers."  The  Mohammedans 
have  given  him  a  place  in  paradise. 


Al-Slrat'.  A  bridge  from  this  world  to  the  next 
extending  over  the  abyss  of  hell.  This  narrow  bridge, 
less  than  the  thread  of  a  famished  spider,  must  be  passed 
over  by  every  one  who  would  enter  the  Mohammedan 
paradise. 

Am'-a-dls  de  Gaul.  The  hero  of  an  ancient  and 
celebrated  Portuguese  romance.  A  French  version  was 
printed  in  1555. 

Aman'da.  A  young  woman  who  impersonates 
spring  in  Thompson's  "Seasons." 

A-mai'mon,  or  A-may'mon.  An  imaginary  king 
of  the  East,  one  of  the  principal  devils  who  might  be 
bound  or  restrained  from  doing  hurt  from  the  third  hour 
till  noon,  and  from  the  ninth  hour  till  evening.  He  is 
alluded  to  in  Shakespere's  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor." 

Ama'urot.  Utopia,  Sir  Thomas  More.  Amaurot 
was  the  chief  city  in  Utopia. 

Amaurote.     A  bridge  in  Utopia. 

Ame'lia.  The  title  of  one  of  F'ielding's  novels,  and 
the  name  of  its  heroine,  who  is  distinguished  for  her 
tenderness  and  affection.  The  character  of  Amelia  is 
said  to  have  been  drawn  from  Fielding's  wife. 

Amine'.  In  Arabian  Nights  a  female  character  who 
leads  her  three  sisters  by  her  side  as  a  leash  of  hounds. 

Amlnte'.  Les  Pre'cleuses  Ridicules,  Moliere. 
A  contradictory  character  in  this  comedy.  She  dis- 
misses her  admirers  for  proposing  to  marry  her,  scolds 
her  uncle  for  not  carrying  himself  as  a  gentleman,  and 
marries  a  valet  whom  she  believes  to  be  a  nobleman. 

Am'let,  Richard.  The  name  of  a  gamester  in  Van- 
brugh's  "Confederacy." 

Am'o-ret.  The  naine  of  a  lady  married  to  Sir 
Scudamore,  in  Spencer's  "Faery  Queen."  She  is  the 
type  of  a  devoted,  loving  wife.  (2)  The  heroine  of 
Fletcher's  pastoral  drama,  "The  Faithful  Shepherdess." 

A'mys  and  Amyl'lon.  Two  faithful  friends.  The 
Pylades  and  Orestes  of  the  feudal  ages.  Their  adven- 
tures are  the  subjects  of  ancient  romances.  An  ab- 
stract of  this  early  romance  is  found  in  Ellis'  "Specimens 
of  Early  English  Metrical  Romances." 

Anacreontic  Verse.  Commonly  of  the  jovial  or 
Bacchanalian  strain,  named  after  Anacreon,  of  Teos, 
the  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Teos,  an  Ionian  city  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  removed  to  Abdera,  in  'Thrace,  when 
Teos  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  but  he  lived  chiefly 
at  Samos,  under  the  patronage  of  Polycrates.  After 
the  death  of  Polycrates,  he  went  to  Athens  at  the  invi- 
tation of  the  tyrant  Hipparchus.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
85,  probably  about  the  year  550  B.  C.  In  his  poems 
Anacreon  sung  chiefly  the  praises  of  love  and  wine,  to 
the  enjoyment  of  which  his  life  would  also  appear  to 
have  been  dedicated.  Many  fragments  of  his  songs  are 
preserved,  which  are  models  of  delicate  grace,  simplicity 
and  ease. 

Anagram,  a  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name 
or  sentence,  the  change  of  one  word  or  phrase  into 
another,  by  reading  the  letters  backwards,  or  by  trans- 
posing them. 

An-as-ta'sl-us.  Anastasius,  Hope.  The  hero  of 
this  novel  purports  to  be  a  Greek,  who,  to  escape  the 
consequences  of  his  own  crimes  and  villainies,  becomes 
a  renegade,  and  passes  through  a  long  series  of  the  most 
extraordinary  vicissitudes. 

Ancient  Man.  Idvlls  of  the  King,  Tennyson. 
Meaning  Merlin,  the  old  magician.  King  Arthur's  pro- 
tector and  teacher. 

Ancient  Mariner.  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner, 
Coleridge.  The  ancient  mariner,  for  the  crime  of  hav»j 
ing  shot  an  albatross,  a  bird  of  good  omen  to  voyagers,] 
is  doomed  to  undergo  terrible  suffering.  Dreadful  pen- 
alties are  visited  upon  his  companions,  who  have  mad< 
themselves  accomplices  in  his  crime.  The  penalties  are] 
at  last  remitted  in  consequence  of  his  repentance.  Whenj 
pity  enters  his  heart  he  can  pray,  and  the  dead  albatross.j 
bound  about  his  neck,  falls  ofjf.  The  ship  moves  or 
and  he  returns  to  his  home  port.  There  he  encountei 
a  hermit  to  whom  he  relates  his  story.  At  certaini 
times  the  agony  of  remorse  returns  and  drives  him  on,;; 
like  the  Wandering  Jew,  from  land  to  land,  compelled! 
to  relate  the  tale  of  his  suffering  and  crime  as  a  wamingj 
to  others,  and  as  a  lesson  of  love  and  charity  towards' 
all  God's  creatures.  The  conception  of  this  poem  and 
the  mystical  imagery  of  the  skeleton-ship  are  said  to 
have  been  borrowed  by  Coleridge  from  a  dream. 

Andrews,  Joseph.  The  hero  in  a  novel  by  the  same 
name,  written  by  Fielding,  to  ridicule  Richardson's 
"Pamela."  Fielding  presents  "Joseph  Andrews"  as  a 
brother  to  the  modest  and  prudish  Pamela,  and  pictures 
him  as  a  model  young  man. 

Androeclus  and  the  Lion.  A  story  of  a  runaway 
slave  who  befriended  a  lion,  and  was  in  turn  befriended 
by  the  lion.  This  story  is  found  in  the  "Gesta  Roman- 
oi-um"  and  in  "..(Esop's  Fables." 


I 


LITERATURE 


345 


Angelica.  An  infidel  princess  of  exquisite  beauty 
in  Bojardo's  "Orland  Innamorato  "  and  Ariosto's  "Or- 
lando Furioso." 

Aneelus  Domini.  A  prayer  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Churcn,  embodying  a  passage  in  Scripture  beginning 
with  those  words.  It  was  ordered  by  Pope  John  XXII., 
in  1326,  to  be  repeated  three  times  a  day,  morning, 
noon,  and  night,  when  the  church-bell  gives  the  people 
warning. 

An-tlph'o-lus  of  Eph'e-sus,  An-tiph'o-lus  of 
Syr'a-cuse.  Twin  brothers,  sons  to  ^geon  and  .Emi- 
lia, in  Shakespere's  "Comedy  of  Errors." 

An-to'nl-o.  (1)  The  "Merchant  of  Venice"  in 
Shakespere's  play  of  that  name,  the  friend  to  Bassanio, 
and  the  object  of  Shylock's  hatred.  (2)  The  usurping 
Duke  of  Milan,  and  brother  to  Prospero,  in  Shakespere's 
"Tempest."  (3)  The  father  of  Proteus,  in  Shakespere's 
"Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona."  (4)  A  minor  character 
in  Shakespere's  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing."  (6)  A 
sea-captain,  friend  to  Sebastian,  in  Shakespere's  "Twelfth 
Night." 

Antony  and  Cleopatra.  Historical  tragedy  by 
Shakespere  which  may  be  considered  as  a  continuation 
of  Julius  Cassar.  In  the  opening  scene  of  Julius  Ctesar 
absolute  power  is  lodged  in  one  man.  In  the  conclu- 
sion of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  a  second  Caesar  is  again 
in  possession  of  absolute  power  and  the  entire  Roman 
world  is  limited  under  one  imperial  ruler.  There  are 
four  prominent  characters  in  this  play:  Cleopatra, 
voluptuous,  fascinating,  gross  in  her  faults,  but  great 
in  the  power  of  her  affections;  Octavius  Ca'sar,  cool, 
prudent,  calculating,  avaricious;  Antony,  quick,  brave, 
reckless,  prodigal;  Enobarbus,  a  friend  of  Antony,  at 
first  jocular  and  blunt,  but  transformed  by  penitence 
into  a  grief-stricken  man  who  dies  in  the  bitterness  of 
despair. 

Aonian  Mount.  Milton  says  his  muse  is  to  soar 
above  "the  Aonian  Mount,"  i.  e.,  above  the  flight  of 
fable  and  classic  themes,  because  his  subject  was  "Jeho- 
vah, lord  of  all." 

Ap'e-man'tus.  A  churlish  philosopher  in  Shake- 
spere's play,  "Timon  of  Athens." 

Apocalypse.  The  Greek  name  of  the  last  book  of 
the  New  Testament,  termed  in  English  "Revelations." 
It  has  been  generally  attributed  to  the  Apostle  St.  John, 
but  some  wliolly  reject  it  as  spurious.  In  the  first 
centuries  many  churches  disowned  it,  and  in  the  Fourth 
Century  it  was  excluded  from  the  sacred  canon  by  the 
council  of  Laodicea,  but  was  again  received  by  other 
councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  held  in  the 
year  1545.  Most  commentators  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  about  A.  D. 
96;  while  others  assign  it  an  earlier  date.  Its  figures 
and  symbols  are  impressive. 

Apocryplia.  The  word  originally  meant  secret  or 
hidden  and  it  is  said  that  the  books  of  the  Apocrypha 
are  not  found  in  either  the  Chaldean  or  the  Hebrew 
language.  These  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon, 
but  they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  apocryphal 
writings  are  ten  in  number:  Baruch,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Tobit,  Judith,  two  books  of  the 
Maccabees,  Song  of  the  Three  Children,  Susannah,  and 
Bell  and  the  Dragon.  Their  style  proves  that  they 
were  a  part  of  the  Jewish-Greek  literature  of  Alexandria, 
within  three  hundred  years  before  Christ;  and  as  the 
Septuagint  Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  came 
from  the  same  quarter,  it  was.  often  accompanied  by 
these  Greek  writings,  and  they  gained  a  general  circu- 
lation. No  trace  of  them  is  found  in  the  Talmud  ; 
they  are  mostly  of  legendary  character,  but  some  of 
them  are  of  value  for  the  historical  information,  for 
their  moral  and  maxims,  and  for  the  illustrations  they 
give  of  ancient  life. 

Apollyon.  An  evil  spirit  introduced  by  Bunyan  in 
his  allegorical  romance,  "Pilgrim's  Progress."  See 
Abaddon. 

Arabian  Nights  Entertainments,  consisting  of 
one  thousand  and  one  stories,  told  by  the  Sultana  of 
the  Indies  to  divert  the  Sultan  from  the -execution  of  a 
bloody  vow  he  had  made  to  marry  a  lady  every  day 
and  have  her  head  cut  off  next  morning,  to  avenge 
himself  for  the  disloyalty  of  the  first  Sultana.  The 
story  on  which  all  the  others  hang  is  familiar.  Schehe- 
rezade,  the  generous,  beautiful  young  daughter  of  the 
vizier,  like  another  Esther,  resolves  to  risk  her  life  in 
order  to  save  the  poor  maidens  of  her  city  whom  the 
Sultan  is  marrying  and  beheading  at  the  rate  of  one  a 
day.  She  plans  to  tell  an  interesting  story  each  night 
to  the  Sultan,  breaking  off  in  a  very  exciting  place  in 
order  that  the  Sultan  may  be  tempted  to  spare  her  life 
80  that  he  may  hear  the  sequel. 


Ar'den,  Enoch.  The  hero  of  Tennyson's  poem  of 
the  same  name,  a  seaman  who  is  wrecked  on  an  unin- 
habited, tropical  island,  where  he  spends  many  years, 
and  who  returns  home  at  last  only  to  find  that  his  wife, 
believing  him  to  be  dead,  has  married  his  old  play- 
fellow and  rival,  and  is  prosperous  and  happy.  In  a 
spirit  of  heroic  self-sacrifice,  he  determines  not  to  un- 
deceive her,  and  soon  dies  of  a  broken  heart. 

Ar'cher.  Beaux'  Stratagem,  Farquhar.  A  serv- 
ant to  Aimwell  and  an  amusing  fellow. 

Ar-chl-ma'go  or  Ar'chi-mage.  Faery  Queen, 
Spencer.  As  the  name  implies  a  hypocrite  or  deceiver. 
He  is  an  enchanter  in  the  "  Faery  Queen,"  and  is  opposed 
to  holiness  embodied  in  the  Red  Cross  Knight.  He 
wins  the  confidence  of  the  knight  in  the  disguise  of  a 
reverend  hermit,  and  by  the  help  of  Duessa,  or  Deceit, 
separates  him  from  Una,  or  Truth. 

Ar-cl'te.  Palamon  and  Arcite,  Chaucer.  Pala- 
mon  and  Arcite  in  the  first  story  told  by  Chaucer  in  his 
"Canterbury  Tales."  Chaucer  borrowed  this  story 
from  Boccacio,  who,  in  his  turn,  borrowed  it  from  a  more 
ancient  mediseval  tale.  Dryden  later '  put  the  •  same 
story  into  verse.  Dryden  pronounced  the  word  Ar'cite' 
or  Ar-ci-te'.  Arcite,  a  young  Theban  knight,  made 
prisoner  by  Duke  Thesus,  is  shut  up  in  a  prison  in 
Athens  with  Palamon.  Both  the  captives  fall  in  love 
with  Emily,  the  Duke's  sister-in-law.  Both  gain  their 
liberty  and  Emily  is  promised  by  the  duke  to  the  one 
who  wins  in  a  tournament.  Arcite  wins  but  is  killed 
by  a  fall  from  a  horse  and  Emily  marries  Palamon. 
This  story  is  better  known  through  Dryden's  "Palamon 
and  Arcite." 

Ar-e-thu'sa.  The  name  of  a  sylph  in  Pope's  "Rape 
of  the  Lock." 

Argalia.  Orlando  Innamorato,  Bojardo.  A 
brother  to  Angelica  in  this  romantic  poem.  He  is 
celebrated  as  the  possessor  of  an  enchanted  lance  which 
threw  whomsoever  it  touched.  Ferraii  eventually 
killed  him,  and  Astolfo  obtained  the  lance. 

Ar-mi'da.  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  The 
most  important  character  in  this  poem. 

Ar-nolphe'.  Li'Ecole  des  Femmes,  Mollere. 
A  selfish  and  morose  cynic. 

Ar'ga-lus.  An  unhappy  lover  in  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
"  Arcadic^." 

Ar'gan.  The  hero  of  Molifere's  comedy  "Le  Malade 
Imaginaire." 

Ar-ga-li'a.  A  brother  to  Angelica,  in  Bojardo's 
"Orlando  Innamorato."  He  is  celebrated  as  the  pos- 
sessor of  an  enchanted  lance  which  overthrew  whom- 
soever it  touched. 

A'rl-el.  In  the  denomology  of  the  Cabala,  a  water 
spirit;  in  the  fables  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  spirit  of  the 
air,  the  guardian  angel  of  innocence;  in  Shakespere's 
'"Tempest,"  an  airy  and  tricksy  spirit,  once  imprisoned 
in  a  tree  but  released  by  Prospero  and  now  becomes  his 
messenger,  assuming  any  shape,  or  rendering  himself 
invisible,  in  order  to  execute  the  commands  of  his  master. 

Ar-i-o-dan'tes.  A  lover  in  Ariostos'  "Orlando 
Furioso." 

Armi'da.  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  A  beau- 
tiful sorceress  with  whom  Rinaldo  fell  in  love.  By  a 
talisman  he  is  disenchanted.  Not  being  able  to  allure 
him  back,  Armida  rushes  into  the  midst  of  a  combat 
and  is  slain. 

Ar'oun-dight.     The  sword  of  Lancelot  of  the  Lake. 

Ar-sin'oe.  Le  Misanthrope,  Moliere.  A  prudish 
character  in  this  comedy. 

Ar'te-gal,  also  written  Artegall,  Arthegal,  and 
Artegaie.  (1)  A  legendary  king  of  Briton  mentioned 
by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  in  his  chronicles  and  by 
Milton  in  his  History  of  Britain.  (2)  A  character  in 
Spencer's  "P'aery  Queen  "  representing  justice.  (3)  The 
hero  in  a  poem  by  William  Wordsworth,  entitled  "Arte- 
gal  and  Elidore." 

Arthur,  King.  A  poetical  character,  based  on  his- 
torical traditions.  The  Arthur  of  the  old  Welsh  bards 
was  a  warrior  chieftain  ruling  over  fierce  and  war-like 
tribes.  Every  generation  of  poets  have  added  some- 
thing to  this  picture  until  the  Arthur  of  modern  romance 
is  the  Christian  gentleman  as  Tennyson  pictures  him 
in  his  "Idylls  of  the  King"  surrounded  by  his  chival- 
rous knights,  all  bound  together  in  one  quest,  the 
Holy  Grail. 

Arthurian  Romances.  These  may  be  divided  into 
six  parts:  (1)  'The  romance  of  the  "San  Graal."  (2) 
"The  Merlin,"  which  celebrates  the  birth  and  exploits 
of  King  Arthur.  (3)  "The  Launcelot."  (4)  The 
search  or  "Quest  of  the  San  Graal."  (5)  The  "Mort 
d' Arthur,"  or  death  of  Arthur.     (6)  "Sundry  Tales." 

Arthur's  Drinking-Hom.  No  one  could  drink 
from  this  horn  who  was  either  unchaste  or  unfaithful. 


346 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Arthur's  Sword,  Escal'ibur  or  Excal'iber.  Geoffrey 
calls  it  Caliburn.  and  says  it  was  made  in  the  isle  of 
Avallon,  by  Merlin. 

Arthur's  Round  Table.  It  contained  seats  for  150 
knights.  Three  were  reserved,  two  for  honor,  and  one 
(called  the  "siege  perilous")  for  Sir  Galahad,  destined 
to  achieve  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail. 

As'ca-part.  The  name  of  a  giant  whom  Bevis  of 
Southampton  conquered.  This  is  a  favorite  sjtory  of 
the  old  British  romancers,  The  effigy  of  As'ca-part 
may  be  seen  on  the  city  gates  of  Southampton.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  thirty  feet  high,  and  to  have  carried 
Sir  Bevis,  his  wife,  and  horse,  under  his  arm.  Allusions 
to  him  occur  in  Shakespere,  Drayton,  and  other  English 
poets. 

Ash'ton,  Sir  William.  The  Lord  Keeper  of  Scot- 
land; a  prominent  character  in  Scott's  ".Bride  of  Lam- 
mermoor." 

As'mo-de'us.  In  the  Jewish  demonology,  an  evil 
spirit,  the  demon  of  vanity,  or  dress.  In  modern  times 
he  has  been  spoken  of  as  the  destroying  demon  of  matri- 
monial happiness. 

As-pa'ti-a.  The  unfortunate  heroine  of  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher's  play  "The  Maid's  Tragedy." 

As'tolot.  "The  home  of  Elaine  in  Tennyson's  "Idylls 
of  the  King." 

As-tol'fo  or  As-tol'pho.  A  celebrated  character 
in  the  romantic  tales  and  poems  founded  upon  the  sup- 
posed adventures  of  Charlemange  and  his  Paladins. 

As  You  Like  It,  a  comedy  by  Shakespere.  A  French 
duke,  driven  from  his  dukedom  by  his  brother,  sought 
a  refuge  in  the  forest  of  Arden  with  a  few  of  his  followers. 
Here  they  lived  a  free  and  easy  life.  Rosalind,  the 
daughter  of  the  banished  duke,  remained  at  court 
with  her  cousin  Celia.  At  a  wrestling  match  Rosalind 
fell  in  love  with  Orlando,  who  threw  his  antagonist,  a 
giant  and  professional  athlete.  The  usurping  duke 
(Frederick)  now  banished  her  from  the  court,  but  her 
cousin  Celia  resolved  to  go  to  Arden  with  her;  so  Rosa- 
lind, in  boy's  clothes,  and  Celia,  as  a  rustic  maiden,  started 
to  find  the  deposed  duke.  Orlando  being  driven  from 
home  by  his  elder  brother,  also  went  to  the  forest  of 
Arden,  and  was  taken  under  the  duke's  protection. 
Here  he  met  the  ladies,  and  a  double  marriage  was  the 
result  —  Orlando  married  Rosalind,  and  his  elder 
brother  Oliver  married  Celia.  The  usurper  retired  to 
a  religious  house,  and  the  deposed  duke  was  restored  to 
his  dominions. 

Ath'a-lle.  Athalle,  Racine.  Daughter  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel  in  Racine's  famous  tragedy  by  this  name. 

Auburn.  The  name  of  a  village  immortalized  by 
Oliver  Goldsmith  in  his  "Deserted  Village";  it  has  been 
identified  with  Lissoy,  in  Ireland,  near  Athlone. 

Au'drey.  A  country  wench,  in  Shakespere's  '!As 
You  Like  It." 

Autol'ycus.  The  craftiest  of  thieves.  He  stole  the 
flocks  of  his  neighbors,  and  changed  their  marks.  Si'sy- 
phus  outwitted  him  by  marking  his  sheep  under  their 
feet.  Shakespere  introduces  him  in  "The  Winter's 
Tale "  as  a  peddler,  and  says  he  was  called  the  son  of 
Mercury. 

Av'a-lon,  or  A-vll'lon.  The  earthly  paradise  of 
the  Britains.  In  Middle-Age  romance,  the  name  of  an 
ocean  island,  and  of  a  castle.  It  is  represented  as  the 
abode  of  Arthur  and  Oberon  and  Morgan  le  Fay.  It  js 
most  fully  described  in  the  old  French  romance  of  "Ogier 
le  Danois."  It  is  the  Island  Kingdom  to  which  King 
Arthur  is  finally  borne  by  the  mysterious  barge  in 
Tennyson's  "Passing  of  Arthur."  Some  identify 
Avalon  with  the  modern  Glastonbury. 

Aver'nus.  A  lake  in  Campania  so  called  from  the 
belief  that  its  vapors  would  kill  all  life.  Poets  call  it 
the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions. 

Ay'mer,  Prior.  A  Benedictine  Monk,  prior  of  Jor- 
vaulx  Abbey,  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Ivanhoe." 

Ay'mon.  A  semi-mythical  personage  who  figures 
in  romances. 

Aza'zll.  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  Represented 
in  this  poem  as  Satan's  standard  bearer.  According  to 
the  Koran,  when  God  commanded  the  angels  to  worship 
Adam,  Azazil  replied,  "Why  should  the  son  of  fire  fall 
down  before  a  son  of  clay?"  and  God  cast  him  out  of 
heaven. 

A'zo.  The  name  given  by  Byron  to  the  Prince  of 
Este,  in  his  poem  of  "Parisina." 

Az'rafll.  In  the  Koran  the  archangel  commis- 
sioned to  blow  the  trumpet  of  the  resurrection. 

Babes  in  the  Wood.  Wonderful  Gent's  Last 
Will,  Ancient  Ballad.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties this  old  story  in  verse  was  founded  on  the  deed  of 
King  Richard  III.,  of  England,  who  made  his  two  young 
nephews  prisoners  in  the  Tower  of  London  from  which 
they  disappeared.     It  was  believed  that  they  were  mur- 


dered by  his  orders.  A  common  tale,  much  liked  by 
English  children,  in  its  many  forms,  grew  from  this 
ballad.  Perhaps  the  best  known  was  the  one  in  which 
the  lost  babes  were  covered  with  leaves  by  the  birds  in 
the  woods. 

Baboon,  Lewis.  History  of  John  Bull,  Arbuth- 
not.  A  name  given  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  The 
name  Philip  Baboon  was  given  in  the  same  writing  to 
Philip  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Anjou. 

Backbite,  Sir    Benjamin.    School   for  Scandal, 

Sheridan.     A  vacantly  busy  man  who  peddled  scandal. 

Bagstock,  Joe.     Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.     The 

insistent  and  selfish  ".J.  B.,"  "old  J.  B.,"  and  "Joey  B." 

of  the  story. 

Baillif,  Harry.  Canterbury  Tales,  Chaucer. 
The  jolly  landlord  at  Tabard  Inn,  where  the  Canterbury 
Pilgrims  gathered  in  making  ready  for  their  journey. 

Balafre.  Quentin  Durward,  Scott.  Name  given 
to  an  old  archer  belonging  to  the  Scottish  Guards. 

Balderstone,  Caleb.  Bride  of  Lammermoor, 
Scott.  A  bore  and  an  intrusive  bufifoon  who  tries  to 
appear  rich  but  lives  in  discomfort  and  often  in  hunger 
and  want.  His  pretentions  have  often  been  laughingly 
quoted. 

Baldwin.  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  The 
brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  In  the  tale  of  "Rey- 
nard the  Fox  "  the  name,  Baldwin,  is  given  to  one  of  the 
beasts. 

Balmawhapple.  Waverly,  Scott.  An  obstinate 
stupid-faced  blundering  Scotch  laird. 

Balthazar.  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shakespere. 
A  merchant  ordered  to  furnish  impossible  merchandise. 
In  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing"  Balthazar  appears  as 
servant  to  Don  Pedro.  Balthazar  is  also  the  name  of 
one  of  the  Wise  Men  who  followed  the  star  to  Bethle- 
hem. 

Balwhldder.  Annals  of  the  Parish,  Gait.  A  sin- 
cere, kind,  talkative  Scotch  Presbyterian  clergyman. 
With  natural  prejudices  and  old-fashioned  ways  he  is 
too  "easy"  to  carry  on  his  parish  work  with  zeal.  His 
friends  enjoy  Balwhidder's  jokes. 

Banquo.  Macbeth,  Shakespere.  A  thane  of 
Scotland  said  to  belong  to  the  Eleventh  Century  and 
ancestor  of  the  Stuarts.  In  fiction  made  immortal  as 
the  innocent  laird  murdered  by  Macbeth.  Banquo's 
ghost  is  more  famous  than  Banquo  himself. 

Barabas.  The  Jew  of  3Ialta,  Marlowe.  A  mon- 
ster, the  hero  of  the  tragedy,  who  wears  a  big  nose  and 
invents  infernal  machines. 

Bardell,  Mrs.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  The 
landlady,  a  widow,  who  sues  Mr.  Pickwick  for  breach  of 
promise  to  marry  her. 

Bard  of  Avon.  Name  given  to  Shakespere  who  was 
born  and  buried  in  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Bard  of  Ayrshire.  A  name  often  given  to  Robert 
Burns,  the  great  poet  of  Scotland,  who  was  a  native  and 
resident  of  the  county  of  Ayr. 

Bard  of  Hope.  A  title  sometimes  given  to  Thomas 
Campbell,  author  of  "The  Pleasures  of  Hope,"  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  didactic  poems  in  the  language. 

Bard  of  Memory.  A  name  used  to  designate  the 
poet  Rogers,  author  of  ".The  Pleasures  of  Memory." 

Bard  of  Rydal  Mount.  An  epithet  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  poet  Wordsworth,  who  resided  at  Rydal,  a 
chapelry  of  England,  in  the  County  of  Westmoreland. 
His  dwelling  overlooked  a  beautiful  view  of  Lake 
Rydal.  ^,    , 

Bardolph.  Blerry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Shake- 
spere. A  follower  of  Falstaff,  known  as  "the  knight  of 
the  burning  lamp,"  from  his  red  nose.  He  is  a  poor,  low- 
bred drunkard. 

Barkis.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens.  Remem- 
bered by  the  much-quoted  "Barkis  is  willing,"  his  form 
of  proposipg  marriage  to  his  beloved  Clara  Pegotty. 

Barley-Com,  Sir  John.  Tam  O'Shanter,  Burns. 
Name  given  to  the  personification  of  a  malt  liquor 
made  from  barley.  Sir  Barley-corn  has  also  been 
noticed  by  the  authors  Scott  and  Hawthorne.  The 
name  comes  down  to  us  from  an  old  English  pamphlet 
of  uncertain  date  in  which  Sir  John  Barley-corn  is 
arraigned  in  court,  tried  by  jury  and  acquitted. 

Barnaby  Rudge.  Bamaby  Rudge,  Dickens. 
A  half-witted  lad  wlio  wanders  about  with  a  pet  raven. 
They  flit  together  through  many  adventures,  including  a 
No-popery  riot. 

Basillsco.  Sollman,  and  Perseda,  old  Play. 
A  boasting  knight  who  became  so  popular  with  his 
foolish  bragging  that  his  name  grew  into  a  proverb. 

Bassanlo.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespere. 
The  lover  of  Portia  who  won  her  when  he  chose  a  leaden 
casket  in  which  her  portrait  was  hidden. 

Bath,  Malor.  Amelia,  Henry  Fielding.  A  noble- 
minded  gentleman,  pompous  in  spite  of  poverty,  ana 


LITERATURE 


347 


striving  to  live  according  to  the  "dignity  and  honor  of 
man."  He  tries  to  hide  his  poverty  under  bold  speech 
even  when  found  doing  menial  service. 

Battle,  Sarah.  Essays  of  Elia,  Lamb.  Sarah 
considered  wliist  the  business  of  life  and  literature  one 
of  the  relaxations.  When  a  young  gentleman,  of  a  liter- 
ary turn,  said  to  her  he  had  no  objection  to  unbend  his 
mind  for  a  little  time  by  taking  a  hand  with  her,  Sarah 
declared  "Whist  was  her  life  business;  her  duty;  the 
thing  she  came  into  the  world  to  do.  She  unbent  her 
mind  afterwards  over  a  book." 

Bayard.  Old  Poems  and  Romances.  Bayard 
was  a  famous  horse  belonging  to  the  four  sons  of  Amyon, 
a  semi-mythical  character.  He  seemed  but  an  ordinary 
horse  when  one  person  rode,  but  if  the  four  mounted,  the 
horse  accommodatingly  grew  in  length.  Among  won- 
derful things  related  of  him  his  hoof-prints  have  been 
found  on  rocks  and  in  deep  forests.  Bayard  is  also 
known  as  the  property  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  in  an  old 
Portuguese  romance.  He  was  found  under  the  watch  of 
a  dragon  whom  a  wizard  knight  charmed  and  then 
rescued  the  horse.  In  French  tales  Bayard  is  repre- 
resented  to  be  yet  living  in  some  of  the  forests  of  France 
but  disappears  when  disturbed.  Bayard  is  also  the 
name  of  the  horse  belonging  to  Fitz-James  in  Scott's 
poem,  " Lady-of-the-Lake.  "Bayardo's  Leap"  belongs 
to  this  story.  It  is  said  that  Rinaldo  was  riding  on  his 
favorite  steed,  when  a  demon  sprang  behind  him,  but 
the  animal  in  terror  took  three  tremendous  leaps  and 
unhorsed  the  fiend. 

Bayes.  The  Rehearsal,  George  VllUers.  This 
farce,  or  satire,  was  written  about  the  year  1670  and  its 
wit  has  been  much  quoted.  In  its  present  form  the  hero, 
Bayes,  is  intended  to  represent  Dryden  as  at  the  head  of 
heroic  rhymes.  He  is  shown  as  greedy  for  applause; 
impatient  of  censure  or  criticism;  inordinately  vain,  yet 
obsequious  to  those  who,  he  hopes,  will  gratify  him  by 
returning  his  flattery,  and,  finally,  as  anxiously  mindful 
of  the  minute  parts  of  what,  even  in  the  whole,  is  scarce 
worthy  of  attention. 

Beatrice.  Divine  Comedy,  Dante.  Daughter  of 
an  illustrious  family  of  Florence  for  whom  Dante  had 
a  great  love.  In  his  poem  she  is  represented  as  being  his 
guide  through  paradise.  Beatrice  is  also  the  name  of 
the  heroine  of  Shakespere's  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing." 
Of  her  Mrs.  Jameson  says:  "The  extraordinary  success 
of  this  play  in  Shakespere's  own  day,  and  ever  since, 
in  England,  is  to  be  ascribed  more  particularly  to 
the  parts  of  Benedict  and  Beatrice,  two  humorsome 
beings,  who  incessantly  attack  each  other  with  all  the 
resources  of  raillery.  In  Beatrice,  high  intellect  and 
high  animal  spirits  meet,  and  excite  each  other  like 
fire  and  air.  In  her  wit  there  is  a  touch  of  insolence, 
not  infrequent  in  women  when  the  wit  predominates 
over  reflection  and  imagination.  In  her  temper,  too, 
there  is  a  slight  infusion  of  the  termagant.  But  Bea- 
trice, though  willful,  is  not  wayward;  she  is  volatile, 
not  unfeeling." 

Beauty  and  the  Beast.  Fairy  Tale,  Mme.  Ville- 
neuve.  Oft-repeated  in  stories  for  children.  Beauty 
and  the  Beast  are  known  in  many  forms.  In  the  original 
tale  young  and  lovely  Beauty  saved  the  life  of  her  father 
by  putting  herself  in  the  power  of  a  frightful,  but  kind- 
hearted,  monster,  whose  respectful  affection  and  deep 
melancholy  finally  overcame  her  aversion  to  his  hideous- 
ness,  and  induced  her  to  consent  to  marry  him.  By  her 
love  Beast  was  set  free  from  enchantment  and  allowed 
to  arsume  his  own  form,  a  handsome  and  graceful  young 
prince. 

Bede,  Adam.  Adam  Bede,  George  Eliot.  An 
ideal  workman,  hero  of  the  novel. 

Bedivere.  Tales  of  the  Round  Table.  Bedivere 
was  the  last  knight  of  King  Arthur's  Round  Table.  He 
had  served  as  a  butler,  was  of  much  importance  and  was 
sent  by  the  dying  king  to  throw  his  sword,  Excalibar, 
into  the  lake.  A  hand  and  arm  rose  from  the  lake, 
caught  the  sword,  flourished  it  three  times  and  sank. 
Bedivere  watched  King  Arthur's  departure  for  Avalon, 
the  "Isle  of  the  Blest."  This  knight  is  noticed,  under 
the  name  Bedver,  in  Geoffry's  British  History. 

Beggar's  Daughter.  Reliques,  Percy.  First 
known  as  the  Beggar's  daughter  of  Bethnal  Green,  a 
beautiful  girl  named  Bessie,  who  is  wooed  by  a  knight, 
and  whose  father  turns  out  to  be  a  son  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
ford,  living  in  disguise  as  a  blind  beggar.  The  story  was 
dramatized  by  Sheridan  Knowles. 

Belch,  Sir  Tony.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakespere. 
Uncle  to  Olivia,  a  jolly,  care-free  fellow,  type  of  the 
roisterers  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  days. 

Belinda.  Rape  of  the  Lock,  Pope.  Poetical  name 
of  the  heroine  whose  real  name  was  said  to  be  Arabella 
Fermor.  In  a  frolic  Lord  Petre  cut  a  lock  from  the 
lady's  hair,  this  was  so  much  resented  that  it  broke  the 


great  friendship  between  the  two  families.  The  poem, 
"Rape  of  the  Lock,"  was  written  to  bring  the  people 
into  a  better  temper  and  lead  to  reconciliation.  Belinda 
is  also  the  name  of  the  heroine  in  a  novel  written  by 
Maria  Edgeworth. 

Bell,  Adam.  Old  Ballad.  A  famous  wild  outlaw 
belonging  to  the  north  country  and  celebrated  for  his 
skill  as  an  archer. 

Bell,  Laura.  Pendennls,  Thackeray.  One  of  the 
sweetest  heroines  in  English  Literature. 

Bell-man.  L'Allegro,  Milton.  The  watchman 
who  patrolled  the  streets  and  called  out  the  hour  of  night. 
Sometimes  he  repeated  scraps  of  pious  poetry  in  order  to 
charm  away  danger. 

Bell,  Peter.  Peter  Bell,  a  Tale  in  verse,  Words- 
worth. A  wandering  tinker,  subject  of  Wordsworth's 
poem,  whose  hard  heart  was  touched  by  the  fidelity  of  an 
ass  to  its  dead  master.  Shelley  wrote  a  burlesque  of  this 
poem,  entitled  "Peter  Bell  the  Third,"  intended  to  ridi- 
cule the  ludicrous  puerility  of  language  and  sentiment 
which  Wordsworth  often  affected.  This  burlesque  was 
given  the  name  of  the  Third  because  it  followed  a  parody, 
already  published  as  "Peter  the  Second." 

Bell-the-Cat.  Name  given  to  a  nobleman  at  Lauder, 
Scotland,  early  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  King  James  II. 
called  an  assembly  of  Scottish  barons  to  resist  a  threat- 
ened invasion  of  his  realm  by  Edward  IV.,  of  England. 
After  long  discussion  one  of  the  barons  related  the  nur- 
sery tale  of  a  convention  of  mice  in  which  it  was  proposed 
to  hang  a  bell  on  the  cat's  neck,  to  give  warning  of  her 
presence.  No  one  would  serve  on  the  Mouse  Committee. 
To  the  story  Archibald  Douglas  responded  by  saying 
"I  will  bell  the  cat"  and  was  afterward  known  by  the 
name,  Bell-the-cat. 

Beloved  Physician.  Bible.  Name  given  to  St. 
Luke  and  first  suggested  in  the  Apostle  Paul's  letter  to 
the  Colossians. 

Belphoebe.  Faery  Queen,  Spencer.  A  delicate 
and  graceful  flattery  offered  to  Queen  Elizabeth  through 
the  huntress,  Belphoebe,  intended  as  a  likeness  of  the 
Queen.  The  name  taken  from  belle,  meaning  beautiful, 
and  Phoebe,  a  name  sometimes  bestowed  on  Diana. 

Belvawney,  Bliss.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens. 
She  belonged,  to  the  wonderful  Portsmouth  theater, 
always  took  the  part  of  a  page  and  gloried  in  silk  stock- 
ings. 

Belvidera.  Venice  Preserved,  Otway.  The  beau- 
tiful heroine  of  the  almost  forgotten  tragedy.  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott  said  "more  tears  have  been  shed,  probably,  for 
the  sorrows  of  Belvidera  and  Moninia  than  for  those  of 
Juliet  and  Desdemona." 

Benedick.  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Shake- 
spere. A  young  lord  of  Padua  who  is  gentleman,  wit, 
and  soldier.  He  was  a  pronounced  bachelor,  but  after 
a  courtship  full  of  witty  sayings  and  coquetry  he  marries 
the  lovely  Beatrice.  From  this  gentleman  comes  the 
name  Benedick  or  Benedict,  applied  to  married  men  who 
were  not  going  to  marry. 

Benengeli,  Cld  Hamet.  Don  Quixote,  Cervan- 
tes. Supposed  to  be  a  writer  of  chronicles  among  the 
Moors  and  claimed  as  authority  for  the  tales  of  adventure 
recorded  by  Cervantes.  The  name,  Cid  Hamet,  has  been 
often  quoted  by  writers. 

Ben  Hur,  ^Seneral  Lew  Wallace.  Messala,  the 
Roman  playmate  and  young  friend  of  Ben  Hur,  after- 
ward became  his  re-norseless  enemy.  Ambitious,  hard, 
and  cruel,  when  he  came  into  power  he  made  Ben  Hur 
a  galley  slave,  confiscated  his  property  and  imprisoned 
the  mother  and  sister.  Ben  Hur  escaped,  returned 
later  as  a  wealthy  Roman,  and  entered  in  the  famous 
chariot  race  against  Messala  who  had  put  up  enormous 
sums  in  wagers.  Messala  recognized  Ben  Hur  and 
hoped  to  win  the  race  and  bring  him  to  final  ruin  ;  but 
Messala  himself  was  thrown  and  seriously  injured. 
His  cruelties  were  made  known  and  he  was  at  last  slain 
by  his  wife,  Isas,  the  daughter  of  Balthasar. 

Bennet,  Mrs.  Amelia,  Fielding.  An  improper 
character. 

Benvolio.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakespere.  One 
of  Romeo's  friends  who  would  "quarrel  with  a  man 
that  had  a  hair  more  or  a  hair  less  in  his  beard  than  he 
had."  Mercutio  says  to  him,  "Thou  hast  quarreled 
with  a  man  for  coughing  in  the  street." 

Beowulf.  Anglo-Saxon  Poem.  He  was  a  Gothic 
warrior  who  slew  the  monster  Grendel,  which  infested  the 
great  hall  of  Hrothgar,  King  of  the  West  Danes.  This 
great  poem  of  over  6,000  lines  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  first  part  describes  the  beautiful  palace  of  King 
Hrothgar,  the  ravages  wrought  by  the  fiend  Grendel 
and  his  mother,  and  the  deliverance  wrought  by  the 
hero  Beowulf.  The  second  part  describes  the  combat 
between  the  aged  King  Beowulf  and  the  dragon  which 
was  wasting  the  land  of  the  Goths.     The  Beowulf  who 


348 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


took  part  in  Hygelac's  historical  expedition  against  the 
Hetware  is  probably  historical,  but  the  Beowulf  of  the 
four  great  exploits  of  the  poem,  the  swimming  match 
with  Breca,  and  the  contests  with  Grendel,  with  his 
dam,  and  with  the  dragon,  is  probably  a  character 
allied  to  the  Norse  divinities. 

Bertram.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott.  The  character 
was  suggested  by  James  Annesley,  Esq.,  rightful  heir  of 
the  earldom  of  Anglesey,  of  which  he  was  disposse.ssed  by 
his  uncle  Richard.  He  died  in  1743.  Bertram  was  also 
the  name  of  the  haughty  and  dissolute  count,  husband 
of  Helena  in  Shakespere's  comedy  "All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well." 

Blanca.  Othello,  Shakespere.     Cassio's  sweetheart. 

Bibllo'mancy,  a  mode  of  divination  much  practiced 
during  many  ages.  The  diviner  opened  the  Bible 
and  observed  the  first  passage  which  occurred  or  upon 
entering  a  place  of  worship  took  notice  of  the  first  words 
of  the  Bible  heard  after  entering.  The  application  was 
often  very  fanciful,  and  depended  rather  upon  the  mere 
sound  of  the  words  than  upon  their  proper  signification, 
or  the  scope  of  the  passage.  Prayer  and  fasting  were 
sometimes  used  as, a  preparation  for  a  mode  of  consulting 
the  divine  oracles,  than  which  nothing  could  be  more 
contrary  to  their  purpose  and  spirit,  and  which  was  in 
harmony  only  with  the  notions  and  practices  of  hea- 
thenism. 

Biblioma'nia,  signifies  book-madness.  It  is  a  pas- 
sion for  rare  and  curious  books.  While  the  ordinary 
collector  is  satisfied  with  the  possession  of  works  which 
are  valuable,  either  on  account  of  their  established 
repvitation  or  as  assisting  him  in  his  literary  or  profes- 
sional pursuits,  the  bibliomaniac  is  actuated  by  other 
motives.  With  him  utility  is  of  secondary  importance, 
rarity  being  the  first  and  great  requisite.  Thus  even 
a  common  book  becomes  valuable  in  his  eyes  if  it  be 
one  of  a  few  copies  thrown  off  on  vellum  or  on  large 
paper,  or  if  it  has  been  bound  by  Derome,  Bozerian, 
Lewis,  or  Payne;  and  for  the  same  reason,  he  some- 
times prefers  an  inferior  to  a  better  article.  The  forma- 
tion of  complete  sets  of  such  books  as  the  "  Elzevir 
Republics"  (see  Elzevir),  or  of  the  works  of  a  single 
author,  provided  they  be  scarce,  is  a  favorite  pursuit 
with  many. 

Bigendlans.  Gulliver's  Travels,  Swift.  The 
name  of  a  religious  party  in  the  imaginary  Empire  of 
Lilliput  who  made  it  a  matter  of  duty  and  conscience  to 
break  their  eggs  at  the  large  end.  They  were  regarded 
as  heretics  by  the  law,  which  required  all  persons  to  break 
the  smaller  end  of  their  eggs,  under  pain  of  heavy  penal- 
ties in  case  of  disobedience. 

Bilfll.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Allworthy's  nephew, 
a  talebearer. 

Birch,  Harvey.  The  Spy,  Cooper.  The  chief 
character  of  the  novel. 

Black-eyed  Susan.  Ballad,  Jolin  Gay.  The 
heroine  of  the  popular  sea-song. 

Blatant  Beast.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  A  bel- 
lowing monster  typical  of  slander;  or,  an  impersonation 
of  what  we  now  call  ".Vox  Populi,"  or  the  ".Voice  of  the 
People." 

Blimber,  3Iiss  Cornelia.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dick- 
ens. The  daughter  of  Dr.  Blimber,  the  head  of  a  first- 
class  educational  establishment  conducted  on  the  forcing 
or  cramming  principle.  She  is  a  very  "learned,  grave, 
and  precise  young  lady,  "no  light  nonsense  about  her," 
who  has  become  "dry  and  sandy  with  working  in  the 
graves  of  deceased  languages." 

Blouzalinda.  Shepherd's  Week,  John  Gay. 
The  country  girl,  heroine  of  this  pastoral  poem,  written 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  but  quoted 
as  a  picture  of  the  poverty  and  rudeness  of  rural  life  at 
that  time. 

Bobadil,  Captain.  Every  Man  in  His  Humor, 
Jonson.  A  boasting  coward,  who  passes  himself  off 
with  young  and  simple  people  for  a  Hector. 

Boeuf,  Front  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  King 
John's  followers.     A  ferocious  scoundrel. 

Bols  Guilbcrt,  Brian  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  A 
brave  but  cruel,  crafty,  and  dissolute  commander  of  the 
Knights  Templar. 

Boniface.  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  Farquhar. 
A  fine  representation  of  an  English  landlord.  Hence 
applied  to  landlords  generally. 

Bontemps,  Roger.  Song,  Beranger.  Known  in 
France  as  the  personification  of  care-free  leisure.  The 
equivalent,  among  the  French  peasantry,  for  the  English 
proverb,  "There's  a  good  time  coming,"  is  "Roger  Bon- 
temps." This  one  of  Beranger's  njost  celebrated  songs 
was  written  in  1814. 

Bottom,  Nick.  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Shakespere.  A  man  who  fancies  he  can  do  every- 
thing, and  do  it  better  than  anyone  else.     Shakespere 


has  drawn  him  as  profoundly  ignorant,  and  with  an  over- 
flow of  self-conceit.  Oberon,  the  fairy  king,  desiring  to 
Eunish  Titania,  his  queeij,  commissioned  Puck  to  watch 
er  till  she  fell  asleep,  and  theri  to  annoint  her  eyelids 
with  the  juice  of  a  plant  called  "love-in-idleness,"  the 
effect  of  which,  when  she  awoke,  was  to  make  her  dote 
upon  Bottom,  upon  whom  Puck  had  fixed  an  ass's  head. 

Bowling,  Tom.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett. 
A  name  made  almost  famous  as  hero  of  the  novel. 
Critics  have  said  "The  character  of  "Tom  Bowling,  in 
'  Roderick  Random,'  will  be  regarded  in  all  ages  as  a 
happy  exhibition  of  those  naval  heroes  to  whom  Britain 
is  indebted  for  so  much  of  her  happiness  and  glory." 
The  Tom  Bowling  referred  to  in  Dibdin's  famous  sea- 
song  was  Captain  Thomas  Dibdin,  brother  of  Charles 
Dibdin,  who  wrote  the  song. 

Box  and  Cox.  Farce,  Morton.  Principal  charac- 
ters in  the  farce  known  as  a  ".dramatic  romance  of  real 
hfe." 

Brag,  Jack.  Jack  Brag,  Theodore  Hook.  Hero 
of  the  novel  and  a  spirited  embodiment  of  the  arts  em- 
ployed by  a  vulgar  pretender  to  creep  into  aristocratic 
society,  and  of  his  ultimate  discomfiture.  General  Bur- 
goyne  figures  in  an  old  ballad  known  as  "Sir  Jack  Brag." 

Bramble,  Matthew.  Humphrey  Clinker,  Smol- 
lett. Noted  character  in  the  novel  described  as  "an  odd 
kind  of  humorist,"  afflicted  with  the  gout,  and  "always 
on  the  fret,"  but  full  of  generosity  and  benevolence. 

Brass,  Sally,  and  Sampson.  Old  Curiosity  Shop, 
Dickens.  Brother  and  sister,  well  mated,  he  a  shyster- 
ing  lawyer  and  she  getting  ahead  of  him  in  villany. 
Sampson  was  dishonest,  sentimental,  and  affected  in 
manner,  and  both  are  interesting  characters  to  read  about. 

Brentford,  the  two  Kings  of.  The  Rehearsal, 
Villiers.  Much  question  has  been  raised  as  to  who  was, 
to  be  ridiculed  under  these  characters.  The  royal 
brothers,  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  have  been  suggested, 
others  say  the  fighting  Kings  of  Granada.  In  the  farce 
the  two  kings  are  represented  as  walking  hand  in  hand, 
as  dancing  together,  as  singing  in  concert,  and,  generally, 
as  living  on  terms  of  the  greatest  intimacy  and  affection. 

Brick,  Mr.  Jefferson.  Martin  Chuzzlewit,  Dick- 
ens. A  ranting  American  politician  who  makes  a  ridic- 
ulous figure  as  editor. 

Brook  Farm.  The  full  name  was  "Brook  Farm 
Institute  of  Agriculture  and  Education,"  a  stock  com- 
pany of  nearly  70  members,  located  on  a  farm  of  200 
acres  at  West  Roxbury,  Mass.  Among  the  members 
were  George  Ripley,  Charles  A.  Dana,  George  William 
Curtis,  Margaret  Fuller  and  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Among  their  frequent  visitors  were  Ralph  Waldo  Emer- 
son, Theodore  Parker,  Bronson  Alcott.  This  idyllic  life 
lasted  about  five  years,  from  1841  to  1846.  Brook 
Farm  was  a  financial  failure  but  it  was  important  in 
intellectual  results.  Hawthorne  has  written  the  story 
of  the  experiment  in  "  Blithedale  Romance." 

Brown,  Tom.  Tom  Brovm's  School  Days  and 
Tom  Brown  at  Oxford,  Thomas  Hughes.  'The  hero 
of  these  stories  of  school  days,  a  typical  English  school- 
boy and  undergraduate. 

Brimchild.  Nibelungen-Ued.  The  story  of  Brune- 
hild  holds  large  place  in  ancient  German  romance.  She 
was,  herself,  a  warrior,  proud  and  skillful  and  she  prom- 
ised to  be  the  bride  of  the  man  who  could  conquer  her  in 
three  trials,  in  hurling  the  lance,  in  throwing  the  stone, 
and  in  leaping  after  the  stone  when  thrown.  By  the  arts 
and  bravery  of  Siegfried,  she  was  deluded  into  marrying 
Gunther,  King  of  Burgundy;  but,  discovering  the  trick, 
she  planned  and  accomplished  the  destruction  of  Sieg- 
fried, and  the  humiliation  of  Chriemhild,  his  wife. 

Bumble,  Mr.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  A  pompous, 
disagreeable  beadle  who  figures  largely  in  the  beginning 
of  the  story.  The  name,  Bumble,  has  since  attached 
itself  to  the  office. 

Buntho'rne.  Patience,  Sullivan.  A  gloomy  poet 
showing  most  distinctly  in  his  gloom  surrounded  by  the 
characters  of  a  comic  opera.  He  was  inserted  as  a  satire 
on  the  aesthetic  craze,  turning  into  ridicule  the  imitators 
of  Rosetti. 

Bunsby,  Jack.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
commander  of  a  ship  looked  up  to  as  an  oracle  by  his 
friend  Captain  Cuttle.  He  is  described  as  wearing  a 
"  rapt  and  imperturbable  manner,"  and  seeming  to  be 
"always  on  the  lookout  for  something  in  the  extremest 

Burchell,  Mr.     Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Goldsmith. 

A  prominent  character  who  passes  himself  off  as  a  poor 
man,  but  is  really  a  baronet  in  disguise.  He  is  noted 
for  his  habit  of  crying  out  "Fudge!  "  by  way  of  express- 
ing his  strong  contempt  for  the  opinions  of  others. 

Burd,  Helen.  Scotch  Ballad.  A  traditional  name 
standing  for  constancy.  She  was  carried  to  England  by 
fairies  and  imprisoned  in  a  castle.     The  youngest  brother 


LITERATURE 


349 


of  the  fair  Burd  Helen  was  guided  by  the  enchanter 
Merlin  and  accomplished  the  perilous  task  of  rescuing 
his  sister.  This  is  recited  in  the  line  "Childe  Roland  to 
the  dark  tower  came,"  quoted  by  Shakespere.  Only  a 
fragment  of  the  old  ballad  has  been  preserved. 

Buskin.  Tragedy.  The  Greek  tragic  actors  used 
to  wear  a  sandal  some  two  or  three  inches  thick,  to 
elevate  their  stature.  To  this  sole  was  attached  a  very 
elegant  buskin. 

Buz-Fuz,  Serjeant.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens. 
A  pompous,  chaffing  lawyer,  who  bullies  Mr.  Pickwick 
ana  the  witnesses  in  the  famous  breach  of  promise  Suit, 
Bardell  vs.  Pickwick. 

Byfleld.  A  New  England  parish  the  scene  of  an 
historical  novel  by  John  Lewis  Ewell.  Here  lived  the 
ancestor  of  Longfellow,  to  whom  the  poet  dedicated 
"The  Village  Blacksmith,"  himself  a  blacksmith,  keeping 
his  accounts  in  peculiar  orthography.  According  to  the 
deed  of  sale  in  1681,  the  Byfield  Indians  got  a  larger 
price  from  the  first  Enghsh  settlers  than  was  paid  for 
Manhattan  Island. 

Cab'aia.  The  oral  law  of  the  Jews  delivered  down 
from  father  to  son  by  word  of  mouth.  It  is  the  usual 
belief  that  God  instructed  Moses,  and  Moses  his  brother 
Aaron,  and  so  on  from  age  to  age. 

Cabalistic  Science.  This  science  consists  mainly 
in  understanding  the  combination  of  certain  letters, 
words,  and  numbers,  said  to  be  significant. 

Cadme'an  Victory.  A  victory  purchased  at  great 
expense  of  life.  The  allusion  is  to  the  armed  men  who 
sprang  out  of  the  ground  from  the  teeth  of  the  dragon 
sown  by  Cadmus.  These  men  fell  foul  of  each  other, 
and  only  five  of  them  escaped  death. 

Cal'us,  Doctor.  Merrj;  Wives  of  Windsor. 
Shakespere.  A  physician  in  the  comedy  who  adds 
a  touch  of  humor.  He  is  most  conspicuous  as  the  lover 
of  Anne  Page. 

Calandri'no.  A  simpleton  frequently  introduced 
in  Boccaccio's  "Decameron";  expressly  made  to  be 
befooled  and  played  upon.  His  mishaps,  as  Macaulay 
states,  "have  made  all  Europe  merry  for  more  than  four 
centuries." 

Ca'leb.  (1)  The  enchantress  who  carried  off  St. 
George  in  infancy.  (2)  A  character  in  Dryden's  satire 
of  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  meant  for  Lord  Grey,  one 
of  the  adherents  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth. 

Ca'leb  Quo'tem.  A  parish  clerk  or  jack-of-all-trades, 
in  Coleman's  play  "The  Review,  or  Ways  of  Windsor." 
Coleman  borrowed  the  character  from  ".Throw  Physic  to 
the  Dogs,"  an  old  farce. 

Cal'i-ban.  A  savage  and  deformed  slave  of  Pros- 
pero  in  Shakespere's  "Tempest."  He  is  represented  as 
being  the  "freckled  whelp"  of  Sycorax,  a  foul  hag,  who 
was  banished  from  Argier  (or  Algiers)  to  the  desert 
islahd  afterward  inhabited  by  Prospero.  From  his  rude, 
uncouth  language  we  get  the  phrase  "Caliban  style," 
"Caliban  speech,"  meaning  the  coarsest  possible  use  of 
words. 

Cal'i-dore.  A  knight  in  Spenser's  "Faery  Queen," 
typical  of  courtesy,  and  said  to  be  intended  for  a  portrait 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

Ca-lis'ta.  The  name  of  a  celebrated  character  in 
Rowe's  "  Fair  Penitent." 

Callip'olis,  Battle  of  Alcazar.  George  Peele. 
A  character  in  the  "  Battle  of  Alcazar,"  used  by  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott  and  others  as  a  synonym  for  lady-love,  sweet- 
heart, charmer.  Sir  Walter  always  spells  the  word 
Callipolis,  but  Peele  calls  it  Calipolis. 

Caly-'don.  A  forest  celebrated  in  the  romances 
relating  to  King  Arthur  and  Merlin. 

Camaral'zaman,  Prince.  Arabian  Nights.  One 
of  the  stories  of  the  Arabian  Nights  and  the  name  of  a 
.prince  who  fell  in  love  with  Badou'ra,  Princess  of  China, 
the  moment  he  saw  her. 

Ca-ma'cho.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  A  charac- 
ter in  an  episode  in  "Don  Quixote,"  who  gets  cheated 
out  of  his  bride  after  having  made  great  preparations  for 
their  wedding. 

Cam'ba-lo,  or  Cam'bel.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser. 
A  brother  of  Candace.  He  challenged  every  suitor  to 
his  sister's  hand,  and  overthrew  all  except  Tri'amond, 
who  married  the  lady. 

Cam'ba-lu.  In  the  ".Voyages"  of  Marco  Polo  the 
chief  city  of  the  province  of  Cathay. 

Cam'buscan  .  A  Tartar  king  identical  with  Genghis 
Khan.  The  King  of  the  far  East  sent  Cambuscan,  a 
"steed  of  brass,  which,  between  sunrise  and  sunset,  would 
carry  its  rider  to  any  spot  on  the  earth."  All  that  was 
required  was  to  whisper  the  name  of  the  place  in  the 
horse's  ear,  mount  upon  his  back,  and  turn  a  pin  set  in 
his  ear.  When  the  rider  had  arrived  at  the  place  re- 
quired, he  had  to  turn  another  pin,  and  the  horse  in- 
stantly descended,  and,  with  another  screw  of  the  pin, 


vanished  till  it  was  again  required.  This  story  is  begun 
by  Chaucer  in  the  ".Squire's  Tale,"  but  was  never 
finished. 

Cain'e-lot.  A  parish  in  Somersetshire,  England 
(now  called  Queen's  Camel),  where  King  Arthur  is  said 
to  have  held  his  court.  In  this  place  there  are  still  to 
be  seen  vast  intrenchments  of  an  ancient  town  or  station 
—  called  by  the  inhabitants  "King  Arthur's  Palace." 

Ca'mille'.  A  member  of  the  Parisian  demimonde 
and  the  heroine  of  a  play  dramatized  from  the  novel  of 
"La  Dame  aux  Camelias,"  by  Alexander  Dumas,  the 
younger. 

Can'a-ce.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  A  paragon 
aniong  women,  the  daughter  of  King  Cambuscan  to 
whom  the  King  of  the  East  sent  as  a  present  a  mirror 
and  a  ring.  The  mirror  would  tell  the  lady  if  any  man 
on  whom  she  set  her  heart  would  prove  true  or  false,  and 
the  ring  (which  was  to  be  worn  on  her  thumb)  would 
enable  her  to  understand  the  language  of  birds  and  to 
converse  with  them.  Can'ace  was  courted  by  a  crowd 
of  suitors,  but  her  brother  gave  out  that  anyone  who 
pretended  to  her  hand  must  encounter  him  in  single 
combat  and  overthrow  him.  She  ultimately  married 
Tri'amond,  son  of  the  fairy  Ag'ape. 

Can-dide'.  The  hero  of  Voltaire's  novel  so  called. 
All  sorts  of  misfortunes  are  heaped  upon  him,  and  he 
bears  them  all  with  philosophical  indifference. 

Cani'idia.  A  sorceress,  alluded  to  by  Horace,  who 
could  bring  the  moon  from  heaven. 

Candor,  Mrs.  A  most  energetic  slanderer  in  Sheri- 
dan's "School  for  Scandal." 

Ca'ora.  Description  of  Guiana,  Raleigh.  A 
river,  on  the  banks  of  which  are  a  people  whose  heads 
grow  beneath  their  shoulders.  Their  eyes  are  in  their 
shoulders,  and  their  mouths  in  the  middle  of  their 
breasts.  The  original  picture  is  found  in  Hakluyt's 
".Voyages"  1598. 

Cap'u-let.  The  head  of  a  noble  Veronese  house  in 
Shakespere's  tragedy  of  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  —  hostile 
to  the  house  of  Montague.  He  is  at  times  self-willed  and 
tyrannical,  but  a  jovial  and  testy  old  man. 

Cap'u-let,  Lady.  The  proud  and  stately  wife  of 
Capulet,  and  mother  of  Juliet. 

Carad'oc.  A  Knight  of  the  Round  Table.  Also  in 
history,  the  British  chief  whom  the  Romans  called  Carac- 
tacus.  Caradoc  is  the  hero  of  an  old  ballad  entitled 
"The  Boy  and  the  Mantle." 

Carker.  A  scoundrelly  clerk  in  Dickens's  "Dombey 
and  Son." 

Car'ton,  Sidney.  A  hero  transformed  by  unselfish 
love  in  Dickens's  "  Tale  of  Two  Cities."  He  voluntarily 
goes  to  the  guillotine  to  save  his  successful  rival  in  love. 

Car-ras'co,  Sanson.  A  waggish  bachelor  of  Sala- 
manca, in  Cervantes'  romance,  "Don  Quixote." 

Cas'ca.  Julius  Caesar,  Shakespere.  A  blunt- 
witted  Roman,  one  of  the  conspirators  against  Julius 
Csesar. 

Cas-san'dra.  A  daughter  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy, 
gifted  with  the  power  of  prophecy;  but  Apollo,  whom 
she  had  offended,  brought  it  to  pass  that  no  one  believed 
her  predictions.  Shakespere  makes  use  of  this  character 
in  "Troilus  and  Cressida." 

Ca-sel'la.  The  name  of  a  musician  and  old  friend 
of  Dante,  immortalized  by  him  in  his  poem  "La  Divina 
Commedia." 

Cassib'elan.  Great-imcle  to  Cymbeline,  in  Shakes- 
pere's play  by  that  name. 

Cas'si-o.  A  Florentine  and  lieutenant  of  Othello, 
and  a  tool  of  lago,  in  Shakespere's  tragedy  of  "Othello." 
lago  made  Cassio  drunk,  and  then  set  on  Roderi'go  to 
quarrel  with  him.  Cassio  wounded  Roderigo.  Othello 
suspended  Cassio,  but  lago  induced  Desdemo'na  to 
plead  for  his  restoration.  This  interest  in  Cassio,  con- 
firmed the  jealous  rage  of  Othello  to  murder  Desde- 
mona  and  kill  himself.  After  the  death  of  Othello, 
Cassio  was  appointed  governor  of  Cypreus. 

Castle  Dangerous.  A  keep  belonging  to  the  Doug- 
las family,  which  gives  its  name  to  one  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  "Tales  of  my  Landlord."  It  was  so  called  by 
the  English  because  it  was  always  retaken  from  them 
by  the  Douglas. 

Castle  of  Indolence.  The  title  of  a  poem  by  Thom- 
son, and  the  name  of  a  castle  described  in  it  as  situated 
in  a  pleasing  land  of  drowsiness,  where  every  sense  was 
steeped  in  the  most  luxurious  and  enervating  delights. 

Cas'tlewood,  Beatrix.  The  heroine  of  Thackeray's 
novel  "Henry  Esmond,"  a  picture  of  splendid,  lustrous, 
physical  beauty. 

Caudle,  Mrs.  Margaret.  The  feigned  author  of  a 
series  of  curtain  lectures  delivered  to  her  husband.  Job 
Caudle,  who  was  a  patient  sufferer  under  this  form  of 
persistent  nagging  by  his  wife.  The  real  author  of  these 
humorous  lectures  was  Douglas  Jerrold. 


350 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Caulinet  Sir.  The  hero  of  an  ancient  English  ballad 
preserved  in  Percy's  "Reliques." 

Cave  of  Mammon.  The  abode  of  the  god  of  riches, 
described  in  the  second  book  of  Spenser's  "  Faery 
Queen." 

Cax'ton,  Pi-sis'tra-tus.  The  hero  of  Bulwer 
Lytton's  novel  "The  Caxtons,"  and  of  its  sequel  "My 
Novel." 

Ce-cll'la,  St.  A  patron  saint  of  the  blind,  also  pat- 
roness of  musicians,  and  "inventor  of  the  organ." 
According  to  tradition,  an  angel  fell  in  love  with  her  for 
her  musical  skill,  and  used  nightly  to  visit  her.  A  crown 
of  martyrdom  was  be.stowed  both  upon  her  and  her  hus- 
band. Dryden  and  Pope  have  written  odes  in  her  honor, 
and  both  speak  of  her  charming  an  angel  by  her  musical 
powers. 

Ced'ric.     A  Saxon  thane  in  Scott's  ".Ivanhoe." 

Ce'lla.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  (1)  Mother  of 
Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity.  She  was  herself  known  as 
Heavenliness  and  lived  in  the  hospices  Holiness.  (2) 
Celia,  cousin  to  Rosalind  in  Shakespere's  Comedy  "As 
You  Like  It."  Celia  is  a  common  poetical  name  for  a 
lady  or  a  lady-love. 

Ceph'alus  and  Procrls.  Cephalus  was  the  husband 
of  Procris,  who,  out  of  jealousy,  deserted  him.  Cephalus 
went  in  search  of  her,  and  rested  awhile  under  a  tree. 
Procris  discovered  him,  and  crept  through  some  bushes 
to  ascertain  if  a  rival  was  with  him.  Cephalus  heard 
the  noise  and,  thinking  it  to  be  made  by  some  wild  beast, 
burled  his  javelin  into  the  bushes  and  slew  Procris. 
When  the  unhappy  man  discovered  what  he  had  done, 
he  slew  himself  in  anguish  of  spirit  with  the  same  javelin. 
This  story  is  alluded  to  in  "  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,"  in 
Shakespere's  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  where  they 
are  humorously  miscalled  "Shafalus  and  Procus." 

Chad'band,  The  Rev.  A  clerical  character  in 
Dickens'  "Bleak  House."  He  will  always  stand  as  a 
type  of  hypocritical  piety. 

Chan'ticleer.  The  cock,  in  the  tale  of  "Reynard 
the  Fox."  and  in  Chaucer's  "Nonne  Prestes  Tale." 

Char'lema^ne.  The  romance  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  Paladins  is  of  French  origin,  as  the  romances  of 
King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  is  of 
Celtic  or  Welsh  origin.  According  to  one  tradition 
Charlemagne  is  not  dead,  but  waits  crowned  and  armed, 
in  Odenberg,  near  Saltzburg,  till  the  time  of  antichrist, 
when  he  will  wake  up  and  deliver  Christendom.  Accord- 
ing to  another  tradition,  Charlemagne  appears  in  seasons 
of  plenty.  He  crosses  the  Rhine  on  a  golden  bridge, 
and  blesses  both  corn-fields  and  vineyards. 

Char'mi-an.  A  kind-hearted  but  simple-minded 
female  attendant  on  Cleopatra  in  Shakespere's  play  of 
"Antony  and  Cleopatra." 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales.  The  plan  of  the 
"Canterbury  Tales"  affords  artistic  scope  for  introducing 
a  company  of  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  the  shrine  of 
Thomas  a  Becket.  It  represents  all  classes  of  society 
and  presents  a  series  of  tales  of  great  interest  set  in  the 
midst  of  beautiful  descriptions  of  nature.  "The  stories 
best  worth  reading  are:  "The  Clerk's  Tale"  (Griseldis); 
"The  Knight's  Tale"  (Palamon  and  Arcite);  "The 
Man  of  Law's  Tale"  (Constance);  "'The  Prioress's 
Tale  "  (Hugh  of  Lincoln) ;  "  The  Priest's  Tale  "  (Chanti- 
cleer and  Pertelote). 

Chery  and  Fair-Star.  Countess  d'Auluoy's 
Fairy  Tales.  Two  children  of  royal  birth,  whom  their 
father's  brothers  and  their  mother's  sisters  cast  out 
to  sea:  they  are  found  and  brought  up  by  a  Corsair  and 
his  wife.  Ultimately  they  are  told  of  their  birth  by  a 
green  bird  and  marry  each  other.  A  similar  tale  is 
found  in  "The  Arabian  Nights." 

Cheer'y-ble  Brothers,  The.  A  firm  of  benevolent 
London  merchants  in  Dickens'  "Nicholas  Nickleby." 

Chev'y  Chase.  The  subject  and  the  title  of  an 
famous  old  English  ballad.  The  event  which  is  com- 
memorated is  probably  the  battle  of  Otterburn,  which 
happened  in  August,  1388,  but  it  is  impossible  to  recon- 
cile the  incidents  of  the  poem  with  history. 

Chib'iabas.  The  musician  in  Longfellow's  "Hia- 
watha," personifying  harmony  in  nature. 

Chllde  Harold.  Childe,  so  often  used  in  old 
English  ballads,  is  a  title  of  honor  as  "Childe  Harold," 
"Childe  of  Ellechilde  Waters,"  '.'Childe  Roland,"  "Childe 
Tristram,"  "Childe  Arthur," '  etc.  In  Byron's  poem 
"Childe  Harold,"  the  "Childe"  is  the  poet  himself 
represented  as  a  man,  sated  of  the  world  roaming  from 
place  to  place.  In  canto  I.,  he  visits  Portugal  and 
Spain;  in  canto  II.,  Turkey  in  Europe;  in  canto  III., 
Belgium  and  Switzerland;  and  in  canto  IV.,  Venice, 
Rome,  and  Florence. 

Children  in  the  Wood.  Two  characters  in  an 
ancient  and  well-known  ballad  entitled  "The  Children 
in  the  Wood,  or  The  Norfolk  Gent's  Last  Will  and  Testa- 


ment. This  is  said  to  be  a  disguised  recital  of  the 
alleged  murder  of  his  nephews  bv  Richard  III.  This  is 
the  story  as  related  in  Percy's  "Reliques."  The  master 
of  Wayland  Hall,  Norfolk,  on  his  deathbed  left  a  little 
son,  three  years  old.  and  a  still  younger  daughter,  named 
Jane,  to  the  care  of  his  wife's  brother.  If  the  children 
died  before  they  came  to  their  majority,  their  uncle  was 
to  inherit  their  estate.  After  twelve  months  had  elapsed, 
the  uncle  hired  two  ruffians  to  murder  the  two  babes.  As 
they  went  along  one  of  the  ruffians  relented,  and  killed 
his  fellow;  then,  putting  down  the  children  in  a  wood, 
left  them.  The  poor  babes  gathered  blackberries  to 
allay  their  hunger,  but  died  during  the  night,  and  "Robin 
Redbreast"  covered  them  over  with  strawberry  leates. 
Addison  says  of  the  ballad  referred  to,  that  it  is  "one  of; 
the  darling  songs  of  the  common  people." 

ChilTingly,  Kenelm.     The  hero  in  a  novel  by  tl 
name  by  Bulwer. 

Chin-gach'goolc.  A  sagamore  of  the  Mohicans,  and 
father  of  Uncas,  in  Cooper's  "Leather-Stocking  Tales." 

Chlo'e,  Daphins  and  Chloe  Longue.  (1)  The 
shepherdess  loved  by  Daphne.  (2)  "Paul  and  Vir- 
ginia" by  St.  Pierre  is  founded  on  this  romance.  (3) 
Chloe  is  also  a  shepherdess  in  Shakespere's  "As  You 
Like   It." 

Choe'reas.  The  lover  of  Callir'rhoe,  in  Cha'riton's 
Greek  romance. 

Chriemhild  or  Chrlemhilde.  The  heroine  of  the 
German  epic  poem,  the  "Nibelungen  Lied."  She  is  repre- 
sented as  a  woman  of  the  rarest  grace  and  beauty,  and 
rich  beyond  coaception.  By  the  treacherous  murder  of 
her  husband  she  is  transformed  into  a  furious  creature 
of  revenge.     For  plot  of  this  epic  cycle,  see  Kreimhild. 

Chris'ta-bel.  (1)  The  subject  and  heroine  of  an 
old  romance  by  Sir  Eglamour  of  Artois.  (2)  The  hero- 
ine of  an  ancient  ballad  "Sir  CauUne."  (3)  The  lady 
in  Coleridge's  poem  "Christabel." 

Chris'tian.  The  hero  of  John  Bunyan's  allegory 
"Pilgrim's  Progress."  He  flees  from  the  "City  of  De- 
struction," and  journeys  to  the  "Celestial  City."  He 
starts  with  a  heavy  burden  on  his  back,  but  it  falls  off 
when  he  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  All  his  trials 
on  the  way  are  depicted. 

Christian'a.  The  wife  of  Christian,  who  started 
with  her  children  and  Mercy  from  the  "Clity  of  Destruc- 
tion "  forms  the  subject  of  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress," part  II.  She  was  placed  under  the  guidance  of 
Mr.  Great-Heart,  and  met  her  husband  at  the  Celestial 
City. 

Christopher,  St.  The  giant  that  carried  a  child 
over  a  brook,  and  said,  "Chylde,  thou  hast  put  me  in 
grete  peryll.  I  might  here  no  greater  burden."  The 
Chylde  was  the  Christ  and  the  burden  was  the  "Sin  of 
the  world."    This  has  been  a  favorite  theme  for  painters. 

Chris' tus,  a  Mystery.  A  dramatic  triology  by 
Henry  W.  Longfellow:  Part  I,  "Divine  Tragedy." 
Part  II,  "The  Golden  Legend";  Part  III,  "New  Eng- 
land Tragedies." 

Chrysalde.  A  character  in  Molifere's  "L'ficole  des 
Femmes";   a  friend  of  Arnolphe. 

Chrysale.  An  honest,  simple-minded,  hen-pecked 
tradesman,  in  the  same  comedy  by  Molifere. 

Chuz'zle-wit,  Martin.  The  hero  of  Dickens'  novel 
of  the  same  name. 

Chuz'zle-wit,  Jonas.  A  miser  and  a  murderer,  the 
opposite  type  of  character  from  Martin. 

CId  Campeador  is  the  name  given  in  histories, 
traditions,  and  songs  to  the  epic  hero  of  Spain.  So 
greatly  was  he  honored  that  he  was  called  "Mio  Cid  el 
Campeador,"  my  lord  the  champion.  Relics  of  the 
"Blessed  Cid,"  as  he  is  still  called  in  Spain,  such  as  hia 
sword,  shield,  banner,  and  drinking-cup,  are  still  held  in 
great  reverence  by  the  populace.  The  numerous  "Cid 
Romances "  that  were  first  published  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  contain  the  most  romantic  improbabilities  con- 
cerning the  life  and  deeds  of  the  "Cid."  The  most  in- 
teresting chronicle  of  the  "Cid"  for  English  readers  was 
written  by  Robert  Southey. 

Cim-me'ri-ans.  A  people  described  by  Homer 
dwelling  "beyond  the  ocean-stream,"  in  a  land  where 
the  sun  never  shines. 

Cinderel'la.  Heroine  of  a  fairy  tale.  She  is  the 
drudge  of  the  house,  while  her  elder  sisters  go  to  fine  balls. 
At  length  a  fairy  enables  her  to  go  to  the  prince's  ball; 
the  prince  falls  in  love  with  her,  and  she  is  discovered  by 
means  of  a  glass  slipper  which  she  drops,  and  which  will 
fit  no  foot  but  her  own.  She  is  represented  as  returning 
good  for  evil  and  heaping  upon  her  half-sisters  every 
kindness  a  princess  can  show. 

Ci-pan'go.  A  marvelous  island,  described  in  the 
"Voyages'  of  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian  traveler.  It  is 
represented  as  lying  in  the  eastern  seas,  some  1,500  miles 
from  land,  and  of  its  beauty  and  wealth  many  stories 


I 


LITERATURE 


351 


are  related.     Columbus   and   early   navigators   made   a 
diligent  search  for  this  island. 

Clare,  Ada.  The  wife  of  Carstone,  and  one  of  the 
most  important  characters  in  Dickens'  "Bleak  House." 

Clem^n-ti'na,  The  Lady.  A  beautiful  and  accom- 
plished woman,  deeply  in  love  with  Sir  Charles  Grandi- 
8on,  in  Richardson's  novel  of  this  name. 

Clifford,  Paul.  An  attractive  highwayman  and  an 
interesting  hero  in  Bulwer's  novel  by  the  same  name. 
He  is  familiar  with  the  haunts  of  low  vice  and  dissipation, 
but  afterward  is  reformed  and  elevated  by  the  power  of 
love. 

Clinker,  Humphrey.  The  hero  of  Smollett's  novel 
entitled,  "The  Expedition  of  Humphrey  Clinker,"  a 
philosophic  youth  who  meets  many  adventures. 
Brought  up  in  the  work-house,  put  out  by  the  parish  as 
apprentice  to  a  blacksmith,  he  was  afterward  employed 
as  a  hostler's  assistant.  Having  been  dismissed  from 
the  stable,  and  reduced  to  great  want,  he  at  length 
attracts  the  notice  of  Mr.  Bramble,  who  takes  him  into 
his  family  as  a  servant.  He  becomes  the  accepted  lover 
of  Winifred  Jenkins,  and  at  length  turns  out  to  be  a 
natural  son  of  Mr.  Bramble. 

Clo'ten.  A  rejected  lover  of  Imogen,  in  Shakespere's 
play  of  "Cymbeline." 

Clorin'da,  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  Clo- 
rinda,  the  heroine  of  this  poem,  is  represented  as  an 
Amazon  inspiring  the  most  tender  affection  in  others, 
especially  in  the  Christian  chief  Tancred;  yet  she  is 
herself  susceptible  of  no  passion  but  the  love  of  military 
fame. 

Clout,  Colin.  A  name  that  Spenser  applies  to  him- 
self in  the  "Faery  Queen"  and  "Shepherd's  Calendar." 
Colin  Clout  also  is  introduced  into  Gay's  pastorals. 

Coe'Iebs.  The  hero  of  a  novel  by  Hannah  More, 
"Coelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife." 

Col-lean',  3Iay.     The  heroine  of  a  Scottish  ballad. 

Cologne,  The  Three  Kin^s  of.  A  name  given  to 
the  three  magi  who  visited  the  mfant  Saviour,  and  whose 
bodies  are  said  to  have  been  brought  oy  the  Empress 
Helena  from  the  East  to  Constantinople,  whence  they 
were  transferred  to  Milan.  Afterward,  they  were 
removed  to  Cologne  and  placed  in  the  principal  church 
of  the  city,  where,  says  Cressy,  "they  are  to  this  day 
celebrated  with  great  veneration."  Their  names  are 
commonly  said  to  be  Jaspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthazar. 

Comedy  of  Errors.  Shakespere.  Twin  brothers 
of  exact  likeness  named  Antipholus  are  served  by 
attendant  slaves  named  Dromio  also  of  striking  resem- 
blance. The  humor  of  the  play  lies  in  the  complications 
that  arise.  The  two  brothers  are  lost  at  sea  with  their 
servants  and  are  picked  up  by  different  vessels.  After 
long  separation  they  all  reappear  in  Ephesus.  There  is 
great  entanglement  of  plot  until  both  brothers  face 
each  other  in  a  trial  before  the  duke  and  all  is  explained. 

Co'mus.  In  Milton's  poem  entitled  "Comus:  a 
Masque,"  he  is  represented  as  a  base  enchanter,  who 
endeavors,  but  in  vain,  to  beguile  and  entrap  the  innocent 
by  means  of  his  enchantments. 

Consuelo.  The  heroine  of  George  Sand's  novel  of 
the  same  name,  an  impersonation  of  noble  purity  sus- 
tained amidst  great  temptations. 

Co-phet'u-a.  An  imaginary  African  king,  of  whom 
a  legendary  ballad  told  that  he  fell  in  love  with  a  beggar 
maid  and  married  her.  This  ballad  is  found  in  Percy's 
"Reliques."  Many  poets  have  made  use  of  the  story. 
Tennyson  has  given  us  a  modern  version  in  "The  Beggar 
Maid." 

Cop'per-fleld,  David.  The  hero  of  Dickens'  novel 
of  the  same  name.  This  is  said  to  be  Dickens'  favorite 
among  his  works  and  somewhat  autobiographic. 

Corde'lla.  King  Lear,  Shakespere.  The  young- 
est of  Lear's  three  daughters,  and  the  one  that  truly  loved 
him. 

Cor'y-don.  A  shepherd  in  one  of  the  "  Idyls  of  Theo- 
critus," and  one  of  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil.  Used  by 
Shakespere  and  later  poets  to  designate  a  rustic  swain. 

Cos'tard.  A  clown,  in  Shakespere's  "Love's  Labors 
Lost,"  who  apes  the  display  of  wit  and  misapplies,  in 
the  rnost  ridiculous  manner,  the  phrases  and  modes  of 
combination  in  argument  that  were  then  in  vogue. 

Cov'er-ley,  Sir  Roger.  One  of  the  members  of  the 
imaginary  club  under  whose  direction  the  "Spectator" 
was  professedly  edited.  ^He  was  a  kind-hearted,  simple- 
mind,  type  of  an  English  Squire  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Aime.     He  figures  in  thirty  papers  of  the  "Spectator." 

Crabtree.  A  character  in  Smollett's  novel,  ".The 
Adventures  of  Peregrine  Pickle." 

Crane,    Ichabod.     The  name  of  a  Yankee   school- 
master, whose  adventures  are  related  in  the  "Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,"  in  Irving's  "Sketch-book." 
.    Craw'ley,  Bawdon.     The  husband  of  Becky  Sharp 
m     Vanity  Fair,"  Thackeray's  novel  without  a  hero. 


Crea'kle,  Mr.  A  tyrannical  and  cruel  school- 
master in  Dickens'  "David  Copperfield." 

Cres'si-da.  The  heroine  of  Shakespere's  play, 
"Troilus  and  Cressida,"  also  the  heroine  of  one  of  Chau- 
cer's "Canterbury  Tales." 

Croaker.  A  character  in  Goldsmith's  comedy, 
"The  Good-natured  Man." 

Crum'mles,  Vincent.  A  theatrical  head  of  a  theat- 
rical family  in  Dickens'  "Nicholas  Nickleby." 

Cru'soe,  Rob'in-son.  The  hero  of  De  Foe's  great 
novel;  a  ship-wrecked  sailor  who  for  many  years  leads 
a  solitary  existence  on  an  uninhabited  island  of  the 
tropics,  where  he  employed  the  most  admirable  ingenuity 
in  providing  for  his  daily  wants. 

Cuneiform  Letters.  Wedge-shaped  letters  which 
occur  in  old  Persian  and  Babylonian  inscriptions.  This 
is  probably  the  oldest  form  of  writing. 

Cym'bellne.  A  mythical  king  of  Britain  and  the 
hero  of  Shakespere's  play  of  the  same  name.  Imogen, 
daughter  of  Cymbeline,  king  of  Britain,  married  clan- 
destinely Posthumus  Leonatus;  and  Posthumus, 
being  banished  for  the  offense,  retired  to  Rome.  One 
day,  in  the  house  of  Philario,  the  conversation  turned 
on  the  merits  of  wives,  and  Posthumus  bet  his  diamond 
ring  that  nothing  could  tempt  the  fidelity  of  Imogen. 
Through  the  villainy  of  lachimo  Cymbeline  was  forced 
to  believe  Imogen  untrue.  The  villainy  was  in  time  dis- 
closed and  the  beautiful  character  of  Imogen  revealed. 

Cut' tie,  Captain.  A  character  in  Dickens'  "Dombey 
and  Son,"  good-humored,  eccentric,  pathetic  in  his 
simple  credulity. 

Day'onet,  Sir.  In  the  romance  ".Le  Mort  d' Arthur" 
he  is  called  the  fool  of  King  Arthur. 

Dal-get'ty,  Rittmaster  Dugald.  A  soldier  of 
fortune  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Legend  of  Montrose," 
distinguished  for  his  pedantry,  conceit,  valor,  vulgar 
a.ssurance,  knowledge  of  the  world,  greediness,  ana  a 
hundred  other  qualities,  making  him  one  of  the  most 
amusing,  admirable,  and  natural  characters  ever  drawn 
by  the  hand  of  genius. 

Dam'o-cles,  a  flatterer  in  the  court  of  Dionysius  of 
Syracuse.  By  way  of  answer  to  his  constant  praises 
of  the  happiness  of  kings,  Dionysius  seated  him  at  a 
royal  banquet,  with  a  sword  hung  over  his  head  by  a 
single  horsehair.  In  the  midst  of  his  magnificent  ban- 
quet, Damocles,  chancing  to  look  upward,  saw  a  sharp 
and  naked  sword  suspended  over  his  head.  A  sight 
so  alarming  instantly  changed  his  views  of  the  felicity 
of  kings.  The  phrase  signifies  now  evil  foreboding  or 
dread,  a  tantalizing  torment. 

Da'mon  and  Py'thlas,  or  Phi'ntias,  two  noble 
Pythagoreans  of  Syracuse,  who  have  been  remembered 
as  models  of  faithful  friendship.  Pythias  having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syra- 
cuse, begged  to  be  allowed  to  go  home,  for  the  purpose 
of  arranging  his  affairs,  Damon  pledging  his  own  life 
for  the  reappearance  of  his  friend.  Dionysius  con- 
sented, and  Pythias  returned  just  in  time  to  save  Damon 
from  death.  Struck  by  so  noble  an  example  of  mutual 
affection,  the  tyrant  pardoned  Pythias,  and  desired  to 
be  admitted  into  their  sacred  fellowship. 

Dandie  Dinmont.  A  jovial,  true-hearted  store- 
farmer,  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Guy  Mannering." 

Dantes'que.  Dante-like  —  that  is,  a  minute  life- 
like representation  of  the  infernal  horrors,  whether  by 
words,  as  in  the  poet,  or  in  visible  form,  as  in  Dora's 
illustrations  of  the  "Inferno." 

Daph'nls  and  Chlo'e.  A  pair  of  lovers  in  the 
pastoral  romance  of  the  same  name  written  by  Longua 
in  Greek  prose  in  the  Fourth  Century. 

Darby  and  Joan.  A  married  couple  said  to  have 
lived,  inore  than  a  century  ago,  in  the  village  of  Hea- 
laugh,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  celebrated 
for  their  long  life  and  conjugal  felicity.  They  are  the 
hero  and  heroine  of  a  ballad  called  "The  Happy  Old 
Couple,"  which  has  been  attributed  to  Prior,  but  is  of 
uncertain  authorship.  Timperley  says  that  Darby  was 
a  printer  in  Bartholomew  Close,  who  died  in  1730,  and  • 
that  the  ballad  was  written  by  one  of  his  apprentices 
by  the  name  of  Henry  Woodfall. 

Da' res.  One  of  the  competitors  at  the  funeral  games 
of  Anchises  in  Sicily,  described  in  the  fifth  book  of 
"  Virgil's  ^neid." 

David.  He  was  the  uncle  of  King  Arthur.  St.  David 
first  embraced  the  ascetic  life  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but 
subsequently  removed  to  Menevia,  in  Pembrokeshire, 
where  he  founded  twelve  convents. 

David,  in  Dryden's  satire  called  "i  Absalom  and 
Achitophel,"  represents  Charles  II.;  Absalom,  his  beau- 
tiful but  rebellious  son,  represents  the  Duke  of  Monmouth. 

Davy.  Henry  IV.,  Shakespere.  The  varlet  of 
justice  Shallow,  who  so  identifies  himself  with  his  master 
that  he  considers  himself  half  host  half  varlet.     Thus 


352 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


when  he  seats  Bardolph  and  Page  at  table,  he  tells  them 
they  must  take  "his  '  good  will  for  their  assurance  of 
welcome. 

Dawfyd  The  Betrothed,  Scott.  "The  one-eyed  " 
freebooter  chief. 

Dawkins.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  Known  by  the 
sobriquet  of  the  "  Artfyl  Dodger."  He  is  one  of  Fagin's 
tools.  Jack  Dawkins  is  a  scamp,  but  of  a  cheery,  buoy- 
ant temper. 

Deans,  Douce  Davie.  A  poor  herdsman  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  father  of  EflBe  and  Jeanie  Deans,  in  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  novel,  "The  Heart  of  Mid-Lothian." 

Deans,  Effle.  A  beautiful  but  unfortunate  charac- 
ter in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Heart  of  Mid-Lothian." 

Deans,  Jeanie.  The  heroine  of  "The  Heart  of  Mid- 
Lothian,"  characterized  by  her  kindness,  sturdiness, 
and  good  sense.  She  journeys  from  Edinburgh  to 
Ixjndon,  and  obtains  pardon  for  her  sister  Effie,  con- 
demned for  child  murder. 

Dc'bon.  One  of  the  heroes  who  accompanied  Brute 
to  Britain.  According  to  British  fable,  Devonshire  is 
the  county  or  share  of  Debon.    • 

Decameron,  A  volume  of  one  hundred  tales  told 
by  Boccaccio.  Ten  ladies  and  their  gentlemen  assem- 
bled in  one  place  agree  that  each  shall  tell  one  story 
every  day  for  the  entertainment  of  the  rest.  Thus  ten 
stories  daily  are  told  for  ten  consecutive  days.  Chaucer 
borrowed  the  plan  but  reconstructed  it  for  his  "Canter- 
bury Tales." 

Dcdlock,  Sir  Leicester.  A  character  in  Bleak 
House,  by  Charles  Dickens.  An  honorable  and 
truthful  man  but  of  such  fixed  ideas  that  no  man  could 
shake  his  prejudices.  He  had  an  idea  that  the  one 
thing  of  greatest  importance  to  the  world  was  a  certain 
family  by  the  name  of  Dedlock.  He  loved  his  wife 
Lady  Dedlock  and  believed  in  her  implicitly.  His 
pride  had  a  terrible  fall  when  he  learned  the  secret  of 
her  life  before  her  marriage  and  knew  the  terrible  fact 
she  had  been  hiding  from  him  that  she  had  a  daughter. 

Dedlock,  Lady.  Wife  of  Sir  Leicester,  beautiful, 
and  apparently  cold  and  heartless  but  suffering  con- 
stant remorse.  The  daughter's  name  is  Esther  Sum- 
merson,  the  heroine  of  the  novel. 

Dedlock,  Volumnla.  Cousin  of  Sir  Leicester,  a 
young  lady  of  sixty,  who  had  the  disagreeable  habit 
of  entering  into  other  people's  business. 

Deerslayer.  The  hero  of  a  novel  by  the  same  name, 
by  James  Fenimore  Cooper.  A  strong  fine  character,  hon- 
orable, truthful,  brave,  without  cultivation  but  without 
reproach.  This  character  appears'  under  different 
names  in  five  of  Cooper's  novels.  "The  Deerslayer," 
"The  Pathfinder,"  "The  Last  of  the  Mo'hicans,"  ".The 
Pioneers,"  and  "The  Prairie." 

Defarge,  Mons.  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  Dickens. 
Keeper  of  a  wine  shop  in  the  Faubourge  St.  Antoine, 
in  Paris.     He  is  a  bull-necked,  implacable-looking  man. 

Defarge,  Mde,  his  wife,  a  dangerous  woman,  ever- 
lastingly Knitting. 

Del'phi.  A  famous  oracle  of  .Apollo  in  Phocis,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Parnassus.  [Erroneously  written 
Delphos  by  early  English  writers.] 

Delphln  Classics.  For  the  use  of  the  dauphin, 
son  of  Louis  XIV.  (1674-91),  the  writings  of  thirty- 
nine  Latin  authors  were  collected  and  published  in 
sixty  volumes.  Notes  and  an  index  were  added  to 
each  work.  An  edition  of  the  Delphin  classics  was 
published  in  London  in  the  year  1818. 

Delphine.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  Mme.  de  Stael  and 
the  name  of  its  heroine. 

Delphine,  Madame.  Old  Creole  Days,  George 
W.  Cable.  A  free  quadroon  connected  with  the  splendor 
of  La  Fitts.  the  smuggler  and  patriot.  Madame  Delphine 
disowned  her  beautiful  daughter  Olive  in  order  to 
assure  to  her  the  rights  of  a  white  woman. 

Demetrius.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Shake- 
spere.  The  young  Athenian  to  whom  Egeno  promised 
his  daughter  Hermia  in  marriage. 

De  Profimdls.  "Out  of  the  Depths."  The  130th 
Psalm  is  so  called  from  the  first  two  words  in  the  Latin 
version.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Liturgy  it  is  sung 
when  the  dead  are  committed  to  the  grave. 

Deronda,  Daniel.  One  of  George  Eliot's  strongest 
character  sketches  in  her  novel  by  the  same  name. 

Deserted  Village.  A  poem  by  Goldsmith  in  which 
he  describes  rural  England,  He  calls  the  village  Auburn, 
but  tells  us  it  was  the  seat  of  his  youth,  every  spot  of 
which  was  dear  and  familiar  to  him.  He  pictures 
familiar  persons,  the  preacher,  the  teacher,  pastimes, 
and  favorite  haunts. 

Desmas.  The  repentant  thief  is  so  called  in  "The 
Story  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea."  Longfellow,  in  "The 
Golden  Legend,"  calls  him  Dumachus.  The  impenitent 
thief  is  called  Gestae,  but  Longfellow  calls  him  Titus. 


Dhu,  Roderick.  A  highland  chieftain  and  outlaw 
in  Scott's  poem  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  cousin  of  Ellen 
Douglas,  and  also  her  suitor.  He  is  slain  by  James- 
Fitz-James. 

DTdo.  The  daughter  of  Belus,  King  of  Tyre,  and 
the  wife  of  Sichsous,  whom  her  brother  Pygmalion  mur- 
dered for  his  riches.  Not  far  from  the  Phenician 
colony  of  Utica  she  built  the  city  of  Carthage.  Accord- 
ing to  Virgil,  when  .(Eneas  was  shipwrecked  upon  her 
coast,  in  his  voyage  to  Italy,  she  hospitably  entertained 
him,  fell  in  love  with  him,  and,  because  he  did  not 
requite  her  passion,  stabbed  herself  in  despair. 

Dies  Irae,  the  name  generally  given  (from  the  opening 
words)  to  the  famous  mediceval  hymn  on  the  Last  Judg- 
ment. On  account  of  the  solemn  grandeur  of  the 
ideas  which  it  brings  before  the  mind,  as  well  as  the 
deep  and  trembling  emotions  it  is  fitted  to  excite,  it 
soon  found  its  way  into  the  liturgy  of  the  Church. 
The  authorship  of  the  hymn  has  been  ascribed  to 
Gregory  the  Great,  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  Umbertus, 
and  Frangipani,  the  last  two  of  whom  were  noted  as 
church-hymnists. 

Diggon,  Davie.  A  shepherd  in  the  "  Shephearde's 
Calendar,"  by  Spenser,  He  tells  Hobbinol  that  he 
drove  his  sheep  into  foreign  lands,  hoping  to  find  better 
pasture;  but  he  was  amazed  at  the  luxury  and  profligacy 
of  the  shepherds  whom  he  saw  there,  and  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  flocks. 

Dlmmes'dale,  Arthur.  In  Hawthorne's  romance 
"The  Scarlet  Letter,"  a  Puritan  minister  of  great  elo- 
quence and  spirituality,  in  Colonial  New  England,  who 
secretly  commits  adultery  and  afterwards  makes  a  public 
confession. 

Di'nah,  Aunt.  In  Sterne's  "Tristram  Shandy." 
She  leaves  Mr.  Walter  Shandy  £1,000,  which  he  fancies 
will  enable  him  to  carry  out  all  the  schernes  that  enter 
into  his  head. 

Dinah,  Friendly.  The  Bashful  Man,  Moncrieff. 
Daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Friendly. 

Dinah.  St.  Ronan's  Well,  Scott.  Daughter  of 
Sandie  Lawson,  landlord  of  the  Spa  hotel. 

Dinah.  A  character  in  Mrs.  Stowe's  ".Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin." 

DIng'ley  Hall.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  The 
home  of  Mr.  Wardle  and  his  family,  and  the  scene  of 
Tupman's  love  adventure  with  Miss  Rachel. 

Diome'des  or  Diomed.  Iliad,  Homer.  King  of 
.(fito'lia,  in  Greece,  brave  and  obedient  to  authority. 
He  survived  the  siege  of  Troy;  but  on  his  return  home 
found  his  wife  untrue  to  him.  He  fled  to  Italy  and 
remained  in  exile. 

Dirlos,  Count.  One  of  Charlemagne's  paladins, 
an  ideal  of  valor,  generosity,  and  truth. 

Divine  Comedy.  Dante's  immortal  work,  the 
"  Divina  Commedia,"  was  written  during  the  period 
1300-18,  and  has  been  translated  into  Engli.sh  by  Gary. 
Longfellow,  and  others.  Dante  called  it  a  comedy  only 
because  the  ending  was  not  tragical,  and  the  epithet 
divine  was  given  to  it  in  admiration.  The  name  ' '  Corn- 
media"  signifies  lowly,  written  in  the  common  tongue,  or 
as  some  explain,  "comedy  "  also  signifies  ending  happily. 
The  "  Divine  Comedy  "  is  an  epic  poem,  divided  into  three 
parts;  Inferno,  Purgatorio,  Paradiso.  The  poet  depicts 
a  vision,  in  which  he  is  conducted,  first  by  Virgil  (human 
reason)  through  hell  and  purgatory;  and  then  by 
Beatrice  (revelation),  and  finally  by  St.  Bernard  through 
the  several  heavens,  where  he  beholds  the  triune  God. 
In  all  parts  of  the  regions  thus  traversed,  there  arise 
conversations  with  noted  personages.  The  deepest  ques- 
tions of  philosophy  and  theology  are  discussed  and 
solved;  and  the  social  and  moral  condition  of  Italy, 
with  the  corruptions  of  Church  and  State,  are  depicted 
with  indignation.  Fifty-two  years  after  the  poet's 
death,  the  Republic  of  Florence,  set  apart  an  annual 
sum  for  public  lectures  to  explain  the  "  Divine  Comedy" 
to  the  people  in  one  of  the  churches,  and  Boccaccio 
himself  was  appointed  first  lecturer. 

Doctour  of  Phlslkes,  Tale.  Is  the  Roman  story 
of  Virginius,  given  by  Livy.  Told  by  Chaucer  in  "Can- 
terbury Tales." 

Doctor  Syntax.  The  hero  of  a  work  entitled  "The 
Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax  in  Search  of  the  Picturesque," 
Doctor  Synta.x  is  a  simple-minded,  pious,  henpecked 
clergyman,  but  of  excellent  taste  and  scholarship  who 
left  home  in  search  of  the  picturesque.  His  adventures 
are  told  in  eight-syllable  verse  by  William  Combe.  "Dr. 
Syntax's  Horse."     Grizzle,  all  skin  and  bone. 

Dods.  The  old  landlady  in  Scott's  novel  called 
"  St.  Ronan's  Well."  An  excellent  character,  a  mosaic 
of  oddities,  all  fitting  together,  and  forming  an  admirable 
whole.  She  was  so  good  a  housewife  that  a  cookery 
book  of  great  repute  bears  her  name. 


LITERATURE 


353 


Dodson.     The   Three   Warnings,    Mrs.    Thrale. 

A  youth  called  upon  by  Death  on  his  wedding  day. 
Death  told  him  he  must  go  with  him.  "With  you  I" 
the  hapless  youth  cried,  "  young  as  1  am."  Death 
then  told  him  he  would  not  disturb  him  yet,  but  would 
call  again  after  giving  him  three  warnings.  When  he 
was  80  years  of  age,  Death  called  again.  "So  soon 
returned  ?  "  old  Dodson  cried.  ' '  You  know  you  promised 
me  three  warnings."  Death  then  told  him  that  as  he  was 
"lame,  and  deaf,  and  blind,"  he  had  received  his  three 
warnings. 

Dodson  and  Fogg.  The  lawyers  employed  by  the 
plaintiff  in  the  famous  case  of  "  Bardell  v.  Pickwick." 
in  the  "Pickwick  Papers,"  by  Charles  Dickens. 

Do'eg.  Absalom  and  Achltophel,Drjfden.  Doeg 
was  Saul's  herdsman,  who  had  charge  of  his  mules  and 
asses.  He  told  Saul  that  the  priests  of  Nob  had  pro- 
vided David  with  food ;  whereupon  Saul  sent  him  to 
put  them  to  death,  and  eighty-five  were  ruthlessly 
massacred. 

Dogberry  and  Verges,  two  ignorant  conceited  con- 
stables, in  Shakespere's  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing." 

Dolly  Murry.  A  character  in  Crabbe's  "Borough" 
who  was  devoted  to  playing  cards.  She  died  at  the  card 
table. 

Dolly  Varden.  Bamaby  Rudge,  Dickens. 
Daughter  of  Gabriel  Varden,  locksmith.  Dolly  dressed 
in  the  Watteau  style,  and  was  lively,  pretty,  and  be- 
witching. 

Dolopa'tos.  Sandabar's  Parables.  The  Sicilian 
king,  who  placed  his  son  Lucien  under  the  charge  of 
"seven  wise  masters."  The  son  fell  under  the  father's 
fury  and  was  condemned  to  death.  By  astrology  the 
prince  discovered  that  if  he  could  tide  over  seven  days 
his  life  would  be  saved;  so  the  wise  masters  amused 
the  king  with  seven  tales,  and  the  king  relented.  The 
prince  himself  then  told  a  tale  which  embodied  his  own 
history;  the  eyes  of  the  king  were  opened,  and  the 
queen  was  condemned  to  death. 

Dom'bey.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  Mr. 
Dombey,  a  self-sufficient,  purse-proud,  frigid  merchant, 
who  feels  satisfied  there  is  but  one  Dombey  in  the  world, 
and  that  is  himself.  When  Paul  was  born,  his  ambition 
was  attained,  his  whole  heart  was  in  the  boy,  and  the 
loss  of  the  mother  was  but  a  small  matter.  The  boy's 
death  turned  his  heart  to  stone. 

Dombey,  Florence.  A  motherless  child,  hunger- 
ing and  thirsting  to  be  loved,  but  regarded  with  indif- 
ference by  lier  father,  who  thinks  that  sons  alone  are 
worthy  of  regard. 

Dombey,  Little  Paul.  A  pathetic  child  in  Dickens' 
novel  "Dombey  and  Son."  He  is  a  delicate,  thoughtful 
boy,  the  only  son  of  a  rich  and  pompous  London  mer- 
chant. 

Dom-dan'i-el.  A  cave  in  the  region  adjoining 
Babylon,  the  abode  of  evil  spirits.  By  some  traditions 
said  to  have  been  originally  the  spot  where  the  prophet 
Daniel  imparted  instruction  to  his  disciples.  In 
another  form,  the  Domdaniel  was  a  purely  imaginary 
region,  subterranean,  or  submarine,  the  dwelling-place 
of  genii  and  enchanters. 

Do'mesdav  Book,  or  Doo'msday  Book,  the  name 
of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  valuable  records  of  England, 
containing  the  results  of  a  statistical  survey  of  that 
country  made  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  completed 
in  the  year  1086.  The  origin  of  the  name  —  which 
seems  to  have  been  given  to  other  records  of  the  same 
kind  —  is  somewhat  uncertain ;  but  it  has  obvious 
reference  to  the  supreme  authority  of  the  book  in  doom 
or  judgment  on  the  matters  contained  in  it. 

Doml'nlcal  Letter,  or  Sunday  Letter,  is  one  of 
the  seven  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  used  in  almanacs, 
etc.,  to  mark  the  Sundays  throughout  the  year.  The  first 
seven  days  of  the  year  being  marked  in  their  order  by 
the  above  letters  in  their  order,  then  the  following  seven, 
and  all  consecutive  sets  of  seven  days  to  the  end  of  the 
year  are  similarly  marked;  so  that  the  1st,  8th,  15th, 
22d,  etc.,  days  of  the  year  are  all  marked  by  A;  and 
the  2d,  9th,-  16th,  2.3d,  etc.,  by  B;  and  so  on.  The 
days  being  thus  marked,  it  is  evident  that  on  whatever 
day  the  first  Sunday  of  the  year  falls,  the  letter  which 
marks  it  will  mark  all  the  other  Sundays  in  the  year, 
as  the  number  of  the  letters  and  of  the  days  in  the  week 
is  the  same.  As  the  common  year  consists  of  fifty-two 
weeks  and  one  day  over,  the  dominical  letters  go  back- 
wards one  day  every  common  year.  If  the  dominical 
letter  of  a  common  year  be  G,  F  will  be  the  dominical 
letter  for  the  next  year. 

Dom'inle,  Sampson.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott.  A 
village  schoolmaster  and  scholar,  poor  as  a  church  mouse, 
and  modest  as  a  girl.  He  cites  Latin  like  a  "porcus 
litera'rum,"  and  exclaims  "  Prodigious  !  "  He  has  fallen 
to  the  leeward  in  the  voyage  of  life.     He  is  no  uncom- 


mon personage  in  a  country  where  a  certain  portion  of 
learning  is  easily  attained  by  those  who  are  willing  to 
suffer  hunger  and  thirst  in  exchange  for  acquiring 
Greek  and  Latin. 

Don  Ad'ri-a'no  de  Ar-ma'do.  A  pompous,  fan- 
tastical Spaniard  in  Shakespere's  "Love's  Labor's  Lost," 
"  who  has  a  mint  of  phrases  in  his  brain."  His  language 
is  fantastically  out  of  proportion  to  the  thought.  He 
uses  "examples  suited  only  to  the  gravest  propositions 
and  impersonations,  or  apostrophes  to  abstract  thoughts 
impersonated,  which  are,  in  fact,  the  natural  language 
only  of  the  most  vehement  agitations  of  the  mind." 

Don-a-tel'lo.  The  hero  of  Hawthorne's  romance 
"The  Marble  Faun."  He  is  a  young  Italian  with  a 
singular  likeness  to  the  Faun  of  Praxiteles.  He  leads 
an  innocent  but  purely  animal  existence,  until  a  sudden 
crime  awakens  his  conscience  and  transforms  his  whole 
nature. 

Don  Cher'u-blm.  "The  "Bachelor  of  Salamanca," 
in  Le  Sage's  nov^  of  this  name;  a  man  placed  in  dif- 
ferent situations  of  life,  and  made  to  associate  with  all 
classes  of  society,  in  order  to  give  the  author  the  greatest 
possible  scope  for  satire. 

Don'e-gUd.  Man  of  Law's  Tale,  Chaucer. 
Mother  of  Alia,  King  of  Northumberland,  hating  Con- 
stance, the  wife  of  Alfa,  because  she  was  a  Christian,  she 
put  her  on  a  raft  with  her  infant  son,  and  turned  her 
adrift.  When  Alia  returned  from  Scotland  and  discov- 
ered this  cruelty  of  his  mother,  he  put  her  to  death. 
The  tradition  of  St.  Mungo  resembles  the  "Man  of  Law's 
Tale "  in  many  respects. 

Don'et,  the  first  grammar  put  into  the  hands  of 
scholars.  It  was  that  of  Dona'tus  the  grammarian, 
who  taught  in  Rome  in  the  Fourth  Century,  and  was 
the  preceptor  of  St.  Jerome. 

Don  Giovan'ni.     Mozart's  best  opera. 

Don  Ju'an  is  a  legendary  and  mythical  persofaage 
like  Dr.  Faustus.  Don  Juan  is  presented  in  the  life  of 
a  profligate  who  gives  himself  up  so  entirely  to  the 
gratification  of  sense,  especially  to  the  most  powerful 
of  all  the  impulses,  that  of  love,  that  he  acknowledges 
no  higher  consideration,  and  proceeds  to  murder  the 
man  that  stands  between  him  and  his  wish,  fancying 
that  in  so  doing  he  had  annihilated  his  very  existence. 
He  then  defies  that  Spirit  to  prove  to  his  senses  his 
existence.  The  Spirit  returns  and  compels  Don  Juan 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  spirit,  and  the  worth- 
lessness  of  a  merely  sensuous  existence.  The  traditions 
concerning  Don  Juan  have  been  dramatized  by  Tirso 
de  Mo'lina;  thence  passed  into  Italy  and  France. 
Gliick  has  a  musical  ballet  of  Don  Juan,  and  Mozart- 
has  immortalized  the  character  in  his  opera  of  "  Don 
Giovanni."  His  adventures  form  the  subject  of  a  half- 
finished  poem  by  Byron. 

Don  Qulx'ote.  The  hero  of  a  celebrated  Spanish 
romance  of  the  same  name  by  Cervantes.  Don  Quixote 
is  represented  as  "a  gaunt  country  gentleman  of  La 
Mancha,  full  of  genuine  Castilian  honor  and  enthusiasm, 
gentle  and  dignified  in  his  character,  trusted  by  his 
friends,  and  loved  by  his  dependents,"  but  "so  com- 
pletely crazed  by  long  reading  the  most  famous  books 
of  chivalry,  that  he  believes  them  to  be  true,  and  feels 
himself  called  on  to  become  the  impossible  knight- 
errant  they  describe,  and  actually  goes  forth  into  the 
world  to  defend  the  oppressed  and  avenge  the  injured, 
like  the  heroes  of  his  romances."  The  fame  of  Cervantes 
will  always  rest  upon  this  incomparable  satire  upon 
the  foolish  and  extravagant  romances  of  chivalry. 

Doorm.  Idylls  of  the  King;  Enid,  Tennyson. 
An  earl  called  "the  Bull,"  who. tried  to  make  Enid  his 
handmaid;  but,  when  she  would  neither  eat,  drink, 
nor  array  herself  in  bravery  at  his  bidding,  "he  smote 
her  on  the  cheek";  whereupon  Geraint  slew  the 
"russet-bearded  earl"  in  his  own  hall. 

Do'ra.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens.  The  child- 
wife  to  David,  affectionate  and  tender-hearted.  She 
was  always  playing  with  her  poodle  and  saying  simple 
things  to  her  "Dody."  She  could  never  be  his  helper 
but  she  looked  on  her  husband  with  idolatrous  love. 
When  quite  young  she  died. 

Do-ras'tus.  The  hero  of  an  old  popular  "history" 
or  romance,  upon  which  Shakespere  founded  his  "Win- 
ter's Tale."  It  was  written  by  Robert  Greene,  and 
was  first  published  in  1588,  under  the  title  of  "Pandosto, 
the  Triumph  of  Time." 

Dorothea.  The  heroine  of  Goethe's  celebrated 
poem  of  "Hermann  und  Dorothea." 

Dorrit,  Edward,  and  "  Little."  Little  Dorrit, 
Dickens.  The  father  of  the  Marshalsea  prison  and  his 
interesting  daughter.  It  is  a  fine  picture  of  innocent, 
affectionate,  child-life  in  the  midst  of  the  trying  circum- 
stances of  a  debtor's  prison. 


354 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  T-'ACTS 


Dory,  John.  A  character  in  ".Wild  Oats"  or  "The 
Strolling  Gentleman,"  a  comedy  by  John  O'Keefe. 

Do-the-Boys'  Hall.  Nicholas  Nlckleby,  Dick- 
ens. A  school  for  boys  kept  by  a  Mr.  Squeers  a  puf- 
fing, ignorant,  over-bearing  brute,  whose  system  of 
education  consisted  of  alternately  beating  and  starving. 

Doubtine  Castle.  The  castle  of  the  giant  Despair, 
in  which  Christian  and  Hopeful  were  incarcerated,  but 
from  which  they  escaped  lay  means  of  the  key  called 
"Promise,"  which  was  able  to  open  any  lock  in  the 
castle. 

Dous'ter-swlv'el.  A  German  schemer,  in  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  novel  of  "The  Antiquary." 

Drac.  A  sort  of  fairy  in  human  form,  whose  abode 
is  the  caverns  of  rivers.  "  Faire  le  drac,"  same  as  "  Faire 
le  diable."  Irish,  "Play  the  Puck";  English,  "Play 
the  deuce." 

Dragon,  A.  The  device  on  the  royal  banner  of  the  old 
British  kings.  The  leader  was  called  the  pendragon. 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  says,  "  When  Aurelius  was  king, 
there  appeared  a  star  at  Winchester  of  wonderful  magni- 
tude ana  brightness,  darting  forth  a  fay,  at  the  end  of 
which  was  a  fiame  in  form  of  a  dragon." 

Drama  of  Exile,  A.  A  poem  by  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning  (1844).  The  exile  is  Eve,  driven  out  of  para- 
dise into  the  wilderness,  Lucifer,  Gabriel,  and  Christ 
are  introduced  into  the  poem,  as  well  as  Adam  and 
Eve. 

Dramatic  Unities,  The  Three.  One  catastrophe, 
one  locality,  one  day.  These  are  Aristotle's  unities  of 
time,  place,  and  action.  To  these  th^  French  have 
added  a  fourth,  the  unity  of  uniformity,  i.  e.,  in  tragedy 
all  the  "dramatis  persona;"  should  be  tragic  in  style, 
in  comedy  comic,  and  in  farce  farcical. 

Drap.  Drayton.  One  of  Queen  Mab's  maids  of 
honor. 

Draw'can-slr.  The  name  of  a  blustering,  bullying 
fellow  in  the  celebrated  mock-heroic  play  of  "The 
Rehearsal,"  written  by  George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, assisted  by  Sprat  and  others.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  taking  part  in  a  battle,  where,  after  killing 
all  the  combatants  on  both  sides,  he  makes  an  extrava- 
gantly boastful  speech.  From  the  popularity  of  the 
character,  the  name  became  a  synonym  for  a  braggart. 

Dri'ver.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott.  Clerk  to  Mr. 
Pleydell,  advocate,  Edinburgh. 

Dro'mlo.  The  Brothers  Dromio.  The  brothers 
exactly  alike,  who  serve  two  brothers  exactly  alike, 
in  Shakespere's  "Comedy  of  Errors,"  based  on  the 
".Mensech'mi  of  Plautus." 

Dry-as  Dust,  The  Rev.  An  imaginary  personage 
who  serves  to  introduce  Scott's  novels  to  the  public. 

Dudu,  one  of  the  three  beauties  of  the  harem,  into 
which  Juan,  by  the  sultana's  order,  had  been  admitted 
in  female  attire. 

Du-es'sa.  A  foul  witch,  in  Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen," 
who  under  the  assumed  name  of  Fidessa,  and  the  assumed 
character  of  a  distressed  and  lovely  woman,  entices  the 
Redcross  Knight  into  the  House  of  Pride.  The  knight 
having  left  the  palace,  is  overtaken  by  Duessa,  and 
drinks  of  an  enchanted  fountain,  which  paralyses  him, 
in  which  state  he  is  attacked,  defeated,  and  imprisoned 
by  the  giant  Orgoglio.  Duessa  becomes  the  paramour 
of  Orgoglio,  who  decks  her  out  in  gorgeous  ornaments, 
gives  Tier  a  gold  and  purple  robe  to  wear,  puts  a  triple 
crown  on  her  head,  and  sets  her  upon  a  monstrous  beast 
with  seven  heads.  Prince  Arthur  slays  Orgoglio  and 
rescues  the  knight.  Duessa  is  stripped  of  her  gorgeous 
disguise  and  is  found  to  be  a  hideous  hag. 

DufT,  Jamie.  Guy  3Iannerlng,  Scott.  The  idiot 
boy  attending  Mrs.  Bertram's  funeral. 

Dulcine'a-del  Toboso.  A  country  girl  whom 
Don  Quixote  courts  as  his  lady  love. 

Du-ma4ne'.  A  lord  attending  on  the  King  of 
Navarre,  in  Shakespere's  "Love's  Labor's  Lost." 

Dun'can.  (1)  A  king  of  Scotland  immortalized  in 
Shakespere's  tragedy  of  "Macbeth."  Shakespere 
represents  him  as  murdered  by  Macbeth,  who  succeeds 
to  the  Scottish  throne,  but  according  to  history  he  fell 
in  battle.  (2)  A  highland  hero  in  Scott's  ".Laay  of  the 
Lake." 

Dunder,  Sir  David,  of  Dunder  Hall.  A  conceited, 
whimsical  old  gentleman,  who  forever  interrupts  a 
speaker  with  "Yes,  yes,  1  know  it,"  or  ".Be  quiet,.! 
know  it."     ".Ways  and  Means,"  by  Colman. 

Dun-drear'y,  Lord.  A  grotesque  character  in  Tay- 
lor's comedy,  "Our  American  Cousin";  noted  for  his 
aristocratic  haughtiness  of  manner.  The  character  is 
said  to  have  been  created  by  the  actor  Sothern. 

Du'ran'dal',  written  also  Durandart,  Durindana, 
and  Durlindana.  The  name  of  the  marvelous  sword 
of  Orlando,  the  renowned  hero  of  romance.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  the  workmanship  of  the  fairies,  who  endued 


it  with  such  wonderful  properties  that  its  owner  was 
able  to  cleave  the  Pyrenees  with  it  at  a  blow. 

Du-ran-dar'te.  A  fabulous  hero  of  Spain,  cele- 
brated in  the  ancient  ballads  of  that  country  and  in  the 
romances  of  chivalry.  Cervantes  has  introduced  him, 
in  "Don  Quixote,"  in  the  celebrated  adventure  of  the 
knight  in  the  cave  of  Montesinos. 

Dur' den.  Dame.  (1)  The  heroineof  a  popular  English 
song.  She  is  described  as  a  notable  housewife,  and  the 
mistress  of  five  serving-girls  and  five  laboring  men. 
The  five  men  loved  the  five  maids.  (2)  A  sobriquet 
playfully  applied  to  Esther  Summerson,  the  heroine  of 
Dickens's  "Bleak  House  " 

Dur'ward,  Quen'tin.  The  hero  of  Scott's  novel  of 
the  same  name;  a  young  archer  of  the  Scottish  guard 
in  the  'service  of  Louis  XI.  of  France.  When  Lifege 
is  assaulted,  Quentin  Durward  and  the  Countess  Isabelle, 
who  has  been  put  into  his  charge,  escape  on  horseback. 
The  countess  publicly  refuses  to  marry  the  Ducd'Orl^ans, 
to  whom  she  has  been  promised,  and  ultimately  marries 
the  young  Scotchman. 

Dvparf,  The  Black.  A  novel  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
The  black  dwarf  is  a  fairy  of  the  most  malignant  charac- 
ter; a  genuine  northern  Duergar,  and  once  held  by  the 
dalesmen  of  the  border  as  the  author  of  all  the  mischief 
that  befell  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  Scott's  novel  the 
"Black  Dwarf"  is  introduced  under  the  "aliases"  of  Sir 
Edward  Mauley;  Elshander,  the  recluse;  Cannie  Elshie; 
and  the  Wise  Wight  of  Mucklestane  Moor. 

Dwarf,  Alberich.  -In  the  "Nibelungen  Lied"  the 
dwarf  "Alberich"  is  the  guardian  of  the  famous  "hoard  " 
won  by  Siegfried  from  the  Nibelungs.  The  dwarf  is 
twice  vanquished  by  the  hero,  who  gets  possession  of 
his  "Tarn-kappe"  (cloak  of  invisibility). 

Dwarf,  Peter.  An  allegorical  romance  by  Ludwig 
Tieck.  The  dwarf  is  a  castle  specter  that  advises  and 
aids  the  family;  but  all  his  advice  turns  out  evil,  and 
all  his  aid  productive  of  trouble. 

Eamscliffe,  Patrick.  Biack  Dwarf,  Scott.  The 
young  laird  of  Earnscliff. 

Eb  lis.  The  name  given  by  the  Arabians  to  the 
prince  of  the  apostate  angels,  whom  they  represent  as 
exiled  to  the  infernal  regions  for  refusing  to  worship 
Adam  at  the  command  of  the  Supreme.  Eblis  alleged, 
in  justification  of  his  refusal,  that  he  himself  had  been 
formed  of  ethereal  fire,  while  Adam  was  only  a  creature 
of  clay. 

Eck'hardt,  The  Faithful.  A  legendary  hero  of 
Germany,  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a  white  staff, 
who,  in  Eisleben,  appears  on  the  evening  of  Maundy 
Thursday,  and  drives  all  the  people  into  their  houses, 
to  save  them  from  being  harmed  by  a  terrible  procession 
of  dead  men,  headless  bodies,  and  two-legged  horses, 
which  immediately  after  passes  by.  Other  traditions 
represent  him  as  the  companion  of  the  knight,  Tann- 
hauser,  and'  as  warning  travelers  from  the  Venusberg, 
the  mountain  of  fatal  delights  in  the  old  mythology  of 
Germany.  Tieck  has  founded  a  story  upon  this  legend, 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Carlyle,  in 
which  Eckhardt  is  described  as  the  good  servant  who 
perishes  to  save  his  master's  children  from  the  seducing 
fiends  of  the  mountain.  The  German  proverb,  ".Thou 
art  the  faithful  Eckhardt;  thou  warnest  everyone,"  is 
founded  upon  this  tradition. 

Eciecta,  the  "Elect"  personified  in  ".The  Purple 
Island,"  by  Phineas  Fletcher.  She  is  the  daughter  of 
Intellect  and  Voletta  (free-will). 

Ector,  Sir.  The  foster-father  of  King  Arthur,  and 
lord  of  many  parts  of  England  and  Wales.  Father  of 
Sir  Kay,  seneschal  to  King  Arthur. 

Edda.  There  are  two  religious  codes,  so  called,  con- 
taining the  ancient  Scandinavian  mythology.  One  is  in 
verse,  composed  in  Iceland  in  the  Eleventh  Century,  by 
Sffimund  Sigfusson,  "the  Sage";  and  the  other  in  prose, 
compiled  a  century  later  by  SnorroSturleson,  who  wrote 
a  commentary  on  the  first  edda. 

E'den-hall,  The  Luck  of.  A  painted  goblet  in  the 
possession  of  the  Musgrave  family  of  Eden-hall,  Cumber- 
land, said  to  have  been  left  by  the  fairies  on  St.  Cuth- 
bert's  Well.  The  tradition  runs,  that  the  luck  of  the 
family  is  dependent  on  the  safe  keeping  of  this  goblet. 
The  German  poet  Uhland  embodied  the  legend  in  a 
ballad,  translated  into  English  by  Longfellow. 

Edgar.  Son  to  Gloucester,  in  Shakespere's  tragedy  of 
"Lear."  He  was  disinherited  for  his  half-brother, 
Edmund. 

Edgar  or  Edgar'do.  Master  of  Ravenswood,  m 
love  with  Lucy  Ashton  in  Scott's  "  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor."  ,,.^      ,     , 

E'dith.  The  "Maid  of  Lorn"  in  Scott's  .Lord  of 
the  Isles,"  who  married  Ronald  when  peace  was  restored 
after  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 


^^Hithelstane  "the  Unready"  (thane  of  Coningsburgh). 
^^■^  Edith  Granger.     Daughter  of  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Skew- 
^^Hlon,  married  to  Colonel  Granger  of  "Ours,"  who  died 
^^■within  two  years.     Edith  became  Mr.  Dombey's  second 
wife,  but  the  marriage  was  altogether  unhappy. 

Edith  Plantagenet,  The  Lady.  The  Talisman, 
Scott.  Called  "The  Fair  Maid  of  Anjou,"  a  kinswoman 
of  Richard  I.,  and  attendant  on  Queen  Berenga'ria. 

Ed'niund.  A  bastard  son  of  Gloucester  in  Shake- 
spere's  tragedy  of  "King  Lear." 

Edward,  Sir.  The  Iron  Chest,  Coleman.  He 
commits  a  murder,  and  keeps  a  narrative  of  the  trans- 
action in  an  iron  chest.  Later,  he  trusts  the  secret  to 
his  secretary,  Wilfred,  and  the  whole  transaction  now  be- 
came public. 

Edward.  Count  Robert  of  Paris,  Scott.  Brother 
of  Hereward,  the  Varangian  guard.  He  was  slain  in 
battle. 

Ed'win.  (l)The  hero  of  Goldsmith's  ballad  entitled 
"The  Hermit."  (2)  The  hero  of  Mallet's  ballad  "Edwin 
and  Emma."     (3)  The  hero  of  Beattie's  "Minstrel." 

Ed'yrn.  Idylls  of  the  King  (Enid),  Tenny- 
son. Son  of  Nudd.  A  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Enid  and 
an  evil  genius  of  her  father,  who  opposed  him.  Later, 
Edyrn  went  to  the  court  of  King  Arthur  and  became 
quite  a  changed  man  —  from  a  malicious  "sparrow- 
hawk"  he  was  converted  into  a  courteous  gentleman. 

E'geus.  Father  of  Hermia  in  Shakespere's  "Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream." 

E'gil,  Brother  of  Wela:nd,  a  great  archer.  The 
story  related  is  similar  to  the  William  Tell  stpry.  There 
are  many  such  stories.  One  day.  King  Nidung  com- 
manded him  to  shoot  at  an  apple  placed  on  the  head  of 
his  own  son.  Egil  selected  two  arrows,  and  being  asked 
why  he  wanted  two,  replied,  "One  to  shoot  thee  with, 
O  tyrant,  if  I  fail."  Such  stories,  though  probably  not 
true  to  fact,  are  true  to  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  are 
worth  repeating. 

Eg'lan-tine,  Madame.  The  prioress  in  Chaucer's 
"Canterbury  Tales,"  who  was  "full  pleasant  and  amiable 
of  port."  She  was  distinguished  for  the  ladylike  deli- 
cacy of  her  manners  at  table,  and  for  her  partiality  to 
"small  hounds,"  and  a  peculiar  mixture  in  her  manner 
and  dress  of  feminine  vanity  and  slight  worldliness, 
together  with  an  ignorance  of  the  world.  She  is  noted 
for  her  partiality  to  lap-dogs,  her  delicate  oath,  "by 
Seint  Eloy,"  her  "entuning  the  service  swetely  in  her 
nose,"  and  her  speaking  French  "after  the  scole  of 
Stratford  atte  Bowe." 

EgTa-mour.  (1)  A  character  in  Shakespere's  "Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona,"  who  is  an  agent  of  Silvia  in  her 
escape.  (2)  (Sir.)  A  valiant  knight  of  the  Round 
'Table,  celebrated  in  the  romances  of  chivalry,  and  in  an 
old  ballad.     [Written  also  "Eglamore."] 

Egyptian  Thief.  A  personage  alluded  to  by  the 
Duke  in  Shakespere's  "Twelfth  Night."  The  reference 
is  to  the  story  of  Thyamis,  a  robber-chief  and  native 
of  Memphis. 

Eivir.  Harold  the  Dauntless,  Scott.  A  Danish 
maid,  who  assumes  boy's  clothing,  and  waits  on  Harold 
"the  Dauntless,"  as  his  page. 

E-laine'.  A  mythic  lady  in  the  romances  of  King 
Arthur's  court.  She  is  called  "the  lily  maid  of  Astolat " 
in  Tennyson's  "Idylls  of  the  King."  For  love  of  Sir 
Launcelot  she  died,  and  then  at  her  request  was  borne 
on  a  barge  to  the  castle  of  King  Arthur,  holding  a  lily 
in  one  hand  and  a  letter  to  Launcelot  in  the  other. 
According  to  Sir  Thomas  Malory,  Elaine  was  sister  of 
King  Arthur  by  the  same  mother.  She  married  Sir 
Nentres  of  Carlot,  and  was  by  King  Arthur  the  mother 
of  Mordred. 

El'ber-ich.  In  German  hero  legends,  a  dwarf  who 
aided  the  Lombard  Emperor  Otnit  to  win  the  daughter 
of  the  Soldan  of  Syria.  He  is  identical  with  the  Oberon 
of  French  and  English  fairy  mythology. 

Elbow.  A  constable,  in  Shakespere's  "Measure  for 
Measure,"  modest  and  well-meaning,  though  of  simple 
mind  and  the  object  of  wit  among  those  who  are  wiser 
but  not  better. 

El  Do-ra'do.  A  name  given  by  the  Spaniards  to 
an  imaginary  country,  supposed,  in  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury, to  be  situated  in  the  interior  of  South  America, 
between  the  rivers  Orinoco  and  Amazon,  and  abounding 
in  gold  and  all  manner  of  precious  stones.  Expeditions 
were  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  this  fabu- 
lous region;  and,  though  all  such  attempts  proved 
abortive,  the  rumors  of  its  existence  continued  to  be 
believed  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury. 

E-lec'tra.  The  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra,  and  the  heroine  of  a  tragedy  by  Sophocles 
and  of  another  by  Euripides.     She  saved  the  life  of  her 


LITERATURE 


355 


brother,  Orestes,  and  afterwards  assisted  him  to  avenge 
their  father's  death.  (See  Agamemnon,  Clytemnestra, 
and  Orestes.) 

Elf -land.  The  realm  ruled  over  by  Oberon,  King  of 
Faery 

El'gltha.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  A  female  attendant  at 
Rotherwood  on  the  Lady  Rowe'na. 

El'i-dure.  A  legendary  King  of  Britain,  fabled  to 
have  been  advanced  to  the  throne  in  place  of  his  brother, 
Artegal,  or  Arthgallo.  Returning  to  the  country  after 
a  long  exile,  Artegal  accidentally  encountered  his  brother, 
who  received  him  with  open  arms,  took  him  home  to 
the  palace,  and  reinstated  him  in  his  old  position,  abdi- 
cating the  throne  himself.  Wordsworth  has  taken  the 
story  of  these  two  brothers  for  the  subject  of  a  poem. 

E'lim.  The  Messiah,  Klopstock.  The  guardian 
angel  of  Libbeus  the  Apostle.  Libbeus,  the  tenderest 
and  most  gentle  of  the  apostles,  at  the  death  of  Jesus 
also  died  from  grief. 

Elliott,  Hobble.  There  are  seven  by  this  name  in 
the  "Black  Dwarf,"  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  farmer 
Elliott  himself  and  his  bride-elect,  Grace  Armstrong; 
Mrs.  Elliott,  Hobble's  grandmother;  John  and  Harry, 
Hobble's  brothers;  Lilias,  Jean,  and  Arnot,  Hobble's 
sisters. 

El'ope.  Milton  gives  this  name  to  the  dumb  serpent 
which  gives  no  warning  of  its  approach. 

El'speth.  (1)  A  character  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
"Antiquary."  (2)  An  old  servant  to  Dandle  Dinmont, 
in  Scott's  "Guy  Mannering." 

Elsie.  The  daughter  of  Gottlieb,  a  farm  tenant  of 
Prince  Henry  of  Hoheneck,  who  offered  her  life  as  a 
substitute  for  the  prince.  She  was  rescued  as  she  was 
about  to  make  the  sacrifice.  Longfellow  has  told  this 
story  in  "The  Golden  Legend." 

Elzevier,  or  Elzevir.  The  name  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  printers  at  Amsterdam,  Leyden,  and  other 
places  in  Holland,  whose  beautiful  editions  were  chiefly 
published  between  the  years  1583  and  1680.  These 
editions  are  unrivaled  both  for  beauty  and  correctness. 
It  is  said  that  the  Elzeviers  generally  employed  women 
to  correct  the  press,  under  the  conviction  that  they 
would  be  less  likely  than  men,  on  their  own  responsi- 
bility, to  introduce  alterations  into  the  text.  They 
Erinted  in  all  about  two  thousand  books,  of  which  nine 
undred  sixty-eight  were  in  Latin,  forty-four  in  Greek, 
one  hundred  twenty-si.x  in  French,  thirty-two  in  Flem- 
ish, eleven  in  German,  ten  in  Italian,  and  twenty-two  in 
Oriental  languages.  Rare  editions  of  the  Elzeviers  are 
highly  valued  by  collectors. 

Em'elye.  The  sister-in-law  of  "Duke  Theseus," 
beloved  by  the  two  knights,  Pal'amon  and  Ar'cyte. 

E-mile'.  The  hero  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau's 
novel  of  the  same  name,  in  which  he  has  depicted  his 
ideal  of  a  perfectly  educated  young  man. 

E-mil'i-a.  (1)  A  lady  attending  Hermione  in 
Shakespere's  "Winter's  Tale."  (2)  Wife  to  lago,  and 
waiting  woman  to  Desdemona,  in  the  tragedy  of  "Oth- 
ello," a  woman  of  thorough  vulgaritj;  and  loose  prin- 
ciples, united  to  a  high  degree  of  spirit,  energetic  feel- 
ing, strong  sense,  and  low  cunning.  (3)  The  sweetheart 
of  Peregrine  Pickle  in  Smollett's  novel  "The  Adven- 
tures of  Peregrine  Pickle." 

Em'ly,  Little.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens. 
Daughter  of  Tom,  the  brother-in-law  of  Dan'el  Peggotty, 
a  Yarmouth  fisherman,  by  whom  the  orphan  child  was 
brought  up.  David  Copperfield  and  Em  ly  were  at  one 
time  playfellows.  While  engaged  to  Ham  Peggotty 
(Dan'el's  nephew).  Little  Em  ly  runs  away  with  Steer- 
forth,  a  friend  of  David's,  who  was  a  handsome  but  un- 
principled gentleman.  Being  subsequently  reclaimed, 
she  emigrates  to  Australia  with  Dan'el  Peggotty  and  old 
Mrs.  Gummidge. 

Erapyre'an.  According  to  Ptolemy,  there  are  five 
heavens,  the  last  of  which  is  pure  elemental  fire  and  the 
seat  of  Deity:  this  fifth  heaven  is  called  the  empyrean 
(from  the  Greek  "en-pur,"  in  fire). 

Endell,  Martha.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens. 
A  poor  girl,  to  whom  Em'ly  goes  when  Steerforth  deserts 
her 

En-dym'i-on.  A  beautiful  shepherd  boy  whom 
Diana  kissed  while  he  lay  asleep  on  Mount  Latmus. 
The  story  was  made  the  subject  of  an  English  poem 
by  Keats,  in  memory  of  his  much-loved  friend,  the  poet 
Shelley. 

E'nid.  A  mythical  lady  mentioned  in  a  Welsh  triad 
as  one  of  the  three  celebrated  ladies  of  Arthur's  court  — 
a  beautiful  picture  of  conjugal  patience  and  affection 
Her  story  is  told  in  the  "  Mabinogion,"  and  in  'Tenny- 
son's "Idylls  of  the  King."  In  the  rnidst  of  an  impure 
court  she  is  the  personification  of  purity. 

Enigma.  The  origin  of  the  enigma  is  doubtful. 
Gale  thinks  that  the  Jews  borrowed   their   enigmatical 


356 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


forms  of  speech  from  the  Egyptians.  The  philosophy 
of  the  Druids  was  altogether  enigmatical.  In  Nero's 
time  the  Romans  were  often  obliged  to  have  recourse 
to  this  method  of  concealing  truth  under  obscure  lan- 
guage. 

Eolian  Harp.  Baruch.  There  is  a  Rabbinical 
story  of  the  aerial  harmony  of  the  harp  of  David,  which, 
when  hung  up  at  night,  was  played  upon  by  the  north 
wind. 

Epigram.  A  short  pointed  or  antithetical  poem: 
or  any  short  composition  happily  or  antithetically 
expressed. 

.  Epitaphs.  Bolleau.  They  were  used  by  the  an- 
cient Jews,  by  the  Athenians,  the  Romans,  and  most  of 
the  nations  of  antiquity:  their  date  is  referred  in  Eng- 
land to  the  earliest  times.  In  the  epitaphs  of  the  an- 
cients arose  the  epigram. 

Epithala'niium  was  a  species  of  poem  which  it  was 
the  custom  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  sing  in 
chorus  near  the  bridal-chamber  of  a  newly  married 
couple.  Anacreon,  Stesichorus,  and  Pindar  composed 
poems  of  this  kind,  but  only  scanty  fragments  have  been 
preserved.  Spenser's  "  Epithalamium,"  written  on  the 
occasion  of  his  marriage,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  this  kind  of  verse. 

Eppie.  St.  Ronan's  Well,  Scott.  One  of  the  ser- 
vants of  the  Rev.  Josiah  Cargill.  In  the  same  novel  is 
Eopie  Anderson,  one  of  the  servants  at  the  Mowbray 
Arms,  Old  St.  Ronan's,  held  by  Meg  Dods. 

Eppie.  In  George  Eliot's  "Silas  Marner  "  the  child 
of  Godfrey  Cass,  brought  up  and  adopted  by  Silas  Mar- 
ner, whose  love  transformed  him  from  a  miser  into  a 
tender,  loving  father. 

Ep'1-men'i-des.  A  philosopher  and  poet  of  Crete, 
who  probably  lived  in  the  Sixth  or  Seventh  Century, 
B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have  fallen  asleep  in  a  cave,  when  a 
boy,  and  to  have  remained  in  that  state  for  fifty-seven 
years.  On  waking  and  going  out  into  the  broad  day- 
light, he  was  greatly  perplexed  and  astonished  to  find 
everything  around  him  altered.  But  what  was  more 
wonderful  still,  during  his  long  period  of  slumber,  his 
Boul,  released  from  its  fleshly  prison,  had  been  busily 
engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine  and  natural  philosophy: 
and  when  it  again  became  incarnated,  Epimenides  found 
himself  a  man  of  great  knowledge  and  wisdom.  Goethe 
has  written  a  poem  on  the  subject,  "  Des  Epimenides 
Erwachen."      (See  Klaus,  Peter,  and  Winkle,  Rip  Van.) 

Erl-Icing.  King  of  the  elves,  who  prepares  mi.schief 
.  for  children,  and  even  deceives  men  with  his  seductions. 
He  is  said  to  haunt  the  Black  Forest.  Goethe  has  a 
ballad  called  "The  Erl  King." 

Ermangarde  of  Baldringham,  Lad^.  The  Be- 
trothed, Scott.  Aunt  of  the  Lady  Eveline  Berenger, 
"the  betrothed." 

Er'meline.  The  wife  of  Reynard,  in  the  tale  of 
"Reynard  the  Fox." 

Ermina.  The  heroine  of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Deliv- 
ered," who  fell  in  love  with  Tancred.  When  the  Chris- 
tian army  besieged  Jerusalem,  she  dressed  herself  in 
Clorinda's  armor  to  go  to  Tancred,  but,  being  discovered, 
fled,  and  lived  awhile  with  some  shepherds  on  the  banks 
of  the  Jordan.  Meeting  with  Vafri'no,  sent  as  a  secret 
spy  by  the  crusaders,  she  revealed  to  him  the  design 
against  the  life  of  Godfrey,  and,  returning  with  him  to 
the  Christian  camp,  found  Tancred  wounded.  She 
cured  his  wounds,  so  that  he  was  able  to  take  part  in 
the  last  great  day  of  the  siege. 

Ernest,  Dulte.  A  poetical  romance  by  Henry  of 
Veldig  (Waldeck),  contemporary  with  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa.  It  is  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Oriental  myths 
and  hero  adventures  of  the  Crusader. 

Error.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  A  monster  who 
lived  in  a  den  in  "Wandering  Wood,"  and  with  whom 
the  Red  Cross  Knight  had  his  first  adventure.  She  had 
a  brood  of  1,000  young  ones  of  sundry  shapes,  and  these 
cubs  crept  into  their  mother's  mouth  when  alarmed,  as 
young  kangaroos  creep  into  their  mother's  pouch.  'The 
knight  was  nearly  killed  by  the  stench  which  issued 
from  the  foul  fiend,  but  he  succeeded  in  "rafting"  her 
head  off,  whereupon  the  brood  lapped  up  the  blood,  and 
burst  with  satiety. 

Es'ca-lus.  An  ancient  and  kindhearted  lord,  in 
Shakespere's  "Measure  for  Measure,"  whom  Vincentio, 
the  Duke  of.  Vienna,  joins  with  Angelo  as  his  deputy 
during  a  pretended  absence  on  a  distant  journey. 

Es'ca-nes.  A  lord  of  Tyre,  in  Shakespere's  "Peri- 
cles." 

Esmeralda.  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  Victor  Hugo. 
A  beautiful  gipsy-girl,  who,  with  tambourine  and  goat, 
dances  in  the  "place"  before  Notre  Dame. 

Esmond,  Henry.  A  cavalier  and  fine-spirited  gen- 
tleman in  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  Hero  of  "Thackeray's 
novel  by  same  name. 


Es-tel'la.  The  heroine  of  Dickens's  novel  of  "Great 
Expectations." 

Es-tot'i-land  or  Es-tot'i-land'1-a.  An  imaginary 
region  in  America,  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  referred  to  by 
Milton  as  "cold  Estotiland,"  and  variously  fabled  to 
have  been  discovered  by  Frisian  fisherman  in  the  Four- 
teenth Century,  and  by  a  Pole  named  John  Scalve,  in 
1477. 

Etzel,  i.  e.,  Attila.  King  of  the  Huns  a  monarch 
ruling  over  three  kingdoms  and  more  than  thirty  princi- 
palities: being  a  widower,  he  married  Kriemhild,  the 
widow  of  Siegfried.  In  the  Nibelun^en-Lied,  where  he 
is  introduced,  he  is  made  very  insignificant. 

Eu'phrasy.  Paradise  Lost,  3Iliton.  The  herb 
eye-bright:  so  called  because  it  was  once  supposed  to 
be  efficacious  in  clearing  the  organs  of  sight.  Hence, 
the  archangel  Michael  purged  the  eyes  of  Adam  with  it, 
to  enable  him  to  see  into  the  distant  future. 

Eu'phu-es.  The  principal  character  in  Lyiy's  two 
famous  works,  entitled  "  Euphues,  or  the  Anatomy  of 
Wit,"  and  "Euphues  and  His  England."  These  works 
are  remarkable  for  their  pedantic  and  fantastical  style, 
and  for  the  monstrous  and  overstrained  conceits  with 
which  they  abound.  Euphues  is  represented  as  an 
Athenian  gentleman,  distinguished  for  the  elegance  of 
his  person  and  the  beauty  of  his  wit,  and  for  his  amorous 
temperament  and  roving  disposition.  He  gained  a 
bosom  friend,  Philautus,  and  then  robbed  him  of  his 
lover,  Lucilla.  The  lady  is  false  to  both,  the  friends 
are  reconciled,  and  Euphues  returns  to  Athens  and 
philosophy.  The  peculiarities  of  Lyiy's  style  are  a  per- 
petual striving  after  alliteration  and  antithesis,  and  a 
most  ingenious  stringing  together  of  similes.  This  book 
immediately  became  the  rage  in  the  court  circles,  and 
for  many  years  was  the  court  standard.  From  this  book 
we  get  our  words;  euphuistia,  euphuism,  meaning  an 
affected,  bombastic  style  of  language. 

Eu'lalie,  St.  In  the  calendar  of  saints  there  is  a 
virgin  martyr  called  Eulalie.  She  was  martyred  by 
torture  February  12,  308.  Longfellow  calls  Evangeline 
the  "Sunshine  of  St.  EulaHe." 

Eulen-spie'gel.  The  hero  of  a  German  tale,  which 
relates  the  pranks  and  drolleries  of  a  wandering  cottager 
of  Brunswick. 

Evan  Dhu  M'Combich.  Vl^averley,  Scott.  The 
foster-brother  of  M'lvor. 

Evan  Dhu  of  Lochiel.  Legend  of  Montrose,  Scott. 
A  Highland  chief  in  the  army  of  Montrose. 

Evan'gellne.  The  heroine  of  Longfellow's  poem. 
The  subject  of  the  tale  is  the  expulsion  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Aca'dia  (Nova  Scotia)  from  their  homes  by  order 
of  George  II.,  and  the  life-long  wanderings  of  Evangeline 
in  search  of  her  lover,  Gabriel.  It  is  a  story  of  a  woman's 
love  and  devotion. 

Evan'gelist,  in  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  rep- 
resents the  effectual  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  who  opens 
the  gate  of  life  to  Christian. 

Every  Man  in  His  Humor.  A  comedy  by  Ben 
Jonson.  Every  person  in  the  play  is  liable  to  be  duped 
by  his  special  humor;  Captain  Bobadil's  humor  is  brag- 
ging: Kitelly's  is  jealousy:  Stephen's  is  stupidity: 
Knowell's  is  suspicion:  Dame  Kitelly's,  like  her  hus- 
band's, is  jealousy. 

Evlr-Allen.  Fingal,  Ossian.  The  white-armed 
daughter  of  Branno,  an  Irishman.  "  A  thousand  heroes 
sought  the  maid:  she  refused  her  love  to  a  thousand. 
The  sons  of  the  sword  were  despised,  for  graceful  in  her 
eyes  was  Ossian." 

Evelina.  The  heroine  in  a  novel  by  the  same  name, 
by  Miss  Burney. 

Excal'ibur.  Meaning  of  the  words:  "  liberated  from 
the  stone."  The  name  of  Arthur's  far-famed  sword, 
which  he  unfixed  from  a  miraculous  stone,  though  pre- 
viously two  hundred  and  one  of  the  most  puissant 
barons  in  the  realm  had  singly  been  unable  to  extract 
it.  In  consequence  of  this  remarkable  feat,  Arthur  was 
chosen  and  proclaimed  king  by  general  acclamation. 
when  about  to  die,  he  sent  an  attendant  to  throw  the 
weapon  into  a  lake  hard  by.  Twice  eluding  the  request, 
the  squire  at  last  complied.  A  hand  and  arm  arose  from 
the  water,  and  caught  the  sword  by  the  hilt,  flourished 
it  thrice,  and  then  sank  into  the  lake,  and  was  seen  no 
more.  [Written  also  "Excalibor,"  "  Escalibar,"  "Es- 
calibor,     and  "Caliburn.") 

Ez'zelln,  Sir.  Lara,  Byron  (1814).  The  gentle- 
man who  recognizes  Lara  at  the  table  of  Lord  Otho, 
and  charges  him  with  being  Conrad  the  Corsair.  A  duel 
ensues,  and  Ezzelin  is  never  heard  of  more.  A  serf 
used  to  say  that  he  saw  a  huntsman  one  evening  cast  a 
dead  body  into  the  river  which  divided  the  lands  of 
Otho  and  Lara,  and  that  there  was  a  star  of  knighthood 
on  the  breast  of  the  corpse- 


LITERATURE 


357 


Eyre.  Jane.  The  heroine  of  Charlotte  Bronte's 
novel  of  the  same  name,  a  governess  in  the  family  of  a 
Mr.  Rochester,  to  whom  she  is  finally  married. 

Faa,  Gabriel.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott.  Nephew 
^  of  Meg  Merrilies.  One  of  the  huntsmen  at  Liddes- 
dale. 

Fab'liaux.  The  metiical  fables  of  the  Trouvferes, 
or  early  poets  north  of  the  Loire,  in  the  Twelfth  and 
#  Thirteenth  Centuries.  The  word  fable,  in  this  case,  is 
used  very  widely,  for  it  includes  not  only  such  tales  as 
"Reynard  the  Fox,"  but  all  sorts  of  familiar  incidents 
of  knavery  and  intrigue,  all  sorts  of  legends  and  family 
traditions.  The  fabliau  of  "Aucassin  and  Nicolette"  is 
full  of  interesting  incidents,  and  contains  much  true 
pathos  and  beautiful  poetry 

Fadla  Deen.  The  hypercritical  Grand  Chamberlain 
in  Thomas  Moore's  poem  "Lalla  Rookh."  Fadladeen's 
criticism  upon  the  several  tales  which  make  up  the  ro- 
mance are  very  racy  and  full  of  humor;  and  his  crest- 
fallen conceit  when  he  finds  out  that  the  poet  was  the 
prince  in  disguise  is  well  conceived. 

Faery  or  Feerie  Land.  The  land  of  the  fays  or 
fairies.  The  chief  fay  realms  are  Av'alon,  an  island 
somewhere  in  the  ocean.  Oberon's  dominions,  situate 
"in  wilderness  among  the  holtis  hairy";  and  a  realm 
somewhere  in  the  middle  of  the  earth,  where  was  Pari 
Banou's  palace. 

Faery  Queen.  A  metrical  romance,  in  six  books,  of 
twelve  cantos  each,  by  Edmund  Spenser.  The  hero. 
Prince  Arthur,  arriving  at  the  court  of  Glouana,  the  Faery 
Queen,  in  Fairyland,  finds  her  holding  a  solemn  festi- 
val during  twelve  days.  At  the  court  there  is  a  beautiful 
lady,  for  whose  hand  twelve  most  distinguished  knights 
are  rivals,  and  in  order  to  settle  their  pretensions  these 
twelve  heroes  undertake  twelve  separate  adventures. 
The  first  book  contains  the  legend  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight,  who  is  the  allegorical  representative  of  "Holi- 
ness," while  his  mistress  Una  represents  true  "Religion"; 
and  the  action  of  the  knight's  exploit  shadows  forth  the 
triumph  of  Holiness  over  the  enchantments  and  decep- 
tions of  Heresy.  The  second  book  is  the  legend  of  Sir 
Guyon.  The  third  book  is  the  legend  of  Britomartis  — 
a  female  champion  —  or  "Chastity."  Britomartis  is 
Di^na,  or  Queen  Elizabeth  the  Britoness.  The  fourth 
book  is  the  legend  of  Cambel  and  Tri'amond  (fidelity). 
The  fifth  book  is  the  legend  of  Ar'tegal  (justice).  'The 
sixth  book  is  the  legend  of  Sir  Cal'ldore  (courtesy).  The 
remaining  books  were  never  completed.  The  plan  of  the 
"Faery  Queen"  is  borrowed  from  the  Orlando  Furioso, 
but  the  creative  power  of  Spenser  is  more  original,  and 
his  imagery  more  striking,  than  Ariosto's. 

Fag.  A  lying  servant  to  Captain  Absolute  in  Sheri- 
dan's "Rivals." 

Fa'gln.  An  old  Jew  in  Dickens's  "Oliver  Twist," 
who  employs  young  persons  of  both  sexes  to  carry  on  a 
systematic  trade  of  robbery. 

Fain' all,  Mr.  and"  Mrs.  Noted  characters  in  Con- 
greve's  Comedy  "The  Way  of  the  World." 

Faineant,  Le  Noir  (the  Black  Idler).  In  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  "Ivanhoe,"  a  name  applied  to  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion,  in  disguise,  by  the  spectators  of  a  tourna- 
ment, on  account  of  his  indifference  during  a  great  part 
of  the  action,  in  which,  however,  he  was  finally  victorious. 

Falkland.  In  Godwin's  novel  called  "Caleb  Wil- 
liams." He  commits  murder,  and  keeps  a  narrative  of 
the  transaction  in  an  iron  chest.  Williams,  a  lad  in  his 
employ,  opens  the  chest,  and  is  caught  in  the  act  by 
Falkland.  The  lad  runs  away,  but  is  hunted  down. 
This  tale,  dramatized  by  Colman,  is  entitled  "The  Iron 
Chest." 

Fairy.  Fairy-lore  of  the  nursery  grows  out  of  belief 
in  Providence,  the  Good  and  the  Bad.  Good  fairies  are 
called  fairies,  elves,  elle-folks,  and  fays;  the  evil  ones 
are  urchins,  ouphes,  ell-maids,  and  ell-women. 

Fairy  of  the  Mine.  A  malevolent  being  supposed 
to  live  in  mines,  busying  itself  with  cutting  ore,  turning 
the  windlass,  etc.,  and  yet  effecting  nothing. 

Fair  Maid  of  Perth.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  and  the  name  of  the  heroine. 

Fairservice,  Andrew.  A  shrewd  Scotch  gardener 
at  Osbaldistone  Hall  in  "Rob  Roy,"  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Faithful.  One  of  the  allegorical  personages  in  Bun- 
yan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  who  dies  a  martyr  before 
completing  his  journey. 

Faithful,  Jacob.  The  title  and  hero  of  a  sea  tale, 
by  Captain  Marryat  (1835). 

Fa'kenliani  Ghost.  A  ballad  by  Robert  Bloom- 
field,  author  of  "The  Farmer's  Boy."  The  ghost  was  a 
donkey. 

Fakreddin's  Valley.  Over  the  several  portals  of 
bronze  were  these  inscriptions:  (1)  "The  Asylum  of 
Pilgrims";  (2)  ".The  Traveler's  Refuge";  (3)  ".The 
Depository  of  the  Secrets  of  All  the  World." 


Fal'stafif,  Sir  John.  A  famous  character  in  Shakes- 
pere's  comedy  of  the  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  and  in 
the  first  and  second  parts  of  his  historical  drama  of 
"Henry  IV."  He  is  as  perfect  a  comic  portrait  as  was 
ever  sketched.  In  the  former  play,  he  is  represented  as 
in  love  with  Mrs.  Ford  and  Mrs.  Page,  who  make  a  butt 
and  a  dupe  of  him;  in  the  latter,  he  figures  as  a  soldier 
and  a  wit;  in  both  he  is  exhibited  as  a  monster  of  fat, 
sensual,  mendacious,  boastful,  and  cowardly.  In  Henry 
V.  his  death  is  described  by  Mrs.  Quickly. 

Fang.  A  sheriff's  officer,  in  the  second  part  of  Shakes- 
pere's  '  King  Henry  IV." 

Fang,  Charles  Dickens's  "  Oliver  Twist.".  A 
bullying  insolent  magistrate,  who  would  have  sent  Oliver 
Twist  to  prison,  on  suspicion  of  theft,  if  Mr.  Brownlow 
had  not  interposed. 

Fa'ta  Morgana.  The  name  of  a  potent  fairy,  cele- 
brated in  the  tales  of  chivalry,  and  in  the  romantic  poems 
of  Italy.  She  was  a  pupil  of  the  enchanter  Merlin,  and 
the  sister  of  Arthur,  to  whom  she  discovered  the  intrigue 
of  his  queen,  Geneura,  or  Gui never,  with  Lancelot  of 
the  Lake.  In  the  "Orlando  Innamorato"  of  Bojardo, 
she  appears  at  first  as  a  personification  of  Fortune,  in- 
habiting a  splendid  residence  at  the  bottom  of  a  lake, 
and  dispensing  all  the  treasures  of  the  earth,  but  she 
is  afterward  found  in  her  proper  station  subject  to  the 
all  potent  Demogorgon.  Also,  as  sister  to  King  Arthur 
and  pupil  of  Merlin.  She  lived  at  the  bottom  of  the 
lake  and  dispensed  good  fortune  as  she  liked. 

Fata  Aici'na.  Bojardo  Orlando  Innamorato 
(1495).  Sister  of  Fata  Morgana.  She  carried  off  Astolfo 
on  the  back  of  a  whale  to  her  isle,  but  turned  him  into  a 
myrtle  tree  when  she  tired  of  him. 

Fat  Boy,  The.  A  laughable  character  in  Dickens's 
"Pickwick  Papers";  a  youth  of  astonishing  obesity, 
whose  employment  consists  in  alternate  eating  and 
sleeping. 

Fathom,  Ferdinand,  Count.  The  title  of  a  novel 
by  Smollett,  and  the  name  of  its  principal  character,  a 
complete  villain,  who  proceeds  step  by  step  to  rob  his 
benefactors  and  finally  dies  in  misery  and  despair. 

Fat'i-ma.  (1)  A  female  worker,  in  the  story  of 
"Aladdin,"  in  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments." 
(2)  The  last  of  the  wives  of  Blue-Beard,  and  the  only  one 
who  escaped  being  murdered  by  him. 

Faust.  The  hero  and  title  of  a  celebrated  tragedy 
by  Goethe,  the  materials  of  which  are  drawn  in  part  from 
the  popular  legends  of  Dr.  Faustus,  a  famous  magician 
of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Faust  is  a  student  who  is 
toiling  after  knowledge  beyond  his  reach,  and  who  after- 
wards deserts  his  studies,  and  makes  a  pact  with  the 
Devil  (Mephistopheles),  in  pursuance  of  which  he  gives 
himself  up  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  senses,  until  the 
hour  of  his  doom  arrives,  when  Mephistopheles  reap- 
pears upon  the  scene,  and  carries  off  his  victim  as  a  con- 
demned soul.  This  mystical  personage  dates  back  to 
the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

Faus'tus.  The  hero  of  Marlowe's  tragedy  of  the  same 
name;  represented  as  a  vulgar  sorcerer  tempted  to  sell 
his  soul  to  the  Devil  (Mephistopheles),  on  condition  of 
having  a  familiar  spirit  at  his  command,  the  possession 
of  earthly  power  and  glory,  and  unlimited  gratification 
of  his  sensual  appetites,  for  twenty-four  years;  at  the 
end  of  which  time,  when  the  forfeit  comes  to  be  exacted, 
he  shrinks  and  shudders  in  agony  and  remorse,  imploring 
yet  despairing  of  the  mercy  of  heaven.  This  has  been 
the  theme  of  many  writers.  It  is  the  subject  of  an  opera 
by  Gounod. 

Faw,  Tibbie.  Bedgauntlet,  Scott.  The  ostler's 
wife,  in  Wandering  Willie's  tale. 

Feast  of  Lemuria.  The  festival  called  "  Lemuria " 
was  held  on  the  9th,  11th,  and  13th  of  May,  and  was 
accompanied  with  ceremonies  of  washing  hands,  throw- 
ing black  beans  over  the  head,  etc.,  and  the  pronuncia- 
tion nine  times  of  these  words:  "Begone,  you  specters 
of  the  house!"  which  deprived  the  Lemuriae  of  their 
power  to  harm.  Ovid  describes  the  Lemuriae  in  the 
fifth  book  of  his  "Fasti." 

Feast  of  Lights.  Christmas  was  called  the  "  Feast 
of  Lights"  in  the  Western  or  Latin  Church,  because  at 
this  feast  they  used  more  candles  or  lights,  symbolic  of 
Christ,  The  Light  of  all  lights. 

Felton,  Septimius.  Septimius  Felton  is  the  mystical 
hero  in  Hawthorne's  novel  by  the  same  name. 

Fe-nel'la.  A  fairy-like  creature,  a  deaf  and  dumb 
attendant  on  the  Countess  of  Derby,  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
"Peveril  of  the  Peak." 

Fen' ton,  A  character  in  Shakespere's  "  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,"  who  wooes  the  rich  Anne  Page  for  her 
money,  but  soon  discovers  inward  treasures  in  her  which 
quite  transform  him. 

Fer'Amorz.  Lalla  Rookh,  Thomas  Moore.  Fer 
Amorz  in  La.Ua  Rookh  is  the  young  Cashmerian  poet, 


358 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


who  relates  poetical  tales  to  Lalla  Rookh,  in  her  journey 
from  Delhi  to  Lesser  Buchar'ia.  Lalla  Rookh  is  going 
to  be  married  to  the  young  sultan,  but  falls  in  love  with 
the  poet.  On  the  wedding  morn  she  is  led  to  her  future 
husband,  and  finds  that  the  poet  is  the  sultan  himself, 
who  had  gallantly  taken  this  course  to  win  the  heart  of 
his  bride  and  beguile  her  journey. 

Ferdinand.  (1)  A  character  in  Shakespere's  "Tem- 
pest." He  is  a  son  of  the  King  of  Naples,  and  falls.in  love 
with  Miranda,  the  daughter  of  Prospero,  a  banished 
Duke  of  Milan.  (2)  King  of  Navarre,  a  character  in 
"Love's  Labor's  Lost." 

Ferrers.  Endymion.  The  hero  of  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli's novel  "Endymion." 

Ferrex  and  Porrex.  Two  sons  of  Gorboduc,  a 
mythical  British  king.  Porrex  drove  his  brother  from 
Britain,  and  when  Ferrex  returned  with  an  army  he  was 
slain,  but  Porrex  was  shortly  after  put  to  death  by  his 
mother.     One  of  the  first,  if  not  the  very  first,  historical 

glays  in  the  English  language  was  "Ferrex  and  Porrex," 
y  Thomas  Norton  and  Thomas  Sackville. 

Fib.  Nymphldia,  Drayton.  One  of  the  fairy 
attendants  to  Queen  Mab. 

Fldel'le.  Cymbellne,  Shakospere.  The  name  as- 
simied  by  Imogen,  when,  attired  m  boy's  clothes,  she 
started  for  Milford  Haven  to  meet  her  husband  Pos- 
thumus. 

Fidele.     Subject  of  an  elegy  by  Collins. 

Fidessa.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  The  companion 
of  Sansfoy;  but  when  the  Red  Cross  Knight  slew  that 
"faithless  Saracen,"  Fidessa  turned  out  to  be  Duessa,  the 
daughter  of  Falsehood  and  Shame.  "The  sequel  must 
be  sought  under  the  word  Duessa. 

Fine-Ear.  Fairy  Tales  ( Fortunio ),  Com- 
tesse  D'Aunoy.  One  of  the  seven  attendants  of  For- 
tunio. He  could  hear  the  grass  grow,  and  even  the  wool 
on  a  sheep's  back.  This  is  an  old,  old  story.  It  is  also 
found  in  Grimm's  Fairy  Tales.  There  the  hero  is  "For- 
tunio." In  the  German  tale  "Fortunio"  the  fairy  gave 
her  a  horse  named  Comrade,  not  only  of  incredible  swift- 
ness, but  all-knowing,  and  endowed  with  human  speech; 
she  also  gave  her  an  inexhaustible  turkey-leather  trunk, 
full  of  money,  jewels,  and  fine  clothes.  By  the  advice 
of  Comrade,  she  hired  seven  gifted  servants,  named 
Strongback,  Lightfoot,  Marksman,  Fine-ear,  Boisterer, 
Trinquet,  and  Grugeon.  Fortunio  goes  forth  disguised 
as  a  warrior,  meets  her  king  and  marries  him. 

FInetta,  The  Cinder  Girl.  A  fairy  tale  by  the 
Comtesse  D'Aunoy.  This  is  merely  the  old  tale  of 
Cinderella  slightly  altered. 

FIn'gal,  or  Fln-gal'.  A  mythical  hero,  whose  name 
occurs  in  Galic  ballads  and  traditions,  and  in  Mac- 
pherson's  "Poems  of  Ossian." 

Fires  of  St.  John.  A  representative  play  of  the 
school  to  which  Sudermann  belongs.  The  whole  group 
of  plays  of  which  "The  Fires  of  St.  John  "  is  a  type  regis- 
ter a  movement  of  revolt  against  the  conventionalities 
of  life  in  Germany  as  Ibsen's  dramas  express  the  revolt 
against  the  conventionalities  of  life  in  Northern  Europe. 

Firmln,  Philip.  The  hero  of  Thackeray's  novel, 
".The  Adventures  of  Philip." 

Fle'ance.  A  son  of  Banquo,  in  Shakespere's  tragedy 
of  "Macbeth."  The  legend  relates  that  after  the  assas- 
sination of  his  father  he  escaped  to  Wales,  where  he 
married  the  daughter  of  the  reigning  prince,  and  had  a 
son  named  Walter.  This  Walter  afterwards  became 
lord  high  steward  of  Scotland,  and  called  himself  Walter 
the  Steward.  From  him  proceeded  in  a  direct  line  the 
Stuarts  of  Scotland,  a  royal  line  which  gave  James  VI. 
of  Scotland,  James  I.  of  England.  "This  myth  has  been 
seriously  accepted  by  some  as  fact. 

Fledge'by.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  An 
overreaching  cowardly  sneak  who  pretends  to  do  a 
decent  business  under  the  trade  name  of  Pubsey  &  Co. 

Flo-ren'ti-us.  A  knight  whose  story  is  related  in 
the  first  book  of  Gower's  "Confessio  Amantis."  He 
bound  himself  to  marry  a  deformed  hag,  provided  she 
taught  him  the  solution  of  a  riddle  on  which  his  life 
depended. 

Florian.  The  Foundling  of  the  Forest,  W.  Dl- 
mond.  Discovered  in  infancy  by  the  Count  de  Val- 
mont,  and  adopted  as  his  own  son.  Florian  is  light- 
hearted  and  volatile,  but  with  deep  affection,  very  brave, 
and  the  delight  of  all  who  knew  him. 

Flor'i-mel.  A  female  character  in  Spenser's  "Faery 
Queen,"  of  great  beauty,  but  so  timid  that  she  feared 
the  "smallest  monstrous  mouse  that  creeps  on  floor," 
and  was  abused  by  everyone.  She  was  noted  for  sweet- 
ness of  temper  amid  great  trials.  The  word  Florimel 
signifies  "honey-flower." 

Flor'i-zel.  A  prince  of  Bohemia,  in  Shakespere's 
"Winter's  Tale,"  in  love  with  Perdita. 


an    amusmg 


Flu-el'len.     A  Welsh    captain,  who 
pedant,  in  Shakespere's  "Henry  V." 

Flying  Dutchman.  A  spectral  ship,  seen  in  stormy 
weather  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  considered 
ominous  of  ill-luck.  Captain  Marryat  has  taken  this 
theme  for  his  novel  "The  Phantom  Ship." 

Folk.  Fairies,  also  called  "people,"  "neighbors," 
"wights."  The  Germans  have  their  Kleine  volk  (little 
folk),  the  Swiss  their  hill  people  and  earth  people.  See 
Fairies. 

Ford.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ford  are  characters  in  "The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  Mrs.  Ford  pretends  to  ac- 
cept Sir  John  Falstaff's  protestations  of  love,  in  order 
to  punish  him  by  her  devices. 

For'tin-bras.  Prince  of  Norway,  in  Shakespere's 
tragedy  "Hamlet." 

Fortunatus.  You  have  found  Fortunatus's  purse. 
Are  in  luck's  way.  The  nursery  tale  of  Fortunatus  re- 
cords that  he  had  an  inexhaustible  purse.  It  is  from  the 
Italian  fairy  tales. 

Fortunlo's  Horse.  Comrade,  not  only  possessed 
incredible  speed,  but  knew  all  things,  and  was  gifted 
with  human  speech.     (See  "Fine-ear.") 

Forty  Thieves.  In  the  tale  of  Ali  Baba  (Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments).  Represented  as  inhabiting 
a  secret  cave  in  a  forest,  the  door  of  which  would  open 
and  shut  only  at  the  sound  of  the  magic  word  "Sesame," 
the  name  of  a  kind  of  grain.  One  day,  Ali  Baba,  a  wood- 
monger,  accidentally  discovered  the  secret,  and  made  him- 
self rich  by  carrying  off  gold  from  the  stolen  hoards. 
The  captain  tried  several  schemes  to  discover  the  thief, 
but  was  always  outwitted  by  Morgia'na,  the  wood-cut- 
ter's female  slave. 

Foxley,  Squjre  Matthew.  Redgauntlet,  Sir  W. 
Scott.  A  magistrate  who  examines  Darsie  Latimer 
(Sir  Arthur  Darsie  Redgauntlet),  after  he  had  been  at- 
tacked by  the  rioters. 

Francesco.  The  "lago"  of  Massinger's  "Duke  of 
Milan." 

Frank'en-steln.  The  hero  in  Mrs.  Shelley's  ro- 
rnance  of  the  same  name.  As  a  young  student  of  phy- 
siology he  constructs  a  monster  out  of  the  horrid  rem- 
nants of  the  churchyard  and  dissecting-room,  and 
endues  it,  apparently  through  the  agency  of  galvanism, 
with  a  sort  of  spectral  and  convulsive  Hfe.  'This 
existence,  rendered  insupportable  to  the  monster  by  his 
vain  craving  after  human  sympathy,  and  by  his  con- 
sciousness of  his  own  deformity,  is  employed  in  inflicting 
the  most  dreadful  retribution  upon  the  guilty  philoso- 
pher. It  is  a  parody  on  the  creature  man,  powerful  for 
evil,  and  the  instrument  of  dreadful  retribution  on  the 
student,  who  usurped  the  prerogative  of  the  Creator. 

Freeport,  Sir  Andrew.  The  name  of  one  of  the 
members  of  the  imaginary  club  under  whose  direction 
the  "Spectator"  was  professedly  published.  He  is 
represented  as  a  London  merchant  of  great  eminence 
and  experience,  industrious,  sensible,  and  generous. 

Friar  Lawrence.  The  Franciscan  monk  who  at- 
tempted to  befriend  the  lovers  in  "Romeo  and  Juliet." 

Friar's  Tale,  The.  In  The  Canterbury  Tales, 
Chaucer.  An  arch-deacon  employed  a  sumpnour  as 
his  secret  spy  to  find  out  offenders,  with  the  view  of  ex- 
acting fines  from  them.  In  order  to  accomplish  this 
more  effectually,  the  sumpnour  entered  into  a  compact 
with  the  Devil,  disguised  as  a  yeoman.  Those  who  im- 
precated the  Devil  were  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  yeoman- 
devil,  and  those  who  imprecated  God  were  to  be  the 
sumpnour's  share. 

Friar  Tuck.  Chaplain  and  steward  of  Robin  Hood. 
Introduced  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  "Ivanhoe."  He  is  a 
self-indulgent,  combative  Falstaff,  a  jolly  companion  to 
the  outlaws  in  Sherwood  Forest. 

Friday.  Robinson  Crusoe's  ,  faithful  man  Friday 
pictured  by  De  Foe. 

Frol'lo,  Archdeacon  Claude.  A  noted  character 
in  Victor  Hugo's  "Notre-Dame  de  Paris,"  absorbed  in 
a  bewildering  search  after  philosopher's  stone. 

Front  de  Boeuf.  Ivanhoe,  Sir  W.  Scott.  A  fol- 
lower of  Prince  John  of  Anjou,  and  one  of  the  knight's 
challengers. 

Froth,  Master.  A  foolish  gentleman  in  Shakes- 
pere's "Measure  for  Measure."  His  name  explains  his 
character. 

Fudge  Family.  A  name  under  which  the  poet 
Moore  satirized  the  absurdities  of  his  traveling  country- 
men, who,  having  been  long  confined  at  home  by  the 
wars  waged  by  Napoleon  flocked  to  the  continent  after 
his  defeat  at  Waterloo.  The  family  is  composed  of  a 
hack-writer  and  spy,  his  son,  a  young  dandy  of  the  first 
water,  and  his  daughter,  a  sentimental  damsel,  and 
Madame  Le  Roy,  in  love  with  a  Parisian  linen-draper, 
whom  she  has  mistaken  for  one  of  the  Bourbons  in  dis- 
guise.    There  is  also  a  tutor  and  "poor  relation  "  of  this 


LITERATURE 


359 


egregious  family,  who  is  an  ardent  Bonapartist  and  Irish 
patriot. 

Funk,  Peter.  A  person  employed  at  petty  auctions 
to  bid  on  articles  put  up  for  sale,  in  order  to  raise  their 
price;  probably  so  called  from  such  a  name  having  fre- 
quently been  given  when  articles  were  brought  in. 

Fus'bos.  Utopia,  Sir  Thomas  Moore.  Minister 
of  state  to  Artaxaminous,  King  of  Utopia. 

Fy'rapel,  Sir.  The  leopard,  the  nearest  kinsman  of 
King  Lion,  in  the  beast  epic  of  "Reynard  the  f'ox" 
(1498). 

Ga'bri-el.  The  name  of  an  angel  described  in  the 
Scriptures  as  charged  with  the  ministration  of  comfort 
and  sympathy  to  man.  In  the  New  Testament,  he  is 
the  herald  of  good  tidings,  declaring  the  coming  of  the 
predicted  Messiah  and  of  his  forerunner.  In  Jewish 
and  Christian  tradition  he  is  one  of  the  seven  archangels. 
Gabriel  has  the  reputation,  among  the  Rabbins,  of  being 
a  distinguished  linguist,  having  taught  Joseph  the  seventy 
languages  spoken  at  Babel.  The  Mohammedans  hold 
him  in  even  greater  reverence  than  the  Jews.  He  is 
called  the  spirit  of  truth,  and  is  believed  to  have  dictated 
the  Koran  to  Mohammed.  Milton  posts  him  at  "the 
eastern  gate  of  paradise,"  as  "chief  of  the  angelic  guards," 
keeping  watch  there.  The  Talmud  describes  him  as  the 
prince  of  fire,  and  as  the  spirit  who  presides  over  thunder. 

Gads'hill.  A  companion  of  Sir  John  Falstaff,  in  the 
First  Part  of  Shakespere's  "King  Henry  IV." 

Gal'ahad,  Sir.  A  celebrated  knight  of  the  Round 
Table  who  achieved  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Tenny- 
son has  made  him  the  subject  of  one  of  his  idylls. 
In  Malory  he  is  also  represented  as  the  perfect  knight 
clad  in  wonderful  armor.  He  was  the  only  knight 
who  could  sit  in  the  "Siege  Perilous"  a  seat  reserved 
for  the  "knight  without  a  flaw,"  who  achieved  the 
quest  of  the  holy  grail." 

Gal'apas.  A  giant  of  marvelous  height  in  the  army 
of  Lucius,  King  of  Rome.    He  was  slain  by  King  Arthur. 

Gal-a-te'a.  A  sea  nymph  beloved  by  the  Cyclops 
Polyphemus,  who  in  his  jealous  rage  destroyed  her 
lover  Acis  with  a  rock  torn  from  the  mountain  side. 
W.  S.  Gilbert  in  his  drama  "Pygmalion  and  Galatea" 
represents  the  artist  as  creating  a  piece  of  sculpture  so 
perfect  that  he  loves  it  with  such  a  passion  that  he 
awakens  it  into  life. 

Ga-laph'-ro-ne  or  Gal'a-fron.  A  king  of  Cathay 
and  father  of  Angelica  in  Bojardo's  ".Orlando  Innam- 
orato  "  and  Ariosto's  "Furioso." 

Gamp,  Mrs.  A  nurse  who  is  a  prominent  character 
in  Dickens's  novel  of  "Martin  Chuzzlewit."  She  is  cele- 
brated for  her  constant  reference  to  a  certain  Mrs. 
Harris,  a  purely  imaginary  person,  for  whose  feigned 
opinions  and  utterances  she  professes  the  greatest 
respect,  in  order  to  give  the  more  weight  to  her  own. 

Gan,  Ga-ne-lo'ne,  Ga'ne-lon'  or  Ga'no.  A  count 
of  Mayence,  and  one  of  the  Paladins  of  Charlemagne, 
whom  he  betrayed  at  the  battle  of  Ronces  valles;  always 
represented  as  a  traitor,  engaged  in  intrigues  for  the 
destruction  of  Christianity.  He  figures  in  the  romantic 
poems  of  Italy,  and  is  placed  by  Dante  in  his  "Inferno." 

Gander-Cleugh,  "folly-cliff,"  that  mysterious  place 
where  a  person  makes  a  goose  of  himself,  in  "Tales  of 
My  Landlord,"  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Gan'elon.  The  character  of  Sir  Ganelon  was  marked 
with  spite,  dissimulation,  and  intrigue,  but  he  was 
patient,  obstinate,  and  enduring.  He  loved  solitude, 
disbelieved  in  the  existence  of  moral  good,  and  has  be- 
come a  by-word  for  a  false  and  faithless  friend.  Dante 
has  placed  him  in  his  "Inferno." 

Garcia,  Pedro.  A  mythical  personage,  of  whom 
mention  is  made  in  the  preface  to  Gil  Bias,  in  which  is 
related  how  two  scholars  of  Salamanca  discovered  a 
tombstone  with  the  inscription,  "Here  lies  interred 
the  soul  of  the  Licentiate  Pedro  Garcia,"  and  how,  on 
digging  beneath  the  stone,  was  found  a  leathern  purse 
containing  a  hundred  ducats. 

Gar'eth.  In  Arthurian  romance  a  knight  of  the 
Round  Table,  who  was  first  a  scullion  in  King  Arthur's 
kitchen,  but  afterwards  became  champion  of  the  Lady 
Linet,  or  Lynette,  whose  sister  Lionfes,  or  Lyonors,  he 
delivered  from  Castle  Perilous. 

Gargamelle'.  The  mother  of  Gargantua  in  Rabelais' 
celebrated  romance  of  this  name. 

Gar-gan'tu-a.  The  hero  of  Rabelais'  celebrated 
romance  of  the  same  name,  a  gigantic  personage,  about 
whom  many  wonderful  stories  are  related.  He  lived 
for  several  centuries,  and  at  last  begot  a  son,  Pantagruel, 
as  wonderful  as  himself.  The"  Pleasant  Story  of  the 
Giant  Gargantua  and  of  his  Son  Pantagruel,"  so  satirized 
the  monastic  orders  of  his  time  that  it  was  denounced 
by  the  spiritual  authorities.  Francis  I.,  however,  pro- 
tected the  author,  and  allowed  him  to  print  the  third 
part  of  it  in  1545. 


Gargan'tuan.  Enormous,  inordinate,  great  beyond 
all  limits.  The  word  refers  to  the  hero  of  the  romance 
Gargantua. 

Gar'gery,  Mrs.  Joe.  Great  Expectations,  Dicli- 
ens.  Pip's  sister.  A  virago,  who  kept  her  husband 
and  Pip  in  constant  awe.  Joe  Gargery,  a  blacksmith, 
married  to  Pip's  sister.  A  noble-hearted,  simple- 
minded  young  man,  who  loved  Pip  sincerely.  Joe 
Gargery  was  one  of  nature's  gentlemen. 

Gaspar  or  Caspar  (the  white  one),  one  of  the 
three  Magi  or  kings  of  Cologne.  His  offering  to  the 
infant  Jesus  was  frankincense,  in  token  of  divinity. 

Gaunt,  Griffith.  Hero  of  a  novel  by  Charles  Reade, 
of  same  title. 

Gavotte'.  Name  given  to  a  certain  dance  common 
among  people  in  the  upper  Alps. 

Ga'waln,  Sir.  A  nephew  of  King  Arthur,  and  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  knights  of  the  Round  Table  ; 
noted  for  his  sagacity  and  wonderful  strength.  He  was 
surnamed  "the  courteous."  His  brothers  were  Agra- 
vaine,  Gaheris,  and  Gareth. 

Ge'bir.  A  legendary  Eastern  prince,  said  to  have 
invaded  Africa  and  to  have  given  his  name  to  Gibraltar. 
He  is  the  subject  of  a  poem  of  the  same  name  by  Walter 
Savage  Landor. 

Gael'lat-ley,  Da'vie.  The  name  of  a  poor  fool  in 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of  "Waverley." 

Gen'e-vieve'.  (1)  The  heroine  of  a  ballad  by  Cole-, 
ridge.  (2)  Under  the  form  "Genoveva,"  the  name 
occurs  in  a  German  myth  as  that  of  the  wife  of  the  Count 
Palatine  Siegfried,  in  the  time  of  Charles  Martel.  Upon 
false  accusations  her  husband  gave  orders  to  put  her  to 
death,  but  the  servant  intrusted  with  the  commission 
suffered  her  to  escape  into  the  forest  of  Ardennes,  where 
she  lay  concealed,  until  by  accident  her  husband  discov- 
ered her_  retreat,  and  recognized  her  innocence.  This 
legend  is'  often  repeated  in  the  folk  tales  of  Germany. 
Tieck  and  Miller  have  given  in  modern  versions  and 
Raupach  has  made  it  the  subject  of  a  drama. 

Genev'ra.  A  lady  in  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso." 
Her  honor  is  impeached,  and  she  is  condemned  to  die 
unless  a  champion  appears  to  do  combat  for  her.  Her 
lover,  Ariodantes,  answers  the  challenge,  kills  the  false 
accuser,  and  weds  the  dame.  Spenser  has  a  similar 
story  in  the  "Faery  Queen,"  and  Shakespere  availed 
himself  of  the  main  incident  in  his  comedy  of  "Much 
Ado  About  Nothing."  From  Italian  romances  "  Gen- 
evra"  has  been  taken  as  subject  of  "The  Mistletoe 
Bough, "  by  T.  Haynes  Bayley,  and  as  both  title  and 
subject  of  a  metrical  tale  by  Samuel  Rogers,  in  which 
he  tells  of  a  young  Italian,  who,  upon  her  wedding-day, 
secreted  herself,  from  motives  of  frolic,  in  a  self-locking 
oaken  chest,  the  lid  of  which  shut  down  and  held  hei- 
captive.  Many  years  afterward  the  chest  was  opened 
and  revealed  the  skeleton. 

Ge'nii.  Protecting  spirits  or  tutelar  deities  analagous 
to  the  guardian  angels  of  the  Christian  faith.  The 
Persian  and  Indian  genii  had  a  corporeal  form,  which 
they  could  change  at  pleasure.  They  were  not  attendant 
spirits,  but  fallen,  angels.  They  were  naturally  hostile 
to  man,  though  "compelled  sometimes  to  serve  them 
as  slaves.  The  Roman  genii  were  guardian  spirits, 
unseen  but  helpful. 

Georg'Ics.  A  bucolic  poetical  composition,  treating 
of  farm-husbandry  and  the  tillage  of  the  soil.  The 
most  famous  example  of  the  kind  is  that  by  Virgil, 
31  B.  C,  in  four  books. 

Ge-ralnt',  Sir.  One  of  the  knights  of  the  Round 
Table.  His  story  is  told  in  Tennyson's  ".Idylls  of  the 
King"  under  "Geraint  and  Enid." 

Ger'aldine.  A  name  frequently  found  in  romantic 
poetry.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  from 
the  heroine,  connected  with  Surrey,  whose  praises  he 
celebrates  in  a  famous  sonnet,  and  who  has  been  the 
occasion  of  much  controversy  among  his  biographers 
and  critics.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  lady  called 
Geraldine  was  an  Irish  lady  named  Elizabeth  Fitz- 
gerald, the  daughter  of  Gerald  Fitzgerald.  This  sonnet 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  name  into  the  class  of  romantic 
names. 

Gertrude  of  Wyoming.  Heroine  of  a  poem  by 
Thomas  Campbell. 

Giao'ur.  Byron's  tale  called  "The  Giaour"  is 
represented  as  told  by  a  fisherman,  a  Turk,  who  had 
committed  a  crime  which  haunted  him  all  his  life.  See 
Hassan. 

Ges'ta  Romano'rum.  Compiled  by  Pierre  Ber- 
cheur,  prior  of  the  Benedictine  Convent  of  St.  Eloi, 
Paris.  A  collection  of  old  romances  which  has  been  the 
storehouse  for  our  best  story  writers.  Shakespere, 
Spenser,  Gower,  and  many  later  writers  have  gone  to 
this  source.  It  took  its  present  form  in  England  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth  Century,  the  foundation 


360 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


coming  from  Roman"  writers  to  which  were  added 
morahzing  paragraphs  and  sometimes  other  religious 
and  mystical  tales. 

Glb'bie,  Goose.  A  half-witted  boy  in  Scott's  "  Old 
Mortality." 

Glb'bie,  Sir.  A  simple-hearted,  fine  character  in 
George  Macdonald's  novel  by  the  same  name. 

Giant  De.spair.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Biinyan. 
A  giant  who  is  the  owner  of  Doubting  Castle,  and  who, 
finding  Christian  and  Hopeful  asleep  upon  his  grounds, 
takes  them  prisoners,  and  thrusts  them  into  a  dungeon. 
Giant  Grim.  A  giant  who  seeks  to  stop  the  march  of 
the  pilgrims  to  the  Celestial  City,  but  is  slain  in  a  duel 
by  Mr.  Great-heart,  their  guide.  Giant  Slay-good. 
A  giant  slain  in  a  duel  by  Mr.  Great-heart. 

GU  Bias.  The  title  of  a  famous  romance  by  LeSage, 
and  the  name  of  its  hero.  The  tale  is  full  of  adventures 
and  Gil  Bias  is  represented  as  squire  to  a  lady  and 
brought  up  by  his  uncle,  canon  Gil  Peres.  Gil  Bias 
went  to.  Dr.  Godinez's  school  of  Oviedo  and  gained  the 
name  of  being  a  great  scholar.  He  had  fair  abilities 
and  good  inclmations,  but  was  easily  led  astray  by  his 
vanity,  full  of  wit  and  humor,  but  lax  in  his  morals. 
Duped  at  first,  he  afterwards  played  the  sarne  devices 
on  others.  As  he  grew  in  years,  his  conduct  improved, 
and  when  his  fortune  was  made  he  became  an  honest  man. 

Gll'pln,  John.  A  citizen  of  London,  and  "a  train- 
band captain,"  whose  adventures  are  related  in  Cow- 
per's  humorous  poem,  "John  Gilpin's  Ride."  After 
being  married  twenty  years  his  wife  proposed  a  holiday, 
they  agreed  to  make  a  family  party,  and  dine  at  the  Bell, 
at  Edmonton.  Mrs.  Gilpin,  her  si.ster,  and  four  children 
went  in  the  chaise,  and  Gilpin  promised  to  follow  on 
horseback.  The  horse  being  fresh,  began  to  trot,  and 
then  to  gallop,  and  John  a  bad  rider  grasped  the  mane 
with  both  his  hands.  On  went  the  horse,  off  flew  John 
Gilpin's  cloak,  together  with  his  hat  and  wig.  He  flew 
through  Edmonton,  and  never  stopped  till  he  reached 
Ware,  when  his  friend  the  calender,  furnished  him  with 
another  hat  and  wig,  and  Gilpin  galloped  back  again, 
till  the  horse  stopped  at  his  house  in  London. 

Glaucus.  A  fisherman  of  Boeo'tia  who  has  become 
the  fisherman's  patron  deity. 

Glaucus,  son  of  Hippolytus.  Being  smothered  in 
a  tub  of  honey,  he  was  restored  to  life  by  Escula'pios. 

Glo'rl-a'na.  In  '  Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen,  '  the 
"greatest  glorious  queen  of  Faery  land.' 

Gloss.  In  Biblical  criticism,  an  explanation  of  purely 
verbal  difficulties  of  the  text,  to  the  exclusion  of  those 
which  arise  from  doctrinal,  historical,  ritual,  or  cere- 
monial sources.  From  an  early  period,  these  verbal 
difficulties  were  the  object  of  attention,  and  the  writers 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  elucidation  were  called 
"glossatores,"  and  their  works  "glossaria." 

Glumdal'ca.  Tom  Thumb,  Fielding.  Queen  of 
the  giants,  captive  in  the  court  of  King  Arthur. 

Glum-dal'clltch.  Gulliver's  TraveLs,  Swift.  .  A 
girl  nine  years  old  "and  only  forty  feet  high."  Being 
Buch  a  "little  thing,"  the  charge  of  Gulliver  was  com- 
mitted to  her  during  his  sojourn  in  Brobdingnag. 

Glumms.  Peter  Wllklns,  Robert  Pullock.  The 
male  population  of  the  imaginary  country  Nosmnbds- 
grsutt,  visited  by  Peter  Wilkins.  Both  males  and 
females  had  wings  which  served  both  for  flying  and  for 
clothes. 

Gnome.  (1)  A  pithy  and  sententious  saying  com- 
monly in  verse,  embodying  some  moral  sentiment  or 
precept.  The  gnome  belongs  to  the  same  generic 
class  with  the  proverb:  but  it  differs  from  a  proverb 
in  wanting  the  common  and  popular  acceptance.  The 
use  of  gnomes  prevailed  among  all  the  early  nations, 
especially  the  Orientals,  and  the  literatures  of  most 
countries  abound  with  them.  In  the  Bible,  the  book  of 
Proverbs,  part  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  still  more  the  apocry- 
phal book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  present  numberless  illustra- 
tions of  the  highest  form  of  this  composition.  (2)  In 
ancient- times  the  name  gnome  represented  one  of  the 
classes  of  imaginary  beings  which  are  supposed  to  be 
the  presiding  spirits  in  the  mysterious  operations  of 
nature  in  the  mineral  and  vegetable  world. 

Gob'bo,  Launcelot.  A  clown  in  Shakespere's 
"Merchant  of  Venice."  He  left  the  service  of  Shylock 
the  Jew  for  that  of  Bassa'nio  a  Christian.  Launcelot 
Gobbo  is  one  of  the  famous  clowns  of  Shakespere. 

Gob'bo,  Old.  Father  to  Launcelot  Gobbo  in  "Mer- 
chant of  Venice."     He  was  stone  blind. 

Go'bllns  and  Bogles.  Familiar  demons  of  popular 
superstition,  a  spirit  which  lurks  about  houses.  It  is 
also  called  hobgoblin.  Goblin  is  used  in  a  serious  sense 
by  Shakespere  in  "Hamlet,"  where  the  ghost  is  supposed 
to  be  a  "spirit  of  health  or  goblin  damned." 

God  Save  the  King.  The  national  anthem  of 
Great  Britain,  and  by  adoption  that  of  Prussia  and  the 


German    states.     Its    words    are    apparently    imitated 
from  the  Domine  Salvum  of  the  Catholic  Church  service. 

Gold  Bug,  The.  Found  in  Poe's  m9st  successful 
tale,  by  same  name.  Scene  laid  on  Sullivan's  Island, 
near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  the  cipher  made  to  concern 
Captain  Kidd's  buried  treasure. 

Golden  Legend,  The.  The  title  of  an  ecclesiastical 
work  in  177  sections,  dating  from  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury, written  by  one  James  de  Voragine,  a  Dominican 
monk,  and  descriptive  of  the  various  saints'  days  in 
the  Roman  Calendar.  It  is  deserving  of  study  as  a 
literary  monument  of  the  period,  and  as  illustrating  the 
religious  habits  and  views  of  the  Christians  of  that  time. 

Gold  of  Nlbelungen,  The.  Unlucky  wealth.  "To 
have  the  gold  of  Nibelungen "  is  to  have  a  possession 
which  seems  to  bring  a  curse  with  it.     Icelandic  Edda. 

Gon'erll.  The  oldest  of  the  three  daughters  to  King 
Lear,  in  Shakespere's  tragedy.  Having  received  her 
moiety  of  Lear's  kingdom,  the  unnatural  daughter  first 
abridged  the  old  man's  retinue,  then  gave  him  to  under- 
stand that  his  company  was  not  wanted  and  sent  him 
out  a  despairing  old  man  to  seek  refuge  where  he  could 
find  it.     Her  name  is  proverbial  for  filial  ingratitude. 

Gon-za'lo.  An  honest  old  counselor  in  Shakespere's 
"Tempest,"  a  true  friend  to  Prospero. 

Goody  Blake.  A  character  in  Wordsworth's  poem 
entitled  "Goody  Blake  and  Harry  Gill."  A  farmer 
forbids  old  Goody  Blake  to  carry  home  a  few  sticks, 
which  she  had  picked  up  from  his  land,  and  in  revenge 
she  invokes  upon  him  the  curse  that  he  may  "never 
more  be  warm  ' :  and  ever  after  "  his  teeth  they  chatter, 
chatter  still." 

Goody  Two-Shoes.  The  name  of  a  well-known 
character  in  a  nursery  tale  by  Oliver  Goldsmith.  Goody 
Two-Shoes  was  a  very  poor  child,  whose  delight  at 
having  a  pair  of  shoes  was  unbounded.  She  called  con- 
stant attention  to  her  "two  shoes"  which  gave  her  the 
name. 

Gordlan  Knot.  A  great  difficulty.  Gordius,  a 
peasant,  chosen  King  of  Phrygia,  dedicated  his  wagon 
to  Jupiter,  and  fastened  the  yoke  with  a  rope  so  ingeni- 
ously that  no  one  could  untie  it.  Alexander  was  told 
that  "whoever  undid  the  knot  would  become  king"  and 
he  cut  the  knot  with  his  sword. 

Gra'cl-o'sa.  A  princess  in  an  old  and  popular  fairy 
tale — the  object  of  the  ill-will  of  a  step-mother  named 
Grognon,  whose  malicious  designs  are  perpetually 
thwarted  by  Percinet,  a  fairy  prince,  who  is  in  love  with 
Graciosa. 

Graal,  Gral,  or  Greal  (a  word  derived  probably 
from  the  old  French,  perhaps  Celtic,  "gr^al").  In  the 
legends  and  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,  we  find  accounts 
of  the  Holy  Graal  —  San  Gr^al  —  a  miraculous  chalice, 
made  of  a  single  precious  stone,  sometimes  said  to  be 
an  emerald,  which  possessed  the  power  of  preser\'ing 
chastity,  prolonging  life,  and  other  wonderful  properties. 
It  is  fabled  to  have  been  preserved  and  carried  to  Eng- 
land by  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  It  remained  there 
many  years,  an  object  of  pilgrimage  and  devotion,  but 
at  length  it  disappeared,  one  of  its  keepers  having 
violated  the  condition  of  strict  virtue  in  thought,  word, 
and  deed,  which  was  imposed  upon  those  who  had  charge 
of  it.  The  quest  of  this  cup  forms  the  most  fertile 
source  of  adventures  to  the  knights  of  the  Round  Table. 
The  story  of  the  Sangreal  or  Sangraal  was  first  written 
in  verse  by  Troyes  (end  of  the  "Tenth  Century),  thence 
into  Latin,  and  finally  turned  into  French  prose  by 
order  of  Henry  III.  It  commences  with  the  genealogy 
of  our  Saviour,  and  details  the  whole  Gospel  history: 
but  the  prose  romance  begins  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
Its  quest  is  continued  in  Percival,  a  romance  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century.  The  legend  of  the  graal  was  intro- 
duced into  German  poetry  in  the  Thirteenth  Century 
by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  who  took  Guiot's  tales 
of  Parcival  and  Titurel  as  the  foundation  of  his  poem, 
but  filled  it  with  deep  allegorical  meanings.  _ 

Grad'grlnd.  A  hardware  merchant  in  Dickens's 
"Hard  Times."  He  is  a  man  of  hard  facts  and  culti^ 
vates  the  practical.  His  constant  demand  in  conversa- 
tion is  for  "  facts."  He  allows  nothing  for  the  weak- 
ness of  human  nature,  and  deals  with  men  and  women 
as  a  mathematician  with  his  figures. 

Grad'grlnd,  Mrs.  Wife  of  Thomas  Gradgrind. 
A  little  thin  woman,  always  taking  physic,  without 
receiving  from  it  any  benefit. 

Grad  grind,  Tom.  S9n  of  the  above,  a  sullen  young 
man,  much  loved  by  his  sister. 

Grad'grlnd,  Louise.  A  faithful  daughter  and  sister. 
Gran'dl-son,  Sir  Charles.  The  hero  of  Richard- 
son's novel  "The  History  of  Sir  Charles  Grandison." 
Designed  to  represent  his  ideal  of  a  perfect  hero  — ;-  a 
union  of  the  good  Christian  and  the  perfect  English 
gentleman. 


LITERATURE 


361 


Gratia'no'.  A  friend  to  Antonio  and  Bassino  in 
Shakespere's  "Merchant  of  Venice."  He  "talks  an 
infinite  deal  of  nothing,  more  than  any  man  in  Venice." 
(2)  Brother  to  Brabantio,  in  Shakespere's  tragedy  of 
"Othello."  (3)  A  character  in  the  Italian  popular 
theater  called  "Commedia  dell' Arte."  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  Bolognese  doctor,  and  has  a  mask  with  a 
black  nose  and  forehead  and  red  cheeks. 

Gray,  Auld  Rob'in.  The  title  of  a  popular  Scotch 
ballad  written  by  Lady  Anne  Lindsay,  and  name  of  its 
hero.  Auld  Robin  Gray  was  a  good  old  man  married 
to  a  poor  young  girl  whose  lover  was  thought  to  have 
been  lost  at  sea,  but  who  returns  to  claim  her  hand  a 
month  after  her  marriage. 

Great'-heart,  3Ir.  In  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Prog- 
re.ss,"  the  guide  of  Christian's  wife  and  children  upon 
their  journey  to  the  Celestial  City. 

Gre'mlo.  In  Shakespere's  "Taming  of  the  Shrew," 
an  old  man  who  wishes  to  wed  Bianca. 

Gren'del.  Beowulf.  An  Anglo-Saxon  epic.  The 
half-brute,  half-man  monster  from  which  Beowulf  de- 
livered Hrothgar,  King  of  Denmark.  Night  after  night 
Grendel  crept  stealthily  into  the  palace  called  Heorot, 
and  slew  sometimes  as  many  as  thirty  of  the  inmates. 
At  length  Beowulf,  at  the  head  of  a  mixed  band  of  war- 
riors, went  against  it  and  slew  it. 

Grl'ffln.  A  chimerical  creature,  which  the  fancy  of 
the  modern  has  adopted  from  that  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  Griffin  is  variously  described  and  represented,  but 
the  shape  in  which  it  most  frequently  appears  is  that  of 
an  animal  having  the  body  and  legs  of  the  lion  with  the 
beak  and  wings  of  the  eagle.  Like  all  other  monsters, 
griffins  abound  in  the  legendary  tales  of  the  Teutonic 
nations.     (Same  as  Gryphon.) 

Griffln-feet.  Fairy  Tales,  Comtesse  D'Auijoy. 
The  mark  by  which  the  Desert  Fairy  was  known  in  all 
her  metamorphoses. 

Grimalkin.  A  cat,  the  spirit  of  a  witch.  Any  witch 
was  permitted  to  assume  the  body  of  a  cat  nine  times. 

Grlmwig.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  An  irascible 
old  gentleman,  who  hid  a  very  kind  heart  under  a  rough 
exterior.  He  was  always  declaring  himself  ready  to 
"  eat  his  head  "  if  he  was  mistaken  on  any  point  on  which 
he  passed  an  opinion. 

Gri-sel'da,  The  Patient.  A  lady  in  Chaucer's 
"Clerk  of  Oxenford's  Tales"  immortalized  by  her  virtue 
and  her  patience.  The  model  of  womanly  and  wifely 
obedience,  she  comes  victoriously  out  of  cruel  and  re- 
peated ordeals.  The  story  of  Griselda  is  first  told  in  the 
Decameron.  Boccaccio  derived  the  incidents  from 
Petrarch,  who  seems  to  have  communicated  them  also 
to  Chaucer,  as  the  latter  refers  to  Petrarch  as  his  author- 
ity. 

Grub  Street,  London,  is  thus  described  in  Dr.  John- 
son's Dictionary;  "Originally  the  name  of  a  street  near 
Moorfields,  in  London,  much  inhabited  by  writers  of 
small  histories,  dictionaries,  and  temporary  poems, 
whence  any  production  is  called  Grub  Street.'  The 
name  in  its  appropriate  sense,  was  freely  used  by  Pope, 
Swift,  and  others. 

Grundy.  "What  will  Mrs.  Grundy  say?"  What 
will  our  rivals  or  neighbors  say?  The  phrase  is  from 
Tom  Morton's  "Speed  the  Plough,"  but  "Mrs.  Grundy" 
is  not  introduced  into  the  comedy  as  one  of  the  "dra- 
matis personae."  The  solicitude  of  Dame  Ashfield,  in 
this  play,  as  to  "what  will  Mrs.  Grundy  say,"  has  given 
the  latter  great  celebrity,  the  interrogatory  having  ac- 
quired a  proverbial  currency. 

Gu'drun.  Edda,  Samund  Sigfusson.  A  lady 
married  to  Sigurd  by  the  magical  arts  of  her  mother: 
and  on  the  death  of  Sigurd  to  Atli  (Attila),  whom  she 
hated  for  his  cruelty,  and  murdered.  She  then  cast  her- 
self into  the  sea,  and  the  waves  bore  her  to  the  castle  of 
King  Jonakun,  who  became  her  third  husband. 

Gu'drun.  North-Saxon  _poem.  A  model  of  heroic 
fortitude  and  pious  resignation.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  King  Hettel  (Attila),  and  the  betrothed  of  Herwig, 
King  of  Heligoland. 

Guen'dolen.  A  fairy  whose  mother  was  a  human 
being. 

Gull' den -stern.  The  name  of  a  courtier  in  Shakes- 
pere's  tragedy,  Hamlet.' 

Gul'li-ver,  Lemuel.  The  imaginary  hero  of  Swift's 
celebrated  satirical  romance  known  as  "Gulliver's 
Travels."  He  is  represented  as  being  first  a  surgeon  in 
London,  and  then  a  captain  of  several  ships.  After  hav- 
ing foliowed  the  sea  for  some  years  he  makes  in  succes- 
sion four  extraordinary  voyages. 

Gup'py,  Mr.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  weak, 
commonplace  youth,  who  has  the  conceit  to  propose  to 
Esther  Summerson,  the  ward  in  Chancery. 

Gurth.  Ivanhoe,  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  swine- 
herd of  Rotherwood. 


Gur'ton,  Gammer.  The  heroine  of  an  old  English 
comedy,  long  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  in  the  language, 
but  now  ranked  as  the  second  in  point  of  time. 

Guy'on.  The  impersonation  of  Temperance  or  Self- 
government  in  Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen.'  He  destroyed 
the  witch  Acra'sia,  and  her  bower,  called  the  "Bower 
of  Bliss."  His  companion  was  Prudence.  "Sir  Guyon 
represents  the  quality  of  Temperance  in  the  largest  sense: 
meaning  the  virtuous  self-government  which  holds  in 
cheek  not  only  the  inferior  sensual  appetites  but  also 
the  impulses  of  passion  and  revenge." 

Guy,  Sir,  Earl  of  Warwick.  The  hero  of  a  famous 
English  legend,  which  celebrates  the  wonderful  achieve- 
ments by  which  he  obtained  the  hand  of  his  lady-love, 
the  Fair  Felice,  as  well  as  the  adventures  he  subsequently 
met  with  in  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  is  re- 
puted to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  Saxon  King  Athel- 
stan.  The  romance  of  Sir  Guy,  mentioned  by  Chaucer 
in  the  "Canterbury  Tales,"  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  earlier  part  of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 
His  existence  at  any  period  is  very  doubtful. 

Guy  Mannering.  The  second  of  Scott's  historical 
novels.  It  contains  the  excellent  characters.  Dandy 
Dinmont,  the  shrewd  and  witty  counselor  Pleydell,  the 
desperate  seabeaten  villainy  of  Hatteraick,  the  uncouth 
devotion  of  that  gentlest  oi  all  pedants  poor  Domine 
Sampson,  and  the  savage  crazed  superstition  of  the 
gypsy-dweller  in  Derncleugh. 

Ha'dad.  One  of  the  six  Wise  Men  led  by  the  guid- 
ing star  to  Jesus. 

Ha'gen.  The  murderer  of  Siegfried,  in  the  German 
epic,  the  "Nibelungenlied."  He  is  a  pale-faced  dwarf, 
who  knows  everything  and  whose  sole  desire  is  mis- 
chief. After  the  death  of  Siegfried  he  seized  the  "  Nibe- 
lung  hoard,"  and  buried  it  in  the  Rhine,  intending  to 
appropriate  it.  Kriemhild  invited  him  to  the  court 
and  had  him  slain. 

Hal-dee'.  A  beautiful  young  Greek  girl  in  Byron's 
poem,  "Den  Juan."  She  is  called  the  "beauty  of  the 
Cyclades." 

Ha'kim.  The  Talisman,  Scott.  Saladin,  in  the 
disguise  of  a  physician,  visited  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
in  sickness:  gave  him  a  medicine  in  which  the  "talis- 
man" had  been  dipped,  and  the  sick  king  recovered. 

Ham'let.  In  Shakespere's  tragedy  of  the  same 
name,  son  to  the  former,  and  nephew  to  the  reigning 
King  of  Denmark.  The  ghost  of  his  father  appears  to 
him,  and  urges  him  to  avenge  his  murder  upon  his  uncle. 
But  the  prince  feigns  madness,  and  puts  off  his  revenge 
from  day  to  day  by  "thinking  too  precisely  on  the 
event."  Hamlet's  mother  had  married  Claudius,  King 
of  Denmark,  after  the  death  of  her  former  husband. 
Claudius  prepared  poisoned  wine,  which  he  intended 
for  Hamlet:  but  the  queen,  not  knowing  it  was  pois- 
oned, drank  it  and  died.  Hamlet,  seeing  his  mother 
fall  dead,  rushed  on  the  king  and  killed  him  almost  by 
accident,  and  is  killed  himself  by  a  poisoned  rapier  in 
the  hands  of  Laertes.      (See  "Ophelia.") 

Hans  von  Rip'pach.  A  fictitious  personage,  to  ask 
for  whom  was  a  joke  among  German  students. 

Hans'wurst.  A  pantomimic  character  formerly  in- 
troduced into  German  comedies.  It  corresponds  to  the 
Italian  "Macaroni,"  the  French  "Jean  Potage,"  and  the 
English  "Jack  Pudding." 

Hard'cas'tle,  Mr.  A  character  in  Goldsmith's 
comedy  of  "She  Stoops  to  Conquer,"  represented  as 
prosy  and  hospitable. 

Hardcastle,  Mrs.  A  very  "genteel"  lady  indeed. 
Tony  Lumpkin  is  her  son  by  a  former  husband. 

Hard  "Times.  A  novel  by  Dickens,  dramatized 
under  the  title  of  "Under  the  Earth"  or  "The  Sons  of 
Toil."  Bounderby,  a  street  Arab,  raised  himself  to 
banker  and  cotton  prince.  When  past  fifty  years  of 
age,  he  married  Louisa,  daughter  of  Thomas  Grad- 
grind.  The  bank  was  robbed,  and  Bounderby  believed 
Stephen  Blackpool  to  be  the  thief,  because  he  had  dis- 
missed him  from  his  employ.  The  culprit  was  Tom 
Gradgrind,  the  banker's  brother-in-law,  who  escaped 
out  of  the  country.  In  the  dramatized  version,  the 
bank  was  not  robbed,  but  Tom  removed  the  money  to 
another  drawer  for  safety. 

Har'le-quln.  The  name  of  a  well-known  character 
in  the  popular  extemporized  Italian  comedy. 

Har'lowe,  Cla-ris'sa.  The  heroine  of  Richardson's 
novel  entitled  "The  History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe."  In 
order  to  avoid  a  marriage  urged  upon  her  by  her  parents, 
she  casts  herself  on  the  protection  of  Lovelace,  who 
grossly  abuses  the  confidence  thus  reposed  in  him.  He 
subsequently  proposes  to  marry  her,  but  Clarissa  rejects 
the  offer. 

Har'old,  Childe.  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage, 
Byron.  A  man  of  gentle  birth  and  peerless  intellect, 
who   exhausted   all   the  pleasures   of   youth   and   early 


362 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


manhood,  and  loathed  his  fellow-bacchanals  and  the 
"laughing  dames  in  whom  he  did  delight."  To  banish 
his  disgust  and  melancholy,  he  determines  to  travel : 
but,  though  he  traverses  some  of  the  fairest  portions 
of  the  earth,  the  feelings  of  bitterness  and  desolation 
still  prey  upon  him. 

Haroun'-al-Raschld.  Caliph  of  the  Abbasside 
race,  contemporary  with  Charlemagne,  and,  like  him, 
a  patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Many  of  the  tales 
in  the  "Arabian  Nights"  are  placed  in  the  caliphate  of 
Haroun-al-Raschid . 

Har-pa'gon'.  The  hero  of  Moliere's  comedy  of 
"L'Avare."  represented  as  a  wretched  miser. 

Har'pl-er  or  Har'per.  Some  mysterious  person- 
age referred  to  by  the  witches  in  Shakespere's  tragedy, 
"Macbeth." 

Hass'an.  The  Giaour,  Byron.  Caliph  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  noted  for  his  hospitality  and  splendor. 
In  his  seraglio  was  a  beautiful  young  slave  named  Leila, 
who  loved  a  Christian  called  the  Giao'ur.  Leila  is  put 
to  death  by  an  emir,  and  Hassan  is  slain  by  the  Giaour. 
Caliph  Hassan  has  become  the  subject  of  popular 
romance. 

Hassan,  Al.  The  Arabian  emir'  of  Persia,  father  of 
Hinda,  in  Moore's  "Fire-worshippers." 

Hat'to.  In  German  legend,  an  Archbishop  of  Mentz 
in  the  Tenth  Century,  who,  for  his  hard-heartedness  to 
the  poor  in  time  of  famine,  was  eaten  by  mice  in  the 
"MouseJTower"  on  an  island  in  the  Rhine  near  Bingen. 
Robert  Zrowning  has  made  this  legend  the  subject  of  a 
poem. 

Have'lock  the  Dane.  A  fisherman,  known  as  Grim, 
rescued  an  infant  named  Havelock,  whom  he  adopted. 
This  infant  was  the  son  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  and 
when  the  boy  was  restored  to  his  royal  sire  Grim  was 
laden  with  gifts.  He  built  the  town  which  he  called 
after  his  own  name.  This  is  the  foundation  of  the 
mediaeval  tales  about  "Havelock  the  Dane." 

Hazlewood,  Sir  Robert.  The  old  baronet  of 
Hazlewood. 

Hazlewood,  Charles.  Guy  Mannerlng,  Scott. 
Son  of  Sir  Robert.  In  love  with  Lucy  Bertram,  whom 
he  marries. 

Heart  of  Mid-lo'thi-an.  The  tolbooth,  or  old  jail  of 
of  Edinburgh,  Midlothian  being  the  old  name  of  Edinburgh 
County.   It  is  the  title  of  one  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novels. 

Heep.  Uri'ah.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens.  A 
detestable  character  who,  under  the  garb  of  the  most 
abject  humility,  conceals  a  diabolic  malignity.  Mrs. 
Heep,  Uriah's  mother,  was  a  character  equally  to  be 
despised  for  her  hypocritical  assumption  of  humility. 

Hel's  or  Hela's  Kingdom.  Frequent  allusions  in 
Norse  poetry  to  the  kingdom  of  the  lower  world.  Many 
of  its  desicriptions  are  said  to  be  a  source  from  which  our 
Puritan  ancestors  derived  images  of  the  region  of  the 
unhappy  dead. 

Hei'e-na.  (1)  A  lady  in  Shakespere's  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,"  in  love  with  Demetrius.  (2)  The  hero- 
ine of  Shakespere's  "All's  Well  that  Ends  Well,"  in  love 
with  Bertram,  who  marries  her  against  his  will  and 
leaves  her,  but  is  finally  won  by  the  strength  of  her 
affection.  (3)  A  character  in  an  old  popular  tale,  repro- 
duced in  Germany  by  Tieck. 

Her'mann  and  Dor'o-the'a.  The  hero  and  heroine 
of  Goethe's  poem  of  the  same  name. 

Her'megild.  Canterbury  Tales,  Cliaucer.  The 
wife  of  the  lord-constable  of  Northumberland.  She  was 
converted  by  Constance,  but  was  murdered  by  a  knight. 
Hermegild  at  the  bidding  of  Constance  restored  sight 
to  a  blind  Briton. 

Her'mi-a.  A  lady  in  Shakespere's  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,"  in  love  with  Lysander. 

Her-mi'o-ne.  The  heroine  of  the  first  three  acts  of 
Shakespere's  "Winter's  Tale." 

Her-na'ni  or  Er-na'ni.  The  hero  of  Victor  Hugo's 
tragedy  of  the  same  name,  and  of  Verdi's  opera,  founded 
on  the  play.  He  was  a  Spanish  noble  in  revolt  against 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  killed  himself  from  a  high 
sense  of  honor. 

He'ro  and  Le-an'der.  A  pair  of  lovers  in  a  late 
Greek  poem.  Hero  dwelt  on  the  Hellespont  and  Lean- 
der,  who  lived  opposite,  swam  the  strait  to  visit  her.  He 
was  drowned,  and  Hero,  in  grief,  cast  herself  into  the  sea. 

Hex'am,  Lizzie.  The  heroine  of  Dickens's  novel, 
"Our  Mutual  Friend." 

Hiawa'tlia.  A  mythical  person  beUeved  by  the 
North  American  Indians  to  have  been  sent  among  them 
to  clear  their  rivers,  forests,  and  fishing-grounds,  and  to 
teach  them  the  arts  of  peace.  When  the  white  man 
came  then  Hiawatha  knew  that  the  time  of  his  depar- 
ture was  at  hand,  when  he  must  go  "  to  the  kingdom  of 
Ponemah,  the  land  of  the  Hereafter."  Longfellow 
gathered  these  myths  from  the  Algonquin  legends 


Hll'de-brand.  "The  nestor  of  German  romance,  a 
magician  and  champion. 

Hil'da.  A  New  England  girl  of  the  most  sensitive 
delicacy  and  purity  of  mind,  in  Hawthorne's  romance, 
"The  Marble  Faun."  She  is  an  artist,  living  in  Rome, 
and  typifies  perhaps  the  conscience. 

Hil'desheim.  In  an  old  German  legend,  the  monk 
of  Hildesheim,  doubting  how  a  thousand  years  with 
God  could  be  "only  one  day,"  listened  to  the  melody 
of  a  bird,  as  he  supposed,  for  only  three  minutes,  but 
found  that  he  had  been  listening  to  it  for  a  hundred 
years. 

Hob'bi-dld'ance-  The  name  of  one  of  the  fiends 
mentioned  by  Shakespere  in  "Lear,"  and  taken  from 
the  history  of  the  Jesuits'  impostures. 

Hod'e-kin.  A  famous  German  kobold,  or  domestic 
fairy-servant:  so  called  because  he  always  wore  a  little 
felt  hat  pulled  down  over  his  face. 

Hol'o-fer'nes.  (1)  A  pedant  living  in  Paris,  under 
whose  care  Gargantua  is  placed  for  instruction.  (2)  A 
pedantic  schoolmaster  in  Shakespere's  "  Love's  Labor's 
Lost." 

Holt,  Felix.  The  hero  of  George  Eliot's  novel  by 
the  same  name. 

Hom'ilies.  The  later  entries  in  the  Peterborough 
"Chronicle"  and  a  few  homilies  are  almost  all  that  we 
have  left  of  the  literature  of  the  Twelfth  Century.  Some 
of  these  homilies  are  copied  or  imitated  from,  those  of 
^Ifric. 

Hon'ey-comb',  Will.  One  of  the  members  of  the 
imaginary  club  by  whom  the  "Spectator"  was  pro- 
fessedly edited.  He  is  distinguished  for  his  graceful 
affectation,  courtly  pretension,  and  knowledge  of  the 
gay  world. 

Honeynian,  Charles.  A  fashionable  preacher  in 
Thackeray's  novel,  "The  Newcomes." 

Hope'ful.  A  pilgrim  in  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress," who  accompanies  Christian  to  the  end  of  his 
journey. 

Hop'-o'-my-Thumb'.  A  character  in  the  tales  of 
the  nursery.  Tom  "Thumb  and  Hop-o'-my-Thumb  are 
not  the  same,  although  they  are  often  confounded. 
Tom  Thumb  was  the  son  of  peasants,  knighted  by  King 
Arthur,  and  was  killed  by  a  spider.  Hop-o'-my-'Thumb 
was  a  nix,  the  same  as  the  German  "daumhng,"  the 
French  "  le  petit  pouce,"  and  the  Scotch  "Tom-a-lin" 
or  "Tamlane."     He  was  not  a  human  dwarf,  but  a  fay. 

Hora'tio.  Hamlet,  Shakespere.  An  intimate 
friend  of  Hamlet,  a  prince,  a  scholar,  and  a  gentleman. 

Hora'tius,  Codes.  Captain  of  the  bridge-gate  over 
the  Tiber.  He  and  two  men  to  help  hirn  held  the  bridge 
against  vast  approaching  armies.  Subject  and  title  of 
a  poem  by  Lord  Macaulay. 

Hornbook.  The  primer  or  apparatus  for  learning 
the  elements  of  reading,  used  in  England  before  the 
days  of  printing,  and  common  down  to  the  time  of 
George  II.  It  consisted  of  a  single  leaf,  containing  on 
one  side  the  alphabet,  large  and  small,  in  black  letter 
or  in  Roman,  with  perhaps  a  small  regiment  of  mono- 
syllables. Then  followed  a  form  of  exorcism  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and,  as  a  finale,  the  Roman  numerals. 
The  leaf  was  usuallj;  set  in  a  frame  of  wood,  witha  slice 
of  transparent  horn  in  front  —  hence  the  name  of  "horn- 
book."    Copies  of  the  hornbook  are  now  exceedingly  rare. 

Hor'ner,  Jack.  The  name  of  a  celebrated  person- 
age in  the  literature  of  the  nursery.  A  Somersetshire 
tradition  says  that  the  plums  which  Jack  Horner  pulled 
out  of  the  Christmas  pie  alluded  to  the  title  deeds  of  the 
abbey  estates  at  Wells,  which  were  sent  to  Henry  VIII. 
in  a  pasty,  and  abstracted  on  the  way  by  the  messenger, 
a  certain  Jack  Horner. 

Hortense'.  Bieak  House,  Dickens.  The  vindic- 
tive French  maid-servant  of  Lady  Dedlock.  In  revenge 
for  the  partiahty  shown  by  Lady  Dedlock  to  Rosa,  Hor- 
tense murdered  Mr.  Tulkinghorn,  and  tried  to  throw 
the  suspicion  of  the  crime  on  Lady  Dedlock. 

House  of  Fame.  Of  this  poem  it  has  been  said 
that  of  itself  it  might  have  given  fame  to  Chaucer. 
Under  the  form  of  a  dream,  it  gives  a  picture  of  the 
"Temple  of  Glory,"  crowded  with  aspirants  for  immortal 
renown,  and  adorned  with  statues  of  great  poets  and 
historians. 

Hous'sain.  A  prince  in  the  "Arabian  Nights  who 
had  a  flying  carpet  which  would  carry  him  whitherso- 
ever he  wished. 

Hubbard,  Old  Mother.  A  well-known  nursery 
rhyme.  "Mother  Hubbard's  Tale,"  by  Edmund  Spen- 
ser, is  a  satirical  fable  in  the  style  of  Chaucer. 

Hu'bert  de  Burgh.  Justice  of  England,  created 
Earl  of  Kent,  introduced  by  Shakespere  into  "King 
John."  He  is  the  one  to  whom  the  young  prince  ad- 
dresses his  piteous  plea  for  life.  The  lad  was  found  dead 
soon  afterwards,  either  by  accident  or  foul  play. 


LITERATURE 


363 


Hu'bert,  Saint.  The  legend  of  Saint  Hubert  makes 
him  a  patron  saint  of  huntsmen. 

Hu'di-bras.  The  title  and  hero  of  a  celebrated 
satirical  poem  by  Samuel  Butler.  Hudibras  is  a  Pres- 
byterian justice  of  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth. 

Hugh  of  Lincoln.  A  legendary  personage  who 
forms  the  subject  of  Chaucer's  "Prioress's  Tale,"  and  also 
of  an  ancient  English  ballad.  Wordsworth  has  given 
a  modernized  version  of  this  tale. 

Hugo  Hug'onet.  Castle  Dangerous,  Scott.  Min- 
strel of  the  Earl  of  Douglas. 

Huni'phrey.  The  imaginary  collector  of  the  tales 
in  "Master  Humphrey's  Clock,"  by  Charles  Dickens. 

Hump'ty  Dump'ty.  The  hero  of  a  well-known 
nursery  rhyme.  Ihe  name  signifies  humped  and 
dumpy,  and  is  the  riddle  for  an  egg. 

Hu'on  of  Bordeaux,  Sir.  A  hero  of  one  of  the 
romances  of  chivalry  bearing  this  name. 

Hur'al  Oyun'.  In  the  fairy  tales  found  in  the 
Koran,  these  are  the  black-eyed  daughters  of  paradise. 
They  are  created  from  muck  and  are  free  from  all  phys- 
ical weakness  and  are  always  young.  It  is  held  out  to 
every  male  believer  that  he  will  ha-ve  seventy-two  of 
these  girls  as  his  household  companions  in  paradise. — 
From  the  Koran. 

Hy'las.  A  beautiful  boy,  beloved  by  Hercules,  who 
was  drawn  into  a  spring  by  the  enamored  nymphs. 
The  story  has  been  treated  by  Bayard  Taylor,  and  by 
William  Morris  in  his  "Life  and  Death  of  Jason." 

Hypatia.  Of  this  romance  its  author,  Charles  Kings- 
ley,  said;  "My  idea  in  the  romance  is  to  set  forth  Chris- 
tianity as  the  only  really  democratic  creed  and  philos- 
ophy: above  all,  spiritualism  as  the  most  exclusively 
aristocratic  creed." 

Hypapanti.  The  Feast  of  Purification  is  called 
Festum  Hypapanti. 

Hyperion  or  Hyperion.  This  myth  has  formed  a 
favorite  theme  for  English  poets.  In  Keats'  "Hyperion" 
nature  and  classic  imagery  are  combined  with  exquisite 
delicacy. 

Hypocrites'  Isle.  An  island  described  by  Rabelais 
in  one  of  his  satires.  He  pictures  this  island  of  "Hypo- 
crites" as  wholly  inhabited  by  people  of  low  and  defiled 
natures,  as,  by  sham  saints,  spiritual  comedians,  seducers, 
and  "such-like  sorry  rogues  who  live  on  the  alms  of 
passengers  like  the  hermit  of  Lamont." 

la'go.  Othello,  Shakespere.  Othello's  ensign  and 
the  villain  of  the  play.  lago  is  said  to  be  a  character 
next  to  a  devil,  yet  not  quite  a  devil,  which  Shakespere 
alone  could  execute  without  scandal. 

Idleness,  The  Lake  of.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser. 
Whoever  drank  thereof  grew  instantly  "faint  and 
weary."  The  Red  Cross  Knight  drank  of  it,  and  was 
readily  made  captive  by  Orgoglio. 

Idylls  of  the  King.  Tennyson  has  told  the  purpose 
and  the  meaning  of  these  Idylls.  Taken  together  they 
form  a  parable  of  the  life  of  rrian.  Each  Idyll  taken  as 
a  separate  picture  represents  the  war  between  Sense  and 
Soul.  In  Lancelot  and  Guinevere  the  lower  nature  leads 
them  astray  and  there  is  intense  struggle  before  the  higher 
nature  prevails.  In  Vivien,  Ettarre,  Tristam,  and  Mo- 
dred  the  base  and  sensual  triumph.  In  Arthur,  Sir 
Galahad  and  Percival,  it  is  the  victory  of  the  spiritual. 

Igna'ro.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  Foster-father  of  Or- 
goglio. Spenser  says  this  old  man  walks  one  way  and  looks 
another,  because  ignorance  is  always  "wrong-headed." 

U'iad.  The  tale  of  the  siege  of  Troy,  an  epic  poem  in 
twenty-four  books.  It  is  written  in  Greek  hexameters, 
and  commemorates  the  deeds  of  Achilles  and  other  Greek 
heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  The  date  of  its  composition 
may,  with  much  probability,  be  assigned  to  the  Ninth 
Century  B.  C,  and  the  poem  is  so  deficient  in  continuity, 
and  contains  so  much  that  is  inconsistent  and  irrelevant 
with  the  main  topic,  that  it  has  been  thought  by  many 
critics  to  have  been  the  performance  of  several  persons, 
although  its  authorship  is  still  nominally  accredited  to 
Homer.  Books  one,  two,  and  three  are  introductory 
to  the  war.  Paris  proposes  to  decide  the  contest  by 
single  combat,  and  Menelaus  accepts  the  challenge. 
Paris,  being  overthrown,  is  carried  off  by  Venus,  and 
Agamemnon  demands  that  the  Trojans  should  give  up 
Troy  in  fulfillment  of  the  compact,  and  the  siege  follows. 
The  gods  take  part  and  frightful  slaughter  ensues.  At 
length  Achilles  slays  Hector  and  the  battle  is  at  an  end. 
Old  Priam,  going  to  the  tent  of  Achilles,  craves  the  body 
of  his  son  Hector;  Achilles  gives  it  up,  and  the  poem 
concludes  with  the  funeral  rites  of  the  Trojan  hero. 
Virgil  continues  the  tale  from  this  point,  shows  how 
the  city  was  taken  and  burnt,  and  then  continues  with 
the  adventures  of  JEne'as,  who  escapes  from  the  burning 
city,  and  makes  his  way  to  Italy. 

Illuminating.  The  art  of  adorning  manuscripts 
and  books  with  ornamented  letters  and  paintings,  which 


was  practiced  in  the  Middle  Ages,  prior  to  the  intro- 
duction of  printing,  by  artists,  generally  monks,  called 
"illuminators."  Manuscripts,  containing  portraits,  pic- 
tures, and  emblematic  figures,  form  a  valuable  part  of 
the  riches  preserved  in  the  principal  libraries  in  Europe. 

Im'o-gen.  The  wife  of  Posthumus,  and  the  daughter 
of  Cymbeline  in  the  play  of  Shakespere's  under  title 
Cymbeline.  "Of  all  Shakespere's  women,"  says  Hazlitt, 
"she  is,  perhaps,  the  most  tender  and  the  most  artless." 

Improvvisato'ri.  Poets  who  utter  verses  without 
previous  preparation  on  a  given  theme.  Among  the 
ancients,  Greece  was  the  land  of  improvisation.  In 
modern  times,  it  has  been  almost  entirely  confined  to 
Italy,  where  Petrarch  introduced  the  practice  of  singing 
improvised  verses  to  the  lute. 

Incanta'tion.  Is  derived  from  a  Latin  root  mean- 
ing simply  "to  sing."  It  is  the  term  in  use  to  denote 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  awe-inspiring  modes  of 
magic,  resting  on  a  belief  in  the  mysterious  power  of 
words  solemnly  conceived  and  passionately  uttered. 

Inchcape  Rock.  It  is  dangerous  for  navigators,  and 
therefore  tne  abbot  of  Aberbrothok  fixed  a  bell  on  a  float, 
which  gave  notice  to  sailors.  Southey  says  that  Ralph 
the  Rover,  in  a  mischievous  joke,  cut  the  bell  from  the 
buoy,  and  it  fell  into  the  sea,  but  on  his  return  voyage 
his  boat  ran  on  the  rock,  and  Ralph  was  drowned.  Pre- 
cisely the  same  tale  is  told  of  St.  Goven's  bell. 

Infer'no,  The.  Divine  Comedy,  Dante.  Epic 
poem  in  thirty-four  cantos.  Inferno  is  the  place  of  the 
souls  who  are  wholly  given  up  to  sin.  The  ascent  is 
through  Purgatorio  to  Paradiso. 

Innocents  Abroad.  Twain.  Travelers  seeing 
Europe  without  any  illusions.  The  fun  consists  in  an 
irreverent  application  of  modern  commonsense  to  his- 
toric associations,  ridiculing  sentimental  humbug.  An 
air  of  innocence  and  surprise  adds  to  the  drolleries  of 
their  adventures. 

Interludes,  The.  Springing  from  the  Moralities 
and  bearing  some  resemblance  to  them,  though  nearer 
the  regular  drama,  are  The  Interludes,  a  class  of  com- 
positions in  dialogue,  much  shorter  and  more  merry 
and  farcical.  They  were  generally  played  in  the  inter- 
vals of  a  festival. 

Invocation.  An  address  at  the  commencement  of 
a  poem,  in  which  the  author  calls  for  the  aid  of  some 
divinity,  particularly  of  his  muse. 

Iphigeni'a.  The  heroine  of  Euripides'  tragedy 
"  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,"  and  of  Goethe's  tragedy  "Iphi- 
genie  auf  Tauris."  She  was  placed  on  the  altar  in  a  rash 
vow  by  her  father.  Artemis  at  the  last  moment  snatched 
her  from  the  altar  and  carried  her  to  heaven,  substituting 
a  hind  in  her  place.  The  similarity  of  this  legend  to  the 
Scripture  stories  of  Jephthah's  vow  and  Abraham's 
offering  of  his  son  Isaac  is  noticeable. 

I'ras.  A  strongly  delineated  character  in  "Ben  Hur, 
a  Tale  of  The  Christ,"  by  Lew  Wallace. 

Iras.  A  female  attendant  on  Cleopatra  in  Shakes- 
pere's play,  "Antony  and  Cleopatra." 

I'saac  of  York.  A  wealthy  Jew,  the  father  of  Re- 
becca, in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel,  "  Ivanhoe." 

Isabel'la.  The  heroine  in  Shakespere's  comedy, 
"Measure  for  Measure." 

Is'Iands  of  the  Blest.  Imaginary  islands  in  the 
west.  Hither  the  favorites  of  the  gods  were  conveyed 
without  dying,  and  dwelt  in  never-ending  joy.  The 
name  first  occurs  in  Hesiod's  "Works  and  Days.  '  Thia 
phrase  is  often  used  in  modern  literature. 

I'sland  of  Lanterns,  In  the  celebrated  satire  of 
Rabelais,  an  imaginary  country  inhabited  by  false  pre- 
tenders to  knowledge.  The  name  was  probably  sug- 
gested by  the  "City  of  Lanterns,"  in  the  Greek  romance 
of  Lucian.  Swift  has  copied  this  same  idea  in  his  Island 
of  Laputa. 

Is'land  of  St.  Bran'dan.  A  marvelous  flying  island, 
the  subject  of  an  old  and  widely-spread  legend  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Though  the  Island  of  St.  Brandan  has 
been  a  disappointment  to  voyagers  it  has  been  a  favorite 
theme  with  poets. 

I-thu'ri-el.  In  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  an  angel 
commissioned  by  Gabriel  to  search  through  paradise,  in 
company  with  Zephon.  to  find  Satan,  who  had  eluded  the 
vigilance  of  the  angelic  guard,  and  effected  an  entrance 
into  the  garden.  It  is  related  that  Ithuriel  found  Satan 
"squat  like  a  toad,  close  at  the  ear  of  Eve,"  and  trans- 
formed him  by  a  touch  of  his  spear  to  his  proper  shape. 

I'van-hoe.  The  hero  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of 
the  same  name.  He  figures  as  Cedric  of  Rotherwood's 
disinherited  son,  the  favorite  of  King  Richard  I.,  and 
the  lover  of  the  Lady  Rowena,  whom,  in  the  end,  he 
marries.  The  scene  is  laid  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  I„  and  we  are  introduced  to  Robin  Hood  in 
Sherwood  Forest,  banquets  in  Saxon  halls,  tournaments, 
and  all  the  pomp  of  ancient  chivalry.     Rowena,   the 


364 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


heroine,  is  quite  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  gentle, 
meek,  yet  high-souled  Rebecca. 

Iva'novltch,  Ivan.  An  imaginary  personage,  who 
is  the  embodiment  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Russian 
people,  in  the  same  way  as  John  Bull  represents  the 
English,  and  Jean  Crapaud  the  French  character,  and 
Brother  Jonathan  the  American  character. 

I'vory  Gate  of  Dreams.  Dreams  which  delude 
pass  through  the  ivory  gate,  but  those  which  come  true 
through  the  horn  gate. 

Jack  and  the  Bean-Stalk.  A  nursery  legend  said 
to  be  an  allegory  of  the  Teutonic  Al-fader:  the  "red 
hen"  representing  the  all-producing  sun,  the  "money- 
bags" the  fertilizing  rain,  and  the  "harp"  the  winds. 

Jack-in-the-Green.  A  prominent  character  in 
May-pole  dances. 

Jack  Robinson.     A  famous  comic  song  by  Hudson. 

Jack  Sprat.  The  hero  of  a  nursery  rhyme.  Jack 
and  his  wife  form  a  fine  combination  in  domestic  economy. 

Jack,  the  Giant-killer.  The  name  of  a  famous  hero 
in  the  literature  of  the  nursery,  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
Teutonic  or  Indo-European  legends,  which  have  become 
nationalized  in  England  and  America. 

Jaques.^  A  lord  attending  upon  the  exiled  duke,  in 
Shakespere's  "As  You  Like  It."  A  contemplative  char- 
acter who  thinks  and  does  —  nothing.  He  is  called  the 
"melancholy  Jaques,"  and  affects  a  cynical  philosophy. 
He  could  "suck  melancholy  out  of  a  song,  as  a  weasel 
sucks  eggs." 

Jaquenet'ta.  Love's  Labor's  Lost,  Shakespere. 
A  country  wench  courted  by  Don  Adriano  de  Armado. 

Jar'iey.  Mrs.  The  proprietor  of  a  waxwork  show  in 
Dickens's  Old  Curiosity  Shop."  She  has  lent  her  name 
to  a  popular  game  of  parlor  tableaux. 

Jam'dyce.  A  prominent  figure  in  Dickens's  "Bleak 
House,"  distinguished  for  his  philanthropy,  e'asy  good- 
nature and  good  sense,  and  for  alwayssaying,  "The  wind 
is  in  the  east,"  when  anything  went  wrong  with  him. 
The  famous  suit  of  "Jarndyce  vs.  Jarndyce;"  in  this 
novel,  is  a  satire  upon  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

Jar'vie,  Baillie  Nic'ol.  A  prominent  character  in 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  "Rob  Roy."  He  is  a  magis- 
trate of  Glasgow. 

Jek'yll,  Doctor,  and  Mr.  Hyde.  The  duplex  hero 
of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson's  singular  romance  of  the 
same  name.  Doctor  Jekyll  is  a  benevolent  and  upright 
physician,  who  by  means  of  a  potion  is  able  to  transform 
himself  for  a  time  into  a  second  personality,  Mr.  Hyde, 
of  a  brutal  and  animal  nature. 

Jel'ly-by,  Mrs.  A  character  in  Dickens's  novel 
"Bleak  House,"  a  type  of  sham  philanthropy.  She 
spends  her  time  and  energy  on  foreign  missions  to  the 
neglect  of  her  family.  Mrs.  Jellyby  is  quite  overwhelmed 
with  business  correspondence  relative  to  the  affairs  of 
Borrioboola  Gha. 

Jen'kins,  Win'i-fred.  The  name  of  Miss  Tabitha 
Bramble's  maid  in  Smollett's  "Expedition  of  Humphry 
Clinker."  She  makes  ridiculous  blunders  in  speaking 
and  writing. 

Jenkinson,  Ephraim.  A  green  old  swindler,  whom 
Dr.  Primrose  met  in  a  public  tavern.  Dr.  Primrose  sold 
the  swindler  his  horse,  Old  Blackberry,  for  a  draft  upon 
Farmer  Flamborough. 

Jeroboam  Sermon.  One  of  Dr.  Emmons's  sermons 
which  made  a  great  noise  at  the  time.  It  was  known  as 
his  Jeroboam  Sermon.  It  was  written  on  the  occasion 
of  Jefferspn's  inauguration  as  president,  and  although 
Jefferson  is  not  named,  the  delineation  of  the  character 
of  Jeroboam  is  such  that  no  one  can  doubt  the  personal 
application  intended. 

Jerusalem  Delivered.  An  epic  in  twenty  books, 
by  Torquato  Tasso  (1544-1595).  The  crusaders,  en- 
camped on  the  plains  of  Torto'sa,  chose  Godfrey  for  their 
chief,  and  Alandine,  King  of  Jerusalem,  made  prepara- 
tions of  defense.  The  Christian  army  having  reached 
Jerusalem,  the  King  of  Damascus  sent  Armi'da  to  be- 
guile the  Christians.  It  was  found  that  Jerusalem  could 
nevei  be  taken  without  the  aid  of  Rinaldo.  Godfrey, 
being  informed  that  the  hero  was  dallying  with  Armi'da 
in  the  enchanted  island,  sent  to  invite  him  back  to  the 
army;  he  returned,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken.  Armi'da 
fled  into  Egypt,  and  offered  to  marry  any  knight  who 
slew  Rinaldo.  The  love  of  Rinaldo  returned,  he  pur- 
sued her  and  she  relented.  The  poem  concludes  with  the 
triumphant  entry  of  the  Christian  army  into  the  Holy 
City,  and  their  devotions  at  the  tomb  of  the  Redeemer. 
The  two  chief  episodes  are  the  loves  of  Olindo  and  So- 
phro'nia,  and  of  Tancred  and  Corinda. 

Jes'sa-my  Bride.  A  by-name  given  to  Miss  Mary 
Horneck,  afterward  Mrs.  Gwyn.  She  was  a  contempo- 
rary and  friend  of  Goldsmith.  Also  title  of  a  novel  by 
F.  F.  Moore. 


Jes'si-ca.  The  beautiful  daughter  of  Shylock,  in 
Shakespere's  "Merchant  of  Venice. 

Jew,  The  Wandering.  An  imaginary  person  in  a 
legend  connected  with  the  history  of  Christ's  passion. 
As  the  Saviour  was  on  the  way  to  the  place  of  execution, 
overcome  with  the  weight  of  the  cross,  he  wished  to  rest 
on  a  stone  before  the  house  of  a  Jew,  who  drove  him  away 
with  curses.  Driven  by  fear  and  remorse,  he  has  since 
wandered,  according  to  the  command  of  the  Lord,  from 
place  to  place,  and  has  never  yet  been  able  to  find  a 
grave.  Romances  have  been  founded  on  this  character 
ranking  among  the  best  in  literature. 

Jones,  Tom.  The  hero  of  Fielding's  novel  entitled 
"The  History  of  a  Foundling,"  represented  as  a  model 
of  generosity,  openness,  and  manly  spirit,  though  thought- 
less and  dissipated. 

Joy'euse,  La.  The  sword  of  Charlemagne  as  men- 
tioned in  romances  of  chivalry. 

Joyeuse'  Garde,  La.  The  residence  of  the  famous 
Lancelot  du  Lac. 

Juan,  Don.  A  legendary  personage  made  the  hero 
of  many  dramatic  romances  and  poems.    (See  Don  Juan.) 

Judith.  The  heroine  in  the  book  by  the  same  name 
in  the  Apocrapha.  She  was  a  beautiful  Jewess  of  Be- 
thulia,  who,  when  her  town  was  besieged  by  Holofernes, 
the  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  attended  him  in  his  tent, 
and,  when  he  was  drunk,  killed  him,  whereupon  her 
townsmen  fell  upon  the  Assyrians  and  defeated  them  with 
great  slaughter.  The  tale  is  not  mentioned  by  Josephus, 
and  has,  from  an  early  period,  been  held  to  be  an  allegory. 
It  has  frequently  furnished  poets  and  painters  with  sub- 
jects. 

Kadr,  Al.  The  night  on  which  the  "Kor&n"  was 
sent  down  to  Mahommed.  Al  Kadr  is  supposed  to  be  the 
seventh  of  the  last  ten  nights  of  RamadS.n,  or  the  night 
between  the  twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth  days  of 
the  month. 

Kay.  A  foster-brother  of  King  Arthur,  and  a 
rude  and  boastful  knight  of  the  Round  Table.  He  was 
the  butt  of  King  Arthur's  court.  Called  also  "Sir 
Queux."  He  appears  in  the  "Boy  and  the  Mantle,"  in 
Percy's  "  Reliques."  Sir  Kay  is  represented  as  the  type 
of  rude  boastfulness,  Sir  Gaw'ain  of  courtesy.  Sir  Launce- 
lot  of  chivalry.  Sir  Mordred  of  treachery.  Sir  Galahad  of 
chastity,  Sir  Mark  of  cowardice. 

Ke-ha'ma.  A  Hindoo  rajah,  who  obtains  and 
sports  with  supernatural  power.  His  adventures  are 
related  in  Southey's  poem  entitled  ".The  Curse  of 
Kehama." 

Kent,  Earl  of.  A  rough,  plain-spoken,  but  faithful 
nobleman  in  Shakespere's  "  King  Lear,"  who  follows 
the  fallen  fortunes  of  the  king,  disguised  as  a  servant, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Caius. 

Ken'wies.  A  family  in  Dickens's  novel  "  Nicholas 
Nickleby,'  including  a  number  of  little  girls  who  differed 
from  one  another  only  in  the  length  of  their  frilled 
pantalettes  and  of  their  flaxen  pigtails  tied  with  bows 
of  blue  ribbon. 

Kil-ken'ny  Cats.  Two  cats,  in  an  Irish  story, 
which  fought  till  nothing  was  left  but  their  tails.  It  is 
probably  a  parable  of  a  local  contest  between  Kilkenny 
and  Irishtown,  which  impoverished  both  boroughs. 

King  Cam-by' ses.  The  hero  of  "A  Lamentable 
Tragedy"  of  the  same  name,  by  Thorrws  Preston,  con- 
temporary of  Shakespere.  A  ranting  character  known 
to  modern  readers  by  Falstaff's  allusion  to  him  in 
Shakespere's  first  "Henry  IV." 

King  Es'ter-mere.  The  hero  of  an  ancient  and 
beautiful  legend,  which,  according  to  Bishop  Percy, 
should  seem  to  have  been  written  while  a  great  part  of 
Spain  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  or  Moors,  whose 
empire  was  not  fully  extinguished  before  the  year  1491. 

King  Horn.  A  metrical  romance  which  was  very 
popular  in  the  Thirteenth  Century.  King  Horn  is  a 
beautiful  young  prince  who  is  carried  away  by  pirates; 
but  his  life  is  spared,  and  after  many  wonderful  adven- 
tures he  weds  a  princess,  and  regains  his  father's  kingdom. 

King  Log  and  King  Stork.  Characters  in  a  cele- 
brated fable  of  .(Esop,  which  relates  that  the  frogs, 
grown  weary  of  living  without  government,  petitioned 
Jupiter  for  a  king.  Jupiter  accordingly  threw  down  a 
log  among  them,  which  made  a  satisfactory  ruler  till 
the  frogs  recovered  from  their  fright  and  discovered  his 
leal  nature.  They,  therefore,  entreated  Jupiter  for  an- 
other king,  whereupon  he  sent  them  a  stork,  who  imme- 
diately began  to  devour  them. 

Klaus,  Peter.  The  hero  of  an  old  popular  tradition 
of  Germany  —  the  prototype  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  — 
represented  as  a  goatherd. 

Knick'er-bock'er,  Die'drich.  The  imaginary  author 
of  a  humorous  fictitious  "History  of  New  York,"  written 
by  Washington  Irving. 


LITERATURE 


365 


Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  A  name  given  to 
King  Arthur's  knights.  They  were  so  called  because 
they  sat  with  him  at  a  round  table  made  by  Merlin  for 
King  Leodegraunce.  This  king  gave  it  to  Arthur  on 
his  marriage  with  Guinevere,  his  daughter. 

Knight's  Tale,  The.  Canterbury  Tales,  Chaucer. 
Two  Theban  knights,  Palamon  and  Arcite,  captives  of 
,  Duke  Theseus,  used  to  see  from  their  dungeon  window 
»the  duke's  sister-in-law,  Emily,  and  fell  in  love  with  her. 
fBoth  captives  having  gained  their  liberty  contended 
{for  the  lady  by  single  combat.  Arcite  was  victor,  but 
[being  thrown  from  his  horse  was  killed,  and  Emily  be- 
fcame  the  bride  of  Palamon. 

Koppenberg.  The  mountain  of  Westphalia  to 
which  the  pied  piper  (Bunting)  led  the  children,  when 
the  people  of  Hamelin  refused  to  pay  him  for  killing 
their  rats.  Browning's  poem,  "The  Pied  Piper,"  tells 
.the  tale. 

Kriem'hild.  A  beautiful  Burgundian  lady,  daughter 
of  Dancrat  and  sister  of  Gunther.  She  first  marries 
Siegfried,  King  of  the  Netherlands,  and  next  Etzel, 
King  of  the  Huns.  In  the  first  part  of  the  "  Nibelungen- 
lied,"  Kriemhild  brings  ruin  on  herself  by  a  tattling 
tongue.  In  the  second  part  of  the  great  epic  she  is 
represented  as  bent  on  vengeance,  and,  after  a  most 
terrible  slaughter  both  of  friends  and  foes,  she  is  killed 
by  Hildebrand. 

Kubia  Klian.  A  poem  by  Coleridge.  Coleridge 
says  that  he  composed  the  poem  in  a  dream  immediately 
after  reading  a  description  of  the  Khan  Kubla's  palace, 
and  he  wrote  it  down  on  awaking. 

Lacedaemonian  Letter.  The  smallest  of  all  letters 
in  the  Greek  alphabet. 

Laconic.  Very  concise  and  pithy.  The  name  came 
from  the  Spartan  manner  of  curt  speech.  A  Spartan 
was  called  a  Lacon  from  name  of  his  country,  Laconia. 

Lady-day.  The  twenty-fifth  day  of  March,  anni- 
versary of  the  Annunciation. 

Lady  of  Lyons,  The.  Pauline  Deschappelles, 
daughter  of  a  Lyonese  merchant.  She  rejected  the  suits 
of  Beauseant,  Glavis,  and  Claude  Melnotte,  who  there- 
fore combined  on  vengeance.  Claude,  who  was  a  gar- 
dener's son,  aided  by  the  other  two,  passed  himself  off 
as  Prince  Como,  married  Pauline,  and  brought  her  home 
to  his  mother's  cottage.  The  proud  beauty  was  very 
indignant,  and  Claude  left  her  to  join  the  French  army. 
He  became  a  colonel,  and  returned  to  Lyons.  He  found 
his  father-in-law  on  the  eve  of  bankruptcy,  and  that 
Beauseant  had  promised  to  satisfy  the  creditors  if 
Pauline  would  consent  to  marry  him.  Pauline  was 
heartbroken ;  Claude  revealed  himself,  paid  the  money 
required,  and  carried  home  the  bride. 

Lady  of  the  Lalte  and  Artliur's  Sword.  The 
heroine  who  gave  to  King  Arthur  the  sword  "Excalibur." 
She  ordered  King  Arthur  to  sail  out  into  the  lake  and 
take  the  sword  as  they  could  see  it  rising  in  the  water. 
He  sailed  out  with  the  knight  and  Merlin,  came  to  the 
sword  that  a  hand  held  up,  and  took  it  by  the  handles, 
and  the  arm  and  hand  went  under  the  lake  again.  This 
Lady  of  the  Lake  asked  in  recompen.se  the  head  of  Sir 
Balin,  because  he  had  slain  her  brother;  but  the  king 
refused  the  request.  Balin,  who  was  present,  exclaimeil : 
"Evil  be  ye  found!  Ye  would  have  my  head;  therefore 
ye  shall  lose  thine  own."  With  his  sword  he  smote  off 
her  head  in  the  presence  of  King  Arthur. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  The.  The  heroine  in  the  poem 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  She  was  Ellen  Douglas,  once  a 
favorite  of  King  James;  when  her  father  fell  into  dis- 
grace, she  retired  with  him  into  the  vicinity  of  Loch 
Katrine. 

Laer'tes.  The  son  of  Polonius,  Lord-chamberlain 
of  Denmark,  and  brother  of  Hamlet's  beloved  Ophelia. 
The  king  persuades  hi:n  to  challenge  Hamlet,  after 
Ophelia  wanders  in  mind,  and  he  calls  him  out  in  "  friend- 
ly "  duel,  but  poisons  his  own  rapier.  He  wounds  Hamlet 
and,  in  the  scuffle  which  ensues,  the  combatants  change 
swords,  and  Hamlet  wounds  Laertes,  so  that  both  die. 

La^ado.  Gulilver's  Travels,  Swift.  The  name 
of  a  city  belonging  to  the  King  of  Laputa.  Lagado  is 
celebrated  for  its  grand  academy  of  projectors,  who 
try  to  extract  sunbeams  from  cucumbers,  and  to  convert 
ice  into  gunpowder.  In  the  description  of  this  fancied 
academy.  Swift  ridicules  the  jiretenders  in  philosophy 
and  science. 

Lake  of  the  Cat.  Name  given  to  Lake  Erie  until 
the  last  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Lake  Poets,  The.  Wordsworth,  Southey,  and 
Coleridge,  who  lived  about  the  lakes  of  Cumberland. 

Lame  Dog's  Diary.  A  clever  diary  in  which  the 
provincial  life  of  a  little  English  village  is  reflected. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  kept  by  an  invalid  officer  who 
returned  crippled  from  the  Boer  War.  The  suggestion 
of  the  diary  came  from  a  winning,  tantalizing  young 


widow,  who  cheered  the  invalid  by  her  amusing,  para- 
doxical talk.  The  diarist  and  his  sister  Palestrina  are 
true  English  types  —  quiet  gentlefolk.   ' 

Lampoon.  A  personal  satire,  often  bitter  and 
malignant.  These  libels,  carried  to  excess  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  acquired  the  name  of  lampoons  from  the 
burden  sung  to  them:  "  Lampone,  lampone,  camerada 
lampone." 

Lamps  of  Sleep.  Magic  lamps.  A  wonderful  knight 
of  a  mythical  land  had  an  equally^  wonderful  Black 
Castle.  In  the  mansion  of  the  Knight  of  the  Black 
Castle  were  seven  lamps,  which  could  be  quenched  only 
with  water  from  an  enchanted  fountain.  So  long  as 
these  lamps  kept  burning,  every  one  within  the  room  fell 
into  a  deep  sleep,  from  which  nothing  could  rouse  them. 

Land  of  Bcuiah.  The  paradise  in  which  souls  wait 
before  the  resurrection.  In  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  the 
land  from  which  the  pilgrims  enter  the  Celestial  City. 
The  name  is  found  in  Isaiah  Ixii,  4. 

Land  of  Bondage.  Name  given  to  Egypt  in  the  Bible. 

Land  of  Cakes.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  Scot- 
land, because  oatmeal  cakes  are  a  common  national 
article  of  food,  particularly  among  the  poorer  classes. 

Land  of  Nod.  In  common  speech  sleepy-land  or 
land  of  dreams. 

The  land  promised  to  Abraham 


Land  of  Promise. 

—  Canaan. 

Land  of  Shadows. 

meaning  land  of  ghosts. 
Land  o'  the  Leal. 

loyalty,    and    virtue. 


A  place  of  unreality,  sometimes 


An  unknown  land  of  happiness, 

.       „,  J      Carolina     Oliphant,     Baroness 

Nairne,  meant  heaven  in  her  song  and  this  is  now  its 
accepted  meaning.  (Leal  means  faithful,  and  "Land 
of  the  leal"  means  the  land  of  the  faithful.) 

Land  of  Veda.     Name  often  given  to  India. 

Land  of  Wisdom.  A  name  given  to  Normandy, 
in  France,  because  of  the  wise  Customs  which  have  pre- 
vailed there,  and  also  because  of  the  skill  and  judgment 
of  the  people  in  making  laws. 

Landlady's  Daugliter.  She  rowed  Flemming 
"over  the  Khine-stream,  rapid  and  roaring  wide,"  and 
told' to  him  the  story  of  the  Liebenstein. 

Lantern-Land.  The  land  of  literary  charlatans, 
whose  inhabitants,  graduates  in  arts,  doctors,  professors, 
and  artists  of  all  grades,  waste  time  in  displaying  their 
wonderful  learning.     The  home  of  egotists. 

Lantern  of  Demosthenes.  An  edifice  in  Athens. 
It  stood  in  the  street  of  the  tripods,  so  called  from  the 
circumstance  that  in  it  were  erected  numerous  tripods, 
v/hich  had  been  obtained  as  prizes  in  the  musical  or 
theatrical  contests. 

Laodice'an.  One  indifferent  to  religion,  like  the  Chris- 
tians of  that  Church  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Revelation. 

Laputa.  The  name  of  a  flying  island  described  by 
Swift  in  "Gulliver's  Travels."  It  is  said  to  be  "exactly 
circular,  its  diameter  7,837  yards,  or  about  four  miles 
and  a  half,  and  consequently  contains  ten  thousand 
acres."  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  speculative  philoso- 
phers, devoted  to  mathematics  and  music;  and  such  is 
their  habitual  absent-mindedness,  that  they  are  com- 
pelled to  employ  attendants  —  called  "flappers" — to 
rouse  them  from  their  profound  meditations.  This  is 
done  by  striking  them  gently  on  the  mouth  and  ears  with 
a  peculiar  instrument  consisting  of  a  blown  bladder  with 
a  few  pebbles  in  it,  fastened  on  the  end  of  a  stick. 

Last  of  the  Mo-hi'cans.  The  Indian  chief,  Uncas. 
He  is  so  called  by  Cooper,  in  his  novel  of  that  title. 

Latitudina'rians.  Persons  who  hold  very  loose 
views  of  Divine  inspiration  and  of  what  are  called 
orthodox  doctrines. 

Laughing  Philosopher,  The.  Democritus  of 
Abdera,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  antiquity,  contem- 
porary with  Socrates.  He  was  so  called  because  he  made 
a  jest  of  man's  follies,  sorrows,  and  struggles.  He  is 
contrasted  with  Heraclitus,  "The  Weeping  Philosopher." 

Launfal,  Sir.  Steward  of  King  Arthur.  Detesting 
Queen  Guinevere,  he  retired  to  Carlyoun,  and  fell  in  love 
with  a  lady  named  Tryamour.  She  gave  him  an  un- 
failing purse,  and  told  him  if  he  wished  to  see  her,  he 
was  to  retire  into  a  private  room,  and  she  would  be  with 
him.  Sir  Launfal  now  returned  to  court,  and  excited 
much  attention  by  his  great  wealth.  Guinevere  made 
advances  to  him;  he  would  not  turn  from  the  lady  to 
whom  he  was  devoted  but  lauded  her  praises.  At  this 
repulse,  the  angry  queen  complained  to  the  king,  and 
declared  to  him  that  she  had  been  insulted  by  his  stew- 
ard. Arthur  bade  Sir  Launfal  produce  this  paragon 
of  women.  On  her  arrival.  Sir  Launfal  was  allowed  to 
accompany  her  to  the  isle  of  Ole'ron ;  and  no  one  ever 
saw  him  afterwards.  ***  James  Russell  Lowell  has 
written  a  poem  entitled  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal." 

Lau'reate,  Poet.  An  officer  appointed  by  the  crown 
to  compose  odes,  etc.,  in  honor  of  grand  state  occasions 


366 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


The  appellation  seems  to  have  originated  in  a  custom  of 
the  English  universities  of  presenting  a  laurel  wreath  to 
graduates;  the  new  graduate  being  then  styled  "Poeta 
Laureatus."  The  king's  laureate  was  simply  a  gradu- 
ated rhetorician  in  the  service  of  the  king.  R.  Whit- 
tington,  in  1512,  seems  to  have  been  the  last  man  who 
received  a  rhetorical  degree  at  Oxford.  The  earliest 
mention  of  a  poet-laureate  in  England  occurs  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  IV.,  when  John  Key  received  the 
appointment.  In  1630,  the  first  patent  of  the  office  was 
granted.  The  salary  was  fixed  at  £100  per  annum, 
with  a  tierce  of  canary;  which  latter  emolument  was 
in  Southey's  time,  commuted  into  an  annual  payment  of 
£27.  It  used  to  be  the  duty  of  the  laureate  to  write 
an  ode  on  the  birthday  of  the  sovereign,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  a  national  victory;  but  this  custom  was 
abolished  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  III. 
The  poets  who  have  held  this  office  are  Edmund  Spenser, 
1591-1599;  Samuel  Daniel,  1599-1|B19;  Ben  Jonson, 
1619-1637.  Interregnum.        William        Davenant, 

Knight,  1660-1668;  John  Dryden,  1670-1689;  Thomas 
Shadwell,  1689-1692;  Nahum  Tate,  1692-1715;  Nicho- 
las Rowe,  1715-1718;  Lawrence  Eusden,  1718-1730; 
Colley  Gibber,  1730-1757;  William  Whitehead,  1757- 
1785;  Thomas  Warton,  1785-1790;  Henry  James  Pye, 
1790-1813;  Robert  Southey,  1813-1843;  William 
Wordsworth,  1843-1850;  Alfred  Tennyson,  1850-1892, 
Alfred  Austin,  1896. 

Laus  Deo.  A  poem  by  Whittier.  Called  forth  by 
the  passing  of  the  constitutional  amendment  abolishing 
slavery;  suggested  to  the  poet  as  he  sat  in  the  Friends, 
meeting-house  in  Amesbury,  and  listened  *  to  the  bells 
proclaiming  the  fact. 

Lavinia  and  Pale'mon.  Lavinia  was  the  daughter 
of  Acasto,  patron  of  Palemon.  Through  Acasto  Pale- 
mon  gained  a  fortune  and  wandered  away  from  his 
friend.  Acasto  lost  his  property,  and  dying,  left  a 
widow  and  daughter  in  poverty.  Palemon  often  sought 
them,  but  could  never  find  them.  One  day,  a  lovely 
modest  maiden  came  to  glean  in  Palemon's  fields.  The 
young  squire  was  greatly  struck  with  her  exceeding 
beauty  and  modesty,  but  she  was  known  as  a  pauper 
and  he  dared  not  give  her  more  than  passing  glance. 
Upon  inquiry,  he  found  that  the  beautiful  gleaner  was 
the  daughter  of  Acasto;  he  proposed  marriage,  and 
Lavinia  was  restored  to  her  rightful  place. 

Lavaine.  Son  of  the  Lord  of  As'tolat,  who  accom- 
panied Sir  Lancelot  when  he  went  to  tilt  for  the  ninth 
diamond.  Lavaine  is  described  as  young,  brave,  and  a 
true  knight.     He  was  brother  to  Elaine. 

Lawyer's  Alcove.  Name  given  to  a  volume  of 
poems  selected  from  the  best  poems  by  lawyers,  for 
lawyers,  and  about  lawyers.  Included  in  this  volume 
are  Shakespere's  "Sonnet  CXXXIV";  Blackstone's 
"A  Lawyer's  Farewell  to  his  Muse";  "Justice,"  by 
John  Quincy  Adams;  Landor's  "At  the  Buckingham 
Sessions";  "The  Judicial  Court  of  Venus,"  by  Jonathan 
Swift;  Saxe's  "Briefless  Barrister"  and  his  "The  Law- 
yer's Valentine";  "General  Average,"  by  William 
Allen  Butler:  "The  Festival  of  Injustice"  by  Carlton^ 
and  Riley's  '  Lawyer  and  Child." 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  Ladye  Margaret  [Scottl 
of  Branksome  Hall,  the  "flower  of  Teviot,"  was  beloved 
by  Baron  Henry  of  Cranstown,  but  a  deadly  feud  existed 
between  the  two  families.  A  goblin  lured  Ladye  Marga- 
ret's brother  into  a  wood,  where  he  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Southerners.  At  the  same  time  an  army  of  3,000 
English  marched  to  Bi'anksome  Hall  to  take  it,  but 
hearing  that  Douglas  was  on  the  march  against  them, 
the  two  chiefs  agreed  to  decide  the  contest  by  single 
combat.  Victory  fell  to  the  Scotch,  when  it  was  dis- 
covered that  "Sir  William  Deloraine,"  the  Scotch 
champion,  was  in  reality  Lord  Cranstown,  who  then 
claimed  and  received  the  hand  of  Ladye  Margaret  as  his 
reward.     This  united  the  two  houses. 

Lazarre.  This  hero's  relation  to  history  is  so 
shadowy  as  to  be  no  burden,  and  yet  sufficiently  well- 
defined  to  serve  as  a  lure  to  the  imagination.  He  is  the 
supposed  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XVI.  and 
Marie  Antoinette,  who,  according  to  the  full  chronicles 
of  his  time,  died  in  prison,  but  whose  removal  to  America 
is  hinted  in  certain  footnotes  to  history.  However  this 
may  have  been,  one  Eleazar  Williams,  the  reputed  son 
of  a  half-breed  Indian  who  lived  in  northern  New  York 
in  the  early  years  of  the  last  century,  was  not  without 
reason  for  believing  himself  the  lost  Dauphin.  Mrs. 
Catherwood  has  written  a  romance  under  this  name 
taking  this  character  as  her  hero. 

Lazy  Lawrence.  One  of  the  dwellers  in  Lubberland 
in  the  story  of  which  he  is  pictured.  It  tells  of  his  birth 
and  breeding,  how  he  served  the  school-master,  his  wife, 
the  squire's  cook,  and  the  farmer,  which,  by  the  laws 
of  Lubberland,  was  accounted  high  treason;  his  arraign 


ment  and  trial,  and  happy  deliverance  from  the  many 
treasons  laid  to  his  charge. 

Leander.  The  story  of  Hero  and  Leander  is  so  old 
and  so  well  known  as  to  nearly  belong  to  mythology. 
A  young  man  of  Abydos,  who  swam  nightly  across  the 
Hellespont  to  visit  his  lady-love,  Hero,  a  priestess  of 
Sestos.  One  night  he  was  drowned  in  his  attempt,  and 
Hero  leaped  into  the  Hellespont  also. 

Lear.  A  fabulous  or  legendary  King  of  Britain,  and 
the  hero  of  Shakespere's  tragedy  of  the  same  name.  He 
had  three  daughters,  and  when  four  score  years  old, 
wishing  to  retire  from  the  active  duties  of  sovereignty, 
resolved  to  divide  his  kingdom  between  them.  By 
elaborate  but  false  professions  of  love  and  duty  on  the 
part  of  two  daughters  (Goneril  and  Regan),  King  Lear 
was  persuaded  to  disinherit  the  third  (Cordelia),  who 
had  before  been  deservedly  more  dear  to  him,  and  to 
divide  his  kingdom  between  her  sisters.  The  tragedy 
is  wrought  out  in  the  ungrateful  conduct  of  the  older 
sisters  and  the  suffering  of  Lear.  The  beauty  of  the 
play  in  the  exquisite  character  Cordelia,  who  is  in  every 
respect  a  "perfect  woman." 

Leather-Stocking  Tales.  Five  stories  or  romances 
written  by  James  Fenimore  Cooper.  The  same  hero, 
Leather-Stocking,  or  Natty  Bumpo,  figures  in  all  in  his 
life  among  the  Indians.  Natty  had  learned  wood-lore 
as  the  young  Indian  learned  it.  He  knew  the  calls  of  the 
wild  animals  far  across  the  wilderness.  He  could  follow 
the  deer  and  bear  to  their  haunts.  He  could  trace  the 
path  of  the  wolf  by  the  broken  cobwebs  glistening  in 
the  sunlight;  and  the  cry  of  the  panther  was  a  speech  as 
familiar  as  his  own  tongue.  When  he  was  thirsty  he 
made  a  cup  of  leaves,  and  drank  in  the  Indian  fashion. 
He  lay  down  to  rest  with  that  sense  of  security  that 
comes  only  to  the  forester.  These  tales  take  Leather- 
Stocking  from  young  manhood  to  old  age  following  the 
fortunes  of  the  American  Indian  tribes.  The  order  in 
which  his  story  is  told  in  these  volumes  is  the  "The 
Deerslayer,"  "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  ".The  Path- 
finder," "The  Pioneers"  and  "The  Prairie."  He'is  also 
known  by  the  name  of  Hawkeye  in  one  part  of  his  story. 
The  best  writers  on  the  American  Indian  are  thus 
quoted  in  our  literatures:  James  F.  Cooper,  the  roman- 
cer of  the  Indian;  Henry  W.  Longfellow,  the  poet  of 
the  Indian;  Francis  Parkman,  the  historian  of  the 
Indian;   Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  the  novelist  of  the  Indian. 

Legend.  Anciently,  a  kind  of  rubric  containing 
the  prayers  appointed  to  be  read  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches.  In  later  times,  the  word  was  employed  to 
denote  a  chronicle  or  register  of  the  lives  of  saints,  because 
they  were  to  be  read  on  the  festivals  of  the  saints.  The 
way  in  which  a  credulous  love  of  the  wonderful,  exag- 
geration of  fancy,  and  ecclesiastical  enthusiasm,  at  times 
even  pious  fraud,  mixed  themselves  up  in  these  narratives 
with  true  history,  caused  stories  of  a  religious  or  eccle- 
siastical nature  generally  to  be  designated  as  "legends," 
to  distinguish  them  from  real  history.  The  word  has 
been  much  used  in  connection  with  the  wild  tales  of 
ancient  times,  especially  those  known  among  the  peas- 
antry of  Europe.  Among  the  mediaeval  collections  of 
legends,  that  drawn  up  by  the  Genoese  archbishop. 
Jacobus  de  Voragine,  in  the  second  half  of  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  under  the  title  of  "Legenda  Aurea"  (the 
Golden  Legends),  or  "Historia  Lombardica,"  is  the 
most  celebrated. 

Legion  of  Hon'or,  The.  An  order  conferred  in 
recognition  of  military  and  civil  merit,  instituted  by 
Napoleon  I.,  while  First  Consul,  May  19,  1802.  It  con- 
sists of  different  grades,  as  grand-crosses  (of  whom  there 
are  eighty),  grand-officers  (500),  officers  (4,000),  and 
legionaries  (whose  number  is  not  limited).  The  highest 
functionary  is  the  "chancellor."  The  splendid  edifice 
erected  in  Paris  during  the  first  empire,  and  known  as 
the  "Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,"  after  having  been 
partially  destroyed  during  the  Communist  outbreak  has 
been  rebuilt. 

Le'onine  Verses.  These  fancies  were  common  in 
the  Twelfth  Century,  and  were  so  called  from  Leoninus, 
a  canon  of  the  Church  of  St.  Victor,  in  Paris,  the 
inventor.  In  English  verse,  any  meter  which  ryhmes 
middle  and  end  is  called  a  Leonine  verse. 

Le'the.  A  personification  of  oblivion  often  referred  to 
in  literature.  The  tradition  is  that  the  soul,  at  the 
death  of  the  body,  drank  of  the  River  Lethe  that  it 
might  carry  into  the  world  of  shadows  no  remembrance 
of  earth  and  its  concerns. 

Letterpress.  Printed  matter.  The  word  is  often 
used  to  distinguish  printed  words  from  engraving. 

Lexicon.  A  vocabulary,  or  book  containing  an 
alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  words  of  a  language, 
with  an  explanation  of  the  meaning  or  sense  of  each. 
The  terra  is  chiefly  used  with  reference  to  dictionaries 
or  word-books  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages. 


LITERATURE 


367 


Libations.  With  the  prayers  among  all  ancient 
peoples  were  usually  joined  the  libations,  or  drink 
offerings.  These  consisted  generally  of  wine,  part  of 
which  was  poured  out  in  honor  of  the  gods,  and  part  of 
it  drunk  by  the  worshiper.  The  wine  must  be  pure, 
and  offered  in  a  full  cup.  Sometimes  there  were  liba- 
tions of  water,  of  honey,  of  milk,  and  of  oil. 

Light  of  tlie  Harem.  Name  given  to  the  bride  of 
Selim  in  the  poem  l>alla  Rookh.  She  was  the  Sultana 
Nour'mahal',  afterwards  called  Nourjeham  ("light  of  the 
world"). 

Ligeia.  Written  by  Poe.  Suggested  by  a  dream 
in  which  the  eyes  of  the  heroine  produced  the  wonderful 
effect  described  in  the  story.  Its  theme  is  the  conquest 
of  death  through  the  power  of  will. 

Llguo'rians.  A  congregation  of  rnissionary  priests, 
called  also  Redemptorists,  founded  in  1732,  by  St. 
Alphonsus. 

Lllll-Burle'ro.  A  song  with  the  refrain  of  "Lilli- 
burlero,  buUen-a-la !  "  was  written  by  Lord  Wharton; 
and  contributed  much  to  the  great  revolution  of  1688. 
The  whole  army,  and  at  last  the  people,  both  in  city  and 
country,  sang  it  perpetually.  The  words  are  also  said 
to  have  been  used  as  a  sort  of  war-cry  during  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants  by  the  Irish  Papists  iri  1641. 

Lllliput.  An  imaginary  country  described  in 
"Gulliver's  Travels,"  where  an  ordinary  man  becomes 
a  great  giant  beside  the  small  people  of  the  land.  Lilli- 
putian used  to  designate  small  ways  of  expressing  malice 
or  jealousy.  Among  amusing  characters  in  I>illiput 
land  were  the  Little-Endians  and  Big-Endians  who 
made  up  two  religious  factions,  which  waged  incessant 
war  on  the  subject  of  the  right  interpretation  of  the 
fifty-fourth  chapter  of  the  "Blnu'decral":  "All  true 
believers  break  their  eggs  at  the  convenient  end."  The 
godfather  of  Galin,  the  reigning  Emperor  of  Lilliput, 
happened  to  cut  his  finger  while  breaking  his  egg  at  the 
big  end,  and  therefore  commanded  all  faithful  Lilli- 
putians to  break  their  eggs  in  future  at  the  small  end. 
The  Blefuscudians  called  this  decree  rank  heresy,  and 
determined  to  exterminate  the  believers  of  such  an 
abominable  practice  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Hun- 
dreds of  treatises  were  published  on  both  sides,  but  each 
empire  put  all  those  books  opposed  to  its  own  views  into 
the  "Index  Expurgatorius,"  and  not  a  few  of  the  more 
zealous  sort  died  as  martyrs  for  daring  to  follow  their 
private  judgment  in  the  matter. 

Limbo.  A  place  where  the  souls  of  good  men  not 
admitted  into  heaven  wait  the  general  resurrection.  A 
similar  place  exists  for  the  souls  of  unbaptized  children. 
Still  another  Limbo  is  a  Fool's  Paradise,  a  place  for  all 
nonsense.  This  old  superstitious  belief  has  been  used 
by  Dante  and  Milton  in  their  poems. 

Literati.     Men  of  letters,  scholars  of  note. 

Llthgow's  Bower.  A  favorite  residence  of  the  kings 
and  queens  of  Scotland,  especially  of  Mary  of  Guise; 
and  here  the  unfortunate  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  born 
in  1542. 

Little  Brother.  An  appellation  made  popular 
through  the  tale  bearing  the  name.  Josiah  Flynt  ran 
away  from  home  when  he  was  three  years  old  and  had 
been  doing  it  frequently  ever  after.  His  first  piece  of 
fiction  was  naturally  based  on  trampdom.  His  hero  is  a 
boy-tramp,  a  little  fellow  whose  irresistible  impulse  to 
view  the  great  world  around  him  causes  him  to  become 
a  "Prushun"  to  an  old  inhabitant  of  Hoboland.  He 
wished  people  to  see  where  a  number  of  stray  boys  land, 
for  he  had  found  out  that  a  great  many  of  the  so-called 
"kidnapped"  youngsters  are  in  reality  simple  runaways 
with  romantic  temperaments. 

Little  Citizens.  Characters  in  a  New  York  school 
teacher's  stories  of  her  East  Side  Jewish  charges.  Human 
nature  and  American  Yiddish  dialect  are  alike  faithfully 
rendered. 

Little  Dorrit.  The  heroine  and  title  of  a  novel  by 
Dickens.  Little  Dorrit  was  born  and  brought  up  in  the 
Marshalsea  prison,  where  her  father  was  confined  for 
debt. 

Little  John.  A  big,  stalwart  fellow,  named  John 
Little,  who  encountered  Robin  Hood,  and  gave  him  a 
sound  thrashing,  after  which  he  was  rechristened,  and 
Robin  stood  godfather.-  Little  John  is  introduced  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott  in  ".The  Talisman." 

Little  Masters.  A  name  applied  to  certain  designers 
belonging  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries. 
Called  little  because  their  designs  were  on  a  small  scale, 
fit  for  copper  or  wood.  The  most  famous  are  Jost 
Amman,  for  the  minuteness  of  his  work;  Hans  Burgmair, 
who  nlade  drawings  in  wood  illustrative  of  the  triumph 
of  the  Emperor  Maximilian;  Hans  Sebald  Beham; 
Albert  Altaorfer,  and  Henrich  Aldegraver.  Albert 
Durer  and  Lucas  van  Leyden  brought  the  art  into  notice 
and  it  became  popular. 


Little  Nell.     Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.    The 

prominent  character  of  the  story,  pure  and  true,  though 
living  in  the  midst  of  selfishness  and  crime.  ■  She  waa 
brought  up  by  her  grandfather,  who  was  in  his  dotage,  • 
and  who  tried  to  eke  out  a  narrow  living  by  selling 
curiosities.  At  length,  through  terror  of  Quilp,  the  old 
man  and  his  grandchild  stole  away,  and  led  a  vagrant 
life. 

Llewel'lyn.  A  legendary  Welsh  prince  who,  on  return- 
ing from  hunting,  found  his  baby  boy  missing  and  his 
favorite  greyhound,  Gelert,  covered  with  blood.  Think- 
ing that  the  hound  had  eaten  him,  he  killed  it.  But, 
on  searching  more  carefully,  the  child  was  found  alive 
under  the  cradle  clothes,  and  near  him  the  body  of  a 
huge  wolf  which  had  been  killed  by  the  faithful  hound. 

Locliiel.     Is  the  title  of  the  head  of  the  clan  Cameron. 

Locliinvar'.  A  young  Highlander,  in  the  poem  of 
Marmion,  was  much  in  love  with  a  lady  whose  late  was 
decreed,  that  she  should  marry  a  "laggard."  Young 
Lochinvar  persuaded  the  too-willing  lassie  to  be  hia 
partner  in  a  dance;  and  while  the  guests  were  intent 
on  their  amusements,  swung  her  into  his  saddle  and 
made  off  with  her  before  the  bridegroom  could  recover 
from  his  amazement. 

Locksley.  So  Robin  Hood  is  sometimes  called, 
from  the  village  in  which  he  was  born. 

Locksley  Hall.  A  poem  by  Tennyson,  in  which 
the  hero,  the  lord  of  Locksley  Hall,  having  been  jilted 
by  his  cousin  Amy  for  a  rich  boor,  pours  forth  his  feelings 
in  a  flood  of  scorn  and  indignation.  The  poem  is  under- 
stood to  have  been  occasioned  by  a  similar  incident  in 
the  poet's  own  life,  but  this  has  been  questioned. 

Locrin,  or  Locrine.  Father  of  Sabri'na,  and  eldest 
son  of  the  mythical  Brutus,  King  of  ancient  Britain.  On 
the  death  of  his  father  he  became  King  of  Loe'gria. 

Loegria  or  Lo'gres.  England  is  so  called  by  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth,  from  Logrine,  eldest  son  of  the  mythical 
King  Brute. 

Logogriph.  Among  the  French,  a  kind  of  riddle, 
which  consists  in  some  elision  or  mutilation  of  words; 
it  may  be  defined  as  being  between  an  enigma  and  a  rebus. 

Logos.  This  word,  as  occurring  at  the  beginning  of 
the  gospel  of  St.  John,  was  early  taken  to  refer  to  the 
"second  person  of  the  Trinity,  i.  e.,  Christ."  Yet  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  Apostle,  who^alone  makes  use  of 
the  term  in  this  manner,  and  only  in  the  introductory 
part  of  his  gospel;  whether  he  adopted  the  symbolizing 
usage  in  which  it  was  employed  by  the  various  schools 
of  his  day;  which  of  their  differing  significations  he  had 
in  view,  or  whether  he  intended  to  convey  a  meaning 
quite  peculiar  to  himself; — these  are  some  of  the  innu- 
merable questions  to  which  the  word  has  given  rise,  and 
which,  though  most  fiercely  discussed  ever  since  the  first 
days  of  Christianity,  are  .far  from  having  found  a  satis- 
factory solution. 

Lo'hen-grin.  The  Knight  of  the  Swan:  the  hero 
of  a  romance  by  Wolfrarn  von  Eschenbach,  a  German 
minnesinger  of  the  Thirteenth  Century,  and  also  of  a 
modern  music  drama  by  Richard  Wagner.  He  was  the 
son  of  Parsival,  and  came  to  Brabant  in  a  ship  drawn 
by  a  white  swan,  which  took  him  away  again  when  his 
bride,  disobeying  his  injunction,  pressed  him  to  discover 
his  name  and  parentage. 

Lord  Linlithgow.  A  character  growing  into  favor 
and  while  it  does  not  prove  that  the  end  justifies  the 
means,  certainly  suggests  that  the  "means"  may  be 
excused  if  sufficiently  prominent  men  sanction  them. 
In  his  desire  to  serve  his  party,  and  incidentally  himself, 
this  Lord  blackmails  a  man,  but,  when  the  party  chief 
rewards  the  blackmailer  by  a  seat  in  parliament,  it 
seemed  reasonable,  that  the  I;Ord  should  once  more 
hold  up  his  head  in  society  as  one  who  had  quite  regained 
a  possibly  lost  self-esteem.  To  the  perplexed  lady-love 
such  a  hope  as  this  is  offered:  "If  it  is  not  easy  to  be 
quite  good,  it  is  impossible  to  be  wholly  bad."  "Lord 
Linlithgow "  has  value  in  giving  an  up-to-date  glimpse 
of  political  life  in  England.  When  an  indignant  moralist 
recently  ventured  to  point  out  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes's  defici- 
encies, Mr.  Kipling  rejoined:  "Why,  man,  but  he  is" 
building  an  empire!  "     (Morley  Roberts.) 

Lotos-Eaters.  Tennyson  has  a  poem  called  "The 
Lotos-Eaters,"  a  set  of  islanders  who  live  in  a  dreamy 
idleness,  weary  of  Ufe,  and  regardless  of  all  its  stirring 
events. 

Love  Doctor,  The.  L' Amour  Medecin.  A  com- 
edy by  Molifere  written  about  the  year  1665.  Lucinde, 
the  daughter  of  Sganarelle,  is  in  love,  and  the  father  calls 
in  four  doctors  to  consult  upon  the  nature  of  her  malady. 
They  see  the  patient,  and  retire  to  consult  together,  but 
talk  about  Paris,  about  their  visits,  about  the  topics  of 
the  day;  and  when  the  father  enters  to  know  what 
opinion  they  have  formed,  they  all  prescribe  different 
remedies,    and    pronounce    different    opinions.     Lisette 


368 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


then  calls  in  a  "quack"  doctor  (Clitandre,  the  lover), 
who  says  that  he  must  act  on  the  imagination,  and  pro- 
poses a  seeming  marriage,  to  which  Sganarelle  asssents. 
The  assistant  being  a  notary,  Clitandre  and  Lucinde  are 
married. 

Love's  Labor's  Lost.  Ferdinand,  King  of  Navarre, 
with  three  lords  named  Biron,  Dumain,  and  Longaville, 
agree  to  spend  three  years  in  study,  during  which  time 
no  woman  was  to  approach  the  court.  The  compact 
signed  all  went  well  until  the  princess  of  France,  attended 
by  Rosaline,  Maria,  and  Katharine,  besought  an  inter- 
view respecting  certain  debts  said  to  be  due  from  the 
King  of  France  to  the  King  of  Navarre.  The  four 
gentlemen  fell  in  love  with  the  four  ladies.  The  love 
of  the  king  sought  the  princess,  by  right,  Biron  loved 
Rosaline,  Longaville  admired  Maria,  and  Dumain  adored 
Katharine.  In  order  to  carry  their  suits,  the  four  gen- 
tlemen, disguised  as  Muscovites,  presented  themselves 
before  the  ladies;  but  the  ladies  being  warned  of  the 
masquerade,  disguised  themselves  also,  so  that  the- 
gentlemen  in  every  case  addressed  the  wrong  lady.  A 
mutual  arrangement  was  made  that  the  suits  sliould  be 
deferred  for  twelve  months  and  a  day;  and  if,  at  the 
expiration  of  that  time,  they  remained  of  the  same  mind, 
the  matter  should  be  taken  into  serious  consideration. 
(Shakespere.i 

Loves  of  the  Angels.  A  rhymed  story  written  by 
Thomas  Moore.  It  may  be  called  the  stories  of  three 
angels,  and  was  founded  on  the  Eastern  tale  of  "Harut 
and  Marut,  and  the  rabbinical  fictions  of  the  loves  of" 
"Uzziel  and  Shamchazai."  (1)  The  first  angel  fell  in 
love  with  I^ea,  whom  he  saw  bathing.  She  returned 
love  for  love,  but  his  love  was  carnal,  hers  heavenly. 
He  loved  the  woman  she  loved  the  angel.  At  last  the 
angel  gave  to  her  the  pass-word  which  should  open  the 
gates  of  heaven.  She  pronounced  it,  and  rose  through 
the  air  into  paradise.  The  angel  degenerated  and 
became  no  longer  an  angel  of  light,  but  "of  the  earth, 
earthy."  (2)  The  second  angel  was  Rubi,  one  of  the 
seraphs.  Pie  loved  Liris,  who  asked  him  to  come  in  all 
his  celestial  glory.  He  did  so;  and  she,  rushing  into  his 
arms,  was  burnt  to  death;  but  the  kiss  she  gave  him 
became  a  brand  on  his  face  forever.  (3)  The  third 
angel  was  Zaraph,  who  loved  Nama.  It  was  Nama's 
desire  to  love  without  control,  and  to  love  holily;  but 
as  she  fixed  her  love  on  a  creature,  and  not  on  the  Creator, 
both  she  and  Zaraph  were  doomed  to  live  among  the 
things  that  perish.  When  the  end  of  all  shall  come, 
Nama  and  Zaraph  will  be  admitted  into  the  realms  of 
everlasting  love. 

Lover's  Vows.  Altered  from  Kotzebue's.  Baron 
Wildenhaim,  in  his  youth,  seduced  Agatha  Friburg, 
and  then  forsook  her.  She  had  a  son  Frederick,  who 
became  a  soldier.  While  on  furlough,  he  came  to  spend 
his  time  with  his  mother,  and  found  her  in  abject  poverty 
and  almost  starved.  A  poor  cottager  took  her  in,  while 
Frederick,  who  had  no  money,  went  to  beg  charity. 
Count  Wildenhaim  was  out  with  his  gun,  and  Frederick 
asked  alms  of  him.  The  count  gave  him  a  shilling; 
Frederick  demanded  more,  and,  being  refused,  seized 
the  baron  by  the  throat.  The  keepers  arrived  and  put 
him  in  the  castle  dungeon.  Here  he  was  visited  by  the 
chaplain,  and  it  came  out  that  the  count  was  his  father. 
The  chaplain  being  appealed  to,  told  the  count  the  only 
reparation  he  could  make  would  be  to  marry  Agatha 
and  acknowledge  the  young  soldier  to  be  his  son.  This 
advice  he  followed,  and  Agatha  Friburg,  the  beggar, 
became  the  baroness  Wildenhaim  of  Wildenhaim  Castle. 

Loving  Cup.  A  large  cup  passed  round  from  guest 
to  guest  at  state  banquets  and  city  feasts.  On  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  the  custom  of  wassailing 
was  not  abolished,  but  it  assumed  a  religious  aspect. 
The  monks  called  the  wassail  bowl  the  loving  cup.  In 
the  universities  the  term  "Grace  Cup"  is  more  general. 
Immediately  after  grace  the  silver  cup,  filled  with  wine, 
is  passed  round.  The  master  and  wardens  drink  wel- 
come to  their  guests;  the  cup  is  then  passed  to  all  the 
guests.  A  loving  or  grace  cup  should  have  two  handles, 
and  some  have  four.  This  ceremony,  of  drinking  from 
one  cup  and  passing  it  round,  was  observed  in  the  Jewish 
paschal  supper,  and  our  Lord  refers  to  the  custom  in 
the  words,  "Drink  ye  all  of  it." 

Lubberland.  An  imaginary  country  of  idleness 
and  luxury.  The  name  has  been  applied  to  certain 
cities  in  biirlesque. 

Lugg-nagg.  An  imaginary  island  whose  inhabitants 
have  the  gift  of  eternal  life  lacking  with  it  the  gift  of 
immortal  health  and  strength. 

Lumbercourt,  Lord.  A  voluptuary,  greatly  in 
debt,  who  consented,  for  a  good  money  consideration, 
to  give  his  daughter  to  Egerton  McSycophant.  Egerton, 
however,  had  no  fancy  for  the  lady,  but  married  Con- 
stantia,  the  girl  of  his  choice.     His  lordship  was  in  alarm 


lest  this  should  be  his  ruin;  but  Sir  Pertinax  told  him 
the  bargain  should  still  remain  good  if  Egerton's  younger 
brother,  Sandy,  were  accepted  by  his  lordship  instead. 
To  this  his  lordship  readily  agreed. 

Lumbercourt,  Lady  Rudolpha,  daughter  of 
Lord  Lumbercourt,  who,  for  a  consideration,  consented 
to  marry  Egerton  McSycophant;  but  as  Egerton  had 
no  fancy  for  the  lady,  she  agreed  to  marry  Egerton's 
brother  Sandy  on  the  same  terms. 

Lure  of  the  Labrador  Wild,  The.  A  recital  of 
the  ill-fated  expedition  to  Labrador  undertaken  by 
Leonidas  Hubbard,  Jr.,  during  the  summer  of  1903. 
The  party  consisted  of  Mr.  Hubbard,  Mr.  Wallace,  and 
a  half-breed  Cree  Indian  named  Elson,  who  proved 
himself  a  veritable  hero,  .^s  is  generally  known,  the 
object  of  the  party  was  to  reach  the  interior  of  Labrador 
over  a  portion  of  that  country  unexplored,  or  at  least 
unmapped  by  white  men.  This  purpose  was  only  par- 
tially carried  out.  The  winter  came  on  long  before 
Hubbard  was  ready  to  turn  back,  the  provisions  were 
exhausted,  game  was  scarce,  and  the  fish  failed  to  rise 
to  the  fly.  On  the  return  journey  toward  the  coast 
Hubbard  gave  out  and  had  to  be  left  behind  until  aid 
could  be  brought.  Wallace  succeeded  in  finding  some 
provisions  which  had  been  thrown  aside  on  the  inland 
trip  and  had  returned  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of 
Hubbard's  tent,  but  without  finding  it.  Elson,  the 
half-breed,  managed  to  reach  a  trapper's  camp  and  sent 
back  a  relief  expedition,  which  picked  up  Wallace,  and 
later  found  the  body  of  Hubbard,  who  had  died  of 
starvation. 

Lusiad,  The.  The  only  Portuguese  poem  that  has 
gained  a  world-wide  celebrity.  It  was  written  by  Luiz 
de  Camoens,  appeared  in  1572,  and  was  entitled  "Os 
Lusiadas,"  the  "  Lusitanians,"  i.  p.,  the  Portuguese —  the 
subject  being  the  conquests  of  that  nation  in  India.  It 
is  divided  into  ten  cantos,  containing  1,102  stanzas.  It 
has  been  translated  into  English,  but  it  has  never  been 
popular  out  of  Portugal.  The  Lusiad  celebrates  the 
chief  events  in  the  history  of  Portugal,  and  is  remarkable 
as  the  only  modern  epic  poem  which  is  pervaded  by  any- 
thing approaching  the  national  and  popular  spirit  of 
ancient  epic  poems.  Bacchus  was  the  guardian  power  of 
the  Mohammedans,  and  Venus  or  Divine  Love  of  the  Lusi- 
ans.  The  fleet  first  sailed  to  Mozambique,  then  to  Melinda 
(in  Africa),  where  the  adventurers  were  hospitably 
received  and  provided  with  a  pilot  to  conduct  them 
to  India.  In  the  Indian  Ocean,  Bacchus  tried  to  de- 
stroy the  fleet;  Venus,  however,  calmed  the  sea,  and 
Gama  arrived  at  India  in  safety.  Having  accomplished  his 
object,  he  returned  to  Lisbon.  Among  the  most  famous 
passages  are  the  tragical  story  of  Inez  de  Castro,  and  the 
apparition  of  the  giant  Adamastor,  who  appears  as  the 
Spirit  of  the  Storm  to  Vasco  de  Gama,  when  crossing  the 
Cape.  The  versification  of  "The  Lusiad"  is  extremely 
charming.  The  best  edition  of  "The  Lusiad"  was  pub- 
lished in  Paris  (1817),  reprinted  in  1819,  and  again,  in 
1823.  "The  Lusiad"  has  been  translated  into  Spanish, 
French,  Italian,  English,  Polish,  and  German. 

Lusitania.  The  ancient  name  of  Portugal;  so  called 
from  Lusus,  the  companion  of  Bacchus  in  his  travels. 
He  colonized  the  country,  and  called  it  "Lusitania,"  and 
the  colonists  "Lusians." 

Lustrum.  The  solemn  offering  made  for  expiation 
and  purification  by  one  of  the  censors  in  the  name  of  the 
Roman  people  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Census.  The 
animals  offered  in  sacrifice  were  a  boar,  sheep,  and  bull. 
They  were  led  round  the  assembled  people  on  the  Campus 
Martius  before  being  sacrificed.  As  the  census  was 
quinquennial,  the  word  "lustrum"  came  to  signify  a 
period  of  five  years. 

Luther's  Postil  Gospels.  Advent,  Christmas,  and 
Epiphany  sermons,  first  published  in  Latin  in  1521,  and 
dedicated  to  his  protector,  the  Elector  Frederick.  Trans- 
lated immediately  into  German,  Luther's  postils,  i.  e., 
homilies,  on  the  Gospels  are  esteemed  the  best  of  his 
sermons. 

Lybius,  Sir.  A  very  young  knight  who  undertook 
to  rescue  the  lady  of  Sinadone.  After  many  adventures 
with  knights,  giants,  and  enchanters,  he  entered  the 
palace.  Presently  the  whole  edifice  fell  to  pieces  and  a 
horrible  serpent  coiled  round  his  neck.  The  spell  being 
broken,  the  serpent  turned  into  the  lady  of  Sinadone 
herself,  rejoicing  in  her  rescue  she  wed  the  young  knight. 
(Liblaux,  a  romance.) 

Lycidas.  The  name  under  which  Milton  celebrates 
the  untimely  death  of  Edward  King,  who  was  drowned 
in  the  passage  from  Chester  to  Ireland,  August  10,  1637. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  John  King,  secretary  for  Ireland. 

Lydia.  Daughter  of  the  King  of  Lydia,  was  sought 
in  marriage  by  Alcestes,  a  Tracian  knight;  his  suit  was 
refused,  and  he  repaired  to  the  King  of  Armenia,  who 
gave  him  an  army,  with  which  he  laid  siege  to  Lydia. 


LITERATURE 


369 


He  was  persuaded  by  the  king's  daughter  to  raise  the 
siege.  The  King  of  Armenia  would  not  give  up  the 
project,  and  Alcestes  slew  him.  Lydia  now  sets  him  all 
sorts  of  dangerous  tasks  to  "prove  his  love,"  all  of  which 
'  he  surmounted.  Lastly,  she  induced  him  to  kill  all  his 
aUies,  and  when  this  was  done  she  mocked  him.  Alcestes 
pined  and  died,  and  Lydia  was  doomed  to  endless  tor- 
ment in  hell,  where  Astolpho  saw  her,  to  whom  she  told 
her  story.      (Orlando  Furioso,  bk.  XVII.) 

Lyd'i-a  Lan'guish.  The  heroine  of  Sheridan's  com- 
edy of  "The  Rivals,"  distinguished  for  the  extravagance 
of  her  romantic  notions. 

Lyre.  The  name  of  the  earliest  known  of  all  stringed 
instruments  of  music,  invented,  according  to  Egyptian 
tradition,  by  the  god  Mercury,  and  regarded  among  poets, 
painters,  and  statuaries  as  an  emblem  of  Apollo  and  the 
Muses.  It  is  supposed  to  have  had,  originally,  only 
three  strings;  afterwards  it  had  eleven.  The  lyre  of 
'Terpander  and  Olympus  had  only  three  strings;  the 
Scythian  lyre  had  five;  that  of  Simonides  had  eight.  It 
was  played  with  a  plectrum,  or  stick  of  ivory  or  polished 
wood,  and  sometimes  with  the  fingers.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  primarily  constructed  of  tortoise-shell.  Amphion 
built  Thebes  with  the  music  of  his  lyre.  The  very  stones 
moved  of  their  own  accord  into  walls  and  houses. 
Ari'on  charmed  the  dolphins  by  the  music  of  his  lyre,  and 
when  the  bard  was  thrown  overboard  one  of  them  carried 
him  safely  to  Tse'narus.  Hercules  was  taught  music  by 
Linus.  One  day,  being  reproved,  the  strong  man  broke 
the  head  of  his  master  with  his  own  lyre.  Orpheus 
charmed  savage  beasts,  and  even  the  infernal  gods,  with 
the  music  of  his  lyre. 

Lyric.  Literally,  pertaining  to  the  lyre.  In  poetry 
a  name  originally  applied  to  what  was  sung  or  recited 
with  an  accompaniment  to  the  lyre,  but  it  is  now  applied 
to  odes,  ballads,  and  other  verses,  such  as  may  be  set  to 
music.  Lyrics  were  originally  employed  in  celebrating 
the  praises  of  gods  and  heroes,  and  its  characteristic  was 
melodiousness.  The  Greeks  cultivated  it  with  effect, 
particularly  Anacreon  and  Sappho,  but  among  the 
Romans,  Horace  was  the  first  and  principal  lyric  poet. 
It  has  been  said  that  all  poets  are  singers  and  these  singers 
are  divided  into  three  classes.  First,  the  lyric  poet,  who 
can  sing  but  one  tune  with  his  one  voice.  Second,  the 
epic  poet,  who  with  his  one  voice  can  sing  several  tunes. 
Third,  the  true  dramatist,  who  has  many  tongues  and 
can  sing  all  tunes. 

Mab,  Queen.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakespere. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  obscure.  By  some  it  is  derived 
from  the  Midgard  of  the  Eddas.  The  name  is  given  by 
the  English  poets  of  the  Fifteenth  and  succeeding  cen- 
turies to  the  imaginary  queen  of  the  fairies. 

Mablnoglon.  A  series  of  Welsh  tales,  chiefly  relating 
to  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table.  A  MS.  volume  of  some 
700  pages  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  Jesus  College, 
Oxford. 

Macbeth.  "The  tale  of  Macbeth  and  Banquo  was 
borrowed  from  the  legendary  history  of  Scotland,  but 
the  interest  of  the  play  is  not  historical.  It  is  a  tragedy 
of  human  life,  intensely  real,  the  soul,  with  all  its  powers 
for  good  or  evil,  deliberately  choosing  evil.  The  three 
witches  in  the  desert  place,  in  thunder,  lightning,  storm, 
strike  the  keynote  of  evil  suggestion.  The  awfulness  of 
soul  destruction  is  felt  in  Macbeth  and  Lady  Macbeth 
as  in  no  other  of  Shakespere's  dramas. 

Mac-heath',  Captain.  A  highwayman  who  is  the 
hero  of  Gay's  "Beggar's  Opera." 

Machlavel'isni.  The  name  came  from  a  writing  by 
Machiavelli,  under  the  title  "  De  Principatibus "  (the 
Prince),  a  famous  treatise,  written  probably  to  gratify 
the  Medici,  and  in  which  are  expounded  those  principles 
of  political  cunning  and  artifice,  intended  to  promote 
arbitrary  power,  ever  since  designated  "  machiavelism." 

Mac-I'vor.  Waverley,  Scott.  Fergas  Mac-Ivor 
is  a  prominent  character  in  the  novel,  and  his  sister, 
Flora  Mac-Ivor,  the  heroine.  They  are  of  the  family  of 
a  Scottish  chieftain. 

Mac'reons,  The  Island  of.  Pantag'ruel,  Rabe- 
lais. The  title  is  given  to  Great  Britain,  derived  from 
a  Greek  word,  meaning  long-lived,  "because  no  one 
is  put  to  death  there  for  his  religious  opinions."  Rabelais 
says  the  island  "  is  full  of  antique  ruins  and  relics  of 
popery  and  ancient  superstitions." 

McFin'gal.  The  hero  of  Trumbull's  political  poem 
of  the  same  name;  represented  as  a  burly  New  England 
squire,  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  Tory  party  of  the 
American  Revolution,  and  constantly  engaged  in  con- 
troversy with  Honorius,  the  champion  of  the  Whigs. 

Madasi'ma,  Queen.  An  important  character  in 
the  old  romance  called  "Am'adis  de  Gaul";  her  con- 
stant attendant  was  Elis'abat,  a  famous  surgeon,  with 
whom  she  roamed  in  solitary  retreats. 


Madge  Wildfire.  The  insane  daughter  of  old  Meg 
Murdochson,  the  gipsy  thief.  Madge  was  a  beautiful  but 
giddy  girl,  whose  brain  was  crazed  by  her  own  downfall 
and  the  murder  of  her  infant. 

Madoc.  A  poem  by  Southey;  is  founded  on  one  of 
the  legends  connected  with  the  early  history  o^  America. 
Madoc,  a  Welsh  prince  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  is  repre- 
sented as  making  the  discovery  of  the  Western  world. 
His  contests  with  the  Mexicans  form  the  subject. 

Madrigal.  Is  a  short  lyric  poem,  generally  on  the 
subject  of  love,  and  characterized  by  some  epigrammatic 
terseness  or  quaintness,  and  composed  of  a  number  of 
free  and  unequal  verses,  confined  neither  to  the  regularity 
of  the  sonnet,  nor  to  the  subtlety  of  the  epigram.  The 
madrigals  of  Tasso  are  noted  in  Italian  poetry. 

Magi.  The  three  "  Wise  Men  "  who  followed  the  star 
to  Bethlehem.  The  traditional  names  of  the  three 
Magi  are  Melchior,  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a 
long  beard,  offering  gold;  Jasper,  a  beardless  youth 
who  offers  frankincense;  Balthazar,  a  black,  or  Moor, 
who  tenders  myrrh. 

Magic  Rings.  These  are  mentioned  by  Plato,  Cicero, 
and  other  writers  and  supposed  to  make  the  wearer  in- 
visible. 

Magic  Staff.  The  story  of  the  magic  staff  belongs 
to  the  days  of  legends  and  seems  to  be  of  French  origin, 
but  has  found  its  way  into  other  lands.  This  staff  would 
guarantee  the  bearer  from  all  the  perils  and  mishaps 
incidental  to  travelers.  According  to  earliest  traditions 
the  staff  was  a  willow  branch  cut  on  the  eve  of  All  Saints' 
Day. 

Magic  Wands.  These  are  found  in  many  old  tales 
or  writings.  In  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  the 
hermit  gave  to  Charles  the  Dane  and  Ubaldo  a  wand, 
which,  being  shaken,  infused  terror  into  all  who  saw  it, 
and  in  Spenser's  Faery  Queen  the  palmer  who  accom- 
panied Sir  Guyon  had  a  wand  of  like  virtue.  It  was 
made  of  the  same  wood  as  Mercury's  caduceus. 

Magna'Iia.  The  best-known  in  the  long  list  of  Cotton 
Mather's  works  was  his  "Magnalia  Christi  Americana," 
purporting  to  be  an  ecclesiastical  history  of  New  Eng- 
land, from  its  first  planting  in  1620  to  the  year  1698, 
but  including  also  civil  history,  an  account  of  Harvard 
College,  of  the  Indian  Wars,  and  the  witchcraft  troubles, 
and  a  large  number  of  biographies. 

Magna'no.  Hudibras,  Butler.  One  of  the  leaders 
of  the  rabble  that  attacked  Hudibras  at  a  bear-baiting. 

Magnificat.  In  the  ritual  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  name  given  to  the  "Song  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,"  derived  from  the  opening  invocation  in  the  Latin 
Vulgate. 

Maidens'  Castle.  An  allegorical  castle  mentioned 
in  Malory's  "History  of  Prince  Arthur."  It  was  taken 
from  a  duke  by  seven  knights,  and  held  by  them  till  Sir 
Galahad  expelled  them.  It  was  called  "The  Maidens' 
Castle,"  because  these  knights  made  a  vow  that  every 
maiden  who  passed  it  should  be  made  a  captive. 

Maid  Alarlan.  A  half  mythical  character,  but  the 
name  is  said  to  have  been  assumed  by  Matilda,  daughter 
of  Robert  Lord  Fitzwalter,  while  Robin  Hood  remained 
in  a  state  of  outlawry.  The  name  is  considered  the  foun- 
dation of  the  word  marionettes,  from  Maid  Marian's 
connection  with  the  Morris  dance,  or  May-day  dance,  at 
which  she  was  said  to  appear. 

Maid  of  Athens.  Made  famous  by  Lord  Byron's 
song  of  this  title.  Twenty-four  years  after  this  song  was 
written,  an  Englishman  sought  out  "  the  Athenian  maid," 
and  found  a  beggar  without  a  vestige  of  beauty. 

Maid  of  Saragossa.  Chllde  Harold,  Byron.  A 
young  Spanish  woman  distinguished  for  her  heroism 
during  the  defense  of  Saragossa  in  1808-09.  She  first 
attracted  notice  by  mounting  a  battery  where  her  lover 
had  fallen,  and  working  a  gun  in  his  room. 

Mal'aprop,  Mrs.  A  character  in  Sheridan's  "Ri- 
vals," noted  for  her  blundering  use  of  words. 

Mal-bec'co.  "Faery  Queen,"  Spenser.  The  hus- 
band of  a  young  wife,  Helinore,  and  himself  a  crabbed, 
jealous  old  fellow. 

Malen'grin.  A  character  in  Spenser's  "  Faery  Queen," 
who  carried  a  net  on  his  back  "to  catch  fools  with." 
The  name  has  grown  to  mean  the  personification  of  guile 
or  flattery. 

Malepar'dus.  The  castle  of  Master  Reynard  the 
Fox,  in  the  beast  epic  of  "Reynard  the  Fox." 

Malvoi'sin.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  the  challeng- 
ing knights  at  the  tournament  (Sir  Philip  de  Malvoisin). 
Sir  Albert  de  Malvoisin  was  a  preceptor  of  the  Knights 
Templar. 

Mambri'no.  Poems,  Ariosto,  etc.  A  king  of  the 
Moors,  who  was  the  possessor  of  an  enchanted  golden 
helmet,  which  rendered  the  wearer  invulnerable,  and 
which  was  the  object  of  eager  quest  to  the  Paladins  of 
Charlemagne.     This    helmet    was    borne   away    by    the 


370 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


knight  Rinaldo.  In  "Don  Quixote"  we  are  told  of  a 
barber  who  was  caught  in  a  shower  of  rain,  and  who,  to 
protect  his  hat,  clapped  his  brazen  basin  on  his  head. 
Don  Quixote  insisted  that  this  basin  was  the  helmet  of 
the  Moorish  king:  and,  taking  possession  of  it,  wore  it 
as  such.  * 

Man'agarm.  Prose  Edda.  The  largest  and  most 
formidable  of  the  race  of  giants.  He  dwells  in  the  Iron- 
wood,  Jamvid.  Managarm  will  first  fill  hinjself  with  the 
blood  of  man,  and  then  will  he  swallow  up  the  moon. 
This  giant  symbolizes  war,  and  the  "Iron  wood"  in 
which  he  dwells  is  the  wood  of  spears. 

Manfred.  Subject  of  a  poem  by  Byron,  written  under 
this  title.  Manfred  sold  himself  to  the  prince  of  dark- 
ness, and  received  from  him  seven  spirits  to  do  his  bid- 
ding. They  were  the  spirits  of  "earth,  ocean,  air,  night, 
mountains,  winds,  and  the  star  of  his  own  destiny." 
Wholly  without  human  sympathies,  the  count  dwelt  in 
splendid  solitude  among  the  Alpine  Mountains.  He 
loved  Astarte,  and  was  visited  by  her  spirit  after  her 
death.  In  spirit  form  she  told  Manfred  that  he  would 
die  the  following  day:  and  when  asked  if  she  loved  him, 
she  sighed  "Manfred,"  and  vanished. 

Mantall'ni.  Nicholas  Nlckleby,  Dickens.  The 
husband  of  madame;  he  is  a  man-doll,  noted  for  his 
white  teeth,  his  oaths,  and  his  gorgeous  morning  gown. 
This  "exquisite"  lives  on  his  wife's  earnings,  and  thinks 
he  confers  a  favor  on  her  by  spending.  Madame  Man- 
talini  is  represented  as  a  fashionable  milliner  near  Caven- 
dish Square,  London. 

Marcel'lus.  Hamlet,  Sliakespere.  An  officer  of 
Denmark,  to  whom  the  ghost  of  the  murdered  king  ap- 
peared before  it  presented  itself  to  Prince  Hamlet. 

Marchioness,  The.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens, 
A  half-starved  maid  of-all-work,  in  the  service  of 
Sampson  Brass  and  his  sister  Sally.  She  was  so  lone- 
some and  dull,  that  it  afforded  her  relief  to  peep  at  Mr. 
Swiveller  even  through  the  keyhole  of  his  door.  Mr. 
Swiveller  called  her  the  "marchioness,"  when  she  played 
cards  with  him,  "because  it  seemed  more  real  and  pleas- 
ant" to  play  with  a  marchioness  than  with  a  domestic. 
While  enjoying  these  games  they  made  the  well-known 
"orange-peel  wine." 

Mariana  in  the  Moated  Grange.  In  Tennyson's 
poem  by  this  name,  a  young  damsel  who  sits  in  the 
moated  grange,  looking  out  for  her  lover,  who  never 
comes.  (2)  In  Shakespere's  "Measure  for  Measure" 
Mariana  is  a  lovely  and  lovable  lady,  betrothed  to 
Angelo,  who,  during  the  absence  of  Vincentio.  the  Duke 
of  Vienna,  acted  as  his  lord  deputy.  Her  pleadings  to 
the  duke  for  Angelo  are  wholly  unrivaled. 

Marplot.  "The  busy  body."  A  blundering,  good- 
natured!  meddlesome  young  man,  very  inquisitive,  too 
officious  by  half,  and  always  bungling  whatever  he  inter- 
feres in.  Character  found  in  comedies  written  by  Mrs. 
Centlivre. 

Martin's  Summer,  St.  Halcyon  days:  a  time  of 
prosperity:  fine  weather.  Mentioned  by  Shakespere 
in  Henry  VI.,  etc. 

Masora.  A  critical  work  or  canon,  whereby  is  fixed 
and  ascertained  the  reading  of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew 
version  of  the  Bible. 

Alasques.  Dramatic  representations  made  for  a 
festive  occasion,  with  a  reference  to  the  persons  present 
and  the  occasion.  Their  personages  were  allegorical. 
They  admitted  of  dialogue,  music,  singing,  and  dancing, 
combined  by  the  use  of  some  ingenious  fable  into  a  whole. 
They  were  made  and  performed  for  the  court  and  the 
houses  of  the  nobles,  and  the  scenery  was  gorgeous  and 
varied.  According  to  Holinshed's  Chronicle,  the  first 
masque  performed  in  England  was  at  Greenwich,  in 
1512.  Shakespere,  as  well  as  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
have  frequently  introduced  masques  into  their  plays. 
Milton  himself  made  them  worthier  by  writing  "Comus." 
H.  W.  Longfellow  wrote  the  "Masque  of  Pandora," 
taking  the  story  from  Hawthorne's  "Wonder  Book." 

Mauth  Dog.  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  Scott. 
A  black  specter  spaniel  that  haunted  the  guard-room  of 
Peeltown  m  the  Isle  of  Man.  A  drunken  trooper  entered 
the  guard-room  while  the  dog  was  there,  but  lost  his 
speech,  and  died  within  three  days. 

Mavournin.     Irish  for  "darling." 

May'eux.  The  name  of  a  hunchback,  who  figures 
prominently  in  numberless  French  caricatures  and  ro- 
mances. 

Mazep'pa.  Poem,  Byron.  Mazeppa  in  poem 
under  same  title  was  a  Cossack  of  noble  family  who  be- 
came a  page  in  the  court  of  the  King  of  Poland,  and  while 
in  this  capacity  intrigued  with  Theresia,  the  young  wife 
of  a  count,  who  discovered  the  amour,  and  had  the 
young  page  lashed  to  a  wild  horse,  and  turned  adrift. 

Measure  for  Measure.  Shakespere.  There  was 
a  law  in  Vienna  that  made  it  death  for  a  man  to  live  with 


a  woman  not  his  wife;  but  the  law  was  so  little  enforced 
that  the  mothers  of  Vienna  complained  to  the  duke  of 
its  neglect.  So  the  duke  deputed  Angelo  to  enforce  it: 
and,  assuming  the  dress  of  a  friar,  absented  himself 
awhile,  to  watch  the  result.  Scarcely  was  the  duke  gone, 
when  Claudio  was  sentenced  to  death  for  violating  the 
law.  His  sister  Isabel  went  to  intercede  on  his  behalf, 
and  Angelo  told  her  he  would  spare  her  brother  if  she 
would  become  his  Phryne.  Isabel  told  her  brother  he 
must  prepare  to  die,  as  the  conditions  proposed  by  Angelo 
were  out  of  the  question.  The  duke,  disguised  as  a  friar, 
heard  the  whole  story,  and  persuaded  Isabel  to  "assent 
in  words,"  but  to  send  Mariana  (the  divorced  wife  of 
Angelo)  to  take  her  place.  This  was  done:  but  Angelo 
sent  the  provost  to  behead  Claudio,  a  crime  which  "  the 
friar"  contrived  to  avert.  Next  day,  the  duke  returned 
to  the  city,  and  Lsabel  told  her  tale.  The  end  was,  the 
duke  married  Isabel,  Angelo  took  back  his  wife,  and 
Claudio  married  Juliet. 

Meeting  of  the  Waters.  Title  of  a  poem  by  Moore, 
better  kndwn  under  the  name  "Sweet  Vale  of  Avoca." 
"The  Meeting  of  the  Waters  "  forms  a  part  of  that  beauti- 
ful scenery  which  lies  between  Rathdrum  and  Arklow, 
in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  Ireland:  and  these  lines  were 
suggested  by  a  visit  to  this  romantic  spot  in  the  summer 
of  1807. 

Meg  Mer'rilies.  A  prominent  character  in  Scott's 
"Guy  Mannering,"  a  half-crazy  gypsy  or  sibyl. 

Meis'tersingers.  In  Germany  an  association  of 
master  tradesmen,  to  revive  the  national  minstrelsy, 
which  had  fallen  into  decay  with  the  decline  of  the  min- 
nesingers or  love-minstrels  (1350-1523).  Their  subjects 
were  chiefly  moral  or  religious,  and  constructed  according 
to  rigid  rules. 

Meis'ter,  Wilhelm.  Hero  and  title  of  a  philosophic 
novel  by  Goethe.  The  object  is  to  show  that  man,  de- 
spite his  errors  and  shortcomings,  is  led  by  a  guiding 
hand,  and  reaches  some  higher  aim  at  last.  This  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  first  true  German  novel. 

Melis'sa.  Orlando  Furioso,  Ariosto.  The 
prophetess  who  lived  in  Merlin's  cave.  Brad'amant  gave 
her  the  enchanted  ring  to  take  to  Roge'ro :  so,  assuming 
the  form  of  Atlantes,  she  not  only  delivered  Roge'ro, 
but  disenchanted  all  the  forms  metamorphosed  in  the 
island,  where  he  was  captive. 

Mel'notte,  Claude.  Lady  of  Lyons,  Bulwer. 
The  son  of  a  gardener  in  love  with  Pauline,  "the  Beauty 
of  Lyons,"  but  treated  by  her  with  contempt.  Beause- 
ant  and  Glavis,  two  other  rejected  suitors,  conspired 
with  him  to  humble  her. 

3Ielyhalt.  A  powerful  female  subject  of  King  Ar- 
thur's court.  Sir  Galiot  invaded  her  domain,  but  she 
forgave  his  trespass  and  chose  him  for  her  knight  and 
chevalier. 

RIenard.  The  Road  to  Frontenac,  Merwln.  The 
hero  of  the  novel,  a  leader  among  Indians  and  white  men 
during  the  making  of  New  France.  From  Quebec  he 
goes  west,  holding  control  of  affairs  in  spite  of  treachery 
in  both  races.  His  companions  are  chiefly  French,  amid 
whom  figure  a  Jesuit  and  two  Indians,  and  the  story 
contains  much  of  that  romantic  charm  peculiar  to  early 
French  pioneer  life,  whence  Longfellow  and  other  poets 
and  story-tellers  have  drawn  inspiration. 

Mengtse.  The  fourth  of  the  sacred  books  of  China, 
so  called  from  its  author,  Mengtse,  Latinized  into  Men- 
cius.  This  great  work  was  written  in  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury B.  C,  and  contains  the  wisdom  of  the  age.  These 
are  some  of  its  teachings:     "Humanity,  righteousness, 

f)ropriety,  knowledge,  are  as  natural  to  man  as  his  four 
imbs."  "Humanity  is  internal,  righteousness  is  exter- 
nal." In  this  same  book  Mencius  taught  that  govern- 
ment is  from  God,  but  for  the  people  whose  welfare  is 
the  supreme  good.  The  phrase  "mother  of  Meng," 
which  has  been  borrowed  from  the  Chinese,  signifies  "a 
great  teacher." 

Menteur',  Le(Fr.  The  Liar).  Comedy  by  Comellle. 
The  propensities  of  the  leading  character  give  the  play 
its  name  and  lead  to  the  complications  of  the  plot.  This 
is  generally  considered  Corneille's  best  comedy  and  the 
most  imf)ortant  before  the  time  of  Molifere. 

Merchant's  Tale,  The.  Chaucer.  Is  substantially 
the  same  aa  the  first  Latin  metrical  tale  of  Adolphus.  and 
is  not  unlike  a  Latin  prose  tale  given  in  the  appendix  of 
Wright's  edition  of  jEsop's  Fables.  It  is  the  story  of 
the  betrayal  of  an  old  husband  by  a  young  wife.  The 
story  is  evidently  of  Oriental  origin  and  very  old.  Boc- 
caccio and  Chaucer  may  have  borrowed  it  from  the 
"Commedia  Lydise."  The  well-known  incident  of  the 
pear  tree  is  found  in  all  these  sources.  An  interesting 
account  of  these  sources  has  been  given  by  the  Chaucer 
Society  Publications  under  "Origins  and  Analogues  of 
the  rrales."  Pope  used  this  story  as  his  basis  for  "January 
and  May." 


LITERATURE 


371 


Merchant  of  Venice.  Antonio,  the  merchant,  in 
Shakespere's  play,  signs  a  bond  in  order  to  borrow  money 
from  Shylock,  a  Jew,  for  Bassino,  the  lover  of  Portia. 
If  the  loan  was  repaid  within  three  months,  only  the 
principal  would  be  required :  if  not,  the  Jew  should  be 
at  liberty  to  claim  a  pound  of  flesh  from  Antonio's  body. 
The  ships  of  Antonio  being  delayed  by  contrary  winds, 
the  merchant  was  unable  to  meet  his  bill,  and  the  Jew 
claimed  the  forfeiture.  Portia,  in  the  dress  of  a  law 
doctor,  conducted  the  defense,  and  saved  Antonio  by 
reminding  the  Jew  that  a  pound  of  flesh  gave  him  no 
drop  of  blood. 

Merlin,  The  name  of  an  ancient  Welsh  prophet  and 
enchanter.  He  is  often  alluded  to  by  the  older  poets, 
especially  Spenser,  in  his  "  Faery  Queen,"  and  also  figures 
in  Tennyson's  "Idylls  of  the  King."  In  the  "History 
of  Prince  Arthur"  by  Malory,  Merlin  is  the  prince  of 
enchanters  and  of  a  supernatural  origin.  He  is  said  to 
have  built  the  Round  Table  and  to  have  brought  from 
Ireland  the  stones  of  Stonehenge  on  Salisbury  Plain. 

Merlin's  Cave.  In  Dynevor,  near  Carmarthen, 
noted  for  its  ghastly  noises  of  rattling  iron  chains,  groans, 
and  strokes  of  hammers.  The  cause  is  this:  Merlin  set 
his  spirits  to  fabricate  a  brazen  wall  to  encompass  the 
city  of  Carmarthen,  and,  as  he  had  to  call  on  the  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  bade  them  not  slacken  their  labor  till  he 
returned;  but  he  never  did  return,  for  Vivian  held  him 
prisoner  by  her  wiles. 

Messiah,  The.  An  epic  poem  in  fifteen  books,  by 
F.  G.  Klopstock.  The  subject  is  the  last  days  of  Jesus, 
His  crucifixion  and  resurrection. 

Midsummer  Night's  Dream.  Egeus  promised  his 
daughter,  Hermia,  to  Demetrius.  She  loved  Lysander 
and  fled  from  Athens  with  her  lover.  Demetrius  went 
in  pursuit  of  her,  followed  by  Helena,  who  doted  on  him. 
All  four  came  to  a  forest  and  fell  asleep.  Oberon  and 
Tita'nia  had  quarreled,  and  Oberon,  by  way  of  punish- 
ment, dropped  on  Titania's  eyes  during  sleep  some  love- 
juice,  or  "  Love  in  Idleness,  '  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
make  the  sleeper  fall  in  love  with  the  first  thing  seen 
when  waking.  The  first  thing  seen  by  Titania  was  Bot- 
tom the  weaver,  wearing  an  ass's  head.  In  the  mean- 
time King  Oberon  dispatched  Puck  to  the  lovers  and 
with  the  juice  Puck  changed  their  vision  and  made  all 
content.  It  has  been  suggested  that  in  this  play  Shakes- 
pere  may  have  borrowed  hints  from  Chaucer.  "The 
Tempest"  and  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  are  called 
Shakespere's  fairy  plays. 

Miiden'do.  Gulliver's  Travels,  Swift.  The 
metropolis  of  Lilliput,  the  wall  of  which  was  two  feet 
and  a  half  in  height,  and  at  least  eleven  inches  thick. 
The  emperor's  palace,  called  Belfab'orac,  was  in  the 
center  of  the  city. 

Miles  Standlsh.  In  "Courtship  of  Miles  Standish," 
a  poem  by  H.  W.  Longfellow.  From  this  poem  the  ro- 
bust figures  of  the  Puritan  captain,  in  his  haps  and  mis- 
haps, and  of  John  Alden  and  Priscilla,  are  now  part  of 
our  national  treasures. 

Miller,  Daisy.  Name  of  heroine  and  title  of  the 
story  by  Henry  James.  An  American  girl  traveling  in 
Europe,  where  her  innocence,  ignorance,  and  disregard 
of  European  customs  and  standards  of  propriety,  put 
her  in  compromising  situations  and  frequently  expose 
her  conduct  to  misconstruction. 

Mlnneha'ha.  Hiawatha,  H.  W.  Longfellow. 
The  daughter  of  the  arrow-maker  of  Daco'tah,  and  wife 
of  Hiawatha.  She  was  called  Minnehaha  from  the 
waterfall  of  that  name. 

Mlnnesangers,  or  Minnesingers.  A  name  given 
to  the  German  lyric  poets  of  the  Middle  Ages,  on  account 
of  love  being  the  principal  theme  of  their  lays,  the  Ger- 
man word  "minne"  being  used  to  denote  a  pure  and 
faithful  love. 

Miracle  Plays.     See  "Mysteries." 

Miranda.  The  Tempest,  Shakespere.  The 
daughter  of  Prospero  the  exiled  Duke  of  Milan,  and 
niece  of  Antonio,  the  usurping  duke.  She  is  brought 
up  on  a  desert  island,  with  Ariel,  the  fairy  spirit,  and 
Cal'iban,  the  monster,  as  her  only  companions. 

Mir'l-am.  A  beautiful  and  mysterious  woman  in 
Hawthorne's  romance  "The  Marble  Faun,"  for  love  of 
whom  Donatello  comrnits  murder,  thus  becoming  her 
partner  in  crime. 

Miserere.  A  title  given  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  the  fifty-first  Psalm,  usually  called  the  "psalm 
of  mercy." 

Morality,  The.  An  old  play  in  which  the  characters 
were  the  Vices  and  Virtues,  with  the  addition  after- 
wards of  allegorical  personages,  such  as  P.,iches,  Good 
Deeds,  Confession,  Death,  and  any  human  condition  or 
quality  needed  for  the  play.  These  characters  were 
brought  together  in  a  rough  story,  at  the  end  of  which 
Virtue  triumphed. 


Morris  Dance.  Or  the  Moorish  dance,  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  It  was 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  May  Day  and  other  outdoor 
festivities. 

Morituri  Salutamis.  A  "hymn  to  age,"  written 
by  H.  W.  Longfellow,  for  the  jubilee  reunion  of  Bowdoin's 
Class  of  1825.  It  contains  a  number  of  classic  allusions, 
and  an  entire  tale  from  the  "Gesta  Romanorum." 

Mortality,  Old.  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A  religious 
itinerant,  who  frequented  country  churchyards  and  the 
graves  of  the  covenanters.  He  was  first  discovered  at 
Gandercleugh,  clearing  the  moss  from  the  grey  tomb- 
stones, renewing  with  his  chisel  the  half-defaced  inscrip- 
tions, and  repairing  the  decorations  of  the  tombs. 

Mu'alox.  The  Fair  God,  Lew  Wallace.  The 
old  paba  or  prophet  who  assured  Nenetzin  that  she  was 
to  be  the  future  queen  in  her  father's  palace. 

Muck'lebacket.  The  Antiquary,  Scott.  Name  of 
a  conspicuous  family,  consisting  of  Saunders  Muckle- 
backet,  the  old  fisherman  of  Musselcrag;  Old  Elspeth, 
mother  of  Saunders ;  Maggie,  wife  of  Saunders ;  Steenie, 
the  eldest  son,  who  was  drowned;  Little  Jennie,  Saun- 
ders' child. 

Munchau'sen,  The  Baron.  A  hero  of  most  mar- 
velous adventures,  and  the  fictitious  author  of  a  book 
of  travels  filled  with  most  extravagant  tales.  The  name 
is  said  to  refer  to  Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich  von  Mun- 
chausen, a  German  officer  in  the  Russian  Army,  noted 
for  his  marvelous  stories. 

Mussel  Slough  Affair.  Octopus,  Norris.  The 
basis  of  plot  for  the  novel  and  name  given  to  an  actual 
piece  of  history  almost  unknown  in  the  East  when  the 
wheat-growers  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  came  into 
conflict  with  the  railroad  which  they  believed  was  try- 
ing to  defraud  them  of  their  land. 

My'steries  and  3Iiracle-plays.  Were  dramas 
founded  on  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  performed  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  first  in  churches,  and  afterwards  in  the 
streets  on  fixed  or  movable  stages.  The  mystery  was 
a  representation  of  any  portion  of  the  New  Testament 
history  concerned  with  a  mysterious  subject,  such  as  the 
Incarnation,  the  Atonement,  or  the  Resurrection.  Mira- 
cles and  mysteries  were  popular  in  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  England.  The  fathers  of  the  Reforma- 
tion showed  no  unfriendly  feeling  towards  them.  Luther 
is  reported  to  have  said  that  they  often  did  more  good 
.and  produced  more  impression  than  sermons.  In  the 
alpine  districts  of  Germany,  miracle-plays  were  com- 
posed and  acted  by  the  peasants.  They  at  last  began 
to  partake  to  a  limited  extent  of  the  burlesque,  which 
had  brought  miracle-plays  into  disrepute  elsewhere. 
In  England,  the  greatest  check  they  received  was  from 
the  rise  of  the  secular  drama.  The  first  miracle-plays 
were  an  expedient  employed  by  the  clergy  for  giving 
religious  instruction  to  the  people,  and  for  extending 
and  strengthening  the  influence  of  the  Church.  The 
earliest  "  Miracle  "  on  record  is  the  "  Play  of  Si.  Cather- 
ine," which  was  written  about  1119,  in  French,  and  was 
a  rude  picture  of  the  miracles  and  martyrdom  of  that 
saint.  Some  of  the  titles  of  these  old  plays  are  the 
"Creation  of  the  World,"  the  "Fall  of  Man,"  the  story 
of  "Cain  and  Abel,"  the  "Crucifixion  of  Our  Lord," 
the  "Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  "The  Play  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,"  the  "Deluge."  They  were  gen- 
erally written  in  mixed  prose  and  verse.  It  was  necessary 
to  introduce  some  comic  enlivenment,  and  this  was  done 
by  representing  the  wicked  personages  of  the  drama  as 
placed  in  ludicrous  situations.  The  devil  generally 
played  the  part  of  the  clown  or  jester. 

Na'la.  A  legendary  King  of  India,  whose  love  for 
Damayanti  and  subsequent  misfortunes  have  supplied 
subjects  for  numerous  poems. 

Natty  Bumppo.  Called  "Leather-stockings."  He 
appears  in  five  of  Cooper's  novels:  (1)  "iThe  Deer- 
slayer";  (2)  "The  Pathfinder";  (3)  "The  Hawkeye," 
in  "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans";  (4)  "Natty  Bumppo," 
in  "The  Pioneers";  and  (5)  as  "The  Trapper,"  in  "The 
Prairie,"  in  which  he  dies. 

Neae'ra.  The  name  of  a  girl  mentioned  by  the  Latin 
poets,  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Tibullus;  sometimes  also 
introduced  into  modern  pastoral  poetry  as  the  name  of 
a  mistress  or  sweetheart. 

Nepen'the.  A  care-dispelling  drug,  which  Polydam- 
na,  wife  of  Tho'nis,  King  of  Egypt,  gave  to  Helen.  A 
drink  containing  this  drug  "changed  grief  to  mirth, 
melancholy  to  joyfulness,  and  hatred  to  love."  The 
water  of  Ardenne  had  the  opposite  effects.  Homer 
mentions  this  drug  nepenthe  in  his  "Odyssey."  It  is 
also  mentioned  in  Poe's  "Raven." 

Nest  of  Linnets.  Title  given  to  a  story  by  F  F. 
Moore,  a  sequel  to  his  "Jessamy  Bride,"  and  noted  for 
the  group  of  people  collected.     Richard  Brinsley  Sheri- 


372 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


dan  may  be  called  its  hero,  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  lover 
of  its  heroine,  Miss  Linley,  the  famous  singer,  who  be- 
came Sheridan's  first  wife.  The  whole  remarkable  fam- 
ily to  which  she  belonged  give  title  to  the  book.  Gar- 
rick  Goldsmith,  Sir  Joshua,  Mrs.  Thrale,  Dr.  Johnson, 
Thomas  Sheridan,  elocutionist  and  lexicographer,  and 
father  of  Richard,  Burke,  and  others. 

Nestor.  The  name  dates  to  ancient  Grecian  legend. 
Homer  makes  him  the  great  counselor  of  the  Grecian 
chiefs,  and  extols  his  eloquence  as  superior  even  to  that 
of  Ulysses.  His  authority  was  even  considered  equal 
to  that  of  the  immortal  gods.  Hence  the  name  is  often 
found  in  literature  as  an  appellation  denoting  wisdom. 
Bryant  has  been  called  "The  Nestor  of  Our  Poets." 

New  Atlantis,  The.  An  imaginary  island  in  the 
middle  of  the  Atlantic.  Bacon,  in  his  allegorical  fiction 
so  called,  supposes  himself  wrecked  on  this  island,  where 
he  finds  an  association  for  the  cultivation  of  natural 
science  and  the  promotion  of  arts.  Called  the  "New" 
Atlantis  to  distinguish  it  from  Plato's  Atlantis,  an 
imaginary  island  of  fabulous  charms. 

Newcome,  Colonel.  A  gallant,  simple-hearted  gen- 
tleman, a  retired  East  Indian  officer,  in  Thackeray's 
novel  "The  Newcomes."  His  unworldliness  leads  to 
the  loss  of  his  fortune,  and  he  finally  dies,  poor  and 
broken-hearted,  in  the  Charter  House  hospital. 

New  England  Primer.  A  book  quoted  as  specimen 
of  literature  for  children  in  early  American  days.  A 
copy  of  the  New  England  Primer,  published  in  Walpole, 
N.  H.,  in  1814,  contains  an  illustrated  alphabet.  The 
letter  "L"  is  illustrated  by  a  lion  with  one  of  its  paws 
resting  upon  a  lamb  which  is  lying  down,  and  the  follow- 
ing lines: 

"  The  Lion  bold 
The  Lamb  doth  hold." 

New  England  Tragedies.  Among  the  poems  of 
H.  W.  Longfellow  are  the  "New  England  Tragedies," 
and  the  "Divine  Tragedy."  These,  it  is  said,  are  to  be 
taken  in  connection  with  "The  Golden  Legend,"  the 
whole  forming  one  connected  work  of  art,  somewhat  as 
do  the  successive  Arthurian  legends  of  Tennyson. 

New  Jerusalem.  The  name  by  which  in  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  heaven,  or  the  abode  of  the  redeemed,  is 
symbolized.  The  allusion  is  to  the  description  in  the 
twenty-first  chapter  of  the  Book  of  Revelation. 

New  Pastoral.  A  poem  by  T.  B.  Read,  truly  Amer- 
ican in  character  like  its  companion  poem,  "The  Wag- 
oner of  the  Alleghanies."  The  "  New  Pastoral "  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  sketches  of  rustic  and  domestic  life, 
mostly  of  primitive  simplicity,  and  so  truthful  as  to  be 
not  less  valuable  as  history  than  attractive  as  poetry. 

Nibelung,  King.  A  king  of  the  Nibelungen,  a  myth- 
ical Burgundian  tribe,  who  gives  name  to  the  great 
mediseval  epic  of  Germany,  the  "Nibelungen  Lied."  He 
bequeathed  to  his  two  sons  a  hoard  or  treasure  beyond 
all  price  and  incapable  of  diminution,  which  was  won 
by  Siegfried,  who  made  war  upon  the  Nibelungen  and 
conquered  them. 

Nibelungen  Lied.  A  historic  poem  generally  called 
the  German  "Iliad."  It  is  the  only  great  national  epic 
that  European  writers  have  produced  since  antiquity, 
and  belongs  to  every  country  that  has  been  peopled  by 
Germanic  tribes,  as  it  includes  the  hero  traditions  of  the 
Franks,  the  Burgundians  and  the  Goths,  with  memor- 
ials of  the  ancient  myths  carried  with  them  from  Asia. 
The  poem  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  thirty-two  lieds 
or  cantos.  The  first  part  ends  with  the  death  of  Sieg- 
fried, and  the  second  part  with  the  death  of  Kriemhild. 
The  death  of  Siegfried  and  the  revenge  of  Kriemhild 
have  been  celebrated  in  popular  songs  dating  back  to 
the  lyric  chants  now  a  thousand  years  old.  These  are 
the  foundation  of  the  great  poem. 

Nick'leby,  Mrs.  Nicholas  Niclileby,  Dickens. 
The  mother  of  the  hero,  Nicholas,  a  widow  fond  of  talk- 
ing and  of  telling  long  stories  with  no  connection.  She 
imagined  her  neighbor,  a  mildly  insane  man,  was  in 
love  with  her  because  he  tossed  cabbages  and  other 
articles  over  the  garden  wall.  She  had  a  habit  of  intro- 
ducing, in  conversation,  topics  wholly  irrelevant  to  the 
subject  under  consideration,  and  of  always  declaring, 
when  anything  unanticipated  occurred,  that  she  had 
expected  it  all  along,  and  had  prophesied  to  that  precise 
effect  on  divers  (unknown)  occasions.  Nicholas  Nick- 
leby  has  to  make  his  own  way  in  the  world.  He  first 
goes  as  usher  to  Mr.  Squeers,  schoolmaster  at  Dotheboys 
Hall;  but  leaves  in  disgust  with  the  tyranny  of  Squeers 
and  his  wife,  especially  to  a  poor  boy  named  Smike. 
Smike  runs  away  from  the  school  to  "follow  Nicholas, 
and  remains  his  humble  follower  till  death.  At  Ports- 
mouth, Nicholas  joins  the  theatrical  company  of  Mr. 
Crummies,  but  leaves  the  profession  for  other  adven- 
tures. He  falls  in  with  the  brothers  Cherryble,  who 
make  him  their  clerk;    and  in  this  post  he  rises  to  be- 


come a  merchant,  and  ultimately  marries  Madeline  Bray. 

Nicknames  by  States.  Names  given  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  different  States  by  popular  use:  Alabama, 
lizards;  Arkan'sas,  tooth-picks;  Californ'ia,  gold-hunt- 
ers; Colora'do,  rovers;  Connec'ticut,  wooden  nutmegs; 
Del'aware,  musk-rats;  Flor'ida,  fly-up-the-creeks ;  Geor'- 
gia,  buzzards;  Illinois,  suckers;  Indiana,  hoosiers; 
Iowa,  hawk-eyes;  Kansas,  jay-hawkers;  Kentucky, 
corn-crackers;  Louisiana,  Creoles;  Maine,  foxes;  Mary- 
land, craw-thumpers;  Mich'igan,  wolverines;  Minne- 
sot'a,  gophers;  Mississip'pi,  tadpoles;  Missou'ri,  pukes; 
Nebras'ka,  bug-eaters;  Neva'da,  sage-hens;  New 
Hampshire,  granite  boys;  New  Jersey,  blues  or  clam- 
catchers;  New  York,  knickerbockers;  North  Caroli'na, 
tar-boilers  and  tuckoes;  Ohio,  buck-eyes;  Or'egoh, 
web-feet  and  hard-cases;  Pennsylva'nia,  Pennanites 
and  leather-heads;  Rhode  Island,  gun-flints;  South 
Caroli'na,  weasels;  Tennessee',  whelps;  Texas,  beef- 
heads;  Vermont,  Green  Mountain  boys;  Virgin'ia, 
beadies;    Wisconsin,  badgers. 

Nine  Worthies,  The.  Famous  personages  often 
alluded  to,  and  classed  together,  rather  in  an  arbitrary 
manner,  like  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  etc.  They  have  been  counted 
up  in  the  following  manner: 

)1.  Hector,  son  of  Priam. 
2.  Alexander  the  Great. 
3.  Julius  Caesar. 

J  4.  Joshua,  Conqueror  of  Canaan. 
5.  David,  King  of  Israel. 
6.  Judas  Maccabseus. 
I  7.  Arthur,  King  of  Britain. 

Three  Christians.  <  8.  Charlemagne. 

(  9.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

Noctes  Ambrosia'nae.  A  series  of  convivial  fable 
talk,  full  of  humor,  although  local  in  subject.  They 
hold  a  high  place  in  genial  or  recreative  literature.  They 
were  mostly  written  by  "  Christ&pher  North,"  the  real 
John  Wilson,  and  it  is  said  that  while  Lockhart  was 
writing  "Vale'rius,"  he  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  walks 
with  Professor  Wilson  every  morning,  and  of  supping 
with  Blackwood  at  Ambrose's,  a  small  tavern  in  Edin- 
burgh. One  night  Lockhart  said,  "What  a  pity  there 
has  not  been  a  short-hand  writer  here  to  take  down  all 
the  good  things  that  have  been  said"!  and  next  day  he 
produced  a  paper  from  memory,  and  called  it  "Noctes 
Ambrosiana;."     That  was  the  first  of  the  series. 

North  Americans  of  Yesterday.  Name  given  to 
the  Indians  of  North  America  by  recent  writers,  among 
them  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh  in  a  work  under  same  title. 
This  work,  a  comparative  study  of  North  American 
Indian  life  and  customs,  is  written  on  the  theory  that 
the  races  are  of  ethnic  unity. 

Nourmahal'.  Lalia  Rookh,  Moore.  "Light  of 
the  Haram,"  She  was  for  a  season  estranged  from  the 
sultan,  till  he  gave  a  grand  banquet,  at  which  she  ap- 
peared in  disguise  as  a  lute-player  and  singer.  The 
sultan  was  so  enchanted  with  her  performance,  that  he 
exclaimed,  "  If  Nourmahal  had  so  played  and  sung,  I 
i  could  forgive  her  all " ;  whereupon  the  sultana  threw 
off  her  mask. 

Novum  Organum.  The  noted  work  of  Roger 
Bacon,  showing  his  system  of  philosophy.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1820. 

Nuc'ta.  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  Moore.  The 
name  given  to  the  miraculous  drop  which  falls  from 
heaven,  in  Egypt,  on  St.  John's  Day,  and  is  supposed 
to  stop  the  plague. 

Nun  of  Nidaros.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Long- 
fellow. The  abbess  of  the  Drontheim  convent,  who 
heard  the  voice  of  St.  John  while  she  was  kneeling  at 
her  midnight  devotions. 

Nut-Brown  Maid.  Reliques,  Percy.  The  maid 
who  was  wooed  by  the  "banished  man.  '  The  "ban- 
ished man  "  describes  to  her  the  hardships  she  would 
have  to  undergo  if  she  married  him;  but  finding  that 
she  accounted  these  hardships  as  nothing  compared  with 
his  love,  he  revealed  himself  to  be  an  earl's  son,  with 
large  hereditary  estates  in  Westmoreland,  and  married 
her. 

O'bermann.  The  impersonation  of  high  moral  worth 
without  talent,  and  the  tortures  endured  by  the  con- 
sciousness of  this  defect.  This  name  was  given  to  the 
hero  and  imaginary  author  of  a  work  of  the  same  name 
by  Etienne  Pivert  de  Senancourt,  a  French  writer. 

O'beron.  King  of  the  Fairies,  whose  wife  was 
Titania.  Shakespere  introduces  both  Oberon  and 
Titania  in  his  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream."  He  and 
Titania,  his  queen,  are  fabled  to  have  lived  in  India, 
and  to  have  crossed  the  seas  to  Northern  Europe  to 
dance  by  the  light  of  the  moon. 

O'beron  the  Fay.  A  humpty  dwarf  only  three  feet 
high,  but  of  angeUc  face,  lord  and  king  of  Mommur. 


LITERATURE 


373 


Odyssey.  Homer's  epic,  recording  the  adventures 
of  Odysseus  ("Ulysses")  in  his  voyage  home  from  Troy. 
The  poem  opens  in  the  island  of  Calypso,  with  a  com- 
plaint against  Neptune  and  Calypso  for  preventing  the 
return  of  Odysseus  to  Ithaca.  Telemachos,  the  son  of 
Odysseus,  starts  in  search  of  his  father,  accompanied 
by  Pallas  in  the  guise  of  Mentor.  He  goes  to  Pylos, 
to  consult  old  Nestor,  and  is  sent  by  him  to  Sparta; 
where  he  is  told  by  Menelaus  that  Odysseus  is  detained 
in  the  island  of  Calyp.so.  In  the  meantime,  Odysseus 
leaves  the  island,  and,  being  shipwrecked,  is  cast  on  the 
shore  of  Phseacia.  After  twenty  years'  absence  Odys- 
seus returns  to  his  home.  Penelope  is  tormented  by 
suitors.  To  excuse  herself,  Penelope  tells  her  suitors 
he  only  shall  be  her  husband  who  can  bend  Odysseus]s 
bow.  None  can  do  so  but  the  stranger,  who  bends  it 
with  ease.  Odysseus  is  recognized  by  his  wife,  and  the 
false  suitors  are  all  slain  and  peace  is  restored  to  Ithaca. 

Offertory.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  a  form 
of  words,  in  the  first  part  of  the  Mass,  by  which  the 
priest  offers  the  elements  previously  to  their  consecra- 
tion. In  the  English'  communion  service,  the  sentences 
read  by  the  officiating  clergyman,  while  the  people  are 
making  their  offerings. 

O'gier  the  Dane.  One  of  the  paladins  of  the  Charle- 
magne epoch.  Also  made  the  hero  of  an  ancient  French 
romance,  and  the  subject  of  a  ballad,  whose  story  is 
probably  a  contribution  from  the  stores  of  Norman  tra- 
dition, Holger,  or  Olger  Danske,  being  the  national  hero 
of  Denmark.     He  figures  in  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso." 

O'Groat'.  A  name  often  alluded  to  in  early  English 
parables  or  sayings  coming  from  the  legend  of  "John 
O'Groat's  House."  This  ancient  building  was  supposed 
to  stand  on  the  most  northerly  point  in  Great  Britain. 
John  of  Groat  and  his  brothers  were  originally  from 
Holland.  According  to  tradition,  the  house  was  of  an 
octagonal  shape,  being  one  room  with  eight  windows 
and  eight  doors,  to  admit  eight  members  of  the  family, 
the  heads  of  eight  different  branches  of  it,  to  prevent 
their  quarrels  for  precedence  at  table,  which,  on  a  pre- 
vious occasion,  had  well-nigh  proved  fatal. 

Oldbuck,  Jonathan.  Antiquary,  Scott.  The  char- 
acter whose  whimsies  gave  name  to  the  novel.  He  is 
represented  as  devoted  to  the  study  and  accumulation 
of  old  coins,  medals,  and  relics.  He  is  irritable,  sar- 
castic, and  cynical  from  an  early  disappointment  in 
love,  but  full  of  humor  and  a  faithful  friend. 

Old  Man  of  the  Sea.  In  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  a 
monster  encountered  by  Sindbad  the  sailor  in  hia  fifth 
voyage.  After  carrying  him  upon  his  shoulders  a  long 
time,  Sindbad  at  last  succeeds  in  intoxicating  him,  and 
effects  his  escape.  The  "Old  Man  of  the  Sea"  was  also 
made  the  title  of  a  humorous  and  well-known  poem  by 
O.  W.  Holmes. 

Old  Red  Sandstone.  One  of  the  most  noted  of 
Hugh  Miller's  famous  writings  on  geological  subjects. 
It  revealed  his  discovery  of  fossils  in  a  formation  which, 
up  to  that  time,  had  been  deemed  almost  destitute  of 
them. 

Oliver.  As  You  Like  It,  Shakespere.  Son  and 
heir  of  Sir  Rowland  de  Bois,  who  hated  his  youngest 
brother,  Orlando,  and  whom  be  planned  to  murder  by 
indirect  methods.  Orlando,  finding  it  impossible  to 
live  in  his  brother's  house,  fled  to  the  forest  of  Arden, 
where  he  joined  the  society  of  the  banished  duke.  Oli- 
ver pursued  him,  and  as  he  slept  in  the  forest,  a  snake 
and  a  lioness  lurked  near  to  make  him  their  prey.  Or- 
lando chanced  to  be  passing,  slew  the  two  monsters 
and  then  found  that  the  sleeper  was  his  brother  Oliver. 
Oliver's  feelings  underwent  a  change,  and  he  loved  his 
brother  as  much  as  he  had  before  hated  him.  In  the 
forest,  the  two  brothers  met  Rosalind  and  Celia.  The 
former,  who  was  the  daughter  of  the  banished  duke, 
married  Orlando;  and  the  latter,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  the  usurping  duke,  married  Oliver. 

Oliv'ia.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakespere.  A  rich 
countess,  whose  love  was  sought  by  Orsino,  Duke  of 
Illyria;  but  having  lost  her  brother,  Olivia  lived  for  a 
time  in  entire  seclusion,  and  in  no  wise  reciprocated  the 
duke's  love.  Olivia  fell  in  love  with  Viola,  who  was 
dressed  as  the  duke's  page,  and  sent  her-  a  ring.  Mis- 
taking Sebastian  (Viola's  brother)  for  Viola,  she  married 
him  out  of  hand. 

Ophelia.  Hamlet,  Shakespere.  Daughter  of  Po- 
lo'nius,  the  chamberlain.  Hamlet  fell  in  love  with  her, 
but  after  his  interview  with  the  Ghost,  finds  that  his 
plans  must  lead  away  from  her.  During  his  real  or 
a.ssumed  madness,  he  treats  her  with  undeserved  and 
angry  rudeness,  and  afterward,  in  a  fit  of  inconsiderate 
rashness,  kills  her  father,  the  old  Polonius.  The  terrible 
shock  given  to  her  mind  by  these  events  completely 
shatters  her  intellect,  and  leads  to  her  accidental  death 
by  drowning. 


Or^anon.  The  name  given  to  the  first  work  on  logic 
by  Aristotle.  He  is  said  to  have  created  the  science  of 
logic.  The  "Organon"  has  been  enlarged  and  recast 
by  some  modern  authors,  especially  by  Mr.  John  Stuart 
Mill  in  his  "System  of  Logic,"  into  a  structure  commen- 
surate with  the  vast  increase  of  knowledge  and  exten- 
sion of  positive  method  belonging  to  the  present  day. 

Orlando  Furioso.  An  epic  poem  in  forty-six  cantos, 
by  Ariosto,  which  occupied  his  leisure  for  eleven  years, 
and  was  published  in  1516.  This  poem,  which  celebrates 
the  semi-mythical  achievements  of  the  paladins  of 
Charlemagne,  in  the  wars  between  the  Christians  and 
the  Moors,  became  immediately  popular,  and  has  since 
been  translated  into  all  European  languages,  and  passed 
through  innumerable  editions. 

Ormulum.  The  "Ormulum"  is  a  collection  of  met- 
rical homilies,  one  for  each  day  of  the  year,  but  the 
single  existing  copy  gives  the  homilies  for  thirty-two 
days  only.  There  are  very  few  French  words  in  the 
poem,  but  Scandinavian  words  and  constructions  abound. 
The  writer,  Orm,  or  Ormin,  belonged  to  the  East  of  Eng- 
land, and  he  and  his  brother  Walter  were  Augustinian 
monks.  He  makes  no  use  of  rhyme,  but  his  verses  are 
smooth  and  regular. 

Osbald'l-stone.  Rob  Roy,  Seott.  A  family  name 
in  the  story  which  tells  of  nine  of  the  members:  (1)  the 
London  merchant  and  Sir  Hildebrand,  the  heads  of  two 
families;  (2)  the  son  of  the  merchant  is  Francis;  (3)  the 
offspring  of  the  brother  are  Percival,  the  sot;  Thorn- 
cliffe,  the  bully;  John,  the  gamekeeper;  Richard,  the 
horse-jockey;  Wilfred,  the  fool;  and  Rashleigh,  the 
scholar,  by  far  the  worst  of  all.  This  last  worthy  is 
slain  by  Rob  Roy,  and  dies  cursing  his  cousin  Frank, 
whom  he  had  injured. 

O'Shanter.     See  "Tam  O'Shanter." 

Osman.  Sultan  of  the  East,  conqueror  of  the  Chris~ 
tians,  a  magnanimous  man.  He  loved  Yara,  a  young 
Christian  captive.  This  forms  the  subject  of  a  once- 
famous  ballad. 

Osrick,  A  court  fop  in  Shakespere's  "Hamlet."  He 
is  made  umpire  by  Claudius  in  the  combat  between 
Hamlet  and  Laertes. 

Osse'o.  Hiawatha,  Longfellow.  Son  of  the  Even- 
ing Star.  When  broken  with  age,  he  married  Oweenee, 
one  of  ten  daughters  of  a  North  hunter.  She  loved  him 
in  spite  of  his  ugliness  and  decrepitude,  because  "all  was 
beautiful  within  him."  As  he  was  walking  with  his  nine 
sisters-in-law  and  their  husbands,  he  leaped  into  the 
hollow  of  an  oak  tree  and  came  out  strong  and  hand- 
some; but  Oweenee  at  the  same  moment  was  changed 
into  a  weak  old  woman.  But  the  love  of,  Osseo  was  not 
weakened.  The  nine  brothers  and  sisters-in-law  were 
transformed  into  birds.  Oweenee,  recovering  her  beauty, 
had  a  son,  whose  delight  was  to  shoot  the  birds  that 
mocked  his  father  and  mother.  An  Algonquin  legend 
gave  the  foundation  of  the  story. 

Othel'lo.  A  Moor  of  Venice,  in  Shakespere's  play  of 
the  same  name.  He  marries  Desdemona,  the  daughter 
of  a  Venetian  senator,  and  is  led  by  his  ensign,  lago,  a 
consummate  villain,  to  distrust  her  fidelity  and  virtue, 
lago  hated  the  Moor  both  because  Cassio,  a  Florentine, 
was  preferred  to  the  lieutenancy  instead  of  himself,  and 
also  from  a  suspicion  that  the  Moor  had  tampered  with 
his  wife;  but  he  concealed  his  hatred  so  well  that 
Othello  wholly  trusted  him.  lago  persuaded  Othello 
that  Desdemona  intrigued  with  Cassio,  and  urged  him 
on  till  he  murdered  his  bride. 

Othello's  Occupation's  Gone.  A  phrase  much 
quoted  from  the  play  "Othello,"  meaning  "the  task  is 
ended,"  or  that  one  has  retired  from  active  work. 

Outre-Mer.  A  "  Pilgrimage  Beyond  the  Sea."  This 
title  was  given  to  the  work  by  H.  W.  Longfellow,  pub- 
lished in  1835,  and  written  before  European  travel  was 
much  known  to  Americans.  It  is  a  poetical  prose 
work,  not  unlike  the  "Sketch-Book"  of  Washington 
Irving. 

Pac'olet.  In  "Valentine  and  Orson,"  an  old  ro- 
mance, a  character  who  owned  an  enchanted  steed, 
often  alluded  to  by  early  writers.  The  name  of  Pacolet 
was  borrowed  by  Steele  for  his  familiar  spirit  in  the 
"Tatler."  The  French  have  a  proverb,  "It  is  the  horse 
of  Pacolet,"  that  is,  it  is  one  that  goes  very  fast. 

Page.  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Shakespere. 
Name  of  a  family  of  Windsor,  conspicuous  in  the  play. 
When  Sir  John  Falstaff  made  love  to  Mrs.  Page,  Page 
himself  assumed  the  name  of  Brook.  Sir  John  told  the 
supposed  Brook  his  whole  "course  of  wooing." 

Page,  Mrs.  Wife  of  Mr.  Page,  of  Windsor.  When 
Sir  John  FalstafT  made  love  to  her,  she  joined  with  Mrs. 
Ford  to  dupe  him  and  punish  him. 

Page,  Anne.  Daughter  of  the  above,  in  love  with 
Fenton.     Slender  calls  her  "the  sweet  Anne  Page." 


374 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Page,  William.     Anne's  brother,  a  schoolboy. 

Pale'nion.  The  Seasons,  Thomson.  The  hero 
of  an  episode  in  Thomson's  "Seasons,"  represented  as 
the  owner  of  harvest  fields  in  which  the  lovely  young 
Lavinia  conning  to  glean,  Palemon  falls  in  love  with  her, 
and  wooes  and  wins  her.  (2)  A  character  in  Falconer's 
"Shipwreck,"  in  love  with  the  daughter  of  Albert,  the 
commander. 

Pa'Ilmpsest.  A  parchment  on  which  the  original 
writing  has  been  effaced,  and  something  else  has  been 
written.  The  monks  and  others  used  to  wash  or  rub 
out  the  writing  in  a  parchment  and  use  it  again.  As 
they  did  not  efface  it  entirely,  many  works  have  been 
recovered  by  modern  ingenuity.  Thus  Cicero's  "De 
Republica"  has  been  restored  from  an  ancient  manu- 
script which  had  been  partly  erased.  There  are  relics 
of  ancient  learning  of  which  even  the  mutilated  mem- 
bers have  an  independent  value,  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  Biblical  manuscripts  for  criticism,  and  in  a  still 
broader  sense,  of  all  the  remains  of  the  ancient  his- 
torians. 

Palinu'rus.  The  pilotof  ..Eneas,  in  Virgil's  "  jEneid  " 
who  fell  asleep  at  the  helm,  and  tumbled  into  the  sea. 
The  name  is  employed  as  a  generic  word  for  a  steersman 
or  pilot,  and  sometimes  for  a  chief  minister.  Thus, 
Prince  Bismarck  was  called  the  palinurus  of  William, 
Emperor  of  Germany. 

Palla'dium.  Something  that  affords  effectual  pro- 
tection and  safety.  The  Palla'dium  was  a  colossal 
wooden  statue  of  Pallas  in  the  city  of  Troy,  said  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven.  The  statue  was  carried  away 
by  the  Greeks,  and  the  city  burned.  The  Scotch  had  a 
similar  tradition  attached  to  the  great  stone  of  Scone, 
near  Perth.  Edward  I.  removed  it  to  Westminster, 
and  it  is  still  framed  in  the  Coronation  Chair  of  England. 
Stories  connected  with  the  palladium  of  a  nation  or  a 
family  are  common  in  literature,  as  "  Luck  of  Eden- 
hall,"  a  poem  by  Longfellow. 

Pallet.  A  painter  in  Smollett's  novel  of  "Peregrine 
Pickle."  The  absurdities  of  Pallet  are  painted  an  inch 
thick. 

Pame'la.  Name  of  heroine  and  title  of  novel  by 
Richardson.  She  is  a  simple  country  girl,  and  maid- 
servant of  a  rich  young  squire.  She  resists  every  temp- 
tation, and  at  length  marries  the  young  squire  and 
reforms  him.  Pamela  is  very  modest,  bears  her  afflic- 
tions with  much  meekness,  and  is  a  model  of  maiden- 
hood. The  story  is  told  in  a  series  of  letters  which 
Pamela  sends  to  her  parents. 

Pan'darus.  A  son  of  Lycaon,  and  leader  of  the 
I/ycians  in  the  Trojan  War,  celebrated  by  Homer  .in 
the  "Iliad."  In  mediaeval  romances,  and  by  Shakes- 
pere  in  "Troilus  and  Cressida,"  he  is  represented  as 
procuring  for  Troilus  the  love  and  good  graces  of  Chry- 
seis  —  hence  the  word  "pander." 

Panegyric.  An  eulogistic  harangue  or  oration, 
written  or  uttered  in  praise  of  a  person  or  body  of 
persons. 

Pan-jan'drum,  The  Grand.  A  sort  of  mythical 
nonentity  invented  by  Foote,  the  comic  dramatist. 
The  word  occurs  in  Foote's  farrago  of  nonsense,  which 
he  composed  to  test  the  memory  of  a  person  who  said 
he  had  brought  his  memory  to  such  perfection  that  he 
could  remember  anything  by  reading  it  over  once. 

Pantag'ruel.  A  character  in  a  famous  romance  by 
Rabelais.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  given  him 
because  he  was  born  during  the  drought  which  lasted 
thirty  and  six  months,  three  weeks,  four  days,  thirteen 
hours,  and  a  little  more,  in  that  year  of  grace  noted  for 
having  "three  Thursdays  in  one  week."  His  father 
was  Gargantua,  the  giant,  who  was  four  hundred  four- 
score and  forty-four  years  old  at  the  time.  He  was 
chained  in  his  cradle  with  four  great  iron  chains,  like 
those  used  in  ships  of  the  largest  size.  Being  angrv  at 
this,  he  stamped  out  the  bottom  of  his  bassanet,  which 
was  made  of  weavers'  beams.  When  he  grew  to  man- 
hood he  knew  all  languages,  all  sciences,  and  all  knowl- 
edge of  every  sort. 

Pantag'ruleon  Law  Case.  Pantagruel,  Rabelais. 
This  case,  having  nonplussed  all  the  judges  in  Paris, 
was  referred  to  Lord  Pantagruel  for  decision.  After 
much  "statement"  the  bench  declared,  "We  have  not 
understood  one  single  circumstance  of  the  defense." 
Then  Pantagruel  gave  sentence,  but  his  judgment  was 
as  unintelligible  as  the  case  itself.  So,  as  no  one  under- 
stood a  single  sentence  of  the  whole  affair,  all  were  per- 
pectly  satisfied. 

Pan-urge'.  A  celebrated  character  in  Rabelais' 
"Pantagruel,"  and  the  real  hero  of  the  story;  repre- 
sented as  an  arrant  rogue,  a  drunkard,  a  coward,  and  a 
libertine,  but  learned  in  the  tongues,  an  ingenious  prac- 
tical joker,  and  a  boon  companion.  He  was  the  favorite 
of  Pantagruel,  who  made  him  governor  of  Salmygondin, 


I  and  finally  set  out  with  him  in  quest  of  the  oracle  of  the 
Holy  Bottle. 

Paradise  and  the  Pe'rI.  The  second  tale  in  Moore's 
J  poetical  romance  of  "  Lalla  Rookh."  The  Peri  laments 
her  expulsion  from  heaven,  and  is  told  she  will  be  re- 
admitted if  she  will  bring  to  the  gate  of  heaven  the 
I  "gift  most  dear  to  the  Almighty."  After  several  fail- 
ures the  Peri  offered  the  "  Repentant  Tear,"  and  the 
gates  flew  open  to  receive  the  gift. 

Paradise   Lost.     The   poem  by   Milton   under  this 

name   opens   with   the  awaking  of   the   rebel   angels   in 

hell  after  their  fall  from  heaven,  the  consultation  of  their 

chiefs  how  best  to  carry  on  the  war  with  God,  and  the 

!  resolve  of  Satan  to  go  forth  and  tempt  newly  created 

man  to  fall.     Satan  reaches  Eden,  and  finds  Adam  and 

1  Eve  in  their  innocence.     This  is  told  in  the  first  four 

books.     The   next   four  books   contain    the   Archangel 

Raphael's  story  of  the  war  in  heaven,  the  fall  of  Satan, 

and   the  creation   of  the  world.     The  last  four  books 

describe  the  temptation  and  the  fall  of  man,  and  tell 

of  the  redemption  of  man  by  Christ,  and  the  expulsion 

j  from  paradise. 

j  Paradise  Regained.  In  this  poem  Milton  tells  of 
the  journey  of  Christ  into  the  wilderness  after  his  bap- 
tism, and  its  four  books  describe  the  temptation  of 
Christ  by  Satan. 

Pardoner's  Tale.  Canterbury  Tales,  Chaucer. 
Three  rioters  agreed  to  kill  Death,  and  were  directed 
to  a  tree  under  which  he  was  to  be  found.  At  the  foot 
of  the  tree  they  came  upon  a  treasure,  which  all  coveted. 
The  younger  of  the  three  went  to  buv  wine  and  the 
other'  two  conspired  to  kill  him  on  his  return.  He 
poisoned  the  wine  and  was  slain  by  his  brothers,  who 
soon  died  from  effect  of  the  poison.  Thus  all  found 
Death  under  the  tree. 

Pa'rian  Chronicle.  A  chronological  register  of  the 
chief  events  in  the  mythology  and  history  of  ancient 
Greece,  found  engraved  on  Parian  marble. 

Pa'rian  Verse.  Ill-natured  satire;  so  called  from 
Archil'ochos,  a  native  of  Paros. 

Par'i-zade.  A  princess  whose  adventures  in  search 
of  the  Talking  Bird,  the  Singing  Tree,  and  the  Yellow 
Water,  are  related  in  the  "Story  of  the  Sisters"  in  the 
"Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments." 

Parley,  Peter.  Name  assumed  by  Samuel  Griswold 
Goodrich,  an  American.  Above  seven  millions  of  his 
books  were  in  circulation  in  1859.  Several  piracies  of 
this  popular  name  have  appeared. 

Parody.  A  kind  of  writing  in  which  the  words  of 
an  author  or  his  thoughts  are,  by  some  slight  alterations, 
adapted  to  a  different  purpose. 

Parthen'ope.  One  of  the  three  syrens.  She  was 
buried  at  Naples.  Naples  itself  was  anciently  called 
Parthenope,  which  name  was  changed  to  "Neap'olis" 
("the  new  city")  by  a  colony  of  Cumaeans. 

Par'ting-ton,  3Irs.  An  imaginary  old  lady  whose 
laughable  sayings  have  been  recorded  by  an  American 
humorist,  B.  P.  Shillaber. 

Partlet.  The  hen  in  "The  Nun's  Priest's  Tale,"  and 
in  the  famous  beast-epic  of  "  Reynard  the  Fox." 

Par'zl-val  or  Par'si-fal.  The  German  name  of 
Perceval,  the  hero  and  title  of  a  metrical  romance  of 
the  Twelfth  Century,  by  Wolfram  Von  Eschenbach, 
and  of  a  modern  music  drama  by  Richard  Wagner. 
Parzival  was  brought  up  by  a  widowed  mother  in  soli- 
tude, but  when  grown  to  manhood,  two  wandering 
knights  persuaded  him  to  go  to  the  court  of  King  Arthur. 
His  motner  consented  to  his  going  if  he  would  wear  the 
dress  of  a  common  jester.  This  he  did,  but  soon  achieved 
such  noble  deeds  that  Arthur  made  him  a  knight  of  the 
Round  Table.  Sir  Parzival  went  in  quest  of  the  Holy 
Graal,  which  was  kept  in  a  castle  called  Graalburg,  in 
Spain.  He  reached  the  castle,  but  having  neglected 
certain  conditions,  was  shut  out,  and,  on  his  return  to 
court,  the  priestess  of  Graalburg  insisted  on  his  being 
degraded  from  knighthood.  Parzival  then  led  a  new 
life,  and  a  wise  hermit  became  his  instructor.  At  length 
he  reached  such  a  state  of  purity  and  sanctity  that  the 
priestess  of  Graalburg  declared  him  worthy  to  become 
lord  of  the  castle.  Lohengrin,  "Knight  of  the  Swan," 
was  the  son  of  Parzival. 

Pastoral.  Something  descriptive  of  a  shepherd's 
life;  or  a  poem  in  which  any  action  or  passion  is  repre- 
sented by  its  effects  on  a  country  life  The  character- 
istics of  this  poem  are  simplicity,  brevity,  and  delicacy. 

Patient  Griselda.  A  character  in  "Canterbury 
Tales,"  by  Chaucer.  She  was  robbed  of  children,  re- 
duced to  poverty,  and  made  to  serve  a  rival,  but  bore 
all  without  complaint. 

Pat'tleson,  Peter.  An  imaginary  assistant  teacher 
at  Gandercleuch,  and  the  feigned  author  of  Scott's 
"Tales  of  My  Landlord,"   which  were  represented  as 


LITERATURE 


375 


having  been  published  posthumously  by  his  pedagogue 
superior,  Jedediah  Cleishbotham. 

Pau-line'.  The  "  Lady  of  Lyons "  in  Bulwer-Lyt- 
ton'a  play  of  this  name.  She  was  married  to  Claude 
Melnotte,  a  gardener's  son,  who  pretended  to  be  a  count. 

Paul  and  Virginia.  A  pair  of  child  lovers  in  Ber- 
nardin  de  St.  Pierre's  popular  romance  "  Paul  et  Vir- 
ginie."  According  to  a  tradition,  or  version,  Paul  and 
Virginia  are  brought  up  in  the  belief  that  they  are  brother 
and  sister.  Don  Antonio  is  sent  to  bring  her  to  Spain, 
and  make  her  his  bride.  She  is  taken  by  force  on 
board  ship,  but  scarcely  has  the  ship  started,  when  a 
hurricane  dashes  it  on  rocks,  and  it  is  wrecked.  Alham- 
bra,  a  runaway  slave,  whom  Paul  and  Virginia  had 
befriended,  rescues  Virginia,  who  is  brought  to  shore 
and  married  to  Paul.     Antonio  is  drowned. 

Paul  Pry.  Paul  Pry,  John  Poole.  An  idle,  in- 
quisitive, meddlesome  fellow,  who  has  no  occupation 
of  his  own,  and  is  forever  poking  his  nose  into  other 
people's  affairs.     He  always  comes  in  with  the  apology, 

I  nope  I  don't  intrude." 

Peeping  Tom  of  Coventry.  A  tailor  of  Coventry, 
the  only  soul  in  the  town  mean  enough  to  peep  at  the 
Lady  Godiva  as  she  rode  naked  through  the  streets  to 
relieve  the  people  from  oppression. 

Peg-got'ty,  Clara.  The  nurse  of  David  Copperfield 
in  Dickens'  novel  of  this  name.  Being  very  plump, 
whenever  she  makes  any  exertion  some  of  the  buttons 
on  the  back  of  her  dress  fly  off. 

Peggotty,  Dan'el.  Brother  of  David  Copperfield's 
nurse.  Dan'el  was  a  Yarmouth  fisherman.  His  nephew, 
Ham  Peggotty,  and  his  brother-in-law's  child,  "little 
Em'ly,"  lived  with  him. 

Peggotty,  Em'ly.  She  was  engaged  to  Ham  Peg- 
gotty; but  being  fascinated  with  Steerforth  she  eloped. 
She  was  afterwards  reclaimed,  and  emigrated  to  Aus- 
tralia. 

Peggotty,  Ham.  Represented  as  the  very  beau- 
ideal  of  an  uneducated,  simple-minded,  honest,  and 
warm-hearted  fisherman.  He  was  drowned  in  his  at- 
tempt to  rescue  Steerforth  from  the  sea. 

Pendennls.  Name  of  title  and  hero  of  a  novel  by 
Thackeray,  published  in  1849  and  1850,  was  the 
immediate  successor  of  "Vanity  Fair."  Literary  life 
is  described  in  the  history  of  Pen,  a  hero  of  no  very 
great  worth. 

Pendennls,  Arthur.  A  young  man  of  ardent  feel- 
ings and  lively  intellect,  but  self-conceited  and  selfish. 

Pendennls,  Laura.  His  sister  has  been  considered 
one  of  the  best  of  Thackeray's  characters. 

Pendennfs,  Major.  A  tuft-hunter,  who  fawns  on 
his  patrons  for  the  sake  of  wedging  himself  into  their 
society. 

Pendrag'on.  A  title  conferred  on  several  British 
chiefs  in  times  of  great  danger,  when  they  were  invested 
with  dictatorial  power;  thus  Uter  and  Arthur  weie 
each  appointed  to  the  office  to  repel  the  Saxon  invaders. 
The  word  means  "chief  of  the  kings." 

Pennsylvania  Farmer.  A  surname  given  to  John 
Dickinson,  a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania.  In  the  year  1768, 
he  published  his  "Letters  from  a  Pennsylvania  Farmer 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  British  Colonies."  These  were 
republished  in  London,  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Franklin, 
and  were  subsequently  translated  into  Freach. 

Penny-a-llner.  A  contributor  to  the  local  news- 
papers, but  not  on  the  staff.  At  one  time  these  col- 
lectors of  news  used  to  be  paid  a  penny  a  line  on  Eng- 
lish newspapers,  and  the  appellation  is  still  in  use. 

Penny  Dreadfuls.     Penny  sensational  papers. 

Pen'tateuch.  A  name  given  by  Greek  translators 
to  the  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament  ascribed  to 
Moses.  The  chief  aim  of  the  Pentateuch  is  to  give  a 
description  of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  Hebrew 
people  up  to  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  and  the  theocracy 
founded  among  them.  Tradition,  as  preserved  in  the 
earliest  historical  records,  mentions  Moses  as  the  writer 
of  the  complete  Pentateuch,  such  as  it  is  now,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  verses  describing  the  last  moments 
of  the  lawgiver,  which  have  been  ascribed  to  Joshua. 

Pepys'  Diary.  A  writing  which  brought  fame  to 
Pepys,  the  author,  was  written  in  short-hand,  and  de- 
ciphered and  published  in  1825.  It  extends  over  the 
nine  years  from  1660  to  1669,  and  is  the  gossipy  chron- 
icle of  that  gay  and  profligate  time.  We  have  no  other 
book  which  gives  so  life-like  a  picture  of  that  extra- 
ordinary state  of  society. 

Peregrine  Pickle.  The  hero  and  title  of  a  novel  by 
Smollett  (1751).  Peregrine  Pickle  is  a  savage,  ungrate- 
ful spendthrift,  fond  of  practical  jokes,  and  suffering 
with  evil  temper  the  misfortunes  brought  on  himself  by 
his  own  wilfulness. 


Per'o-nel'la.  The  subject  of  a  fairy  tale,  represented 
as  a  pretty  country  lass,  who,  at  the  offer  of  a  fairy, 
changes  places  with  an  old  and  decrepit  queen,  and 
receives  the  homage  paid  to  rank  and  wealth,  but  after- 
ward gladly  resumes  her  beauty  and  rags. 

Pe-tru'ehl-o.  A  gentleman  of  Verona,  in  Shakes- 
pere's  "'Taming  of  the  Shrew."  A  very  honest  fellow, 
who  hardly  speaks  a  word  of  truth,  and  succeeds  in  all 
his  tricks.  He  acts  his  assumed  character  to  the  life, 
with  untired  animal  spirits,  and  without  a  particle  of 
ill-humor. 

Pev'er-11,  Sir  Geoffrey.  A  country  gentleman  of 
strong  High-church  and  Royalist  opinions,  in  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  novel  "Peveril  of  the  Peak. 

Phaedo.  An  ancient  and  well-known  work  by  Plato, 
in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  ia 
most  fully  set  forth.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
which  combines  with  the  abstract  philosophical  discus- 
sion, a  graphic  narrative  of  the  last  hours  of  Socrates, 
which,  for  pathos  and  dignity,  is  unsurpassed. 

Phllax.  Fairy  Tales,  D'Aunoy..  Philax  was 
cousin  to  the  Princess  Imsi.  The  fay  Pagan  shut  them 
up  in  the  "Palace  of  Revenge,"  a  palace  containing 
evpry  delight  except  the  power  of  leaving  it.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  Imis  and  Philax  longed  as  much 
for  a  separation  as  at  one  time  they  had  wished  for  a 
union. 

Philip.  The  Madness  of  Philip,  Josephine  Das- 
kam.  A  representation  of  the  unregenerate  child  — 
"  the  child  of  strong  native  impulses  who  has  not  yet 
yielded  to  the  shaping  force  of  education;  the  child, 
therefore,  of  originality,  of  vivacity,  of  humor,  and  of 
fascinating  power  of  invention  in  the  field  of  mischief." 

Philippic.  A  word  used  to  denote  any  discourse  or 
declamation  full  of  acrimonious  invective.  It  derives 
its  name  from  orations  made  by  Demosthenes  against 
Philip  of  Macedon,  in  which  the  orator  bitterly  attacked 
the  king  as  the  enemy  of  Greece. 

t'hilistines.  Meaning  the  ill-behaved  and  ignorant. 
The  word  so  applied  arose  in  Germany  from  the  Charlies 
or  Philisters,  who  were  always  quarreling  with  the 
students.  Matthew  Arnold  applied  the  term  Philistine 
to  the  middle  class  in  England. 

Philo.  The  Messiah,  Klopstock.  A  Pharisee, 
one  of  the  Jewish  sanhedrim,  who  hated  Caiaphas,  the 
high  priest,  for  being  a  Sadducee.  Philo  made  a  vow 
that  he  would  take  no  rest  till  Jesus  was  numbered 
with  the  dead.  He  commits  suicide,  and  his  soul  is 
carried  to  hell  by  Obaddon,  the  angel  of  death. 

Philtra.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  A  lady  of  large 
fortune,  betrothed  to  Bracidas;  but,  seeing  the  fortune 
of  Amidas  daily  increasing,  and  that  of  Bracidas  getting 
smaller,  she  attached  herself  to  the  more  prosperous 
younger  brother. 

Phineas.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  3Irs.  Stowe.  The 
quaker,  an  "underground  railroad"  man  who  helped 
the  slave  family  of  George  and  Eliza  to  reach  Canada, 
after  Eliza  had  crossed  the  river  on  cakes  of  floating  ice. 

Phyllis.  In  Virgil's  "  Eclogues,"  the  name  of  a  rustic 
maiden.  This  name,  also  written  Phillis,  has  been  in 
common  use  as  meaning  any  unsophisticated  country 
girl. 

Pickanin'ny.  A  young  child.  A  West  Indian  negro 
word. 

Pickwick,  Mr.  Samuel.  The  hero  of  the  "  Pickwick 
Papers,"  by  Charles  Dickens.  He  is  a  simple-minded, 
benevolent  old  gentleman,  who  wears  spectacles  and 
short  black  gaiters.  He  founds  a  club,  and  travels 
with  its  members  over  England,  each  member  being 
under  his  guardianship.  They  meet  many  laughable 
adventures. 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin.  Old  German  legend. 
Robert  Browning,  in  his  poem  entitled  "The  Pied  Piper," 
has  given  a  metrical  version.  The  legend  recounts  how 
a  certain  musician  came  into  the  town  of  Hamel,  in  the 
country  of  Brunswick,  and  offered,  for  a  sum  of  money, 
to  rid  the  town  of  the  rats  by  which  it  was  infested. 
Having  executed  his  task,  and  the  promised  reward 
having  been  withheld,  he  in  revenge  blew  again  his 
pipe,  and  drew  the  children  of  the  town  to  a  cavern  in 
the  side  of  a  hill,  which,  upon  their  entrance,  closed 
and  shut  them  in  forever. 

Piers  Plowman.  The  hero  of  a  satirical  poem  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century.  He  falls  asleep,  like  iTohn 
Bunyan,  on  the  Malvern  Hills,  and  has  different  visions, 
which  he  describes,  and  in  which  he  exposes  the  cor- 
ruptions of  society,  the  dissoluteness  of  the  clergy,  and 
the  allurements  to  sin.  The  author  is  supposed  to  be 
Robert  or  William  Langland.  No  other  writings  so 
faithfully  reflect  the  popular  feeling  during  the  great 
social  and  religious  movements  of  that  century  as  the 
bitterly  satirical  poem,  "The  Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman." 


376 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


In  its  allegory,  the  discontent  of  the  Commons  with  the 
course  of  affairs  in  Church  and  State  found  a  voice. 

Pie'tro.  The  Ring  and  the  Book,  Browning. 
The  professed  father  of  Pompil'ia,  criminally  assumed 
as  his  child  to  prevent  certain  property  from  passing  to 
an  heir  not  his  own. 

Pilgrim's  Progress.  Written  by  Bunyan  in  the 
form  of  a  dream  to  allegorize  the  life  of  a  Christian, 
from  his  conversion  to  his  death.  His  doubts  are  giants, 
his  sins  a  pack,  his  Bible  a  chart,  his  minister  Evange- 
list, his  conversion  a  flight  from  the  City  of  Destruction, 
his  struggle  with  besetting  sins  a  fight  with  Apollyon, 
his  death,  a  toilsome  passage  over  a  deep  stream,  which 
flows  between  him  and  heaven. 

Pilot,  The.  Title  of  a  sea-story  by  Cooper,  which 
was  called  the  "first  sea-novel  of  the  English  language." 
It  was  published  in  the  year  1823  and  ^oon  translated 
into  Italian,  German,  and  French.  It  is  founded  on 
the  adventures  of  John  Paul  Jones. 

Pinch,  Tom.  A  character  in  Dickens's  "Martin 
Chuzzlewit,"  distinguished  by  his  guilelessness,  his  odd- 
ity, and  his  exnaustless  goodness  of  heart. 

Pippa  Passes.  The  title  of  a  dramatic  poem  by 
Robert  Browning.  Pippa  is  a  light-hearted  peasant 
maiden,  who  resolves  to  enjoy  her  holiday.  Variolas 
groups  of  persons  overhear  her  as  she  passes  by  singing, 
and  some  of  her  stray  words  act  witn  secret  but  sure 
influence  for  good. 

Platonic  Love.  Spiritual  love  between  persons  of 
opposite  sexes.  It  is  the  friendship  of  man  and  woman, 
without  mixture  of  what  is  usually  called  love.  Plato 
strongly  advocated  this  pure  affection,  and  hence  its 
distinctive  name. 

Poclict.  Great  Expectations,  Dickens.  Name  of 
a  family  prominent  in  the  story. 

Pocket.  A  real  scholar,  educated  at  Harrow,  and 
an  honor-man  at  Cambridge,  but,  having  married  young, 
he  had  to  take  up  the  calling  of  "grinder"  and  literary 
fag  for  a  living.     Pip  wa.s  placed  in  his  care. 

Pocket,  Mrs.  Daughter  of  a  city  knight,  brought 
up  to  be  an  ornamental  nonentity,  helpless,  shiftless, 
and  useless.  She  was  the  mother  of  eight  children, 
whom  she  allowed  to  "tumble  up"  as  best  they  could, 
under  the  charge  of  her  maid  Flopson. 

Pocket,  Herbert.  Son  of  Mr.  Matthew  Pocket, 
wonderfully  hopeful,  but  had  not  the  stuff  to  push  his 
way  into  wealth. 

Pocket,  Sarah.  Sister  of  Matthew  Pocket,  a  little 
dry,  old  woman,  with  a  small  face  that  might  have  been 
made  of  walnut-shell,  and  a  large  mouth. 

Poetical  Romances.  These  romances,  native  to  the 
jFrench,  group  themselves  about  great  names,  some  hav- 
ing Alexander,  some  Charlemagne,  as  their  central  figure. 
One  cluster,  the  Arthurian,  is  of  English  growth,  and 
possesses  the  highest  interest  of  all.  Translations  and 
imitations  of  these  French  romances  slowly  came  into 
popular  favor  with  the  English  people. 

Po'lyglot.  The  word  means,  in  general,  an  assem- 
blage of  versions  in  different  languages  of  the  same 
work,  but  is  almost  exclusively  applied  to  manifold 
versions  of  the  Bible.  Besides  the  Bible,  many  other 
works,  or  small  pieces,  have  been  published  in  polyglot. 
Of  smaller  pieces,  the  Lord's  Prayer  has  been  the  favor- 
ite, of  which  many  collections  have  been  published 
since  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Of  these,  the  most  com- 
prehensive, and  the  most  valuable,  is  the  well-known 
'  Mithridates  "■  of  Adelung,  which  contains  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  more  than  400  languages. 

Poor  Richard.  The  assumed  name  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  in  a  series  of  almanacs  from  1732  to  1757. 
These  almanacs  contain  maxims  and  precepts. 

Pop'injay.  A  butterfly  man,  a  fop;  so  called  from 
the  popinjay  or  figure  of  a  bird  shot  at  for  practice. 
The  title  is  used  by  Scott  in  "Old  Mortality";  by 
Shakespere  in  "Henry  IV.,"  and  by  others. 

Portia.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespere.  A 
rich  heiress  whom  Bassanio  loved  and  who  defended 
Antonio. 

Pot-boilers.  Articles  written  and  pictures  of  small 
merit  drawn  or  painted  for  the  sake  of  earning  daily 
bread . 

Potiphar  Papers.  A  series  of  brilliant  satiric 
sketches  of  society  written  by  George  W.  Curtis  in  the 
year  1852,  and  afterward  collected  in  book  form. 

Pres'ter,  John.  The  name  given,  in  the  middle 
ages,  to  a  supposed  Christian  sovereign  and  priest  of 
the  interior  of  Asia,  whose  dominions  were  variously 
placed.  He  has  been  the  subject  of  many  legends  and 
IS  mentioned  by  Shakespere  in  "Much  Ado  About 
Nothing." 

Primrose,  Rev.  Charles.  Vicar  of  Wakefield, 
Goldsmith.  A  clergyman,  rich  in  heavenly  wisdom, 
but  poor  indeed  in  all  worldly  knowledge. 


Primrose,  Mrs.  Deborah.  The  doctor's  wife,  full 
of  motherly  vanity,  and  desirous  to  appear  genteel. 
She  could  read  without  much  spelling,  and  prided  her- 
self on  her  housewifery,  especially  on  her  gooseberry 
wine. 

Primrose,  George.  Son  of  the  vicar.  He  went  to 
Amsterdam  to  teach  the  Dutch  English,  but  never  once 
called  to  mind  that  he  himself  must  know  something 
of  Dutch  before  this  could  be  done. 

Primrose,  Moses.  Brother  of  the  above,  noted  for 
giving  in  barter  p  good  horse  for  a  gross  of  worthless 
green  spectacles  with  copper  rims. 

Primrose,  Olivia.  The  eldest  daughter  of  thedoctor. 
Pretty,  enthusiastic,  a  sort  of  Hebe  in  beauty.  "She 
wished  for  many  lovers,"  and  eloped  with  Squire  Thorn- 
hill. 

Primrose,  Sophia.  The  second  daughter  of  Dr. 
Primrose.     She  was  "soft,  modest,  and  alluring." 

Priscilla.  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  Long- 
fellow. A  Puritan  maiden  who  is  wooed  by  Captain 
Standish  through  the  mediation  of  his  friend,  John 
Alden,  who  is  in  love  with  Priscilla.  She  prefers  John 
Alden  and  marries  him  after  the  captain's  supposed 
death.  'The  captain,  however,  appears  at  the  close  of 
the  wedding  service,  and  the  friends  are  reconciled. 

Pros'pero.  Tempest,  Shakespere.  Rightful  Duke 
of  Milan,  deposed  by  his  brother.  Drifted  on  a  desert 
island,  he  practiced  magic,  and  raised  a  tempest  in 
which  his  brother  was  shipwrecked.  Ultimately  Pros- 
pero  "broke  his  wand,"  and  his  daughter  married  the 
son  of  the  King  of  Naples. 

Pynch'eon.  The  name  of  an  ancient  but  decayed 
family  in  Hawthorne's  romance  "The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables."  There  are:  (1)  Judge  Pyncheon,  a  selfish, 
cunning,  worldly  man.  (2)  His  cousin  Clifford,  a  deli- 
cate, sensitive  nature,  reduced  to  childishness  by  long 
imprisonment  and  suffering.  (3)  Hepzibah,  the  Tatter's 
sister,  an  old  maid  who  devotes  herself  to  the  care  of 
Clifford.  (4)  A  second  cousin,  Phoebe,  a  fresh,  cheerful 
young  girl,  who  restores  the  fallen  fortunes  of  the  family 
and  removes  the  curse  which  rested  on  it. 

Puss  in  Boots.  The  subject  and  title  of  a  well- 
known  nursery  tale  derived  from  a  fairy  story  in  the 
"Nights"  of  the  Italian  author  Straparola,  and  Charles 
Perrault's  "Contes  des  F^es."  The  wonderful  cat  se- 
cures a  princess  and  a  fortune  for  his  master,  a  poor 
young  miller,  whom  he  passes  off  as  the  rich  Marquis 
of  Carabas. 

Quaslmo'do.  Notre  Dame,  Hugo.  A  misshapen 
dwarf  one  of  the  prominent  characters  in  the  story.  He 
is  brought  up  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  de  Paris. 
One  day,  he  sees  Esmeralda,  who  had  been,  dancing  in 
the  cathedral  close,  set  upon  by  a  mob,  and  he  conceals 
her  for  a  time  in  the  church.  When,  at  length,  the 
beautiful  gypsy  girl  is  gibbeted,  Quasimodo  disappears 
mysteriously,  but  a  skeleton  corresponding  to  the 
deformed  figure  is  found  after  a  time  in  a  hole  under 
the  gibbet. 

Quaver.  The  Virgin  Unmasked,  Fielding.  A 
singing-master,  who  says,  "if  it  were  not  for  singing- 
masters,  men  and  women  might  as  well  have  been  born 
dumb."  He  courts  Lucy  by  promising  to  give  her 
singing-lessons. 

Queen  La'be.  Arabian  Nights.  The  queen  of 
magic,  ruler  over  the  Enchanted  City.  Beder,  Prince 
of  Persia  is  connected  with  her  in  the  tale.  She  trans- 
forms men  into  horses,  mules,  and  other  animals.  Beder 
marries  her,  defeats  her  plots  against  him,  but  is  him- 
self turned  into  an  owl  for  a  time. 

Quickly,  Mistress.  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
Shakespere.  A  serving  woman  to  Dr.  Cains,  a  French 
physician.  She  is  the  go-between  of  three  suitors  for 
"sweet  Anne  Page,"  and  with  perfect  disinterestedness 
wishes  all  three  to  succeed. 

Quickly,  Mistress  Nell.  Hostess  of  a  tavern  in  East- 
cheap,  frequented  by  Harry,  Prince  of  Wales,  Sir  John 
Falstaff,  and  all  their  disreputable  crew. 

Quid'nunkis.  Title  and  name  of  hero  in  a  fable 
found  or  written  by  Gay  in  1726.  This  hero  was  a 
monkey  which  climbed  higher  than  its  neighbors,  and 
fell  into  a  river.  For  a  few  moments  the  monkey  race 
stood  panic-struck,  but  the  stream  flowed  on,  the  mon- 
keys continued  their  gambols.  The  object  of  this  fable 
is  to  show  that  no  one  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  stop 
the  general  current  of  events  or  cause  a  gap  in  nature. 

Quilp.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.  A  hideous 
dwarf,  cunning,  malicious,  and  a  perfect  ma.ster  in 
tormenting.  Of  hard,  forbidding  features,  with  head 
and  face  large  enough  for  a  giant.  He  lived  on  Tower 
Hill,  collectwl  rents,  advanced  money  to  seamen,  and 
kept  a  sort  of  wharf,  containing  rusty  anchors,  huge 
iron  rings,  piles  of  rotten  wood,  and  sheets  of  old  copper, 
calling  himself  a  ship-breaker.     He  was  on  the  point 


LITERATURE 


377 


of  being  arrested  for  felony,  when  he  drowned  himself. 

Quilp,  Mrs.  Wife  of  the  dwarf,  a  young,  obedient, 
and  pretty  little  woman,  treated  like  a  dog  by  her  hus- 
band, whom  she  loved  but  more  greatly  feared. 

Quintessence.  "The  fifth  essence.  In  the  modern 
and  general  sense,  an  epithet  applied  to  an  extract 
which  contains  the  most  essential  part  of  anything.  It 
is  quite  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  word  means  an 
essence  five  times  distilled,  and  that  the  term  came  from 
the  alchemists.  The  ancient  Greeks  said  there  are  four 
elements  or  forms  in  which  matter  can  exist  —  fire,  or 
the  imponderable  form;  air,  or  the  gaseous  form;  water, 
or  the  liquid  form;  and  earth,  or  the  solid  form.  The 
Pythagore'ans  added  r,  fifth,  which  they  call  "ether," 
more  subtle  and  pure  than  fire,  and  possessed  of  an  orbic- 
ular motion.  This  element,  which  flew  upwards  at 
creation,  and  out  of  which  the  stars  were  made,  was 
called  the  "  fifth  essence  "  ;  quintessence,  therefore,  means 
the  most  subtle  extract  of  a  body  that  can  be  procured. 

Quintillians.  These  were  the  disciples  of  Quintillia, 
who  was  said  to  be  a  prophetess.  These  so-called  hereti- 
cal Christians  allowed  women  to  become  priests  and 
bishops. 

Qulntus  Fixlein.  Title  of  a  romance  by  Jean  Paul 
Ilichter  and  the  name  of  the  principal  character. 

Quixote.     See  Don  Quixote. 

Quixote  of  tlie  North.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
(sometimes  called  in  derision  the  Madman,  was  also 
called  the  Quixote  of  the  North. 

Quixotic.  "Like  Don  Quixote,  or  one  who  has  foolish 
and  impractical  schemes  —  a  would-be  reformer. 

Quodllng,  The  Rev.  Mr.  Peverll  of  the  Peak, 
Scott.     Chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  Buckingham. 

Rad'igund.  Faery  Queen,  Spenser.  Queen  of  the 
fabled  Amazons.  Having  been  rejected  by  Bellodant 
"the  Bold,"  she  revenged  herself  by  degrading  all  the 
men  who  fell  into  her  power  by  dressing  them  like 
women,  and  giving  them  women's  work. 

Ramona.  Name  of  heroine  and  title  of  romance  by 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson.  Ramona  saw  the  American 
Indian  followed  by  "civilization"  while  retreating 
slowly  but  surely  toward  his  own  extinction,  and  had 
herself  a  share  in  the  tragedy.  Ramona  is  considered 
the  great  romance  of  Indian  life. 

Rasselas.  An  imaginary  prince  hero  of  the  romance 
by  Dr.  Johnson  bearing  same  title.  According  to  the 
custom  of  his  country,  Abyssinia,  he  was  confined  in 
paradise,  with  the  rest  of  the  royal  family.  This  paradise 
was  in  the  valley  of  Amhara,  surrounded  by  high  moun- 
tains. It  had  only  one  entrance,  a  cavern  concealed 
by  woods,  and  closed  by  iron  gates.  He  escaped  with 
his  sister  Nekayah  and  Imlac  the  poet,  and  wandered 
about  to  find  what  condition  or  rank  of  life  was  the 
most  happy.  After  careful  investigation,  he  found  no 
lot  without  its  drawbacks,  and  resolved  to  return  to  the 
"happy  valley." 

Raud  the  Strong.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn, 
H.  W.  Longfellow.  The  viking  who  worshiped  tfiv? 
old  gods  and  lived  by  fire  and  sword.  King  Olaf  went 
against  him  sailing  from  Dronthiem  to  Salten  Fjord. 

Ra'venswood.  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  Scott. 
The  lord  of  Ravenswood  an  old  Scotch  nobleman  and 
a  decayed  royalist.  His  son  Edgar  falls  in  love  with 
Lucy  Ashton,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Ashton,  Lord- 
Keeper  of  Scotland.  The  lovers  plight  their  troth,  but 
Lucy  is  compelled  to  marry  Frank  Hayston,  laird  of 
Bucklaw.  The  bride,  in  a  fit  of  insanity,  attempts  to 
murder  the  bridegroom  and  dies.  Bucklaw  goes  abroad. 
Colonel  Ashton-,  seeing  Edgar  at  the  funeral  of  Lucy, 
appoints  a  hostile  meeting;  and  Edgar,  on  his  way  to 
the  place  appointed,  is  lost  in  the  quicksands.  A  proph- 
ecy, noted  as  a  curse,  hung  over  the  family  and  was  thus 
fulfilled. 

Ran'dom.  Rodericli  Random,  Smollet.  A  young 
Scotch  scapegrace  in  quest  of  fortune.  At  one  time  he 
revels  in  prosperity,  again  he  is  in  utter  destitution. 
He  roams  at  random,  in  keeping  with  his  name. 

Rappacci'ni.  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse,  Haw- 
thorne. A  doctor  in  whose  garden  grew  strange  plants 
whose  juices  and  fragrance  were  poison.  His  daughter, 
nourished  on  these  odors  became  poisonous  herself, 
her  lover  found  an  antidote  which  she  took,  but  the 
poison  meant  life  and  the  antidote  meant  death  to  her. 

Ray'mond.  In  Jerusalem  Delivered  by  Tasso. 
Raymond  was  known  as  the  Nestor  of  the  Crusaders, 
slew  Aladine,  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  planted  the 
Christian  standard  upon  the  tower  of  David. 

Rebec'ca.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  Daughter  of  Isaac 
the  Jew,  in  love  with  Ivanhoe.  Rebecca,  with  her  father 
and  Ivanhoe,  as  prisoners,  are  confined  in  Front  de 
Bceuf's  castle.  Rebecca  is  taken  to  the  turret  chamber 
and  left  with  the  old  sibyl,  but  when  Brian  de  Bois 
Guilbert  comes  to  her,  she  spurns  him  with  heroic  dis- 


dain. Ivanhoe.  who  was  suffering  from  wounds  received 
in  a  tournament,  is  nursed  by  Rebecca.  After  escape 
and  adventure,  and  being  again  prisoner,  the  Grand 
Master  commands  the  Jewish  fnaiden  to  be  tried  for 
sorcery,  and  she  demands  a  trial  by  combat.  The 
dema,nd  is  granted,  when  Brian  de  Bois  Guilbert  is 
appointed  as  the  champion  against  her;  and  Ivanhoe 
undertakes  her  defense,  slays  Brian,  and  Rebecca  is  set 
free.  In  contrast  with  this  strong  character,  Rowena 
seems  insignificant  even  when  she  becomes  the  bride  of 
Ivanhoe.  Scott  is  said  to  have  named  Rebecca  from 
the  beautiful  Rebecca  Gratz  of  Philadelphia,  described 
to  him  by  Washington  Irving. 

Red-Cross  Knight.  The  Red-Cross  Knight  is  St. 
George,  the  patron  saint  of  England,  and,  in  the  obvious 
and  general  interpretation,  typifies  Holiness,  or  the 
perfection  of  the  spiritual  man  in  religion.  In  Spenser's 
"  Faery  Queen  "  the  task  of  slaying  adragon  was  assigned 
to  him  as  the  champion  of  Una. 

Red'-gaunt'Iet.  One  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of  the  same  name,  a  political 
enthusiast  and  Jacobite,  who  scruples  at  no  means  of 
upholding  the  cause  oi  the  Pretender,  and  finally  accom- 
panies him  into  exile.  His  race  bore  a  fatal  mark 
resembling  a  horse-shoe  which  appeared  on  the  face  of 
Red-gauntlet  as  he  frowned  when  angry. 

Red-Riding-Hood.  This  nursery  tale  is,  with 
slight  variations,  common  to  Sweden,  Germany,  and 
France.  In  Charles  Perrault's  "Contes  des  Fdes  "  it  is 
called  "  Le  Petit  Chaperon  Rouge." 

Representative  Men.  In  this  work  Emerson,  more 
nearly  than  in  any  of  his  other  works,  gives  expression 
to  his  system  as  a  whole.  The  topics  are,  (1)  Plato,  the 
Philosopher;  (2)  Swedenborg,  the  Mystic;  (3)  Montaigne 
the  Skeptic;  (4)  Shakespere,  the  Poet;  (5)  Napoleon, 
the  Man  of  the  World;  (6)  Goethe,  the  Writer.  The 
mental  portraits  sketched  under  these  six  heads  give 
us  Emerson  himself,  so  far  as  he  is  capable  of  being 
formulated  at  all. 

Republic,  The.  A  work  composed  by  Plato  400 
years  before  Christ.  The  "Republic"  is  not,  as  the 
title  would  suggest,  a  political  work,  like  the  "  Politics  " 
of  Aristotle.  The  principles  and  government  of  an 
ideal  moral  organism,  of  which  the  rulers  shall  be  types 
of  fully  developed  and  perfectly  educated  men,  is  the 
real  subject.  In  the  "Republic"  we  find  the  necessity 
of  virtue  to  the  very  idea  of  social  life  proved  in  the  first 
book;  then  the  whole  process  of  a  complete  moral  and 
scientific  education  is  set  forth.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  most  complete  record  of  the  beliefs  or  opinions  of 
Plato  are  found  in  this  work. 

Reveries  of  a  Bachelor.  Name  of  a  writing  by 
D.  G.  Mitchell.  This  "Reveries"  is  a  collection  of 
sketches  of  life  and  character,  pamted  in  such  a  dream- 
like, delicate  manner  as  to  make  the  reader  lose  for  the 
time  being  the  full  consciousness  of  his  own  reality.  It 
has  called  forth  a  number  of  imitators  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful, no  one  of  whom,  however,  is  comparable  to  the 
original. 

Reyn'ard  the  Fox.  The  hero  in  the  beast-epic,  a 
celebrated  epic  fable  of  the  Middle  Ages,  belonging  to 
and  terminating  the  series  of  poems  in  which  "beasts" 
are  the  speakers  and  actors.  It  is  written  in  Low- 
German,  professedly  by  a  Hinreck  van  Alckmer,  and 
was  printed  in  the  year  1498.  Before  Jacob  Grimm 
published  the  results  of  his  laborious  researches,  it  was 
believed  that  the  poem  printed  at  Liibeck  in  1498  was 
the  earliest  literary  embodiment,  if  not  the  direct  source, 
of  the  fable.  Grimm  has  shown  that,  in  one  form  or 
another,  the  "beast-fable"  goes  back  to  the  remotest 
antiquity,  and  is  a  common  inheritance  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-Germanic  races.  According  to  many  authorities 
this  prose  poem,  in  its  present  form,  is  a  satire  on  the 
state  of  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Reynard  typifies 
the  Church;  his  uncle,  Isengrin  the  wolf,  typifies  the 
baronical  element;  and  Nodel  the  lion,  the  regal.  How- 
ever that  may  be,  in  the  real  fable,  Reynard  the  Fox 
has  a  constant  impulse  to  deceive  and  victimize  every 
body,  whether  friend  or  foe,  but  especially  Isengrin; 
and,  though  the  latter  frequently  reduces  him  to  the 
greatest  straits,  he  generally  gets  the  better  of  it  in  the 
end.  The  work  now  consulted  by  general  readers  is 
Goethe's  version  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 
Rhapsody  means  songs  strung  together.  The  term 
was  originally  applied  to  the  books  of  the  "  Iliad  "  and 
"Odyssey,"  which  at  one  time  were  in  fragments.  Cer- 
tain bards  collected  together  a  number  of  the  fragments, 
enough  to  make  a  connected  "ballad,"  and  sang  them 
as  our  minstrels  sang  the  deeds  of  famous  heroes. 

Rigolette'.  The  name  of  a  female  character  in 
Eugene  Sue's  "Mysteries  of  Paris."  It  has  acquired  a 
proverbial  currency,  and  is  used  as  a  synonym  of  "  gri- 
sette." 


378 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Rinal'do.  A  character  in  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  De- 
livered." He  belonged  to  the  army  of  the  Christians. 
He  was  the  son  of  Bertoldo  and  Sophia,  and  nephew  of 
Guelpho,  but  was  brought  up  by  Matilda.  The  name, 
Rinaldo,  is  also  found  m  Bojardo's  "Orlando  Innamo- 
rato,"  in  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso,"  and  in  other 
romantic  tales  of  Italy  and  France.  He  was  one  of 
Charlemagne's  Paladins,  and  cousin  to  Orlando.  Having 
killed  Charlemagne's  nephew  Berthelot,  he  was  banished 
and  outlawed.'  After  various  adventures  and  disasters, 
he  went  to  the  Holy  Land,  and,  on  his  return,  succeeded 
in  making  peace  with  the  emperor. 

Rln^  and  the  Book,  The.  An  epic  by  Robert 
Brownmg.  It  is  founded  on  Italian  history.  Guido 
Franceschini,  a  Florentine  Count  of  shattered  fortune, 
married  Pompilia,  thinking  her  to  be  an  heiress.  Finding 
this  a  mistake  the  count  treated  Pompilia  so  brutally 
that  she  left  him  under  the  protection  of  Caponsacchi, 
a  young  priest,  and,  being  arrested  at  Rome,  a  legal  sepa- 
ration took  place.  Pompilia  sued  for  a  divorce,  but, 
pending  the  suit,  gave  birth  to  a  son.  The  count  mur- 
dered Pompilia,  and  Pietro  and  Violantfi,  her  supposed 
parents,  but,  being  taken  red-handed,  was  brought  to 
trial,  found  guilty,  and  executed. 

Rip  Van  Winkle.  Sketch  Book,  Irving.  An 
indolent,  good-natured  fellow,  living  in  a  village  on  the 
Hudson.  While  shooting  among  the  Catskill  Mountains 
he  meets  with  a  stranger  whom  he  helps  in  carrying  a 
keg  over  rocks  arid  cliffs;  with  him  he  joins  a  party  who 
are  silently  rolling  ninepins.  Rip  Van  Winkle  drinks 
deeply  of  the  liquor  they  furnish,  and  falls  into  a  sleep 
which  lasts  twentv  years,  during  which  the  Revolution- 
ary War  takes  place.  After  awaking.  Rip  returns  to 
the  village,  finds  himself  almost  forgotten  and  makes 
friends  with  the  new  generation.  The_  name  of  the 
great  actor,  Joseph  Jefferson,  became  so  identified  with 
this  character  that  to  the  English-speaking  world  he 
was  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

Robert  the  Devil.  The  hero  of  an  old  French  met- 
rical romance  of  the  Thirteenth  Century,  the  same  as 
Robert,  first  Duke  of  Normandy,  who  became  an  early 
object  of  legendary  scandal.  Having  been  given  over 
to  the  Devil  before  birth,  he  ran  a  career  of  cruelties 
and  crimes  unparalleled  until  he  was  miraculously  re- 
claimed, did  penance,  became  a  shining  light,  and  mar- 
ried the  emperor's  daughter.  In  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury the  romance  was  turned  into  prose,  and  of  the 
prose  story  two  translations  were  made  into  English. 
There  was  also  a  miracle  play  on  the  same  subject.  The 
opera  of  "Robert  le  Diable"  was  composed  by  Meyer- 
beer, in  1826. 

Robin  des  Bols.  In  Germany,  a  mysterious  hunter 
of  the  forest.  Robin  des  Bois  occurs  in  one  of  Eugene 
Sue's  novels  "as  a  well-known  mythical  character  whose 
name  is  employed  by  French  mothers  to  frighten  their 
children." 

Robin  Goodfellow.  A  domestic  spirit.  He  is  some- 
times called  Puck,  son  of  Oberon.  He  attends  the  Eng- 
lish fairy-court;  he  is  full  of  tricks  and  fond  of  practi- 
cal jokes.  He  is  also  considered  the  same  as  Lob-lie- 
by-the-fire,  in  some  tales.  His  character  and  achieve- 
ments are  recorded  in  the  well-known  ballad  beginning 
"From  Oberon  in  Fairy-land."  Wright,  in  his  "Essays 
on  the  Literature,  Superstitions,  and  History  of  England 
in  the  Middle  Ages,"  suspects  Robin  Goodfellow  to  have 
been  the  Robin  Hood  of  the  old  popular  Morris  dance. 

Robin  Hood.  A  famous  English  outlaw  whose  ex- 
ploits are  the  subjects  of  many  ballads,  but  of  whose 
actual  existence  little  or  no  evidence  can  be  discovered. 
Various  periods,  ranging  from  the  time  of  Richard  I. 
to  near  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  have  been 
ajssigned  as  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He  is  usually 
described  as  a  yoeman,  and  his  chief  residence  is  said  to 
have  been  the  forest  of  Sherwood,  in  Nottinghamshire. 
Of  his  followers,  the  most  noted  are  Little  John;  his 
chaplain.  Friar  Tuck;  and  his  companion.  Maid  Marian. 
The  popular  legends  extol  his  personal  courage  and  gen- 
erosity, and  his  skill  in  archery.  Scott  introduces  Robin 
Hood  in  two  novels —  "Ivanhoe"  and  "The  Talisman." 
In  the  former  he  first  appears  at  the  tournament  as 
Locksley  the  archer. 

Robinson  Crusoe.  A  tale  by  Daniel  Defoe.  Robin- 
son Crusoe  went  to  sea,  was  wrecked,  lived  on  an  unin- 
habited island  of  the  tropics,  and  relieved  the  weariness 
of  life  by  numberless  contrivances.  At  length  he  met  a 
young  Indian,  whom  he  saved  from  death.  He  called 
him  his  "man  Friday,"  and  made  him  his  companion 
and  servant.  This  story  has  been  translated  into  more 
languages  than  any  other  English  book. 

Rob  Roy.  The  title  and  hero  of  a  novel  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  It  signifies  "Rob  the  Red,"  and  was  the 
sobriquet  of  a  famous  Scottish  outlaw,  Robert  MacGre- 
gor,  the  chief  of  the  clan  MacGregor. 


Roderick  Dhu.     Lady  of  the  Lake,  Scott.     An 

outlaw  and  chief  of  a  band  of  Scots  who  resolved  to 
win  back  what  had  been  lost  to  the  Saxons.  In  con- 
nection with  Red  Murdock  he  sought  the  life  of  the 
Saxon  Fitz  James. 

Roderlgo.  In  Shakespere's  "  Othello,"  a  Venetian  in 
love  with  Desdemona.  He,  when  the  lady  eloped  with 
Othello,  hated  the  "noble  Moor." 

Roger  Drake.  Name  of  hero  and  title  of  novel 
by  H.  K.  Webster.  "Captain  of  industry"  is  the  added 
appellation  to  name  of  hero,  who  is  interested  in  the 
working  of  a  copper-mine,  the  founding  of  a  trust,  the 
change  from  the  old-fashioned  trust  to  the  simple  plan 
of  one  monster  corporation,  and  the  deadly  business 
fight  for  supremacy  found  in  modern  industrial  struggles. 

Ro'land.  The  hero  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
popular  epics  of  early  French  or  Frankish  literature,  was, 
according  to  tradition,  the  favorite  nephew  and  captain 
of  the  Emperor  Charlemagne.  In  Italian  romance  he  is 
called  Orlan'do.  He  was  slain  in  the  valley  of  Ronces- 
valles  as  he  was  leading  the  rear  of  the  army  from  Spain 
to  France.  The  oldest  version  of  the  "  Song  of  Roland," 
forming  part  of  the  "Chansons  de  Geste,"  which  treat 
of  the  achievements  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins, 
belongs  to  the  Eleventh  Century.  Throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  "Song  of  Roland"  was  the  most  popu- 
lar of  the  many  heroic  poems.  William  of  Normandy, 
when  on  his  way  to  conquer  England,  had  it  sung  at  the 
head  of  his  troops,  to  encourage  them  on  their  march. 
At  the  present  day,  the  traditionary  memory  of  the  heroic 
paladin  is  still  held  in  honor  by  the  hardy  mountaineers 
of  the  Pyrenees,  amongst  whose  dangerous  defiles  the 
scene  of  his  exploits  and  death  is  laid.  Roland  is  the 
hero  of  Th^roulde's  "Chanson  de  Roland";  of  Turpin's 
"Chronique";  of  Bojardo's  "Orlando  Innamorato"; 
of  Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso." 

Romance  of  the  Rose.  A  poetical  allegory,  begun 
by  Guillaume  de  Lorris  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  and  continued  by  Jean  de  Meung  in  the  former 
half  of  the  Fourteenth  Century.  The  poet  dreams  that 
Dame  Idleness  conducts  him  to  the  palace  of  Pleasure, 
where  he  meets  many  adventures  among  the  attendant 
maidens.  Youth,  Joy,  Courtesy,  and  others  by  whom 
he  is  conducted  to  a  bed  of  roses.  He  singles  out  one, 
when  an  arrow  from  Love's  bow  stretches  him  fainting 
on  the  ground.  Fear,  Slander,  and  Jealousy  are  after- 
ward introduced. 

Romances.  Songs.  The  French  troubadours  com- 
posed romances  and  sang  them  at  the  courts  of  the 
Norman  kings.  Richard  I.  was  himself  a  troubadour. 
The  subjects  of  the  romances  were  generally  the  deeds  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  knights,  or  of  King  Arthur  and  his 
knights,  and  a  little  later  tales  of  the  Crusaders  became 
popular.  Old  tales  were  retold,  and  the  incidents  were 
transferred  to  Eastern  lands.  From  the  time  of  Edward 
II.  many  of  these  tales  were  translated  into  English. 

Ro'me-o.  In  Shakespere's  tragedy  of  "Rorneo  and 
Juliet,"  a  son  of  Montague,  in  love  with  Juliet,  the 
daughter  of  Capulet,  Who  was  the  head  of  a  noble  house 
of  Verona,  in  feudal  enmity  with  the  house  of  Montague. 

Rom'u-lus.  The  mythical  founder  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  His  name  is  only  a  lengthened  form  of  Ronius, 
and  he  is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  a  symbolical 
representation  of  the  Roman  people. 

Rosetta  Stone.  A  stone  found  at  Rosetta  in  the  delta 
of  the  Nile.  It  contains  equivalent  inscriptions  in  hiero- 
glyphics and  in  Greek  letters.  The  meaning  of  the  Greek 
text  being  known,  the  hieroglyphics  were  translated. 

Round  Table,  The.  History  of  Prince  Arthur, 
Sir  T.  Malory.  A  table  made  by  Merlin  for  Uther  the 
pendragon.  Uther  gave  it  to  King  Leodegraunce  of 
Camelyard,  and  when  Arthur  married  Guinevere  (the 
daughter  of  liBodegraunce),  he  received  the  table  with  a 
hundred  knights  as  a  wedding  present.  The  table  would 
seat  150  knights,  and  each  seat  was  appropriated.  What 
is  usually  meant  by  Arthur's  Round  Table  is  a  srnaller 
one  for  the  accommodation  of  twelve  favorite  knights. 
King  Arthur  instituted  an  order  of  knighthood  called 
"the  knights  of  the  Round  Table,"  the  chief  of  whom 
were  Sir  Lancelot,  Sir  Tristram,  and  Sir  Lamerock  or 
Lamorake.  The  "  Siege  Perilous  "  was  reserved  for  Sir 
Galahad,  the  son  of  Sir  Lancelot  by  Elaine. 

Roussillon,  Alice.  The  heroine  of  the  romance, 
"Alice  of  Old  Vincennes"  by  Maurice  Thompson.  Her 
guardian  was  Gaspard  Roussillon,  a  successful  trader 
with  the  Indians.  "Eat  frogs  and  save  your  scalps" 
was  the  plan  of  the  Latin  Creoles.  "  Papa  Roussillon  " 
was  a  frog-eater  and  the  ruling  spirit  in  his  little  village. 
The  English  and  their  Indian  allies  arranged  their 
attack  on  the  fort  at  Vincennes,  and  the  Arnerican  flag 
was  in  danger.  Alice,  with  the  help  of  a  crippled  boy, 
Jean,  stole  the  flag.  No  search  or  questioning  could  re- 
veal the  whereabouts  of  either  flag  or  thief.     At  the  end  of 


LITERATURE 


379 


the  siege  it  was  produced,  much  to  the  amazement  of 
General  Hamilton.  Alice  forgot  her  flag  for  a  moment 
in  the  appearance  of  her  lover,  Beverly,  whom  she  had 
mourned  as  dead,  but  Jean  raised  it  on  a  staff  from 
which  the  stars  and  stripes  still  float. 

Ruach.  Pantagruel,  Rabelais.  The  isle  of  winds, 
visited  by  Pantag'ruel  and  his  companions.  The  people 
of  this  island  live  on  wind,  such  a.s  flattery,  promises, 
and  hope.  The  poorer  sort  are  very  ill-fed,  but  the 
great  are  stuffed  with  huge  mill-draughts  of  the  same 
unsubstantial  puffs. 

Ru'be-zahl.  The  name  of  a  famous  spirit  of  the 
Riesen-Gebirge  in  Germany,  corresponding  to  the  Puck 
of  England.  He  is  celebrated  in  innumerable  sagas, 
ballads,  and  tales,  under  the  various  forms  of  a  miner, 
hunter,  monk,  dwarf,  giant,  etc.  He  is  said  to  aid  the 
poor  and  oppressed,  and  show  benighted  wanderers  their 
road,  but  to  wage  incessant  war  with  the  proud  and 
wicked. 

Rudge.  Barnaby  Rudge,  Dickens.  Barnaby,  a 
half-witted  lad,  with  pale  face,  red  hair  and  protruding 
eyes,  dressed  in  tawdry  finery  including  peacock  feathers 
in  his  hat,  is  the  hero  of  the  novel  with  his  inseparable 
companion,  a  raven,  also  of  much  interest.  Barnaby 
joined  the  Gordon  rioters  for  the  proud  pleasure 
of  carrying  a  flag  and  wearing  a  blue  bow.  He  was 
arrested  and  lodged  in  Newgate,  from  whence  he  made 
his  escape,  with  other  prisoners,  when  the  jail  was  burned 
but  both  he  and  his  father  being  betrayed,  were  recap- 
tured, brought  to  trial,  and  condemned  to  death.  By 
the  influence  of  Gabriel  Varden,  the  locksmith,  the 
poor  half-witted  lad  was  reprieved.  Mr.  Rudge,  the 
father  of  Barnaby,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  the 
same  night  as  Mr.  Haredale,  to  whom  he  was  steward. 
Rudge  himself  was  the  murderer  both  of  Mr.  Haredale 
and  also  of  his  faithful  servant,  to  whom  the  crime  was 
attributed.  After  the  murder,  he  was  seen  by  many 
haunting  the  locality,  and  was  supposed  to  be  a  ghost. 
He  joined  the  Gordon  rioters.  Mrs.  [Mary]  Rudge, 
mother  of  Barnaby,  and  very  like  him,  "but  where  in 
in  his  face  there  was  wildness  and  vacancy,  in  hers  there 
was  the  patient  composure  of  sorrow. 

Ruggie'ro.  Orlando  Furloso,  Ariosto.  A  young 
Saracen  knight  born  of  Christian  parents,  who  falls  in 
love  with  Bradamante,  a  Christian  Amazon,  and  sister 
to  Rinaldo.  After  numerous  adventures  and  crosses, 
they  marry  and  found  the  house  of  Este.  Ruggiero 
is  noted  for  the  possession  of  a  hippogriff,  or  winged 
horse,  and  also  a  veiled  shield,  the  dazzling  splendor  of 
which,  when  suddenly  disclosed,  struck  with  blindness 
and  astonishment  all  eyes  that  beheld  it. 

Runipelstilz'clien.  Old  German  Tales.  Accord- 
ing to  Grimm,  this  name  is  a  compound,  but  the  spirit 
represented  is  one  familiar  to  all  German  children.  The 
original  story  tells  of  him  as  a  dwarf  who  spun  straw 
into  gold  for  a  certain  miller's  daughter.  He  has  since 
done  favors  to  many  people  and  paid  visits  from  his 
mountain  home  only  known  by  the  results  of  his  help- 
fulness. '; 

Runes,  the  earliest  alphabet  in  use  among  the  nations 
of  Northern  Europe.  The  exact  period  of  their  origin  is 
■aot  known.  They  are  found  engraved  on  rocks,  crosses, 
monumental  stones,  coins,  medals,  rings,  brooches,  and 
the  hilts  and  blades  of  swords.  There  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  they  were  at  any  time  in  the  familiar  use 
in  which  we  find  the  characters  of  a  written  language  in 
modern  times,  nor  have  we  any  traces  of  their  being  used 
in  books  or  on  parchment. 

Ru'pert,  Kniglit.  Formerly  in  the  villages  of 
Northern  Germany,  a  personage  clad  in  high  buskins, 
white  robe,  mask,  and  enormous  wig,  who  at  Christmas 
time  distributes  presents  to  the  children.  Like  St. 
Nicholas,  he  keeps  watch  over  naughty  children.  The 
horseman  in  the  May  pageant  is  in  some  parts  of  Germany 
called  Ruprecht,  or  Rupert. 

Rustam.  Persian  Romances.  He  is  the  chief  of 
the  Persian  mythical  heroes,  son  of  Zk\,  King  of  India, 
and  descendant  of  Benjamin,  the  beloved  son  of  Jacob. 
He  delivered  King  Caicaus  from  prison,  but  afterwards 
fell  into  disgrace  because  he  refused  to  embrace  the 
religious  system  of  Zoroaster.  Caicaus  sent  his  son 
Asfendiar  to  convert  him,  and,  as  persuasion  availed 
nothing,  single  combat  was  resorted  to.  The  fight 
lasted  two  days,  and  then  Rustam  discovered  that  Asfen- 
diar-bore  a  "charmed  life,"  The  valor  of  these  two 
heroes  is  proverbial,  and  the  Persian  romances  are  full 
of  their  deeds.  "  Schrab  and  Rustam  "  form  the  subject 
of  a  poetical  romance  by  Matthew  Arnold. 

Ruy'dera.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  A  duenna 
who  had  seven  daughters  and  two  nieces.  They  were 
imprisoned  for  500  years  in  a  cavern  in  Spain.  Their 
ceaseless  weeping  stirred  the  compassion  of  Merlin,  who 
converted  them  into  lakes  in  the  same  province. 


Sae'ri-pant,  King.  (1)  King  of  Circassia,  and  a 
lover  of  Angelica,  in  Bojardo  and  Ariosto.  (2)  A  per- 
sonage introduced  by  Alessandro  Tassoni,  the  Italian 
poet,  in  his  mock-heroic  poem,  entitled  the  "Rape  of 
the  Bucket,"  represented  as  false,  brave,  noisy,  and 
hectoring.  The  name  is  quoted  as  a  synonym  with 
vanity  and  braggart  courage. 

Sagas.  The  name  given  to  those  ancient  tradi- 
tions which  form  the  substance  of  the  history  and  mythol- 
ogy of  the  Scandinavian  races:  the  language  in  which 
they  are  written  is  supposed  to  be  the  old  Icelandic.  In 
the  "Edda"  there  are  numerous  sagas.  As  our  Bible 
contains  the  history  of  the  Jews,  religious  songs,  moral 
proverbs,  and  religious  stories,  so  the  "Edda"  con- 
tained the  history  of  Norway,  religious  songs,  a  book  of 
proverbs,  and  numerous  stories.  The  original  "Edda" 
was  compiled  and  edited  by  Saemund  Sigfusson,  an  Ice- 
landic priest  and  scald,  in  the  Eleventh  Century.  It 
contains  twenty-eight  parts  or  books,  all  of  which  are 
in  verse.  Two  hundred  years  later,  Snorro  Sturleson 
of  Iceland  abridged,  rearranged,  and  reduced  to  prose 
the  "Edda,"  and  his  work  was  called  "The  Younger 
Edda."  In  this  we  find  the  famous  story  called  by  the 
Germans  the  "  Nibelungen  Lied."  Besides  the  sagas 
contained  in  the  "Eddas,"  there  are  numerous  others, 
and  the  whole  saga  literature  makes  over  200  volumes. 
Among  them  are  the  "Volsunga  Saga"  which  is  a  col- 
lection of  lays  about  the  early  Teutonic  heroes.  The 
"Saga  of  St.  Olaf  "  is  the  history  of  this  Norwegian  king. 
"  Frithjof's  Saga"  contains  the  life  and  adventures  of 
Frithjof  of  Iceland.  Snorro  Sturleson,  at  the  close  of 
the  Twelfth  Century,  made  the  second  great  collection 
of  chronicles  in  verse,  called  the  "  Heimskringla  Saga," 
This  is  a  most  valuable  record  of  the  laws,  customs,  and 
manners  of  the  ancient  Scandinavians. 

Seasons.  A  well-known  poem  said  to  be  the  founda- 
tion of  Thomson's  literary  fame.  Its  description  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature  during  an  English  year  is  minute, 
and  the  poem  has  been  much  read  by  foreigners. 

St.  Leon.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  William  Goodwin 
and  the  name  of  its  hero,  a  man  who  becomes  possessed 
of  the  elixir  of  life,  and  the  secret  of  the  transmutation 
of  metals  —  acquisitions  which  only  bring  him  mis- 
fortunes and  much  protracted  misery. 

St.  Nich'o-las.  The  patron  saint  of  boys.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  Bishop  of  Myra,  and  to  have  died  in 
the  year  326.  The  young  were  universally  taught  to 
revere  him,  and  the  popular  fiction  which  represents 
him  as  the  bearer  of  presents  to  children  on  Christmas 
eve  is  well  known.  He  is  the  Santa  Claus  (or  Klaus)  of 
the  Dutch. 

St.  Patricli's  Purgatory.  The  subject  and  locality 
of  a  legend  long  famous  throughout  Europe.  The  scene 
is  laid  in  Ireland,  upon  an  islet  in  Lougn  Derg.  The 
punishments  undergone  here  are  analogous  to  those 
described  by  Dante  in  his  "  Divina  Commedia."  The 
story  was  made  the  subject  of  a  romance  in  the  Four- 
teenth Century:  and,  in  Spain,  in  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury, it  was  dramatized  by  Calderon. 

St.  Switli'in.  According  to  legend  this  saint  was 
tutor  to  King  Alfred  and  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and 
many  miracles  are  attributed  to  him,  especially  the 
rain  of  St.  Swithin's  Day. 

Salmagundi.  The  name  of  a  periodical  started  by 
Washington  Irving,  his  brother,  and  James  K.  Paulding, 
in  the  year  1807.  The  object  of  the'  paper  was  the  same 
as  that  of  the  "Spectator,"  "to  reform  the  town."  The 
publishers  became  tired  of  their  venture  before  their 
subscribers  did,  and  only  twenty  numbers  were  issued. 
The  political  pieces  were  full  of  humor,  but  were  not  in 
support  of  any  party.  The  wit  and  satire  were  con- 
nected with  things  local  and  would  not  be  thoroughly 
understood  now,  or  appreciated.  The  writers  touched 
upon  the  follies  of  fashionable  life  as  well  as  other  follies 
of  their  day. 

Salt-Box  House.  Title  of  book  by  J.  D.  Shelton 
and  name  given  to  an  imaginary  house  supposed  to  stand 
in  a  Connecticut  hill  town  more  than  a  century  ago. 
The  life  of  the  family  to  whom  the  house  belonged  is 
followed  for  three  generations.  The  people,  like  most 
families  of  the  same  social  station,  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  war  for  colonial  independence.  They  have  little 
to  do  with  political  life,  but  in  their  every-day  concerns, 
work  and  play,  school  and  church,  love  and  marriage, 
sickness  and  death,  with  their  old-time  customs,  tradi- 
tions and  habits  of  thought  they  are  very  interesting. 
Miss  Mary,  the  last  mistress  of  the  Salt-Box  House,  is  a 
most  attractive  old  maid. 

Sait  River.  An  imaginary  river,  up  which  defeated 
political  parties  are  supposed  to  be  sent  to  oblivion. 
The  name  and  application  said  to  have  originated  in  the 
United  States  and  in  connection  with  a  river  of  Ken- 
tucky.    It  is  called  an  American  cant  or  slang  name. 


380 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Sam'bo.  This  term  and  the  name  Cuffey  used  to 
designate  the  negro  race.  Both  used  by  Mrs.  Stowe  in 
her  stories. 

Saniian  Letter,  The.  The  letter  Y  used  by  Pytha- 
goras as  an  emblem  of   the  paths  of  virtue  and  of   vice. 

Samian  Sage.  Pythagoras,  said  to  have  been  born 
at  Samos. 

Samp.son,  Dominic.     See  Dominie  Sampson. 

Samson  Aeonistes.  The  principal  character  in  Mil- 
ton's sacred  tirama,  "Samson  Agonistes"  or  "Samson 
the  Combatant."  Samson  blind  and  bound  triumphs 
over  his  enemies.  As  in  the  Bible  story,  he  grasps  two 
of  the  supporting  pillars  and  perishes  in  the  general  ruin. 

Saneho  Panza.  The  esquire  and  counterpart  of  Don 
Quixote  in  Cervantes'  famous  novel.  He  has  much 
shrewdness  in  practical  matters  and  a  store  of  proverbial 
wisdom.  He  rode  upon  an  ass  which  he  dearly  loved, 
and  was  noted  for  his  proverbs. 

Sandals  of  Theramenes.  Which  would  fit  any  foot. 
Theramenes,  one  of  the  Athenian  oligarchy,  was  nick- 
named "  the  trimmer  "  from  the  name  of  a  sandal  or  boot 
which  might  be  worn  on  either  foot,  because  no  depend- 
ence could  be  placed  on  him.  The  proverb,  "  He  walks  in 
the  sandals  of  Theramenes  "  is  applied  to  those  who  speak 
fairly  but  do  the  things  that  promise  to  profit  themselves. 

Sand'ford  and  Mer'ton.  Harry  Sandford  and  Tom- 
my Merton,  the  two  heroes  of  Thomas  Day's  once  popu- 
lar tale  for  the  young,  the  "History  of  Sandford  and 
Merton"  (1783-1789). 

Sanscrit.  The  ancient  language  of  India,  now  ex- 
tinct, from  which  most  of  the  languages  there  spoken 
are  derived.  It  belongs  to  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European 
group  of  tongues.  It  was  declared  by  Sir  William  Jones 
to  be  more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more  copious  than 
the  Latin,  and  more  refined  than  either.  The  earliest 
existing  work  is  the  "Vedas."  These,  and  the  "Pu- 
ranaa,"  are  religious  writings:  but  there  are  also  Epic 
poems,  dramas,  and   philosophical  composition. 

Santa  Claus.  In  table  he  was  first  known  as  patron 
saint  of  children.  The  vigil  of  his  feast  is  still  held  in 
some  places,  but  for  the  most  part  his  name  is  now  asso- 
ciated with  Christmas-tide.  "The  old  custom  used  to  be 
for  someone,  on  December  5th,  to  assume  the  costume 
of  a  bishop  and  distribute  small  gifts  to  "good  children." 
(See  St.  Nicholas.) 

Santia'go.  The  war  cry  of  Spain;  adopted  because 
St.  James  (Sant  lago)  rendered,  according  to  tradition, 
signal  service  to  a  Christian  king  of  Spain  in  a  battle 
against  the  Moors. 

Sa'tan.  One  of  the  names  of  the  Devil,  and  that  by 
which  in  the  Bible,  in  poetry,  and  in  popular  legends, 
he  is  often  designated.  Those  mediseval  writers  who 
reckoned  nine  kinds  of  demons,  placed  Satan  at  the  head 
.  of  the  fifth  rank,  which  consisted  of  cozeners,  as  magi- 
cians and  witches.  Milton  represents  him  as  the  mon- 
arch of  hell.  His  chief  lords  are  Beelzebub,  Moloch, 
Chemos,  Thammuz,  Dagon,  Riramon,  and  Belial.  His 
standard-bearer,  Azaz'el. 

Sat'yrane.  Faerie  Queene,  Spenser.  A  noble 
knight  who  delivered  Una  from  the  fauns  and  satyrs. 
The  meaning  seems  to  be  that  Truth,  driven  from  the 
towns  and  cities,  took  refuge  in  caves  and  dens,  where 
for  a  time  it  lay  concealeS.  At  length  Sir  Satyrane 
(Luther)  rescues  Una  from  bondage:  but  no  sooner  is 
this  the  case  than  she  falls  in  with  Archima'go,  to  show 
how  very  difficult  it  was  at  the  Reformation  to  separate 
Truth  from  Error. 

Saun'ders,  Clerk.  The  hero  of  a  well-known  Scot- 
tish ballad. 

Saun'ders,  Richard.  A  feigned  name  under  which 
Dr.  Franklin,  in  1732,  commenced  the  publication  of  an 
almanac,  commonly  called  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac," 
of  which  the  distinguishing  feature  was  a  series  of  max- 
ims of  prudence  and  industry  in  the  form  of  proverbs. 

Saw'ney.  A  sportive  designation  applied  by  the 
English  to  the  Scotch.  It  is  a  corruption  of  "Sandie," 
the  Scottish  abbreviation  of  "Alexander." 

Saw'yer,  Bob.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  A 
drinking  young  doctor  who  tries  to  establish  a  practice 
at  Bristol,  but  without  success.  Sam  Weller  calls  him 
"Mr.  Sawbones." 

Scalds,  or  Skalds.  Court  poets  and  chroniclers  of 
the  ancient  Scandinavians.  They  resided  at  court,  were 
attached  to  the  royal  suite,  and  attended  the  king  in  all 
his  wars.  These  bards  celebrated  in  song  the  gods, 
the  kings  of  Norway,  and  national  heroes.  Few  com- 
plete Skaldic  poems  have  survived,  but  a  multitude  of 
fragments  exist. 

Scarlet  Letter,  The.  Title  of  a. romance  by  Nathan- 
iel Hawthorne.  The  heroine,  Hester  Prynhe,  was  con- 
demned to  wear  conspicuously  the  letter  "A"  in  scar- 
let, token  of  her  sin  as  mother  of  her  child.  Pearl,  whose 
father  was  not  known.     She  was  first  exposed  in  dis- 


grace on  a  raised  scaffold,  then  served  a  term  in  prison, 
and  afterward  gained  a  moderate  support  for  herself 
and  child  by  embroidering.  She  refused  to  reveal  the 
name  of  the  father,  although  she  might  then  be  allowed 
to  lay  aside  the  letter.  He  was  always  near,  held  an 
important  position,  and  lived  a  life  of  wearing  remorse. 
After  his  death  Hester  Prynne  took  her  child  to  another 
country,  but  returned  to  spend  her  old  age  in  seclusion 
and  comfort  in  the  same  place  that  had  witnessed  her 
punishment.  She  always  bore  herself  proudly  but  not 
defiantly  and  brought  to  herself  such  love  and  respect 
that  the  scarlet  letter  became  a  badge  of  honor.  Roger 
Chillingworth,  Hester's  husband,  appeared  as  a  learned 
foreign  physician,  visited  her  in  prison  but  promised  not 
to  reveal  his  relation  to  her  and  devoted  his  life  to  learn- 
ing her  secret.  The  characters  in  the  story  are  intense 
and  the  analysis  of  motives  subtle. 

Schah'riah.  Arabian  Nights.  The  Sultan  of  Persia. 
His  reign  was  a  despotism  and  his  decrees  absolute. 

Schehe'razade.  Arabian  Nights.  The  fabled  re- 
later  of  the  stories  in  these  "  Entertainments."  Among 
other  decrees  the  sultan  had  decided  upon  a  new  wife 
for  every  day.  Tradition  or  fable  tells  that  Schehera- 
zade, wishing  to  free  Persia  of  this  disgrace,  requested 
to  be  made  the  sultan's  wife.  She  was  young  and  beauti- 
ful, of  great  courage  and  ready  wit,  had  an  excellent 
memory,  knew  history,  was  poet,  musician,  and  dancer. 
Scheherazade  obtained  permission  for  her  younger  sister, 
Dinarzade,  to  sleep  in  the  same  chamber,  and  instructed 
her  to  say,  "  Sister,  relate  to  me  one  of  those  stories." 
Scheherazade  then  told  the  sultan  (under  pretense  of 
speaking  to  her  sister)  a  story,  but  always  contrived 
to  break  off  before  the  story  was  finished.  The  sultan, 
in  order  to  hear  the  end  of  the  story,  spared  her  life  till 
the  next  night.  This  went  on  for  a  thousand  and  one 
nights,  when  the  sultan's  resentment  was  worn  out,  and 
his  admiration  of  his  sultana  was  so  great  that  he  re- 
voked his  decree. 

Schle'mil,  Peter.  The  title  of  a  little  work  by  Cham- 
isso  (1781-1838),  and  the  name  of  its  hero,  a  man  who 
sells  his  shadow  to  an  old  man  in  gray  (the  Devil)  who 
meets  him  just  after  he  has  been  disappointed  in  an  ap- 
plication for  assistance  to  a  nobleman.  The  name  has 
become  a  by-word  for  any  poor,  silly,  and  unfortunate 
fellow. 

Scourge  of  God.  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns.  A.  P. 
Stanley  says  the  term  was  first  applied  to  Attila  in  the 
Hungarian  Chronicles.  It  is  found  in  a  legend  belonging 
to  the  Eighth  or  Ninth  Century. 

Scrooge,  Ebenezer.  Christmas  Carol,  Dickens. 
The  prominent  character,  made  partner,  executor,  and 
heir  of  old  Jacob  Marley,  stock-broker.  When  first  in- 
troduced, he  is  a  grasping,  covetous  old  man,  loving  no 
one  and  by  none  beloved.  One  Christmas,  Ebenezer 
Scrooge  sees  three  ghosts:  The  Ghost  of  Christmas  Past; 
the  (Jhost  of  Christmas  Present;  and  the  Ghost  of  Christ- 
mas To-come.  The  first  takes  him  back  to  his  young 
life,  shows  him  what  Christmas  was  to  him  when  a  school- 
boy, and  when  he  was  an  apprentice.  The  second  ghost 
shows  him  the  joyous  home  of  his  clerk,  Bob  Cratchit, 
who  has  nine  people  to  feed  on  what  seems  a  pittance, 
and  yet  could  find  wherewithal  to  make  merry  on  this 
day;  it  also  shows  him  the  family  of  his  nephew,  ana 
others.  The  third  ghost  shows  him  what  would  be  his 
lot  if  he  died  as  he  then  was,  the  prey  of  harpies,  the  jest 
of  his  friends  on  'Change.  These  visions  wholly  change 
his  nature,  and  he  becomes  benevolent,  charitable,  and 
cheerful,  and  makes  Christmas  a  happy  day  for  many 
within  his  reach. 

Sed'ley,  Mr.  Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray.  A 
wealthy  I>ondon  stock-broker,  brought  to  ruin  in  the 
money  market  just  prior  to  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The 
old  merchant  tried  to  earn  a  living  by  selling  wine,  coals, 
or  lottery-tickets  by  commission,  but  his  bad  wine  and 
cheap  coals  found  but  few  customers.  Mrs.  Sedley,  wife 
of  Mr.  Sedley,  a  homely,  kind-hearted  woman,  soured 
by  adversity,  and  quick  to  take  offense.  Amelia  Sedley, 
daughter  of  the  stock-broker,  educated  at  Miss  Pinker- 
ton  s  academy,  and  engaged  to  Captain  George  Osborne, 
son  of  a  rich  London  merchant.  After  the  ruin  of  Mr. 
Sedley  George  marries  Amelia,  and  old  Osborne  disin- 
herits him.  George  is  killed  in  the  Battle  of  Waterloo. 
Amelia  is  reduced  to  great  poverty,  but  is  befriended  by 
Captain  Dobbin,  and  after  many  years  of  patience  and 
great  devotion  she  consents  to  marry  him.  Joseph  Sed- 
ley, vain,  shy,  and  vulgar.  He  told  of  his  brave  deeds, 
and  made  it  appear  that  he  was  Wellington's  right  hand; 
so  that  he  obtained  the  sobriquet  of  "  Waterloo  Sedley." 
He  became  the  "patron"  of  Becky  Sharp,  who  fleeced 
him  of  all  his  money,  and  in  six  months  he  died  under 
suspicious  circumstances.  Interest  in  the  novel  is  cen- 
tered on  Amelia,  an  impersonation  of  virtue  without 
intellect  as  contrasted  with  Becky  Sharp,  who  is  an  im- 


LITERATURE 


381 


Eersonation  of  intellect  without  virtue.  The  one  has  no 
ead,  the  other  no  heart. 

So'Um.  Bride  of  Abydos.  Byron.  The  char- 
acter of  Selim  is  bold,  full  of  enterprise,  and  faithful. 
The  story  runs  that  Selim  was  the  son  of  Abdallah  and 
cousin  of  Zuleika.  When  Giaffir  murdered  Abdallah, 
lie  took  Selim  and  brought  him  up  as  his  own  son.  The 
young  man  fell  in  love  with  Zuleika,  who  thought  he 
was  her  brother;  when  she  discovered  he  was  Abdallah 's 
son,  she  eloped  with  him.  As  soon  as  Giaffir  discovered 
this  he  went  after  the  fugitives,  and  shot  Selim.  Zuleika 
killed  herself,  and  the  old  pacha  was  left  childless.  Selim, 
son  of  Akbar,  in  Arabian  tales,  marries  Nourmahal,  the 
"Light  of  the  Harem." 

Se'lith.  The  Messiah,  Klopstock.  One  of  the 
two  guardian  angels  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  of  John  the 
Divine. 

Sellock.  Peveril  of  the  Peak,  Scott.  A  servant 
girl  in  the  service  of  Lady  and  Sir  Geoffrey  Peveril  of 
the  Peak. 

Sene'na.  Madoc,  Southey.  A  Welsh  maiden  in 
love  with  Car'adoc.  Under  the  assumed  name  of  Mer- 
vyn  she  became  the  page  of  the  Princess  Goervyl,  that 
she  might  follow  her  lover  to  America,  when  Madoc  colon- 
ized Caer-Madoc.  Senena  was  promised  in  marriage  to 
another;  but  when  the  wedding  day  arrived,  the  bride 
was  nowhere  to  be  found. 

Sentimental  Journey,  The.  By  Laurence  Sterne. 
It  was  intended  to  be  sentimental  sketches  of  his  tour 
through  Italy  in  1764,  but  he  died  soon  after  completing 
the  first  part. 

Septuagint.  A  Greek  version  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament;  so  called  because  the  translation  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  made  by  seventy-two  Jews,  who, 
for  the  sake  of  round  numbers,  are  usually  called  the 
"seventy  interpreters."  It  is  said  to  have  been  made 
at  the  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt, 
about  280  B.  C.  It  is  that  out  of  which  all  the 
citations  in  the  New  Testament  from  the  Old  are  taken. 
It  was  also  the  ordinary  and  canonical  translation  made 
use  of  by  the  Christian  Church  in. the  earliest  ages;  and 
is  still  retained  in  the  churches  both  of  the  East  and  West. 

Sere'na.  Faerie  Queehe,  Spenser.  Allured  by  the 
mildness  of  the  weather,  went  mto  the  fields  to  gather 
wild  flowers  for  a  garland,  when  she  was  attacked  by 
the  Blatant  Beast,  who  carried  her  off  in  its  mouth. 
Her  cries  attracted  to  the  spot  Sir  Caiidore,  who  com- 
pelled the  beast  to  drop  its  prey. 

Ses'ame.  In  Arabian  tales  given  as  the  talismanic 
word  which  would  open  or  shut  the  door  -leading  into 
the  cave  of  the  forty  thieves.  In  order  to  open  it,  the 
words  to  be  uttered  were,  "  Open ,  Sesame !  "  and  in  order 
to  close  it,  "Shut,  Sesame!"  Sesame  is  a  plant  which 
yields  an  oily  grain,  and  hence,  when  Cassim  forgot  the 
word,  he  substituted  "barley,"  but  without  effect. 
Sesame  has  come  into  general  use  in  connection  with 
any  word  or  act  which  will  open  the  way  for  accomplish- 
ment of  the  thing  desired. 

Seven  Bibles,  The,  or  Sacred  Books.  (1)  The 
"  Bible  "  of  Christians.  (2)  The  "  Eddas  "  of  the  Scandi- 
navians. (3)  The  "  Five  Kings "  of  the  Chinese.  (4) 
The  "Koran"  of  the  Mohammedans.  (5)  The  "Tri 
Pitikes"  of  the  Buddhists.  (6)  The  ".Three  Vedas  "  of 
the  Hindis.     (7)  "Zendavesta"  of  the  Persians. 

Seven  Sleepers,  The.  The  tale  of  these  sleepers  is 
told  in  divers  manners.  The  best  accounts  are  those  in 
the  "Koran";  "The  Golden  Legends,"  by  Jacques  de 
Voragine;  the  "De  Gloria  Martyrum,"  by  Gregory  of 
Tours;  and  the  "Oriental  Tales,"  by  Caylus.  Accord- 
ing to  one  version  they  were  seven  noble  youths  of  Ephe- 
sus,  who  fied  in  the  Decian  persecution  to  a  cave  in 
Mount  Celion,  the  mouth  of  which  was  blocked  up  by 
stones.  After  230  years  they  were  discovered,  and 
awoke,  but  died  within  a  few  days,  and  were  taken  in  a 
large  stone  coffin  to  Marseilles.  Another  tradition  is, 
that  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  his  mind's  eye,  saw  the 
seven  sleepers  turn  from  their  right  sides  to  their  left, 
and  whenever  they  turn  on  their  sides  it  indicates  great 
disasters  to  Christendom.  This  idea  was  introduced  by 
Tennyson  in  his  poem,  "Harold." 

Seven  Wise  Masters  is  the  title  of  a  mediaeval 
collection  of  novels,  important  both  from  its  contents 
and  its  wide-spread  popularity.  The  work  is  undoubted- 
ly of  Oriental  origin,  yet  neither  the  period  when  it  was 
composed,  nor  how  far  it  spread  through  the  East,  is 
known,  but  it  existed  in  Arabic  as  a  translation  from 
Indian  sources  before  the  Eleventh  Century.  The  work 
became  known  in  literature,  sometimes  in  a  complete 
form,  sometimes  only  particular  novels  were  repro- 
duced, under  all  sorts  of  names,  in  verse  and  in  prose. 
Latin  versions  began  to  appear  about  the  beginning  of 
the  Thirteenth  Century  and  parts  have  been  translated 
into  Enghsh. 


Seven  Wise  Men.  The  collective  designation  of  a 
number  of  Greek  sages,  who  lived  about  620-548  B.  C., 
and  devoted  themselves  to  the  cultivatipn  of  practical 
wisdom.  Their  moral  and  social  experience  was  em- 
bodied in  brief  aphorisms,  expressed  in  verse  or  in  prose. 

Sga'na'relle'.  The  hero  of  Molifere's  comedy  "  Le 
Manage  Force."  He  is  represented  as  a  humorist  of 
about  fifty-three,  who  having  a  mind  to  marry  a  fashion- 
able young  woman,  but  feeling  a  doubt,  consults  his 
friends  upon  this  momentous  question.  Receiving  no 
satisfactory  counsel,  and  not  much  pleased  with  the 
proceedings  of  his  bride  elect,  he  at  last  determines  to 
give  up  his  engagement,  but  is  cudgeled  into  compliance 
by  the  brother  of  his  intended. 

Shallow.  A  braggart  and  absurd  country  justice  in 
Shakespere's  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  and  in  the 
second  part  of  "  King  Henry  the  Fourth." 

Shalott',  The  Lady  of.  The  heroine  of  Tennyson's 
poem  of  the  same  name.  She  weaves  into  her  web  all 
the  sights  reflected  in  the  mirror  which  hangs  opposite 
her  window;  but  when  Sir  Lancelot  passes,  she  leaves 
her  mirror  and  looks  out  of  the  casement  at  the  knight 
himself,  whereupon  a  curse  comes  »ipon  her.  She  entered 
a  boat  bearing  her  name  on  the  prow,  floated  down  the 
river  to  Camelot,  and  died  heart  broken  on  the  way. 

Shan'dy,  Mrs.  The  mother  of  Tristram  Shandy  in 
Sterne's  novel  of  this  name.  She  is  the  ideal  of  nonentity, 
a  character  individual  from  its  very  absence  of  individu- 
ality. 

Shan'dy,  Tristram.  The  nominal  hero  of  Sterne's 
"The  Life  and  Opinions  of  Tristram  Shandy,  Gent." 

Shan'dy,  Walter.  The  name  of  Tristram  Shandy's 
father  in  Sterne's  novel  of  this  name,  a  man  of  an  active 
and  metaphysical,  but  at  the  same  time  a  whimsical, 
cast  of  mind,  whom  too  much  and  too  miscellaneous 
learning  had  brought  within  a  step  or  two  of  madness. 
Tlie  romance,  "  'Tristram  Shandy,"  is  not  built  on  a  regu- 
lar plot.  The  hero  has  no  adventures,  and  the  story 
consists  of  a  series  of  episodes  which  introduce  the  reader 
to  the  home-life  of  an  English  country  family.  This 
family  is  one  of  the  most  amusing. 

Sharp,  Rebecca.  The  prominent  character  in 
Thackeray's  "  Vanity  Fair,"  the  daughter  of  a  poor 
painter,  d.ashing,  selfish,  unprincipled,  and  very  clever, 
who  manages  to  marry  Rawdon  Crawley,  afterwards 
his  excellency  Colonel  Crawley,  C.  B.  He  was  disin- 
herited on  account  of  his  marriage  with  Becky,  then  a 
poor  governess,  but  she  taught  him  how  to  live  in  splen- 
dor on  no  income.  Lord  Steyne  introduced  her  to  court, 
but  her  conduct  with  this  peer  gave  rise  to  scandal,  which 
caused  a  separation  between  her  and  Rawdon.  She 
ioins  her  fortunes  with  Joseph  Sedley,  a  wealthy  ".col- 
lector," of  Boggley  WoUah,  in  India.  Having  insured 
his  life  and  lost  his  money,  he  dies  suddenly  under  very 
suspicious  circumstances.  Becky  at  last  assumes  the 
character  of  a  pious,  charitable  Lady  Bountiful,  given 
to  all  good  works. 

Shepherdess,  The  Faithful.  A  pastoral  drama  by 
John  Fletcher.  The  "faithful  shepherdess"  is  Corin, 
who  remains  faithful  to  her  lover  although  dead.  Milton 
has  borrowed  from  this  pastoral  in  his  "Comus." 

Shepherd  of  Banbury.  The  ostensible  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "The  Shepherd  of  Banbury's  Rules  to 
judge  of  the  Changes  of  Weather,  grounded  on  Forty 
Years'  Experience,  etc.,"  a  work  of  great  popularity 
among  the  English  poor. 

Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain,  The.  The  hero  and 
title  of  a  religious  tract  by  Hannah  More.  The  shepherd 
is  noted  for  his  homely  wisdom  and  simple  piety. 

Shepherd's  Pipe.  Pan,  in  Greek  mythology,  was 
the  god  of  forests,  pastures,  and  flocks,  and  was  the  at- 
tributed inventor  of  the  shepherd's  flute  or  pipe,  a  series 
of  graduated  tubes  set  together  (open  at  one  end  and 
closed  at  the  other),  played  by  blowing  across  the  open 
ends. 

Shepherd's  Calendar,  The.  Twelve  eclogues  in 
various  metres,  by  Spenser,  one  for  each  month.  Janu- 
ary: Colin  Clout  (Spenser),  bewails  that  Rosalind  does 
not  return  his  love.  February:  Cuddy,  a  lad,  complains 
of  the  cold,  and  Thenot  laments  the  degeneracy  of  pas- 
toral life.  March:  Willie  and  Thomalin  discourse  of 
love.  April:  Hobbinol  sings  a  song  on  Eliza.  May: 
Palinode  exhorts  Piers  to  join  the  festivities  of  May,  but 
Piers  replies  that  good  shepherds  who  seek  their  own 
indulgence  expose  their  flocks  to  the  wolves.  June:  Hob- 
binol exhorts  Colin  to  greater  cheerfulness.  July:  Mor- 
rel,  a  goat-herd,  invites  Thomalin  to  come  with  him  to 
the  uplands.  August:  Perigot  and  Willie  contend  in 
song,  and  Cuddy  is  appointed  arbiter.  September:  Dig- 
gon  Davie  complains  to  Hobbinol  of  clerical  abuses. 
October:  On  poetry.  November:  Colin,  being  asked  by 
I'henot  to  sing,  excuses  himself  because  of  his  grief  for 
Dido,   but   finally   sings   her   elegy.     Deqember:     Colio 


382 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


again  complains  that  his  heart  is  desolate.  Thenot  is  an 
olci  shepherd  bent  with  age,  who  tells  Cuddy,  the  herds- 
man's boy,  the  fable  of  the  oak  and  the  briar,  one  of  the 
best-known  fables  included  in  the  calendar. 

Sheridan's  Ride.  A  lyric  by  T.  B.  Read,  one  of  the 
few  things  written  during  the  heat  of  the  Civil  War  that 
is  likely  to  survive. 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  This  well-known  comedy 
by  Oliver  Goldsmith  is  said  to  have  been  founded  on  an 
incident  which  actually  occurred  to  its  author.  When 
Goldsmith  was  sixteen  years  of  age,  a  wag  residing  at 
Ardagh  directed  him,  when  passing  through  that  village, 
to  Squire  Fetherstone's  house  as  the  village  inn.  The 
mistake  was  not  discovered  for  some  time,  but  all  con- 
cerned enjoyed  the  joke.  "She  Stoops  to  Conquer"  is 
one  of  the  gayest,  pleasantest,  and  most  amusing  pieces 
of  English  comedy. 

Shin'gebls.  In  Longfellow's  ".Hiawatha,"  the  diver 
who  challenged  the  North  Wind  and  put  him  to  flight 
in  combat. 

Shocky.  The  Hoosier  School-master,  Edw. 
Eggleston.  The  little  lad  from  the  poorhouse  who 
adores  the  schoolmaster  and  early  warns  him  of  plans 
for  upsetting  his  authority.  He  is  also  a  small  poet, 
not  in  rhyming,  but  in  comprehension  of  things  about 
him  and  in  his  way  of  looking  at  life,  and  he  grows  to  be  a 
helper  in  the  "Church  of  the  Best  Licks,"  founded  by 
the  school-master.  He  is  brother  to  Hannah  whom  the 
master  loves.  Shocky  and  Hannah  and  their  compan- 
ions in  the  story  bring  the  speech  and  life  of  their  people 
and  their  time  into  American  literature. 

Shy'lock.  A  sordid,  avaricious,  revengeful  Jew,  in 
Shakespere's  "Merchant  of  Venice." 

Siege  Perilous,  The.  The  Round  Table  contained 
sieges  or  seats  in  the  names  of  different  knights.  One 
was  reserved  for  him  who  was  destined  to  achieve  the 
quest  of  the  holy  graal.  This  seat  was  called  "perilous," 
because  if  any  one  sat  therein  except  he  for  whom  it  was 
reserved  it  would  be  his  death.  This  seat  finally  bore 
the  name  of  Sir  Galahad. 

Siegfried.  The  hero  of  various  Scandinavian  and 
Teutonic  legends,  particularly  of  the  old  German  epic 
poem,  the  "Nibelungen  Lied."  He  is  represented  as  a 
young  warrior  of  physical  strength  and  beauty,  and  in 
valor  superior  to  all  men  of  his  time.  He  cannot  easily 
be  identified  with  any  historical  personage. 

Sikes,  Bill.  A  brutal  thief  and  housebreaker  in  Dick- 
ens's novel  "Oliver  Twist."  He  murders  his  mistress, 
Nancy,  and  in  trying  to  lower  himself  by  a  rope  from 
the  roof  of  a  building  where  he  had  taken  refuge  from 
the  crowd,  he  falls  and  is  choked  in  a  noose  of  his  own 
making.  Sikes  had  an  ill-conditioned  savage  dog,  the 
beast-image  of  his  master,  which  he  kicked  and  loved, 
ill-treated  and  fondled. 

Silken  Thread.  Gulliver's  Travels.  In  the  king- 
dom of  Lilliput,  the  three  great  prizes  of  honor  are  "fine 
silk  threads  six  inches  long,  one  blue,  another  red,  and  a 
third  green."  The  thread  is  girt  about  the  loins,  and 
no  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  or  Knight  of  the  Garter, 
is  won  more  worthily  or  worn  more  proudly. 

Sind'bad  the  Sailor.  A  character  in  the  "Arabian 
Nights,"  in  which  is  related  the  story  of  his  strange 
voyages  and  wonderful  adventures. 

Si'non.  In  Virgil's  ".lEneid"  the  cunning  Greek, 
who,  by  a  false  tale,  induced  the  Trojans  to  drag  the 
Wooden  Horse  into  Troy. 

Sleeping  Beauty.  The  heroine  of  a  celebrated  nurse- 
ry tale  which  relates  how  a  princess  was  shut  up  by 
fairy  enchantment,  to  sleep  a  hundred  years  in  a  castle, 
around  which  sprung  up  a  dense,  impenetrable  wood. 
At  the  expiration  of  the  appointed  time,  she  was  delivered 
from  her  imprisonment  and  her  trance  by  a  gallant 
young  prince,  before  whom  the  forest  opened  itself  to 
affora  him  passage.  Grimm  derives  this  popular  and 
widely  diffused  tale  from  the  old  northern  mythology. 

Slender.  A  silly  youth  in  Shakespere's  "Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,"  who  is  an  unsuccessful  suitor  for  the  hand 
of  "Sweet  Anne  Page." 

Slick,  Sam.  The  title  and  hero  of  various  humorous 
narratives,  illustrating  and  exaggerating  the  peculiarities 
of  the  Yankee  character  and  dialect  written  by  Judge 
Thomas  C.  Haliburton.  Sam  Slick  is  represented  as  a 
Yankee  clockmaker  and  peddler,  full  of  quaint  drollery, 
unsophisticated  wit,  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and 
aptitude  in  the  use  of  what  he  calls  "soft  sawder." 

Slop,  Dr.  The  name  of  a  choleric  and  uncharitable 
physician  in  Sterne's  novel,  "  The  Life  and  Opinions  of 
Tristram  Shandy,  Gent." 

Slough  of  Despond.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bun- 
yan.  A  deep  bog,  which  Christian  had  to  pass  on  his  way 
to  the  Wicket  Gate.  Neighbor  Pliable  would  not  at- 
tempt to  pass  it,  and  turned  back.     While  Christian  was 


floundering  in  the  slough.  Help  came  to  his  aid,  and  as- 
sisted him  over. 

Sly,  Christopher.  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Shakes- 

fiere.  A  keeper  of  bears  and  a  tinker,  son  of  a  ped- 
ar,  and  a  sad  drinker. 

Song  of  Roland.  An  ancient  song  recounting  the 
deeds  of  Roland,  the  renowned  nephew  of  Charlemagne, 
slain  in  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles.  At  the  battle  of  Hast- 
ings, Taillefer  advanced  on  horseback  before  the  invad- 
ing army,  and  gave  the  signal  for  onset  by  singing  this 
famous  song.      (See  Roland.) 

Songs  of  the  Sierras.  A  collection  of  poems  by 
Joaquin  Miller,  which  made  him  known  on  two  conti- 
nents within  a  year  of  their  publication.  "The  title  ex- 
plains the  chief  subject  of  the  songs. 

Spectator,  The.  A  periodical  famous  in  literature 
in  which  most  of  the  articles  were  written  by  Addison 
or  Sir  Richard  Steele.  The  first  number  was  published 
in  London  in  the  year  1711,  the  last,  No.  635,  was  issued 
in  December,  1714.  The  most  noted  of  Addison's  writ- 
ings is  said  to  be  the  series  of  sketches  in  "The  Spec- 
tator," of  which  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  is  the  central 
figure,  and  Sir  Andrew  Freeport  and  Will  Honeycomb 
the  side  ones.  Sir  Roger  himself  is  an  absolute  creation; 
the  gentle  yet  vivid  imagination,  the  gay  spirit  of  humor 
and  the  keen  shrewd  observation  mark  it  a  work  of 
pure  genius.  In  this  Addison  has  given  a  delicacy  to 
English  sentiment,  and  a  modesty  to  English  wit  which 
it  never  knew  before.  Dr.  Johnson  says,  "  to  attain  an 
English  style,  familiar  but  not  coarse,  and  elegant,  but 
not  ostentatious,  one  must  give  his  days  and  nights  to 
the  volumes  of  Addison." 

Sphinx.  A  Greek  word,  applied  to  certain  symboli- 
cal forms  of  Egyptian  origin.  The  most  remarkable 
Sphinx  is  the  Great  Sphinx  at  Gizeh,  a  colossal  form, 
hewn  out  of  the  natural  rock.  Immediately  in  front  of 
the  breast  is  a  small  naos,  or  chapel,  formed  of  three 
hieroglyphieal  tablets.  Votive  inscriptions  of  the  Ro- 
nian  period,  some  as  late  as  the  Third  Century,  were 
discovered  in  the  walls  and  constructions.  On  the  second 
digit  of  the  left  claw  of  the  Sphinx,  an  inscription,  in 
pentameter  Greek  verses,  by  Arrian,  was  discovered. 
Another  metrical  and  prosaic  inscription  was  also  found. 
In  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  representations  of  Sphinxes 
have  been  found,  and  the  same  are  not  uncommon  on 
Phenician  works  of  art. 

Squeers.  Name  of  a  family  prominent  in  Dickens's 
"Nicholas  Nickleby."  Wackford  Squeers,  master  of 
Dotheboy's  Hall,  Yorkshire,  a  vulgar,  conceited,  igno- 
rant schoolrtiaster,  overbearing  and  mean.  He  steals  the 
boys'  pocket  money,  clothes  his  son  in  their  best  suits, 
half  starves  them,  and  teaches  them  next  to  nothing. 
Ultimately  he  is  transported  for  theft.  Mrs.  Squeers,  a 
raw-boned,  harsh,  heartless  virago,  with  no  womanly 
feeling  for  the  boys  put  under  her  charge.  Miss  Fanny 
Squeers,  daughter  of  the  schoolmaster.  Miss  Fanny  falls 
in  love  with  Nicholas  Nickleby,  but  later  hates  him  be- 
cause he  is  insensible  to  the  soft  impeachment.  Master 
Wackford  Squeers,  overbearing,  self-willed  and  pas- 
sionate. The  picture  of  this  family  and  their  ways  had 
great  influence  on  the  schools  of  England,  by  rousing  the 
people  to  a  knowledge  of  their  management. 

Squire  of  Dames.  A  personage  introduced  by  Spen- 
ser in  the  "Faerie  Queen,"  and  whose  curious  adventures 
are  there  recorded.  It  is  often  used  to  express  a  person 
devoted  to  the  fair  sex. 

Steer'forth.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens.  The 
young  man  who  led  little  Em'ly  astray.  When  tired  of 
his  toy,  he  proposed  to  her  to  marry  his  valet.  Steer- 
forth  being  shipwrecked  off  the  coast  of  Yarmouth, 
Ham  Peggotty  tried  to  rescue  him,  but  both  were 
drowned. 

Sten'tor.  A  Grecian  herald  in  the  Trojan  War,  whom 
Homer  describes  as  "great-hearted,  brazen-voiced  Sten- 
tor,  accustomed  to  shout  as  loud  as  fifty  other  men." 

Steph'a-no.  (1)  A  drunken  butler,  in  Shakespere's 
"Tempest."  (2)  A  servant  to  Portia,  in  Shakespere's 
"Merchant  of  Venice." 

Stig'gins,  Rev.  Mr.  A  red-nosed,  hypocritical 
"shepherd,"  or  Methodist  parson,  in  Dickens's  "Pick- 
wick Papers,"  with  a  great  appetite  for  pineapple  rum. 
He  is  the  spiritual  adviser  of  Mrs.  Weller,  and  lectures  on 
temperance. 

Stone  of  Sar'dis.  The  Great  Stone  of  Sardis, 
Stockton.  In  this  stone  the  imaginary  science  of  the 
future  is  joined  to  the  actual  science  of  to-day  in  an 
extremely  plausible  way.  The  North  Pole  is  visited  by  a 
submarine  vessel,  a  light  is  found  capable  of  penetrating 
for  miles  into  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  finally  the 
center  of  that  earth  is  discovered  to  be  an  enormous 
diamond. 

Storm-and-stress  Period.  In  the  literary  history 
of  Germany,  the  name  given  to  a  period  of  great  Intel- 


LITERATURE 


383 


lectual  convulsion,  when  the  nation  began  to  assert  its 
freedom  from  the  fetters  of  an  artificial  literary  spirit. 
The  period  derives  its  name  from  a  drama  of  Klinger 
(1753-1831),  whose  high-wrought  tragedies  and  novels 
reflect  the  excitement  of  the  time. 

Sur'name.  The  overname;  either  the  name  written 
over  the  Christian  name,  or  given  over  and  above  it;  an 
additional  name.  For  a  long  time  persons  had  no  family 
name,  but  only  one,  and  that  a  personal  name.  Plato 
recommended  parents  to  give  happy  names  to  their 
children;  and  the  Pythagoreans  taught  that  the  minds, 
actions,  and  successes  of  men  were  according  to  their 
names,  genius,  and  fate.  The  popes  changed  their  names 
at  their  exaltation  to  the  pontificate,  "a  custom  intro- 
duced by  Pope  Sergius."  In  France  it  was  usual  to  change 
the  name  given  at  baptism,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of 
two  sons  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  They  were  christened 
Alexander  and  Hercules;  but  at  their  confirmation, 
these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  It  is 
usual  for  the  religious  at  their  entrance  into  monasteries 
to  assume  new  names,  to  show  they  are  about  to  lead  a 
new  life. 

Swallow  Bam.  The  three  novels,  "  Swallow  Barn," 
"Horse-Shoe  Robinson,"  and  "Rob  of  the  Bowl,"  besides 
their  value  as  works  of  art,  are  all  careful  historical  studies 
giving  admirable  pictures  of  life  in  the  Southern  States 
in  the  earlier  days  of  the  republic.  They  were  written 
by  John  P.  Kennedy,  who  is  quoted  in  literature  as 
next  after  Cooper  among  American  novelists. 

Swiv'el-ler,  Dick.  A  careless,  light-headed  fellow 
in  Dickens's  novel  of  the  "Old  Curiosity  Shop,"  whose 
flowery  orations  and  absurdities  of  quotation  provoke 
laughter,  but  whose  real  kindness  of  heart  enlists  sym- 
pathy. 

Tab'ard.  The  name  of  the  Inn  at  Southwark  where 
the  pilgrims  in  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales  "  assembled. 
It  took  its  name  from  its  sign,  a  tabard,  or  herald's 
jacket. 

Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn.  Name  given  by  Long- 
fellow to  a  collection  of  short  poems  arranged  by  himself 
and  collected  together  much  in  the  same  form  as  Chau- 
cer's "Canterbury  Tales."  These  "tales"  were  mostly 
gathered  from  old  literatures  and  translated  into  Long- 
fellow's own  verse,  only  one,  "The  Birds  of  Killingworth," 
is  said  to  be  entirely  original.  Seven  narrators  are 
represented:  the  Landlord,  the  Student,  the  Spanish 
Cavalier,  the  Jew,  the  Sicilian,  the  Musician,  and  the 
Theologian.  Four  colonial  tales  are  included  in  the  work. 
" Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  ".Elizabeth,"  "  Lady  Wentworth," 
and  ".The  Rhyme  of  Sir  Christopher." 

Tal'mud  is  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  doctrine.  It 
is  the  name  applied  to  a  work  containing  traditions 
respecting  the  usages  and  laws  of  the  Jewish  people. 
The  law,  among  that  people,  was  divided  into  the  written 
and  the  unwritten.  The  written  law  embraced  the  five 
books  of  Moses;  the  unwritten  was  handed  down  orally; 
the  oral  being,  in  fact,  explanatory  of  the  written.  But, 
in  time,  the  oral  came,  also,  to  be  put  in  writing,  and 
formed  the  text  of  the  Talmud.  This  was  first  done,  it 
is  believed,  about  the  year  200.  There  are  two  separate 
commentaries  on  this  text,  which  are  distinguished  as 
the  Babylonian  and  the  Jerusalem.  The  "Talmud  of 
Jerusalem  consists  of  two  parts,  the  "Mishna"  and  the 
"Gemara."  The  "Mishna"  is  more  correct  than  the 
"Gemara,"  which  is  filled  with  dreams  and  foolish  dis- 
putations. The  Talmud  of  Babylon,  which  is  of  higher 
authority  among  the  Jews  than  that  of  Jerusalem,  was 
composed  by  Rabbi  Aser,  who  lived  near  Babylon;  he 
did  not  live  to  finish  it,  but  it  was  completed  by  his 
disciples  about  500  years  after  Christ. 

Tarn  O'Shanter.  The  title  of  a  poem  by  Burns, 
and  the  name  of  its  hero,  a  farmer,  who,  riding  home 
very  late  and  very  drunk  from  Ayr,  in  a  stormy  night, 
had  to  pass  by  the  kirk  of  Alloway,  a  place  reputed  to 
be  a  favorite  haunt  of  the  Devil  and  his  friends  and  emis- 
saries. On  approaching  the  kirk,  he  perceived  a  light 
gleaming  through  the  windows;  but  having  got  courage- 
ously drunk,  he  ventured  on  till  he  could  look  into  the 
edifice,  when  he  saw  a  dance  of  witches.  His  presence 
became  known  and,  in  an  instant  all  was  dark,  and  Tarn, 
recollecting  himself,  turned  and  spurred  his  horse  to  the 
top  of  her  speed,  chased  by  the  whole  fiendish  crew.  It 
is  a  current  belief  that  witches,  or  any  evil  spirits,  have 
no  power  to  follow  a  poor  wight  any  farther  than  the 
middle  of  the  next  running  stream.  Fortunately  for 
Tam,  the  River  Doon  was  near  and  Tam  escaped  while 
the  witches  held  only  the  tail  of  his  mare,  Maggie.  It 
has  been  said  of  "Tam  O'Shanter"  that  in  no  other 
poern  of  the  same  length  can  there  be  found  so  much 
brilliant  description,  pathos,  and  quaint  humor,  nor 
such  a  combination  of  the  terrific  and  the  ludicrous. 

Te  Deurn,  A  well-known  hymn  (so  called  from  its 
first  words)  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  sung  on  all 


occasions  of  triumph  and  thanksgiving,  and  a  theme  upon 
which  the  most  celebrated  composers  have  exercised 
their  musical  genius.  The  hymn  is  one  of  the  most  simple 
and  at  the  same  time  the  most  solemn  and  majestic  in 
the  whole  range  of  the  hymnology  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.     Its  authorship  is  uncertain. 

Tann'hauser.  A  famous  legendary  hero  of  Germany, 
and  the  subject  of  an  ancient  ballad  of  the  same  name. 
The  noble  Tannhauser  is  a  knight  devoted  to  valorous 
adventures  and  to  beautiful  women.  In  Mantua,  he 
wins  the  affection  of  a  lovely  lady,  Lisaura,  and  of  a 
learned  philosopher,  Hilario,  with  whom  he  converses 
frequently  upon  supernatural  subjects.  Enchanted  by 
rnarvelous  tales,  he  wishes  for  nothing  less  than  to  parti- 
cipate in  the  love  of  some  beauteous  elementary  spirit, 
who  shall,  for  his  sake,  assume  the  form  of  mortal  woman. 
Hilario  promises  to  grant  even  more  than  he  has  wished, 
if  he  will  have  courage  to  venture  upon  the  Venusberg. 
Tannhauser  ascends  the  mountain  and,  hearing  of  his 
departure,  Lisaura  dies.  Tannhauser  stays  long  on  the 
enchanting  mountain,  but  at  last,  moved  to  repentance, 
he  obtains  permission  to  depart.  He  hastens  to  Mantua, 
weeps  over  the  grave  of  Lisaura,  and  thence  proceeds  to 
Rome,  where  he  makes  public  confession  of  his  sins  to 
Pope  Urban.  The  pope  refuses  him  absolution,  saying 
he  can  no  more  be  pardoned  than  the  dry  wand  which 
he  holds  can  bud  and  bear  green  leaves.  Tannhauser, 
flees  from  Rome,  and  vainly  seeks  his  former  preceptor, 
Hilario.  Venus  appears  before  him,  and,  lures  him  back 
to  the  mountain,  there  to  remain  until  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. Meanwhile,  at  Rome  the  dry  wand  bears  leaves. 
Urban,  alarmed  at  this  miracle,  sends  messengers  in  search 
of  the  unhappy  knight;  but  he  is  nowhere  to  be  found. 
This  Tannhauser  legend  is  very  popular  in  Germany,  and 
is  often  alluded  to  by  German  writers.  Tieck  has  made 
it  the  subject  of  a  narrative,  and  Wagner  of  an  opera 
which  has  gained  great  celebrity. 

Tar-tuffe'.  A  common  nick-name  for  a  hypocritical 
pretender  to  religion.  It  is  derived  from  a  celebrated 
comedy  of  the  same  name  by  Molifere,  in  which  the  hero, 
a  hypocritical  priest,  is  so  called. 

Tea'zle,  Lady.  The  heroine  of  Sheridan's  comedy, 
"The  School  for  Scandal,"  and  the  wife  of  Sir  Peter 
Teazle,  an  old  gentleman  who  marries  late  in  life.  She 
is  represented  as  being  "a  lively  and  innocent,  though 
imprudent,  country  girl,  transplanted  into  the  midst  of 
all  that  can  bewilder  and  endanger  her,  but  with  enough 
of  purity  about  her  to  keep  the  blight  of  the  world  from 
settling  upon  her. 

Tea  zle,  Sir  Peter.  A  character  in  Sheridan's  play, 
"The  School  for  Scandal,"  husband  of  Lady  Teazle. 

Tempest,  The.  This  has  been  called  one  of  Shakes- 
pere's  fairy  plays.  The  story  of  it  runs:  Prospero, 
Duke  of  Milan,  was  dethroned  by  his  brother  Antonio,  and 
left  on  the  open  sea  with  his  three-year  old  daughter, 
Miranda,  in  "a  rotten  carcass  of  a  boat."  In  this  they 
were  carried  to  an  enchanted  island,  uninhabited  except 
by  a  hideous  creature,  Caliban,  the  son  of  a  witch.  Pros- 
pero was  a  powerful  enchanter,  and  soon  had  not  only 
Caliban,  but  all  the  spirits  of  the  region  under  his  control, 
including  Ariel,  chief  of  the  spirits  of  the  air.  Years 
afterward  Antonio,  Alfonso,  Sebastian  and  other  friends 
of  the  usurper  came  near  the  island.  Prospero,  by  "his 
magic,  raises  a  storm  which  casts  their  ship  on  the  shore 
and  the  whole  party  are  spell-bound  and  brought  to 
Prospero.  Plots  and  counter-plots  follow,  bringing 
in  Caliban  and  clowns,  but  all  are  made  ridiculous  and 
defeated  by  Prospero  and  Ariel. 

Ten'son.  A  kind  of  poem  among  the  troubadours 
which  carries  on  a  contention  or  dispute,  apparently 
serious,  and  often  concerning  love.  The  tenson  was 
usually  recited  by  two  persons  in  alternating  stanzas. 
The  greater  number  of  these  are  found  in  early  Italian 
and  French  literature. 

Ten  Times  One.  A  writing  in  story  form  by  E.  E. 
Hale.  It  is  said  that  the  inspiration  of  this  story" led  to 
the  founding  of  the  "King's  Daughters"  Society. 

Thaddeus  of  Warsaw.  The  hero  and  title  of  a 
novel  by  Jane  Porter. 

Thang'brand.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  H.  W. 
Longfellow.  King  Olaf's  drunken  priest,  "short  of 
stature  and  large  of  limb,"  who  was  sent  to  Iceland, 
found  the  people  poring  over  their  books,  and  sailed 
back  to  Norway  to  say  to  Olaf  that  there  was  ".  little 
hope  of  those  Iceland  men." 

Tliek'la.  The  daughter  of  Wallenstein,  in  Schiller's 
drama  of  this  name.     She  is  an  invention  of  the  poet. 

Theodo'rus.  The  name  of  a  physician,  in  Rabelais's 
romance  of  "  Gargantua."  At  the  request  of  Ponocrates, 
Gargantua's  tutor,  he  undertook  to  cure  the  latter  of 
his  vicious  manner  of  living,  and  accordingly  purged 
him  canonically  with  Anticyrian  hellebore,  by  which 
medicine  he  cleared  out  all  the  foulness  and  perverse 


384 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


habit  of  his  brain,  so  that  he  became  a  man  of  great  honor, 
sense,  courage,  and  piety. 

Thor'berg  Skaft'ing.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn, 
H.  W.  Longfellow.  The  master-builder  ordered  by 
King  Olaf  to  build  a  ship  twice  as  long  and  twice  as 
large  as  the  "  Dragon"  built  by  Rand  the  Strong,  which 
was  stranded.  Thorberg  built  the  ship,  watching  his 
workmen  closely,  and  when  she  was" ready  for  launching 
King  Olaf  and  the  workmen  were  amazed  to  see  every 
plank  down  her  sides  cut  with  deep  gashes  and  more 
amazed  to  find  that  Thorberg  had  done  the  deed.  From 
these  gashes  he  then  chippea  and  smoothed  the  sides,  to 
the  delight  of  all;  she  was  christened  the  "Long  Ser- 
pent "  and  the  name  of  her  builder  recited  in  the  Saga. 

Thorpe,  Harry.  The  Blazed  Trail,  S.  E.  White. 
The  hero  of  the  novel  a  vigorous  young  man,  who,  as  a 
"land-looker,"  finds  and  takes  up  a  valuable  timber 
tract,  against  the  crafty  old  corporation  which  seeks 
first  to  steal  the  timber,  then  to  forestall  him  in  buying 
it,  and  finally  to  ruin  him.  The  true  romance  of  the 
story  is  that  of  the  forest  and  the  titanic  struggle  of 
man  against  nature  and  against  man. 

Three  Kings,  Feast  of  the.  A  famous  mediaeval 
festival,  identical  with  Epiphany.  But  the  name  is 
more  particularly  given  to  a  kind  of  dramatic  or 
spectacular  representation  of  the  incidents  recorded  in 
the  second  chapter  of  Matthew  —  as,  the  appearance  of 
the  wise  men  in  splendid  pomp  at  the  court  of  Herod, 
the  miraculous  star,  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  the 
solemn  and  costly  worship  of  the  Babe  —  which  was 
long  very  popular. 

Three  Kings  of  Cologne,  The.  The  three  "Wise 
Men  "  who  followed  the  guiding  star  "  from  the  East "  to 
Jerusalem,  and  offered  gifts  to  the  babe  Jesus. 

Thunderer,  The.  Name  popularly  given  to  the 
English  newspaper,  the  "  Ix)ndon  Times.  '  The  accepted 
version  of  the  way  in  which  the  great  journal  got  its  name 
of  "The  Thunderer,"  is  that  Captain  Sterling,  one  of  the 
"staff,"  once  wrote  a  sort  of  apology  in  reference  to  a 
mistaken  assertion  and  used  the  phrase  "We  thundered 
out."  This  caught  the  public  fancy,  hence  the  name. 
Captain  Sterling  was  a  well-known  figure  in  London 
political  circles  and  was  father  of  the  more  famous 
John  Sterling,  critic,  essayist,  and  friend  of  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  and  De  Quincey. 

Thyrsis.  Corydon  and  Thyrsis  are  favorite  names 
given  to  shepherds  by  writers  of  pastoral  poetry.  So 
also,  Phyllis  and  Thestylis  are  names  often  applied  to 
rustic  maidens  or  shepherdesses. 

Tibbs  or  Tibs.  A  character  in  Goldsmith's  "Citizen 
of  the  World,"  quoted  as  a  "  most  useful  hand."  He  will 
write  you  a  receipt  for  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog,  tell  you 
an  Eastern  tale  to  perfection,  and  understands  the  busi- 
ness part  of  an  author  so  well  that  no  publisher  can 
humbug  him. 

Tigg,  Mon'tague.  Martin  Chuzzlewit,  Dickens. 
A  clever  impostor,  who  lives  by  his  wits.  He  starts  a 
bubble  insurance  office  and  makes  considerable  gain 
thereby.  Having  discovered  the  attempt  of  Jonas 
Chuzzlewit  to  murder  his  father,  he  compels  him  to  put 
his  money  in  the  "new  company,"  but  Jonas  after- 
wards murders  him. 

Ti'mon.  Timon  of  Athens,  Shakespere.  The 
drama  begins  with  the  joyous  life  of  Timon,  and  his 
hospitable  extravagance,  launches  into  his  pecuniary 
embarrassment,  and  the  discovery  that  his  "  professed 
friends  "  will  not  help  him,  and  ends  with  his  flight  into 
the  woods,  his  misanthropy,  and  his  death.  Introduced 
into  the  play  is  "Timon's  Banquet."  Being  shunned 
by  his  friends  in  adversity,  he  pretended  to  have  recovered 
his  money,  and  invited  his  false  friends  to  a  banquet. 
The  table  was  laden  with  covers,  but  when  the  contents 
were  exposed,  nothing  was  provided  but  lukewarm  water. 

Ti'ny  Tim.  Christmas  Stories,  Dickens.  A 
striking  character,  the  little  son  of  Bob  Cratchett,  whose 
family  were  made  happier  by  gifts  from  the  converted 
Scrooge.     (See  Scrooge.) 

Tirzah'.  Ben  Hur,  General  Lew  Wallace.  A 
beautiful  Jewish  maiden,  sister  of  Ben  Hur.  Their 
father  had  been  a  prince  of  Jerusalem,  and  died 
leaving  a  large  estate.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  Tirzah, 
with  her  mother,  was  imprisoned  through  the  cruelty  of 
Messala  who  coveted  their  property.  They  both  be- 
came lepers  and  when  released  from  prison  were  forced 
to  live  among  the  outcasts.  They  were  healed  by  Jesus, 
Ben  Hur,  himself,  witnessing  the  miracle.  As  soon  as 
the  change  in  their  look  had  taken  place  he  recognized 
them,  a,nd  when  the  Jewish  statutes  had  been  complied 
with,  Tirzah  and  her  mother  were  united  with  their 
brother  in  their  former  home. 

Tippecanoe'.  Name  given  to  William  Henry  Har- 
rison during  the  political  canvass  which  preceded  his 
election,  on  account  of  the  victory  gained  by  him  over 


the  Indians  in  the  battle  which  took  place  on  the  6th 
of  November,  1811,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tippecanoe 
and  Wabash  rivers. 

Toby,  Uncle.  A  character  in  Sterne's  "Tristram 
Shandy."  A  captain  who  was  wounded  at  the  siege 
of  Namur,  and  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  service. 
He  is  the  impersonation  of  kindness,  benevolence,  and 
simple-heartedness;  his  courage  is  undoubted,  his  gal- 
lantry delightful  for  its  innocence  and  modesty. 

Token,  The.  A  collection  of  original  articles,  prose 
and  poetry,  by  various  contributors,  issued  first  in  the 
year  1824.  This  was  the  first  "annual"  that  appeared 
in  our  country;  it  became  popular  and  was  continued  for 
fifteen  years  under  the  supervision  of  "Peter" Parley." 

Tom,  Dick,  and  Harry.  An  appellation  very  com- 
monly employed  to  designate  a  crowcl  or  rabble. 

Tommy  At'kins.  Barrack-room  Ballads,  Kip- 
ling. The  name  is  here  used  in  its  general  meaning,  a 
British  soldier.  The  name  came  from  the  little  pocket 
ledgers  served  out,  at  one  time,  to  all  British  soldiers. 
In  these  manuals  were  to  be  entered  the  name,  the  age, 
the  da,te  of  enlistment,  etc.  The  War  Office  sent  with 
each  little  book  a  form  for  filling  it  in,  and  the  hypo- 
thetical name  selected  was  "Tommy  Atkins."  The 
books  were  instantly  so  called,  and  it  did  not  require 
many  days  to  transfer  the  name  from  the  book  to  the 
soldier. 

Tom  Saw'yer.  Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer, 
Mark  Twain.  An  "elastic"  youth  whose  perform- 
ances delight  both  old  and  young  readers.  Queer  enter- 
prises influenced  by  the  old  -superstitions  among  slaves 
and  children  in  the  Western  States  give  reliable  pictures 
of  boy-life  in  the  middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Tom  the  Piper.  One  of  the  characters  in  the 
ancient  Morris  dance,  represented  with  a  tabour,  tabour- 
stick,  and  pipe.  He  carried  a  sword  and  shield,  to 
denote  his  rank. 

Tom  Tliumb.  In  legendary  history  a  dwarf  no 
larger  than  a  man's  thumb.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of 
King  Arthur,  by  whom  he  was  knighted.  He  was 
killed  by  the  poisonous  breath  of  a  spider  in  the  reign  of 
the  successor  of  King  Arthur.  Amongst  his  adventures  it 
is  told  that  he  was  lying  one  day  asleep  in  a  meadow, 
when  a  cow  swallowed  him  as  she  cropped  the  grass. 
At  another  time,  he  rode  in  the  ear  of  a  horse.  He  crept 
up  the  sleeve  of  a  giant,  and  so  tickled  him  that  he  shook 
his  sleeve,  and  Tom,  falling  into  the  sea,  was  swallowed 
by  a  fish.  The  fish  being  caught  and  carried  to  the 
palace,  gave  the  little  man  his  introduction  to  the  king. 
The  oldest  version  of  this  nursery  tale  is  in  rhyme. 

To'nio.  Daughter  of  the  Regiment,  Donizetti. 
The  name  of  the  youth  who  saved  Maria,  the  sutler- 
girl  from  falling  down  a  precipice.  The  two  fall  in  love 
with  each  other,  and  the  regiment  consents  to  their 
marriage,  provided  Tonio  will  enlist  under  its  flag.  No 
sooner  is  this  done  than  the  marchioness  of  Berkenfield 
lays  claim  to  Maria  as  her  daughter,  and  removes  her  to 
the  castle.  In  time,  the  castle  is  besieged  and  taken  by 
the  very  regiment  into  which  Tonio  haa  enlisted,  and,  as 
Tonio  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  French  officer,  the 
marchioness  consents  to  his  marriage  with  her  daughter. 

Top'sy.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe.  A 
young  slave-girl,  who  never  knew  whether  she  had  either 
father  or  mother,  and  being  asked  by  Miss  Ophelia  St. 
Clare  how  she  supposed  she  came  into  the  world,  replied, 
"I'spects  I  growed."  Topsy  illustrates  the  ignorance, 
low  moral  development,  and  wild  humor  of  the  African 
character,  as  well  as  its  capacity  for  education. 

Touchstone.  A  clown  in  Shakespere's  "As  You 
Like  It." 

Townley  Mysteries.  Certain  religious  dramas;  so 
called  because  the  MS.  containing  them  belonged  to 
P.  Townley.  These  dramas  are  supposed  to  have  been 
acted  at  Widkirk  Abbey,  in  Yorkshire. 

Trad' dies.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens.  A  sim- 
ple, honest  young  man,  who  believes  in  everybody  and 
everything  and  who  is  never  depressed  by  his  want  of 
success.  He  had  the  habit  of  brushing  his  hair  up  on 
end,  which  gave  him  a  look  of  surprise.  Traddles  was 
generally  accompanied  by  "the  dearest  girl"  and  her 
numerous  sisters. 

Tragedy  and  Comedy.  The  earliest  regular  tragedy 
written  in  English  was  the  play  of  "Gorboduc"  by 
Thomas  Sackville.  This  was  acted  in  the  year  1562. 
The  first  English  comedy  was  "  Ralph  Royster  Doyster," 
acted  in  15.51,  and  written  by  Nicholas  Udall. 

Triads.  Three  subjects  more  or  less  connected 
formed  into  one  continuous  poem  or  subject:  thus  the 
"Creation,  Redemption,  and  Resurrection"  would  form 
a  triad.  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Romans, 
Saxons,  and  Normans  would  form  a  triad.  The  Welsh 
triads,  known  in  literature,  are  collections  of  historic  facts, 


LITERATURE 


385 


mythological   traditions,    moral    maxims,    or   rules    of 
poetry  disposed  in  groups  of  three. 

Trim,  Corporal.  Uncle  Toby's  attendant,  in 
Sterne's  novel,  "The  Life  and  Opinions  of  Tristram 
Shandy,  Gent,"  distinguished  for  his  fidelity  and  affec- 
tion, his  respectfulness,  and  his  volubility. 

Trls'tram,  Sir.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  heroes 
of  mediaeval  romance.  His  adventures  form  an  episode 
in  the  history  of  Arthur's  Court,  and  are  related  by 
Thomas  the  Rhymer,  as  well  as  by  many  romancists. 

Trot'wood,  Betsey.  David  Copperfleld,  Dickens. 
A  great-aunt  to  David  whose  daily  trial  seemed  to  be 
donkeys.  A  dozen  times  a  day  would  she  rush  on 
the  green  before  her  house  to  drive  off  the  donkeys  and 
donkey-boys.  She  was  a  most  kind-hearted  woman, 
who  concealed  her  tenderness  under  a  snappish  manner. 
Miss  Betsey  was  the  true  friend  of  David  Copperfield. 

Troubadours  were  minstrels  of  Southern  France  in 
the  Eleventh,  Twelfth,  and  Thirteenth  Centuries.  They 
were  the  first  to  discard  Latin  and  use  the  native  tongue 
in  their  compositions.  Their  poetry  was  either  about 
love  and  gallantry,  or  war  and  chivalry.  In  Northern 
France  they  were  called  Trouvftres  and  the  language 
employed  was  the  Walloon.  The  troubadours  were 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Court  in  England.  They 
furnished  literature  for  the  readers,  and  so  wielded 
potent  influence  over  English  thought  and  language. 

Trovato're.  II  Trovatore,  Verdi.  This  opera 
is  founded  on  a  drama  belonging  to  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury. The  story  is  that  Trovatore,  or  the  Troubadour,  is 
Manrico,  the  supposed  son  of  a  gypsy  but  really  a  brother 
to  the  count.  The  princess  Leono'ra  falls  in  love  with 
the  troubadour,  but  the  count  is  about  to  put  Manrico 
to  death,  when  Leonora  intercedes  on  his  behalf,  and 
promises  to  give  herself  to  him  if  he  will  spare  her  lover. 
The  count  consents ;  but  while  he  goes  to  release  his  cap- 
tive, Leonora  kills  herself  by  sucking  poison  from  a  ring. 
When  Manrico  discovers  this  sad  calamity,  he  dies 
also. 

Tuck,  Friar.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  The  father-con- 
fessor of  Robin  Hood  and  connected  with  Fountain's 
Abbey.  He  is  represented  as  a  clerical  Falstaff,  very  fat 
and  self-indulgent,  very  humorous,  and  somewhat  coarse. 
His  dress  was  a  russet  habit  of  the  Franciscan  order. 
He  was  sometimes  girt  with  a  rope  of  rushes.  Friar 
Tuck  also  appears  in  the  "Morris  dance"  on  May- 
day. 

Tur'vey-drop.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  con- 
ceited dancing-master,  who  imposes  on  the  world  by  his 
majestic  appearance  and  elaborate  toilette.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  living  upon  the  earnings  of  his  son,  who  has 
a  most  slavish  reverence  for  him  as  a  perfect  "master  of 
deportment." 

Twelfth  Night,  a  drama  by  Shakespere.  The  story 
is  said  to  have  come  from  a  novelette  written  early  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century.  A  brother  and  sister,  twins,  are 
shipwrecked.  Viola  dressed  like  her  brother  becomes 
page  to  the  duke  Orisino.  The  duke  was  in  love  with 
Olivia,  and  as  the  lady  looked  coldly  on  his  suit,  he  sent 
Viola  to  advance  it,  but  the  wilful  Olivia,  instead  of 
melting  towards  the  duke,  fell  in  love  with  his  beautiful 
page.  Sebastian,  the  twin-brother  of  Viola,  was  attacked 
in  a  street  brawl  before  Olivia  and  thinking  him  to  be 
the  page  she  invited  him  in.  The  result  was  the  marriage 
of  Sebastian  to  Olivia  and  the  duke  to  Viola. 

Twlce-Told  Tales.  This  name  was  given  by  the 
author,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  to  the  tales  included 
under  its  title,  because  some  of  them  had  been  already 
published  in  the  "  Token,"  and  other  periodicals.  They  are 
mystical  and  though  in  prose  form  are  the  work  of  a 
poet.  The  tales  are  nearly  all  American  in  subject  but 
treated  from  the  spiritual  rather  than  the  practical  side. 

Two  Gentlemen  of  Vero'na,  a  drama  by  Shakespere, 
the  story  of  which  is  taken  from  the  "  Diana  "  of  Monte- 
mayor  (Sixteenth  Century).  The  plot  resembles  that  of 
Twelfth  Night,  as  Julia,  disguised  as  a  page,  is  a  prominent 
figure. 

Ubal'do.  Jerusalem  Delivered,  Tasso.  One  of 
the  older  crusaders,  who  had  visited  many  regions.  He 
and  Charles  the  Dane  went  to  bring  back  Rinaldo  from 
the  enchanted  castle. 

Ube'da.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  A  noted  artist 
who  one  day  painted  a  pigture,  but  was  obliged  to  write 
under  it,  "This  is  a  cock,"  in  order  that  the  spectator 
might  know  what  was  intended  to  be  represented. 

U'lin.  Tales  of  the  Genii,  Ridley.  An  enchant- 
ress, who  had  no  power  over  those  who  remained  faith- 
ful to  Allah  and  their  duty;  but  if  any  fell  into  error  or 
sin,  she  had  full  power  to  do  as  she  liked.  Thus,  when 
Misnar  (Sultan  of  India)  mistrusted  the  protection  of 
Allah,  she  transformed  him  into  a  toad. 
^_  Ul-rl'ca.     A  hideous  old  sibyl  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 

Ivanhoe." 


Urtima  Thule.  The  extremity  of  the  world;  the 
most  northern  point  known  to  the  ancient  Romans. 
Pliny  and  others  say  it  is  Iceland. 

U'na.  Faerie  Queen,  Spenser.  The  personifica- 
tion of  truth.  She  goes,  leading  a  lamb  and  riding  on  a 
white  ass,  to  the  court  of  Gloriana,  to  crave  that  one  of 
her  knights  might  undertake  to  slay  the  dragon  which 
kept  her  father  and  mother  prisoners.  The  adventure 
is  accorded  to  the  Red  Cross  Knight.  Being  driven  by 
a  storm  into  "Wandering  Wood,"  a  vision  is  sent  to  the 
knight,  which  causes  him  to  leave  Una  and  she  goes  in 
search  of  him.  In  her  wanderings  a  lion  becomes  her 
attendant.  After  many  adventures,  she  finds  St.  George, 
"the  Red  Cross  Knight, ".but  he  is  severely  wounded. 
Una  takes  him  to  the  house  of  Holiness,  where  he  is  care- 
fully nursed,  and  then  leads  him  to  Eden. 

Uncle  Tom.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Stowe,  Mrs. 
A  negro  slave  of  unaffected  piety,  and  most  faithful  in 
the  discharge  of  all  his  duties.  His  master,  a  humane 
man,  becomes  embarrassed  in  his  affairs,  and  sells  him 
to  a  slave-dealer.  After  passing  through  various  hands, 
and  suffering  intolerable  cruelties,  he  dies. 

Underground  Railroad,  The.  A  popular  embodi- 
ment of  the  various  ways  in  which  fugitive  slaves  from 
the  Southern  States  of  the  American  Union  were  assisted 
in  escaping  to  the  North,  or  to  Canada;  often  humor- 
ously abbreviated  U.  G.  R.  R. 

Un'dlne.  In  French  fable  a  water-nymph,  who  was 
exchanged  for  the  young  child  of  a  fisherman  living  near 
an  enchanted  forest.  One  day.  Sir  Huldbrand  took 
shelter  in  the  fisherman's  hut,  fell  in  love  with  Undine, 
and  married  her.  By  marrying  a  mortal  she  obtained 
a  soul,  and  with  it  all  the  pains  and  penalties  of  the  hu- 
man race. 

Ur'gan.  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Scott.  A  human  child 
stolen  by  the  king  of  the  fairies,  and  brought  up  in  elf- 
land.  He  said  to  Alice  Brand  (the  wife  of  Lord  Rich- 
ard), "if  any  woman  will  sign  my  brow  thrice  with  a 
cross,  I  shall  resume  my  proper  form."  Alice  signed  him 
thrice,  and  Urgan  became  at  once  "the  fairest  knight  in 
all  Scotland,"  and  Alice  recognized  in  him  her  own 
brother  Ethert. 

Urgan'da.  In  the  romance  of  "Amadis  de  Gaul," 
a  powerful  fairy  sometimes  appearing  in  all  the  terrors 
of  an  evil  enchantress. 

U'ther.  Son  of  Constans,  one  of  the  fabulous  or 
legendary  kings  of  Britain,  and  the  father  of  Arthur. 

Uto'pia.  The  name  of  an  imaginary  island  described 
in  the  celebrated  work  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  in  which 
was  found  the  utmost  perfection  in  laws,  politics,  and 
social  arrangements.  More's  romance  obtained  a  wide 
popularity,  and  the  epithet  "Utopian"  has  since  been 
applied  to  all  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  society 
which  are  deemed  not  practicable. 

Val'en-tine.  (1)  One  of  the  heroes  in  the  old  ro- 
mance of  "Valentine  and  Orson,"  which  is  of  uncertain 
age  and  authorship.  (2)  One  of  the  "Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona,"  in  Shakespere's  play  of  that  name.  (3)  A 
gentleman  attending  on  the  Duke  in  Shakespere's 
"Twelfth  Night."  (4)  One  of  the  characters  in  Goethe's 
"Faust."     He  is  a  brother  of  Margaret. 

Vale'rian  or  Vall'rlan.  Canterbury  Tales,  Chau- 
cer. The  husband  of  St.  Cecilia.  Cecilia  told  him  she 
was  beloved  by  an  angel,  who  constantly  visited  her; 
and  Valirian  requested  to  see  this  visitant.  Cecilia  re- 
plied that  he  should  do  so,  if  he  went  to  Pope  Urban  to 
be  baptized.  This  he  did,  and  on  returning  home  the 
angel  gave  him  a  crown  of  lilies,  and  to  Cecilia  a  crown  of 
roses,  both  from  the  garden  of  paradise. 

Valley  of  Humiliation.  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
Bunyan.  The  place  where  Christian  encountered  Apoll- 
yon,  just  before  he  came  to  the  "Valley  of  the  Shadow 
of  Death." 

Van'ityFair.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bunyan.  (1)  A 
fair  established  by  Beelzebub,  Apollyon,  and  Legion,  for 
the  sale  of  all  sorts  of  v^anities.  It  was  held  in  the  town 
of  Vanity,  and  lasted  all  the  year  round.  Here  were  sold 
houses,  lands,  trades,  honors,  titles,  kingdoms,  and  all 
sorts  of  pleasures  and  delights.  Christian  and  Faithful 
had  to  pass  through  the  fair,  which  they  denounced. 
(2)  Thackeray  gave  the  name,  "Vanity  Fair,"  to  the  first 
of  his  famous  works.  It  has  been  called  "  A  novel  with- 
out a  hero."     (See  Sedley.) 

Veck,  Toby.  The  Chimes,  Dickens.  A  ticket- 
porter  who  went  on  errands  and  bore  the  nickname 
Trotty.  One  New  Year's  Eve  he  had  a  nightmare  and 
fancied  he  had  mounted  to  the  steeple  of  a  neighboring 
church,  and  that  goblins  issued  out  of  the  bells.  He  was 
roused  from  his  sleep  by  the  sound  of  the  bells  ringing  in 
the  new  year. 

Veda.  The  technical  name  of  those  ancient  Sanscrit 
works  on  which  the  first  period  of  the  religious  belief  of 
the  Hindus  is  based. 


386 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Veiled  Prophet.  Lalla  Rookh,  Moore.  He  as- 
sumed to  be  a  god,  and  maintained  that  he  had  been 
Adam,  Noah,  and  other  representative  men.  Having 
lost  an  eye,  and  being  otherwise  disfigured  in  battle,  he 
wore  a  veil  to  conceal  his  face,  but  his  followers  said  it 
was  done  to  screen  his  dazzling  brightness. 

Ve'nl  Crea'tor  Spi'ritus.  An  ancient  and  very  cele- 
brated hymn  of  the  Roman  Breviary,  which  occurs  in 
the  offices  of  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  and  which  is  used 
in  many  of  the  most  solemn  services  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.     Its  author  is  not  known  with  certainty. 

Ver'non,  Die  or  Diana.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The 
heroine  of  tne  story,  a  high-born  girl  of  great  beauty  and 
talents.  She  is  an  enthusiastic  adherent  to  a  persecuted 
religion  and  an  exiled  king.  She  is  excluded  from  the 
ordinary  wishes  and  schemes  of  other  girls  by  being  pre- 
destined to  a  hateful  husband  or  a  cloister,  and  by  receiv- 
ing a  masculine  education,  under  the  superintendence  of 
two  men  of  talent  and  learning. 

Version  of  the  Scriptures.  The  common  English 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  the  most  remarkable  of  Bible 
translations,  was  made  by  a  con»pany  of  forty-seven 
scholars  who  did  their  work  at  the  request  of  King 
James  I.  The  version  was  published  in  1611.  "Tyn- 
dale's  translation  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  most  im- 
portant philological  monument  of  the  first  half  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  both  as  an  historical  relic,  and  as  hav- 
ing more  than  anything  else  contributed  to  shape  and 
fix  the  sacred  dialect,  and  establish  the  form  which  the 
Bible  must  permanently  assume  in  an  English  dress." 

Vicar  of  Wakefield.  The  hero  of  Goldsmith's  novel 
of  the  same  name,  Dr.  Primrose,  a  simple-minded, 
pious  clergyman,  with  six  children.  He  begins  life  with 
a  good  fortune,  a  handsome  house,  and  wealthy  friends, 
but  is  reduced  to  poverty  without  any  fault  of  his  own, 
and,  being  reduced  like  Job,  like  Job  he  is  restored.  (See 
Primrose.) 

Vln-cen'tl-o.  The  Duke  of  Vienna  in  Shakespere's 
"Measure  for  Measure."  He  commits  his  scepter  to 
Angelo,  under  the  pretext  of  being  called  to  take  an 
urgent  and  distant  journey,  and  by  exchanging  the  royal 
purple  for  a  monk's  hood,  observes  incognito  the  condi- 
tion of  his  people. 

Vi'ola.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakespere.  A  sister 
of  Sebastian.  They  were  twins,  and  so  much  alike  that 
they  could  be  distinguished  only  by  their  dress.  When 
they  were  shipwrecked  Viola  was  brought  to  shore  by 
the  captain,  but  her  brother  was  left  to  shift  for  him- 
self. Being  in  a  strange  land,  Viola  dressed  as  a  page, 
and,  under  the  name  of  Cesario,  entered  the  service  of 
Orsino,  Duke  of  Illyria.  The  duke  greatly  liked  his 
beautiful  page,  and,  when  he  discovered  her  true  sex, 
married  her. 

Violen'ta.  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well.  Shakes- 
pere. A  character  in  the  play  who  enters  upon  the 
scene  only  once  and  then  she  neither  speaks  nor  is  spoken 
to.  The  name  has  been  used  to  designate  any  young 
lady  nonentity;  one  who  contributes  nothing  to  the 
amtisement  or  conversation  of  a  party. 

Vin'land.  A  name  given,  according  to  Snorro  Stur- 
leson,  by  Scandinavian  voyagers,  to  a  portion  of  the 
coast  of  North  America  discovered  by  them  toward  the 
close  of  the  Tenth  Century,  well  wooded,  and  producing 
agreeable  fruits,  particularly  grapes.  It  is  thought  to 
have  been  some  part  of  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  or 
Rhode  Island. 

Viv'ien  or  Viv'ian.  Idylls  of  the  King,  Tennyson. 
She  is  also  known  as  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  according 
to  early  legends  was  of  a  high  family.  These  legends 
tell  that  Merlin  in  his  dotage,  fell  in  love  with  her,  and 
she  imprisoned  him  in  the  forest  of  Brittany.  She  then 
persuaded  Merlin  to  show  her  how  a  person  could  be 
imprisoned  by  enchantment  without  walls,  towers,  or 
chains,  and  after  he  had  done  so,  she  put  him  to  sleep. 
While  he  slept,  she  performed  the  needful  ceremonies, 
whereupon  he  found  himself  enclosed  in  a  prison  stronger 
than  the  strongest  tower,  and  from  that  imprisonment 
was  never  again  released. 

Volapuk.  This  so-called  universal  language  was 
invented  in  1879,  by  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  a  Swabian 
pastor  and  later  a  teacher  in  Constance.  Of  the 
vocabulary,  about  one-third  is  of  English  origin,  while 
the  Latin  and  Romance  languages  furnish  a  fourth. 
The  grammar  is  simplified  to  the  utmost. 

Vulgate.  Name  given  to  a  version  of  the  Scriptures 
made  m  Latin,  probably  by  St.  Jerome,  about  the  year 
380.  This  version  was  authorized  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  in  the  year  1546. 

Walden.  A  record  of  the  experiances  of  the  author, 
Thoreau,  while  living  near  Walden  Pond,  on  nine  cents 
a  day.  He  read  Homer,  watched  the  birds,  bees,  ants, 
and  the  animals  that  came  within  his  range,  describing 


the  results  of  his  acute  powers  of  observation  in  a  char- 
acteristic, quaint  form. 

Wa'verley.  Name  of  hero  and  title  of  novel  by  Scott. 
Wayerley  was  captain  of  "  Waverley  Honour"  and  after 
an  injury  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  proposed  to 
Flora  M'lvor,  but  was  not  accepted.  Flora's  brother, 
Fergus  M'lvor,  introduced  him  to  Prince  Charles  Ed- 
ward. He  entered  the  service  of  the  Young  Chevalier, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Preston  Pans  saved  the  life  of  Colonel 
Talbot.  The  colonel,  out  of  gratitude,  obtained  the 
pardon  of  young  Waverley,  who  then  married  Rose 
Bradwardine,  and  settled  down  quietly  in  Waverley 
Honour.  The  novel,  Waverley,  was  the  first  of  Scott's 
historical  novels,  published  in  1814.  The  materials  are 
Highland  feudalism,  military  bravery,  and  description 
of  natural  scenery.  The  chief  characters  are  Charles 
Edward  the  Chevalier,  the  noble  old  baron  of  Brad- 
wardine, the  simple  faithful  clansman  Evan  Dhu,  and 
the  poor  fool  Davie  Gellatley. 

Waverley  Novels.  General  name  given  to  Scott's 
historical  novels.  Those  founded  on  English  history 
are  "Ivanhoe,"  "  Kenilworth,"  "Peveril  of  the  Peak," 
"Betrothed,"  "Talisman,"  and  "Woodstock."  Founded 
on  Scotch  history  are  "Waverley,"  "OJd  Mortality," 
"Monastery,"  "The  Abbott,"  "Legend  of  Montrose," 
"Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  and  "Castle  Dangerous."  Treat- 
ing of  continental  history  are  "  Quentin  Durward," 
"Anne  of  Geirstein,"  and  "Count  Robert  of  Paris." 
Twelve  others  in  the  series,  including  "Rob  Roy," 
"Heart  of  Midlothian,"  "Bride  of  Lammermoor,"  are 
connected  with  historical  events,  but  are  more  personal 
and  deal  mainly  with  Scottish  character. 

Weird  Sisters,  The.  Three  witches,  in  Shakespere's 
tragedy  of  "Macbeth." 

Weller,  Samuel.  In  Dickens's  celebrated  "Pick- 
wick Papers."  A  servant  to  Mr.  Pickwick,  to  whom  he 
becomes  devotedly  attached.  Rather  than  leave  his 
master,  when  he  is  sent  to  the  Fleet,  Sam  Weller  gets 
his  father  to  arrest  him  for  debt.  He  is  an  inimitable 
compound  of  wit,  simplicity,  quaint  humor,  and  fidelity. 
"Tonv  Weller,"  father  of  Sam;  a  coachman  of  the  old 
school,  who  drives  between  London  and  Dorking.  On 
the  coachbox  he  is  a  king,  elsewhere  a  mere  London 
"cabby."  He  marries  a  widow  and  his  constant  advice 
to  his  son  is,  "Sam,  beware  of  the  vidders."  Every- 
body was  merry  over  Mr.  Pickwick  and  Sam  Weller, 
and  everybody  was  eager  to  read  this  entertaining 
author. 

Westover  Manuscripts.  In  the  year  1728  CJolonel 
Byrd  set  out  with  a  party  of  commissioners  to  meet  an- 
other party  of  commissioners  from  North  Carolina,  to 
survey  and  settle  the  boundary  between  North  Carolina 
and  Virginia.  The  other  Virginia  commissioners  were 
Dandridge  and  Fitz- William.  With  them  were  two 
surveyors,  a  chaplain,  and  seventeen  woodsmen  and 
hunters.  Colonel  Byrd  took  notes  of  the  journey.  These 
important  documents  remained  in  manuscript  until  1841, 
when  they  were  printed  under  the  title  of  "The  West- 
over  Manuscripts,"  being  so  called  from  the  estate  of 
Westover,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  James  River, 
where  the  author  lived.  These  journals  of  Colonel  Byrd 
are  remarkable  for  the  freshness  and  vividness  of  their 
descriptions,  and  for  a  continued  undercurrent  of  good- 
natured  humor.  He  is  particularly  fond  of  indulging 
in  a  bit  of  fun  at  the  expense  of  the  North  Carolinians. 
The  journals  abound  in  stories  illustrative  of  Natural 
History. 

Whit'ting-ton,  Dick.  The  hero  of  a  famous  old 
legend,  in  wnich  he  is  represented  as  a  poor  orphan  boy 
from  the  country,  who  went  to  London,  where,  after 
undergoing  many  hardships  he  obtained  a  penny  and 
bought  a  cat.  Shortly  after,  he  sent  his  cat  on  a  ven- 
ture in  his  master's  ship;  and  the  King  of  Barbary, 
whose  court  was  overrun  with  mice,  gladly  bought  the 
cat  at  a  high  price.  With  this  money  Whittington 
commenced  business,  and  succeeded  so  well  that  he 
finally  married  his  former  master's  daughter,  was 
knighted,  and  became  lord  mayor  of  London. 

Wilfer.  Name  of  a  family  prominent  in  "  Our  Mutual 
Friend,"  by  Dickens.  Reginald  Wilfer,  called  by  his 
wife  R.  W.,  and  by  his  fellow-clerks  Rumty.  He  was 
clerk  in  the  drug-house  of  Chicksey,  Stobbles,  and  Ve- 
neering. Mrs.  Wilfer,  wife  of  Mr.  Reginald,  a  most  ma- 
jestic woman,  with  an  exalted  idea  of  her  own  impor- 
tance. Bella  Wilfer,  daughter  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wilfer, 
a  wayward,  playful,  affectionate,  spoilt  beauty,  so  pretty, 
so  womanly,  and  yet  so  childish  that  she  was  always 
captivating.  She  spoke  of  herself  as  "  the  lovely  wo- 
man." Bella  married  John  Harmon.  Lavinia  Wilfer, 
youngest  sister  of  Bella,  and  called  "The  Irrepressible." 

Winter's  Tale,  The.  Shakespere  (1604).  Leontes, 
King  of  Sicily,  invites  his  friend  Polixenes  to  visit  him, 
becomes  jealous,  and  commands  Camillo  to  poison  him. 


LITERATURE 


387 


Camillo  warns  Polixenes,  and  flees  with  him  to  Bohemia. 
Leontes  casts  his  queen,  Hermione,  into  prison,  where 
she  gives  birth  to  a  daughter.  Hermione  is  reported 
dead  and  the  child  is  brought  up  by  a  shepherd,  who 
calls  it  Perdita.  Florizel  sees  Perdita  and  falls  in  love 
with  her;  but  Polixenes,  his  father,  tells  her  that  she 
and  the  shepherd  shall  be  put  to  death  if  she  encourages 
the  suit.  Florizel  and  Perdita  flee  to  Sicily,  and  being 
introduced  to  Leontes,  it  is  soon  discovered  that  Perdita 
is  his  lost  daughter.  Polixenes  tracks  his  son  to  Sicily, 
and  consents  to  the  union.  The  party  are  invited  to 
inspect  a  statue  of  Hermione,  and  the  statue  turns  out 
to  be  the  living  queen. 

Worldly-Wiseman,  Mr.  One  of  the  characters  in 
Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  who  converses  with 
Christian  by  the  way,  and  endeavors  to  deter  him  from 
proceeding  on  his  journey. 

Wrayburn,  Eugene.  Our  Mutual  Friend, 
Dickens.  Barrister-at-law.  He  is  an  indolent,  moody, 
whimsical  young  man,  who  loves  Lizzie  Hexham.  After 
he  is  nearly  killed  by  Bradley  Headstone,  he  reforms, 
and  marries  Lizzie,  who  saved  his  life._ 

Ya'hoo.  A  name  given  by  Swift,  in  his  satirical  ro- 
mance of  "Gulliver's  Travels,"  to  one  of  a  race  of  brutes 
having  the  form  and  all  the  vices  of  man.  The  Yahoos 
are  represented  as  being  subject  to  the  Houyhnhnms,  or 
horses  endowed  with  reason. 

Yamoyden.  A  romantic  poem  having  for  its  hero 
Philip,  the  celebrated  Sachem  of  the  Pequod  Indians. 
The  author.  Sands,  published  the  poem  between  the 
years  1817  and  1819. 

Yarpe.  The  Gray  Horse  Troop,  Hamlin  Gar- 
land. The  resolute  leader  of  the  cowboy  gang  that 
undertook  to  drive  the  Tetongs  from  their  reservation 
lands  in  the  far  West.  The  real  hero  of  the  story,  Cap- 
tain Curtis,  is  in  charge,  and  his  rational  management 
of  the  Indians,  his  fight  against  the  political  ring  that 
would  defraud  his  wards,  and  his  courageous  handling 
of  a  serious  crisis  show  him  to  be  a  different  power  from 
that  these  cowboys  generally  met,  when  they  shot  up 
towns  and  raced  the  Tetongs  across  the  hills,  making  of 
themselves  a.  lynching  party  on  federal  territory.  United 
States  soldiers  appear  on  the  scene  and  Yarpe  and  his 
men  depart. 

Yeast.  A  romance  by  Charles  Kingsley.  It  was  the 
outcome  of  his  interest  in  the  Chartist  riots  and  disturb- 
ances, and  gives  concerning  the  sufferings  of  the  poor 
some  of  the  most  powerful  delineations  found  in  English 
literature. 

Yemasse.  An  historical  tale  founded  on  personal 
knowledge  of  the  American  Indian  character.  It  was 
written  in  the  first  half  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  by 
Simms,  of  whom  it  has  been  said,  "He  has  done  for  the 
historical  traditions  of  the  Carolinas  what  Cooper  did 
for  those  of  the  North  and  West. 

Ye'o.  Westward  Hoi  Chas.  Kingsley.  A 
character  in  the  novel  prominent  as  a  bold  manner,  a 
true  friend,  a  terrible  foe.  He  was  all  his  life  a  sailor, 
and  made  voyages  to  New  Guinea  for  negro  slaves  which 
were  sold  in  the  West  Indies.  He  joined  in  the  search 
for  fabulous  wealth  in  New  Spain,  crossed  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  was  pursued,  and  wandered  in  the  woods  of 
the  isthmus  for  some  months.  "Westward  Ho!"  is  an 
historical  novel,  relating  to  Elizabethan  English  history. 

Yor'ick.  (1)  The  King  of  Denmark's  jester,  men- 
tioned in  Shakespere's  "Hamlet."  Hamlet  picks  up  his 
skull  in  the  churchyard  and  apostrophizes  it.  (2)  A 
humorous  and  careless  parson  in  Sterne's  "Tristram 
Shandy." 

Yule  Clog.  A  great  log  of  wood,  sometimes  the  root 
of  a  tree,  brought  into  the  house  with  great  ceremony 
on  Christmas  Eve,  laid  in  the  fireplace,  and  lighted  with 
the  brand  of  last  year's  clog.  While  it  lasted,  there  was 
great  drinking,  singing,  and  telling  of  tales.  Sometimes 
it  was  accompanied  by  Christmas  candles,  but  in  the 
cottages  the  only  light  was  from  the  ruddy  blaze  of  the 
great  wood  fire.  The  , Yule  clog  was  to  burn  all  night; 
if  it  went  out,  it  was  considered  a  sign  of  ill  luck  that 
would  govern  the  ensuing  year. 

Zano'ni.  Hero  of  a  novel  so  called  by  Lord  Lytton. 
Zanoni  is  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  communicat- 
ing with  spirits,  prolonging  life,  and  producing  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones. 

Zeno'bia.  Blithedale  Romance,  Hawthorne.  A 
strong-minded  woman,  beautiful  and  intelligent,  who 
was  interested  in  playing  out  the  pastoral  of  the  life  at 
Brook  Farm.  She  is  represent.-;d  as  disappointed  in 
love;  at  last  she  drowned  herself. 
^    Ze'phon.     A  "strong  and  subtle  spirit"  in  Milton's 

Paradise  Lost,"  whom  Gabriel  dispatched  with  Ithuriel 
to  find  Satan. 

Zo'phi-el.  In  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  an  angelic 
scout. 


FAMOUS  POEMS,  AUTHOR,  AND 
FIRST  LINE 

Abou  Ben  Adhem Leigh  Hunt. 

"Abou  Ben  Adhem,  may  his  tribe  increase. 

Address  to  Light John  Milton, 

".Hail,  holy  light,  offspring  of  Heaven,  first- 
born." 

Address  to  a  Mummy Horace  Smith. 

"And  thou  hast  walked  about  (how  strange  a 
story)." 

Adonais, Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

"  I  weep  for  Adonais  —  he  is  deadl  " 
Advice  of  Polonius  to  Laertes,   .    .     William,  Shakeapere. 

"Give  thy  thoughts  no  tongue." 
After  the  Curfew,      Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"The  play  is  over.     While  the  light." 
Afton  Water Robert  Bums. 

"  Flow  gently,  sweet  Afton,  among  thy  green 
braes." 
Alexander's  Feast John  Dryden. 

"'Twas  at  the  royal  feast  for  Persia  won." 
Alexander  Selkirk,    ..." Wm.  Coxeper. 

"I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey." 
Alfred  The  Harper, John  Sterling. 

"Dark  fell  the  night,  the  watch  was  set." 

America, : S.  F.  Smith. 

"My  country,  'tis  of  thee." 
American  Flag, Joseph  Rodrrian  Drake. 

"When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height." 
Annabel  Lee Edgar  Allen  Poe. 

"It  was  many  and  many  a  year  ago." 
Answer  to  Passionate  Shepherd,    .    .  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 

"If  all  the  world  and  love  were  young." 
Apostrophe  to  the  Ocean, -.    .  Lord  Byron, 

"There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods." 
Ariel's  Song, William  Shakespere 

"Come  unto  these  yellow  sands." 
At  Forty-five, Robert  J.  Burdette 

"Halt!   cry  the  bugles  down  the  columns'  length." 
A  Thing  of  Beauty, John  Keatt, 

"A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever." 
Auf  Wiedersehen James  Russell  Lowell, 

"The  little  gate  was  reached  at  last." 
Auld  Lang  Syne Robert  Bums, 

"Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot." 
Auld  Robin  Gray,     . Lady  Anne  Lindsay. 

"When  the  sheep  are  in  the  fauld,  and  the  kye 
come  hame." 
Baby,  The, George  Macdonald. 

"Where  did  you  come  from,  baby  dear?" 
Baby  Bye, Theodore  Tilton. 

"Baby  Bye,  here's  a  fly." 
Ballad  of  Baby  Bell .    T.  B.  Aldrich. 

"Have  you  not  heard  the  poets  tell." 
Ballad  of  the  Tempest James  T.  Field. 

"We  were  crowded  in  the  cabin." 
Bannockburn Robert  Bums. 

"Scots,  wha  hae  wi'  Wallace  bled." 
Barbara  Fritchie John  G.  Whiitier. 

."Up  from  the  meadows  rich  with  corn." 
Barefoot  Boy, John  G.  Whittier. 

"Blessings  on  thee,  little  man." 
Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,    .    .    .    Julia  Ward  Howe. 

"Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of 
the  Lord." 
Battle  of  Agincourt, Michael  Drayton. 

"Fair  stood  the  wind  for  France." 
Battle  of  Blenheim,      Robt.  Southey. 

"  It  was  a  summer's  evening,  old  Kaspar's  work 
was  done." 
Beggar,  The, James  Russell  Lowell. 

"A  beggar  through  the  world  am  I." 
Bells,  The Edgar  Allen  Poe. 

"Hear  the  sledges  with  the  bells." 
Belshazzar, Barry  Cornwall. 

"Belshazzar  is  king,  Belshazzar  is  lord." 
Ben  Bolt, Thos.  Dunn  English. 

"O,  don't  you  remember  sweet  Alice,  Ben  Bolt?" 
Bingen  on  the  Rhine Caroline  Norton 

"A  soldier  of  the  legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers." 


388 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Bill  and  Joe Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"Come,  dear  old  comrade,  you  and  1." 

Blessed  Damozel,  The Davie  Gabriel  Rosetti. 

"  The  blessed  damozel  leaned  out."  ' 

Blindness,  Ode  on, John  Milton. 

"When  I  consider  how  my  light  is  spent." 

Blue  and  the  Gray,  The Francis  Finch. 

"By  the  flow  of  the  inland  river." 

Bonnie  Doon Robert  Burns. 

"Ye  banks  and  braes  o'  bonnie  Doon." 

Boys,  The Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"Has  there  any  old  fellow  got  mixed  with  the 
boys?" 
Bridge  of  Sighs,  The Thomas  Hood. 

"One  more  unfortunate." 
Bridge,  The Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

"I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight." 
Brook,  The Alfred  Tennyson. 

"I  come  from  haunt  of  coot  and  hern." 
Bugle  Song Alfred  Tennyson. 

"The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls." 
Burial  of  Moses Francis  Alexander. 

"By  Nebo's  lonely  mountain." 
Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore Charles  Wolfe. 

"Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note." 
Carmen  Bellicosum,      .    .    .    '.    .    .    .    .  G.  H.  McMaster. 

"In  their  ragged  regimentals." 
Casablanca Felicia  Hemans. 

"The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck." 
Cataract  of  Lodore Robert  Southey. 

"How  does  the  water  come  down  at  Lodore?" 
Cato's  Soliloquy Joseph  Addison. 

"It  must  be  so —  Plato,  thou  reason'st  well." 
Celestial  Music,  ' William  Shakespere. 

"How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this 
bank! " 
Chambered  Nautihis Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"This  is  the  ship  of  pearl  which  poets  feign." 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade Alfred  Tennyson. 

"Half  a  league,  half  a  league." 
Charles  XII., SaTnuel  Johnson. 

"On  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride?  " 
Child  Musician,  The Austin  Dobson. 

"He  had  played  for  his  lordship's  levee." 
Children,  The Charles  M.  Dickinson. 

"When  the  lessons  and  tasks  are  all  ended." 
Children's  Hour H.  W.  Longfellow. 

"  Between  the  dark  and  the  daylight." 
Choir  Invisible,  The George  Eliot. 

"O,  may  I  join  the  choir  invisible." 
Christmas  Hymn Alfred  DomeU 

"It  was  the  calm  and  silent  night." 
Christmas  Hymn Charles  Wesley. 

"Hark,  the  herald  angels  sing." 
Christmas  Bells H.  W.  Longfellow. 

"I  heard  the  bells  on  Christmas  Day." 
Clear  the  Way Charles  Mackay. 

"Men  of  thought,  be  up  and  stirring." 
Closing  Scene,  The, Buchanan  Read. 

"Within  the  sober  realm  of  leafless  trees." 
Closing  Year George  D.  Prentiss. 

"  'Tis  midnight's  holy  hour, —  and  silence  now." 
Cloud,  The Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

"  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers." 
Comin'  Through  the  Rye, Robert  Bums. 

"Gin  a  body  meet  a  body." 
Concord  Bridge, Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

"By  the  rude  bridge  that  arched  the  flood." 
Contentment Edward  Dyer. 

"My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is." 
Cover  Them  Over, Will  Carleton. 

"Cover  them  over  with  beautiful  flowers." 
Cowper's  Grave Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 

"It  is  a  place  where  poets  crowned  may  feel  the 
heart's  decaying." 
Cradle  Song Alfred  Tennyson. 

"Sweet  and  low,  sweet  and  low." 
Crossing  the  Bar Alfred  Tennyson. 

"Sunset  and  evening  star  and  one  clear  call  for 
me." 


Cry  of  the  Children,      .    .    .    Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 
"Do  you  hear  the  children  weeping,  O,  my 
brothers?  " 

Curfew  must  not  Ring  Tonight,     .    .    .   Rose  H.  Thorpe. 

"England's  sun  was  slowly  setting." 
Culprit  Fay,  . Joseph  Rodman  Drake. 

"  'Tis  the  middle  watch  of  a  summer's  night." 

Cupid  Grown  Careful George  Croly. 

"There  was  once  a  gentle  time." 

Cry  of  the  Dreamer John  Boyle  O'Reilly. 

"I'm  tired  of  planning  and  toiling." 
Daffodils William  WordswoHh. 

"1  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud." 

Death  of  the  Flower William  Cullen  Bryant. 

"The  melancholy  days  have  come." 

Death  of  the  Brave William  Collins. 

"How  sleep  the  brave,  who  sink  to  rest." 

Deserted  Village,  The Oliver  Goldsmith. 

"Sweet  Auburn!   loveliest  village  of  the  plain." 

Destruction  of  Sennacherub Lord  Byron. 

"The  Assyrian  came  down' like  a  wolf  on  the 
fold." 

Dirge Sir  Walter  Scott. 

"Soldier  rest,  thy  warfare  o'er." 
Domestic  Peace Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

"Tell  me,  on  what  holy  ground." 
Dorothy  Q Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"Grandmother's  mother,  her  age,  I  guess." 
Dream  Ship,  The Eugene  Field. 

"When  the  world  is  fast  asleep." 
Drifting Thomas  B.  Read. 

"My  soul  to-day  is  far  away." 
Driving  Home  the  Cows Kate  Osgood. 

"Out  of  the  clover  and  blue-eyed  grass." 
Dying  Christian  to  His  Soul Alexander  Pope. 

"  Vital  spark  of  heavenly  flame." 
Each  and  All Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"Little  thinks  in  the  field  yon  red-cloaked  clown." 

Easter  Flowers Phillips  Brooks. 

"O  garden  by  the  city  gate." 
Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard,    ....    Thomas  Gray. 

"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 
End  of  Life,  The Philip  James  Bailep. 

"We  live  in  deeds,  not  years;   in  thoughts,  not 
breaths." 
End  of  the  Play,  ....   William  Makepeace  Thackeray. 

"The  play  is  done —  the  curtain  drops." 

Erl  King Goethe. 

.  "Who  rideth  so  late  through  the  night  wind  wild." 
Eve  of  St.  Agnes,      John  Keats. 

"St.  Agnes'  Eve, —  Ah,  bitter  chill  it  was." 
Evening  Cloud John  Wilson. 

"A  cloud  lay  cradled  near  the  setting  sun." 
Evelyn  Hope Robert  Browning. 

"Beautiful  Evelyn  Hope  is  dead." 
Evening  in  Paradise John  Milton. 

"  Now  came  still  Evening  on,  and  Twilight  gray." 
Evening,  Ode  to Joseph  Addison. 

"The  spacious  firmament  on  high." 
Evening  Prayer, James  Edmonslon. 

"Saviour  breathe  an  evening  blessing." 
Fairies,  The William  Allingham. 

"Up  the  airy  mountain." 
Family  Meeting Charles  Sprague. 

"We  are  all  here!  father,  mother,  sister,  brother." 

Farewell, Charles  Kingsley. 

"My  fairest  child,  I  have  no  song  to  give  you." 
Fare  Thee  Well, Lord  Byron. 

"Fare  thee  well,  and  if  forever." 
Fire  of  Driftwood, Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

"We  sat  within  the  farmhouse  old." 
First  Snow  Fall James  Russell  Lowell. 

"The  snow  had  begun  in  the  gloaming." 
Five, Julia  C.  R.  Dorr. 

"  '  But  a  week  is  so  long,'  he  said." 
Flight  of  Youth Richard  Henry  Stoddard. 

"There  are  gains  for  all  our  losses." 
For  'a  That, Robert  Bums- 

"Is  there  for  honest  poverty." 


LITERATURE 


389 


Friends  Together Caroline  Norton. 

"We  have  been  friends  together." 

Good-bye,  My  Lover,  Good-bye T.H.  Allen. 

"My  ship  goes  sailing  down  the  bay." 

Good  Times  Coming, Chas.  MacKay. 

"There's  a  good  time  coming,  boys." 
Good  Night  and  Good  Morning,     .    .    .     Lord  Houghton. 

"  A  fair  little  girl  sat  under  a  tree." 
Graves  of  a  Household,  The Felicia  Ilemans. 

"They  grew  in  beauty  side  by  side." 

Grecian  Urn,  Ode  on  a John  Keals. 

"Thou  still  unravished  bride  of  quietness." 

Hamlet's  Address  to  His  Father's  Ghost, 

William  Shakespere. 

"Angels  and  ministers  of  grace  defend  us." 
Hamlet's  Soliloquy William,  Shakespere. 

"To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question." 
Hannah  Binding  Shoes Lucy  Larcom. 

"Poor  lone  Hannah,  at  the  window,  binding 
shoes." 
Here  and  There Susan  Coolidge. 

"  We  sit  beside  the  lower  feast." 
Highland  Mary Robt.  Burns. 

"Ye  banks  and  braes  and  streams  around." 
High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,    .   Jean  Ingelow. 

"The  old  mayor  climbed  the  belfry  tower." 
Hohenlinden Thomas  Campbell. 

"Oh  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low." 
Home,  Sweet  Home John  Howard  Payne. 

"  'Mid  pleasures  and  palaces,  though  I  may 
roam." 
Horatius, Lord  Macaulay. 

"Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium." 
Hour  of  Death Felicia  Hemans. 

"Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall." 
House  Where  I  Was  Born, Thomas  Hood. 

"I  remember,  I  remember." 
How  They  Brought  the  Good  News,    .   Robert  Browning. 

"I  sprang  to  the  stirrup  and  .joris  and  he." 
Hymn  Before  Sunrise Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

"Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star?  " 
Hymn  on  the  Morning  of  the  Nativity,    .     John  MiUon. 

"It  was  the  winter  wild." 
11  Penseroso, John  Milton. 

"Hence  vain  deluding  joys." 
I'm  Growing  Old John  G.  Saxe. 

"My  days  pass  plgasantly  away." 
I  Love  My  Love Charles  Mackay. 

"That  is  the  meaning  of  the  song." 
Inchcape  Rock, Robert  Southey. 

"No  stir  in  the  air,  no  stir  in  the  sea." 
Ingratitude, William  Shakespere. 

"Blow,  blow,  thou  winter  wind." 
Ivy  Green, Charles  Dickens. 

"Oh,  a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green." 
Jerusalerti,  the  Golden Gerald  Massey. 

"Jerusalem,  the  golden,  1  weary  for  one  gleam." 
John  Anderson Robert  Bums. 

"John  Anderson,  my  jo,  John." 
John  Gilpin William  Cowper. 

"John  Gilpin  was  a  citizen." 
King's  Guest,  The Harriet  Prescott  Spojford. 

"  'Thou  shalt  die,'  said  the  priest  to  the  king." 
Knee-deep  in  June, James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

"Tell  you  what  I  like  the  best."     . 
Ladder  of  St.  Augustine,    ....   Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

"St.  Augustine,  well  hast  thou  said." 
L' Allegro, John  Milton. 

"  Hence,  loathed  melancholy." 
Landing  of  the  Pilgrims, Felicia  Hemans. 

"The  breaking  waves  dashed  high." 
Land  o'  the  Leal, Caroline  Oliphant. 

"I'm  wearin'  awa',  John." 
Last  Leaf, Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"If  I  should  live  to  be." 
Light  Out  of  Darkness William  Cowper. 

"God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way." 
Little  Boy  Blue, Abby  Sage  Richardson. 

"Under  the  haystack,  Little  Boy  Blue." 


Little  Boy  Blue, •.    •    •   Eugene  Field. 

"The  little  toy  dog  is  covered  with  dust." 

Little  While,  A A.H.Bonar. 

"Beyond  the  smiling  and  the  weeping." 
Lochinvar, Sir  Walter  Scott. 

"The  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  West." 
Lord  Ullin's  Daughter Thomas  Campbell. 

"A  chieftain  to  the  highlands  bound." 
Lost  Chord, Adelaide  Proctor. 

"Seated  one  day  at  the  organ." 
Ijost  I/cader,  The Robert  Browning. 

"Just  for  a  handful  of  silver  he  left  us." 
Lotus  Eaters,  The Alfred  Tennyson. 

"  'Courage!'    he  said,  and  pointed  toward  the 
land." 
Love  of  Country, Sir  Walter  Scott, 

"Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead." 
Love's  Immortality Robert  Southey. 

"They  sin  who  tell  us  love  can  die." 
Lucy  Gray William  Wordsworth, 

"Oft  I  had  heard  of  Lucy  Gray." 
Lux  Benigna Cardinal  Newman, 

"Lead  kindly  light,  amid  the  encircling  gloom." 
Lycidas,      John  Milton. 

"Yet  once  more,  O  ye  laurels,  and  once  more." 
Maid  of  Athens, Lord  Byron. 

"Maid  of  Athens,  ere  we  part." 
Man  With  the  Hoe,      Edwin  Markham. 

"Bowed  with  the  weight  of  centuries,  he  leans." 
Marco  Bozarris Fitz-Greene  Halleck. 

"At  midnight  in  his  guarded  tent." 
Maud  Muller John  G.  Whittier. 

"Maud  Muller  on  a  summer's  day." 
Meeting  of  the  Waters Thomas  Moore. 

'"There  is  not  in  the  wide  world  a  valley  so 
sweet." 
Melrose  Abbey, Sir  Walter  Scott, 

"If  thou  wouldst  view  fair  Melrose  aright." 
Mercy William  Shakespere, 

'  'The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained." 
Mighty  Fortress,  A Martin  Luthef. 

"A  mighty  fortress  is  our  God." 
Miller's  Daughter Alfred  Tennyson, 

"It  is  the  miller's  daughter." 
Milton John  Dryden, 

"Three  facts  in  three  distant  ages  born." 
Mind  Alone  Valuable William  Shakespere, 

"For  'tis  the  mind  that  makes  the  body  rich." 
Morte  d' Arthur Alfred  Tennyson, 

"So  all  day  long  the  noise  of  battle  roll'd." 
Mother  and  Poet Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning, 

"  Dead!  one  of  them  shot  by  the  sea  in  the  east." 
Music, William  Collins, 

"When  music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young." 
Musical  Instrument,  A,    .    .     Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 

"What  was  he  doing,  the  great  God  Pan." 
My  Ain  Countree,      ..........    Mary  Demarest. 

"I'm  far  frae  my  hame." 
My  Mind,  a  Kingdom <StV  Edward  Dyer, 

"My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is." 
My  Native  Land  —  Good-Night Lord  Byron, 

"Adieu,  adieu  1   my  native  shore." 
Nathan  Hale Francis  Finch, 

"To  drum  beat  and  heart  beat." 
Not  as  I  Will Helen  Hunt  Jackson, 

"Blindfolded  and  alone  I  stand." 

Ocean,  The Lord  Byron, 

"Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean  — 
roll!" 
Ode  on  Immortality, William  Wordsworth, 

"There  was  a  time  when  meadow,  grove,  and 
stream." 
Oh,  Sleep Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge, 

"Oh,  Sleep!   it  is  a  gentle  thing." 
Old  Arm  Chair,  The Eliza  Cook, 

"I  love  it —  1  love  it,  and  who  shall  dare." 
Old  Aunt  Mary's,      James  Whilcomb  Riley. 

"Wasn't  it  pleasant,  O  brother  mine?" 

Old  Ironsides, Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 

"Aye,  tear  her  tattered  ensign  down." 


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THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Old  Oaken  Bucket, Samuel  Wood-worth. 

"How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my 
childhood." 
Old  Minstrel,  The Sir  Walter  Scott. 

"The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold." 
Old,  Old  Song,  The, Charles  Kingsley. 

"When  all  the  world  is  young,  lad." 
Old  Song,  An Joanna  Baillie. 

"The  bride  she  is  winsome  and  bonny." 
One  Hoss  Shay Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

"Have  you  heard  of  the  wonderful  one  hoss  shay ? " 
On  the  Loss  of  the  Royal  George,     .    .    William  Cowper. 

"Toll  for  the  brave  I"  I 

On  Virtue Alexander  Pope. 

"Know  then  this  truth,  enough  for  man  to  know." 
Opportunity, John  J.  Ingalls. 

"Maker  of  human  destinies  am  I." 
Order  for  a  Picture Alice  Gary. 

"O  good  painter,  tell  me  true." 
Other  World,  The, Harriet  Beecher  Stowi. 

"it  lies  around  us  like  a  cloud." 
Paradise  and  the  Peri Thomas  Moore. 

"One  morn  a  Peri  at  the  gate." 
Passionate  Shepherd  to  His  Love,     Christopher  Marlowe. 

"Come  live  with  me  and  be  my  love." 
Picket  Guard Ethel  L.  Beers. 

"All  quiet  along  the  Potomac,  they  say." 
Pictures  of  Memory Alice  Cary. 

"Among  the  beautiful  pictures." 
Pied  Piper  of  Hamlin, .   Robert  Browning. 

"  Hamlin's  town  's  in  Brunswick." 
Planting  the  Apple  Tree,  .    .    .    William  Cullen  Bryant. 

"Come  let  us  plant  the  apple  tree." 
Power  of  Poetry  to  Confer  Fame,    .    .    Edmund  Spenser. 

"The  day  I  wrote  her  name  upon  the  strand." 
Prayer, James  Montgomery. 

"Prayer  is  the  soul's  sincere  desire." 
Prisoner  of  Chillon Lord  Byron. 

"My  hair  is  gray  but  not  with  years." 
Proud  Miss  MacBride, John  0.  Saxe. 

"O  terribly  proud  was  Miss  MacBride." 
Rabbi  Ben  Ezra Robert  Browning. 

"Grow  old  along  with  me." 
Raven,  The Edgar  Allen  Poe. 

"Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary." 
Recessional Rudyard  Kipling. 

"Lord  of  our  fathers,  known  of  old." 
Red  Cross  Knight, Edmund  Spenser. 

"A  gentle  knight  was  pricking  on  the  plain." 
Rhodora, Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

"In  May  when  sea-winds  pierce  our  solitude." 
Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner S.  T.  Coleridge. 

"It  is  an  ancient  mariner." 
Ring  Out,  Wild  Bells, Alfred  Tennyson. 

"Ring  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wild  sky." 
Rock  Me  to  Sleep Elizabeth  A.  Allen. 

"  Backward,  turn  backward,  O  time  in  thy  flight." 
Robert  of  Lincoln, Robert  Browning. 

"Merrily  swinging  on  brier  and  weed." 
Rosary  of  Years Father  Ryan. 

"Some  reckon  their  age  by  years." 
Rule  Britannia, Thompson. 

"When  Britain  first  at  heaven's  command." 
Sandpiper,  The, .-    •    •   Celia  Thaxter. 

"Across  the  narrow  beach  we  flit." 
Sands  of  Dee Charles  Kingsley. 

"O  Mary,  go  and  call  the  cattle  home." 
Seven  Ages  of  Man William  Shakespere. 

"  All  the  world's  a  stage." 
Sheridan's  Ride T.  B.  Read. 

"Up  from  the  south  at  break  of  day." 
Sir  Galahad Alfred  Tennyson. 

"My  good  blade  carves  the  casques  of  men." 
Skipper  Ireson's  Ride John  G.  Whittier. 

"If  all  the  rides  since  the  birth  of  time," 
Skylark,  To  a, William  Wordsworth. 

"Up  with  me,  up  with  me,  into  the  clouds." 
Skylark,  The, James  Hogg. 

"Bird  of  the  wilderness." 

Skylark,  To  a, Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

"Hail  to  thee,  blithe  spirit." 


Sleep, Edward  Young. 

"Tired  Nature's  sweet  restorer,  balmy  sleep." 
Sleep Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 

"Of  all  the  thoughts  of  God  that  are." 
Soldier's  Dirge William  Collins. 

"How  sleep  the  brave  who  sink  to  rest." 
Song  from  Cymbeline,      William  Shakespere. 

"Hark!   hark!    the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings." 
Song  of  Doubt,  A, Josiah  Gilbert  Holland. 

"The  day  is  quenched  and  the  sun  is  fled." 
Song  of  Faith,  A Josiah  Gilbert  Holland. 

"Day  will  return  with  a  fresher  boon." 
Song  of  Pippa Robert  Browning. 

"The  year's  at  the  spring." 
Song  of  the  Camp, Bayard  Taylor. 

"Give  us  a  song,'  the  soldier  cried." 
Song  of  the  Chattahoochee Sidney  Lanier. 

"Out  of  the  hills  of  Habersham." 
Song  of  the  Fairy William  Shakespere. 

"Over  hill,  over  dale." 
Song  of  the  Shirt, Thomas  Hood. 

"With  fingers  Weary  and  worn." 
Song  of  Seven, Jean  Ingelow. 

"There's  no  dew  left  on  the  daisies  and  clover." 
Songs  of  Innocence William  Blake. 

"Piping  down  the  valleys  wild." 
Sonnet  to  Milton,      William  Wordsworth. 

"Milton!    thou  should'st  be  living  at  this  hour." 

Soul  and  Body, William  Shakespere. 

"Poor  soul,  the  center  of  my  sinful  earth." 
Soul's  Errand Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

"Go,  soul,  the  body's  guest." 
Spare  the  Tree George  P.  Morris. 

"Woodman,  spare  that  tree." 
Stanzas  for  Music Lord  Byron. 

"There's  not  a  joy  the  world  can  give  like  that 
it  takes  away." 
Stars,  The Lord  Byron. 

"Ye  stars!   which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven." 
Stirrup  Cup,  The John  Hay. 

"My  short  and  happy  day  is  done." 
Sweet  Content Thomas  Decker, 

"Art  thou  poor,  yet  hast  thou  golden  slumbers?" 

Tenting  on  the  Old  Camp  Ground Kittridge. 

"We  are  tenting  to-night  on   the  old  camp 
ground." 
Thanatopsis,^ William  Cullen  Bryant, 

"To  hirfi  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds." 

To  a  Mountain  Daisy,      Robert  Burns. 

"  Wee,  modest,  crimson-tipped  flower." 

To  a  Mouse Robert  Burns. 

■  "Wee,  sleekit,  cow'rin',  tim'rous  beastie." 

•T*o  a  Waterfowl William  Cullen  Bryant. 

"Whither  midst  falling  dew." 

To  Celia, Ben  Jonson. 

"  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes." 

To  Mary  in  Heaven Robert  Bums. 

"■Phou  ling'ring  star,  with  less'ning  ray." 

To  Night Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

"Swiftly  walk  o'er  the  western  wave." 

True  Woman William  Wordsworth. 

"She  was  a  phantom  of  delight.'" 

Two  Angels H.W.  Longfellow. 

"Two  angels,  one  of  life  and  one  of  death." 
Vagabonds,  The J.  T.  Trowbridge. 

"We  are  two  vagabonds,  Roger  and  I.'' 
Valley  of  Silence,  The Father  Ryan. 

"In  the  hush  of  the  valley  of  silence." 
Village  Preacher,  The Oliver  Goldsmith. 

"Near  yonder  copse  where  once  the  garden 
smiled." 
Waiting John  Burroughs. 

"Serene  I  fold  my  hands  and  wait." 
When  Malindy  Sings,        ....  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar. 

"G'way  an'  quit  dat  noise.  Miss  Lucy." 
We  are  Seven WiTliam  Wordsworth. 

"A  simple  child  that  lightly  draws  its  breath." 
Yankee  Girl John  G.  Whittier. 

"  She  sings  by  her  wheel  at  the  low  cottage  door." 


WILLIAM  EWART  GLADSTONE 


BIOGRAPHY 


Aaron,  son  of  A'mram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  and  the  elder  brother  of  Moses  and  Miriam.  He 
appeared  with  Moses  before  Pharaoh,  and  was  the  first 
high  priest  of  Israel,  his  sons  being  also  consecrated  to 
the  priesthood.  He  shared  the  sin  of  Moses  at  Meribah, 
as  well  as  its  punishment,  his  death  taking  place  shortly 
afterwards  on  Mount  Hor. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin,  R.  A.,  was  born  in  1852,  and 
began  his  art  studies  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Philadelphia.  He  stands  in  the  foremost  rank  of  painters 
of  historical  and  subject  pictures.  All  his  works  show  his 
fine  decorative  instinct,  and  are  painted  with  a  rich,  glow- 
ing palette.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  correctness  of 
all  archffiological  detail.  He  has  acquired  great  fame  as 
an  illustrator  of  Shakespere,  whose  plays  have  also  sup- 
plied him  with  the  subjects  for  some  of  his  most  successful 
pictures.  Principal  works:  Richard  III.  and  Lady 
Anne,  King  Lear's  Daughters,  Hamlet,  the  decorative 
panels  illustrating  the  (iuest  of  the  Holy  Grail,  in  the 
Boston  Public  Library,  Coronation  of  King  Edward  VII., 
Columbus  in  the  New  World. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  LL.D.,D.D.,  born  in  1819.  Amer- 
ican critic,  very  precocious  as  a  child,  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College,  and  settled  at  Cambridge,  gaining 
considerable  reputation  as  a  biblical  critic.  He  con- 
tributed to  periodicals,  and  also  wrote  several  critical 
works,  and  in  support  of  Unitarianism;  the  best  known 
is  that  on  "The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel."  Died, 
1884. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  clergyman,  author,  editor  "The 
Outlook";  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  December  18,  1835; 
graduated  University  of  New  York,  1853:  practiced 
law;  ordained  Congregational  minister,  1860;  pastor 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  1860-65;  New  England  Church,  New 
York,  1865-69;  resigned  pastorate,  1869,  to  devote  him- 
self to  literature.  Edited  "  Literary  Record  "  of  Harper's 
Magazine;  associate  editor  "The  Christian  Union"  with 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  whom  he  succeeded  as  pastor  of 
Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn,  May,  1888;  resigned, 
November,  1898.  Author:  Jesus  of  Nazareth;  Old 
Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testament  Truths ;  A  Lay- 
man's Story;  How  to  Study  the  Bible;  Illustrated  Com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament;  Dictionary  of  Religious 
Knowledge  (with  late  T.  J.  Conant) ;  A  Study  in  Human 
Nature;  In  Aid  of  Faith;  Life  of  Christ;  Evolution  of 
Christianity;  The  Theology  of  An  Evolutionist;  Chris- 
tianity and  Social  Problems;  Life  and  Letters  of  Paul; 
The  Life  that  Really  Is;  Problems  of  Life;  Life  and 
Literature  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews;  The  Rights  of  Man; 
Henry  Ward  Beecher;  The  Other  Room;  The  Great 
Companion;  Christian  Ministry;  Personality  of  God; 
and  Industrial  Problems. 

Abd-ul-Hainid  II.,  formerly  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
was  born  in  1842,  the  second  son  of  Sultan  Abd-ul- 
Medjid.  He  was  proclaimed  Sultan  in  succession  to 
his  brother  Murad  V.,  who  was  deposed  in  consequence 
of  his  mental  incapacity  (August  31,  1876),  and  died 
on  August  29,  19(34.  The  succession  to  the  throne, 
according  to  Turkish  custom,  vests  in  the  senior  male 
descendant  of  the  house  of  Othman,  sprung  from  the 
Imperial  Harem.  The  Sultan  does  not  marry,  but  from 
the  inmates  of  the  Harem  selects  a  certain  number  who 
are  known  as  ladies  of  the  palace,  the  others  occupying 
positions  subordinate  to  them.  All  children  born  in  the 
Harem  are  held  to  be  of  legitimate  and  equal  birth. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  Sultan  only  succeeds  when  there 
are  no  uncles  or  cousins  of  greater  age  than  himself. 
Abd-ul-Hamid  has  several  children.  He  was  forced  to 
abdicate  the  throne  in  May,  1909. 

Abelard,  or  Abailard  {aV -a-lard) ,  Pierre,  a  French 
philosopher  and  ecclesiastic,  was  born  in  the  year  1079, 
at  Palais,  near  Nantes,  in  Brittany.  He  was  celebrated 
for  his  learning  and  genius,  and  opened  a  school  in  Paris 
in  1103,  where  he  taught  philosophy  with  great  success. 
His  romantic  love  for  H^loise,  and  the  misfortunes  which 
followed  in  consequence  of  his  unhappy  passion,  have 
added  greatly  to  his  celebrity.  He  died  at  the  priory  of 
St.  Marcel,  near  Chalons,  in  1142.  He  was  at  first  in- 
terred by  the  monks  of  Cluni  in  their  monastery,  but  his 
remains  were  afterwards  removed  to  the  Paraclete  (a 
monastery  in  Champagne,  which  Abdlard  had  himself 
founded,  and  which  was  then  a  convent  presided  over  by 


Hdloise) ;  and  finally  they  were  deposited,  together  with 
those  of  Heloise,  in  the  cemetery  of  Pfcre  la  Chaise. 

Abraliam  (a! bra-ham),  the  progenitor  of  the  Hebrew 
nation,  descendant  of  Shem,  born  about  1996  B.  C,  in 
Mesopotamia,  died  at  the  age  of  175  years,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Cave  of  Machpelah.  Isaac  and  Ishmael  were  his 
sons  by  Sarah  and  Hagar,  the  latter  being  a  slave. 

Abruzzi,  Duke  of  the,  prince  of  Royal  House  of 
Italy,  was  born  in  1873;  scientist,  explorer,  aeronaut, 
sportsman,  litterateur;  traveled  round  world  as  a  youth; 
ascended  Mount  St.  Elias,  Alaska,  1896;  his  Arctic  ex- 
pedition in  1899  penetrated  nearest  to  North  Pole  up  to 
that  time;  in  1906,  he  ascended  the  topmost  height  in 
the  Ruwenzori  Range,  East  Africa,  for  which  he  was 
eulogized  by  King  Edward. 

Abu  Bekr  {a'bu  bd'ker),  father-in-law  and  successor 
of  Mohammed,  born  in  573,  was  elected  Caliph  over  Ali, 
son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  and  the  contest  caused  a 
schism  in  the  Church,  which  still  exists.     Died,  634. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  born  in  1807;  son  of 
J.  Q.  Adams;  spent  his  childhood  in  Europe,  and, 
returning  to  America,  graduated  at  Harvard  (College, 
1825.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  but,  adopting 
politics,  eventually  joined  the  coalition  now  known 
as  the  Republican  party,  and  was'  appointed  minister 
to  England,  1861-68.  He  was  arbitrator  for  America 
for  the  settlement  of  claims  under  the  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington, 1871,  and  continued  to  take  an  active  interest 
ie  political  life.  He  wrote  biographies  of  his  father  and 
grandfather.     Died,  1886. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  history  writer;  born  in 
Boston,  May  27,  1835;  graduated  at  Harvard,  1856  (LL. 
D.,  1895) ;  admitted  to  bar,  1858;  served  in  Union  Army 
through  Civil  War;  brevetted  brigadier-general,  United 
States  Army,  1865.  Became  identified  with  railway 
interests;  appointed  member  board  of  railway  com- 
missioners of  Massachusetts,  1869;  president  Union  Pacific 
Railway,  1884-90;  president  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,  1895.  Author:  Chapters  on  Erie  and  Other 
Essays;  Railroads,  their  Origin  and  Problems;  Notes 
on  Railway  Accidents;  Massachusetts,  Its  Historians 
and  Its  History;  Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts  His- 
tory; Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams;  Richard  Henry 
Dana,  a  Biography;  A  College  Fetich ;  Lee  at  Appomat- 
tox, and  other  papers. 

Adams,  Henry,  author;  born  in  Boston,  February 
16,  1838;  graduate  Harvard,  1858;  private  secretary  to 
his  father,  who  was  American  Minister  at  London,  1861- 
68;  assistant  professor  history  Harvard,  1870-77;  editor 
"  North  American  Review,"  1870-76.  Author:  Essays  in 
Anglo-Saxon  Law;  Historical  Essays;  Life  of  Albert 
Gallatin;  John  Randolph;  Documents  Relating  to  New 
England  Federalism;  History  of  United  States  (9  vols.); 
etc. 

Adams,  Henry  Carter,  professor  political  economy 
and  finance.  University  of  Michigan,  since  1887;  born 
in  Davenport,  la.,  1851;  graduate  Iowa  College,  1874; 
lecturer  in  Cornell  and  University  of  Michigan,  1880-87, 
also  in  Johns  Hopkins,  1880-82;  director  division  trans- 
portation, 11th  census;  statistician.  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  since  1887;  president  American 
Economic  Association,  1895-97.  Author:  Outline  of 
Lectures  on  Political  Economy;  State  in  Relation  to 
Industrial  Action;  Taxation  in  the  United  States;  Pub- 
lic Debts;  The  Science  of  Finance;  Statistics  of  Rail- 
ways;   and  Economics  and  Jurisprudence. 

Adams,  John,  born  in  1735;  second  President  of  the 
United  States;  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1758.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  at  the 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  1774,  and  throughout  encour- 
aged the  movement  for  independence,  in  which,  as  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  war,  he  took  an  active  part.  He 
was  commissioner  to  the  Court  of  France.  1778,  and  was 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  England,  1779.  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  Union  in  1789,  and  succeeded 
Washington  as  president  in  1797,  but  in  1801  failed  to 
gain  reelection,  and  then  retired  from  public  affairs. 
Died,  1826. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  born  in  1767;  son  of  Presi- 
dent John  Adams,  and  sixth  President  of  the  United 
States,  studied  at  Leyden  and  Harvard,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1791.     He  entered  the  diplomatic 


394 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


service,  and  was  successively  American  minister  in  Hol- 
land, England,  and  Prussia,  and  as  a  senator  (1803-1808) 
he  supported  Jefferson's  Embargo  Act.  From  1806-1809 
he  occupied  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Harvard  College. 
After  holding  various  offices,  in  1825  he  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  and  being  returned  to  Congress 
in  1830,  became  a  vigorous  supporter  of  the  Abolitionists. 
He  was  author  of  "Letters  on  Silesia,"  "Lectures  on 
Rhetoric,"  and  a  poem  "Dermot  MacMorrogh."  Died, 
1848. 

Adams,  Maude,  actress;  born  (Kiskadden)  in  Salt 
Lake  City,  November  11,  1872;  her  mother  (stage  name 
"Adams  ')  was  leading  woman  of  stock  company  there. 
Appeared  on  stage  in  child's  parts ;  went  to  school ;  joined 
E.  H.  Sothern  Company,  New  York,  at  16;  ingenue  role 
in  the  "Midnight  Bell  " ;  afterward  in  Charles  Frohman's 
Stock  Company;  later  supported  John  Drew;  pro- 
nounced success  in  "Little  Minister,"  1897-98;  also  in 
"L'Aiglon,"  "Peter  Pan,"  "What  Every  Woman 
Knows,"  "Chantecler,"  and  in  Shakesperian  roles. 

Adams,  Oscar  Fay,  author,  lecturer  upon  literature 
and  architecture;  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  1858;  gradu- 
ated at  New  Jersey  State  Normal  School.  Author:  Hand- 
book of  English  Authors ;  Handbook  of  American  Authors; 
Through  the  Year  with  the  Poets  (12  vols,  edited); 
Post-Laureate  Idyls ;  Chapters  from  Jane  Austen  (edited) ; 
Morris's  "Atalanta's  Race,"  with  Notes  (edited);  Dear 
Old  Story  Tellers;  The  Poets'  Year  (edited);  The  Story 
of  Jane  Austen's  Life;  The  Presumption  of  Sex;  Diction- 
ary of  American  Authors  (5th  edition  enlarged);  The 
Archbishop's  Unguarded  Moment,  and  Other  Stories; 
Some  Famous  American  Schools.  American  editor  of 
The  Henry  Irving  Shakespere. 

Adams,  Samuel,  one  of  the  leading  men  'of  the 
American  Revolution;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1722.  He 
displayed  on  all  occasions  an  unflinching  zeal  for  popular 
rights,  and  was,  by  the  patriotic  party,  placed  in  the 
legislature  in  1766.  Adams  was  a  member  of  the  first 
Congress,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ^n 
1776;  took  an  active  part  in  framing  the  Constitution  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  for  several  years  president  of  the 
senate  of  that  State.  He  held  the  office  of  lieutenant- 
governor  from  1789  to  1794,  and  of  governor  from  that 
time  till  1797.     Died,  1803. 

Addams,  Jane  (Miss),  head  resident  of  Hull  House; 
born  in  Cedarville,  111.,  September  6,  1860;  graduated  at 
Rockford  College,  1881 ;  spent  two  years  in  Europe, 
1883-85;  studied  in  Philadelphia,  1888;  in  1889  opened 
with  Miss  Ellen  Gates  Starr,  Social  Settlement  of  Hull 
House;  has  been  inspector  of  streets  and  alleys  in  neigh- 
borhood of  Hull_House;  writer  and  lecturer  on  social  and 
political  reform.     Author:  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 

Addison,  Joseph,  born  in  1672,  passed  from  Charter- 
house school  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  graduated 
at  Magdalen  College  in  1693.  He  spent  four  years  travel- 
ing on  the  Continent,  returning  in  1703,  and  in  1704,  "The 
Campaign,"  a  poem  celebrating  the  victory  of  Blenheim, 
brought  him  into  favor.  In  1709  he  was  sent  to  Ireland 
as  secretary  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant.  He  contributed 
largely  to  the  "Tatler"  and  "Spectator"  from  their 
commencement,  and  wrote  274  numbers  for  the  latter. 
In  1713  he  brought  his  tragedy  of  "Cato"  before  the 
public,  and  at  Drury  Lane  it  proved  an  unprecedented 
success.  In  1716  he  married  the  Countess  Dowager  of 
Warwick,  and  the  following  year  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state.     Died  at  Holland  House  in  1719. 

Adler,  Felix,  educator,  lecturer;  born  in  Alzey,  Ger- 
many, August  13,  1851;  studied  under  Hebrew  rabbi; 
graduated  at  Columbia,  1870;  studied  at  Berlin  (Ph.  D.) ; 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature  at  Cornell, 
1874-76;  established,  1876,  New  York  Society  for  Ethi- 
cal Culture,  to  which  he  gives  regular  Sunday  discourses. 
Professor  of  political  and  social  ethics,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, member  of  editorial  board  of  International 
.Journal  of  Ethics.  Author:  Creed  and  Deed;  The 
Moral  Instruction  of  Children;  Life  and  Destiny;  Mar- 
riage and  Divorce;    Religion  of  Duty. 

i^Sschines,  born  389  B.  C,  celebrated  Athenian  orator. 
Failing  in  an  attack  on  Demosthenes,  was  twice  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and  retired  to  Rhodes 
where  he  founded  a  school.     Died,  314  B.  C. 

iEschylus  (es'-ke-lus),  an  eminent  Greek  tragedian, 
born  at  Athens,  525  B.  C.  Of  seventy-six  tragedies 
which  he  wrote,  fifty  were  crowned.  Seven  of  them 
only  remain;  viz,  "Prometheus  Bound,"  "The  Seven 
Chiefs  before  Thebes,"  "The  Persians,"  "Agamemnon," 
"The  Choephori,"  "The  Eumenides,"  and  "The  Sup- 
pliants." In  his  old  age,  .(Eschylus  retired  to  the 
court  of  Hiero,   King  of    Sicily.      The    oracle    having 

Predicted  that  the  fall  of  a  house  should  prove  fatal  to 
im,  he  went  to  reside  in  the  fields,  and  was  killed,  it  is 
said,  by  a  tortoise  which  an  eagle  dropped  upon  his 
head.     Died,  456  B.  C. 


^sop  (e'-«op).  A  celebrated  fabulist,  said  to  have 
been  born  at  Phrygia,  about  620  B.C.  He  was  as  deformed 
in  body  as  accomplished  in  mind,  and  was  originally  a 
slave  at  Athens  and  at  Samos.  Having  gained  freedom 
by  his  wit,  he  traveled  through  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt, 
and  attached  himself  to  the  court  of  Croesus,  King  of 
Lydia.  Sent  by  that  monarch  upon  an  embassy  to 
Delphi,  he  so  offended  the  inhabitants  by  the  keenness 
of  his  sarcasms,  that  they  hurled  him  from  a  rock  into 
the  sea.  He  died  about  564  B.  C.  His  history  appears 
to  be  altogether  legendary. 

Agasslz,  Alexander,  naturalist;  born  in  Neuch^tel, 
Switzerland,  December  17,  1835;  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1855;  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  B.  S.,  1857;  on  coast 
survey  of  California,  1859;  assistant  in  zoology.  Harvard, 
1860-65;  developed  and  was  superintendent,  1865-69, 
Calumet  &  Hecla  copper  mines.  Lake  Superior;  curator 
Museum  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  1874-85: 
afterward  engaged  in  zoological  investigation.  Appointed 
director  Museum  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  1902; 
appointed  by  Emperor  William  III.  of  Germany  member 
Order  of  Merit,  1902;  member  of  Academy  of  Science, 
Paris ;  president  of  N  ational  Academy  of  Science.  Author, 
"Explorations  of  Lake  Titicaca,"  "List  of  the  Echino- 
derms,"  "Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake."  "Revision  of  the 
Echini,"  "Pacific  Coral  Reefs,"  "Coral  Reefs  of  the 
Maldives,"  "Panamic  Deep  Sea  Echini,"  etc.  Died, 
1910. 

Agasslz,  Louis  Johann  Rudolph,  born  1807;  emi- 
nent naturalist,  was  the  son  of  a  Swiss  Protestant  clergy- 
man. He  studied  medicine  and  graduated  at  Munich, 
but  devoted  himself  principally  to  ichthyology,  and  was 
employed  to  classify  and  arrange  the  collection  brought 
from  Brazil  by  Martius  and  Spix.  In  1846,  he  came  to 
America,  where  he  was  well  received,  and  accepted  the 
chair  of  zoology  and  geology  at  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge (Harvard  College).  In  1865,  he  visited  Brazil, 
and  on  his  return  placed  the  large  collection  he  had  made 
in  the  museum  of  Cambridge.  He  wrote  numerous  very 
valuable  works,  and  was  to  the  last  a  disbeliever  in  the 
Darwinian  theory  of  evolution.     Died,  1873. 

Agricola  (a-grick'-o-la)  (Cnseus  Julius),  a  Roman 
governor  of  Britain  under  Vespasian,  born  A.  D.  37.  He 
subjected  Scotland  and  Ireland;  reduced  the  Britons; 
and,  by  his  able  government,  preserved  these  territories 
to  the  Romans.  Domitian,  jealous  of  his  success, 
recalled  him ;  and  Agricola  withdrew  to  his  estate,  where 
he  died  in  93.  His  life,  written  by  his  son-in-law, 
Tacitus,  is  extant,  and  is  considered  a  model  of  biographi- 
cal writing. 

Aguesseau,  Henri  Francois  d',  born  in  1668;  orator 
and  advocate,  took  part  in  the  contest  between  the  Pope 
and  the  Gallican  Church,  1699;  was  made  procureur- 
general  in  1700,  and  defended  the  Gallican  Church  against 
the  Ultramontane  Party.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV. 
was  appointed  chancellor  in  1717,  but  was  twice  deprived 
of  the  seals,  retiring  from  Paris  1722,  but  was  finally 
restored  in  1727.  He  was  a  great  scholar  and  jurist. 
Died,  1751. 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio,  General.  Born  in  Imus.  a 
village  near  Cavite,  Luzon,  May,  1870;  educated  at 
St.  Thomas  by  the  Dominicans.  He  is  short  of  stature, 
with  a  Japanese  cast  of  countenance.  During  the 
rebellion  of  the  Filipinos  against  Spain  he  was  in  constant 
fear  of  assassination,  as  the  Spanish  Government  offered 
a  reward  of  $25,000  for  his  head.  He  was  the  chief  of 
the  insurgents  and  a  capable  man;  acting  as  a  dictator, 
he  assumed  sovereign  power.  In  March,  1901,  was  cap- 
tured by  General  Fred.  Funston,  a  Kansas  volunteer, 
after  being  in  constant  flight. 

Ahaz,  eleventh  king  of  Judah,  and  son  of  Jotham, 
became  tributary  to  Tiglath-Pileser,  King  of  Assyria, 
whom  he  had  summoned  to  assist  him  in  repelling  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  Damascus.  He  adopted  the  necro- 
mantic practices  of  the  Syrians,  and  died  after  a  reign  of 
sixteen  years.     Lived  Eighth  Century  B.  C. 

Alaric  {al'-ar-ick).  Two  kings  of  the  Visigoths  have 
borne  this  appellation.  Alaric  I.,  after  having  despoiled 
.several  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  the  reign  of 
Honorius,  twice  besieged  Rome  itself.  At  first  he  con- 
tented himself  with  levying  heavy  contributions;  when 
he  again  invaded  it,  he  plundered  the  city,  and  destroyed 
its  noblest  monuments.  In  406,  he  extorted  from  Hono- 
rius the  province  of  Spain,  and  a  part  of  Gaul,  and 
established  the  kingdoms  of  the  Visigoths.  He  died 
in  410,  whilst  making  preparations  for  the  conquest  of 
Africa  and  Sicily.  Alaric  II.,  eighth  King  of  the  Visi- 
goths, came  to  the  throne  in  484.  Besides  Spain,  he 
possessed  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  various  other  tracks 
of  country.  Alaric  held  his  court  at  Toulouse.  ClovisL, 
King  of  the  Franks,  jealous  of  his  power,  carried  war 
into  the  south  of  Gaul.  A  great  battle  was  fought  near 
Poitiers,  in  which  Alaric  fell  by  the  hand  of  Clovis. 


BIOGRAPHY 


395 


Albertus  Magnus,  born  1193,  a  man  of  great  sanctity 
and  learning,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ratisbon,  and 
assisted  at  the  General  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274.  He 
left  numerous  works,  and  amongst  his  scholars  was  the 
jlamous  Thomas  Aquinas.     Died,  1280. 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso  d'  (dl-boo-kair'-ka),  a  Portu- 
gese Viceroy  of  the  Indies,  born  in  1453,  made  his  first 
expedition  to  the  East  in  1503,  and  in  1508  became 
governor  of  the  Indies.  After  a  just  and  humane  rule, 
he  died  at  Goa,  1515. 

Aleibiades  {al-se-bi' -a-deez) .  A  famous  Athenian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Athens  about  450  B.  C,  and  educated  in 
the  house  of  his  uncle  Pericles.  He  held  joint  command 
with  Nicias  over  the  expedition  against  Sicily;  but, 
during  his  absence,  being  accused  of  impiety,  he  fled  to 
Sparta,  and  then  to  Persia.  Recalled  to  Athens,  he 
forced  the  Lacedaemonians  to  sue  for  peace,  and  made 
several  conquests,  but  again  losing  his  popularity,  he 
withdrew  to  the  court  of  Pharnabazus,  the  Persian 
satrap,  in  Phrygia.  His  treacherous  host,  instigated  by 
Lysander,  King  of  Sparta,  set  fire  to  the  place  where 
Aleibiades  lived,  and  in  seeking  to  escape,  he  was  assas- 
sinated, B.  C.  404. 

Aleott,  Louisa  May,  born  in  1832,  an  American 
authoress.  She  began  early  to  write,  but  met  with  no 
marked  success  till  the  publication  of  "Little  Women" 
in  1868.  She  wrote  many  other  books,  the  material  for 
her  first  volume,  "Hospital  Sketches,"  being  gathered 
during  her  experience  as  nurse  in  the  military  hospital 
at  Washington,  where  she  went  in  1862.     Dieci,  1888. 

Alcuin,  English  theologian,  especially  noted  as  the 
coadjutor  of  Charlemagne  in  his  educational  reforms. 
At  the  invitation  of  that  emperor  he  left  England,  and 
settled  in  France,  where  he  founded  several  schools;  but 
on  being  made  Abbot  of  Tours  he  abandoned  the  court 
and  devoted  himself  to  theology.     Born,  735,  died,  804. 

Aldrieh,  Nelson  Wilmarth,  United  States  Senator 
from  Rhode  Island,  from  1881  to  1911;  born  in 
Foster,  R.  I.,  November  6,  1841;  academic  education; 
is  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  President  of  Provi- 
dence Common  Council,  1872-73  ;  member  Rhode 
Island  Legislature  1875-77,  and  its  speaker,  1876-77; 
member  of  Congress,  elected  for  terms  1879-83,  but 
resigned  to  take  seat  in  senate;  Republican.  He  was 
chairman  of  Committee  on  Finance,  and  Republican 
leader  in  senate. 

Al'drich,  Thomas  Bailey,  American  poet  and  editor; 
born  in  1836.  While  engaged  in  the  office  of  a  New 
York  merchant  he  began  to  write  verses,  the  success  of 
which  soon  induced  him  to  enter  on  a  literary  career. 
His  first  volume,  miscellaneous  poems,  was  published  in 
1855,  and  was  called  "The  Bells";  afterwards,  he 
published  "Babie  Bell,"  several  other  volumes  of  poems, 
and  "The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy."  Mr.  Aldrieh  was  an 
industrious  contributor  to  our  best  periodicals,  and  was 
also  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  "Home  Journal,  "  1856-59, 
and  "Every  Saturday."  In  1881  he  became  editor  of 
the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  but  resigned  in  1890.  Died, 
1907. 

Alembert  {&-lon-bare' ) ,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  a  celebrated 
man  of  letters  and  a  mathematician,  the  natural  son  of 
Madame  de  Tencin  and  the  poet  Destouches;  was  born 
in  1717.  He  was  the  friend  of  Voltaire,  and  acquired 
high  esteem  by  his  works,  which  fill  eighteen  volumes. 
His  treatises  on  dynamics  and  fluids  at  once  established 
for  him  a  reputation  in  science.     Died,  1783. 

Alexander  I.,  Paulo vich,  born  in  1777;  Emperor  of 
Russia  and  King  of  Poland.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1801,  and  showed  himself  a  brave  and  judicious  mon- 
arch. He  entered  into  a  treaty  with  England,  Austria, 
and  Sweden  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  France,  but 
was  defeated  at  the  battles  of  Austerlitz,  Eylau,  and 
Friedland,  and  compelled  to  make  peace  with  Napoleon 
at  Tilsit.  In  1812  war  again  broke  out,  and  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  in  1814  Alexander  visited  England  and 
Poland.  He  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  brother 
Nicholas.     Died,  1825. 

Alexander  II.,  Nicholavich,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  in  1818;  succeeded  his  father  as  czar,  in  1855.  He 
married  in  1841  Marie,  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Louis  II.,  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  terminated  the 
Crimean  War  soon  after  his  accession  by  the  Treaty  of 
Paris.  Though  trained  by  his  father  to  a  military  life, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  country, 
improved  the  popular  education,  and  emancipated  the 
Russian  serfs.  He  waged  war  successfully  on  Turkey  in 
1877-78.  He  was  assassinated  in  the  streets  of  St. 
Petersburg.     Died,  1881. 

Alexander  III.,  of  Macedon,  surnamed  "TheGreat," 
born  in  356  B.  C,  son  of  Philip.  He  was  educated  partly 
by  Aristotle,  and  early  gave  proofs  of  skill  and  courage. 


A  revolt  of  Thebes  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign 
was  promptly  quelled  with  great  severity ;  then  crossing 
the  Hellespont,  he  marched  against  the  Persians,  whom 
he  repeatedly  defeated,  conquering  Phoenicia  and  Egypt. 
After  the  final  defeat  of  Darius  at  Gaugamela,  and  the 
capture  of  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Persepolis,  Alexander 
commenced  the  conquest  of  India,  but  after  crossing  the 
Indus  and  penetrating  almost  as  far  as  the  Ganges,  he  was 
compelled  to  return  to  Babylon,  but  paused  at  Susa  to 
celebrate  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Darius.  He 
died  at  Babylon  after  a  reign  of  about  thirteen  years; 
his  body  was  embalmed  and  taken  to  Alexandria,  which 
city  had  been  founded  by  him  and  named  in  his  honor. 
Died,  323  B.  C. 

Alexander  VIII.  (Pope),  Pletro  Ottoboni,  born  in 
1610,  Bishop  of  Brescia,  and  afterwards  of  Frascati;  he 
became  pope  in  1689,  and  succeeded  in  reforming  many 
abuses  and  re-establishing  friendly  relations  with  France. 
He  placed  in  the  Vatican  the  fine  collections  of  books  and 
manuscripts  left  him  by  the  Queen  of  Sweden.  Died, 
1691. 

Alexander  Nevski,  Saint,  born  in  1219,  Prince  of 
Novgorod.  A  brave  soldier,  his  surname  of  "Nevski" 
was  given  him  after  a  signal  victory  over  the  Swedes  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neva.  He  submitted  to  Batu  Khan, 
the  Tartar  Chief,  who  confirmed  him  in  his  dominions, 
and  also. bestowed  upon  him  the  sovereignty  of  Southern 
Russia.     Died,  1263. 

Alexis  (a-lex'-ia),  Mii^hailovitch,  a  Russian  emperor, 
born  in  1629,  came  to  the  throne  in  1645,  and  died  in 
1676.  He  was  the  progenitor  of  Peter  the  Great.  In  his 
reign  the  laws  of  the  kingdom  were  first  printed,  various 
manufactories  established,  Moscow  beautified,  and  many 
new  -cities  built. 

Alfleri  (al-je-a'-re),  Vittorio,  a  Piedmontese  count, 
born  in  1749.  This  distinguished  poet  is  the  author 
of  several  esteemed  tragedies,  sonnets,  and  other  works 
of  fancy.  He  is  equally  celebrated  for  his  "liaison" 
with  the  Countess  of  Albany.    Died,  1803. 

Alfonso  I.,  of  Asturias  and  Leon,  born  in  693;  a  wise 
and  brave  king,  who,  elected  in  739,  succeeded  in  expel- 
ling the  Moors  from  Galicia,  Leon,  and  Castile.  He  also 
established  towns,  built  churches,  and  generally  improved 
the  internal  condition  of  his  country.     Died,  756. 

Alfonso  X.,  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born  in  1221,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  1252;  aspired  to  be  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  in  1257  divided  the  election  with  Richard 
of  Cornwall.  In  1272  he  again  unsuccessfully  attempted 
to  gain  the  imperial  crown.  He  was  driven  from  the 
throne  by  his  son  Sancho.  He  was  the  most  learned 
ruler  of  his  time.     Died,  1284. 

Alfonso  XIII.,  King  of  Spain,  born  in  1886,  son  of 
Alfonso  XII.  He  acceded  to  the  throne  in  his  own 
right  in  1902;  married,  1906,  Princess  Ena  of  Batten- 
berg,  niece  of  King  Edward  VII. 

Alfred  the  Great,  born  in  Wantage,  Berks,  849,  the 
youngest  son  of  Ethelwutf,  King  of  the  West  Saxons, 
succeeded  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Ethelred  to  a  throne 
threatened  by  invasion  from  without  and  dissension 
within.  His  first  care  was  to  drive  off  the  Danes,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  encountered  in  fifty-six  battles  by  land 
and  sea.  The  great  victory  of  Edington  (878)  led  to  the 
peace  of  Wedmore,  and  Alfred  was  thus  for  a  time  free 
to  devote  himself  to  the  peaceful  reforms  for  which  his 
name  is  renowned.  Prominent  amongst  these  are  the 
establishment  of  social  order,  the  encouragement  of 
learning,  and  the  founding  of  a  national  fleet.  Alfred 
died  in  901,  esteemed  as  a  religious  and  industrious  man, 
and  a  wise  and  learned  king. 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander,  senator,  capitalist;  born 
in  Lafayette  township,  Medina  County,  O.,  February 
27,  1836;  orphaned  at  12  years  of  age  and  for  seven 
years  worked  on  farm,  earning  money  to  defray  expenses 
at  Richfield  (O.)  Academy  during  winters.  Taught 
school  two  winters;  admitted  to  bar,  1859; .  began  prac- 
tice in  Cleveland ;  removed  to  Michigan,  January  1,  1860; 
began  lumbering  in  a  small  way;  enlisted,  September 
2,  1861,  and  served  as  captain  and  major  Second  Michi- 
gan, lieut.-colonel  Sixth  Michigan,  colonel  Fifth  Michigan, 
cavalry;  brevetted  brigadier-general  and  major-general 
volunteers.  In  lumber  business  after  war;  head  of 
Alger,  Smith  &  Co.,  and  Manistique  Lumbering  Company, 
which  owns  and  operates  extensive  timber  tracts  and 
mills  in  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  Was  Governor  of 
Michigan,  1885  and  1886;  a  leading  candidate  for  pres- 
ident in  Republican  National  Convention,  1888;  one 
term  Commander-in-Chief  of  G.  A.  R.;  Secretary  of  War 
of  United  States,  1897-99,  resigned;  appointed  United 
States  senator,  September  27,  1902,  to  succeed  James 
McMillan  deceased,  and  elected  February,  1903,  for  term 
expiring  1907.  Author:  "The  Spanish-American  War," 
1901.     Died,  1907. 


396 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  born  in  1792,  son  of  a  clergy- 
man. He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  called  to  the  Scottish  bar,  becoming  deputy 
advocate  in  1822.  But  he  is  best  known  as  an  historian, 
his  great  work  being  ".The  History  of  Europe  from  the 
French  Revolution  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons." 
He  died  in  1867. 

Allen,  Ethan,  an  officer  of  the  American  Revolution, 
born  in  1737.  He  planned  and  captured  Forts  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point  at  the  opening  of  the  war. 
His  troops  were  mostly  from  Vermont,  and  were  called 
".Green  Mountain  Boys."     Died,  1789. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  author;  born  in  Kentucky, 
1849;  graduate  of  Transylvania  University;  taught  in 
Kentucky  University;  later  professor  of  Latin  and 
higher  English,  Bethany,  West  Virginia,  College;  since 
1886,  given  entire  attention  to  literature.  Author: 
"Flute  and  Violin,"  "The  Blue  Grass  Region  and  Other 
Sketches  of  Kentucky,"  "John  Gray,"  a  novel;  "The 
Kentucky  Cardinal,"  "Aftermath,"  "A  Summer  in  Ar- 
cady,"  ".The  Choir  Invisible,"  "The  Reign  of  Law," 
".The  Mettle  of  the  Pasture." 

Allen,  Viola,  actress;  born  in  the  South;  daughter 
Leslie  Allen,  character  actor,  of  old  Boston  family, 
and  Sarah  (Lyon)  Allen,  English-woman  of  good  de- 
scent; went  to  Boston  when  three  years  old;  educated 
in  Boston  and  at  Wykham  Hall,  Toronto,  and  boarding 
school  in  New  York.  Made  d^^but,  Madison  Square 
Theater,  New  York,  in  Esmeralda,  at  age  of  15;  after 
few  months  joined  John  McCullough  Company,  play- 
ing Virginia,  Desdemona,  Cordelia,  etc.  Subsequently 
played  leading  classical,  Shakesperean,  and  comedy  roles 
with  Lawrence  Barrett,  Tommaso  Salvini,  Joseph  Jeffer- 
son, and  William  J.  Florence.  Leading  lady  at  Boston 
Museum  for  a  season;  also  at  Empire  Theater  in  1893, 
and  four  years  following,  creating  and  playing  roles  in 
".Liberty  Hall,"  "Sowing  the  Wind,"  The  Masquera- 
ders,"  "Under  the  Red  Robe,"  etc.  Starred,  1898,  as 
Gloria  Quayle  in  "The  Christian,"  by  Hall  Caine,  and 
in  1900,  produced  "In  the  Palace  of  the  King,"  by  F. 
Marion  Crawford  and  Lorimer  Stoddard ;  and,  in  1902,  as 
Roma  in  Hall  Caine's  "The  Eternal  City."  In  1903, 
under  management  of  her  brother,  began  series  of 
Shakesperean  revivals,  producing  first  "Twelfth  Night," 
in  which  she  played  ".Viola"  with  success;  in  subse- 
quent seasons,  she  appeared  as  Hermione  and  Perdita 
in  ".A  Winter's  Tale." 

Al'llson,  William  B.,  a  distinguished  American 
legislator,  born  in  Ohio,  1829-  educated  at  Western 
Reserve  College  and  practiced  law  till  1857;  emigrated 
to  Iowa;  served  in  the  Civil  War;  was  sent  to  Congress 
while  that  struggle  was  going  on,  and  remained  in  Con- 
gress as  representative  and  senator  from  that  time  until 
nis  death  m  1908,  save  in  1872-73.  His  influence  was 
marked  and  salutary  on  the  legislation  of  his  day. 

Almanzor  (al-man'-zor)  (surnamed  the  Victorious). 
The  second  caliph  of  the  Abbassidian  Dynasty,  succeeded 
his  brother,  Abul  Abbas,  in  754.  He  exterminated  the 
race  of  the  Ommaiades,  and  in  762  founded  the  city  of 
Bagdad,  which  became  the  capital  of  his  empire.  Sev- 
eral other  Mohammedan  princes,  famed  for  their  mar- 
tial achievements,  also  bore  this  name.     He  died  in  775. 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurence,  R.  A.,  born  in  Friesland 
in  1836;  painter,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Antwerp,  and  was  afterwards  pupil  and  assistant  of 
Baron  Henry  Leys.  He  settled  in  England,  where  his 
pictures  found  a  ready  welcome.  He  was  elected'A.R.A. 
in  1876,  and  R.  A.  in  1879.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "Phidias  and  the  Elgin  Marbles  '  (1868),  "A  Roman 
Emperor"  (1871),  ".The  Sculpture  Gallery"  (1875), 
"Sappho"  (1881),  and  ".The  Roses  of  Heliogabalus " 
(1888). 

Alstroemer  (al-stro'-mer),  Jonas,  a  Swede, born,  1685, 
remarkable  for  the  great  commercial  improvements  which 
he  introduced  into  his  native  country.  Of  very  humble 
origin,  he  was  for  a  time  unable  to  surmount  the  ob- 
stacles by  which  poverty  depressed  him.  He  visited 
England;  and  having  minutely  noticed  the  sources  of 
its  manufacturing  prosperity,  returned  to  Sweden,  and 
obtained  permission  to  establish  a  manufactory  at 
Alingsas,  in  West  Gothland,  his  birthplace.  So  exten- 
sive and  successful  were  the  manufacturing  and  agricul- 
tural resources  which  he  introduced  into  Sweden,  that 
the  state,  in  acknowledgment  of  his  merit,  conferred  on 
him  a  patent  of  nobility,  made  him  chancellor  of  com- 
merce, and  erected  a  statue  to  his  honor  on  the  Stock- 
holm Exchange.     Died,  1761. 

Alva,  Ferdinando  Alvarez  de  Toledo,  Duke  of, 
born  in  1508,  Spanish  governor  of  the  Netherlands  under 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  notorious  for  the  merciless 
manner  in  which  he  exercised  his  dictatorial  power. 
Under  his  rule  more  than  18,000  persons  were  sent  to 


the  scaffold,  and  a  revolt,  headed  by  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
broke  out,  which,  after  nearly  forty  years  of  war,  re- 
sulted in  the  independence  of  the  provinces.  Alva  was 
recalled  in  1573,  but  he  was  soon  given  the  command 
of  Portugal,  which  he  quickly  conquered.  Though  his 
pride  and  cruelty  were  excessive,  he  was  undoubtedly 
the  greatest  general  of  his  age.     Died,  1582. 

Alvarado,  Alonzo,  one  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  of 
Mexico  under  Cortez  and  Peru  under  Pizarro;  he  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Almagro.  He  afterwards 
joined  De  Castro  (1542),  and  was  lieutenant-general  of 
the  army  which  suppressed  the  rebellion  of  Gonzalo 
Pizarro  in  1548.     Died,  1554. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  d',  one  of  the  Spanish  conquerors 
of  Mexico;  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  and  victories 
of  Cortez,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
city  of  Mexico,  and  afterwards  made  governor  of  Guate- 
mala and  Honduras.  He  explored  California,  and  was 
killed  soon  after  his  return  in  an  expedition  against 
Xalisco.     Died,  1541. 

Amaral,  Antonio  Caetano  do,  born  in  1747;  a 
learned  Portuguese  historian  and  author  of  the  valuable 
".Memoirs  on  the  Forms  of  Government  and  Customs  of 
the  Nations  that  Inhabited  Portugal."     Died,  1819. 

Amasis,  or  Amosis  (.a-ma'-sis,  a-mo'-sis),  an  Egyp- 
tian who,  from  a  common  soldier,  rose  to  be  a  king  of 
Egypt.  He  made  war  against  Arabia,  and  died  before 
the  invasion  of  his  country  by  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia. 
Cambyses  caused  his  body  to  be  dug  up,  insulted,  and 
burnt. 

Amaziah  iam-a-zi'-S),  the  son  of  Joash,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  eighth  King  of  Judah.  He  adhered 
to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  but  permitted 
some  idolatrous  observances.  Having  arrogantly  chal- 
lenged Jehoash,  King  of  Israel,  to  battle,  the  armies 
met  at  Beth-she-mesh,  where  Amaziah  was  defeated, 
himself  taken  prisoner,  and  subsequently  his  city  and 
palace  were  plundered.  Fifteen  or  sixteen  years  after- 
wards, he  fled  from  conspirators,  by  whom  he  was  over- 
taken and  assassinated.  Flourished  in  Eighth  or  Ninth 
Century. 

Amboise,  George  d',  born  in  1460,  a  French  cardinal 
and  minister  of  state.  He  was  successively  Bishop  of 
Montauban,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne  and  of  Rouen, 
and  after  acquiring  considerable  popularity  as  prime 
minister  under  Louis  XII.,  was  made  cardinal  and 
appointed  legate  in  France,  where  he  effected  great 
reforms  among  the  religious  orders.     Died,  1510. 

Ambrose,  St.  (dm'broz),  a  doctor  in  the  Latin  Church 
of  the  Fourth  Century,  was  born  at  Treves,  340.  Con- 
secrated archbishop  of  Milan,  374.  Ambrose  was  repeat- 
edly, in  the  discharge  of  his  duty  to  the  Church,  brought 
into  direct  conflict  with  the  highest  secular  authority. 
He  rebuked  Valentinian,  defied  Maximus,  and  after  the 
massacre  of  Thessalonica,  compelled  the  great  Theo- 
dosius  to  a  humiliating  penance  before  admitting  him 
to  Christian  communion.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  noble 
hymn,  "Te  Deum  Laudamua."  No  father  of  the  Church 
has  a  fame  more  wide,  more  beautiful,  or  more  deserved. 
Died,  397. 

Amerigo  Vespucci,  born  in  Florence,  1451,  was  an 
Italian  navigator  who  visited  Brazil  in  1503.  He  had 
previously  made  several  voyages  of  exploration,  and 
claimed  priority  over  Cabot  and  Columbus  in  reaching 
the  mainland,  named  in  his  honor  America,  but  the  best 
authorities  consider  this  claim  to  be  unfounded.  Died 
in  Seville,  1512. 

Ames,  Fisher,  born  in  1758;  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  who  sat  in  the  Massachusetts  Convention,  and 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Congress,  and  famed  for  his 
eloquence.  He  retired  from  public  life  with  Washing- 
ton, devoting  himself  to  literary  pursuits;  declined 
presidency  of  Harvard  College  in  1804.     Died,  1808. 

Ames,  James  Barr,  dean  Harvard  Law  School, 
1895-1910;  born  in  Boston,  June  22,  1846;  graduate  of 
Harvard,  1868  (1871  A.  M.);  Harvard  Law  School,  1872 
(LL.  D.,  University  City  of  New  York,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  1898;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1899; 
Northwestern,  1903;  Williams,  Harvard,  1904).  Taught 
in  private  school,  Boston,  1868-69;  tutor  in  French  and 
German,  Harvard,  1871-72;  instructor  in  history,  1872- 
73;  associate  professor  of  law,  1873-77,  professor  of  law, 
1877-1910,  Harvard.  Compiled  collections  of  cases  on 
torts,  pleading,  bills  and  notes,  partnership,  trusts, 
suretyship,  admiralty  and  equity  jurisdiction;  author 
of  numerous  articles  in  Harvard  Law  Review  and  other 
law  reviews.     Died,  1910. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey,  Lord,  born  in  1717;  British 
general,  served  on  the  Continent  and  in  America,  where 
he  succeeded  Abercrombie  as  commander-in-chief.  Here 
he  was  remarkably  successful,  and  after  many  victories, 
Montreal  surrendered  and  Newfoundland  was  recovered 


BIOGRAPHY 


397 


from  the  French.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1776,  and  was  appointed  field  marshal  in  1796.  Died, 
1797. 

Ampere,  And  re  3Iaric,  born  in  1775;  a  distinguished 
electrician,  who  may  be  considered  the  father  of  electro- 
magnetics. He  first  attracted  attention  by  a  treatise 
on  the  "Theory  of  Probability,"  published  in  1802,  and 
obtained  a  post  as  teacher,  and  ultimately  as  professor, 
at  the  polytechnic  school  in  Paris.  In  1820,  Orsted's 
discovery  of  the  effect  of  voltaic  currents  upon  magnetic 
needles  was  brought  to  his  notice,  and  Ampere  verified 
and  completed  this,  and  showed  also  the  mutual  effect 
of  currents  upon  each  other,  from  which  he  deduced  a 
new  theory  of  magnetism.  The  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  recognized  his  services,  and  gave  his  name  to 
one  of  the  electro-magnetic  units.  Ampfere's  last  great 
work  was  the  classification  of  the  sciences,  but  this  he 
did  not  live  to  finish.     Died,  1836. 

Amphlctyon  (am-fik'-le-on).  One  of  the  heroes  of 
ancient  Greece,  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  On  the 
dominions  of  his  father  being  divided  between  him  and 
his  brother  Helenus,  Amphictyon  reigned  over  Ther- 
mopylEe,  in  the  Fourteenth  or  Fifteenth  Century  before 
Christ.  In  1497  B.  C,  he  invaded  Athens,  which  he 
consecrated  to  Minerva,  and  governed  it  as  sovereign 
during  ten  years. 

Amyntas  (a-min-tas),  several  Macedonian  monarchs 
bore  this  name,  of  whom  the  principal  was  Amyntas  II. 
(son  of  Menelaus),  who  came  to  the  throne  394  B.  C, 
after  having  assassinated  the  king,  Pausanias.  When 
expelled  by  the  Illyrians,  he  was  enabled  by  the  Spartans 
and  Thessalonians  to  regain  his  dominions.  His  wife, 
Eurydice,  conspired  against  his  life,  but  her  plot  was 
frustrated.  He  was  the  father  of  Philip,  and  the  grand- 
father of  Alexander  the  Great.  Amyntas  III.,  grandson 
of  Amyntas  II.,  was  yet  in  his  early  infancy  when  Per- 
diccas,  his  father,  and  Alexander  were  murdered,  at  the 
instigation  of  Eurydice,  their  mother.  He  was  heir  to 
the  throne;  but  his  uncle,  Philip,  who  was  his  tutor, 
having  been  raised  to  it,  Amyntas  was  compelled  to 
give  up  his  own  right.  He  served  in  the  armies  of  Philip 
and  Alexander  the  Great;  but,  plotting  against  the 
latter,  he  was  put  to  death. 

Anacreon  (an-ack' -re-on) .  A  celebrated  Greek  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Teos  in  Ionia,  about  563  B.  C.  He 
was  patronized  by  Polycrates,  the  tyrant  of  Samos, 
and  Ilipparchus,  the  tyrant  of  Athens.  He  died 
at  Abdera,  suffocated  by  a  grape-stone  while  in  the 
act  of  drinking.  His  poems  are  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
praises  of  love,  pleasure,  and  wine.  They  were  ad- 
mirably translated  by  Moore. 

Anaxagoras  {an-ax-ag' -o-ras) ,  a  Greek  philosopher  of 
the  Ionian  school,  born  at  Clazomenie,  500  B.  C.  He 
studied  under  Anaximenes,  and,  after  traveling  through 
all  the  known  parts  of  the  globe,  in  search  of  knowledge, 
established  himself  at  Athens,  where  he  opened  the  first 
school  of  philosophy.  He  introduced  the  dualistic  ex- 
planation of  the  universe,  distinguishing  sharply  be- 
tween mind  and  matter.  Pericles,  Socrates,  and  Euripi- 
des were  among  his  pupils.  He  was  condemned  to  die  for 
alleged  impiety,  a  sentence  which  was  changed  to  exile, 
when  he  retired  to  Lampsacus,  and  there  continued  to 
teach  philosophy  till  his  death,  428  B.  C. 

Anaxlmander  (an-ax-e-man'-der),  a  philosopher  and 
famous  mathematician  of  the  Ionian  school,  born  in  610 
B.  C.  He  was  the  first  who  noticed  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  taught  that  the  moon  is  indebted  for  her 
light  to  the  sun,  and  that  the  earth  is  round.  He  con- 
structed a  sphere  to  represent  the  heavenly  divisions, 
and  is  said  to  have  invented  geographical  charts  and  the 
gnomon.  He  also  believed  in  a  multitude  of  worlds. 
He  died  546  B.  C. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  born  in  1805.  The  son 
of  poor  parents,  was  born  at  Odense  in  Funen ;  he  early 
showed  a  strong  inclination  for  the  stage,  and  at  fourteen 
went  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  obtained  an  engagement 
at  the  theater  royal.  His  voice  soon  broke  down,  but 
through  the  kindness  of  Conference  Councillor  Collin  he 
was  admitted  to  the  grammar  school  at  Slagelse.  His 
first  prose  work,  a  book  of  travels,  was  published  in  1828, 
and  was  followed  by  others,  as  well  as  novels  and  poems. 
He  is  best  known  for  his  fairy  tales,  which  are  full  of 
charm.     Died,  1875. 

Anderson,  Blary,  born  in  1859,  at  Sacramento,  Cali- 
fornia; well  known  as  an  actress  of  great  beauty  and 
considerable  dramatic  taste;  at  16  years  of  age  made 
her  debut  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  as  Juliet.  She  met  with  great 
success  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  London. 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjom,  author;  born  at  Albion, 
Dane  County,  Wisconsin,  of  Norwegian  parentage,  Jan- 
uary 12,  1846;  graduate  of  Luther  College,  Decorah, 
Iowa,   1866;    University  of  Wisconsin,   1869   (LL.   D., 


1888) ;  professor  of  Greek  and  modern  languages,  Albion 
(Wis.)  Academy,  1866;  instructor  of  languages,  1869-75; 
professor  of  Scandinavian  languages  and  literature, 
1875-83;  United  States  minister  to  Denmark,  1885-89; 
married  July  21,  1868,  to  Bertha  Karina  Olson.  Editor 
and  publisher  of  "Amerika"  since  October,  1898. 
Author:  "Norse  Mythology,"  "Viking  Tales  of  the 
North,"  "America  Not  Discovered  by  Columbus,"  "The 
Younger  Edda,"  "First  Chapter  of  Norwegian  Immi- 
gration, 1821-1840";  also  many  translations  of  Norse 
books,  and  author  of  several  works  in  Norwegian. 

Anderson,  Robert,  born  in  1805;  an  American  gen- 
eral, who  served  under  Lincoln  in  the  Black  Hawk  War, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  War  (1846-48), 
in  the  battle  of  El  Molino  del  Key.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  to  the  defense  of  Charles- 
ton Harbor,  and  held  Fort  Sumter  for  two  days  against 
the  Confederates;  failing  health  prevented  his  taking 
further  part  in  the  war.     Died,  1871. 

Andr6,  John,  born  in  1751;  a  British  soldier  who 
served  in  the  war  with  America,  and  rose  to  the  rank 
of  major.  He  conducted  the  negotiations  with  Benedict 
Arnold  for  the  betrayal  of  West  Point,  buf  being  dis- 
covered in  disguise,  was  arrested  and  put  to  death  as  a 
spy.  His  remains  lie  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a 
cenotaph  was  erected  to  his  memory.     Died,  1780. 

Andrea,  Pisano,  born  in  1270;  an  Italian  architect 
and  sculptor,  who  produced  many  fine  works  in  Florence, 
his  greatest  being  the  bronze  figures  in  relief  for  the 
baptistery  of  St.  John's.     Died  in  1345. 

Andreani  (nn-dra-a'-ne),  a  distinguished  engraver, 
who  flourished  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  He  obtained 
engravings  worked  by  other  hands,  which  he  disposed 
of  as  his  own.  He  engraved  on  wooH  in  a  peculiar  style, 
known  as  "  chiaro-oscuro,"  of  which,  however,  he  was 
not  the  inventor.  One  of  his  productions,  "The  Triumph 
of  Julius  Ca?sar,"  from  Andrea  Mantegna,  the  original 
of  which  is  at  Hampton-Court,  is  cut  on  ten  blocks  of 
wood,  and  dated  1598.  Andreani  died  at  an  advanced 
age,  in  1623. 

Andrew,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  who  be- 
fore his  call  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was 
the  means  of  bringing  his  brother,  Simon  Peter,  to 
Christ,  and  is  said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  in  various 
countries,  and  to  have  been  at  last  crucified  at  Patra;  in 
Achaia. 

Andrews,  disha  Benjamin,  chancellor  University 
of  Nebraska,  1900-09;  born  in  Hinsdale,  N.  H., 
January  10,  1844;  served  private  to  second  lieutenant 
of  Union  Army  in  Civil  War;  wounded  at  Petersburg, 
August  24,  1864,  losing  an  eye;  graduate  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, 1870;  Newton  Theological  Institution,  1872-74; 
Principal  Connecticut  Literary  Institution,  SulBeld, 
Conn.,  1870-72;  pastor  First  Baptist  Church,  Beverly, 
Mass.,  1874-75;  president  Denison  University,  Gran- 
ville, O.,  1875-79;  professor  homiletics,  Newton  Theo- 
logical Institution,  1879-82;  professor  history  and  po- 
litical ecojiomy,  Brown  University,  1882-88;  professor 
political  economy  and  finance,  Cornell,  1888-89;  presi- 
dent Brown  University,  1889-98;  superintendent 
schools,  Chicago,  1898-1900;  member  of  international 
monetary  conference,  Brussels,  1892,  Loyal  Legion. 
Author:  "Institutes  of  Constitutional  History,  English 
and  American,"  "Institutes  of  General  History,"  "Insti- 
tutes of  Economics,"  "An  Honest  Dollar,"  "Wealth  and 
Moral  Law,"  "History  of  the  United  States,"  "History 
of  the  Last  Quarter  Century  in  the  United  States," 
"History  of  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times." 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  born  in  1637;  an  English 
officer  who  served  in  the  wars  with  the  Dutch,  and  after- 
wards went  as  governor  to  various  provinces  of  North 
America.  He  was  recalled  in  1698  from  Virginia,  but 
was  afterwards  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Guern- 
sey.    Died,  1714. 

Angell,  James  Burrill,  educator,  diplomat;  born 
in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  January  7,  1829;  graduate  of  Brown 
University,  1849 ;  professor  modern  languages  and  litera- 
ture. Brown,  1853-60;  editor  Providence  Journal, 
1860-66;  president  of  University  of  Vermont,  1866-71; 
president  University  of  Michigan,  1871-1909;  United 
States  Minister  to  China,  1880-81,  acting  as  commis- 
sioner in  negotiating  important  treaties;  member  Anglo- 
American  International  Commission  on  Canadian  Fish- 
eries, 1887;  chairman  Canadian-American  Commission 
on  Deep  Waterways  from  Lakes  to  Sea,  1896;  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Turkey,  1897,  but  resigned,  1898. 
Author  numerous  addresses  and  articles  in  leading 
reviews. 

Angelo,  Michael  de  Buonarottl,  a  distinguished 
painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and  poet  of  Italy.  He  was 
born  in  1475,  in  the  territory  of  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany. 
At  an  early  age  he  became  the  ptipil  of  Domenico  Ghir- 


398 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


landajo,  a  celebrated  artist  of  his  day.  He  soon  dis- 
played such  uncommon  merit,  that  Lorenzo  de'  Medici 
tooli  him  into  his  service.  His  mastery  over  the  grand 
and  terrible  has  never  been  equaled;  and  his  correct 
design  and  knowledge  of  anatomy  has  not  been  attained 
by  other  artists.  Several  editions  of  his  poetry  have 
been  published.  Michael  Angelo  discontinued  painting 
in  his  75th  year,  and  terminated  his  brilliant  career  at 
Rome,  at  the  advanced  age  of  89,  in  1564.  He  was 
splendidly  interred  in  that  city  by  Cosmo,  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, but  his  remains  were  subsequently,  by  command 
of  tnat  prince,  removed  to  Florence,  and  deposited  be- 
neath a  magnificent  monument,  embellished  with  three 
statues,  representing  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture. 

Anjou,  Counts  and  Dukes  of  (an-joo'),  a  powerful 
French  family,  connected  with  the  regal  house  of  Valois 
which  maintained  a  considerable  share  of  independence 
until  the  reign  of  Louis  XI.  One  of  its  members,  Fulke, 
became  King  of  Jerusalem,  1131;  and  his  son,  Geoffroy, 
founded  the  royal  house  of  Plantagenet.  The  second 
house  of  Anjou  was  a  branch  of  the  royal  family  of 
France.  The  title  of  Duke  d' Anjou  was  also  borne  by 
several  sons  of  kings  of  France,  and  lastly  by  a  grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.,  who  became  Philip  V.  of  Spain. 

Anna  Comnena  {kom-ne -na) ,  the  daughter  of  Alexius 
Comnenus  I.,  by  his  wife  Irene,  was  born  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  1083.  She  devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  litera- 
ture and  philosophy,  and  was  esteemed  the  most  learned 
female  of  her  age.  After  the  death  of  her  father,  she 
conspired  to  depose  her  brother,  and  to  place  the  crown 
upon  the  head  of  her  husband,  Nicephorus  Bryennius. 
Her  plot  being  discovered,  she  lost  all  her  influence  at 
court,  and  employed  the  last  ten  years  of  her  life  in 
composing  a  history  of  her  father's  reign,  called  the 
"Alexiad."     Died,  1148. 

Anne  of  Austria,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Philip  III. 
of  Spain,  was  born  in  1601,  and  married  Louis  XIII., 
King  of  France,  in  1615.  Upon  the  death  of  her  consort, 
in  1643,  she  was  declared  queen-regent,  during  the  mi- 
nority of  her  son.  She  placed  unbounded  confidence  in 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  whose  rule  was  so  unpopular  that  a 
civil  war  ensued,  which  compelled  the  queen  and  her 
son  to  fly  from  Paris,  and  to  solicit  the  aid  of  the  great 
Cond^.  In  1661,  the  young  king  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  and  Anne  retired,  to  pass  the  remainder 
of  her  life  in  religious  exercises.  She  died  from  the  effects 
of  a  cancer  in  her  breast,  in  1666. 

Anne  of  Beaujeu,  daughter  of  Louis  XL,  married 
Peter  Beaujeu,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  and  constable  of 
France.  She  acted  as  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the 
minority  of  her  brother,  Charles  VIII.  Born,  1462, 
died  in  1522. 

Anne  Boleyn,  the  second  queen  of  Henry  VIII. ,  was 
born  in  1507.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Boleyn,  and  a  maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Katherine,  whom 
Henry  divorced,  that  he  might  raise  Anne  to  the  throne, 
who  became  the  mother  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  fickle 
king  caused  her  to  be  decapitated  in  May,  1536. 

./Gine  of  Brittany,  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Duke 
Francis  II.,  was  born  in  1476.  In  1491  she  was  united 
to  Charles  VIII. ,  King  of  France,  and  governed  the 
kingdom  during  the  expedition  of  that  prince  to  Italy. 
After  his  death,  she  married  Louis  XII.  in  1499,  over 
whom  she  exercised  great  influence.     She  died  in  1514. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  the  fourth  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  to 
whom  she  was  married  in  1540.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  John,  third  Duke  of  Cleves.  The  match  was  pro- 
jected by  Cromwell,  and  was  partly  the  cause  of  that 
minister's  ruin.  Henry  put  her  aside,  settled  on  her  a 
liberal  annuity,  with  which  she  was  well  satisfied,  and 
she  spent  the  remainder  of  her  days  in  England,  where 
she  died  in  1557. 

Anne,  Queen  of  England,  was  the  second  daughter 
of  King  James  II.,  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde,  and  was 
born  in  1665.  In  1683,  she  married  Prince  George, 
brother  to  the  King  of  Denmark,  by  whom  she  had  a 
number  of  children,  all  of  whom  died  young.  Anne 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  8th  of  March,  1702.  She 
established  a  fund,  known  as  "Queen  Anne's  Bounty," 
for  the  augmentation  of  the  livings  of  the  poor  clergy. 
During  her  reign  (which  was  made  illustrious  by  the  mili- 
tary triumphs  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough),  Sir  George 
Rooke  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  conquered  the  fortress 
of  Gibraltar,' a  possession  which  Spain  has  never  been 
able  to  regain;  and  the  legislative  union  of  Scotland 
with  England  was  effected.  The  glorious  galaxy  of 
writers,  in  almost  every  branch  of  learning,  who  flour- 
ished in  her  time,  has  caused  it  to  be  considered  the 
Augustan  age  of  British  literature.  She  died  on  the 
l8t  of  August,  1714. 

Annunzio,  Gabrlele  d',  the  pseudonym  of  the  Italian 


poet  Gaetano  Rapagnetta ;  was  born  in  1864,  on  a  boat 
in  the  Adriatic;  educated  in  a  college  at  Prato,  near 
Florence,  and  studied  in  Rome.  He  was  elected,  in 
1898,  a  deputy  in  the  Italian  Parliament.  His  first  vol- 
ume of  verse,  "Primavera,"  appeared  in  1879,  and  was 
followed  by  "In  Memoriam,"  1880;  "Canto  Novo," 
1882;  "Intermezzo  di  Rime,"  1883.  His  "Odi  No- 
velh  "  reached  their  ninth  edition  in  1899.  Of  his  nu- 
merous novels,  the  first,  "Terra  Vergine,"  appeared  in 
1882;  "H  Piacere"  obtained  ten  editions  between  1889 
and  1898.  He  then  turned  to  the  drama,  with  "Un 
Sogno  d'  un  Mattino  di  Primavera,"  "Giaconda,"  "Fran- 
cesca  da  Rimini,"  produced  by  Signora  Duse  at  the 
Adelphi  in  1903,  and  "Piu  che  1'  Amore,"  produced  at 
Rome,  November,  1906. 

Anselm,  Saint,  born  in  1033;  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury during  the  reigns  of  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I., 
to  which  post  he  was  summoned  from  his  position  as 
Abbot  of  Bee  in  Normandy.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
piety  and  intellectual  power,  and  firmly  resisted  the 
efforts  of  the  king  to  despoil  the  Church  of  her  dignity 
or  revenues.  He  died  at  Canterbury  in  1109  and  was 
canonized  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Anthony  the  Great,  St.  (an'to-ne),  the  founder  of 
monastic  institutions,  was  born  A.  D.,  251  near  Heraclea, 
in  Upper  Egypt.  In  285,  having  sold  all  his  property 
and  given  the  proceeds  to  the  poor,  he  withdrew  into 
the  desert  whither  a  number  of  disciples  were  attracted 
by  his  reputation  for  sanctity;  and  thus  was  formed  the 
first  community  of  monks.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Alexandria  to  seek  the  honor  of  martyrdom  amid  the 
persecutions  there  raging  against  the  Christians;  but 
as  his  life  was  spared,  he  again  returned  to  the  desert, 
and  died  at  the  great  age  of  105. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell,  reformer;  born  in  Adams, 
Mass.,  February  15,  1820;  educated  in  school  maintained 
by  father  for  his  own  and  neighboring  children,  Batten- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  and  1837-38  at  Friends'  Boarding  School, 
West  Philadelphia.  Taught  school  from  age  of  15  to  30; 
aided,  1852,  in  organizing  the  first  State  woman's  temper- 
ance society;  active  in  anti-slavery  and  woman's  rights 
work;  organizer  and  secretary  of  Women's  National 
Loyal  League  during  Civil  War.  After  war,  was  entirely 
devoted  to  the  woman  suffrage  movement;  founded, 
1868,  "The  Revolution,"  exclusively  woman's  rights 
paper;  managed  it  several  years;  in  1869  organized, 
with  Mrs.  Stanton,  National  Woman  Suffrage  Associa- 
tion; joint  author  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton 
and  Mrs.  Matilda  Joslyn  Gage  of  "The  History  of  Woman 
Suffrage"  (3  volumes),  and  of  Volume  IV.  with  Mrs. 
Ida  Husted  Harper;  contributed  to  leading  magazines 
and  lectured  in  England  and  throughout  the  United 
States.     Died,  1906. 

Antigonus,  Cyclops  or  "one-eyed,"  a  distinguished 
general  of  Alexander  the  Great,  on  whose  death  he  be- 
came Governor  of  Phrygia,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia,  and 
after  defeating  and  slaying  Eumenes,  and  waging  other 
successful  wars,  assumed  the  title  of  king.  His  am- 
bitious schemes  united  his  rivals,  and  he  was  slain  in 
battle  at  Ipsus.     Died,  301  B.  C. 

Antiochus  (Sn-ti'o-kus),  a  favorite  royal  name  in 
ancient  Syria,  no  less  than  eleven  of  her  kings  bearing  it. 
The  most  noted  was  Antiochus  III.,  'the  Great,  contem- 

Eorary  with  Hannibal,  223  B.  C,  and  Antiochus  IV., 
is  son. 

Antipater,  born  about  400  B.  C. ;  the  Macedonian,  the 
friend  and  minister  of  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great, 
during  the  absence  of  the  latter  was  appointed  regent 
of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  in  that  capacity  defeated 
the  Greeks.  On  the  death  of  Alexander,  Antipater  re- 
ceived the  government  of  Macedonia.     Died,  319  B.  C. 

Antipater  of  Idumea,  father  of  Herod  the  Great; 
took  part  in  the  disputes  between  Hyrcanus  II.  and  Aris- 
tobulus  II.  He  assisted  in  placing  Hyrcanus  on  the 
throne  of  Judaea  63  B.  C,  and  contrived  to  get  the  power 
in  his  own  hands.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  Procu- 
rator of  all  Judsea.     Died,  43  B.  C. 

Antoinette  (an-twa-nW),  Marie,  Archduchess  of 
Austria,  was  born  at  Vienna,  November  2,  1755.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  and  Maria 
Theresa,  and  was  given  in  marriage  to  the  Dauphin,  son 
of  Louis  XV.,  in  1770,  being  then  14  years  of  age.  Her 
beauty  and  amiable  conduct  gained  universal  admira- 
tion. Her  consort  having  ascended  the  throne  as  Louis 
XVI.,  during  the  troubles  which  occurred  in  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  she  became  the  object  of  popular 
hatred.  She  was  confined  in  the  same  prison  with  her 
husband  for  some  time,  but  afterwards  separated  from 
him  and  detained  in  the  Conciergerie,  whence,  after 
much  suffering,  she  was  carried  before  a  Revolutionary 
tribunal  in  October,  1793,  by  judgment  of  which  she 
suffered  by  the  guillotine  on  the  same  day. 


BIOGRAPHY 


399 


Antommarchi  (an-to-mar'-ke).  Doctor,  a  celebrated 
anatomist,  born  in  1780  in  Corsica.  When  Napoleon 
was  a  captive  he  was  selected  to  attend  the  deposed 
emperor.  He  remained  with  him  in  his  last  moments, 
and  refused  to  sign  the  document  prepared  on  the  ex- 
amination of  the  corpse  by  the  English  surgeons.  He 
died  in  1838. 

Antonl'nus  Pius,  Titus,  adopted  son  and  successor 
of  Hadrian,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in  86.  His 
reign  of  twenty-three  years  was  powerful  and  prosperous. 
He  died  in  161. 

Antony,  Mark.     See  Mark  Antony. 

Ajpelles  (a-pel'-leez),  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born 
in  the  island  of  Cos,  according  to  Pliny,  but  by  some 
writers  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Ephesus.  During 
the  reign  of  Philip,  father  to  Alexander  the  great,  Apelles 
visited  Macedon.  The  monarch  became  his  patron  and 
friend,  as  did  Alexander  after  him.  The  latter  would 
not  permit  any  one  else  to  paint  his  portrait.  His  most 
famous  works  are  "i Venus  asleep,"  and  "Venus  Anad- 
yomene."  He  died  in  the  island  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  his  native  place. 

Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  a  great  architect  of  the 
Second  Century,  worked  at  Rome  for  the  Emperor  Tra- 
jan, and  built  the  forum  and  column  which  bear  that 
monarch's  name,  but  his  greatest  work  was  a  huge  bridge 
over  the  Danube  at  its  confluence  with  the  Alt.  He 
was  banished  and  put  to  death  by  Hadrian. 

Apollonlus  (a-pol-lo'-ne-us),  called  the  Rhodian 
(Apollonius  Rhodius),  was  born  in  Alexandria,  B.  C, 
230.  He  presided  over  an  academy  at  Rhodes,  was  an 
eminent  rhetorician,  and  wrote  a  poem,  in  four  books, 
on  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  and  other  poems. 
This  name  was  also  borne  by  a  mathematician  of  Perga 
in  Pamphylia,  who  lived  in  240  B.  C. ;  by  a  Roman  senator, 
and  Christian  martyr,  who  suffered  in  186;  and  by  a 
sophist,  a  stoic,  and  a  Pythagorean  philosopher. 

ApoUos  (a-pol'-los),  a  Jew  born  in  Alexandria,  and 
converted  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles  to  Christianity. 
In  the  year  54,  being  at  Ephesus,  and  famed  for  elo- 
quence and  Scriptural  knowledge,  he  preached  the  gos- 
pel in  the  absence  of  St.  Paul.  At  Corinth  he  preached 
with  great  success,  and  was  there  promoted  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  bishop. 

Aquinas  (a-kwi'-nas),  St.  Thomas  d',  popularly 
called  the  "Angelic  Doctor,"  was  a  descendant  from  the 
counts  of  Aquino,  in  Calabria.  He  was  born  in  1227, 
and  in  1323  Pope  John  XXII.  enrolled  his  name  in  the 
calendar  of  saints.  His  writings,  which  are  very  highly 
esteemed  among  Catholics,  gave  rise  to  a  sect  called 
Thomists.     Died,  1274. 

Arago  (/ir-&-go'),  Dominique,  a  celebrated  French 
philosopher;  was  born  February  26,  1786.  In  1806, 
ne  was  engaged,  with  Biot,  in  measuring  an  arc  of  me- 
ridian. His  subsequent  life  was  distinguished  by  an 
ardent  and  successful  devotion  to  science;  he  was  also 
eminent  as  a  liberal  politician.     He  died  in  October,  1853. 

Arbaces  (ar-ba'-seez),  a  general  of  the  Medes,  who 
served  under  Sardanapalus,  King  of  Assyria.  Disgusted 
with  the  effeminacy  of  that  monarch,  Arbaces  took 
arms  against  him,  and  compelled  him  to  fly  to  Nineveh, 
where  he  committed  suicide,  when  Arbaces  ascended 
his  throne,  which  he  filled  for  twenty-eight  years. 

Arc,  Joan  of,  a  celebrated  heroine,  otherwise  called 
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  was  born  at  Domremy,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Lorraine,  January  6,  1412.  She  was  the  daxighter 
of  humble  peasants,  and  in  her  earlier  years  is  said  to 
have  tended  horses,  and  rendered  other  menial  services 
as  the  servant  at  a  small  inn.  In  her  eighteenth  year, 
however,  professing  to  have  a  divine  mission  to  be  the 
saviour  of  her  country,  she  got  herself  introduced  to  the 
Dauphin  Charles,  headed  his  troops,  and  infusing  courage 
into  his  dispirited  adherents,  restored  his  fallen  fortunes 
in  a  most  incredibly  short  period,  and  secured  to  him 
the  crown  of  France.  Eventually  she  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Burgundians,  and  having  been  delivered  over  by 
them  to  the  English  and  their  French  partisans,  the 
latter  caused  her  to  be  condemned  to  the  flames  as  a 
heretic  and  sorceress,  in  1431. 

Archelaus,  a  Cappadocian,  the  distinguished  general 
of  Mithridates  VI.,  flourished  in  the  First  Century  B.  C. 
.■Vfter  defeating  Nicomedes  III.  at  Amnias,  88  B.  C,  he 
sailed  to  Greece,  captured  Delos  and  other  towns,  and 
induced  Achaia,  Lacedemon,  and  Boeotia  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Mithridates  against  Rome.  Sulla  besieged 
him  in  the  Piroeus,  and  compelled  him  to  withdraw  his 
forces.  Returning  to  the  contest  with  a  still  larger 
army,  Archelaus  was  again  defeated  and  forced  to  retire, 
when,  acting  upon  instructions  received  from  Mithri- 
dates, he  concluded  peace  with  Sulla,  but  upon  terms 
unsatisfactory  to  the  king,  and  he  finally  deserted  to  the 
Romans,  after  which  little  is  known  of  him. 


Archimedes  (ar-ke-me'-deez),  a  renowned  mathema- 
tician, whose  astonishing  skill  in  mechanics  was  such 
that  some  of  the  greatest  real  triumphs  of  antiquity  may 
be  ascribed  to  him.  His  inventions  amazed  his  contem- 
poraries: the  lifting  of  weights  by  means  of  pulleys,  and 
the  endless  screw,  are  among  them.  A  Roman  historian 
celebrates  the  warlike  engines  produced  by  the  skill  of 
Archimedes.  His  mind  ever  fruitful  of  extraordinary 
resources,  when  Syracuse  was  besieged  by  Marcellus,  he 
constructed  a  burning-glass,  on  a  scale  of  such  magnitude 
that  by  means  of  it  the  enemy's  fleet  was  fired.  Eventu- 
ally the  city  being  taken,  he  was  found  among  the  slain. 

Argand,  Aime',  born  in  1755,  a  chemist  of  Geneva, 
inventor  of  the  Argand  lamp,  which  ho  brought  out  in 
England  in  1782.  The  patent  was  also  claimed  by  a 
Frenchrnan,  Ambroise  Lang^,  and  finally  taken  out  in 
France  in  their  joint  names,  the  priority  of  invention 
being  conceded  to  Argand.  The  French  Revolution, 
however,  deprived  him  of  all  profit  from  his  patent. 
Died,  1803. 

Ariosto  {ar-e-os' -to) ,  Ludovlco,  a  famous  Italian 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Reggio  in  1474,  and  educated  at 
Ferrara.  His  writings  were  numerous,  but  his  "Orlando 
Furioso  "  is  the  work  which  established  his  fame.  Died, 
1533.  • 

Aristides  (ar-is-ti'-deez),  an  Athenian  patriot  whose 
unbending  integrity  gained  for  him  among  his  country- 
men the  name  of  The  Just.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Marathon,  Salamis,  and  Plata>a.  After  gaining  great 
honor  for  virtuous  conduct,  he  died  poor,  468  'B.  C. 
There  were  also,  an  orator  of  Adriani  in  Mysia,  a  Chris- 
tian philosopher  in  Athens,  a  painter  of  Thebes,  a  histo- 
rian rnentioned  by  Plutarch  as  of  Miletus,  and  a  Greek 
musician,  who  bore  the  same  name. 

Aristophanes  (a-ris-tof-a-neez).  The  most  cele- 
brated of  the  ancient  Athenian  writers  of  comedy,  con- 
temporary with  Socrates  and  Plato.  He  wrote  fifty- 
four  comedies,  of  which  eleven  only  remain.  In  one  of 
them,  "The  Clouds,"  Socrates  (or  rather  the  philosophy 
of  the  age)  is  held  up  to  ridicule.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known. 

Aristotle  {ar' -is-lol-l) ,  a  distinguished  philosopher, 
born  at  Stagira  in  Thrace,  384  B.  C.  When  twenty 
years  of  age,  he  had  the  advantage  of  being  placed  under 
Plato,  who  pronounced  his  eulogy  by  describing  him  to 
be  "the  mind"  of  his  academy.  His  growing  fame 
caused  Philip  of  Macedon  to  make  him  tutor  to  his  son 
Alexander.  That  prince  is  said  to  have  profited  from 
his  sage  counsel  to  restore  towns  that  he  had  ruined. 
Pursued  by  envy,  Aristotle  was  accused  of  impiety,  and 
retired  to  Chalcis,  where  he  died  322  B.  C. 

Arlus  (a'-ri-us),  a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  lived  in  the  Fourth  Century.  His  doctrine 
was  that  the  Father  and  Son  were  essentially  distinct. 
That  the  latter  was  created  out  of  nothing  by  the  will  of 
the  former.  For  this  he  was  e.xcommunicated  and  ban- 
ished, but  having  been  recalled,  was  about  again  to  enter 
the  Church  from  which  he  had  been  exiled,  when  he  sud- 
denly expL'ed.  The  sect  called  Arians  are  named  after 
him,  but  they  do  not  adopt  all  his  opinions. 

Arltwright,  Sir  Richard,  born  in  1732;  a  Lanca- 
shire barber,  renowned  as  the  inventor  of  the  spinning- 
frame.  Of  humble  birth,  he  exhibited  considerable 
mechanical  skill,  joined  with  the  greatest  industry.  In 
1767  he  attempted  to  solve  the  problem  of  perpetual 
motion,  and  soon  after,  with  the  help  of  a  clock  maker 
named  Kay,  his  spinning  inventions  began  to  take  shape. 
He  then  entered  into  partnership  with  a  firm  of  stock- 
ing manufacturers,  and  his  invention  was  patented  in 
1769,  and  though  many  difficulties  arose,  from  infringe- 
ments of  the  patent,  the  hostility  of  the  work-people, 
and  disputes  to  his  claim  as  the  inventor  of  his  machines, 
Arkwright  was  enabled  to  rise  from  poverty,  and  was 
chosen  to  present  a  congratulatory  address  to  George  III. 
in  1786,  on  which  occasion  he  was  knighted.     Died,  1792. 

Armour,  Jonathan  Ogden,  capitalist,  packer;  born 
in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  November  11,  1863;  entered  Yale 
but  did  not  complete  course,  yielding  to  request  of 
father  that  he  should  return  to  Chicago  and  relieve  him 
of  some  of  his  business  cares.  Now  president  of  Corpo- 
ration of  Armour  &  Co.,  packers,  and  director  in  other 
corporations. 

Arnheim  or  Amim,  George,  Baron  von,  born  in 
1581,  a  distinguished  general  and  politician,  who  took  part 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  serving  successively  under  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  Wallenstein,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 
After  gaining  the  decisive  victory  of  Liegnitz  (1634)  he 
retired  to  his  estates,  but  was  seized  and  imprisoned  by 
the  King  of  Sweden;  he  escaped,  however,  but  died  soon 
after.     Died,  1641. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  born  in  1741;  American  general, 
a  brave  but  unprincipled  man.  At  fifteen  he  enlisted  in 
the  English  army,   but  soon  deserted,  and  adopted  a 


400 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


mercantile  life.  In  the  Anglo-American  War  Arnold 
took  an  extremely  active  part,  his  skill  and  gallantry 
being  especially  exhibited  in  the  siege  of  Quebec  and  the 
victories  of  Ridgefield  and  Bemis.  Meanwhile  a  party 
hostile  to  him  had  been  growing  up;  his  due  promotion 
was  deferred,  several  serious  charges  were  brought 
against  him,  the  fortunes  of  the  Americans  grew  worse 
and  worse,  and  he  became  affected  with  the  prevalent 
spirit  of  desertion.  Accordingly  he  entered  into  nego- 
tiation with  the  British  commander,  and  treacherously 
asked  and  obtained  the  command  of  West  Point,  with 
the  intention  of  surrendering  it  to  the  enemy;  the  cap- 
ture of  Andr^  betrayed  his  duplicity,  and  the  traitor  fled 
in  disgrace  to  the  English  army  at  New  York.  Here  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general,  and  after  serving 
against  his  countrymen,  retired  to  London.  Died,  1801. 
'  Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  born  in  18.32,  died,  1904;  jour- 
nalist and  poet,  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Oxford,  where  he  won  the  Newdigate  Prize  in  1853.  He 
was  for  several  years  principal  of  the  Government  San- 
scrit College  at  Poonah,  Bombay  Presidency,  but  resigned 
his  post  in  1861,  when  he  first  became  connected  with 
the  London  "Daily  Telegraph,"  for  which  he  continued 
to  write,  finally  being  appointed  editor.  His  "Light  of 
Asia"  (1879)  achieved  extraordinary  popularity,  and 
obtained  him  a  high  place  amongst  the  poets  of  the  day. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  born  in  1822,  eldest  son  of  Dr. 
Arnold  of  Rugby,  was  educated  at  Winchester,  Rugby, 
and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  was  a  distinguished 
critic,  poet,  scholar,  and  theologian.  He  was  elected 
Fellow  of  Oriel  College  in  1845,  and  in  1851,  after  having 
been  for  some  time  private  secretary  to  Lord  Lansdowne, 
he  was  appointed  Lay  Inspector  of  Schools  under  the 
Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  in  which  capacity 
he  twice  visited  the  Continent  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing information,  and  which  appointment  he  resigned  in 
1886.  His  poetic  activity  was  manifested  in  early  life; 
for  ten  years  (1857-1867)  he  held  the  chair  of  poetry 
at  Oxford,  and  amongst  his  productions  may  be  noted 
his  Newdigate  prize  poem  "Cromwell"  (1843),  "The 
Strayed  Reveller,"  and  a  volume  of  "New  Poems"  pub- 
lished in  1869.  As  a  critic  he  holds  a  very  high  place. 
His  later  works  were  chiefly  theological,  being  attempts 
to  grapple  with  the  supernatural  aspects  of  Christianity 
from  a  rationalistic  standpoint.  "St.  Paul  and  Protes- 
tantism" (1870),  "Literature  and  Dogma"  (1873),  and 
"God  and  the  Bible"  (1875),  are  among  his  writings. 
Died,  1888. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  born  in  1795,  was  educated 
at  Winchester,  and  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  In 
1815  he  became  Fellow  of  Oriel,  obtaining  in  that  year 
the  Chancellor's  Prize  for  the  Latin  and  in  1817  for  the 
English  essay.  After  taking  holy  orders,  he  passed  nine 
years  at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  in  literary  occupations, 
and  in  preparing  young  men  for  the  universities.  Ap- 
pointed head  master  of  Rugby  School  in  1828,  he  raised 
that  institution  beyond  all  precedent,  both  by  the  remark- 
able success  of  his  pupils  and  by  the  introduction  of  new 
branches  of  study  into  the  Rugby  course.  He  was  of 
the  Broad  Church  school  of  thought,  and  a  vigorous 
opposer  of  the  then  new  Tractarian  movement.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford. 
The  best  known  of  Dr.  Arnold's  works  are  his  edition  of 
"Thucydides,"  his  "History  of  Rome"  (unfinished),  and 
his  sermons  delivered  in  the  chapel  of  Rugby  School. 
Died,  1842. 

Artemisia,  Queen  of  Halicarnassus,  wife  and  suc- 
cessor of  Mausolus,  to  whose  memory  she  erected  a 
splendid  monument,  which  has  given  to  similar  erec- 
tions the  name  of  "mausoleum." 

Arteveldo,  Jacob  van,  popular  Flemish  leader  in  the 
Fourteenth  Century,  assisted  Edward  III.  in  his  French 
wars,  and  for  nine  years  was  practically  ruler  of  Flanders. 
He  determined  to  convert  his  country  into  a  kingdom, 
and  offered  the  crown  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  which  led 
to  a  tumult  in  which  he  was  slain.     Died,  134.5. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  born  in  1830;  twenty-first 
President  of '  the  United  States;  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  from  1871-78  was  collector  of  the 
port  of  New  York  City.  When  Garfield  was  elected 
president,  he  was  vice-president,  and  on  the  former's 
assassination  succeeded  to  the  presidency.     Died,  1886. 

Arthur,  Julia,  actress;  born  in  Hamilton,  Ont., 
May  3,  1869,  of  Irish  and  Welsh  parentage;  real  name, 
Ida  Lewis,  stage  name  being  taken  from  her  mother's 
maiden  name  of  Arthur.  At  11,  played  in  amateur 
dramatic  club,  taking  part  of  Gamora  in  "."The  Honey- 
moon "  and  of  Portia  in  "The  Merchant  of  Venice''; 
three  years  later  made  professional  d^but  as  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  "Daniel  Bandmann's  presentation  of  Rich- 
ard III.";  remained  three  seasons  with  that  company; 
studied   violin    music   and    dramatic   art   in    England; 


first  New  York  success  at  Union  Square  Theater  in 
"The  Black  Masque";  later  in  A.  M.  Palmer's  company 
in  several  roles,  notably  in  "Mercedes,"  1893;  London 
d^but,  February  1,  1895,  in  Henry  Irving's  company, 
playing  roles  next  to  Miss  Terry;  especially  suceessful 
as  Rosamond  in  "A'Becket,"  with  Irving  and  Terry  in 
United  States,  1896.     Now,  Mrs.  B.  P.  Cheney,  Jr. 

Asbury,  Francis,  born  in  1745;  the  "Pioneer 
Bishop,"  an  English  Methodist  preacher  who  undertook 
an  evangelistic  mission  to  America  in  1771,  by  the  wish 
of  John  Wesley.  In  1784  he  was  ordained  Bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  America.  Thence- 
forth his  life  was  devoted  with  untiring  energy  to  the 
organization  and  extension  of  that  Church.     Died,  1816. 

Ashmole,  Ellas,  born  in  1617;  astrologer  and  anti- 
quary, held  the  appointment  of  Windsor  Herald,  and 
published  the  "History  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter." 
He  left  many  works,  and  presented  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  his  valuable  collection  of  coins,  specimens,  and 
manuscripts.     Died,  1692. 

Aspasia  {as-pa' -se-a) ,  a  beautiful  Athenian  courtesan. 
Socrates  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  her  admirers.  In 
order  to  marry  her,  Pericles  repudiated  his  wife.  An 
affront  offered  to  Aspasia  is  said  to  have  caused  the 
Peloponnesian  War. 

Asqulth,  Rt.  Hon.  H.  H.,  Prime  Minister  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  1852,  and  entered  the  British  Parlia- 
ment in  1886.  He  was  educated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  Lincoln's  Inn,  1876. 
In  the  course  of  the  Home  Rule  debates,  he  rose  rapidly 
to  the  first  rank  in  the  House.  He  was  entrusted  with 
the  conduct  of  the  Disestablishment  of  the  Church  of 
Wales  Bill  in  1894.  On  the  defeat  of  the  Rosebery 
Ministry  in  June,  1895,  he  resumed  practice  at  the  bar. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  effective  speakers  on  the  Liberal 
side  during  1903  on  the  Education  question  and  the 
War  Commission's  report,  and  during  1903,  1904,  and 
1905,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Chamberlain's  fiscal  policy. 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  December,  1905.  On  the 
death  of  Campbell-Bannerman,  1908,  he  became  Prime 
Minister. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  capitalist;  born  in  Rhinebeck, 
N.  Y.,  July  13,  1864;  son  of  William,  grandson  of  Wil- 
liam B.,  and  great-grandson  of  John  Jacob  Astor;  B.  S., 
Harvard,  1888;  traveled  abroad,  1888-91;  since  then 
has  been  manager  of  the  family  estates;  built  (1897) 
Astoria  Hotel,  New  York,  adjoining  Waldorf  Hotel, 
which  was  built  by  William  Waldorf  Astor,  his  cousin, 
the  two  now  forming  one  building  under  the  name  of 
Waldorf-Astoria  Hotel,  one  of  the  largest  and  probably 
most  costly  hotels  in  the  world.  Was  colonel,  staff  of 
Governor  Levi  P.  Morton,  and  in  May,  1898,  commis- 
sioned lieutenant-colonel  of  United  States  Volunteers; 
presented  to  the  government  a  mountain  battery  for 
use  in  war  against  Spain,  said  to  have  cost  over  $100,000. 
After  assisting  Major-General  Breckinridge,  Inspector- 
General  U.  S.  A.,  in  inspection  of  camp  and  troops 
at  Chickamauga  Park,  Ga.,  assigned  to  duty  on  staff 
of  Major-General  Shafter,  and  served  in  Cuba  in  opera- 
tions ending  in  surrender  of  Santiago.  Has  invented  a 
bicycle  brake,  a  pneumatic  road  improver,  and  an  im- 
proved turbine  engine.  Author:  "A  Journey  in  Other 
Worlds,"  etc. 

Astor,  William  Waldorf,  capitalist,  author;  born 
in  New  York,  March  31,  1848;  son  of  John  Jacob  and 
Charlotte  Augusta  (Gibbes)  A.;  great-grandson  of  John 
Jacob,  founder  of  the  Astor  fortune.  Educated  by  pri- 
vate tutors,  finishing  in  Europe;  entered  office  of  the 
Astor  Estate,  1871;  succeeded  his  father,  1890,  as  head 
of  the  Astor  family,  with  personal  fortune  estimated  at 
about  $100,000,000.  Member  of  New  York  Legislature, 
1878-81;  United  States  minister  to  Italy,  1882-85; 
removed  to  England,  1890;  became  owner  "Pall  Mall 
Gazette"  and  "Pall  Mall  Magazine."  Author:  "Valen- 
tino, a  Story  of  Rome  " ;  "  Sforza,"  an  historical  romance 
of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in  Italy,  etc.  Has  for  many 
years  lived  in  England. 

Atahualpa,  the  last  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  succeeded 
his  father,  Huayna  Capac,  in  1525,  on  the  throne  of 
Quito,  whilst  his  half-brother,  Huascar,  although  the 
rightful  heir,  obtained  only  the  kingdom  of  Peru.  The 
two  brothers  engaged  in  a  struggle  for  supremacy,  in 
which  Huascar  was  defeated.  The  Spaniards  under 
Pizarro,  taking  advantage  of  these  internal  dissensions, 
invaded  Peru,  and  by  an  act  of  deliberate  perfidy  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  person  of  Atahualpa,  and  at- 
tempted to  compel  him  to  acknowledge  the  King  of 
Spain  as  master,  and  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion. 
His  refusal  was  made  a  pretext  for  a  massacre,  and  the 
imjjrisonment  of  their  king,  whom  the  Spaniards  in- 
duced to  raise  an  enormous  treasure  in  the  hopes  of 
regaining  his  throne.  After  a  mock  trial,  however,  he 
was  condemned  and  strangled  at  the  stake.     Died,  1533. 


BIOGRAPHY 


401 


Athanasius  (a-tha-na'-shus) ,  Saint,  was  born  in 
Egypt  about  the  year  296,  entered  the  Church  at  an 
early  age,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  326. 
He  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  eminent  among  the  an- 
cient fathers  of  the  Church.  He  was  a  violent  opponent 
of  Arius;  and  his  earnest  advocacy  of  the  Catholic 
faith,  more  particularly  of  the  doctrine  pf  the  Trinity, 
subjected  him  to  much  persecution  from  the  emperors 
Constantine  and  Julian,  by  both  of  whom  he  was  several 
times  exiled,  but  he  finally  closed  his  days  in  tranquil- 
lity in  373,  in  the  forty-eighth  year  of  his  prelacy.  His 
works  are  numerous,  but  consist  chiefly  of  invectives 
against  his  enemies,  and  controversial  treatises  against 
Arianism.  The  more  important  of  his  writings  are  his 
"Apologies,"  "Two  Books  on  the  Incarnation,"  "Con- 
ference with  the  Arians,"  "The  Life  of  St.  Anthony," 
"The  Abridgment  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  "Letters  to 
Those  that  Lead  a  Monastic  Life,"  and  "Letters  to 
Serapion." 

Athclstan  (&th' el-slUn) ,  or  ^thelstan,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  born  about  895,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Edward  the  Elder,  92.5.  In  937  he 
gained  a  great  victory  at  Brunanburh,  over  the  Danes, 
Scots,  etc.,  and  reigned  over  all  the  island  except  Cum- 
bria, Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Scotland,  which  were  tribu- 
tary to  him.     Died  without  issue,  940. 

Athenagoras  (ath-e-nag'-o-ras),  a  Christian  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Athens,  who  lived  toward  the  close  of  the 
Second  Century.  His  conversion  to  Christianity  has 
been  likened  to  that  of  St.  Paul.  Writing  against  the 
Christians,  in  order  to  render  his  attacks  more  formid- 
able, he  referred  to  the  Scriptures,  and  by  reading  them 
was  converted  to  the  true  faith.  A  "Discourse  on  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Dead"  and  his  "Apology  for  Chris- 
tians" were  much  admired. 

Attila  (at'le-la),  a  king  of  the  Huns,  who  lived  in  the 
Fifth  Century.  He  styled  himself  "The  Scourge  of 
God,"  and  devastated  Lombardy.  The  city  of  Venice 
was  founded  by  those  who  fled  before  him.  On  his 
death,  in  453,  his  body  was  buried  in  three  coffins,  made 
of  silver,  gold,  and  iron.  The  captives  who  dug  his 
grave  were  put  to  death. 

Atwood,  Georsc,  F.  R.  S.,  a  distinguished  mathe- 
matician, and  author  of  many  valuable  scientific  works, 
born  in  1746,  and  died  in  1807. 

Atwood,  Thomas,  born  in  1765,  was  the  son  of  a 
coal'  merchant.  He  commenced  his  musical  education 
in  the  choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Nares.  The 
celebrated  Mozart,  under  whom  he  studied,  thought 
highly  of  his  talents.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  St.  Paul's.  He  wrote  coronation  anthems 
for  George  IV.  and  William  IV.,  and  died  in  1838. 

Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit,  born  in  1782; 
French  composer,  was  intended  for  a  business  career, 
and  it  was  not  until  he  met  with  Scribe,  in  1822.  that 
his  long  course  of  successful  composition  commenced. 
"La  Muette  de  Portici,"  or  "Masaniello,"  as  it  is  called 
in  England,  was  brought  out  in  1828.  He  produced 
many  other  works  which  enjoy  a  European  reputation, 
his  last  being  "Le  Reve  d'Amour"  (1870),  composed 
shortly  before  his  death.     Died,  1871. 

Aubigne,  Jean  Henri  Merle  d',  born  in  1794; 
Swiss  theologian  and  writer,  studied  at  Geneva  and 
Berlin,  and  became  professor  of  Church  history  at  Geneva 
in  1830.  He  was  author  of  "The  History  of  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  other  works. 
Died,  1872. 

Audubon,  John  James,  born  in  1780;  a  celebrated 
American  naturalist  of  French  descent;  a  pupil  of  the 
great  painter  David ;  from  his  childhood  he  was  devoted 
to  natural  history,  but  it  was  not  until  1830  that  the 
first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his  great  work,  "The  Birds 
of  America,"  appeared.  This  magnificent  collection  of 
plates,  which  was  sold  for  $1,000  a  copy,  was  quickly 
followed  by  explanatory  letterpress  under  the  title  of 
'American  Ornithological  Biography."  Audubon  also 
projected  a  similar  work  on  the  "Quadrupeds  of  Amer- 
ica," but  much  of  this  work  was  done  by  his  sons,  John 
and  Victor.     Died,  1851. 

Auerbach,  Bertliold,  born  in  1812;  German  nov- 
elist, was  a  native  of  the  Black  Forest;  his  reputation 
was  established  by  the  publication,  in  1843,  of  his  "Vil- 
lage Tales  from  the  Black  Forest,"  and  this  was  followed 
by  a  number  of  other  popular  novels.  Among  his  earlier 
works  were  a  translation  of  Spinoza's  writings,  and  an 
essay  on  modern  Jewish  literature.  He  died  at  Cannes 
in  1882,  shortly  after  the  publication  of  "Brigitta." 

Augustine,  Saint,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
Church,  was  born  at  Tagaste  in  Africa,  in  354.  In  his 
youth  he  was  favorable  to  the  Manichean  doctrines. 
Subsequently  he  became  Bishop  of  Hippo,  and  wrote 
with  great  force  against  all  whom  he  deemed  heretics. 
He  died  in  430.     Another  St.  Augustine  (or  St.  Austen), 


called  the  "Apostle  of  the  English,"  was  sent  with  a 
party  of  forty  monks  by  Pope.Gregory  I.  to  preach  the 
Gospel  in  England  in  597,  where  he  was  advanced  to 
be  first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  exact  date,  of 
his  death  is  not  known. 

Augustulus,  Romulus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors in  the  West,  was  the  son  of  Orestes,  who,  after 
deposing  Julian  Nepos,  advanced  him  to  the  throue. 
Odoacer,  a  barbarian,  raised  a  mutiny  against  him,  and 
having  put  Orestes  to  death,  compelled  Augustulus  to 
resign  his  imperial  dignity.  He  was  then  dismissed 
with  his  family,  and  allowed  6,000  pieces  of  gold  annually 
for  his  maintenance  in  the  castle  of  Luculus  in  Campania. 

Augustus,  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus,  a 
Roman  emperor,  born  63  B.  C,  was  the  son  of  Caius 
Octavius  and  Atia,  niece  of  Julius  Caesar,  by  whom  he 
was  adopted  when  but  four  years  of  age.  He  was  in 
Epirus  when  Julius  Ca'sar  was  assassinated,  but  speedily 
returned  to  claim  his  inheritance.  Connected  with 
Antony  and  Lepidus,  Octavianus  shared  the  guilt  which 
stains  the  name  of  the  triumvirate.  His  colleagues  put 
aside,  at  the  age  of  36  he  became  emperor,  with  the 
title  of  Augustus.  His  reign  was  fortunate,  good  laws 
were  framed  in  it,  and  the  arts  flourished  under  his 
protection.     He  died,  A.  D.,  14. 

Aurelianus,  Claudius  or  Lucius  Domitius,  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  born  in  212,  the  son  of  a  peasant;  en- 
tered the  Roman  army,  his  exploits  in  which  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  emperors  Valerian  and  Claudius,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  270,  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor.  His  short  reign  was  a  series  of  brilliant  vic- 
tories: the  Goths  and  Vandals  were  subdued,  the 
Alemanni,  who  threatened  Rome  itself,  were  extermi- 
nated. Palmyra  was  sacked,  and  in  the  splendid  triumph 
of  Aurelian  were  led  captive  Tetricus,  the  ex-emperor 
of  Gaul,  Britain  and  Spain,  and  Zenobia,  the  renowned 
Queen  of  the  East.  A  formidable  rebellion  at  home  was 
crushed  with  terrible  sternness,  and  the  emperor's 
severity  made  him  feared  even  by  his  friends,  who,  as 
they  deemed  in  pure  self-defense,  conspired  against  him 
and  put  him  to  death.     Died,  275. 

Aurelius,  Antoninus  Marcus,  born  in  121  A.  D.; 
Emperor  of  Rome, -was  the  adopted  son  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  to  whose  throne  he  succeeded  in  161,  and  took  as 
associate  Lucius  Verus.  Most  of  his  reign  was  disturbed 
by  wars  with  the  Germans.  Aurelius  was  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  truth  and  his  adhesion  to  the  Stoic  school 
of  philosophy,  and  his  "Meditations"  still  exist,  and 
give  a  trustworthy  record  of  his  private  opinions.  -Died, 
180. 

Aurungzebe  (aw-runq-ze'-he),  Emperor  of  Hindostan, 
known  as  the  Great  Mogul,  was  born  in  _1618.  The 
third  son  of  Shah  Jehan,  he  affected  devotion  in  early 
life  but  subsequently,  at  the  call  of  ambition,  he  deposed 
his  father  and  put  to  death  his  two  brothers  and  nephew. 
As  emperor,  his  career  was  brilliant.  He  conquered 
Golconda,  Visapour,  and  Bengal.  His  sons  disturbed 
his  latter  days  by  attempting  to  depose  him.  He  died 
in  1707.      , 

Austen,  Jane,  novelist;  born  in  1775,  at  Steventon, 
Hampshire,  England,  of  which  parish  her  father  was  rector. 
Her  principal  productions  are  "Pride  and  Prejudice"' 
(composed  1796,  published  1813), "Sense  and  Sensibihty  " 
(1811),  and  "Emma"  (1816).  They  are  distinguished 
for  originality,  naturalness,  and  fidelity  of  delineation, 
qualities  in  which  the  literature  of  her  time  was  most 
deficient.  Her  family  moved  successively  to  Bath  and 
Chawton,  and  she  died  at  Winchester  in  1817,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cathedral. 

Austin,  Alfred,  born  in  1835;  critic,  journalist,  and 
satirical  poet,  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  resigned 
that  profession  for  literature.  As  a  strong  Conserva- 
tive, is  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "National  Review." 
He  succeeded  Tennyson  as  poet-laureate. 

Averrhoes,  the  great  Arabian  philosopher,  born 
about  1126,  of  good  birth,  and  a  pupil  of  Aven- 
pace  and  Avenzoar.  He  devoted  his  life  to  the  study 
of  Aristotle.  He  was  banished  for  awhile  from  Cordova, 
and  his  views  were  condemned  by  the  University  of 
Paris  in  1240.     Died,  1198. 

Avery,  Elroy  McKendree,  author;  born  in  Erie, 
Monroe  County,  Mich.,  July  14,  1844;  graduate  of  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  Ph.  B.,  1871;  served  in  Civil  War; 
mustered  out  at  close  as  sergeant-major  of  11th  Michigan 
Volunteer  Cavalry.  Principal  of  high  school.  Battle 
Creek,  Mich.,  and  high  and  normal  schools,  Cleveland, 
O.  Member  of  Cleveland  City  Council,  1891-92;  of 
Ohio  Senate,  1893-97;  member  of  many  historical  and 
economic  societies.  Author:  "Elementary  Physics," 
"Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  "Physical  Tech- 
nics," "Teachers'  Hand  Book  of  Natural  Philosophy," 
"Elements  of  Chemistry,"  "Teachers'  Hand  Book  of 
Chemistry,"    "Complete  Chemistry,"    "First  Principles 


402 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  Natural  Philosophy,"  "Words  Correctly  Spoken," 
"Columbus  and  the  Col»mbia  Brigade,"  "School  Phys- 
ics," "First  Lessons  in  Physical  Science,"  "School  Chem- 
istry," ".The  Town  Meeting,"  "History  of  the  United 
States  and  Its  People,"  16  vols. 

Aviccnna,  Ibn  Sina«  born  in  980;  the  celebrated 
Arab  physician,  a  native  of  Bokhara,  was  author  of  the 
world-famed  "Book  of  the  Canon  of  Medicine."  Died, 
1037. 

Baba,  All,  was  elected  Dey  of  Algiers  in  1710,  after 
the  revolution  in  which  Ibrahim  Dey  was  killed.  At 
great  sacrifice  of  life,  Baba  liberated  Algiers  from  the 
dominion  of  Turkey,  and  its  independence  was  main- 
tained until  the  French  invasion  in  1830.     Died,  1718. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian  (btik),  an  eminent  German 
musical  composer,  born  in  1685,  became  court  organist 
at  Weimar,  and  finally  director  of  music  at  the  school 
of  St.  Thomas,  I>eipzig.  Bach  was  almost  unrivaled  as 
an  organist.  His  works  are  thoroughly  original,  pro- 
foundly scientific,  and  most  difficult  of  execution. 
Died,  1750. 

Bacon,  Augustus  Octavlus,  United  States  senator 
from  Georgia;  born  in  Bryan  County,  Georgia,  October 
20,  1839;  graduate  of  University  of  Georgia,  1859;  law 
department  of  same,  1860.  Served  as  regimental  ad- 
jutant and  staff  captain  in  Confederate  States  Army  ; 
in  law  practice  in  Macon  since  1866;  member  several 
State  Democratic  conventions  (president,  1880);  dele- 
gate National  Democratic  Convention,  1884;  several 
times  candidate  for  Democratic  nomination  for  gov- 
ernor of  Georgia;  presidential  elector,  1868;  member, 
1870-82,  1892,  and  1893;  speaker,  1873-74  and  1877-81, 
Georgia  House  of  Representatives;  Democrat.  Elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  1894;  reelected,  1900  and 
1907. 

Bacon,  Francis  (.ba'kn).  Lord  Verulam,  and  Viscount 
St.  Albans,  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  philosophers, 
was  born  in  London  in  1561.  Entering  parliament  in 
1593,  he  was  knighted  in  1603,  and  in  1613  became 
attorney-general  and  privy-councillor.  The  office  of 
Lord  Keeper  was  given  him  in  1617,  and  he  was  soon 
afterwards  made  Lord  Chancellor.  But  from  this  time 
dates  the  beginning  of  his  miserable  fall.  Complaints 
were  made  of  his  venality  as  a  judge,  which  on  inquiry 
by  a  parliamentary  committee  were  verified;  Bacon 
then  made  full  confession,  was  deprived  of  his  offices, 
fined,  and  imprisoned  during  the  royal  pleasure.  He 
was  ultimately  pardoned,  but  continued  to  live  in  retire- 
ment, devoting  himself  to  his  favorite  studies.  The 
great  aim  of  this  extraordinary  man  was  to  reform  the 
methods  of  philosophy;  he  recalls  men  from  blindly 
following  authority  to  the  observation  and  examination 
of  nature.  His  "Essays"  were  published  in  1597,  but 
his  greatest  works  are  the  "Novum  Organum  "  (1620), 
and  the  "De  Augmentis  Scientiarum "  (1623).  Died, 
1626. 

Bacon,  Roger,  an  English  scientist  and  publicist  of 
the  Thirteenth  Century,  the  most  learned  of  his  day,  is 
reputed  to  have  advocated  the  change  since  made  in 
the  calendar,  to  have  invented  gunpowder,  and  is  known 
to  have  manufactured  magnifying  glasses.  His  great 
work,  "Opus  Majus,"  urges  philosophical  reform,  and 
is  a  marvel  of  learning  and  prophecy. 

Baer,  George  F.,  railway  official  lawyer;  born  in 
Somerset  County,  Pennsylvania,  September  26,  1842; 
educated  at  Somerset  Institute,  Somerset  Academy,  and 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College.  At  13  entered  office  of 
"Somerset  Democrat";  worked  at  printing  trade  over 
two  years,  and  with  his  brother  became  owner  of  that 
paper  in  1861.  His  brother  went  to  the  war  and  he  con- 
ducted the  paper;  also  studied  law,  principally  at  night. 
Raised  volunteer  company  August,  1862;  elected  cap- 
tain, joined  Army  of  Potomac  at  Second  Bull  Run  and 
took  part  in  all  engagements  up  to  and  including  Chan- 
cellorsville,  when  he  was  detailed  as  adjutant-general 
second  brigade;  resumed  legal  studies  and  was  admitted 
to  bar,  1864.  Removed  to  Reading,  1868,  gained  large 
practice  at  Berks  County  bar;  counsel  for  Philadelphia 
&  Reading,  1870,  and  later  a  director,  but  resigned 
because  unable  to  agree  with  president  McLeod's  policy. 
For  years  confidential  legal  adviser  in  Pennsylvania  of 
J.  Pierpont  Morgan;  took  prominent  part  in  reorgani- 
zation of  Philadelphia  &  Reading  R.  R.,  1893;  elected 
April,  1901,  president  of  Philadelphia  <fe  Reading  Railway 
Co.,  Philadelphia  &  Reading  Coal  &  Iron  Co.,  and  Central 
R.  R.  Co.,  of  New  Jersey;  took  leading  part  for  railway 
anthracite  operators  in  negotiations  and  proceedings 
connected  with  the  anthracite  coal  strike  situation,  1902. 

Bailey,  Joseph  Weldon,  United  States  senator, 
1901-13;  born  in  Copiah  County,  Mississippi,  October  6, 
1863;  admitted  to  bar,  1883;  presidential  elector,  1884; 
removed  to  Texas,  188.5,  and  began  practice  of  law  at 
Gainesville;   presidential  elector  at  large,  1888;   member 


of  Congress  from  1891-1901 ;  caucus  nominee  of  his  party 
for  speaker  and  minority  member;  Committee  on  Rules 
of  55th  Congress. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde,  director  of  College  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Cornell  since  1903;  born  in  South  Haven,  Mich., 
March  15,  1858;  graduated  at  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, 1882  (M.S.);  assistant  to  Asa  Gray,  Harvard,  1882- 
83 ;  professor  of  horticulture  and  landscape  gardening  at 
Michigan  Agricultural  College,  1883-88;  professor  of  horti- 
culture, Cornell,  1888-1903.  Author:  "Survival  of  the 
Unlike,"  "Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits,"  "Lessons 
with  Plants,"  "Botany,  an  Elementary  Text  for  Schools," 
"Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,"  "Principles  of  Vegetable- 
Gardening,"  "Plant-Breeding,"  "Garden-Making,"  "Hor- 
ticulturist's Rule-Book,"  "Principles  of  Agriculture," 
"Nursery-Book,"  "Forcing-Book,"  "Pruning-Book," 
"Practical  Garden-Book,"  "Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture,"  four  volumes;  "The  Nature-Study  Idea," 
"Outlook  to  Nature,"  etc.  Editor:  "Rural  Science 
Series,"  "Garden-Craft  Series,"  "Cyclopedia  of  Agri- 
culture," contributor  to  technical  journals  and  popular 
magazines. 

Bajazet  I.,  born  in  1347;  Emperor  of  the  Turks,  son 
of  Murad  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1389,  began  his  reign 
with  a  series  of  conquests,  crossing  the  Danube  and  finally 
defeating  Sigismund  of  Hungary  and  his  army  of  100,000 
men.  Ill  health  alone  prevented  him  crossing  the  Alps, 
and  he  next  turned  to  the  conquest  of  Constantinople. 
Bought  off  for  the  moment,  he  was  diverted  from  the 
ultimate  accomplishment  of  his  design  by  war  with  Tam- 
burlaine  the  Great,  by  whom,  in  1402,  he  was  totally 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  dying  shortly  afterwarcb. 
Died,  1403. 

Balboa  (bal-bo'-a),  Vasco  Nunez  de,  a  Spaniard,  and 
one  of  the  first  Europeans  to  visit  the  West  Indies,  was 
born  1475.  He  established  a  colony  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  was 
accused  of  treasonable  designs,  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Spanish  governor  of  Darien,  Pedrarias  Davila,  in  1517. 

Baldwin  I.,  younger  brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  King  of  Jerusalem,  1100,  reigned 
eighteen  years.     Died,  1118. 

Baldwin  I.,  son  of  Baldwin  VIII.,  Count  of  Flanders, 
born  1171, succeeded  his  father,  1195;  joined  the  Crusade, 
he  led  the  successful  attack  on  Constantinople,  and  was 
crowned  first  Latin  Emperor,  1204;  defeated  and  cap- 
tured by  the  Bulgarians,  1205.     Died,  1206. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark,  psychologist;  born  in  Colum- 
bia, S.C.,  January  12,  1861;  graduate  of  Princeton,  1884; 
A.  M.,  1887;  Ph.  D.,  1889;  Sc.  D.,  Oxford  University, 
England,  1900;  studied  in  Leipzig,  Berlin  and  Tubingen; 
Instructor  of  French  and  German  at  Princeton,  1886; 
professor  of  Philosophy,  Lake  Forest  University,  Illinois, 
1887-89;  same,  Toronto,  Can.,  University,  1889-93 ; 
professor  psychology,  Princeton,  1893-1903;  professor 
philosophy  and  psychology,  Johns  Hopkins,  1903-09, 
Author:  'German  Psychology  of  To-day"  (translated), 
"Hand  Book  of  Psychology,"  "  Elements  of  Psychology," 
"Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race," 
"Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental  Develop- 
ment," "Story  of  the  Mind,"  "Fragments  in  Philosophy 
and  Science,"  "  Development  and  Evolution."  Editor- 
in-chief,  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology." 
His  various  books  have  been  translated  into  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  Editor:  "Psychological 
Review,"  "Princeton  Contributions  to  Psychology," 
"Library  of  Historical  Psychology,"  "Philosophy," 
"Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia." 

Balfe,  Michael  William,  born  in  1808;  musical 
composer,  as  a  boy  showed  great  musical  talent,  and  at 
the  age  of  16,  going  to  London,  he  was  engaged  in  the 
Drury  Lane  orchestra.  While  there  he  attracted  the 
attention  of  an  Italian  nobleman.  Count  Mazzara,  who 
took  him  to  Italy  to  study  music.  After  singing  at  Paris 
in  the  Italian  Opera  under  Rossini,  Balfe  returned  to 
Italy  and  produced  in  1830  several  operas.  In  1835,  he 
went  to  England  as  a  vocalist  and  composer  of  opera,  and 
after  five  years  of  successful  composition  he  produced 
two  operas  in  Paris.  In  1843,  his  most  popular  work, 
"The  Bohemian  Girl,"  appeared  at  Drury  Lane,  to  be 
followed  by  several  other  operas  before  the  fertility  of 
Balfe's  genius  was  checked  by  a  fatal  attack  of  bron- 
chitis.    Died,  1870. 

Balfour,  Bight  Hon.  A.  J.,  English  statesman  and 
author,  was  born  in  1848.  Educated  at  Eton  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  private  secretary 
to  Lord  Salisbury  1878-80,  and  went  with  him  to 
Berlin  in  1878;  member  of  the  so-called  "Fourth 
Party";  president  local  government  board  1885-86; 
secretary  for  Scotland,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and 
vice-president  committee  of  council  on  education  for 
Scotland,  1886-87;    chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  1887-91, 


BIOGRAPHY 


403 


and  carried  the  Crimes  Act  through  Parliament;  created 
the  congested  districts  board  for  Ireland,  1890;  first 
lord  of  the  treasury  and  leader  of  the  house  on  the  death 
of  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  1891,  and  again  in  1895-1906.  On 
the  retirement  of  Lord  Salisbury  in  1902,  he  became 
prime  minister  and  lord  privy  seal,  retaining  the  office 
of  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  introduced  the  educa- 
tion act,  1902.  When  Mr.  Chamberlain  made  his  fiscal 
proposals,  1903,  Mr.  Balfour,  holding  that  the  country 
was  not  ripe  for  the  taxation  of  food,  committed  himself 
and  the  government  only  to  a  policy  of  retaliation.  At 
the  end  of  1905  he  and  his  cabinet  resigned.  Author  of 
"A  Defense  of  Philosophic  Doubt,"  "Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses" and  "The  Foundations  of  Belief,  being  Notes 
Introductory  to  the  Study  of  Theology." 

Ballinger,  Richard  A.,  lawyer,  cabinet-officer;  born 
at  Boonesboro,  Iowa,  July  9,  1858;  preparatory  educa- 
tion at  University  of  Kansas  and  Washburn  College; 
graduated  at  Williams  College,  1884;  studied  law; 
practiced  in  State  of  Washington;  United  States  court 
commissioner,  1890-92;  judge  of  superior  court,  Jeffer- 
son County,  Wash.;  mayor  of  Seattle,  1904-06;  com- 
missioner General  Land  OflSce  1907 ;  appointed  secretary 
of  the  interior  by  President  Tait,  March  4,  1909.  Author: 
"Ballinger  on  Community  Property,"  "Ballinger's 
Annotated  Codes  and  Statutes  of  Washington." 

Ballou,  Hosea,  born  in  1771;  an  American  preacher 
and  founder  of  the  "  Universalists."  He  attained  con- 
siderable celebrity  in  the  United  States.     Died,  1852. 

Balmez,  James  Lucian  (bdl'mUh),  a  Spanish  theo- 
logian, born  in  1810,  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "Protestantism  and  Catholicism  Compared  in 
their  Effects  on  the  Civilization  of  Europe,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  contributions  to  modern  theological 
Uterature.     Died,  1848. 

Balzac,  Honore'  de,  born  in  1799;    French  novelist, 
was  intended  for  the  law,  but  left  the  legal  profession  for 
■  literature,  and  under  various  assumed  names  produced 
[rapidly.     In   1826  he  entered  into  partnership  with  a 
Sprinter,  but  their  publications  were  not  successful;    and 
[Balzac,  depending  solely  upon  his  pen  for  a  livelihood, 
>  endured  the  greatest  privations.     He  obtained  no  public 
precognition  till  the  appearance  of  his  "Physiologie  du 
Mariage,"   but  afterwards  he  continued  to  write  with 
increasing  success.     In  1850  he  married  a  Russian  lady, 
and  after  visiting  Russia  returned  to  Paris  in  broken 
health,  and  shortly  afterwards  died   (1850).     His  col- 
lected works  are  included  in  forty-five  volumes. 

Bancroft,  George,  American  historian  and  diplo- 
matist, was  born  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  1800.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College,  1817;  proceeded  to  Gottingen 
University,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  1820; 
returned  home  and  opened  a  school  at  Northampton. 
In  1845,  he  became  secretary  of  the  navy  in  the  cabinet 
of  Mr.  Polk.  In  1846,  he  was  sent  to  Great  Britain  as 
minister  plenipotentiary,  remaining  in  that  country  till 
1849.  In  1867,  he  received  the  appointment  of  minister 
at  the  Prussian  court.  His  principal  works  are 
"History  of  the  United  States,"  and  "  History  of  the 
Revolution."     Died,  1891. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  historian;   born  in  Gran- 
ville, O.,  May  5,  1832.     Entered  bookstore  of  his  brother- 
in-law,  Geo.  H.  Derby,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1848,  and  in  1852 
went  to  establish  a  branch  in  San  Francisco;    collected 
for  Pacific  coast  history  60,000  volumes,  and  with  aid  of 
a  staff  of  collaborators,  published  an  historical  series  of 
39  volumes,  covering  the  western  part  of  North  America; 
.also  "The  Book  of  the  Fair,"  "The  Book  of  Wealth,"  etc. 
I     Baner  {b&'-ner),  John,  a  Swedish  commander  of  a 
[distinguished  family,  born  in  1596.     He  was  so  much 
I  addicted   to   literary  studies   that   Gustavus   Adolphus 
iBtyled   him   his   "learned   general."     He   gained   many 
[victories;    was  revered  for  his  humanity;    and,  having 
{acquired  a  high  reputation,  died  at  Halberstadt  in  1641. 

Barbarossa,  Horukand  Khalr-ed-Din.  The  name 
fgiven  to  two  brothers  of  Roumelian  extraction,  whose 
"naval  exploits  against  the  Christian  powers  in  the  Medi- 
terranean were  famous  in  the  early  Sixteenth  Century. 
After  gaining  possession  of  Algiers,  Horuk  was  slain  in 
battle  against  the  Spaniards,  but  his  brother,  entering 
the  service  of  the  Turkish  Sultan,  defeated  the  Spaniards, 
and  afterwards  the  Genoese  fleet,  ravaged  the  coasts  of 
Italy,  took  Tunis,  and  in  1538  decisively  defeated  the 
combined  fleets  of  the  Pope,  Venice,  and  Spain.  Died, 
1546. 

Bar'ham,  Richard  Harris  (better  known  by  his 
literary  nom  de  plume  of  Thomas  Ingoldsby),  an  Eng- 
flish  poet  and  humorist,  born  1788,  entered  holy  orders, 
[and  became  celebrated  by  his  popular  lyrics,  published 
[under  the  title  of  the  "  Ingoldsby  Legends."  Died,  1845. 
I  Barker,  George  Frederick,  professor  physics,  Uni- 
kversity  of  Pennsylvania,  1873-1900,  later  emeritus  pro- 


fessor; born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  July  14,  1835; 
graduate  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Yale  (Ph.  B.),  1858; 
M.  D.,  Albany,  1863;  was  assistant  in  chemistry  and 
later  professor  physiology,  chemistry,  and  toxicology, 
Yale;  taught  in  other  colleges;  United  States  Commis- 
sioner Paris  Electrical  Exhibition,  1881;  delegate  to 
electoral  congress  and  vice-president  jury  of  awards; 
received  decoration  commander  Legion  of  Honor  of 
France;  United  States  Commissioner  Electrical  Exhi- 
bition, Philadelphia,  1884;  on  jury  of  awards  World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  1893.  Expert  in  poisons,  crim- 
inal cases;  expert  in  Edison,  Berhner,  and  other  patent 
suits.  Member  many  American  and  foreign  scientific 
societies.  For  several  years  associate  editor  ".The  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Science."  Author:  ".Textbook  of  Ele- 
mentary Chemistry,"  "Physics,"  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Barnabas,  Saint,  a  teacher  of  Christianity,  con- 
temporary with  the  apostles,  was  a  Levite  and  a  native 
of  Cyprus.  His  original  name  is  believed  to  have  been 
Joseph;  that  of  Barnabas,  or,  "Son  of  Consolation," 
being  subsequently  conferred  on  him  by  the  disciples. 
He  was  one  of  those  who,  after  the  resurrection,  sold 
their  property,  and  laid  the  price  of  it  at  the  apostles' 
feet.  It  was  by  him  that  St.  Paul  was  presented  to  the 
other  apostles,  three  years  after  his  conversion.  He  is 
described  by  St.  Luke  to  have  been  a  good  man,  full  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  faith.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
stoned  to  death  by  the  Jews  of  Cyprus,  where,  it  is  added, 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  about  488,  his  body 
was  discovered  with  the  gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  written 
in  Greek,  upon  bis  breast. 

Barnard,  Edward  Emerson,  professor  of  astron- 
omy. University  of  Chicago,  and  astronomer  Yerkes 
Observatory;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  December  16, 
1857;  graduate  of  Vanderbilt  University,  1887;  as- 
tronomer Lick  Observatory,  California,  1887-95.  His 
principal  discoveries  are  the  fifth  satellite  of  Jupiter(  1892), 
and  sixteen  comets;  has  also  made  many  other  discov- 
eries and  done  much  work  in  celestial  photography,  mak- 
ing photographs  of  the  Milky  Way,  the  comets,  nebulse 
etc.  Received  Lalande  gold  medal,  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  1892;  Arago  gold  medal,  same,  1893;  gold 
medal  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  1897; 
Janssen  Gold  medal,  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  1900; 
elected  foreign  associate  Royal  Astronomers  Society, 
1898;  member  many  American  and  foreign  societies; 
contributor  to  many  astronomical  journals. 

Barnum,  Phlneas  Taylor,  born  in  1810;  an  Amer- 
ican showman  and  proprietor  of  "the  greatest  show  on 
earth."  He  was  engaged  in  several  professions,  made 
and  lost  several  fortunes,  and  his  show  was  twice  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  He  brought  out  Tom  Thumb,  and 
introduced  Jenny  Lind  to  the  American  public.  He 
twice  visited  Europe,  the  last  time  in  1889.     Died,  1891. 

Barrett,  John,  diplomat;  born  in  Grafton,  Vt., 
November  28,  1866;  graduate  of  Dartmouth  College, 
1889.  Taught  Hopkins  Academy,  Oakland,  Cal.; 
assistant  editor  Statistician,  San  Francisco;  on  editorial 
staff  newspapers  San  Francisco,  Tacoma,  Seattle;  as- 
sociate editor  "Telegram,"  Portland,  Ore.,  1891-94; 
American  minister  to  Siam,  1894-98,  settling  by  arbi- 
tration claims  involving  $3,000,000  and  securing  first 
exact  interpretation  foreign  extra-territorial  jurisdiction 
Asiatic  countries;  undertook  special  diplomatic  and 
commercial  investigations  Japan,  Siam,  Corea,  Siberia, 
and  India;  war  correspondent  in  Philippines,  1898-99; 
elected  honorary  member  American  Asiatic  Association 
for  services  in  development  American  commercial  and 
political  interests  in  Asia;  American  plenipotentiary  to 
International  Conference  American  Republics,  Mexico, 
1901-02;  commercial-general  of  foreign  affairs  for  St. 
Louis  Exposition,  1902-03;  offered  post  American  min- 
ister to  Japan  by  President  Roosevelt,  but  declined 
December  10,  1903;  American  minister  to  Argentina, 
1903-04;  American  minister  to  Panama,  1904-05;  Amer- 
ican minister  to  Colombia,  1905-06;  since  1906,  director 
International  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics.  Con- 
tributor of  articles  for  magazines  and  reviews  on  Asiatic 
and  Latin  American  subjects.  Author:  "Admiral  George 
Dewey,"  and  several  other  books  on  foreign  affairs. 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  also  known  as  "Gavin  Ogilvy,"  was 
born  at  Kirriemuir,  Forfarshire,  in  1860.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Dumfries  Academy,  and  graduated  M.  A.  at 
Edinburgh  University  in  1882.  After  holding  a  journal- 
istic position  in  Nottingham  he  went  to  London  and 
wrote  for  the  "British  Weekly,"  "St.  James's  Gazette," 
"Speaker,"  and  "National  Observer."  His  first  volume, 
"Better  Dead,"  appeared  in  1887;  "  Auld  Licht  Idylls," 
"When  a  Man's  Single"  and  "An  Edinburgh  Eleven" 
in  1888;  "A  Window  in  Thrums"  in  1889;  "My 
Lady  Nicotine"  in  1890;  "The  Little  Minister"  in  1891; 
"Sentimental  Tommy"  and  "Margaret  Ogilvy,  a  Mem- 
oir," in  1896;    "Tommy  and  Grizel"  in  1900,  and   in 


404 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


1902  ".The  Little  White  Bird."  Mr.  Barrie's  work  for 
the  stage  includes  ".Walker,  London,"  in  1892;  "Jane 
Annie,  written  with  Mr.  Conan  Doyle,  and  brought 
out  at  the  Savoy  in  1893;  "The  Professor's  Love  Story," 
"The  Little  Minister,"  1897;  "The  Wedding  Guest," 
1900;  "  Quality  Street,"  "  The  Admirable  Crichton"  and 
"  Little  Marv,"  1903;  "Peter  Pan,"  1904;  "Alice  Sit-by 
the-Fire,"  1905,  and  "  What  Every  Woman  Knows,"  1908. 

BarroWt  Isaac«  born  in  1630;  scholar  and  divine, 
and  the  preceptor  of  Isaac  Newton.  He  earned  a  great 
reputation  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  chiefly  studied 
natural  science,  divinity,  and  the  classics.  After  some 
foreign  travel  he  entered  the  Church,  in  1660  obtained 
the  professorship  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  and  in  1862  that 
of  geometry  at  Gresham  College.  Tne  latter  appoint- 
ment he  resigned  to  Newton,  and  was  appointed  by 
Charles  IL  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity  College,  after- 
wards being  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity. He  died  a  little  later  (1677),  with  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  one  of  the  best  wits  and  profoundest  scholars 
of  his  day. 

Barrows,  Samuel  June,  congressman,  clergy- 
man; born  in  New  York,  May  26,  1845;  graduate  of 
Harvard  Divinity  School  (B.  D.),  1875.  Before  gradua- 
tion had  been  stenographer  and  journalist;  pastor  First 
Church  (Unitarian),  Dorchester,  Boston,  1876-80;  ed- 
itor "Christian  Register,"  1881-97;  member  Congress, 
tenth'  district,  Mass.,  1897-99;  represented  United 
States  on  International  Prison  Commission,  1896;  cor- 
responding secretary  Prison  Association  of  New  York, 
1900.  Author:  "Shaybacks  in  Camp,"  "Isles  and 
Shrines  of  Greece,"  "A  Baptist  Meeting  House,"  "The 
Doom  of  the  Majority  of  Mankind,"  "Crimes  and  Mis- 
demeanors in  the  United  States,"  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Barry  more,  Ethel,  Miss,  actress;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, August  15,  1879;  daughter  of  late  Maurice  and 
Georgiana  (Drew)  B.;  niece  of  John  Drew;  educated  at 
Convent  of  Notre  Dame,  Phila.  Made  debut  in  John 
Drew's  Company,  1896;  starring  under  management  of 
Charles  Frohman;    married  Russell  G.  Colt. 

Barthol'di,  Frederic  Auguste,  a  famous  French 
artist  and  sculptor;  born  in  Alsace,  1834.  In  1887,  he 
received  the  Crass  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Chief  among 
his  works  are  the  "Lion  of  Belfort,"  the  statue  of  La 
Fayette  in  Union  Square.  New  York,  and  the  colossal 
figure  in  New  York  Harbor  of  "Liberty  Enlightening 
the  World."     Died,  1904. 

Bartboldt,  Richard,  congressman;  editor  "St. 
Louis  Tribune,"  1885-92;  born  in  Germany,  November 
2,  1855;  came  to  United  States  in  boyhood;  classical 
education;  learned  printing  trade;  since  then  in  journal- 
ism. Was  member  board  of  public  schools,  St.  Louis,  and 
its  president,  1891;  member  Congress,  Tenth  Missouri 
district  since  1893.  President  Interparliamentary  Union 
for  Promotion  of  International  Arbitration. 

Bartholomew,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of 
Jesus.  He  preached  the  gospel  in  the  Indies,  in  Ethiopia, 
and  elsewhere.  His  labors  are  said  to  have  been  termi- 
nated by  a  cruel  death,  by  his  being  brutally  flayed  alive 
in  Armenia.  The  correctness  of  this  statement,  however, 
has  been  doubted.  The  Church  of  Benevento  and  that 
of  Rome  boast  of  possessing  some  of  his  bones  among 
their  treasured  relics. 

Barton,  Clara,  founder  and  organizer  of  National 
Red  Cross  in  United  States,  president  1881-1904;  born 
in  Oxford,  Mass.,  1830;  graduate  of  Clinton  Liberal  In- 
stitution, New  York.  Taught  school  ten  years;  organ- 
ized system  of  public  schools,  Bordentown,  N.  J.  Dur- 
ing Civil  War  did  relief  work  on  battlefields  and  organ- 
ized search  for  missing  men  (for  the  carrying  on  of  which 
work  Congress  voted  $15,000) ;  laid  out  grounds  national 
cemetery,  Anderson ville,  1865;  associated  with  Inter- 
national Red  Cross  of  Geneva  and  worked  through  entire 
Franco-Prussian  War,  1870:  distributed  relief  in  Strass- 
burg,  Belfort.  Montpellier,  Paris,  1871 ;  secured  adoption 
of  treaty  of  Geneva,  1882;  first  president  American  Red 
Cross  (official);  appointed  to  represent  United  States 
in  all  international  conferences,  Geneva,  1884;  Carlsruhe, 
1887;  Rome,  1892;  Vienna,  1897;  St.  Petersburg,  1903; 
inaugurated  American  amendment  of  Red  Cross,  to  pro- 
vide for  greater  calamities  of  peace;  distributed  relief 
Johnstown  flood,  1889;  Russian  famine,  1892;  Arme- 
nian massacre,  1896;  at  request  of  President  of  United 
States,  carried  relief  to  Cuba,  1898;  did  personal  field 
work,  Spanish-American  War;  conducted  Red  Cross 
relief  at  Galveston,  Tex.,  after  great  disaster,  August, 
1900;  president  National  First  Aid  Association  since 
1905.  JHolds  decorations  or  diplomas  of  honor  from 
Germany,  Baden,  Austria,  Servia,  Turkey,  Armenia, 
Switzerland,  Spain,  Russia.  Author:  "History  of  Red 
Cross,"  "America's  Relief  Expedition  to  Asia  Minor," 
"History  of  the  Red  Cross  in  Peace  and  War,"  "Story 
of  Reid  Cross." 


Basil,  St.,  commonly  called  the  "Great";  was  born 
in  Cappadocia  about  A.  D.  329.  He  studied  at  Antioch, 
Caesarea,  Constantinople,  and  Athens.  Having  gained 
distinction  as  a  professor  of  rhetoric,  he  visited  the 
monasteries  of  Egypt  and  Libya,  and  in  consequence 
embraced  the  monastic  life.  He  was  ordained  priest  by 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cirsarea,  and  on  the  death  of  Euse- 
bius,  was  elected  to  his  see.  He  was  much  engaged  in 
theological  controversy,  and  boldly  defended  his  opinion 
against  the  Emperor  Valens.  He  died  about  380.  A 
monkish  order  was  named  after  this  saint. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille,  a  marshal  of  France; 
born  at  Versailles;  distinguished  himself  in  Algiers, 
the  Crimea,  and  Mexico;  did  good  service  as  commander 
of  the  armv  of  the  Rhine,  in  the  Franco-German  War, 
but  after  the  surrender  at  Sedan  was  shut  up  in  Metz, 
surrounded  by  the  Germans,  and  obliged  to  surrender, 
with  all  his  generals,  officers,  and  men;  was  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  condemned  to  death,  but  was  im- 
prisoned instead;  made  good  his  escape  one  evening  to 
Madrid,  where  he  lived  to  write  a  justification  of  his 
conduct,  the  sale  of  the  book  being  prohibited  in  France. 
Born,  1811;    died,  1888. 

Beauhamais,  Eugene  de  (bo-hlir'nai),  son  of  Jose- 
phine, wife  of  Napoleon  I.,  adopted  by  the  latter;  born 
in  1781;  served  with  distinction  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars, 
and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Italy.  After  Napoleon's 
fall  he  retired  to  Munich,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
the  King  of  Bavaria.     Died,  1824. 

Beauhamais,  Hortense  Eugenie  de,  daughter  of 
Jo.sephine;  born  in  1783;  was  married  against  her  will 
to  Louis,  youngest  brother  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  from 
whom  she  separated  in  1810,  after  he  was  driven  from 
the  throne  of  Holland.  Her  son  by  him  was  the  late 
Napoleon  III.     Died,  1837. 

Beaumarchais  (.bd-mSr'shap)  Pierre  Augustin 
Caron  de,born  in  1732;  amanof  many-sided  genius,  was 
the  son  of  a  watchmaker.  His  musical  accomplishments 
procured  him  a  place  in  the  royal  concerts,  and  he  became 
rich  by  the  fortunes  of  two  widows  whom  he  married, 
and  by  successful  financial  speculation.  He  made  an- 
other fortune  by  supplying  arms  and  provisions  to  the 
Americans  during  the  war  of  Independence,  and  then 
turned  to  dramatic  writing,  producing  several  highly 
successful  pieces.  In  1793  he  was  accused  of  treason  to 
the  state,  and  fled  to  England.  Returning  to  France, 
he  was  for  some  time  imprisoned,  and  finally  died  (1799), 
in  poverty. 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant,  born  in 
1818;  a  general  of  the  Confederate  Army.  He  took  up 
the  cause  of  the  Southern  States,  on  their  secession,  and 
captured  Fort  Sumter.  He  defeated  McDowell  at  Bull's 
Run,  and  afterwards  commanded  the  army  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. His  obstinate  defense  of  Charleston  is  one  of  the 
remarkable  episodes  of  the  Civil  War.     Died,  1893. 

Beclf,  James  M.,  lawyer;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
July  9,  1861;  graduate  of  Moravian  College,  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  1880,  LL.D.,  1902;  Muhlenberg  College,  1902;  stud- 
ied law  in  office  of  Albert  A.  Outerbridge;  admitted  to 
bar,  1884;  United  States  attorney  for  Eastern  District 
of  Pennsylvania,  1896-1900;  assistant  attorney-general 
of  United  States,  1900-1903;  resigned  April  30,  1903; 
republican.  Ha.s  argued  many  important  cases  in  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  including  the  Neely  case,  and  the 
Lottery  cases ;  argued  the  Northern  Securities  merger  case 
before  circuit  judges.  Has  delivered  public  orations  on 
many  notable  occasions.  Spoke  for  the  American  bar 
at  dinner  given  in  the  Temple,  London,  by  the  bench 
and  bar  of  England.  As  master  appointed  by  United 
States  (jourt  sold,  April,  1902,  the  "Philadelphia Record  " 
for  $3,000,000 — highest  price  ever  brought  by  an 
American  newspaper  at  public  sale.  In  1902  negotiated 
purchase  of  "Philadelphia  Ledger"  and  the  merging  of 
it  with  "Philadelphia  Times";"  part  owner  of  "Ledger" 
company;  entered  law  firm  of  Shearman  &  Sterling, 
New  York,  1903,  and  removed  to  that  city;  also  member 
law  firm  of  Beck  &  Robinson,  Philadelphia.  Solicitor 
Fairmount  Park  Art  Association;  trustee  Moravian 
College. 

Becket,  St.  Thomas  k  (ah-bWH),  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  born  in  1118;  was  the  son  of  a  London 
merchant,  his  mother  being  a  convert  from  Moham- 
medanism. After  entering  the  Church,  Henry  II.  made 
him  chancellor  of  England,  and  in  1162  he  was  elected 
to  the  primacy.  Dissensions,  however,  soon  broke  out 
between  the  king  and  Becket,  the  latter  asserting  the 
independence  of  the  Church,  and  refusing  to  sign  the 
"Constitutions  of  Clarendon."  Becket,  having  been 
condemned  and  suspended  from  his  office  by  parliament, 
escaped  to  France,  and  a  war  with  the  latter  country 
followed.  In  1170,  an  apparent  reconciliation  was 
entered  into,  and  Becket  returned  to  England.  Shortly 
after  his  arrival  he  was  assassinated  by  the  supposed 


BIOGRAPHY 


405 


order  of  the  king,  on  the  steps  of  his  own  altar,  1170. 
The  king  denying  all  share  in  the  murder  was  absolved; 
but  in  1174  did  penance  at  his  tomb.  Becket  was  canon- 
ized by  Alexander  III.  in  1172. 

Beckford,  William,  born  in  1759;  an  English  mil- 
lionaire and  distinguished  author.  When  only  twenty 
he  published  a  clever  satire,  "Biographical  Memoirs  of 
Extraordinary  Painters."  After  some  foreign  travel 
he  entered  parliament,  and  published  his  great  work, 
"The  Romance  of  Vathek,"  in  the  French  language,  a 
book  which  excited  the  widest  admiration.  The  chief 
episodes  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  were  the  erection, 
at  enormous  cost,  of  two  vast  mansions  in  England  and  a 
"fairy  palace"  in  Portugal.     Died,   1844. 

Bede,  J.  Adam,  congressman,  journalist;  born  on 
farm,  Lorain  County,  O.,  1856;  educated  in  Ohio  public 
schools;  learned  printer's  trade;  taught  school;  did 
work  as  reporter  on  newspapers  West  and  South.  Origi- 
nally Republican,  but  supported  Cleveland  in  1888  and 
1892;  appointed  United  States  Marshal  for  district  of 
Minnesota  but  resigned  within  a  year;  returned  to 
Republican  party  on  financial  issue,  1896;  campaigned 
in  several  States,  1896,  1898,  1900.  Member  Congress, 
eighth  Minnesota  district,  1903-09. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  Rev.,  son  of  Lyman 
Beecher,  an  eminent  New  England  Congregational 
preacher  and  theologian;  born  in  1813;  entered  the 
Congregational  ministry  in  1834,  and  in  1847  became 
pastor  of  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn,  which  place  he 
held  till  his  death.  Mr.  Beecher  was  considered  by  many 
as  the  most  eloquent  divine  of  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
and  was  scarcely  less  distinguished  as  a  writer  and  lec- 
turer on  popular  subjects.     Died,  1887. 

Beethoven  {bd'-ld-ven),  Ludwig  van,  a  very  eminent 
German  composer,  born  at  Bonn  in  1770.  He  studied 
under  Haydn.  His  numerous  symphonies,  of  which  the 
finest  are  the  "Battle  Symphony,"  and  the  "Pastoral 
Symphony  " ;  his  operas,  of  which  "  Fidelio  "  is  the  most 
admired,  and  his  other  works,  abounding  in  originality 
and  genius,  have  imparted  to  him  an  unfading  celebrity. 
Died,  1827. 

Belasco,  David,  dramatic  author;  born  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, 1859;  educated  at  Lincoln  College,  Calif.  Author: 
(plays),  ".Zaza,"  "The  Heart  of  Maryland,"  "The  Wife," 
"The  Charity  Ball,"  "Lord  Chumley,"  "May  Blossom," 
"Men  and  Women,"  "La  Belle  Russe,"  "The  Girl  1  Left 
Behind  Me,"  ".Valerie,"  "Hearts  of  Oak,"  "The  Darling 
of  the  Gods,"  "Du  Barry,"  "Sweet  Kitty  Bellairs," 
"Adrea."  Manager  of  Mrs.  Leslie  Carter,  David  War- 
field,  and  Blanche  Bates. 

Belisarius  (bel-e-sar'-e-us),  a  Roman  general,  who 
served  the  Emperor  Justinian  with  skill,  valor,  and 
success.  In  his  old  age  he  is  said  to  have  become  blind, 
and  to  have  suffered  much  from  poverty;  but  there  are 
reasons  for  doubting  the  truth  of  these  representations. 
Died,  565. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  scientist,  inventor;  born 
in  Edinburgh,  1847;  educated  there  and  at  London 
University;  went  to  Canada,  1870,  and  to  Boston,  1871, 
becoming  professor  of  vocal  physiology,  Boston  Univer- 
sity. Invented  telephone,  for  which  patent  was  granted, 
1876.  Also  inventor  of  photophone,  induction  balance, 
and  telephone  probe  for  painless  detection  of  bullets  in 
the  human  body.  With  C.  A.  Bell  and  Sumner  Taintor 
he  invented  the  graphophone,  1883.  He  is  a  regent  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  an  officer  of  the  French 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  has  received  other  distinguished 
honors.  He  is  now  interested  in  solving  the  problem  of 
the  aeroplane. 

Bellew,  Harold,  Kyrle-Money,  actor;  born  in 
Calcutta,  1857;  son  of  Rev.  J.  C.  M.  Bellew,  chaplain 
cathedral  at  Calcutta;  was  cadet  English  Navy,  serving 
seven  years,  then  went  to  Australian  gold  fields;  worked 
on  Melbourne  newspapers;  returned  to  England;  made 
stage  debut  at  Theater  Royal,  Brighton;  became  leading 
man  and  star  in  London;  came  to  United  States  as  lead- 
ing man  in  Wallack's  Theater.  New  York,  October,  1885; 
subsequently  starred  jointly  with  Mrs.  James  Brown 
Potter,  taking  leading  roles  with  her  in  legitimate  drama 
in  all  English-speaking  countries.  Headed  exploration 
expedition  in  Northern  Queensland,  1900-02,  returning 
to  stage  at  head  of  own  company  in  United  States, 
October,  1902.  Author:  "Yvonne,"  "lolande,"  "Hero 
and  Leander,"  "Charlotte  Corday,"  and  several  adapta- 
tions. 

Bellini,  Giovanni,  born  about  1426;  Venetian  painter, 
son  of  Jacopo  Bellini,  himself  a  painter  of  note,  and  the 
teacher  of  Titian,  who  finished  several  of  his  works.  He 
began  by  portrait  painting;  and  he  afterwards  executed 
some  great  historical  piece,",  for  the  hall  of  the  Great 
Council  of  Venice,  which  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1577. 
Died,  1516. 

Bellini,  Vincenzo,  born  in  1802;   an  Italian  musical 


composer,  and  a  disciple  of  Rossini.  The  son  of  a  Sicilian 
organist,  he  proceeded  to  the  royal  music  school  of  Naples 
where  he  produced  his  first  opera.  He  attracted  atten- 
tion with  "II  Pirata,"  brought  out  at  Milan  and  played 
successively  in  all  the  European  capitals,  and  in  1831 
the  production  of  his  greatest  opera,  "  La  Somnambula," 
established  his  high  reputation.  This  was  followed  by 
the  tragic  opera  "Norma,"  and  Jn  1835  by  "I  Puritani," 
the  composer's  last  work.  He  died  in  1835  and  was 
buried  in  P^re  la  Chaise  at  Paris. 

Bellman,  Karl  Michael,  born  in  1740;  a  Swedish 
lyrical  poet  of  considerable  popularity.  The  nature  of 
his  verse  is  indicated  by  the  name  given  to  him  —  the 
Swedish  Anacreon.     Died,  1795. 

Belmont,  August,  banker;  born  in  New  York,  Febru- 
ary 18,  1853;  son  of  prominent  banker  of  same  name, 
now  deceased;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1874,  and  at  once 
entered  the  bank;  now  head  of  August  Belmont  &  Com- 
pany, American  representatives  of  European  banking 
firm  of  Rothschilds;  is  officer  and  director  of  many  large 
railway,  banking, manufacturing,  and  other  corporations; 
president  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Company. 

Bem,  Joseph,  born  in  1795;  a  brave  and  skillful 
Polish  general.  He  served  as  general  of  artillery  in  the 
Polish  Revolution  of  1830,  and  afterwards  traveled  in 
Europe.  He  joined  Kossuth  in  1848  in  the  revolt  against 
Austria,  and  won  several  battles  for  the  national  cause. 
Later,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Turkish  Sultan,  adopt- 
ing the  Mohammedan  religion.     Died,  1850. 

Bembo,  Pietro,  born  in  1470;  an  eminent  Italian 
cardinal,  and  a  profound  scholar.  His  early  life  he 
spent  studying  in  one  city  and  another,  and  he  attained 
such  a  reputation  for  culture  that  when,  in  1512,  he  went 
to  Rome  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  pontifical  secretaries, 
and  in  1539  he  was  created  cardinal.  He  wrote  prose 
and  verse,  both  in  Italian  and  Latin,  and  his  composi- 
tions are  'most  remarkable  for  their  purity  of  style. 
Died,  1547. 

Benedict,  St.,  a  monk  who  founded  the  first  religious 
order  in  the  West;  was  born  at  Nursia,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Spoleto,  in  480.  At  an  early  age  he  retired  to  a  cavern 
to  devote  himself  to  study;  this  austerity  gained  him 
fame.  By  him  the  monastery  of  Monte  Cassino,  near 
Naples,  was  established  in  529.  One  leading  principle 
which  he  laid  down  was,  that  the  order  should  maintain 
themselves  by  the  labor  of  their  hands,  which  greatly 
conduced  to  their  subsequent  prosperity.  He  died  in 
543. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  born  in  1811;  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  who  later  became  a  distinguished  mem- 
ber of  the  English  bar.  He  was  born  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  practiced  as  a  barrister  at  New  Orleans.  He  sat  in 
the  senate,  and  became  attorney-general  and  secretary 
of  state  to  the  Confederate  Government  under  Jefferson 
Davis.  When  the  cause  of  the  South  was  lost,  he  fled 
to  England,  and  was,  by  influence,  at  once  called  to  the 
English  bar,  where  he  gained  a  large  and  influential 
practice.     Died,  1884. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  proprietor  of  "New  York 
Herald";  born  in  New  York,  May  10,  1841;  son  of 
journalist  6f  same  name;  educated  by  private  tutors; 
inherited  "The  Herald"  and  a  large  fortune,  1872;  for 
a  time  issued  a  London  edition  and  still  publishes  a 
Paris  edition  of  "The  Herald";  inaugurated  publica- 
tion in  England  of  storm  warnings  transmitted  from  the 
United  States;  sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  to  Africa  to  find 
Livingstone,  1874-77;  fitted  out  Jeannette  polar  expe- 
dition, 1879;  established,  1883  (with  John  W.  Mackay), 
the  Commercial  (Mackay-Bennett)  Cable  Company;  is 
a  prominent  yachtsman;  lives  most  of  his  time  in  Paris, 
but  keeps  active  management  of  "The  Herald  "  by  cable. 

Bentham,  Jeremy  (bent'ham),  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish writer  on  political  economy  and  jurisprudence;  was 
born  in  1748,  and  died  in  1832. 

Benton,  Thomas  H.,  an  eminent  American  states- 
man, born  in  North  Carolina  in  1782;  died  in  1858, 
after  holding  a  seat  in  Congress  from  Missouri  for  thirty 
years.  He  was  a  consistent  Jackson  Democrat  in  poli- 
tics. His  "Thirty  Years'  View"  embraces  a  history  of 
the  government  from  1820  to  1850,  and  is  recognized 
as  a  standard  authority. 

Berkeley,  George,  born  in  1685,  an  English  divine, 
famous  for  the  keenness  of  his  intellect  and  the  great- 
ness of  his  nature.  He  was  born  in  Ireland,  and  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1709  he  published  his 
"Theory  of  Vision,"  and  in  1710  his  "Principles  of 
Human  Knowledge,"  proving  the  non-existence  of  mat- 
ter, a  view  which  he  afterwards  elaborated.  Going 
to  England  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  great 
literary  men  of  the  day,  and  in  1724  was  made  Dean  of 
Derry.  In  1725  he  published  "A  Scheme  for  Convert- 
ing the  Savage  Americans  to  Christianity."  This  scheme 
involved  the  erection  of  a  college  at  the  Bermudas,  and 


406 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


the  government  granted  a  charter,  and  promised  a  grant 
in  aid.  Berlceley  set  out  for  the  Bermudas,  but  the 
money  not  being  forthcoming,  the  scheme  had  to  be 
abandoned.  In  1734,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Cloyne, 
and  in  1752  retired  to  Oxford.  His  last  publication  was 
a  treatise  on  "The  Virtues  of  Tar  Water."     Died,  1753. 

Berlioz,  Hector  (bair'le-o),  a  French  composer,  was 
born  at  La  Cote  St.  Andrd,  1803,  and  died  in  1869. 
His  best  productions  are  the  symphonies  "Harold"  and 
"Romeo  and  Juliet." 

Bemadotte,  Jean  Baptlste  Jules,  a  marshal  of 
France,  under  Napoleon  I.,  born  in  1764,  was  elected 
King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  on  the  death  of  Charles 
XIlT.,  assumed  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Charles 
John  XIV.,  and  in  1813  commanded  the  united  armies 
of  Germany  against  Napoleon.  Died  in  1844,  after  a 
wise  and  prosperous  reign. 

Bernard,  St.,  born  in  1091  of  noble  Burgundian 
birth;  was  educated  at  Paris  University.  He  entered 
the  Cistercian  monastery  at  Citeaux,  and  there  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  At  the  head  of  a  band 
of  monks  he  was  sent  to  found  a  new  monastery,  which 
he  established  at  Clairvaux,  and  from  which  his  fame 
and  influence  spread  far  and  wide.  Kings,  popes,  and 
nobles  all  appealed  to  him  for  advice  on  the  weightiest 
matters,  and  accepted  his  decisions.  He  procured  the 
condemnation  of  several  heterodox  writers,  including 
Ab^lard  and  Arnold  of  Brescia.  His  great  work  was 
the  preaching  of  a  new  crusade  in  France  and  Germany. 
He  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  prophesied  the 
triumph  of  the  expedition.  But  it  failed  notably,  and 
Bernard  died  soon  afterwards  (1153).  He  was  canon- 
ized in  1174,  and  bears  the  title  of  "The  Last  of  the 
Fathers." 

Bemardln  de  St.  Pierre  (der-aant-pe-are) ,  Jacques 
Henri,  the  admired  author  of  "Paul  and  Virginia," 
"Studies  of  Nature,"  etc.,  was  born  at  Havre  in  1737. 
He  became  professor  of  morals  at  the  normal  school, 
and  a  member  of  the  institute,  and  died  in  1814. 

Bernhardt  (Bernard),  Bosine  Sarali,  French  tragic 
actress,  was  born  in  Paris,  October  22,  1845,  of  Jewish 
parents,  but,  by  the  will  of  her  father,  educated  in  a 
convent  at  Versailles  and  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 
Appeared  at  the  Th^&tre  Francais  in  1862  as  "Iphigdnie," 
but  without  success.  In  1867  at  the  Odfen,  in  the  role 
of  the  queen,  in  Victor  Hugo's  "Kuy  Bias,"  she  gained 
her  first  striking  success.  The  war  of  1870-71  inter- 
rupted her  career,  and  she  became,  for  a  while,  a  nurse. 
She  then  won  a  position  in  the  Th^&tre  Francais,  the 
troupe  of  which  she  accompanied  in  1879  to  London, 
where  her  triumphs  have  been  repeated  in  succeeding 
years,  and  where  she  married  a  M.  Damala.  She  was 
left  a  widow  in  1889.  She  broke  her  contract  with  the 
Francais  in  1880,  and  has  since  been  touring,  with  great 
eclat  in  America,  and  in  all  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe.  She  now  directs  a  theater  of  her  own  in  Paris. 
She  is  also  a  painter  and  sculptor.  Her  "Memoirs" 
were  published  by  Heinemann  in  1907. 

Bernini  (ber-ne'-ne),  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  known  as 
the  Cavaliere  Bernini,  was  born  in  Naples  in  1598.  He 
was  eminent  as  a  painter,  an  architect,  and  a  sculptor; 
and  his  merit  entitled  him  to  the  rewards  which  he  had 
the  good  fortune  to  receive  from  Louis  XIV.  His 
"Apollo  and  Daphne,"  produced  from  a  single  block, 
when  he  was  but  18  years  of  age,  was  considered  a  mas- 
terpiece, but  his  finest  works  are  found  in  the  colon- 
nade at  Rome.     He  died  in  1680. 

Bemouilli  (her' -nool-ye) ,  James,  a  celebrated  mathe- 
matician, was  born  in  Basel  in  1654.  He  died  in  1705. 
John  Bemouilli,  brother  to  James,  and  not  less  cele- 
brated as  a  mathematician,  was  born  in  Basel  in  1667. 
He  died  in  1748.  Nicholas  Bemouilli  was  born  at  Basel 
in  1687.  He  became  a  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Padua.  He  died  in  1759.  Daniel  Bemouilli,  son  of 
John,  was  born  in  Groningen  in  1700.  He  studied 
mathematics,  and  became  a  professor  of  anatomy  and 
botany.  He  died  in  1782.  John  Bemouilli,  brother  of 
the  last-named,  born  in  Basel  in  1710,  was  a  professor 
of  eloquence  and  mathematics.  He  died  in  1790. 
James  Bemouilli,  his  son,  a  licentiate  at  law,  was 
born  in  Basel  in  1759.  Though  a  lawyer  by  profes- 
sion, he  studied  mathematics  with  success.  He  died 
in  1789. 

Berosus  (he-ro' -aus),  an  eminent  historian,  born  in 
Babylon,  was  a  priest  in  the  temple  of  Belus,  and  flour- 
ished in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  in  that 
of  several  of  his  successors.  His  writings  are  said  to 
have  strongly  corroborated  various  parts  of  Scripture. 

Berthier  (hare' -te-a) ,  Louis  Alexandre,  Prince,  a 
distinguished  French  general,  born  1753.  He  received 
honors  from  Bonaparte  in  acknowledgment  of  his  great 
services,  for  though  he  won  no  battle  himself,  he 
largely  contributed  towards  the  gaining  of  many.     On 


the  return  of  Louis  XVIIL,  Berthier  sent  in  his 
adhesion,  and  was  made  captain  of  the  guards  of 
the  restored  monarch.  When  Napoleon  reappeared, 
having  escaped  from  Elba,  Berthier  withdrew  to  Bam- 
berg with  his  family,  where  he  terminated  his  existence 
by  throwing  himself  from  a  window,  it  was  supposed, 
in  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  in  June,  1815. 

Berzelius,  Johann  Jakob,  born  in  1779,  Swedish 
chemist,  was  professor  for  many  years  at  Stockholm 
University,  and  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his 
memoirs  and  his  invaluable  work  in  chemical  analysis 
and  mineralogy.     Died,  1848. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  civil  engineer  and  inventor, 
born  at  Charlton,  Herts.,  in  1813;  of  his  many  inventions 
the  chief  is  the  process,  named  after  him,  of  converting 
pig-iron  into  steel  at  once  by  blowing  a  blast  of  air 
through  the  iron  while  in  fusion  till  everything  extra- 
neous is  expelled,  and  only  a  definite  quantity  of  carbon 
is  left  in  combination,  a  process  which  has  revolutionized 
the  iron  and  steel  trade  all  over  the  world,  leading,  as 
has  been  calculated,  to  the  production  of  thirty  times 
as  much  steel  as  before  and  at  one-fifth  of  the  cost  per 
ton.     Died,  1898. 

Bessey,  Charles  Edwin,  professor  of  botany  in 
University  of  Nebraska  since  1884;  born  on  a  farm,  in 
Milton,  Wayne  County,  O.,  May  21,  1845;  graduate 
(B.  Sc.)  of  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  1869;  studied 
with  Dr.  Asa  Gray  at  Harvard,  1872-73  and  1875-76; 
married,  on  December  25,  1873,  Lucy  Athearn,  West 
Tisbury,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.  Professor  of  botany 
in  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  1870-84  (acting  president, 
1882);  acting  chancellor  of  University  of  Nebraska, 
1888-91  and  1899-1900.  Botanical  editor  of  "American 
Naturalist"  (Philadelphia),  1880-97;  of  "Science" 
(New  York),  since  1897;  of  Johnson's  Cyclopedia  since 
1893.  Author:  "Geography  of  Iowa,"  "Botany  for 
High  Schools  and  Colleges,"  "The  Essentials  of  Botany," 
"Elementary  Botanical  Exercises,"  "Elementary  Bot- 
any," "Plant  Migration  Studies,"  also  many  scientific 
Papers  and  reviews.  Edited  McNab's  "Morphology, 
hysiology,  and  Classification  of  Plants." 

Beveridge,  Albert  Jeremiah,  was  born  on  a  farm  in 
Highland  county,  Ohio,  October  6,  1862;  his  father  and 
brothers  were  soldiers  in  the  Union  Army;  was  gradu- 
ated at  De  Pauw  University,  Greencastle,  Ind.,  in 
1885;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1886,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  his  profession;  was  married,  first,  to 
Miss  Katherine  M.  Langsdale,  in  1887,  who  died  in 
1900;  second,  in  1907,  to  Katherine  Eddy,  of  Chicago; 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1899, 
for  the  term  beginning  March  4  following;  was  reelected 
in  1905.  He  is  the  author  of  "The  Russian  Advance," 
"The  Young  Man  and  the  World,"  and  has  been  a  fre- 
quent magazine  contributor. 

Bewicli,  Thomas,  born  in  1753;  English  engraver, 
entered  into  partnership  with  a  Newcastle  wood  en- 
graver, Ralph  Beilby,  with  whom  he  published  his 
"History  of  Quadrupeds,"  which  proved  an  immense 
success.  After  some  more  fine  work,  he  produced  "The 
History  of  British  Birds,"  and  later,  "^sop's  Fables," 
the  two  best  examples  of  his  art.     Died,  1828. 

Bichat  (be'shi),  Marie  Francois  Xavier,  born  in 
1771;  physiologist  and  anatomist,  was  adopted  by 
Desault,  whose  works  he  edited,  and  after  his  death 
devoted  himself  to  research  in  anatomy  and  surgery 
with  such  incessant  industry  as  to  undermine  his  consti- 
tution. He  left  numerous  works  of  the  highest  value. 
Died.  1802. 

Biddle,  John,  born  in  1615;  religious  controver- 
sialist, known  as  "the  father  of  the  English  Unitarians"; 
was  sent  to  prison  for  heresy,  and  his  book  was  ordered 
by  the  House  of  Commons  to  be  burnt.  In  1648,  for 
the  publication  of  his  "Confession  of  Faith,"  he  was 
condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was  commuted; 
and  he  was  released  in  1652,  only  to  be  again  imprisoned 
by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Cromwell  subse- 
quently banished  him  to  the  Scilly  Isles,  but  in  1662  he 
returned  to  London,  and  was  again  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died  (1662). 

Bierce,  Ambrose,  author,  journalist;  born  in  Ohio, 
1842;  served  as  line  officer  during  Civil  War;  brevetted 
major  for  distinguished  services;  went  to  California, 
1866;  went  to  London,  1872,  contributing  to  "  Fun  " 
fables  purporting  to  be  translations  from  Zambri,  the 
Parsee  (published  in  volume,  "Cobwebs  from  an  Empty 
Skull,"  1874);  returned  to  California  and  contributed 
to  "Overland  Monthly,"  edited  "Argonaut"  and 
"Wasp"  ;  for  many  years  contributed  "  Prattle  "  columns 
in  San  Francisco  "Examiner."  Author:  "  Cobwebs  from  an 
Empty  Skull,"  "The  Monk  and  the  Hangman's  Daugh- 
ter "(with  Dr.  A.  Danziger),  "Black  Beetles  in  Amber," 
"Can  Such  Things  Be?"  "In  the  Midst  of  Life"  (former 


BIOGRAPHY 


407 


title,  "Tales  of  Soldiers  and  Civilians"),  "Fantastic 
Fables,"  "Shapes  of  Clay." 

Blot,  Jean  Baptistc  (bc'o),  an  eminent  French  as- 
tronomer, optician,-  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in 
Paris,  1774.  He  is  especially  celebrated  as  the  discov- 
erer of  the  circular  polarization  of  light.     Died,  1862. 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  born  in  1786;  English 
composer,  early  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of 
dramatic  music;  and  in  1809  produced  his  "Circassian 
Bride,"  which  was  a  great  success.  In  1810  he  became 
connected  with  Covent  Garden  Theater,  and  produced 
many  operas  during  this  time,  including  "The  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  "Guy  Mannering,"  and  "The  Slave."  In 
1825,  Bishop  broke  his  connection  with  Covent  Garden 
to  go  to  Drury  Lane,  and  he  was  succeeded  at  the  former 
theater  by  Weber.  It  was  in  rivalry  with  Weber's 
"Oberon"  that  Bishop  produced  the  unsuccessful 
"Aladdin."  In  1840,  his  last  dramatic  piece,  "The 
Fortunate  Isles,"  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden  in 
honor  of  the  queen's  wedding;  in  1842,  he  was  knighted; 
and  in  1848  he  became  professor  of  music  at  Oxford. 
Died,  1855. 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Otto  Eduard,  Prince 
Von  {bis' -mark),  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  was  born  in  Brandenburg, 
1815.  After  studying  law  at  the  universities  of  Got- 
tingen  and  Berlin,  Bismarck-Schonhausen  filled  impor- 
tant diplomatic  positions,  and  was  nominated  prime 
minister  of  Prussia  in  1862.  His  reactionary  policy 
gave  great  offense  to,  and  provoked  many  colLsions 
with,  the  Liberal  party;  and,  ere  long,  he  dissolved  the 
Representative  Chamber,  and  declared  that  the  minis- 
try would  act  independent  of  popular  suffrage.  Bis- 
marck-Schonhausen instigated  the  war  against  Den- 
mark in  1864,  which  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  duchies  by  Prussia.  The  rivalry 
which  had  long  existed  between  Austria  and  Prussia, 
as  the  leading  German  powers,  was  terminated  by  the 
latter  kingdom  seceding  from  the  Bund  in  1866,  and 
forming  an  alliance  with  Italy  against  Austria.  War 
was  declared  in  June,  and  the  result  of  a  six  weeks'  cam- 
paign was  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  German  coun- 
cils and  interests.  Bismarck-Schonhausen  next  set  about 
annexing  the  smaller  states  of  Hanover,  Hesse,  etc., 
and  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  secret  treaty,  in  August, 
1866,  with  the  South  German  powers,  by  virtue  of 
which  their  armies  were  placed  under  control  of  the 
King  of  Prussia.  In  1867,  Bismarck-Schonhausen  was 
made  chancellor  of  the  German  Confederation,  and,  in 
1870,  brought  about  a  coalition  of  the  German  powers 
against  P>ance,  in  consequence  of  a  declaration  of  war 
liaving  been  declared  by  Napoleon  III.  against  Prussia, 
on  account  of  her  interference  in  the  succession  to  the 
Spanish  Crown.  The  German  armies  crossed  the  Rhine 
in  August,  and,  after  defeating  the  French  in  several 
obstinately-fought  battles,  compelled  the  capitulation 
of  the  French  Emperor  with  his  army  at  Sedan,  and 
ultimately  besieged  Paris,  which  city  capitulated  in 
the  early  part  of  1871.  For  his  services  in  the  success- 
ful carrying  out  of  this  war,  which  resulted  in  the  eleva- 
tion of  his  master,  William  I.,  to  the  imperial  Crown  of 
Germany,  Bismarck-Schonhausen  was  created  a  prince 
of  the  empire  in  May,  1871.     Died,  1898. 

Bispham,  George  Tucker,  lawyer,  author;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  May  24,  1838;  graduate  of  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1858;  law  department,  same,  1862; 
admitted  to  bar,  1861;  practiced  in  Philadelphia; 
later  admitted  to  bar  of  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  One  of  solicitors  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Company;  solicitor  of  Philadelphia  Saving  Fund  Soci- 
ety, Girard  Trust  Company,  and  other  corporations; 
professor  of  equity  jurisprudence,  law  department. 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Author:  "Principles  of 
Equity,"  and  other  books  on  law.     Died,  1906. 

Bjoernstjerna  (byem'-sher-nii),  Magnus,  born  in 
1779;  Swedish  general  and  diplomatist,  served  in  the 
Finnish  War;  in  1809  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  France, 
and  in  1812  arranged  for  the  sale  of  Guadeloupe.  He 
fought  in  the  Danish  War,  and  assisted  at  the  negotia- 
tions which  brought  about  peace  with  the  transference 
of  Norway  to  Sweden.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister in  London.  He  left  several  works  on  political  and 
fiscal  matters.     Died,  1847. 

Bjornson  {byem'son),  Bjornstjeme,  born  in  18.32, 
the  national  poet  of  Norway.  In  early  life  an  historical 
drama  of  his,  called  ".  Valborg,"  was  accepted  by  the 
Royal  Theater,  but  its  author  withdrew  the  piece.  In 
1856  the  International  Students'  Reunion  at  Upsala 
stimulated  him  again  to  an  effort  to  produce  a  national 
poetry,  free  from  foreign  influences.  He  began  with 
"Synnove  Solbakken,"  a  story  of  peasant  life,  which 
was  followed  by  "Arne"  and  many  other  pieces.  In 
1858,  he  became  director  of  the  theater  at  Bergen,  and 


produced  quickly  two  dramas,  "Mellem  Slagene "  and 
"Halte  Hulda,"  both  treating  of  national  subjects. 
"Marie  Stuart "  and  "Sigurd  Slembe "  are  both  well- 
known  plays,  and  he  wrote,  besides  his  dramas,  a  series 
of  folk  plays,  an  epic,  and  much  beautiful  lyric  poetry. 
He  received  a  government  pension,  but  lived  abroad. 
Died,  1010. 

Black,  Frank  Swett,  ex-governor  of  New  York; 
born  in  Limington,  Me.,  March  8,  1853;  graduated  at 
Dartmouth,  1875;  was  editor  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  "Jour- 
nal"; later  reporter  Troy,  N.  Y.,  "Whig";  clerk  in 
registry  department,  Troy  post-office;  admitted  to  bar, 
1879;  member  of  Congress,  1895-97;  governor  of  New 
York,  1897-99;  since  when  he  has  been  a  practicing 
lawyer. 

Black,  William,  born  in  1841;  English  novelist; 
spent  some  years  in  thestuj^y  of  art,  but,  regarding  him- 
self as  a  failure  in  the  artistic  profession,  he  turned  to 
literature.  His  first  novel,  "Love  or  Marriage,"  was 
published  in  1868,  being  followed  in  1869  by  "In  Silk 
Attire,"  and  in  1871  by  "A  Daughter  of  Heth,"  which 
was  a  pronounced  success.  ".The  Strange  Adventures 
of  a  Phaeton"  and  "A  Princess  of  Thule"  were  pub- 
lished soon  after,  and  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  best 
novelists  of  the  day  was  established.  P'or  four  years 
he  acted  as  assistant-editor  of  the  "Daily  News,"  but 
abandoned  journalism    long  before  his  death  in  1898. 

Blackburn,  Josepk  Clay  Styles,  lawyer,  legislator  ; 
born  in  Woodford  County,  Ky.,  October  1,  1838;  grad- 
uate of  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky.,  1857;  admitted 
to  bar,  1858;  practiced  in  Chjcago  until  Civil  War  broke 
out;  served  in  Confederate  States  Army;  after  war, 
practiced  law  in  Kentucky;  member  Kentucky  legis- 
lature, 1871-75;  member  of  Congress,  1875-85;  United 
States  senator,  1885-97;  again  elected,  January,  1901, 
for  term  1901-07;  member  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  1907-10. 

Blackmore,  Richard  Doddridge,  born  in  1825, 
modern  British  novelist;  in  1852,  was  called  to  the  bar, 
and  practiced  for  a  short  time.  Turning  to  literature, 
he  produced  his  first  novel,  "  Clara  Vaughn,"  in  1864. 
His  first  distinct  success  was  "Lorna  Doone,  a  Romance 
of  Exmoor,"  which  reached  many  editions.  Of  his  rnany 
subsequent  books,  perhaps  the  best  was  "The  Maid  of 
Sker."     Died,  1900. 

Blackstone  {black' -ston),  Sir  William,  A  celebrated 
jurist,  born  in  London  in  1723.  He  was  a  judge,  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament,  and  author  of  "Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  England."  At  the  bar,  after  seven  years'  prac- 
tice, his  prospects  were  so  indifferent,  that  he  retired  to 
Oxford  on  his  fellowship,  and  there  gave  public  lectures 
on  English  law.  Their  success  is  supposed  to  have  sug- 
gested to  Mr.  Viner  the  propriety  of  establishing  a  pro- 
fessorship of  law  in  the  university,  to  which  office  Black- 
stone  was  elected,  being  the  first  Vinerian  lecturer,  in 
1758.  Subsequently,  having  married,  he  vacated  his 
fellowship,  and  was  appointed  principal  of  New-Inn  Hall. 
That  office,  with  his  Vinerian  professorship,  he  resigned 
in  1766.  In  1770,  he  became  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Common  Pleas.     Died,  1780. 

Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  M.  D.;  born  in  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, February  3,  1821;  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
in  1832;  educated  in  private  schools  in  Bristol  and  New 
York;  taught  school  in  Kentucky  and  the  Carolinas; 
sought  admission  to  several  medical  colleges,  but  was 
refused  until  she  entered  the  medical  school  at  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  1847.  First  woman  in  United  States  to 
receive  the  degree  of  M.  D.  Established  practice 
in  New  York,  1851;  founded  a  hospital  and,  in 
1867,  in  conjunction  with  her  sister.  Dr.  Emily 
Blackwell,  organized  Woman's  Medical  College  of  New 
York  Infirmary;  lectured  in  England,  1858-59;  regis- 
tered as  a  physician  in  England,  1859,  and  after  1869 
practiced  in  London  and  Hastings.  Author:  "Physical 
Education  of  Girls,"  "Religion  of  Health,"  "Counsel 
to  Parents  on  Moral  Education,"  "Pioneer  Work  in 
Opening  the  Medical  Profession  to  Women,"  "The 
Human  Element  in  Sex,"  "Decay  of  Municipal  Repre- 
sentative Institutions."     Died,  1910. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  "the  Plumed  Knight," 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  1830;  removed  to  Maine, 
where  he  edited  the  "Portland  Advertiser";  served 
four  terms  in  the  legislature;  in  Congress  from  1862  to 
1876,  and  speaker  for  three  years;  prominent  candidate 
for  the  Republican  nomination  for  the  presidency  in 
1876,  1880,  and  1892,  and  successful  candidate  in  1884, 
but  was  defeated  for  President.  United  States  senator 
in  1877;  secretary  of  state  under  Garfield;  secretary  of 
state  under  Harrison,  but  resigned  just  before  the 
Republican  Convention  of  1892.     Died,  1893. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis  (blbng),  a  French  historian 
and  socialistic  writer,  born  in  Madrid,  1811,  started  as  a 
journalist;    founded  the  "Revue  du  Progres,  and  pub- 


408 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


lished  separately  in  1840,  "Organization  of  Labor," 
which  had  already  appeared  in  the  "Revue,"  a  work 
which  gained  the  favor  of  the  working  classes;  was 
member  of  the  Provisional  Government  of  1848,  and 
eventually  of  the  National  Assembly;  threatened  with 
impeachment,  fled  to  England;  returned  to  France  on 
the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1871.  Blanc  wrote  an  elaborate  and  well- 
written  "History  of  the  French  Revolution."  Died  at 
Cannes,  1882. 

Blanche  of  Castile  (bl&nsh).  Queen  of  Louis  VIII. 
of  France,  and  daughter  of  Alphonso  IX.,  King  of  Cas- 
tile, was  born  about  1 187.  On  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, in  1226,  she  was  declared  Regent  of  France,  in 
which  capacity  she  displayed  great  energy  and  address. 
After  carrying  on  the  government  during  the  absence  of 
her  son  Louis  IX.  in  the  Holy  Land,  she  died  in  1252. 

Blashfleld,  Edwin  Howland,  artist;  born  in  New 
York,  December  15,  1848;  educated  at  Boston  Latin 
School;  studied  at  Paris,  1867,  under  L^on  Bonnat,  also 
receiving  advice  from  G^rome  and  Chapu;  exhibited  at 
Paris  Salon,  yearly,  1874-79,  1881,  1891,  1892;  also 
several  years  at  Royal  Academy,  London;  returned  to 
United  States  in  1881;  has  exhibited  genre  pictures, 
portraits,  and  decorations.  Among  his  paintings  are 
'  Christmas  Bells  "  and  "Angel  with  the  Flaming  Sword." 
Decorated  one  of  domes  of  Manufactures  Building, 
World's  Columbian  Exposition;  Collis  P.  Huntington's 
drawing  room,  and  great  central  dome.  Library  of  Con- 
gress. Has  lectured  on  art  at  Columbia,  Harvard,  Yale, 
etc.  Author:  (with  Mrs.  Blashfleld)  "  Italian  Cities,"  co- 
editor  (with  Mrs.  Blashfleld  and  A.  A.  Hopkins):  ".Va- 
sari's  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Rlavatslty,  Mme.,  a  theosophist,  born  in  Russia, 
1831,  was  a  great  authority  on  theosophy,  the  doctrines 
of  which  she  professed  she  derived  from  the  fountainhead 
in  Thibet.     Died,  1891. 

Blind,  Karl,  born  in  1826,  German  revolutionist, 
began  his  agitation  when  still  a  student,  and  in  1847  was 
imprisoned  for  a  short  time.  He  took  part  in  the  rising 
of  1848,  and  then  fled  to  Alsace,  from  whence  the  French 
Government  sent  him  to  Switzerland.  He  joined  Struve 
in  the  second  Black  Forest  insurrection,  and  was  con- 
demned to  a  long  term  of  imprisonment,  but  was  lib- 
erated by  the  people.  Being  banished  from  France,  and 
a  fugitive  from  Germany,  he  went  to  Belgium,  and  after- 
wards to  England,  where  he  wrote  industriously  in 
support  of  his  political  ideas.  It  was  Blind's  stepson 
who  attempted  Bismarck's  life  in  1866.     Died,  1907. 

Bloonifleld,  Robert  (bloom' i eld),  an  English  poet; 
was  born  in  1766.  Reared  in  humble  life,  his  genius 
found  development  in  the  poem  entitled  the  "Farmer's 
Boy,"  which  attained  very  great  popularity.     Died,  1823. 

Blttcher,  Gebhard  Lebereclit  von,  born  in  1742. 
Prussian  fleld  marshal  and  Prince  of  Wahlstadt,  first 
entered  the  Swedish,  but  soon  passed  to  the  Prussian 
army,  in  which  he  served  during  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
He  went  through  the  Polish  campaign  of  1772,  and 
gained  rapid  promotion  during  the  struggle  with  the 
French  invaders  begun  in  1792.  In  the  campaign  of 
1814,  Blucher  held  high  command,  and  though  defeated 
by  Napoleon,  he  beat  Marshal  Marmont,  and  entered 
Paris  with  the  Allies.  In  the  Waterloo  campaign  he 
commanded  the  Prussian  army  in  Belgium,  and  was 
severely  defeated  by  Napoleon  at  Ligny.  However,  by 
out-manoeuvring  Grouchy,  he  was  able  to  arrive  at 
Waterloo  in  time  to  decide  the  victory  for  the  Allies  and 
pursue  the  routed  French  army.  He  then  retired  from 
active  service  and  died  four  years  later.     Died,  1819. 

Boccacio  {bok-k&-ishe-o) ,  Giovanni,  a  much-admired 
Italian  novelist,  born  at  Paris  ii\,  1313.  His  works  are 
prized  for  their  tenderness,  but  they  often  offend  deco- 
rum. His  most  celebrated  work  is  the  Decameron,  a 
collection  of  one  hundred  stories,  supposed  to  have  been 
recited  in  ten  days  by  a  company  of  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, who  had  withdrawn  to  the  country  to  escape  the 
plague  which  raged  at  Florence  in  1348.  He  died  in 
1375. 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  a  diplomatist  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1545.  The  uni- 
versity library  of  Oxford  was  rebuilt  by  him,  and  he 
bequeathed  his  fortune  to  support  it.  It  has  ever  since 
been  called  the  Bodleian  Library.     He  died  in  1613. 

Boerhaave  {bo'-er-h&v),  a  celebrated  physician,  born 
in  1668.  in  Voorhout  near  Leyden.  He  studied  much, 
successfully  labored  in  his  profession,  and  was  univer- 
sally esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  His  writings, 
which  are  numerous,  were  much  admired.  He  died  in 
1738. 

Bogardus,  James,  born  in  1800;  American  inventor 
of  great  fecundity,  who  worked  for  some  time  as  a  watch- 
maker and  engraver,  in  New  York.  Among  his  inven- 
tions were  the  ring-flyer  for  cotton    spinning   (1828); 


the  eccentric  mill  (1829);  the  dry-gas  meter  (1832); 
a  dynamometer,  and  a  pyrometer  (1848).  In  1847  he 
built  the  first  structure  of  cast  iron  in  the  United  States. 
Died,  1874. 

Boileau-Despr^aux  (boy-lo-da-pro'),  Nicolas,  a 
critic,  poet,  and  satirist,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  born  in  1636.  His  "Art  of  Poetry,"  his 
epistles,  and  his  satires  gained  him  the  title  of  "Master 
of  Parnassus."  He  was  the  friend  of  Moliere,  La  Fon- 
taine, and  Racine.  With  the  last  he  was  appointed 
historiographer  of  France,  and  received  a  pension  of 
2,000  livres.  He  died  in  1711.  His  brothers  Giles  and 
James  were  also  much  esteemed  writers.  The  former 
died  in  1669;    the  latter  in  1716. 

Bole,  Edward  William,  editor  of  "The  Ladies' 
Home  Journal"  since  1889;  vice-president  "The  Curtis 
Publishing  Co.";  born  in  Helder,  Holland,  October  9, 
1863;  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  6;  edu- 
cated at  Brooklyn  public  schools;  stenographer  with 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Co.;  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
1884-85;  Scribner's,  1885-88;  Author:  ".The  Young 
Man  in  Business '|;    "Successward." 

Bolter,  George  Henry,  born  in  1823,  American  poet; 
his  first  published  poem  was  "The  Lesson  of  Life  "  (1847), 
and  this  was  followed  by  two  tragedies,  which  were  pro- 
duced on  the  stage.  For  ten  years  he  was  secretary  of 
the  Union  League,  Philadelphia,  and  his  "Poems  of  the 
War"  proved  very  popular.  In  1871  he  went  as  United 
States  Minister  to  Constantinople.  He  published  in 
1882  an  elegy,  "The  Book  of  the  Dead."     Died,  1890. 

Bollngbrolie  (boV-  ing-brook),  Henry  St.  Jotin,  Vis- 
count, an  P^nglish  statesman,  born  in  Battersca  in  1678. 
Having  studied  at  Oxford,  he  entered  parliament  in  1701, 
and  in  1704  became  secretary  of  war.  He  afterwards 
became  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  nego- 
tiated the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  In  1712,  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was 
impeached  of  high  treason,  when  he  fled  the  country,  and 
became  secretary  of  state  to  the  first  pretender.  He 
was  attainted,  and  his  estate  seized;  but  in  1723  he  was 
permitted  to  return.  His  estates  were  restored,  but  he 
was  not  allowed  to  sit  in  parliament.  He  wrote  against 
the  ministry,  and  his  productions  were  admired  for  their 
eloquence  and  vigor.  He  again  withdrew  to  France  in 
1735,  but  returned  to  England  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
and  died  in  1751. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  the  founder  and  first  president  of 
the  Republic  of  (Colombia,  known  as  "The  Liberator  of 
South  America."  Born  in  Venezuela,  1783,  he  was 
educated  in  Madrid,  and  traveled  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  When  the  revolt  against  the  Spanish 
yoke  broke  out  in  Venezuela,  he  joined  it,  but  had  to  fly. 
In  1813  he  returned,  and  gathering  a  force  together, 
defeated  General  Monteverde  at  Caracas.  The  tide  then 
turned,  and  Bolivar  fled  to  Jamaica,  but  he  shortly  re- 
turned, and  after  varying  fortune  in  1819  won  the  battle 
of  Bojaca,  resulting  in  the  inauguration  of  the  Republic 
of  Venezuela  in  the  same  year,  to  which  was  afterwards 
united  New  Granada.  In  1822  Bolivar  went  to  help  the 
Peruvians  in  their  struggle  for  liberty,  and  was  given  the 
chief  command.  After  a  long  campaign  he  won  the 
great  battle  of  Ayacucho.  Upper  Peru  was  constituted 
a  separate  republic  with  the  title  of  Bolivia.  As  Presi- 
dent of  Colombia  he  had  to  endure  much  factious  hos- 
tility; but  though  he  tendered  his  resignation  more  than 
once  it  was  never  accepted,  the  supreme  power  being 
confirmed  in  him  in  1828.     Died,  1830. 

Bonaparte,  Charles  Joseph,  lawyer,  born  in 
Baltimore,  June  9,  1851 ;  grandson  of  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
King  of  Westphalia;  graduate  of  Harvard  in  1871; 
Harvard  Law  School  in  1874;  since  then  in  law  practice 
in  Baltimore;  prominent  in  reform  movements;  Repub- 
lican presidential  elector  from  Maryland,  1904;  chairman 
council  of  National  Civil  Service  Reform  League;  -pres- 
ident of  National  Municipal  League;  member  of  Execu- 
tive Committee  National  Civic  Federation;  overseer  at 
Harvard,  1891-1903;  trustee  Catholic  University  of 
America  since  1904;  awarded  Laetare  medal  by  Uni- 
versity of  Notre  Dame,  1903.  Secretary  of  Navy, 
1905-1906;  Attorney  General  of  United  States,  1906- 
1909. 

Bonapartes,  The.  The  family  to  which  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  I.  belonged  came  from  Corsica.  The 
father,  Carlo  Maria  Bonaparte,  born  in  1746,  was  a  lawyer 
and  an  adherent  of  Paoli,  the  insurgent.  Died,  1785. 
The  mother,  Letizia  Ramolino,  born  in  1750,  was  cele- 
brated for  her  beauty;  and  with  the  title,  ".Madame 
Mfere,"  lived  in  Paris  during  the  rule  of  Napoleon.  Died, 
1836.  (1)  Joseph,  born  in  1768,  the  eldest  son,  prac- 
ticed as  an  advocate,  and  married  a  merchant's  daughter 
at  Marseilles.  He  was  commissary-general  to  the  army 
in  Italy  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1797  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  the  pope.     An  able  diplomatist,  he  negotiated 


BIOGRAPHY 


409 


the  treaties  of  peace  at  Lun^ville  (1801),  and  at  Amiens 
(1802).  When  his  brother  was  proclaimed  Emperor, 
he  was  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Naples,  but  being  a 
merely  nominal  ruler,  his  good  judgment  and  better 
instincts  had  no  play.  In  1808,  he  was  transferred  to 
the  throne  of  Spain,  where  his  position  was  still  more 
unfortunate.  He  was  twice  compelled  to  fly  from 
Madrid,  and  finally  abandoned  the  throne  after  the  battle 
of  Vittoria.  He  was  lieutenant-general  of  the  empire 
during  the  1814  campaigns  and  the  Hundred  Days;  and 
after  Waterloo  he  lived  for  some  years  in  the  United 
States  as  the  Comte  de  Survilliers.  He  died  in  Florence 
in  1844,  and  left  his  highly  interesting  "Memoirs  and 
Correspondence."  (2)  Napoleon,  the  second  son.  (Na- 
poleon 1.)  (3)  Lucien,  born  in  1775,  in  1795  became 
commissary  to  the  army  of  the  North.  In  1798,  he  was 
elected  to  the  council  of  the  Five  Hundred,  and  played  an 
important  part  in  the  revolution  which  destroyed  the 
Directory  and  made*  Napoleon  First  Consul.  After 
becoming  minister  of  the  interior,  he  went  as  ambassador 
to  Madrid;  but  his  marriage  with  Mme.  Jouberthon 
brought  about  an  estrangement  between  him  and  the 
emperor,  and  in  1804  he  retired  to  his  estates  in  Italy, 
as  Prince  of  Canino,  where  he  cultivated  his  tastes  for 
literature  and  the  fine  arts.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit 
he  was  offered  the  crown  of  Italy,  but  he  refused  it;  and 
in  1810  set  out  for  the  United  States.  Captured  by  a 
British  cruiser,  he  was  kept  a  prisoner  in  England  till 
1814.  After  Waterloo  he  induced  Napoleon  to  abdicate 
in  favor  of  his  son ;  and  he  himself  retired  to  Italy.  He 
wrote  an  epic,  "Charlemagne."  Died,  1840.  (4)  Marie 
Anne  Elisa,  born  in  1777,  married  Felix  Pascal  Bacciochi, 
and  was  created  Princess  of  Piombino  and  Lucca,  and 
Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany.  She  retired  from  France 
in  1815,  and  died  in  Trieste  in  1820.  (5)  Louis,  born  in 
1778,  the  father  of  Napoleon  III.  He  served  in  the 
Italian  and  Egyptian  campaigns;  and  in  1802  he  was 
compelled  to  marry  Ilortense  Beauharnais,  from  whom 
he  was  afterwards  separated.  Under  the  empire  he  was 
created  a  prince  and  constable  of  France,  and  after 
occupying  Holland  he  was  proclaimed  king  of  the  country. 
He  became  extremely  popular  with  the  people,  but 
offended  the  emperor,  and  in  1810  he  abdicated,  the 
country  being  absorbed  in  France.  He  spent  most  of  his 
life  after  Napoleon's  banishment  in  Italy,  and  wrote 
several  books,  of  which  the  "Documents  Historiques " 
is  the  most  important.  Died,  1846.  (6)  Marie  Pauline. 
(Pauline  Borghese.)  (7)  Caroline  Marie  Annonciade, 
born  in  1782,  married  Marshal  Murat  in  1800.  Died, 
1839.  (8)  Jdrome,  born  in  1784.  He  was  given  a  com- 
mand in  the  navy,  and  while  on  the  American  station 
married  a  Miss  Patterson,  a  marriage  which  he  was  forced 
to  renounce  by  the  emperor.  In  1807  he  was  made  king 
of  Westphalia,  and  married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Wiirttemberg,  who  became  the  mother  of  Prince 
Napoleon.  In  1812  he  proved  so  incapable  a  general 
luring  the  Russian  campaign  that  he  was  removed  from 
command;  but  he  commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo. 
After  Napoleon's  abdication  he  lived  in  exile,  until  1847. 
In  1S50  Napoleon  111.  made  him  a  marshal  of  France 
and  he  later  became  president  of  the  senate.  Died,  1860. 
Of  the  second  generation:  (1)  Napoleon,  son  of  Louis. 
(Napoleon  III.)  (2)  Napoleon,  Joseph,  born  in  1822, 
commonly  known  as  Prince  Napoleon,  and  son  of  Jerome 
Bonaparte.  His  early  life  was  spent  in  travel,  but  after 
the  1848  revolution  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly.  In 
1849,  he  held  for  a  year  the  post  of  ambassador  at 
Madrid;  and  in  1854  he  commanded  a  division  of  the 
army  in  the  Crimea.  He  threw  up  his  command  sud- 
denly, and  in  1858  became  president  of  the  ministry  for 
Algiers.  In  1859,  he  held  a  command  in  Italy,  and 
married  the  Princess  Clotilde,  a  daughter  of  Victor 
Emmanuel.  In  1861,  he  created  a  sensation  in  the  senate 
by  a  fine  oration  in  support  of  Democratic  principles,  pro- 
voking a  challenge  from  the  Due  d'Aumale.  His  loudly- 
expressed  approval  of  the  Polish  revolution  brought  him 
into  disgrace  with  the  emperor  more  than  once,  and 
compelled  his  resignation  of  the  presidency  of  the  Com- 
missioners for  the  tfniversal  Exhibition.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  III.,  and  the  death  of  Prince  I^ouis  Napoleon, 
he  was  recognized  as  head  of  the  Napoleon  family.  In 
1883,  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  pronunciamento,  and  in 
1886  he  was  banished  from  France,  and  died  in  exile  in 
1891.  (3)  Charles  Lucien  J.ules,  Prince  de  Canino,  born  in 
1803,  the  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  a  distinguished  natur- 
alist; in  1822,  married  his  cousin,  Zenaide,  the  daughter 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  soon  after  went  to  America, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  science,  and 
published  his  valuable  "American  Ornithology."  In 
1828,  he  returned  to  Italy;  in  1833  he  published  his 
"Italian  Fauna,"  and  in  1847  he  succeeded  to  the  title 
of  prince.  He  was  for  a  short  time  active  in  Italian 
politics,  but  finally  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1857. 


His  son,  Lucien,  born  in  1828,  is  a  cardinal.  (4)  Louis 
Lucien,  born  in  1813,  the  third  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte. 
He  passed  his  youth  in  scientific  and  linguistic  study. 
In  1848,  he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  assembly  as 
deputy  for  Corsica,  but  the  election  was  annulled.  In 
1852,  he  was  made  a  senator,  and  in  1860  grand  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  has  written  a  great  deal,  much 
of  his  work  being  translations.  Died,  1891.  (3)  Pierre 
Napoleon,  prince,  born  in  1815,  fourth  son  of  Lucien. 
After  getting  into  disfavor  in  Italy  and  America,  he  went 
to  Paris  in  1848,  and  sat  in  the  assembly.  In  1849 
he  served  in  Algeria,  and  finally  settled  in  England. 
Died,  1881.  Of  the  third  generation:  Prince  Louis, 
better  known  as  the  Prince  Imperial,  born  in  1856,  the 
only  child  of  Napoleon  III.  and  the  Empress  Eugenie. 
He  accompanied  his  father  at  the  opening  of  the  Franco- 
German  War,  but  after  Sedan  he  went  to  England.  He 
entered  the  Woolwich  Military  Academy,  and  in  1879 
went  with  the  expedition  to  Zululand.  He  was  killed 
in  this  war,  a  small  body  of  soldiers  with  whom  he  had 
gone  out  having  been  surprised  by  the  Zulus.  A  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Chiselhurst.  Died, 
1879. 

Bonheur,  Rosa  ibd-ndr'),  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Bordeaux,  1822;  is  unrivaled  among  her  own  sex  for  the 
minute  and  spirited  delineation  of  the  various  forms  of 
animal  life.  Her  most  celebrated  pieces  are  "The 
Nivernais  Ploughing,"  "The  Horse-Fair,"  "The  Three 
Musketeers,"  and  "Cows  and  Sheep  in  a  Hollow  Road." 
Through  the  Empress  Eugbnie,  she  received  the  Cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  During  the  siege  of  Paris,  her 
studio  was  spared  by  order  of  the  Crown  Prince.  Died, 
1899. 

-Boniface,  Saint,  born  in  680,  an  English  monk, 
known  as  the  "Apostle  of  Germany,"  abandoned  certain 
and  distinguished  preferment  to  go  in  716  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Germany.  Having  obtained  authority  from 
Pope  Gregory  II.,  he  lived  among  the  barbarous  tribes 
for  many  years,  and  finally  met  a  martyr's  death  near 
Utrecht.     Died,  755. 

Boone,  Daniel  {boon) ,  the  pioneer  of  Kentucky,  born 
in  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  1735,  was  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  the  enterprising  American  pioneers  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century.     He  died  in  1820. 

Booth-Tucker,  Frederick  St.  George  de  Lautour 
commander  of  Salvation  Army  in  the  United  States; 
born  in  Monghyr,  Bengal,  India,  March  21,  1853;  edu- 
cated at  Cheltenham  College,  England;  passed  Indian 
civil  service  examinations,  1874;  studied  in  London 
until  1876;  appointed  to  Punjab  and  held  positions  of 
assistant  commander,  magistrate,  and  treasury  officer; 
resigned  to  join  Salvation  Army,  1881;  inaugurated 
Salvation  Army  work  in  India,  1882;  had  charge  there 
imtil  1891;  secretary  for  international  work,  Salvation 
Army,  London.  1891-96;  1896-1905,  in  charge  of 
United  States;  married  in  1888,  Emma  Moss,  daughter 
of  General  Wm.  Booth,  of  Salvation  Army  (she  died  in 
railway  accident  October  28,  1903);  adopted  name  of 
Booth-Tucker.  Author:  "The  Life  of  Catherine  Booth," 
"Life  of  General  William  Booth,"  "In  Darkest  India 
and  the  Wiiy  Out,"  "Fayorite  Songs  of  the  Salvation 
Army,"  "Monograph  for  the  Paris  Exposition  on  the 
Work  of  the  Salvation  Army  in  the  United  States,"  etc. 

Bopp,  Franz,  a  celebrated  German  philologist  and 
Sanskrit  scholar,  born  at  Mayence;  was  professor  of 
Oriental  Literature  and  General  Philology  at  Berlin; 
his  greatest  work,  "A  Comparative  Grammar  of  Sanskrit, 
Zend,  Greek,  Latin,  Lithuanian,  Old  Slavic,  Gothic,  and 
German";  translated  portions  of  the  " Mah&bh&rata " 
(1791-1867). 

Borghese  (bbr-on'zd).  The  name  of  a  family  of  high 
position  and  great  wealth  in  Rome.  Camillo  (1552- 
1621)  became  pope  in  1605,  under  the  title  of  Paul  V. 
Prince  Borghese,  who  married  Pauline  Bonaparte,  sister 
of  Napoleon,  and  separated  himself  from  her  on  the  fall 
of   her   brother,    was   born   in    1775;    died,    1832.     '1  he 

galace  of  the  family  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome,  and 
as  a  rich  collection  of  paintings. 

Borgia,  Cesare,  born  in  1476,  Italian  master  of 
statecraft  of  great  but  evil  fame,  was  the  fourth  son  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  by  Rosa  Vanozza,  and  was  created 
a  cardinal,  though  he  divested  himself  of  the  office  in 
later  years  to  suit  his  purposes.  He  compassed  the 
death  of  his  brother  Giovanni,  who  was  Duke  of  Gandia, 
in  order  to  gain  complete  ascendency  in  the  papal  gov- 
ernment; and  in  1498,  having  been  sent  as  nuncio  to 
Louis  Xil.  of  France,  he  was  created  Duke  of  Valen- 
tinois  and  married  the  daughter  of  Jean  d'Albret,  King 
of  Navarre.  After  accompanying  Louis  XII. 's  Italian 
campaign,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  kingdom  in  Central 
Italy,  and  by  force,  treachery,  and  murder  he  had  nearly 
succeeded  in  obtaining  ascendancy  throughout  the  Ro- 
man states,  when  the  death  of  his  father  deprived  him 


410 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


of  his  great  source  of  power.  He  was  sent  in  1504  a 
prisoner  to  Spain  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  but  escaped,  and 
joined  the  King  of  Navarre's  army  against  Castile.  In 
this  campaign  he  was  killed  in  1507. 

Borgia,  Lucrezia,  born  in  1480,  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  lilce  him  the  possessor  of  an  infamous  repu- 
tation. Her  father  compelled  her  twice  to  marriage  and 
divorce  before  she  became  the  wife  of  the  Duke  of 
Bisceglia.  After  her  third  husband  had  been  murdered 
by  Cesare  Borgia,  she  married  Alfonso  of  Este,  and 
passed  her  life  in  the  court  of  Ferrara,  cultivating  litera- 
ture and  art.     Died,  1519. 

Borgiano  {bor-je-&'-no),  Horazio,  an  artist  of  emi- 
nence, a  painter  of  historical  subjects,  of  portraits,  and 
also  an  engraver,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1630.  His  style 
was  considered  masterly,  and  his  "Dead  Christ,"  a  com- 
position wholly  his  own,  was  especially  admired.  He 
died  in  1681. 

Borglutn,  John  Gutzon  de  la  Mothe  ("Gutzon 
Borglum"),  sculptor,  painter,  born  in  Idaho,  March  25, 
18G7;  educated  at  public  schools,  Fremont  and  Omaha, 
Neb.,  and  St.  Mary's  College,  Kansas;  studied  art  in 
San  Francisco;  went  to  Paris,  1890,  worked  and  studied 
in  Academic  Julien  and  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts.  Exhib- 
ited as  painter  and  sculptor  in  Paris  Salon;  in  Spain, 
1892;  in  California,  1893-94;  returned  East,  and  in  1896 
went  to  London,  remaining  until  1901 ;  settled  in  New 
York  since  1902.  Exhibited  in  London  and  Paris,  1896- 
1901;  held  successful  "one-man"  exhibition  in  London; 
received  gold  medal  sculpture  at  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition;  sculptor  for  work  on  Cathedral  of  St.  .John 
the  Divine,  New  York.  Work  includes,  in  painting, 
figures  and  animals,  portraits  and  mural  painting;  in 
sculpture  figures  and  horses  and  groups  in  bronze; 
executed  the  gargoyles  on  the  Princeton  Dormitory, 
class  of  1879  (about  sixty  devices). 

Borromeo,  St.  Carlo  (b6r-rd-md'-d),  cardinal  and 
archbishop  of  Milan,  a  prominent  member  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  contributed  to  the  Tridentine  Catechism,  and 
was  conspicuous  by  his  self-sacrificing  offices  during  a 
plague  in  the  city  of  which  he  was  the  archbishop. 
Born  in  1538,  died  in  1584. 

Bossuet  (.bo-swa'),  Jacques  Benigne,  born  in  Dijon, 
France,  September  27,  1627;  a  distinguished  orator  and 
prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  bishop  successively 
of  Condom  and  of  Meaux,  and  tutor  to  the  Dauphin,  the 
son  of  Louis  XIV.  Bossuet  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works,  all  in  defense  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
doctrine;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  "Sermons," 
which,  of  their  kind,  are  of  unrivaled  eloquence,  though 
they  are  too  dramatic  for  the  majority  of  English  readers. 
Several  of  his  compositions,  written  in  the  first  instance 
for  the  use  of  the  Dauphin,  and  especially  his  "Discourse 
on  Universal  History,"  printed  "in  1681,  long  retained  a 
high  reputation.     Died,  1704. 

Boswell,  James,  the  biographer  of  Dr.  Samuel  John- 
son, born  in  Edinburgh,  showed  early  a  penchant  for 
writing  and  an  admiration  for  literary  men.  He  fell  in 
with  Johnson  on  a  visit  to  London  in  1763,  and  conceived 
for  him  the  most  devoted  regard ;  made  a  tour  with  him 
to  the  Hebrides  in  1773,  the  "Journal  "  of  which  he  after- 
wards published;  settled  in  London,  and  was  called  to 
the  English  bar;  succeeded,  in  1782,  to  his  father's  estate, 
Auchinleck,  in  Ayrshire,  with  an  income  of  £1,600  a 
year.  Johnson  dying  in  1784,  Boswell's  "Life"  of  him 
appeared  seven  years  after,  a  work  unique  in  biography, 
and  such  as  no  man  could  have  written  who  was  not  a 
hero-worshiper  to  the  backbone.  He  succumbed  in  the 
end  to  intemperate  habits,  aggravated  by  the  death  of 
his  wife.     Born  in  1740,  died  in  1795. 

Bothwell  (both'-wel),  James  Hepburn,  Earl.  The 
head  of  a  powerful  family  in  East  Lothian.  He  became 
the  second  husband  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  having 
compassed  the  death,  as  was  generally  believed,  of 
Darnley,  her  first  husband.  By  Mary  he  was  created 
Duke  of  Orkney,  but  a  confederacy  of  nobles  having 
compelled  him  to  leave  Scotland,  he  engaged  in  piratical 
enterprises,  was  taken  by  the  Danes,  and  died  in  con- 
finement in  1578.     Born,  1536. 

Botta,  Carlo  Giuseppe  Guglielmo,  born  in  1766, 
Italia,n  historian,  studied  medicine,  and  was  imprisoned 
in  1792  as  a  revolutionary.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  government  of  Piedmont,  set  up  by  Napoleon,  but 
after  the  emperor's  overthrow  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literature.  He  wrote  "The  History  of  Italy 
between  1789  and  1814,"  and  a  "History  of  the  Ameri- 
can War  of  Independence."     Died,  1837. 

Botticelli  (bot-te-chel'-le),  Alessandro,  born  in  1447. 
Italian  painter,  in  response  to  the  invitation  of  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.  went  to  Rome  and  executed  some  fine  paint- 
ings for  the  chapel  of  the  Vatican.  On  returning  to 
Florence  he  became  a  devoted  follower  of  Savonarola. 
Died,  1515. 


Boughton,  George  Henry,  1834-1905;  artist,  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  New  York,  and  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  after  1879.  Among 
his  paintings  are  "The  Return  of  the  Mayflower," 
"Evangeline,"  and  "Milton  visited  by  Andrew  Marvell." 

Bouguereau  (bug-ro')  Adolphe  Gulllaume,  born  in 
1825;  French  painter.  In  1855  his  "Triomphe  du 
Martyre "  was  bought  by  the  state,  and  previously  he 
divided  the  honors  of  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  with 
Baudry.  Two  of  his  later  pictures  which  are  well-known 
are  "The  Youth  of  Bacchus  "  and  the  "Adoration  of  the 
Magi  and  the  Shepherds."     Died,  1905. 

Boulanger  (bd-lon-zhd'),  George  Ernest  Jean  3Iarie. 
born  in  1837,  French  general  and  politician,  was  made 
colonel  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  general  of  brigade  in 
1880,  and  minister  of  war  in  1886.  He  achieved  great 
popularity,  and  was  elected  in  1889  by  the  Nord,  Somme, 
Charente  Inferieure,  and  a  division  of  Paris.  A  threat 
of  prosecution  drove  him  into  exile,  and  he  committed 
suicide  at  Brussels.     Died,  1891. 

Bowles,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  American  journalist; 
was  born  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  February  9,  1826, 
and  from  1844  until  his  death  in  1878  was  editor  of  the 
"Springfield  Republican,"  founded  by  his  father.  Under 
his  management  the  paper  became  one  of  the  fore- 
most journals  in  the  country,  and  is  now  noted  for  its 
comprehensive  news,  its  literary  taste,  and  its  intelligent 
views  of  public  affairs.  In  recent  years  it  has  labored  to 
free  the  press  from  the  bias  of  political  party.  Bowles  is 
author  of  "Across  the  Continent"  "Our  New  West," 
and  "The  Switzerland  of  America." 

Braddock,  Edward,  born  in  1695,  British  general; 
served  in  the  Peninsula  and  Germany,  and  in  1754  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  forces  in  Virginia.  In 
1755  he  led  an  expedition  against  Fort  Du  Quesne,  where 
his  troops  fell  into  an  ambush  and  were  routed,  and  him- 
self killed.     Died,  1755. 

Braddon,  Mary  Elizabeth,  born  in  1837,  popular 
novelist,  after  contributing  to  the  provincial  press,  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  a  comedy,  "  Loves  of  Arcadia,"  accepted 
at  the  Strand  Tneater.  In  1861  she  produced  a  volume 
of  poems,  "Garibaldi,"  and  then  turning  to  fiction,  pub- 
lished rapidly  "Lady  Lisle,"  "Lady  Audley's  Secret," 
".Aurora  Floyd,"  and  "Henry  Dunbar."  "These  books 
established  her  as  one  of  the  most  popular  novelists  of 
the  day,  and  later  works,  which  she  has  published  in 
large  number,  have  not  diminished  her  reputation. 

Bradlaugh,  Charles,  born  in  1833,  politician,  after 
working  in  several  humble  capacities,  enlisted  in  the 
army.  In  1853  he  entered  a  solicitor's  office;  and  then 
he  achieved  a  great  influence  with  working  men  as  a 
Radical,  and  an  antagonist  of  the  Christian  religion.  His 
lectures  in  the  Hall  of  Science,  London,  on  social,  political, 
and  religious  questions,  were  very  popular;  and  in  1860 
he  started  the  "National  Reformer,"  against  which  a 
futile  government  prosecution  was  instituted.  In  1870, 
he  secured  a  judicial  decision  in  favor  of  affirmation  in 
courts  of  law,  but  the  expenses  of  the  trial  made  him 
bankrupt.  In  1872,  he  published  his  "Impeachment  of 
the  House  of  Brunswick,"  and  the  question  of  perpetual 
pensions  always  formed  one  of  his  favorite  subjects.  In 
1880,  he  was  returned  for  Northampton  to  Parliament, 
but  refusing  to  take  the  oath,  he  was  not  allowed  to  take 
his  seat  until  after  the  general  election  of  1885,  although 
he  was  repeatedly  returned  by  the  constituency.  After- 
wards he  earned  a  high  reputation  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  though  a  thorough  Radical,  opposed  the 
advocates  of  socalism.  In  1889,  he  visited  India,  his 
interest  in  Indian  affairs  having  always  been  pronounced. 
Died,  1891. 

Brady,  Cyrus  Townsend,  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  author;  born  in  Allegheny,  Pa.,  December 
20,  1861;  graduate  of  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
1883.  Railroad  service  with  the  Missouri  Pacific  and 
Union  Pacific  roads  for  several  years;  studied  theology 
under  Bishop  Worthington,  Nebraska;  ordained  deacon, 
1889;  priest,  1890.  Was  rector  of  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  in  Missouri  and  Colorado  and  archdeacon  of 
Kansas  until  1895,  and  archdeacon  of  Pennsylvania  till 
1899;  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Overbrook,  Phila- 
delphia, 1899-1902,  resigning  to  engage  in  literary  work; 
chaplain  of  1st  Pennsylvania  Volunteer  Infantry  in 
Spanish-American  War.  Member  of  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science.  Author:  "For  Love  of 
Country,"  "For  the  Freedom  of  the  Sea,"  "The  Grip  of 
Honor,"  "Stephen  Decatur,"  "Recollections  of  a  Mis- 
sionary in  the  Great  West,"  "American  Fights  and 
Fighters,"  "Commodore  Paul  Jones,"  "Reuben  James," 
"When  Blades  are  Out  and  Love's  Afield,"  "Under 
Tops'ls  and  Tents,"  "Colonial  Fights  and  Fighters," 
"HohenzoUern,"  "Woven  With  the  Ship,"  "In  the 
Wasp's  Nest,"  "Border  Fights  and  Fighters,"  "The 
Southerners,"  "The  Bishop,"  "Sir  Henry  Morgan,  Buc- 


BIOGRAPHY 


411 


caneer,"  "The  Doctor  of  Philosophy,"  "In  the  War 
with  Mexico,"  "The  Corner  in  Coffee,"  "The  Records," 
"A  Little  Traitor  to  the  South,"  "A  Midshipman  in  the 
Pacific,"  "Indian  Fights  and  Fighters,"  "The  Conquest 
of  the  Southwest,"  "The  Two  Captains." 

Brahe,  Tycho  (br&h),  the  most  distinguished  astron- 
omer of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  was  born  in  1546,  and 
died  in  1601.  A  native  of  Denmark,  his  active  life  was 
passed  in  Germany. 

Brahms,  Johannes,  born  in  1833;  German  musical 
composer.  Schumann  early  expressed  the  highest  opin- 
ion of  Brahms'  genius,  but  for  many  years  he  was  not 
appreciated  in  Germany.  In  1862  he  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation,  and  held  several 
important  musical  posts.  In  1868  he  composed  the 
"Deutsches  Requiem,"  which,  after  the  Franco-German 
War,  was  performed  throughout  Germany.  His  composi- 
tions have  been  very  highly  valued.     Died,  1897. 

Brant,  Joseph  (.br&nt).  An  Indian  chief  of  the  Mo- 
hawk nation,  born  in  Ohio,  about  1742,  held  a  commis- 
sion in  the  British  service,  and  fought  against  the  Amer- 
ican colonists  in  the  Revolution.  He  went,  afterwards, 
to  England,  where  he  published  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark 
in  Mohawk.     Died,  1807. 

Breckenridge,  John  Cabell,  born  in  1821 ;  American 
politician;  in  1851  entered  Congress,  and  in  1856  was 
elected  vice-president  under  Buchanan.  In  1860  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  the  Southern 
interest,  but  was  defeated  by  Lincoln;  and  having  de- 
nounced Lincoln's  address-  as  a  declaration  of  war,  he 
was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
was  given  a  command  in  the  Confederate  army.  Died, 
1875. 

Brewer,  David  Joslah,  associate  justice  in  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  1889-1910;  born  in  Smyrna,  Asia 
Minor,  June  20,  1837;  graduate  of  Yale,  1856;  Albany 
Law  School,  1858.  Began  practice,  Leavenworth,  Kan., 
1859;  United  States  commissioner,  1861-62;  judge  in 
probate  and  criminal  courts,  Leavenworth  County, 
1863-64;  judge  in  district  court,  1865-69;  county  attor- 
ney, 1869-70;  justice  supreme  court,  Kansas,  1870-84; 
judge  circuit  court  of  United  States,  1884-89.  Ap- 
pointed by  President  Cleveland,  1896,  member 
Venezuelan  Boundary  Commission ;  member  of  British- 
Venezuelan  Arbitration  Tribunal,  1899,  President  of  Uni- 
versal Congress  of  Lawyers  and  Jurists,  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition,  St.  Louis,  1904.  Author:  "The  Pew 
to  the  Pulpit,"  "The  Twentieth  Century  from  Another 
View  Point,"  "American  Citizenship."     Died,  1910. 

Brewster  (broo'stur),  Sir  David,  an  English  philoso- 
pher and  author,  born  in  1781,  and  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh. From  1808  to  1829,  he  was  editor  of  the  "Edin- 
burgh Encyclopedia."  In  1815,  he  was  elected  F.  R.  S., 
and  the  next  year  invented  the  kaleidoscope.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Optics"  and  "Mem- 
oirs of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Discoveries  of  Newton." 
His  researches  on  double  refraction,  and  discovery  of 
the  law  of  the  polarization  of  light  are  his  chief  titles 
to  eminence.     Died,  1868. 

Brian  Boru,  Borolhme  (brl'an-bo-roo') ,  a  celebrated 
Irish  chief.  King  of  Munster,  afterwards  sovereign  of  all 
Ireland,  was  born  in  926,  and  died  in  1014.  He  de- 
feated the  Danes  in  many  battles,  his  last  victory  being 
at  Clontarf,  where  he  was  killed.  He  was  equally  dis- 
tinguished for  his  patronage  of  learning  and  piety. 

Bridget,  St.  (brW jet) ,  or  St.  Bride,  the  patroness  of 
Ireland,  born  at  Fochart,  County  of  Armagh,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  beginning  of  the  Sixth  Century,  was  re- 
nowned for  her  beauty,  and  founded  the  monastery  of 
Kildare,  where  she  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of 
young  girls. 

Briggs,  Charles  Augustus,  clergyman,  theologian; 
born  in  New  York,  January  15,  1841;  studied  in  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  1857-60;  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 1861-63;  University  of  Berlin,  1866-69.  Pastor 
of  Presbyterian  Church,  Roselle,  N.  J.,  1870-74;  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew,  1875-1900,  Biblical  theology,  1890-1904, 
Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Symbolics  since  1904, 
Union  Theological  Seminary.  Editor  "Presbyterian 
Review,"  1880-90:  was  tried  for  heresy  and  acquitted 
by  Presbytery  of  New  York,  1892,  but  suspended  by 
General  Assembly,  1893;  ordained  priest  by  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  New  York,  1899.  Author:  "Bib- 
lical Study,"  "American  Presbyterianism,"  "Messianic 
Prophecy,"  "Whither?  A  Theological  Question  for  the 
Times,"  "The  Authority  of  Holy  Scripture,"  "The 
Higher  Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch,"  "The  Bible,  the 
Church,  and  the  Reason,"  "The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles," 
"The  Messiah  of  the  Gospels,"  "The  Case  of  Dr.  Briggs," 
three  parts;  "General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Holy  Scripture,"  "The  Incarnation  of  the  Lord,"  "New 
Light  on  the  Life  of  Jesus,"  "Ethical  Teachings  of  Jesus." 
Also  (with  F.  Brown  and  S.  R.  Driver)  New  Hebrew 


Lexicon.  Editor:  "International  Theological  Library," 
"International  Critical  Commentary." 

Bright,  John,  born  November  16,  1811;  an  eminent 
orator  and  Radical  statesman.  Of  Quaker  parentage, 
he  entered  his  father's  business  at  the  age  of  16.  Though 
he  had  taken  part  in  the  Reform  movement,  he  first 
became  prominent  along  with  his  friend  Cobden  in  the 
anti-corn  law  agitation ;  entered  parliament  for  Durham, 
being  afterwards  returned  for  Manchester,  and  losing 
that  seat  through  his  opposition  to  the  Crimean  War. 
In  1857,  he  was  returned  for  Birmingham,  holding  that 
seat  till  his  death.  He  joined  Mr.  Gladstone's  govern- 
rnent  which  disestablished  the  Irish  Church,  but  opposed 
his  Home  Rule  policy  in  1886,  dying  in  the  unshaken 
conviction  that  it  was  a  fatal  error.  As  a  master  of 
really  pure  Saxon  English,  in  all  its  power  and  pathos, 
Mr.  Bright  was  never  surpassed,  and  his  speeches  are 
worthy  attentive  study  on  that  account  alone.  Died, 
March  27,  1889. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  a  gallant  British  officer.  In  1812, 
when  an  American  army,  under  General  Hull,  invaded 
Canada,  the  measures  adopted  by  Brock  were  so  effectual 
that  the  Americans  surrendered  without  striking  a  blow. 
He  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fame  he  had  won.  An  affair 
occurred  at  Queenstown,  in  October  the  same  year,  in 
which  he  lost  his  life. 

Bronte,  Charlotte,  born  in  1816;  English  authoress, 
the  eldest  of  the  three  Bronte  sisters.  After  some  ex- 
perience as  a  governess  she  became  engaged  with  her 
sisters  in  the  writing  of  novels,  and  in  1846  published 
with  them  a  small  volume  of  poems  under  the  names  of 
Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell;  In  1847  she  published 
the  well-known  story,  "Jane  Eyre."  Its  success  was 
instantaneous  and  complete.  Although  adversely  and 
severely  criticised,  it  was  and  is  admitted  to  be  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  English  novels.  Her  second 
story,  "Shirley,"  was  published  in  1849,  and  her  third 
and  last,  "Villette,"  in  1853.  Another  story,  "The 
Professor,"  which  had  been  refused  by  the  publisher 
before  "Jane  Eyre"  had  made  its  authoress  famous, 
was  published  after  her  death.  In  June,  1854,  she 
married  the  Rev.  Mr.  NichoUs,  who  had  been  for  a  time 
her  father's  curate.  But  soon  after  her  marriage,  con- 
sumption, which  had  carried  off  her  sisters  and  brothers, 
settled  on  her,  and  she  died  in  her  fortieth  year  (1855). 

Brooke,  Rev.  Stopford  A.,  M.  A.,  was  born  in  1832. 
Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated 
(1856),  winning  the  Downe  prize  and  Vice-Chancellor's 
medal  for  English  verse.  He  was  formerly  chaplain  to 
Queen  Victoria  and  to  the  princess  royal  of  Germany. 
From  1876  to  1894  Brooke  was  minister  of  Bedford 
Chapel,  Bloomsbury;  because  he  could  not  accept  the 
orthodox  views  on  miracles,  he  seceded  from  the  Church 
of  England,  1880.  In  1895,  however,  after  a  lengthy 
illness,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  retire  from  his 
post.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works,  among  which 
are  "Life  and  Letters  of  the  late  F.  W.  Robertson,"  a 
"Primer  of  English  Literature,"  "The  Early  Life  of 
Jesus,"  several  volumes  of  sermons,  a  volume  of  poems, 
"History  of  English  Poetry,"  a  work  on  "Early  English 
Literature,"  "The  Old  Testament  and  Modern  Life," 
and  a  book  on  Browning. 

Brougham,  Henry,  Liord  Brougham  and  Vaux 
{hrdo'dm),  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1778,  and  educated  at 
the  high  school  and  university  of  that  city,  was  admitted 
to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1800.  Excluded  from  promotion 
in  Scotland  by  his  liberal  principles,  he  joined  the  Eng- 
lish bar  in  1808,  speedily  acquired  a  reputation  as  a 
lawyer  for  the  defense  in  Crown  libel  actions,  and  by 
his  eloquence  in  the  cause  of  Queen  Caroline,  1820. 
Died,  1868. 

Brown,  Henry  Billings,  associate  justice  of  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  1890-1906;  born  in  South  Lee, 
Mass.,  March  2,  1836;  graduate  of  Yale,  1856;  studied 
law  in  private  office;  attended  lectures  at  Yale  and 
Harvard  law  schools.  Deputy  United  States  marshal, 
1861-63;  assistant  United  States  attorney  for  eastern 
district  of  Michigan,  1863-68;  then  for  a  few  months, 
to  fill  a  vacancy,  judge  State  Circuit  Court  of  Wayne 
County;  practiced  law  in  Detroit  until  1875;  United 
States  judge  for  eastern  district  of  Michigan,  1875-90. 
Compiler  of  Brown's  Admiralty  Reports. 

Brown,  John,  an  American  slavery  abolitionist,  born 
in  1800,  settled  in  Kansas,  and  resolutely  opposed  the 
project  of  making  it  a  slave  State.  In  the  interest  of 
emancipation,  with  a  small  band,  he  seized  on  the 
State  armory  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  hope  of  a  rising,  en- 
trenched himself  armed  in  it,  was  surrounded,  seized, 
tried,  and  hanged  in  1859. 

Brown-Sequard,  Edward,  born  in  1818;  American 
physician  and  physiologist,  was  appointed  successively 
professor  of  pathology  at  Harvard,  professor  to  the 
Faculty   of   Medicine   at   Paris,   and   succeeded   Claude 


412 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Bernard  in  the  chair  of  experimental  medicine  at  the 
College  of  France.  He  published  two  important  series 
of  lectures  on  the  "Paralysis  of  the  Lower  Extremities" 
and  on  "Nervous  Affections."     Died,  1894. 

Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  a  humorist  and  satirist, 
known  by  the  pseudonym  of  "Artemus  Ward,"  was 
born  in  Maine,  United  States,  in  1834.  His  first  literary 
effort  was  as  "showman"  to  an  imaginary  traveling 
menagerie.  He  traveled  over  America  lecturing,  carry- 
ing with  him  a  whimsical  panorama  as  affording  texts 
for  his  numerous  jokes,  which  he  took  with  him  to  Lon- 
don, and  exhibited  with  the  same  accompaniment  with 
unbounded  success.  Browne  spent  some  time  among 
the  Mormons,  and  defined  their  religion  as  singular, 
but  their  wives  plural.     Died,  1867. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  a  physician  and  reUgious 
thinker,  born  in  London  in  1605,  resided  at  Norwich 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  died  there  in  1682.  He 
was  knighted  by  Charles  II.;  "waa,"  Professor  Saints- 
bury  says,  "the  greatest  prose  writer  perhaps,  when  all 
things  are  taken  together,  in  the  whole  range  of  Eng- 
lish." His  principal  works  are  "Religio  Medici,"  "In- 
quiries into  Vulgar  Errors,"  and  "  Hydriotaphia,  or 
Urn-Burial,  a  Discourse  of  the  Sepulchral  Urns  Found 
in  Norfolk,"  all  of  the  very  first  importance  in  English 
literature. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett  (broun'lng),  one  of 
the  greatest  of  English  poets,  born  in  1806;  she 
married  the  poet  Robert  Browning,  with  whom  she  took 
up  her  residence  in  Italy.  Her  principal  works  are 
"Aurora  Leigh,"  "Lady  Geraldine's  Courtship,"  "Casa 
Guidi  Windows,"  and  "Poems  Before  Congress."  Died, 
1861. 

Browning,  Robert,  an  English  poet,  born  in  1812; 
married  131izabeth  Barrett  in  1846,  and  afterward  re- 
sided in  Paris  and  Italy.  His  poems  are  numerous  and 
of  much  power,  but  notable  for  their  obscurity.  Died, 
1889. 

Bruce,  David,  born  in  1324;  King  of  Scotland,  and 
son  and  successor  of  Robert  Bruce.  The  invasion  of 
Scotland  by  Edward  III.  forced  him  to  fly  to  France; 
but  he  returned  during  the  war  between  France  and 
England.  He  invaded  England,  but  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  He  was  ransomed  for  £100,000.  Died, 
1371. 

Bruce,  Edward,  brother  of  Robert  Bruce,  fought 
with  great  bravery  in  the  war  against  the  English,  and  in 
1315,  Deing  offered  the  crown  of  Ireland,  he  went  to  that 
country,  maintaining  his  position  with  great  success. 
He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  English  in  1318. 

Brumm'el,  Beau,  born  in  London,  in  1778;  in  his 
day  the  prince  of  dandies,  was  patronized  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.;  quarreled  with  the 
prince;  fled  from  his  creditors  to  Calais,  where,  reduced 
to  destitution,  he  lived  some  years  in  the  same  reckless 
fashion.  He  settled  at  length  in  Caen,  where  he  died 
insane  in  1840. 

Brutus,  Decimus  Junius  Alblnus,  one  of  the 
assassins  of  Julius  Caesar.  After  the  murder  of  the 
consul,  he  was  besieged  in  Mutina  by  Mark  Antony, 
but  drove  off  the  enemy.  Crossing  into  Macedonia, 
he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  Antony  and  put  to 
death  (43  B.  C).  ,      ^ 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  a  Roman  consul.  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,  having  put  the  father  and  brother 
of  Brutus  to  death,  Brutus  feigned  madness,  until  the 
rape  of  I,ucretia,  when  he  excited  the  populace  to  insur- 
rection, and  drove  Tarquinius  from  the  city.  He  and 
Collatinus  were  appointed  consuls  together,  and  in  this 
capacity  Brutus  ordered  the  execution  of  his  own  sons 
for  complicity  in  a  conspiracy.  He  was  killed  by  Tar- 
quinius's  son.     Died  about  507  B.  C. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  born  in  85  B.  C;  the 
nephew  of  Cato  of  Utica,  sided  with  Pompey  against 
Caesar,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  retired  to  liter- 
ary pursuits.  Caesar  made  him  governor  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  but  he  joined  the  conspirators  who  murdered  the 
consul.  After  the  assassination  he  collected  troops  in 
Macedonia,  and  assuming  the  title  of  imperator,  rav- 
aged Rhodes  and  Lydia.  In  42  B.  C,  he  and  Cassius 
were  defeated  by  Octavius  Caesar  and  Mark  Antony, 
when  Brutus  committe4  suicide. 

Bruyere  (.bru-yare'),  Jolui  de  la,  a  distinguished 
French  writer,  born  in  1645.  He  wrote  dialogues  on 
quietism,  and  translated  the  characters  of  Theophrastus 
from  the  Greek.     He  died  in  1696. 

Bryan,  William  Jennings,  editor  and  publicist; 
born  in  Salem,  111., March  19, 1860;  early  education  in  pub- 
lic schools  and  Whipple  Academy;  graduate  of  Illinois 
College,  Jacksonville,  1881;  Union  College  of  Law,  Chi- 
cago, 1883.  Practiced  at  Jacksonville,  111.,  1883-87; 
then  at  Lincoln,  Neb.;  member  of  Congress,  1891-95; 
received  Democratic  vote  for  United  States  senator  in 


Nebraska  Legislature,  1893;  nominated  in  Democratic 
convention  for  United  States  senator,  1894,  but  was 
defeated  in  legislature  by  John  M.  Thurston;  editor 
of  Omaha  ".World-Herald,"  1894-96;  delegate  to 
National  Democratic  Convention,  1896;  wrote  the 
"silver  plank"  in  its  platform,  made  a  notable  speech, 
and  was  nominated  for  president  of  United  States, 
traveled  over  18,000  miles  during  campaign,  speaking 
at  almost  every  stopping  place;  received  176  electoral 
votes  against  271  for  William  McKinley.  In  1897-98 
he  lectured  on  bimetallism;  raised  in  May,  1898,  the 
3d  Regiment  of  Nebraska  Volunteer  Infantry  for  war 
against  Spain,  becoming  its  colonel.  Nominated  for 
president  in  1900  by  Democratic,  Populist,  and  Silver 
Republican  conventions;  he  made  an  active  canvass, 
but  was  again  defeated  by  William  McKinley;  after  the 
election,  he  established  a  weekly  political  magazine,  "The 
Commoner."  He  was  again  nominated  for  president  in 
1908,  and,  after  a  notable  campaign,  was  defeated  by 
W.  H.  Taft.  Author:  "The  First  Battle,"  "Under 
Other  Flags,"  also  many  articles  in  magazines  and 
newspapers. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  born  in  1794;  American 
poet  and  historian,  when  about  nineteen  published  his 
poem,  "Thanatopsis,"  which  attracted  much  attention; 
and  in  1825  he  became  editor  of  several  periodicals  in 
New  York.  Having  several  times  visited  Europe,  he 
wrote  his  ",  Letters  of  a  Traveler  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica"; for  more  than  thirty  years  he  acted  as  editor  of 
the  "New  York  Evening  Post,"  and  wrote  much  poetry, 
as  well  as  many  other  prose  works*     Died,  1878. 

Bryce,  Rt.  Hon.  James,  was  born  in  1838:  educated 
at  Glasgow  University  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford 
(Craven  and  Vinerian  Scholar);  Fellow  of  Oriel,  1862; 
Honorary  Fellow  of  Trinity  College;  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D., 
F.  R.  S. ;  D.  L.  City  of  Aberdeen;  member  of  Institute 
of  France  and  of  the  Royal  Academies  of  Turin,  Stock- 
holm, Naples,  and  Brussels,  and  of  the  Royal  Accademia 
of  the  Lincei  at  Rome;  P.  C. ;  called  to  the  bar,  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1867;  regius  professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford  Uni- 
versity, 1870-93;  M.  P.  for  Tower  Hamlets,  1880-85, 
and  for  South  Aberdeen,  1885-1907;  under-secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  for  five  months  in  1886;  chancellor 
of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  1892-94,  and  March  to  May, 
1894;  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  1894-95;  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland,  1905-07.  He  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  the  United  States  of  America,  December 
31,  1906.  He  has  taken  a  deep  interest  in  the 
condition  of  the  Eastern  Christians  and  their  eman- 
cipation from  Turkish  misrule.  He  strongly  opposed 
the  war  in  South  Africa,  and  the  Education  Act  of  1902. 
Author  of  "The  Holy  Roman  Empire,"  "Transcaucasia 
and  Ararat,"  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  "Im- 
pressions of  South  Africa,"  "Studies  in  History  and 
Jurisprudence,"  and  "Studies  in  Contemporary  Biog- 
raphy." 

Buchanan,  James,  fifteenth  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Franklin  County,  Pa.,  April  23, 
1791;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1812;  member  of  Congress, 
1821-31;  minister  to  Russia,  1832-34;  United  States 
Senator,  1834-45;  secretary  of  state,  1845-49;  minister 
to  England,  1853-56;  signed  Ostend  Manifesto,  1854; 
president,  1857-61.  His  administration  was,  on  the 
whole,  unpopular.     He  died  on  June  1,  1868. 

Buck,  Dudley,  organist,  composer;  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  1839;  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Leipzig 
Conservatory  of  Music,  and  at  Dresden  and  Paris;  for 
several  years  organist  Music  Hall,  Boston;  organist 
Holy  Trinity  Church,  Brooklyn;  director  and  organist 
Apollo  Club,  twenty-five  years;  retired,  1903.  Composer 
of  orchestral,  organ,  and  vocal  music.     Died,  1909. 

Bucltle,  Henry  Thomas,  born  in  1821;  historian. 
In  1857  the  first  volume  of  his  "History  of  Civilization 
in  Europe"  appeared,  and  was  very  well  received.  The 
second  volume,  published  in  1861,  found,  too,  an  appre- 
ciative public,  but  in  1862  his  health  gave  way,  and  he 
died  in  1862,  leaving  his  work  uncompleted. 

Buckley,  James  Monroe,  editof  "New  York  Chris- 
tian Advocate"  since  1880;  born  in  Rahway,  N.  J., 
December  16,  1836;  educated  at  Pennington,  N.  J., 
Seminary,  and  one  year  at  Wesleyan  University;  studied 
theology  at  Exeter,  N.  H.;  joined  New  Hampshire 
conference,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  1859;  went 
to  Detroit,  1863;  Brooklyn,  1866;  pastor  in  vicinity  of 
New  York  until  1880.  Author:  "Oats  or  Wild  Oats," 
"Faith  Healing."  "Christian  Science  and  Kindred  Phe- 
nomena," "(Christians  and  the  Theater,"  "The  Land  of 
the  Czar  and  the  Nihilist,"  "Travels  in  Three  Continents 
—  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,"  "History  of  Methodism  in  the 
United  States,"  '.Extemporaneous  Oratory  for  Profes- 
sional and  Amateur  Speakers,"   "Supposed  Miracles." 

Buddha  (Jhod'dd),  "the  wise  or  enlightened,"  is  the 
sacred  name  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  who  appears 


BIOGRAPHY 


413 


to  have  lived  in  the  Sixth  Century  B.  C.  He  was 
born  a  Hindu,  of  an  intensely  contemplative  nature, 
the  son  of  a  king,  who  did  everything  in  his  power  to 
tempt  him  from  a  religious  life,  from  which,  however, 
in  his  contemplation  of  the  vanity  of  existence  nothing 
could  detain  him;  retired  into  solitude  at  the  age  of  30, 
as  Sakyamuni,  i.  e.,  splitary  of  the  Sakyas,  his  tribe; 
consulted  religious  books,  could  get  no  good  out  of  them, 
till,  by-and-by,  he  abstracted  himself  more  and  more 
from  everything  external,  when  at  the  end  of  ten  years, 
as  he  sat  brooding  under  the  Bo-tree  alone  with  the 
universe,  soul  with  soul,  the  light  of  truth  rose  full- 
orbed  upon  him,  and  he  called  himself  henceforth  and 
gave  himself  out  as  Buddha.  "Now,"  he  said  to  him- 
self, "1  know  it  all,"  as  Mohammed  in  his  way  did  after 
him,  and  became  a  preacher  to  others  of  what  had  proved 
salvation  to  himself,  which  he  continued  to  do  for  forty 
years,  leaving  behind  him  disciples,  who  went  forth  with- 
out sword,  like  Christ's,  to  preach  what  they,  like  Christ's, 
believed  was  a  gospel  to  every  creature. 

Biiffon  (boof'-fong),  Georges  Louis  Leclerc,  Count 
de,  an  eminent  French  naturalist,  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  of  that  of  sciences;  was  born  in  1707. 
His  "Natural  History,"  which  appeared  in  1749,  gave 
him  fame,  combining  in  an  eminent  degree  reason,  elo- 
quence, and  research.  Other  works  from  his  pen  ob- 
tained great  applause.  He  professed  to  be  a  materialist. 
In  1739,  he  was  named  Intendant  of  the  Jardin  Royal 
des  Plantes.     Died,  1788. 

Bull,  Ole  Bomemann,  famous  violinist;  born  in 
Bergen,  in  Norway,  1810;  he  secured  great  triumphs 
both  throughout  Europe  and  in  America  oy  his  wonder- 
ful playing.  He  lost  all  his  money  in  a  scheme  to  found 
a  colony  of  his  countrymen  in  Pennsylvania,  and  had  to 
take  again  to  his  violin  to  repair  his  broken  fortunes. 
He  afterwards  settled  down  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and 
had  also  a  summer  residence  in  Norway,  where  he  died 
in  1880. 

Duller,  Sir  Redvers,  born  in  1839;  soldier,  first  saw 
service  in  the  China  War  of  1860.  In  1870  he  took  part 
in  the  Red  River  expedition,  and  in  1874  in  the  Ashantee 
War.  In  1879  he  was  sent  on  special  service  to  the  Cape, 
held  command  of  the  Frontier  Light  Horse  in  the  Kaffir 
War  of  1878-79,  and  served  with  great  gallantry  in  the 
Zulu  War.  He  was  present  at  Tel-el-Kebir,  at  El  Teb 
and  Tamai,  and  accompanied  the  Nile  expedition  of 
1884.  In  1890,  he  succeeded  Lord  Wolseley  as  adjutant- 
general.     Was  prominent  in  the  Boer  War.     Died,  1908. 

BUlovtr,  Friedrich  Wllhelm  von,  born  in  1755; 
Prussian  general,  obtained  field  marshal's  rank  in  1813, 
and  by  the  victory  at  Lukan  saved  Berlin  from  the 
French.  His  victories  at  Grossbeeren  and  Dennewitz 
over  Oudinot  and  Ney  respectively  twice  again  saved 
the  Prussian  capital  at  critical  moments.  He  was  present 
at  Leipzig,  and  in  command  of  the  right  wing  of  the  allies 
he  occupied  the  low  countries.  In  1814  he  marched  into 
France,  and  he  was  in  command  during  the  Waterloo 
campaign.     Died  in  1816. 

Bunyan,  John  (bun'y&n),  author  of  the  celebrated 
allegories,  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  "Holy  War"; 
born  in  England,  1628,  was  when  young  dissipated,  but 
in  early  manhood  reformed  and  joined  the  Baptists, 
becoming  so  zealous  as  to  invite  persecution.  He  was 
sentenced  to  transportation  on  a  charge  of  promoting 
seditious  assemblies,  but  sentence  was  not  enforced; 
was,  however,  imprisoned  for  more  than  twelve  years, 
and  during  that  time  wrote  his  "Pilgrim's  Progress." 
Died  1688. 

Burbank,  Luther,  naturalist,  originator  of  new  fruits 
and  flowers;  born  in  Lancaster,  Mass.,  March  7,  1849; 
boyhood  on  farm;  educated  at  Lancaster  Academy; 
always  devoted  to  study  of  nature,  especially  plant  life. 
Moved  to  Santa  Rosa,  Cal.,  1875;  conducts  Burbank's 
Experiment  Farms.  Originator  of  the  Burbank  potato ; 
gold,  Wickson,  apple,  October  purple,  chalco,  Amer- 
ica, and  climax  plums;  giant,  splendor,  sugar,  and 
stoneless  prunes;  a  new  fruit,  the  plumcot;  peachblow. 
Burbank,  and  Santa  Rosa  roses;  gigantic  forms  of 
amaryllis,  tigridias,  the  Shasta  daisy,  giant  and  fra- 
grance callas;  and  various  new  apples,  peaches,  nuts, 
berries,  and  other  valuable  trees,  fruits,  flowers,  grasses, 
grains,  and  vegetables. 

Burdett-Coutts,  Angela  Georgina,  Baroness, 
born  in  1814;  the  daughterof  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  suc- 
ceeded in  1837  to  the  great  wealth  of  her  grandfather, 
Mr.  Thomas  Coutts.  The  Shoe-black  Brigade,  the  Nova 
Scotia  Gardens,  model  lodging  houses,  and  Columbia 
Market  are  of  her  foundation.  The  poor  and  the  dis- 
tressed at  home  and  abroad  had  a  constant  bene- 
factress in  her;  the  east-end  weavers,  the  Irish  fishermen 
of  Cape  Clear,  the  Turkish  peasantry  after  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War,  are  among  those  who  received  her  help. 
In   1871,  the  queen  made  Miss  Coutts  a  peeress,  and 


in  1881  the  baroness  married  Mr.  William  Ashmead- 
Bartlett.     Died,  1906. 

Bun;ess,  John  William,  educator;  born  in  Coners- 
ville,  Giles  County,  Tenn.,  August  26,  1844;  attended 
Cumberland  University,  Lebanon,  Tenn.;  graduate  of 
Amherst,  1867.  Admitted  to  bar,  Springfield,  Mass., 
1869;  professor  of  English  literature  and  political  econ- 
omy, Knox  College,  1869-71;  studied  history,  public 
law  and  political  science,  Gottingen,  Leipzig,  Berlin, 
1871-73;  professor  history  and  political  science,  Am- 
herst, 1873-76;  professor  political  science  and  consti- 
tutional law  since  1876,  dean  faculty  of  political  science 
since  1890,  Columbia  University.  Author:  "Political 
Science  and  Comparative  Constitutional  Law "  (2  vol- 
umes), "The  Middle  Period,"  "The  Civil  War  and  the 
Constitution"  (two  volumes),  "Reconstruction  and  the 
Constitution,"  contributor  to  reviews  on  historical, 
political  and  legal  topics. 

Burgoyne,  John,  General  {hur-goin'),  an  English 
officer  m  the  American  Revolution,  was  defeated  and 
surrendered  his  army  to  General  Gates  at  Saratoga,  in 
1777.     Born,  1722  ;    died,  1792. 

Burke,  Edmund,  born  in  1729;  statesman  and 
orator;  an  Irishman  by  birth;  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  Going  to  London,  he  attracted  at- 
tention by  his  essays  on  the  "Sublime  and  Beautiful," 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature,  founding  in  1759 
"The  Annual  Register."  In  1761  he  became  private 
secretary  to  Hamilton,  the  new  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land; and  served  Lord  Rockingham  in-the  same  capacity 
when  that  nobleman  became  prime  minister.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Wendover,  and  his  speeches 
on  American  affairs  created  a  great  sensation  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  His  position  in  political  life  was 
raised  still  higher  by  the  pamphlets  which  he  wrote  on 
current  questions.  Returned  for  Malton,  he  produced 
in  1780  his  great  plan  of  economical  reform;  and  in  1782 
he  became  paymaster  under  Lord  Rockingham's  govern- 
ment. He  again  took  office  in  the  Duke  of  Portland's 
coalition  ministry,  when  he  made  his  famous  speech  on 
the  India  bill.  In  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings, 
Burke  played  a  leading  part,  his  opening  speech  extend- 
ing over  four  days.  The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion was  the  occasion  of  one  of  his  finest  efforts  of  oratory. 
Burke's  attitude  in  this  matter  severed  his  friendship 
with  Fox,  and  he  seceded  from  the  Whig  party.  In  1794, 
he  retired  from  parliamentary  life,  though  he  continued  to 
produce  his  pamphlets  on  political  affairs.  Died,  1797. 

Burleigh  (bur'le),  William  Cecil,  Lord,  prime 
minister  of  England  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  born 
in  1520,  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of 
his  time.     Died,  1598. 

Burlingame  (bu/llng-dm),  Anson,  an  American 
diplomatist;  born  in  Chenango  County,  N.  Y.,  1820. 
He  was  elected  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans 
of  the  fifth  district  of  Massachusetts,  in  1854-56-58. 
In  1861,  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  China,  and,  in  1867, 
appointed  ambassador  from  China  to  the  United  States 
and  to  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  In  1868  he  visited 
this  country  at  the  head  of  a  Chinese  embassy,  and  con- 
cluded a  liberal  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
China,  which  was  promptly  ratified  by  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernmeot.  The  embassy  afterwards  visited  London, 
Paris,  Berlin,  and  lastly  St.  Petersburg,  where  Burlingame 
suddenly  died,  February,  1870. 

Bume-Jones,  Edward,  born  in  1833;  painter,  early 
fell  under  the  influence  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  Brother- 
hood, and  his  paintings  are  marked  by  the  mediaevalism 
and  realism  of  that  school.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1885.     Died,  1898. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  author,  playwright; 
born  (Frances  Eliza  Hodgson),  Manchester,  England, 
November  24,  1849;  family  moved,  1865,  to  Knoxville, 
Tenn.;  began  writing  for  magazines,  1867;  married  Dr. 
L.  M.  Burnett,  1873;  settled  in  Washington,  1875;  ob- 
tained divorce,  1898;  married  second  time,  1900,  Stephen 
Townesend,  English  surgeon.  Author  (novels):  "That 
Lass  o'  Lowrie's,"  "Dolly,  a  Love  Story,"  "Kathleen," 
"Surly  Tim  and  Other  Stories"  1877;  "Haworth's," 
"Louisiana,"  "A  Fair  Barbarian,"  "Through  One  Ad- 
ministration," "Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,"  "Editha's 
Burglar,"  "Sara  Crewe,"  "  Little  Saint  Elizabeth,"  "Two 
Little  Pilgrims'  Progress,"  "The  Pretty  Sister  of  Jos^," 
"A  Lady  of  Quality,"  "His  Grace  of  Ormonde,"  "The 
Captain's  Youngest,"  "In  Connection  with  the  De  Will- 
oughby  Claim,"  "The  Making  of  a  Marchioness,"  "The 
Little  Unfairy  Princess,"  "A  Little  Princess."  Plays: 
"Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,"  "Phyllis,"  "The  Showman's 
Daughter,"  "Esmeralda,"  "The  First  Gentleman  of 
Europe,"  "Nixie"  (with  Stephen  Townesend),  "A  Lady 
of  Quality"  (with  same). 

Bums,  Robert,  born  in  1759;  Scottish  poet ;  was  the 
son  of  an  Ayrshire  farmer,  and  with  his  brothers  worked 


414 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


on  the  farm.  His  first  volume  of  poems  was  published 
in  1786,  and  attracted  much  attention.  Burns  being 
invited  to  Edinburgh  and  made  much  of  by  literary  so- 
ciety. At  this  time  he  was  on  the  point  of  emigrating  to 
Jamaica.  In  1788  he  married  Jean  Armour,  and  in  1789 
became  an  excise  officer,  as  well  as  a  farmer  in  Dumfries- 
shire. In  1791,  farming  not  being  profitable,  he  re- 
moved to  Dumfries,  where  he  continued  his  post  in  the 
excise,  and  wrote  poems  for  the  Edinburgh  publishers. 
The  irregularities  which  had  marked  his  earlier  life  re- 
turned in  his  later  days,  and  accelerated  his  death  in  1796. 

Bumslde,  Ambrose  Everett,  born  in  1824;  general 
in  the  United  States  Army,  early  distinguished  himself 
in  border  warfare,  and  in  the  Civil  War  was  present  at 
the  battles  of  Bull  Run,  South  Mountain,  and  Antietam. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  Confederates  at  Petersburg,  but 
held  command  of  the  ninth  army  corps,  under  Grant, 
until  Lee's  surrender.     Died,  1881. 

Burr,  Aaron,  born  in  1756;  a  vice-president  of  the 
United  States,  distinguished  himself  in  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. In  1807  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  con- 
spiracy. It  was  supposed  that  he  aimed  to  separate 
the  Western  States  from  the  Union  and  annex  them  to 
Mexico,  but  he  was  acquitted.  Going  to  Europe,  he 
was  ordered  to  leave  England  for  endeavoring  to  pro- 
mote a  filibustering  expedition  against  Mexico.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in  1812,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  retirement.     Died,  1836. 

BurrouKhs,  John,  essayist;  born  in  Roxbury,  N.  Y., 
Aprils,  1837;  academic  education ;  taught  school  about 
eight  years;  treasury  clerk,  1864-73;  national  bank  ex- 
aminer, 1873-84;  since  1874  has  lived  on  a  farm,  devot- 
ing his  time  to  literature  and  fruit  culture.  Author: 
"Wake-Robin,"  "Signs  and  Seasons,"  "Pepacton," 
"Riverby,"  "Birds  and  Poets,"  "Winter  Sunshine," 
"Locusts  and  Wild  Honey,"  "Fresh  Fields,"  "Indoor 
Studies,"  "Whitman,  a  Study,"  "The  Light  of  Day," 
"Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers,"  "Literary  Values," 
"Far  and  Near,"  etc. 

Burrows,  Julius  C,  former  United  States  senator, 
lawyer;  born  in  Northeast,  Erie  County,  Pa.,  Janua^'  9, 
1837;  academic  education ;  entered  law  practice;  officer 
in  the  Union  Army,  1862-64;  prosecuting  attorney,  Kal- 
amazoo County,  1865-67;  was  appointed,  1867,  super- 
visor internal  revenue  for  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  de- 
clined; tendered  office  of  solicitor  of  the  treasury  and 
declined;  member  Congress,  1873-75,  1879-83,  1885-95; 
twice  elected  speaker  pro  tem;  United  States  senator, 
1895-99,  unexpired  term  of  Francis  B.  Stockbridge,  de- 
ceased; re-elected  for  term  1899-1905,  and  re-elected  for 
term  1905-1911,  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  legislature. 

Burton,  Theodore  E.,  congressman,  lawyer;  born 
in  Jefferson,  O.,  December  20,  1851 ;  son  of  Rev.  William 
arid  Elizabeth  (Grant)  Burton;  graduate  of  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, 1 872 ;  admitted  to  bar,  1875 ;  since  then  in  practice  at 
Cleveland;  member  Congress,  1889-91,  and  1895-1909, 
twenty-first  Ohio  district.  Republican;  United  States 
senator,  1909.  President  Grant  Family  Association  of 
the  United  States.  Author:  "Financial  Crises  and 
Periods  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Depression." 

But'ler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an  American  politician, 
born  in  New  Hampshire,  1818,  studied  law  and  settled 
in  Massachusetts,  where  he  became  recognized  as  the 
leading  Democrat  of  New  England.  A  delegate  to  the 
Charleston  and  Baltimore  nominating  conventions,  he 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  movement  which  nominated 
Breckenridge  and  divided  the  party.  He  promptly 
entered  the  service  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
had  command  of  the  departments  of  the  Gulf  and  of  the 
South  Atlantic,  acquiring  no  military  fame  but  great 
notoriety  for  his  arbitrary  civil  regulations.  Elected  to 
Congress  by  the  Massachusetts  Republicans  in  1866  and 
1868,  but  defeated  in  1874,  he  deserted  that  party,  and 
in  1882  was  elected  governor  by  the  Democrats;  renomi- 
nated in  1883,  he  was  defeatecl.     Died,  1893. 

Butler,  Samuel,  born  in  1612;  English  satirist;  in 
his  seventeenth  year  became  attached  to  the  household 
of  the  Countess  of  Kent,  when  he  frequently  attended 
meetings  at  the  house  of  a  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  a  strict 
Puritan  and  Parliamentarian.  The  experiences  of  this 
time  furnished  him  with  the  material  for  his  famous  work, 
"Hudibras,"  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1663, 
and  achieved  the  widest  popularity.  Two  other  parts 
of  the  work  appeared  at  intervals,  but  of  Butler's  life 
during  that  time  little  is  known.     Died,  1680. 

By'ron,  George  Gordon,  sixth  lord;  an  English 
poet;  was  born  in  London,  1788;  son  of  Captain  Byron 
of  the  Guards  and  Catherine  Gordon  of  Gight,  Aberdeen- 
shire. He  spent  his  boyhood  at  Aberdeen,  under  his 
mother,  and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge, 
spending,  when  at  the  latter,  his  vacations  in  London, 
where  his  mother  had  taken  a  house.     He  wrote  "Hours 


of  Idleness,"  a  poor  first  attempt,  which  called  forth  a 
severe  criticism  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  and  which 
he  satirized  in  "English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers," 
and  soon  afterwards  left  England  and  spent  two  years 
in  foreign  travel;  wrote  first  part  of  "Childe  Harold," 
"awoke  one  morning  and  found  himself  famous";  pro- 
duced the  "Giaour,"  "Bride  of  Abydos,"  "Hebrew 
Melodies,"  and  other  works.  In  his  scnool  days  he  had 
fallen  in  love  with  Mary  Chaworth,  but  she  had  not  re- 
turned his  affection,  and  in  1815  he  married  Miss  Mill- 
bank,  an  heiress,  who  in  a  year  left  him  never  to  return, 
when  a  storm  raised  against  him,  on  account  of  his  private 
life,  drove  him  from  England,  and  he  never  came  back. 
On  the  Continent,  moved  from  place  to  place,  he  finished 
"Childe  Harold,"  completed  several  short  poems,  and 
wrote  "Don  Juan";  threw  himself  into  revolutionary 
movements  in  Italy  and  Greece,  risked  his  all  in  the 
emancipation  of  the  latter,  and  embarking  in  it,  died  at 
Missolonghi,  in  1824,  in  a  fit,  at  the  age  of  36.  His  poems, 
from  the  character  .of  the  passion  that  breathed  in  them, 
made  a  great  impression  on  his  age. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  author;  born  in  New 
Orleans,  October  12,  1844;  educated  in  public  schools. 
Served  Fourth  Mississippi  Cavalry,  Confederate  States 
Army,  1863-65;  clerk  in  cotton  factor's  office;  for  a 
time  reporter  on  "New  Orleans  Picayune,"  1865-79; 
wrote  stories  for  "Scribner's  Monthly";  since  1879 
devoted  to  literature.  Author:  "Old  Creole  Days," 
"The  Grandissimes,"  "Madame  Delphine,"  "The  Creoles 
of  Louisiana,"  "Dr.  Sevier,"  "The  Silent  South,"  "Bo- 
naventure,"  "The  Negro  Question,"  "Strange  True 
Stories  of  Louisiana,"  "John  March,  Southerner," 
"Strong  Hearts,"  "The  Cavalier,"  "Byelow  Hill." 
Founded,  1887,  the  Home-Culture  Clubs  —  a  system  of 
small  clubs  designed  to  promote  more  cordial  relations 
between  divergent  ranks  of  society. 

Cabot  (ka'-bot),  John,  born  in  1450;  originally  a 
Venetian  pilot,  settled  in  Bristol  ab6ut  1472;  obtained 
letters  patent  from  Henry  VII.  to  discover  unknown 
lands,  sailed  with  his  sons  in  1497,  and  sighted  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland  or  Labrador,  and  Florida.  Died,  about 
1498. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  the  greatest  of  Roman  gen- 
erals. Elected  consul  60  B.  C;  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  Pompey  and  Crassus  known  as  the  first  trium- 
virate. Beginning  the  Gallic  War  in  58  B.  C,  he  sub- 
dued in  the  course  of  one  campaign  both  the  Helvetii 
and  the  Germans  under  Ariovistus.  Pompey  having 
become  his  enemy  through  jealousy,  Caesar  crossed  the 
Rubicon  49  B.  C,  and  in  a  short  time  became  master  of 
Italy;  having  conquered  all  his  enemies,  and  subdued 
Spam  and  Africa,  he  was  made  dictator  for  life,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  senate  the  title  of  Imperator.  Although 
beloved  by  the  masses,  the  patricians  feared  and  hated 
him,  and  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  of  Cassius,  Brutus 
and  others  was  his  assassination.     100-44  B.  C. 

Caine,  Hall,  was  born  of  Manx  parentage  in  1853, 
and  commenced  his  career  as  an  architect  in  Liverpool; 
then  joined  the  staff  of  the  "Liverpool  Mercury,"  and 
wrote  for  the  "Academy"  and  the  " Athenoeum."  Re- 
sided with  Dante  Ilossetti  in  London  till  the  poet's  death 
in  1882.  Published  "Sonnets  of  Three  Centuries," 
"Recollections  of  Rossetti,"  "The  Shadow  of  a  Crime," 
"A  Son  of  Hagar,"  "The  Deemster,"  "The  Bondman," 
"The  Scapegoat,"  "The  Manxman,"  "The  Christian," 
"The  Eternal  City,"  and  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  which 
was  published  in  nine  different  languages  on  the  same 
day.  Many  of  his  later  novels  have  been  dramatized 
successfully.  He  was  elected  to  the  Manx  House  of 
Keys  in  1901,  and  to  the  British  Parliament. 

Caird,  The  Rev.  John,  born  in  1820;  principal  of 
Glasgow  University;  an  eloquent  preacher  of  the  Scotch 
Established  Church;  published  sermons  and  "An  In- 
troduction to  the  Philosophy  of  Religion"  (1880), 
which  shows  the  influence  of  Hegel.     Died,  1898. 

Caimes,  John  Elliot,  born  in  1823;  professor  of 
political  economy  at  Queen's  College,  Galway,  and  after- 
wards at  University  College,  London;  wrote  "The  Logi- 
cal Method  of  Political  Economy,"  and  other  treatises 
marked  by  severe  precision  of  argument.     Died,  1875. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca,  Don  Pedro,  born  in  1600; 
Spanish  dramatist,  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Madrid,  and  the  University  of  Salamanca.  His  mind 
early  assumed  a  religious  cast,  first  shown  in  the  drama 
"La  Devocion  de  la  Cruz,"  written  at  the  age  of  18. 
While  serving  against  the  Milanese  in  the  Low  Countries 
he  wrote  the  "Siege  of  Breda,"  and  on  the  death  of  Lope 
de  Vega,  in  1635,  became  the  leading  poet  in  Spain.  In 
1651  he  took  holy  orders,  and  thenceforward  wrote  little 
else  thart  sacred  dramas,  or  "autos."     Died,  1681. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell,  born  in  1782;  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  effected  great  reforms  as  secretary 
of  war,  in  1817  and  in  1825  became  Vice-President  of  the 


BIOGRAPHY 


415 


United  States.  He  advocated  slavery  and  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Union.     Died,  1850. 

Caligula  (ka-lig'-u-la),  the  son  of  Germanicus  and 
Agrippina,  was  born  in  A.  D.  12.  He  was  named  by 
Tiberius  joint  heir  of  the  empire.  He  subsequently  be- 
came sole  emperor,  and  proved  a  great  tyrant.  In  the 
course  of  a  career  of  incestuous  debauchery  and  degrad- 
ing voluptuousness,  he  conceived  such  a  hatred  to  his 
subjects,  that  he  openly  expressed  a  wish  that  the  Roman 
people  had  but  a  single  neck,  in  order  that  he  might 
extirpate  them  at  a  blow.     He  was  murdered  in  41. 

Calvin,  John,  born  in  Noyon,  France,  in  1509; 
educated  at  the  colleges  of  La  Marche  and  Montaigu, 
Paris,  held  some  livings,  but  preferring  the  law,  he  did 
not  proceed  to  priest's  orders.  While  studying  law  at 
Bourges  he  learned  Greek,  and  on  reading  the  New 
Testament  became  a  Protestant.  He  removed  to  Paris, 
and  wrote  a  commentary  on  Seneca's  "Ue  dementia," 
but,  forced  by  persecution  to  leave  France,  took  refuge 
in  Basel.  In  15.36  appeared  his  ".Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion."  In  conjunction  with  Farel  he 
attempted  to  establish  a  kind  of  theocracy  at  Geneva, 
but  they  were  expelled  by  the  council  in  1538,  and 
retired  to  Zurich.  Passing  on  to  Strasburg,  Calvin 
became  pastor  to  the  French  refugees,  married,  and 
published  his  "Romans."  In  1541,  Calvin  was  invited 
back  to  Geneva.  The  theocratic  government  was  re- 
sumed, and  here  he  labored  till  his  death.  Calvin  did 
more  than  any  other  man  towards  formulating  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church.  The  opinions  on 
predestination  and  election  called  "Calvinistic,"  are 
rather  those  of  his  disciples  than  his  own.     Died,  1564. 

Cambaceres  (.kam-bH-sare'-ez),  Jean  Jacques,  Duke 
of  Parma,  was  born  in  Montpellier  in  1753.  He  was 
brought  up  to  the  legal  profession,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  French  Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for 
pronouncing  Louis  XVI.  guilty,  but  denied  the  right  of 
ttie  Convention  to  proceed  to  the  last  extremity,  and 
wished  that  the  unfortunate  monarch  might  be  detained 
in  prison,  and  only  put  to  death  in  case  of  invasion. 
He  was  afterwards  president  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  When 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  named  first,  Cambac^r&s  was 
made  second  consul.  During  the  hundred  days  after 
Bonaparte's  return,  he  was  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  He  left  France  when  the  Bourbons  were  a 
second  time  restored,  but  was  permitted  to  return. 
Died,  1824. 

Cambyses  (kam-by'-seez),  the  son  of  Cyrus,  King  of 
the  Persians,  succeeded  his  father  in  529  B.  C.  He 
conquered  Cyprus  and  Egypt.  At  Memphis,  he  caused 
the  bull  Apis  to  be  slaughtered  by  his  priests,  and 
leaving  Egypt  to  return  to  Persia,  he  died  at  Ecbatana 
of  a  wound  he  had  received  from  his  own  sword  when 
mounting  his  horse,  in  522  B.  C. 

Camoens,  Luiz  de  (k&m'o-enz),  the  greatest  of  Por- 
tuguese poets,  was  born  about  1524.  After  serving  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Moors,  in  which  he  lost  his  right 
eye,  he  sailed  for  India,  1553,  after  which  he  wrote  the 
"Lusiad"  the  great  poem  on  which  hia  fame  rests.  On 
his  return  from  exile,  he  suffered  shipwreck,  and  lost 
all  his  property  excepting  the  manuscript  of  his  epic. 
Died  at  Lisbon,  in  a  hospital,  1580. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  founder  of  the  sect  known 
as  the  '.Disciples  of  Christ";  born  near  B.allymena,  in 
County  Antrim,  Ireland,  September  12,  1788.  He  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  in  1809.  Though  at  first  a 
Presbyterian,  in  1812  he  formed  a  connection  with  the 
Baptists,  and  for  some  time  he  labored  as  an  itinerant 

Sreacher.  In  1826  he  published  a  translation  of  the 
ew  Testament,  in  which  the  words  "baptism"  and 
"baptist"  gave  place  to  "immersion"  and  "immerser." 
By  his  discussions  on  public  platforms,  and  his  serial 
publications,  as  well  as  his  assiduity  in  preaching  tours 
and  traming  young  men  for  the  ministry,  Campbell 
gradually  formed  a  large  party  of  followers,  who  began 
about  1827  to  form  themselves  into  a  sect  under  the 
designation  of  "The  Disciples  of  Christ."  In  1841, 
Campbell  founded  Bethany  College  in  West  Virginia, 
where  he  died,  March  4,  1866. 

Camp'bell,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  in  1777. 
His  reputation  rests  mainly  on  his  "Pleasures  of  Hope," 
and  "Gertrude  of  Wyoming."  As  a  writer  of  national 
songs  he  has  never  been  surpassed.     Died,  1844. 

Campbell-Bannerrtian,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Henry, 
prime  minister  of  Great  Britain,  was  born  in  1836. 
Educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge  (B.  A.  honors,  1858;  M.  A.,  1861);  financial 
secretary  in  war  office,  1871-74  and  1880-82;  secretary 
admiralty,  1882-84;  chief  secretary  of  Ireland,  1884-85; 
secretary  for  war,  1886  and  1892-95;  chosen  leader  of 
the    Liberal   Opposition   in   succession    to   Sir   William 


Harcourt,  February,  1899.  Notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ences between  Liberal  Imperialists  and  other  Liberals 
over  the  Boer  War,  a  unanimous  vote  of  confidence  in 
his  leadership  was  carried  at  a  meeting  of  the  Liberal 
party  held  at  the  Reform  Club,  July,  1901.  Again 
received  the  solid  support  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the 
House  in  1903,  1904,  and  1905.  On  the  resignation  of 
the  Balfour  administration  in  December,  1905,  he  was 
summoned  by  the  king  and  formed  a  Liberal  Cabinet 
himself  becoming  first  lord  of  the  -treasury  and  prime 
minister;  the  general  election  which  followed  gave  him 
a  tremendous  majority.     Died,  1908. 

Canning,  George  {k&n'nlng),  an  English  statesman 
and  orator,  born  in  London,  1770.  He  commenced  his 
career  at  the  bar,  but  being  brought  into  the  House  of 
Commons  by  Mr.  Pitt,  he  abandoned  the  law  for  politics. 
In  the  Portland  administration.  Canning  became  secre- 
tary of  state  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  largely  contributed 
in  that  capacity  to  the  overthrow  of  the  plans  of  Napo- 
leon. In  1816,  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Board 
of  Control  of  Indian  Affairs,  and,  in  1822,  foreign  secre- 
tary for  the  second  time.  On  the  death  of  Earl  of 
Liverpool,  Canning  became  first  minister  of  the  Crown, 
and  distinguished  his  government  by  the  liberal  tend- 
encies of  his  home  and  foreign  policy.     Died,  1827. 

Cannon,  Joseph  G.,  congressman,  lawyer;  born  in 
Guilford,  N.  C,  May  7,  1836;  admitted  to  Illinois  bar; 
State's  attorney,  Vermilion  County,  III.,  1861-68; 
member  of  Congress,  1873-91,  and  again  in  1893-1903, 
12th  Illinois  district,  and  1903-13,  18th  district;  chair- 
man of  Committee  on  Appropriations,  55th,  56th,  and 
57th  Congresses;  speaker  of  58th,  59th,  60th  and  61st 
Congresses.  • 

Canova  (kah-no'vah),  Antonio,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Italian  sculptors,  born  at  Possagno,  in  Venetia,  1757. 
Among  his  more  celebrated  works  are  the  "Venus  and 
Adonis,"  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  "Mary  Magdalen,"  etc. 
The  ruling  characteristic  of  his  style  is  sentiment  — 
sometimes,  indeed,  bordering  on  sentimentality.  Died, 
1822. 

Canute  the  Dane  {.kd-nnt'),  or  Cnut,  called  the 
Great,  son  of  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark,  was  born  in 
994.  He  invaded  England,  and  after  notable  successes 
was  chosen  sole  king  in  1017.  He  married  the  queen  of 
^thelred,  after  the  latter's  death,  and  conquered  Nor- 
way in  1028.  His  reign  was  that  of  a  statesman  and 
patriot.     Died,  1035. 

Capet,  Hugh  {k&'pd),  founder  of  the  third,  or  Cape- 
tian  dynasty  of  French  monarchs,  as  Count  of  Paris,  on 
the  death  of  Louis  V.,  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  usurped 
the  throne,  in  possession  of  which  he  was  confirmed  by 
a  confederacy  of  nobles.  The  race  of  Capet  has  given 
119  sovereigns  to  Europe,  thirty-six  kings  to  France, 
twenty-two  to  Portugal,  five  to  Spain,  eleven  to  Naples 
and  Sicily,  three  to  Hungary,  and  three  to  Navarre; 
three  emperors  to  the  East;  seventeen  dukes  to  Bur- 
gundy, thirteen  to  Brittany,  two  to  Lorraine,  and  four 
to  Parma.     Died  about  A.  D.  996. 

Capo-D'Istrla  (kd-po-dia' -tre-H) ,  John,  Count  of, 
a  Greek,  who  gained  distinction  as  a  diplomatist,  born 
at  CoA'u  in  1776.  His  father  was  a  physician,  and  be- 
came governor  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands  when  they 
were  occupied  by  -Russia.  John,  who  had  studied 
medicine  at  Venice,  entered  the  service  of  Russia;  and 
in  1813,  in  consideration  of  his  meritorious  labors,  the 
Emperor  Alexander  made  him  minister  for  foreign 
affairs.  In  1827,  he  was  made  president  of  the  new 
Greek  Government,  where  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  an 
assassin  in  1831. 

Caracalla,  a  Roman  emperor,  son  of  Septimius 
Severus,  born  in  Lyons;  his  reign  (211-217)  was  a 
series  of  crimes,  follies,  and  extravagances;  he  put  to 
death  20,000  persons,  among  others  the  jurist  Papinianus, 
and  was  assassinated  himself  by  one  of  his  guards. 

Carey,  Henry  Charles  (kd're),  an  American  polit- 
ical economist,  born  in  Philadelphia,  1793,  became  prin- 
cipal partner  in  the  great  publishing  firm  of  Carey  & 
Lea,  in  that  city,  and  was  the  first  to  establish  the  sys- 
tem of  bookseller's  trade  sales.  His  published  works 
are  voluminous,  and  well  known  in  their  relations  to 
trade,  finance,  and  political  economy.  Died,  October 
13,  1879. 

Carlisle,  John  GrifUn,  lawyer;  born  in  Campbell 
County,  Kentucky,  September  5,  1835;  common  school 
education;  admitted  to  Kentucky  bar,  1858;  several 
terms  in  Kentucky  Legislature;  State  senator,  1866-71; 
delegate  at  large,  National  Democratic  Convention, 
1868;  lieutenant-governor  of  Kentucky,  1871-75; 
member  of  Congress,  1877-91  (speaker,  1883-89); 
noted  low  tariff  advocate;  United  States  senator  from 
Kentucky,  1890-93;  secretary  of  treasury  of  United 
States,  1893-97;  Democrat;  affiliated  with  National 
(gold  standard)   Democrats,   1896;     after  1897,  in  law 


416 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Practice,  New  York.     Vice-president  of  Anti-Imperialist 
«ague  (Boston).     Died,  1910. 

Carlyle«  Thomas  (kdrlW),  an  eminent  English 
philosopher  and  historian,  born  in  1795,  and  wnose 
writings  have  done  much  to  impregnate  English  philos- 
ophy with  the  characteristic  tendencies  of  the  German 
school.  His  principal  works  are:  "Sartor  Resartus," 
".History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  "Hero  Worship, 
and  Other  Essays,"  ".Latter  Day  Pamphlets,"  "Life  of 
Frederick  the  Great."     Died,  February  5,  1881. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  capitalist,  manufacturer,  philan- 
thropist; born  in  Dunfermline,  Fifeshire,  Scotland, 
November  25,  1837;  came  with  family  to  United  States, 
1848,  settling  in  Pittsburg;  first  work  was  as  weaver's 
assistant  in  cotton  factory,  Allegheny,  Pa.;  became 
telegraph  messenger  boy  in  Pittsburg  office  of  Ohio 
Telegraph  Company,  1851 ;  learned  telegraphy,  entered 
employ  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  and  became  telegraph 
operator,  advancing  by  promotions  until  he  became 
superintendent  of  Pittsburg  division  of  Pennsylvania 
system;  joined  Mr.  Woodruff,  inventor  of  the  sleeping 
car,  in  organizing  Woodruff  Sleeping  Car  Company, 
gaining  through  it  nucleus  of  his  fortune;  careful 
investments  in  oil  lands  increased  his  means;  during 
Civil  War  served  as  superintendent  of  military  railways 
and  government  telegraph  lines  in  the  East.  After  the 
war  he  developed  iron  works  of  various  kinds  and  estab- 
lished, at  Pittsburg,  Keystone  Bridge  Works  and  Union 
Iron  Works.  Introduced  into  this  country  Bessemer 
process  of  making  steel,  1868;  was  principal  owner  a 
few  years  later  of  Homestead  and  Edgar  Thomson  Steel 
Works,  and  other  large  plants,  as  head  of  firms  of  Car- 
negie, Phipps  &  Company  and  Carnegie  Bros.  &  Company ; 
interests  were  consolidated,  1899,  in  the  Carnegie  Steel 
Company,  which,  in  1901,  was  merged  in  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  when  he  retired  from  business; 
married,    1887,   Louise  Whitfield,   of   New  York.     Has 

tiven  libraries  to  many  towns  and  cities  in  the  United 
tates  and  Great  Britain,  and  large  sums  in  other  bene- 
factions, including  $10,000,000  to  establish  universal 
peace;  $10,000,000  to  Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburg; 
$5,200,000  to  New  York  for  the  establishment  of 
branch  libraries;  $10,000,000  to  Carnegie  Institution, 
Washington;  $10,000,000  to  Scotch  universities;  $5,000,- 
000  to  fund  for  benefit  of  employes  of  Carnegie  Steel 
Company,  etc.,  total  about  $150,000,000,  including 
over  $40,000,000  for  nearly  1,500  municipal  library 
buildings,  and  $10,000,000  for  college  professors'  pension 
fund  in  United  States,  Canada,  and  Newfoundland. 
Author:  "An  American  Four-in-Hand  in  Britain," 
"Round  the  World,"  "Triumphant  Democracy,"  "The 
Gospel  of  Wealth,"  "Empire  of  Business."  Lord  rector 
of  St.  Andrew's  University,  190.3;    LL.  D.,  1905. 

Carnot  ikar-nd),  Leonard  Sadi,  son  of  Nicolas, 
founder  of  thermo-dynamics;  in  his  ".Reflexions  sur  la 
Puissance  du  Feu  "  enunciates  the  principle  of  Reversi- 
bility, considered  the  most  important  contribution  to 
physical  science  since  the  time  of  Newton  (1796-1832). 

Carpenter,  Frank  George,  journalist;  born  in 
Mansfield,  O.,  May  8,  1855;  graduate  of  Wooster  Uni- 
versity, 1877.  Began  newspaper  work  as  legislative 
correspondent  for  "Cleveland  Leader,"  at  Columbus, 
1879;  spent  1881  in  European  and  Egyptian  travel; 
Washington  correspondent  "Cleveland  Leader,"  1882; 
correspondent  American  Press  Association,  1884;  also, 
1887,  correspondent  for  "New  York  World";  trip 
round  the  world  for  newspaper  syndicate  and  "(Cosmo- 
politan" magazine,  1888-89;  newspaper  tour  to  Mexico, 
1891;  to  Russia,  Germany,  and  England,  1892;  to 
China,  Japan,  and  Corea,  1894;  spent  1898  in  South 
America,  25,000  miles  of  travel;  spent  1900  in  Philip- 
pines, China,  Java,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand;  made 
newspaper  tour,  1902,  to  investigate  American  "com- 
mercial invasion  "  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Russia, 
Holland,  Belgium,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark.  Author: 
VCarpenter's  Geographical  Readers — Asia,  North 
America,  South  America,  Europe,  Australia,  Our  Col- 
onies and  Other  Islands  of  the  Seas,  Africa";  "Through 
Asia  with  the  Children,"  "Through  North  America  with 
the  Children,"  "South  America — Social,  Industrial, 
and  Political."  Has  written  very  many  articles  in  lead- 
ing American  journals  and  magazines. 

Carpenter,  William  Benjamin,  born  in  1813; 
physiologist,  son  of  Dr.  Lant  Carpenter,  wrote  "Prin- 
ciples of  General  and  Comparative  Physiology,"  etc., 
and  in  1861,  received  the  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died,  1885. 

Carrfere,  John  Merven,  architect;  born  of  American 
parents  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  November  9,  1858; 
educated  in  Switzerland;  graduate  of  ficole  des  Beaux 
Arts,  Paris,  1882;  partner  with  "Thomas  Hastings  in  firm, 
Carrfere  &  Hastings,  since  1884.  "The  firm  were  archi- 
tects of  the  Ponce  de  Leon  and  Alcazar  hotels,  St.  Augus- 


tine, Fla.,  the  New  York  Public  Library,  Academy  of 
Design,  and  many  other  noted  buildings.  Fellow  Amer- 
ican Institution  of  Architects. 

Carroll,  Lewis,  the  pseudonym  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Lutwidge  Dodgson ;  born  in  1832;  humorist  and 
author  of  "Alice  in  Wonderland,"  "Through  the  Look- 
ing-glass," "The  Hunting  of  the  Snark,"  "Rhyme  and 
Reason,"  "A  Tangled  Tale,"  "Sylvie  and  Bruno,"  and 
other  works.     Died,  1898. 

Carson,  Christopher,  popularly  known  as  Kit  Car- 
son, an  American  frontiersman,  born  in  Kentucky  in 
1809.  He  was  successively  a  saddler's  apprentice,  trap- 
per, hunter,  guide  in  Fremont's  explorations,  lieutenant 
in  the  rifle  corps  of  the  army  (1847),  and  Indian  agent. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  rendered  important  services  in 
the  territories,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier  general. 
Died  in  Colorado,  1868. 

Carteret,  Philip,  an  English  navigator,  who  made 
an  expedition  to  the  South  Seas  in  1766-69,  and  dis- 
covered Queen  Charlotte's  Isles,  and  other  islands,  two 
of  which  he  called  Gower,and  Carteret. 

Cartier,  Sir  George  £tienne  (k&r-tya'),  a  Canadian 
statesman,  born  in  1814.  He  was  deeply  involved  in  the 
rebellion  of  1837.  In  1848,  he  was  elected  to  the  house 
of  assembly,  in  1856  was  appointed  provincial  secretary, 
and  soon  became  attorney-general.  In  1857,  he  be- 
came leader  of  the  Lower  Canada  section  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  1858,  premier ;  and  he  held  a  cabinet 
office  for  several  years  afterward.  He  was  prominent 
in  numerous  governmental  reforms.     Died,  1873. 

Cartier,  Jacques  {k&r-tyd'),  a  French  explorer,  was 
born  1494.  Employed  by  Francis  I.  to  make  explora- 
tions on  the  North  American  coast,  in  three  successive 
expeditions,  1534-50;  he  completed  the  discovery  and 
colonization  of  Canada.     Died  about  1557. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  inventor  of  the  power  loom 
and  the  carding  machine;  born  in  Nottinghamshire; 
was  bred  for  the  Church.  His  invention,  at  first  violently 
opposed,  to  his  ruin  for  the  time  being,  is  now  universally 
adopted;  a  grant  of  £10,000  was  made  him  by  parlia- 
ment in  consideration  of  his  services  and  in  compensa- 
tion for  his  losses.  He  had  a  turn  for  versifying  as  well 
as  mechanical  invention.  Cartwright  was  born  in  1743, 
and  died  in  1823. 

Caruso,  Signor,  who  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
the  finest  tenor  of  the  present  day,  began  life  as  an  en- 
gineer, with  no  thought  of  singing  until  a  friend  assured 
him  that  there  was  a  fortune  in  his  voice.  So  he  studied 
for  a  while,  and  made  a  first  appearance  in  opera,  some 
few  years  ago,  in  his  native  city,  Naples.  His  success 
was  immediate,  and  he  now  sings  at  all  the  greatest  opera 
houses  in  the  world,  commanding  fees  of  thousands  of 
dollars  per  night.  Caruso,  who  is  immensely  popular  in 
society,  is  a  most  genial  man.  His  greatest  hobby  is 
drawing,  and  he  might  have  made  a  good  deal  of  money 
as  a  caricaturist,  judging  by  the  remarkably  clever  pic- 
tures of  himself  and  his  friends  which  he  is  always  ex- 
ecuting.    Born  at  Naples,  1874. 

Casablanca,  Louis,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  in 
Bastia  about  1755,  and  in  1798,  was  captain  of  the  flag- 
ship "L'Orient"  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  August  1, 
1798;  the  ship  caught  fire,  his  10-year-old  son  would  not 
leave  him,  and  both  were  floating  on  the  wreck  of  the 
ship's  mast  when  the  final  explosion  took  place. 

Cass,  Lewis,  born  in  1782;  American  statesman  and 
general,  appointed  governor  of  Michigan  in  1813.  He 
showed  great  prudence  in  his  management  of  Indian  affairs 
and  in  1831,  became  secretary  of  war  in  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Jackson.  Whilst  representative  of  the 
United  States  in  France,  he  protested  vigorously  and 
effectually  against  the  terms  of  the  quintuple  treaty, 
and  returning  to  America  was  elected  to  the  senate  in 
1845.  In  1857,  he  became  secretary  of  state,  but  about 
five  years  later  withdrew  from  public  life.     Died,  1866. 

Castelar,  Emilio,  born  in  1832;  Spanish  statesman 
and  writer;  condemned  to  death  owing  to  his  attacks  on 
the  government  in  1866.  He  fled  to  France,  but  shortly 
returned,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Federal  Republic ; 
was  appointed  dictator  on  the  resignation  of  Amadeus 
(1873),  but  resigned  a  few  months  later.  He  was  an 
eloquent  speaker,  and  wrote  many  works.     Died,  1899. 

Castlereagh  {k&s' -sl-ra) ,  Robert  Stewart,  Lord, 
eldest  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry;  was  born  in 
1769.  At  an  early  period  he  entered  into  public  life, 
and  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  signet,  or  privy  seal,  in 
Ireland,  in  1797;  president  of  the  board  of  control  in 
1802;  and  secretary  of  war  in  1805.  A  difference  hav- 
ing arisen  between  him  and  his  colleague,  Mr.  Canning, 
a  duel  was  the  consequence,  and  both  quitted  office. 
During  Lord  Liverpool's  administration,  Lord  Castle- 
reagh again  became  a  member  of  the  government  as 
foreign  secretary,  and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 


BIOGRAPHY 


417 


1814.  He  remained  in  office  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
which  was  closed  by  suicide  in  1822. 

Catherine  I.,  Empress  of  Russia;  born  about  1685; 
was  the  outcast  infant  of  a  Livonian  peasant-girl,  and 
became  nurse  in  the  family  of  the  Protestant  minister  of 
Marienburg.  In  1701  she  married  a  Swedish  dragoon, 
who  soon  afterwards  went  with  his  regiment  to  Riga, 
and  never  returned.  After  the  capture  of  Marienburg 
by  the  Russians,  Catherine  became  the  mistress  first  of 
General  Bauer,  with  whom  she  lived  at  Moscow,  sec- 
ondly of  Prince  Menschikoff,  and  finally,  of  Peter  the 
Great,  who  first  married  her  privately  near  Warsaw, 
and  later  publicly,  in  1712,  at  St.  Petersburg.  She 
then  embraced  the  Greek  religion,  and  took  the  name  of 
Catherine.  On  the  death  of  Peter,  in  1725,  she  was 
proclaimed  Czarina.  Her  death  was  the  result  of  in- 
temperance.    Died,  1727. 

Catherine  II.,  Empress  of  Russia;  born  in  1729; 
the  Princess  Sophia  Augusta,  daughter  of  the  Prince  of 
Anhalt-Zerbst,  on  her  marriage  in  1745,  with  Peter, 
nephew  and  heir  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  assumed  the 
name  of  Catherine  Alexievna.  Her  refinement  and  love 
of  study  contrasted  with  her  husband's  vulgarity  and 
intemperance;  neglected  by  him,  she  ingratiated  herself 
with  some  of  the  nobles;  her  intrigues  were  discovered 
by  Peter,  and,  on  ascending  the  throne  in  1762,  he 
threatened  to  repudiate  her,  whereupon  she  imprisoned 
him  and  had  him  strangled.  The  subsequent  murder 
of  Ivan,  the  next  heir,  left  Catherine  in  undisputed  pos- 
session of  the  throne.  As  empress  she  seized  the  Crimea, 
and  took  part  in  the  dismemberment  of  Poland.  She 
promoted  the  welfare  of  Russia  by  encpuraging  litera- 
ture and  commerce,  but  her  reign  was  sullied  by  dis- 
graceful amours.     Died,  1796. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  Queen  of  England;  born  in 
1485;  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Isabella 
of  Castile;  married  first  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
subsequently  his  brother,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.  She 
was  beautiful  and  virtuous,  yet  the  king  in  1527  sought 
a  divorce  on  the  ground  that  the  marriage  was  uncanoni- 
cal.  After  much  temporizing  on  the  part  of  the  pope, 
the  marriage  was  in  1533  pronounced  invalid  by  Cran- 
mer,  Arciibishop  of  Canterbury,  and  his  sentence  was 
ratified  by  act  of  parliament.  Catherine  spent  the  rest 
of  her  life  in  Kimbolton  castle.     Died,  1536. 

Catherine  de'  3Iedici,  born  in  1519;  great  grand- 
daughter of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  niece  of  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  and  queen  to  Henri  II.  of  France,  acted 
as  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  second  son,  Charles 
IX.;  her  policy  was  to  play  off  the  parties  of  the  Guises 
and  the  Cond(5s  against  one  another.  She  instigated  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.     Died,  1589. 

Catherine  Parr,  born  in  1512;  daughter  of  Sir  T. 
Parr;  was  married  first  to  Edward  Borough,  secondly 
to  Lord  Latimer,  and  in  1543  became  tlie  sixth  and  last 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.  She  was  learned  in  theology  and  a 
zealous  Protestant,  and,  according  to  Foxe,  on  one  oc- 
casion only  escaped  death  as  a  heretic  by  timely  sub- 
mission to  the  king.  She  survived  Henry,  and  in  1547 
married  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudeley,  who  was  accused  of 
hastening  her  death  (in  child-birth),  by  poisoning.  Died, 
1548. 

Catiline  ikai'-e-line),  Lucius  Serjjius,  an  ancient 
Roman,  was  descended  from  a  patrician  family,  re- 
nowned for  talent  but  degraded  by  crime.  He  gained 
the  favor  of  Sulla,  who  advanced  him  to  offices  of  great 
importance.  He  was  a  reckless  sensualist.  Having 
won  for  his  paramour  a  member  of  a  distinguished  family, 
he  married  the  daughter  he  had  by  her.  He  was  charged 
with  intriguing  with  a  vestal,  the  sister  of  Cicero's  wife. 
After  Sulla's  death,  Catiline  formed  a  conspiracy  to 
murder  the  consuls  and  senators,  and  to  assume  the  gov- 
ernment. His  designs  were  discovered  and  exposed  in 
an  oration  by  Cicero,  which  gave  the  speaker  lasting 
fame.  He  attempted  to  execute  his  plan,  but  a  great 
battle  ensuing,  and  victory  inclining  to  the  other  side, 
he  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy  and  was 
slain,  62  B.  C. 

Cavour,  Camillo,  Count  di  (kah-voor'),  an  eminent 
Italian  statesman;  born  in  1810.  In  1847,  he  took  an 
active  part  in  the  promulgation  of  the  liberal  doctrines 
then  agitating  his  country,  and  largely  assisted  in  the 
establishment  of  the  constitution  granted  by  King  Charles 
Albert  in  1848.  In  1850,  he  became  minister  of  com- 
merce, and  minister  of  finances  the  following  year.  In 
1852,  he  succeeded  D'Azeglio  as  first  minister,  secured 
the  liberty  of  the  press,  favored  religious  toleration  and 
free  trade,  and  during  his  seven  years'  tenure  of  office 
brought  about  the  regeneration  of  Italy  by  the  treaty 
of  Villa  Franca  in  1859.     Died,  1861. 

Caxton,  William  (k&ks'tun),  the  founder  of  English 
printing,  was  born  in  1422.  During  a  residence  in 
Flanders,  he  acquired  the  new  typographic  art,  and  on 


his  return  set  up  a  press  in  the  Almonry,  Westminster, 
where  he  brought  out  the  first  printed  book  seen  in 
England,  the  "History  of  Troy."     Died,  1491. 

Cenci,  Beatrice  (chin'che),  a  noble  Roman  lady, 
whose  tragic  fate  has  served  as  the  theme  of  one  of 
Shelley's  best  tragedies,  lived  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
She  became  the  victim  of  her  father,  Count  Francesco 
Cenci,  a  notorious  libertine.  Failing  in  her  appeal  for 
protection  from  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  she,  it  has  been 
said,  conspired  with  other  members  of  her  family  to 
murder  the  count.  When  brought  to  trial  on  this 
charge,  she  asserted  her  innocence,  but  was,  neverthe- 
less, put  to  death,  along  with  her  relatives,  in  1599. 
The  fine  portrait  of  Beatrice,  by  Guido  Reni,  in  the 
Barberini  gallery,  Rome,  is  well  known. 

Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de,  Spanish  author; 
born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1547,  belonged  to  an 
ancient  Galician  family,  and  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca,  where  he  spent  his  time  chiefly  in 
writing  verses.  After  following  Cardinal  Acquaviva  as 
chamberlain  into  Italy,  he  enlisted  under  Marc  Antonio 
Colonna,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  (1571),  where  he  lost  his  left  hand;  in  1575, 
was  captured  by  a  corsair,  and  spent  five  years  in  slavery 
at  Algiers.  In  1588,  he  settled  at  Seville,  and  for  the 
next  ten  years  devoted  his  time  mainly  to  writing 
dramas.  In  1605,  the  first  part  of  "Don  Quixote 
appeared,  and  the  second  followed  ten  years  later. 
Among  the  other  works  of  Cervantes  are  "NovelAs 
Exemplares,"  "Viage  al  Parnaso,"  and  "Galatea." 
Died,  1616. 

Chaffee,  Adna  Romanza,  lieutenant-general.  United 
States  Army;  born  in  Orwell,  O.,  April  14,  1842;  edu- 
cated in  public  schools.  Entered  army,  July  22,  1861; 
first  lieutenant,  July  3,  1863,  for  gallantry  at  Gettys- 
burg; captain,  March  31,  1865,  for  gallantry  at  Din- 
widdie  Court  House,  Va.;  major,  March  7,  1868,  for 
gallantry  in  engagement  with  Comanche  Indians 
on  Paint  Creek,  Tex.;  lieutenant-colonel,  February 
27,  1890,  for  gallantry  in  action  against  Indians  in 
Texas  and  Arizona.  Appointed  brigadier-general.  United 
States  Volunteers,  May  4,  1898;  commanded  third 
brigade,  second  division,  fifth  corps,  Santiago  campaign 
June  to  August,  1898;  commanded  second  division, 
fifth  corps,  August  to  September,  1898;  promoted 
major-general.  United  States  Volunteers,  July  8,  1898; 
commanded  first  division,  fourth  corps,  November  to 
December,  1898;  chief  of  staff  division  of  Cuba,  Decem- 
ber, 1898,  to  May,  1900.  Honorably  discharged  as 
major-general,  April  13,  1899.  Appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  United  States  Volunteers,  April  13,  1899. 
Assigned  to  the  command  of  United  States  forces  for 
the  relief  of  United  States  Legation,  Peking,  June  24, 
1900;  arrived  at  Peking,  China,  August  14,  1900;  pro- 
moted to  major-general  of  United  States  Volunteers, 
July  19,  1900;  promoted  to  major-general  of  United 
States  Army,  February  4,  1901.  Assigned  to  command 
division  of  the  Philippines  and  appointed  military  gov- 
ernor, t^  take  effect  July  4,  1901;  relieved  October 
1,  1902,  and  assigned  to  command  department  of  the 
East ;  detailed  to  general  staff  corps,  October  2,  1903, 
and  assigned  to  duty  as  assistant  to  chief  of  staff,  Wash- 
ington; promoted  to  lieutenant-general  of  United  States 
Army,  January  9,  1904,  and  chief  of  staff  until  his 
retirement  in  1906. 

Chalmers,  Thonias,  born  in  1780;  Scottish  divine, 
educated  at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  taught  mathematics 
after  his  ordination.  In  1815,  he  became  a  minister  at 
Glasgow,  and  at  once  attracted  attention  by  his  elo- 
quence. He  was  subsequently  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  St.  Andrews  (1823)  and  of  theology  at  Edin- 
burgh (1828) .  On  the  disruption  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(1843)  he  joined  the  Free  Church  party,  and  became 
moderator  of  its  assembly  and  principal  of  its  college. 
His  writings  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  including 
natural  science  and  political  economy.     Died,  1847. 

Chaml}erlain,  Rt.  Hon.  Joseph,  British  statesman, 
was  born  in  London,  July,  1836;  educated  in  private 
school  and  University  College,  London ;  joined  the  firm 
of  Nettlefold,  screw  makers  of  Birmingham;  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  defeated  unsectarian  candidates  for 
the  school  board  of  Birmingham  in  1870,  but  in  1873  he 
was  elected  chairman,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the 
town  council  (mayor,  1873).  On  the  death  of  his 
father  he  retired  from  the  firm,  in  order  to  devote  all 
his  energies  to  public  life.  To  him  was  due  the  transfer 
of  the  gas  and  water  works  to  the  borough  authorities, 
and  he  was  the  author  of  the  improvement  scheme 
which  has  entirely  transformed  the  face  of  central  Bir- 
mingham. In  1876,  he  entered  parliament  and  took 
his  seat  below  the  gangway  with  the  Radicals;  presi- 
dent of  Board  of  Trade,  with  cabinet  rank,  1880-85, 
and  passed  a  patents  bill  and  a  bankruptcy  bill;    presi- 


418 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


dent  of  Local  Government  Board  in  18S5,  until  his 
divergence  of  views  on  the  Irish  policy  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone caused  his  resignation  (March  27,  1886) ;  chief 
commissioner  to  the  Conference  at  Washington  for  the 
settlement  of  the  dispute  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada  on  the  Fisheries  Question.  Married  Miss 
Endicott,  November  15,  1888.  In  1895,  took  office 
under  Lord  Salisbury  as  colonial  secretary.  The  nego- 
tiations with  the  Transvaal,  which  ended  in  war,  occu- 
pied him  fully  during  1899,  and  his  South  African  policy 
was  one  of  the  main  controversial  features  of  the  general 
election  of  1900  and  during  1901.  He  had  charge  in 
1900  of  the  measure  for  the  constitution  of  the  Austra- 
lian Commonwealth.  On  February  14,  1902,  he  was 
presented  with  an  address  by  the  City  of  London  Cor- 
poration. He  presided  over  the  1902  Colonial  Confer- 
ence. In  November,  1902,  he  visited  South  Africa,  and 
on  his  return  received  an  address  from  the  Lord  Mayor 
and  Corporation  of  London  (March  20,  1903).  In  May, 
1903,  he  launched,  at  Birmingham,  his  scheme  for  the 
revision  of  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  country  and  the 
adoption  of  a  policy  of  preferential  tariffs;  and  in 
September,  believing  that  policy  to  be  at  that  time 
unacceptable  to  the  majority  in  the  constituencies,  he 
resigned,  in  order  to  be  free  to  devote  himself  to  ex- 
plaining and  popularizing  his  proposals.  He  began  his 
campaign  for  this_purpose  at  Glasgow  on  October  6, 
1903,  and  the  tariff  commission  was  afterwards  set  up 
on  his  initiative.  He  is  president  of  the  Central  Liberal 
Unionist  Council  and  of  the  Imperial  tariff  committee. 
His  70th  birthday  and  completion  of  thirty  years'  serv- 
ice as  member  of  parliament  for  Birmingham  were 
celebrated  on  July  7,  1906. 

Chambers,  Robert  William,  author,  artist;  born 
in  Brooklyn,  May  26,  1865;  educated  at  julien's  Acad- 
emy, Paris,  1886-93.  First  exhibited  in  salon,  1889; 
illustrations  for  "Life,"  "Truth,"  "Vogue,"  etc.  Author: 
"In  the  Quarter,"  "The  King  in  Yellow,"  "The  Red 
Republic,"  "A  King  and  a  Few  Dukes,"  "The  Maker 
of  Moons,"  "With  the  Band,"  "The  Mystery  of  Choice," 
"  Ixjrraine,"  "Ashes  of  Empire,"  "The  Haunts  of  Men," 
"The  Cambric  Mask,"  "Outsiders,"  "The  Conspirators," 
"Cardigan,"  "The  Maid-at-Arms,"  "Outdoor  Land," 
"The  Maids  of  Paradise,"  "Orchard-Land,"  "Forest- 
Land,"  "lole,"  "The  Fighting  Chance,"  "The  Tracer  of 
Lost  Persons,"  "The  Firing  Line."  Also  "The  Witch 
of  Ellangowan,"  a  drama;  and  many  magazine  stories. 

Chamlsso,  Adalbert  von,  born  at  the  Castle  of 
Boncourt,  in  Champagne,  France,  A.  D.  1781 ;  a  cele- 
brated lyric  poet  of  Germany,  who,  though  born  in 
France,  was  driven  from  that  country  by  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1790,  and  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
Prussia.  He  is  best  known  by  his  "Peter  Schlemihl, 
the  Story  of  a  Man  Who  Lost  His  Shadow,"  which  was 
published  in  1814,  and  has  been  translated  into  most 
European  languages.     Died  in  Berlin,  1838. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  a  French  naval  officer  of 
the  Seventeenth  Century.  During  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.,  of  France,  he  visited  many  parts  of  America,  and 
formed  the  first  French  establishments  at  Quebec  and 
Montreal.  He  was  made  governor  of  Quebec,  from 
which  he  was  driven  by  the  English,  in  1631.  When 
peace  was  restored,  he  was  reinstated.  He  wrote  an 
account  of  his  "Voyages  and  Travels  in  New  France, 
called  Canada,"  in  1632;   and  died  in  1635. 

Chandler,  William  Eaton,  lawyer;  born  in  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  December  28,  1835;  common  school  edu- 
cation; graduate  of  Harvard  Law  School,  and  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1855 ;  became  reporter  of  decisions  of  Su- 
preme Court,  New  Hampshire,  1859;  member  of  New 
Hampshire  Legislature,  1862,  1863,  1864,  and  1881; 
speaker,  1863-64;  appointed  solicitor  and  judge-advo- 
cate-general, navy  department,  March  9, 1865 ;  first  assist- 
ant secretary  of  treasury,  June  17,  1865;  resigned, 
November  30,  1867;  member  of  New  Hampshire  Con- 
stitutional Convention,  1876  and  1902;  appointed 
solicitor-general  of  United  States,  March,  1881,  but 
rejected  by  senate;  secretary  of  the  navy,  April  12, 
1882,  to  March  7,  1885;  United  States  senator,  1887- 
1901 ;  president  of  Spanish  Treaty  Claims  commission, 
1901-07. 

Channing,  Edward,  historian;  born  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  June  15,  1856;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1878; 
instructor,  1883;  now  professor  of  history  at  Harvard. 
Author:  "The  United  States,  1765-1865,"  "A  Student's 
History  of  the  United  States,"  "Town  and  County  Gov- 
ernment in  the  English  Colonies  of  North  America," 
" Narragansett  Planters,"  "The  Planting  of  a  Nation  in 
the  New  World,"  etc.  Collaborator  with  late  Justin 
Winsor  on  "The  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America";  with  Albert  B.  Hart  in  "Guide  to  Study  of 
American  History " ;  and  with  Thomas  W.  Higginson 
in  "English  History  for  Americans." 


Channing,  William  Ellery,  an  eminent  American 
divine,  ana  one  of  the  most  elegant  writers  this 
country  has  produced,  was  born  in  Newport,  R.  I., 
1780.  In  1803,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Federal  Street 
Church,  Boston.  During  the  Unitarian  controversy. 
Dr.  Channing  was  the  head  of  the  Liberal  party,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  its  defense.  Among  his  most 
successful  productions  are  his  lectures  on  "Self-Culture," 
and  on  the  "Elevation  of  the  Laboring  Classes."  His 
work  on  slavery,  published  in  1841,  had  also  a  wide 
circulation.     Died,  1842. 

Charlemagne,  i.  e.,  Charles  or  Karl  the  Great, 
the  first  Carlovingian  King  of  the  Franks,  son  and 
successor  of  Pepin  le  Bref  (the  Short) ;  became  sole 
ruler  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  Carloman,  in  771; 
he  subjugated  by  his  arms  the  southern  Gauls,  the 
Lombards,  the  Saxons,  and  thie  Avars,  and  conducted 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Moors  in  Spain,  with 
the  result  that  his  kingdom  extended  from  the  Ebro  to 
the  Elbe;  having  passed  over  into  Italy  in  support  of 
the  pope,  he  was,  on  Christmas  day,  800,  crowned 
Emperor  of  the  West,  after  which  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  and  proved  himself  as 
great  in  legislation  as  in  arms;  enacted  laws  for  the 
empire,  called  capitularies;  reformed  the  judicial  ad- 
ministration, patronized  letters,  and  established  schools; 
kept  himself  in  touch  and  au  courant  with  everything 
over  his  vast  domain.  He  died  and  was  buried  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (742-814). 

Charles  I.,  King  of  England,  second  son  of  James  I., 
was  born  in  Dunfermline  in  1600.  Failing  in  his  suit 
for  the  infanta  of  Spain,  he  married  Henrietta  Maria, 
a  French  princess,  a  devoted  Catholic,  who  had  great 
influence  over  him,  but  not  for  good.  He  had  for  public 
advisors,  Strafford  and  Laud,  who  cherished  in  him 
ideas  of  absolute  power  adverse  to  the  liberty  of  the 
subject.  Acting  on  these  ideas  brought  him  into  col- 
lision with  the  parliament,  and  provoked  a  civil  war; 
himself  being  the  first  to  throw  down  the  gauntlet  by 
raising  the  royal  standard  at  Nottingham,  in  the  end  of 
which  he  surrendered  himself  to  the  Scots'  army  at 
Newark,  who  delivered  him  to  the  parliament.  He  was 
tried  as  a  traitor  to  his  country,  condemned  to  death, 
and  beheaded  at  Whitehall,  January  30,  1649. 

Charles  II.,  King  of  England,  son  of  Charles  I., 
born  in  St.  James  Palace,  London,  in  1630;  was  at  The 
Hague,  in  Holland,  when  his  father  was  beheaded.  He 
assumed  the  royal  title,  and  was  proclaimed  king  by 
the  Scots;  landed  in  Scotland,  and  was  crowned  at 
Scone.  Marching  into  England,  he  was  defeated  by 
Cromwell  at  Worcester,  September  3,  1651,  and  fled  to 
France.  By  the  policy  of  General  Monk,  after  Crom- 
well's death,  he  was  restored  to  his  crown  and  kingdom 
in  1660,  an  event  known  as  the  Restoration.  Charles 
II.  was  an  easy-going  man,  and  is  known  in  history  as 
the  "Merry  Monarch."  His  reign  was  an  inglorious 
one  for  England,  though  it  is  distinguished  by  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  one  of  the  great  bul- 
warks of  English  liberty  next  to  the  Magna  Charta. 
Died,  1685. 

Charles  V.  (I.  of  Spain),  Emperor  of  Germany,  son 
of  Philip,  Archduke  of  Austria,  was  born  in  Ghent  in 
1500,  and  became  King  of  Spain  in  1516,  on  the  death 
of  his  maternal  grandfather,  Ferdinand,  and  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  1519,  on  the  death  of  his  paternal  grand- 
father, Maximilian  I.,  being  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  1520,  and  reigned  during  one  of  the  most  important 
periods  in  the  history  of  Europe.  The  events  of  the 
reign  are  too  numerous  to  detail;  enough  to  mention 
his  rivalry  with  Francis  I.  of  France,  his  contention  as 
a  Catholic  with  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  the  inroads 
of  the  'Turks,  revolts  in  Spain,  and  expeditions  against 
the  pirates  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  ambition  of  his 
life  was  the  suppression  of  the  Protestant  Reformation 
and  the  succession  of  his  son  Philip  to  the  imperial 
crown,  but  he  failed  in  both,  and  finally  resigned  in 
favor  of  his  son,  and  retired  into  the  monastery  at  St. 
Yuste,  in  Estremadura,  near  which  he  built  a  magnifi- 
cent retreat,  where,  it  is  understood,  notwithstanding 
his  apparent  retirement,  he  continued  to  take  interest 
in  political  affairs,  and  to  advise  in  the  management  of 
them.     Died,  1558. 

Charles  XII.,  King  of  Sweden,  son  of  Charles  XL, 
a  warlike  prince,  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  15. 
He  had  to  cope  with  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Poland 
combined  against  him;  he  foiled  the  Danes  at  Copen- 
hagen, the  Russians  at  Narva,  and  Augustus  II.  of 
Poland  at  Riga;  but  being  trapped  in  Russia,  and 
cooped  up  to  spend  a  winter  there,  he  was,  in  July, 
1709,  attacked  by  Peter  the  Great  at  Pultowa,  and 
defeated,  so  that  he  had  to  take  refuge  with  the  Turks 
at  Bender;  here  he  was  again  attacked,  captured,  and 
conveyed  to  Demotica,  but  escaping,  he  found  his  way 


BIOGRAPHY 


419 


miraculously  back  to  Sweden,  and  making  peace  with 
the  czar,  commenced  an  attack  on  Norway,  but  was 
killed  by  a  musket-shot  at  the  siege  of  Frederikshald. 
Charles  XII.  was  "the  last  of  the  Swedish  kings." 
"  His  appearance  among  the  luxurious  kings  and  knights 
of  the  North"  at  the  time,  Carlyle  compares  to  "the 
bursting  of  a  cataract  of  bomb-shells  in  a  dull  ballroom." 
Born  in  1682,  and  died  in  1718. 

Charles  Martel,  the  illegitimate  son  of  P^pin 
d'H^ristal,  Duke  of  Austrasia,  was  born  about  690, 
died,  741;  he  became  mayor  of  the  palace  during 
the  reigns  of  Chilperic  and  Thierry  IV.,  exercised  the 
whole  regal  power,  defeating  the  Saracens  at  Poitiers, 
in  732,  in  honor  of  which  victory  he  was  called  Martel 
(the  Hammer).  On  the  death  of  Thierry  in  737,  Charles 
carried  on  the  government  as  Duke  of  the  Franks.  His 
son,  Pepin,  was  founder  of  the  Carlovingian  line  of 
monarchs,  taking  their  name  from  Charles  Martel. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1808.  He 
was  sent  to  the  House  of  Representatives  and  to  the 
United  States  Senate  from  Ohio,  and  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  that  State.  Appointed  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury by  President  Lincoln,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War,  he  conducted  the  finances  with  rare  skill  and  suc- 
cess. Appointed  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
1864,  he  held  this  office  at  his  death  in  1873. 

Chatham,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of,  born  in  1708. 
English  statesman,  son  of  Robert  Pitt;  became  member 
of  parliament  in  1735,  attaching  himself  to  the  so-called 
patriotic  party  under  the  Prince  of  Wales;  he  attacked 
Walpole  and  Carteret  successively,  and  after  the  retire- 
ment of  the  latter  in  1744,  supported  the  ministries  of 
Pelham  and  Newcastle,  and  was  made  paymaster  of  the 
forces,  a  post  which  he  lost  owing  to  his  anti-Hanoverian 
speeches.  As  secretary  of  state  in  1756,  and  again  in 
1757,  under  Newcastle,  he  carried  on  the  war  against 
France  with  great  vigor  and  success,  but  on  the  accession 
of  George  III.  had  to  give  place  to  his  favorite,  the  Earl 
of  Bute.  Pitt's  health  was  now  shattered,  but  he  was 
carried  down  to  the  house  to  speak  against  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1762,  and  afterwards  supported  the  repeal  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  an  act  which  led  to  the  revolt  of  the 
American  colonies.  In  1766  he  was  created  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham, and  from  his  place  in  the  House  of  Lords  continued 
to  urge  a  policy  of  conciliation  towards  America.  It  was 
while  thus  engaged  that  he  sank  down  in  the  fit  of 
apoplexy  from  which  he  never  recovered.      Died,  1778. 

Chaucer  (tshaw'-ser),  Geoffrey,  an  English  poet, 
commonly  spoken  of  as  the  father  of  English  poetry; 
born  about  1340,  of  parents  who  appear  to  have  been 
citizens  of  London,  and  who  gave  him  a  learned  education. 
In  his  youth  he  served  under  Edward  III.  in  the  invasion 
of  France,  and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  enemy  at  the 
end  of  1359,  or  early  in  1360.  He  afterwards  enjoyed 
court  favor,  and  was  employed  on  several  embassies, 
visiting  France  and  Italy  in  the  course  of  his  foreign 
missions.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
he  appears  to  have  been  involved  in  the  disgrace  thrown 
on  the  family  of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  his  patron,  and 
suffered  from  poverty;  but  on  the  accession  of  Henry 
IV.,  he  was  again  taken  into  royal  favbr.  The  writings 
of  Chaucer,  in  verse  and  prose,  are  extensive;  and  the 
"Canterbury  Tales"  is  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  of 
English  poetry.     Died  October  25,  1400. 

Cheops,  or  Cheospes  (tshe'-ops,  tshe-os'-peez),  a  king 
of  Egypt,  who  lived  about  2800-2700,  B.  C.  He 
built  the  great  pyramid,  and  spent  1,060  talents  in 
vegetables  alone  for  the  workmen  engaged  on  it.  He 
changed  that  government  into  a  despotic  tyranny  which 
had  previously  been  a  limited  monarchy,  and  died,  after 
reigning  fifty-six  years,  hated  by  his  people. 

Cherubinl,  Maria  Luigi  Carlo  Zenobio  Salvatore 
(ka-roo-be'ne),  an  eminent  Italian  composer,  was  born 
at  Florence  in  1760.  He  was  naturalized  in  France,  and 
settled  in  Paris,  the  scene  of  his  greatest  triumphs,  where 
he  composed  operas,  of  which  the  chief  were  "Iphigenia 
in  Aulis,"  and  "Les  deux  Journt^es;  or  The  Water- 
Carrier,"  his  masterpiece;  also  a  number  of  sacred  pieces 
and  requiems,  all  of  the  highest  merit.     Died,  1842. 

Chesterfield  {tshes' -ter-feeld) ,  Philip  Dormer  Stan- 
hope, Earl  of,  was  born  in  1694,  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  represented  St.  Germans  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  in  1726  succeeded  to  the  earldom.  He 
was  distinguished  at  the  court  of  George  II,  and  was 
sent  ambassador  extraordinary  to  Holland  in  1728. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  garter  in  1730,  and  re- 
ceived tUe  appointment  of  lord  steward  of  the  household. 
He  was  found  among  the  opponents  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole. In  1745,  he  was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  and  afterwards  became  secretary  of  state. 
He  is  now  more  known  by  his  "Advice  to  His  Son," 
than  by  his  public  services.     Died,  1773. 


Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  lawyer,  diplomat,  ambas- 
sador of  United  States  to  England.  1899-1905;  born  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  January  24,  1832;  graduate  of  Harvard, 
1852,  and  Harvard  Law  School,  1854.  Admitted  to  Mass- 
achusetts bar,  1855;  New  York,  1856;  settled  in  New 
York,  1856.  Identified  with  many  famous  cases;  one 
of  the  committee  of  seventy  which  broke  up  the  Tweed 
ring,  1871;  secured  the  reinstatement  of  General  Fitz 
John  Porter  to  his  army  rank,  etc.;  governor  of  New 
York  Hospital  since  1877  (chairman  of  committee  of 
elections) ;  noted  as  a  public  and  after-dinner  speaker. 
Author:  "Addresses  on  Abraham  Lincoln,  Admiral 
Farragut,  Rufus  Choate,"  etc.  Elected  bencher  of  the 
Inner  Temple,  England,  April  10,  1905. 

Choate,  Rufus  {chdt),  an  eminent  American  advo- 
cate, was  born  in  1799.  After  graduating  at  Dart- 
mouth College,  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  law  at 
Cambridge  and  in  Washington.  After  practicing  at 
Danvers,  Salem,  and  Boston,  successively,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1841,  which  he  quitted  in  1845. 
After  the  death  of  Daniel  Webster,  Choate  became  the 
recognized  leader  of  the  Massachusetts  bar,  and  ac- 
quired quite  a  national  reputation.  As  an  advocate 
and  orator,  he  may  be  classed  with  the  most  distinguished 
masters  of  modern  eloquence.     Died,  1859. 

Choiseul  (shwni'-zeul),  Stephen  Francis,  Dulse  of, 
was  born  in  1719.  He  gained  a  high  rank  in  the  army, 
and  was  then  employed  as  a  diplomatist  at  Rome  afld 
Vienna,  and  honored  with  a  peerage.  He  became  prime 
minister  of  France,  it  was  reported,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Madame  de  Pompadour.  In  1770,  he  was  dis- 
missed from  office,  and  exiled  to  one  of  his  estates. 
He  died  in  1785. 

Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden,  born  in  1626;  succeeded 
her  father,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  1632.  After  her 
coronation  in  1650,  she  fell  under  the  influence  of  favor- 
ites, and  ceased  to  interest  herself  in  state  alTairs.  She 
resigned  the  crown  to  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus, 
in  1654,  was  baptized  by  the  pope,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  Paris.  On  the  death  of  Charles  Gustavus,  in 
1660,  she  vainly  endeavored  to  regain  the  throne.  She 
died  at  Rome  in  1689. 

Christy,  Howard  Chandler,  illustrator,  writer; 
born  in  Morgan  County,  Ohio,  January  10,  1873;  edu- 
cated at  Duncan's  Falls,  O.;  went  East  in  1893;  since 
then  on  New  York  illustrated  periodicals;  went  to 
Cuba  with  second  United  States  regulars  and  "Rough 
Riders";  saw  the  fighting  before  Santiago;  his  letters 
and  illustrations  published  in  Scribner's  Magazine,  Har- 
per's Magazine,  Collier's  Weekly,  and  by  R.  H.  Russell, 
publisher.  Has  charge  of  illustrating  class  at  Cooper 
Institute. 

Chrysostom,  St.  John,  one  of  the  Greek  fathers, 
born  about  347;  gave  himself,  from  an  early  age,  to  a 
life  of  prayer  and  asceticism,  and,  in  398,  was  made 
Bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  Emperor  Arcadius. 
He  was  renowned  for  his  eloquence  and  almsgiving,  and 
his  zeal  as  a  reformer  made  him  many  enemies,  amongst 
them  the'Empress  Eudoxia.  He  weis  summoned  before 
a  synod  at  Chalcedon,  deposed,  and  banished,  but  an 
insurrection  of  the  people  led  to  his  immediate  recall. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  deposed  again,  and  conveyed 
to  the  Taurus  Mountains,  whence  he  was  ordered  to 
proceed  to  Pityus,  on  the  Euxine,  but-  died  on  the 
journey  at  Comana  in  407. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius;  born  in  Arpinum  in  106 
B.  C.;  Roman  orator  and  statesman,  studied  rhetoric 
under  Milo  and  others;  commenced  pleading  at  the  age 
of  twenty-six,  and  offending  Sulla  by  his  successful 
defense  of  Roscius  Amerinus,  retired  to  Athens,  where 
he  studied  under  Antiochus;  went  as  qua;stor  to  Sicily 
in  75,  and  on  his  return  impeached  Verres,  a  former 
governor;  was  aedile  in  69,  praetor  in  66,  and,  in  (54,  was 
elected  consul  in  opposition  to  Catiline.  His  vigor  in 
putting  down  the  conspiracy  of  the  latter  gained  for 
him  the  title  of  "father  of  his  country."  The  measures 
passed  by  his  enemy,  the  tribune  Clodius,  obliged  him 
to  withdraw  to  Greece.  After  about  sixteen  months, 
he  was  recalled  by  the  senate,  and,  in  52,  went  as  gov- 
ernor to  Cilicia.  He  sided  with  the  senate  and  after- 
wards with  Pompey  against  Csesar,  but  submitted  to 
the  latter  after  Pharsalia,  and  retiring  to  his  Tusculan 
villa,  wrote  his  "De  Natura  Deorum,"  and  other  philo- 
sophical works.  His  defense  of  Caesar's  murderers  and 
the  "philippic"  orations  directed  against  Marcus  An- 
tonius  led  to  his  proscription  on  the  formation  of  the 
second  triumvirate.  He  was  murdered  by  Antonius's 
emissaries  in  43  B.  C. 

Cid  Campeador,  Ruy,  or  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Bivar, 
hero  of  Spanish  fiction,  aided  Sancho'of  Castile  against 
his  brother,  Alfonso,  King  of  Aragon,  but  on  the  death 
of  Sancho,  acknowledged  Alfonso  as  King  of  Castile. 
He  lost  the  favor  of  Alfonso,  and  retired  from  his  court. 


420 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


but  obtained  some  aid  from  him  in  capturing  the  city 
of  Valencia  from  the  Moors  (1094),  which  he  ruled  till 
his  death. 

Cimabue,  Giovanni,  born  in  1240;  Italian  artist, 
founder  of  the  Florentine  school,  shook  himself  free 
from  the  traditions  of  Byzantine  art,  and  by  following 
nature  and  the  impulses  of  his  own  genius  prepared  the 
way  for  the  future  greatness  of  Italy  in  tne  fine  arts. 
The  exhibition  of  his  table  of  "The  Virgin"  for  the 
Rucellai  chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Novella  was  the  occa- 
sion of  a  public  festival.  Except  the  "Madonna," 
little  of  his  work  remains.     Died,  1302. 

Cinclnnatus,  Lucius  Quintius  {sXn-sln-nah'tus),  a 
famous  Roman  general,  who,  being  made  dictator,  in 
458  B.  C,  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  jEqui  and 
Volsci,  was  found  engaged  in  ploughing  his  own  farm. 
He  gained  a  decisive  victory,  and  as  soon  as  the  war 
was  over,  laid  down  the  office,  returning  to  his  simple 
and  hardy  life.  In  the  year  439  B.  C,  he  was  again 
appointed  dictator,  on  occasion  of  intestine  troubles 
in  Rome. 

Clarl{,  Champ,  congressman,  lawyer;  born  in  Ander- 
son County,  Ky.,  March  7,  1850;  educated  in  common 
schools,  Kentucky  University,  Bethany  College,  and 
Cincinnati  Law  School;  president  Marshall  College, 
West  Virginia,  1873-74;  has  worked  as  hired  hand  on 
farm,  clerk  in  country  store,  country  newspaper  editor; 
lawyer;  was  city  attorney  of  Louisiana,  Mo.,  and 
later  of  Bowling  Green,  Mo.;  prosecuting  attorney  of 
Pike  County;  presidential  elector;  member  Congress, 
ninth  Missouri  district,  1893-95,  and  1897-1913;  chair- 
man Democratic  National  Convention,  St.  Louis,  1904. 
Speaker  of  House  of  Representatives,  1911. 

Clarlf,  Francis  Edward,  founder  United  Society 
Christian  Endeavor;  born  of  New  England  parentage, 
Aylmer,  P.  Q.,  September  12,  1851;  graduate  of  Dart- 
mouth College,  1873;  studied  theology  three  years  at 
Andover;  became  pastor  Williston  Church,  Portland, 
Me.,  which  from  a  small  mission  he  built  up  to  a  large 
Congregational  Church;  founded,  February,  1881,  the 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  which  has  extended 
throughout  the  world;  pastor  Phillips  Church,  South 
Boston,  1883-87;  since  then  has  devoted  his  time  to 
the  Christian  Endeavor  work  as  president  United  Society 
Christian  Endeavor,  president  World's  Christian  En- 
deavor Union,  and  editor  of  "The  Christian  Endeavor 
World."  Author:  "Our  Vacations,"  "Our  Business 
Boys,"  "Looking  Out  on  Life,"  "Danger  Signals," 
"Young  People's  Prayer  Meetings,"  "Ways  and  Means," 
"Christian  Endeavor  Saints,"  "Our  Journey  Around  the 
World,"  "The  Mossback  Correspondence,"  "Fellow 
Travelers,"  "The  Everlasting  Arms,"  "The  Great  Se- 
cret," "World-Wide  Endeavor,"  "A  New  Way  Around 
an  Old  World,"  "Training  the  Church  of  the  Future," 
"Christian  Endeavor  Manual,"  Edited  (with  intro- 
duction), selections:  "The  Presence  of  God"  (Bishop 
Jeremy  Taylor),  "Living  and  Loving"  (Prof.  A.  Tho- 
luck),  "The  Kingdom  Within"  (Thomas  k  Kempis), 
"The  Golden  Alphabet"  (Master  John  Tauler) ;  also 
"Christian  Endeavor  Manual,"  etc. 

Claris,  William  Andrews,  United  States  senator; 
born  near  Connellsville,  Pa.,  January  8,  1839;  educated 
at  Laurel  Hill  Academy  and  other  academies;  studied 
law  Mt.  Pleasant,  la.,  University;  did  not  enter  legal 
profession;  taught  school,  Missouri,  1859-60;  went  to 
Colorado,  1862;  to  Montana,  1863;  since  then  merchant, 
banker,  mine-owner,  manufacturer,  having  large  inter- 
ests; owns  street  railways  of  Butte,  the  "Miner"  news- 
paper, etc.;  president  United  Verde  Copper  Company, 
of  Arizona;  State  orator,  representing  Montana  at  Cen- 
tennial Exposition,  1876;  grand  master  Masons,  Mon- 
tana, 1877;  niajor  Butte  battalion,  leading  it  in  Nez 
Perc^  campaign,  1878;  president  constitutional  conven- 
tions, 1884  and  1889;  commissioner  from  Montana  to 
New  Orleans  Exposition,  1884;  Democrat  candidate  for 
delegate  in  Congress,  1888  (defeated) ;  nominated  by 
Democrats  for  United  States  senator,  1890,  and  claimed 
election,  but  was  denied  seat;  elected  by  legislature  for 
term,  1901-07,  United  States  Senate. 

Clay,  Henry,  born  in  1777;  American  orator  and 
statesman;  was  educated  for  the  law,  and  in  1811,  en- 
tered the  House  of  Representatives,  of  which  he  was  seven 
times  elected  speaker;  and  later,  secretary  of  state  and 
United  States  senator;  supported  the  war  with  Great 
Britain  on  the  right  of  search  in  1812,  and  acted  as 
plenipotentiary  in  the  negotiations  preceding  the  treaty 
of  Ghent  (1814);  was  author  of  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise, restricting  slavery  to  the  Southern  States  (1821), 
and  of  the  Omnibus  bill,  which  postponed  the  Civil  War 
for  ten  years.  He  was  three  times  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  president.     Died,  June  29,  1852. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhome  ("Mark  Twain"), 
author,  lecturer;    born  in  Florida,  Mo.,  November  30, 


1835;  educated  in  common  schools,  Hannibal,  Mo.; 
(M.  A.,  Yale;  L.  H.  D.,  Yale,  1901;  LL.  D.,  University 
of  Missouri,  1902);  apprenticed  to  printer  at  twelve; 
worked  at  trade;  for  a  short  time  was  Mississippi  pilot; 
became,  1861,  private  secretary  to  his  brother;  city 
editor  Virginia  City  (Nev.)  "Enterprise,"  1862;  alter- 
nated between  mining  and  newspaper  work  until,  be- 
coming noted  as  a  humorist,  he  began  lecturing  and 
writing  books;  founded,  1884,  publishing  house  of  C.  L. 
Webster  &  Co.,  failure  of  which  involvwi  him  in  heavy 
losses;  paid  its  debts  by  proceeds  of  lectures  and  books; 
traveled  extensively.  Club:  Lotos.  Author:  "The 
Jumping  Frog,"  "The  Innocents  Abroad,"  "Autobiog- 
raphy and  First  Romance,"  "The  Gilded  Age"  (with  late 
C.  D.  Warner);  "Roughing  It,"  "Sketches  New  and 
Old,"  " Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer,"  "Punch  Brothers, 
Punch,"  "A  Tramp  Abroad,"  "The  Prince  and  the 
Pauper,"  "The  Stolen  White  Elephant,"  "Life  on  the 
Mississippi,"  "The  Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn,"  "A 
Yankee  at  the  Court  of  King  Arthur,"  "The  American 
Claimant,"  "Merry  Tales,"  "The  £1,000,000  Bank 
Note,"  "Puddin'head  Wilson,"  "Tom  Sawyer  Abroad," 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  "Following  the  Equator,"  "The  Man 
That  Corrupted  Hadleyburg,"  "A  Double-Barreled  De- 
tective Story,"  "  Christian  Science."     Died,  1910. 

Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt;  born  in  69  B.  C;  cele- 
brated for  her  beauty,  was  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Auletes,  by  whose  will  she  was  left  joint  sovereign  with 
her  brother  Ptolemy  (51  B.  C).  Expelled  by  the  latter, 
she  sought  the  assistance  of  Julius  Cajsar,  who  restored 
her  to  the  throne  in  conjunction  with  a  younger  brother. 
She  afterwards  followed  Ca?sar  to  Rome,  and  in  41  capti- 
vated M.  Antonius,  who  rejected  Octavia  for  her  sake. 
A  quarrel  with  Octavius  ensued;  the  fleet  of  Antonius 
and  Cleopatra  was  defeated  at  Actium,  and  they  fled 
together  to  Egypt,  where  they  both  committed  suicide. 
Died,  30  B.  C. 

Cleveland,  Grover  (Stephen  Grover  Cleveland), 
twenty-second  and  twenty-fourth  President  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  Caldwell,  Essex  County,  N.  J., 
March  18,  1837;  academic  education;  (LL.  D.,  Prince- 
ton, 1897);  married,  June  2,  1886,  Frances  Folsom. 
Went  to  Buffalo,  1855,  became  clerk  in  a  law  office  and 
was  admitted  to  bar,!  1859 ;  assistant  district  attorney 
Erie  County,  1863-66;  sheriff  Erie  County,  1870-73; 
established  law  practice;  in  1881  was  elected  mayor  of 
Buffalo.  His  veto  of  extravagant  appropriations  di- 
rected outside  attention  to  him  and  led  to  his  nomina- 
tion and  election  as  governor  the  following  year;  in 
1884  elected  President  of  United  States  as  Democrat, 
over  James  G.  Blaine,  Republican,  by  majority  of  thirty- 
seven  electoral  votes;  in  1888  again  Democratic  nomi- 
nee, but  defeated  by  Benjamin  Harrison;  returned  to 
law  practice,  locating  in  New  York;  in  1892  again 
elected  president  as  Democrat,  defeating  President  Harri- 
son; in  1896  the  Democratic  party  having  declared  for 
the  free  coinage  of  silver  in  the  platform  of  its  national 
convention,  Mr.  Cleveland  withheld  his  support  from  the 
ticket  and  platform.  He  took  up  his  residence,  after 
his  second  retirement  from  the  White  House  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  where  he  died,  June  24,  1908. 

Clews,  Henry,  banker;  born  in  Staff ord.shire,  Eng- 
land; intended  for  ministry,  but  left  school  at  15  to  enter 
mercantile  life  in  New  York,  whither  his  father  had  taken 
him  for  a  visit;  junior  clerkship  Wilson  G.  Hunt  & 
Company,  woolen  importers;  member  firm  Stout,  Clews 
&  Ma-son,  1858;  later  Livermore,  Clews  &  Company;  at 
outbreak  of  Civil  War  invited  by  secretary  of  treasury  to 
become  agent  to  sell  government  bonds;  firm  of  Henry 
Clews  &  C!ompany  organized,  1877,  its  members  pledging 
themselves  never  to  take  any  speculative  risk.  Many 
years  treasurer  American  Geographical  Society ;  formerly 
treasurer  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Animals;  connected  with  many  city  institutions  and 
financial  corporations;  frequent  contributor  to  newspa- 
pers and  r-^gazines.  Author:  "Twenty-eight  Years 
in  Wall  Street,"  "The  Wall  Street  Point  of  View." 

Clifford,  William  Klngdon,  F.  R.  S.,  born  in  1845; 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge; appointed  professor  of  applied  mathematics  at 
University  College,  London,  in  1871;  wrote  "Seeing  and 
Thinking,"  "Lectures  and  Essays,"  and  scientific  works. 
Died,  1879. 

Clinton,  George,  an  American  commander  and 
statesman,  born  in  1739.  He  served  in  early  life  under 
General  Amherst  against  the  French,  and  afterwards 
studied  the  law.  During  the  struggle  for  independence 
in  the  North  American  Colonies,  he  sat  in  Con^j-ess,  and 
was  made  a  brigadier-general.  With  an  inferior  force, 
he  succeeded  in  preventing  Sir  Henry  Clinton  from  as- 
sisting General  Burgoyne.     Died,  1812. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  general,  succeeded 
Sir  William  Howe  as  commander-in-chief  in  America, 


BIOGRAPHY 


421 


was  born,  1738.  His  course  was  marked  by  bravery  and 
good  conduct,  but  not  with  success.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Limerick,  and 
subsequently  of  Gibraltar,  where  he  died  in  1795. 

Clovls  I.,  son  of  Childeric  I.,  was  born  about  465, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  the  French  Mon- 
archy. He  succeeded  Childeric  in  481.  The  victory  of 
Soissons,  which  he  gained  in  486,  over  Syagrius,  ren- 
dered him  master  of  all  the  Roman  possessions  in  the 
center  of  Gaul.  Victorious  when  opposed  to  the  Ger- 
mans at  Tolbiac  near  Cologne,  in  496,  he  is  said  to  have 
made  a  vow  of  embracing  Christianity,  and  to  have  kept 
his  promise.  He  was  baptized  by  St.  Remigius,  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims.  Having  conquered  Alaric,  King  of 
the  Visigoths,  in  507,  he  gained  most  of  the  south  prov- 
inces, but  was  himself  overthrown  near  Aries,  by  Theo- 
doric,  in  507.     Died,  511. 

Cobden,  Richard,  an  eminent  British  politician  and 
reformer,  was  born  at  Dunford,  in  Sussex,  m  June,  1804. 
His  early  life  was  spent  in  connection  with  rnanufactur- 
ing  industry  at  Manchester:  and  it  was  not  till  the  year 
1837,  when  he  unsuccessfully  contested  the  borough  of 
Stockport,  that  he  became  publicly  known.  In  1838, 
the  anti-corn-law  agitation  commenced;  and  in  the 
cause,  of  free  trade  Mr.  Cobden  took  the  foremost  rank, 
until  the  accomplishment  of  its  principles,  in  1846. 
Shortly  afterwards  a  public  subscription  was  raised, 
and  the  handsome  sum  of  £75,000  was  contributed,  as 
a  testimonial  of  his  countrymen  to  the  unwearied 
exertions  of  Mr.  Cobden.  He  represented  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire  until  1857;  and,  in  1860,  succeeded, 
with  M.  Chevalier,  in  completing  a  free-trade  treaty 
between  France  and  Great  Britain.  He  died  on  the 
2d  of  April,  1865. 

Cockran,  William  Bourlie,  lawyer,  orator;  born  in 
Ireland,  February  28,  1854;  educated  in  Ireland  and 
France;  came  to  the  United  States,  1871;  taught  in 
private  academy;  later,  principal  of  a  public  school  in 
Westchester  County,  N.  Y.;  then  a  lawyer,  soon  be- 
coming prominent  in  New  York  City  politics;  made 
noteworthy  speeches  at  National  Democratic  conven- 
tions, 1884  and  1892,  opposing  the  nomination  of  Cleve- 
land; member  of  Congress,  1887-89,  and  1891-95,  as 
Democrat.  In  1896,  became  advocate  of  the  gold 
standard  and  campaigned  for  McKinley.  On  issue  of 
anti-imperialism,  returned  to  Democratic  party,  1900, 
and  campaigned  for  Bryan.  Was  agaip  elected  to 
Congress,  February  23,  1904,  at  a  special  election  to 
fill  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of  George  B. 
McClellan;   reelected,  1904  and  1906. 

Cockrell,  Francis  3Iarioii,  United  States  senator, 
1875-1905,  lawyer;  born  in  Johnson  County,  Mo., 
October  1,  1834;  graduate  of  Chapel  Hill  College, 
Lafayette  County,  Mo.,  1853;  studied  law  and  prac- 
ticed at  Warrensburg;  served  in  Confederate  States 
Army,  becoming  brigadier-general.  Democrat,  chair- 
man of  Senate  committee  on  Engrossed  Bills,  and  mem- 
ber of  committees  on  Appropriations,  Military  Affairs, 
Rules,  etc.,  and  select  committee  on  Industrial  Expo- 
sitions. Appointed  interstate  commerce  commissioner, 
March  5,  1905. 

Cohen,  Solomon  Solis,  physician;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, September  1,  1857;  son  of  Myer  David  and 
Judith  Simirah  (da  Silva  Solis)  Cohen;  graduate  (A.  B.) 
of  Central  High  School,  1872,  A.  M.,  1877;  graduate 
of  Jefferson  Medical  College,  1883.  Professor  of  clinical 
medicine  and  therapeutics,  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  and 
College  for  Graduates  in  Medicine,  1887-1902 ;  lecturer  on 
clinical  medicine,  Jefferson  Medical  College,  1888-1902; 
professor  of  clinical  medicine,  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
since  1902.  Author:  "Therapeutics  of  Tuberculosis," 
"Essentials  of  Diagnosis,"  and  other  medical  writings. 
Editor:  "System  of  Physiologic  Therapeutics";  was 
editor  of  "Philadelphia  Polyclinic";  editor  of  depart- 
ment of  "Treatment,"  in  "American  Medicine";  one 
of  the  editors  of  "The  American  Hebrew."  Has  con- 
tributed poems  and  occasional  essays  to  "Century," 
"Scribner's,"  "Lippincott's,"  "Arena,"  etc.;  also  a 
translator  of  poems  from  the  Hebrew. 

Coke,  Sir  Edward,  born  in  1552;  judge  and  law 
writer,  educated  at  Norwich  grammar  school  and  Cam- 
bridge, was  called  to  the  bar  in  1578;  early  acquired  a 
high  reputation,  and  became  solicitor-general  in  1592, 
and  attorney-general  in  1594.  He  showed  much  harsh- 
ness in  his  prosecution  of  Essex,  Raleigh,  and  others; 
but  his  loyalty  gained  him  the  chief  justiceship  of  the 
common  pleas,  in  1606.  In  this  position  and  that  of 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  (1613),  he  opposed 
James  I.'s  claim  to  exercise  prerogatives  and  was  tem- 
porarily deprived  in  1616.  Entering  parliament  in 
1620,  he  there  resisted  the  king's  encroachments;  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1622,  and  in  1628,  took  the 
chief  part  in  drawing  up  the  Petition  of  Right.     The 


remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  compiling  his  "Com- 
mentaries upon  Littleton."     Died,  1634. 

Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  Rheims,  A.  D.  1619; 
a  distinguished  French  statesman,  minister  of  finance  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  His  whole  life  was  devoted  to 
financial  and  fiscal  reforms,  and  to  the  encouragement 
of  commerce  and  manufactures.  To  him  the  kingdom 
was  indebted  for  the  enlargement  of  its  navy,  for  the 
acquisition  of  many  of  its  foreign  possessions,  and  for  a 
large  number  of  internal  improvements.  He  instituted 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture,  and  also 
the  Academies  of  Science  and  of  Architecture.  The 
Gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  the 
facade  of  the  Louvre,  and  several  of  the  quays  along  the 
Seine,  were  all  the  work  of  Colbert.     Died,  1683. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  a  poet,  essayist,  and 
dramatist,  was  born  in  Devonshire,  England,  in  1772. 
He  was  sent  to  Christ's  hospital,  and  subsequently 
studied  at  Cambridge,  where,  in  1792,  he  obtained  the 
prize  for  the  best  Greek  ode.  His  works  are  many,  and 
are  generally  distinguished  by  benevolence  and  piety. 
His  "Sibylline  Leaves"  and  "Biographia  Literaria" 
found  many  admirers,  and  several  of  his  poems  were 
deemed  beautiful.     Died,  1834. 

CoUgny,  Gaspard  de  Chatlllon,  Sire  de  (ko-lain- 
ye'),  a  noted  French  Huguenot,  was  born  in  1517,  and 
murdered  in  the  St.  Bartholomew  Massacre,  1572.  In 
early  life  he  attained  great  distinction  aa  a  military 
leader,  and  was  created  admiral  in  1552.  After  the 
accession  of  Charles  IX.,  he  became  a  Protestant,  and 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he  became,  with 
the  Prince  de  Cond^,  the  leader  of  the  Huguenots. 

Colt,  Samuel,  an  American  inventor,  born  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  in  1814.  He  early  conceived  the  idea  of 
revolving  fire-arms,  and,  in  1835,  took  out  a  patent  for 
the  weapon  since  known  the  world  over  as  "Colt's  re- 
volver." In  1848,  he  established  a  company  for  the 
working  out  of  his  patent,  and  built  at  Hartford  one  of 
the  most  extensive  armories  in  the  world.     Died,  1862. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  discoverer  of  America,  on 
October  12,  1492,  after  two  months  of  ^reat  peril  and, 
in  the  end,  mutiny  of  his  men;  was  born  in  Genoa,  1446. 
He  went  to  sea  at  14,  and  cherished,  if  he  did  not  con- 
ceive, the  idea  of  reaching  India  by  sailing  westward. 
He  applied  in  many  quarters  for  furtherance,  and, 
after  seven  years  of  waiting,  was  provided  with  three 
small  vessels  and  a  crew  of  120  men.  First  touching 
land  at  the  Bahamas,  he  visited  Cuba  and  Hayti,  and 
returned  home  with  spoils  of  the  land,  and  was  hailed 
and  honored  as  "King  of  the  Sea."  He  made  three 
subsequent  visits,  and  on  the  third  had  the  satisfaction 
of  landing  on  the  mainland,  which  Sebastia,n  Cabot  and 
Amerigo  Vespucci  had  reached  before  him;  but  he 
became  at  last  the  victim  of  jealousy,  and  charges  were 
made  against  him,  which  so  cut  him  to  the  heart  that 
he  never  rallied  from  the  attack,  and  he  died  at  Valla- 
dolid,  in  1506,  broken  in  body  and  in  soul.  Carlyle,  in 
a  famous  passage,  salutes  him  across  the  centuries: 
"Brave  pea-captain,  Norse  sea-king,  Columbus,  my  hero, 
royalist  sea-king  of  all." 

Comstock,  Anthony,  secretary  and  special  agent  of 
New  York  Society  for  Suppression  of  Vice  since  March 
2,  1872;  born  in  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  March  7,  1844; 
educated  in  district  school  and  Wyckoff's  Academy, 
New  Canaan,  and  1860-61,  high  school.  New  Britain, 
Conn.;  left  school  to  earn  living,  1861.  His  brother, 
Samuel,  having  been  killed  at  Gettysburg,  volunteered 
to  fill  his  place  in  regiment,  enlisting  in  17th  Connecticut 
Volunteer  Infantry,  December,  1863;  mustered  out, 
July,  1865.  Appointed,  March  3,  1873,  and  since  then, 
post-office  inspector  of  New  York;  was  prominent  in 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  As  secretary  and  special  agent  of  New 
York  Society  for  Suppression  of  Vice  and  post-office 
inspector,  has  brought  about  3,500  criminals  to  justice 
and  destroyed  131  tons  of  obscene  literature  and 
pictures,  etc.  Author:  "Frauds  Exposed,"  ".Gambling 
Outrages,"  "Morals  vs.  Art,"  "Traps  for  the  Young." 

Conde,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of,  born  in  1530; 
joined  the  Huguenots  after  the  death  of  Henri  II.,  and, 
together  with  Coligny,  became  their  leader  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.  He  was  wounded  at  Dreux  (1562), 
lost  the  battle  of  St.  Denys  (1567),  and  was  killed  at 
Jarnac  (1569). 

Condorcet  (kong-dor'-sa),  Jean  Marie  Antolne 
Nicholas  Caritat,  Marquis  de,  was  born  in  1743. 
He  gained  celebrity  by  his  successful  labors  as  a  mathe- 
matician. His  treatise  on  integral  calculations,  written 
when  he  was  but  twenty-two  years  of  age,  was  eminently 
successful,  and  was  considered  to  indicate  a  degree  of 
knowledge  seldom  possessed  at  so  early  an  age.  He 
was  the  friend  of  D'Alembert  and  of  almost  all  his  illus- 
trious contemporaries,  as  well  as  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Voltaire.     Being   appointed   governor   of   the   dauphin 


422 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


by  the  constituent  assembly,  he  was  cuccessively  called 
to  the  legislative  body  and  to  the  conveDt:ou;  but  sub- 
sequently denounced  as  a  partizan  of  the  Girondists, 
he  was  outlawed  in  1793,  and  shortly  aftev  was  taken 
prisoner,  when  he  poisoned  himself,  in  1794. 

Confucius  ikon-fu'-ae-us),  the  Latinized  name  of 
Koung-Fou-Tseu,  a  celebrated  Chinese  philosoplier, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  in  the  year  551  B.C.  from 
his  youth  he  devoted  his  hours  to  the  study  of  philo.sophy. 
A  mandarin  when  but  17  years  of  age,  he  resigned  his 
office  on  the  death  of  his  mother,  according  to  custom, 
and  withdrew  to  solitude,  giving  himself  up  to  profound 
meditation.  He  afterwards  established  a  school,  aiul 
had  many  disciples.  The  King  of  Lu  invited  him  to 
his  court  and  appointed  him  his  first  minister.  He 
endeavored  to  correct  the  manners  of  his  countrymen 
by  his  sage  maxims.  He  effected  important  reforms, 
but  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies  prevailed  against  him, 
and  he  was  sent  into  exile.  He  wrote  several  very  im- 
portant works,  and  died  in  478  B.  C. 

Conrad  III.,  founder  of  the  Holienstaufen  Dynasty; 
elected  Emperor  of  Germany  in  113S;  had  Henry  the 
Proud,  as  head  of  the  German  Guelfs  for  rival;  crushed 
him  at  Weinsberg;  joined  Louis  Xll.  of  France  on  a 
third  crusade,  and  returning,  overthrew  the  Guelfs  again, 
leaving  Barbarossa  as  his  heir;  born,  1093,  died,  1152. 

Constantine  I.  (kon'sldn-tln),  called  The  Great;  born 
in  272,  at  Mcesia,  was  son  of  Constantius  Chlorus  by 
Helena.  On  the  death  of  his  father  at  York,  where  he 
accompanied  him,  was  proclaimed  emperor  hy  the 
troops;  this  title  being  challenged  by  Maximian,  his 
father-in-law,  and  Maxentius,  his  brother-in-law,  he 
took  up  arms  against  first  the  one  and  then  the 
other,  and  defeated  them.  One  day  he  saw  a  cross  in 
the  sky  with  the  words,  "By  this' Conquer,"  in  Greek; 
under  this  sign,  known  as  the  labarum,  which  he  adopted 
as  his  standard,  he  accordingly  marched  straight  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  acknowledged  emperor  by  the 
senate  in  312,  and  thereafter  an  edict  was  issued  named 
of  Milan,  granting  toleration  to  the  Christians.  He  had 
still  to  extend  his  empire  over  the  East,  and  having  done 
so  by  the  removal  of  Lucinius,  he  transferred  the  seat 
of  his  empire  to  Byzantium,  which  hence  got  the  name 
of  Constantinople,  i.  e.,  Constantine's  city.  Constantine 
had  himself  baptized  in  337  as  a  Christian,  after  liaving 
three  years  before  proclaimed  Christianity  the  state 
religion.     Died,  337. 

Cook,  Frederick  Albert,  physician,  explorer;  born 
Callicoon  Depot,  Sullivan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1865;  educated  in 
Callicoon,  1871-78,  in  Brooklyn,  1878-85;  M.  D., 
University  of  New  Y'ork,  1890;  So.  D.,  University  of 
Copenhagen,  1909.  Was  surgeon  of  Peary's  Arctic 
expedition,  1891-92;  surgeon  of  the  Belgian  Antarctic 
expedition,  1897-99;  climbed  Mt.  McKinley,  1903-06. 
In  1909  announced  his  discovery  of  North  Pole  on  April 
21,  1908.  Decorated  with  Order  of  Leopold,  Belgium; 
Gold  Medal  Royal  Society,  Belgium;  Silver  Medal, 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  Belgium;  is  a  member  of 
American,  National,  and  Philadelphia  Geographical 
Societies.  Author:  "Through  the  First  Antarctic 
Night";   "To  the  Top  of  the  Continent." 

Cook,  Captain  James,  born  in  Marton,  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  October  28,  1728;  a  celebrated 
English  navigator,  best  known  through  his  "Voyages 
Round  the  World."  He  made  three  principal  voyages, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  made  many  important  dis- 
coveries, but  was  ultimately  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  the 
natives  of  Hawaii,  though  he  had  never  acted  so  as  to 
deserve  anything  but  confidence  from  the  natives  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact.  His  kindly  disposition,  and 
his  scrupulous  justice  and  humanity,  were,  with  his  skill 
as  a  navigator,  among  his  first  recommendations.  After 
his  death,  at  Hawaii,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1779,  many  honors  were  paid  to  his  niemory, 
both  in  his  own  and  in  foreign  countries. 

Coop'er,  James  Fenimore,  an  illustrious  American 
novelist,  was  born  in  Burlington,  N.  J.,  1789.  After  six 
years'  experience  of  naval  life,  Cooper  retired  from  the 
sea  in  1810,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Cooperstown, 
Otsego  County,  N.Y.  About  1819,  appeared  his  first  work, 
"  Precaution."  In  quick  succession  followed  "The  Spy,"  a 
tale  which  at  once  secured  for  him  a  place  in  the  first 
rank  of  novelists;  his  almost  unequaled  sea  stories, 
"The  Red  Rover,"  "Pilot,"  and  "Water-witch";  his 
famous  "  Leather  Stocking  Series "  of  Indian  life  and 
adventure,  the  "Pioneers,"  "Last  of  the  Mohicans," 
"Pathfinder,"  " Deerslayer,"  "Prairie,"  etc.  Cooper, 
after  passing  some  years  in  Europe,  died  in  1851.  His 
works  have  been  translated  into  every  European  lan- 
guage, and  have  exhausted  numberless  editions. 

Copernicus,  Nicolas,  born  in  1473  at  Thorn,  Prussia; 
founcier  of  the  modern  system  of  astronomy,  studied  at 
Cracow  and  Bologna,  and  became  professor  of  mathe- 


matics at  Rome.  Obtaining  a  canonry  in  the  chapter 
of  Frauenburg,  he  there  wrote  his  work  in  Latin  "  On  the 
Revolution  of  the  Celestial  Orbs,"  which  he  deferred 
publishing  until  a  little  before  his  death,  in  1543,  aware 
of  the  opposition  it  would  arouse. 

Corday  D'Armans,  3Iarie  Cliarlotte,  born  in  1768, 
at  St.  Saturnin,  Normandy,  of  a  noble  Norman  family; 
sympathized  with  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution 
but  was  horrified  at  its  excesses;  visited  Paris  in  July, 
1793,  with  the  purpose,  it  is  said,  of  assassinating  Marat, 
or  Robespierre;  obtaining  an  interview  with  the  former 
while  in  his  bath,  she  stabbed  him  with  a  knife;  was  im- 
mediately apprehended  and  executed  four  days  afterwards. 

Corelli,  Marie,  Miss,  was  born,  1864,  the  adopt- 
ed child  of  the  poet,  Charles  Mackay;  educated  in 
a  French  convent,  and  studied  ffer  a  musical  career. 
At  an  early  age  betrayed  literary  gifts,  and  the  success 
of  "A  Romance  of  Two  Worlds"  decided  her  course. 
Since  then  she  has  written  a  number  of  novels  which 
have  had  large  circulations.  Persuaded  Mr.  Edward 
Morris,  of  Chicago,  to  purchase  Harvard  House,  Strat- 
ford-on-Avon  (which  she  had  restored),  and  to  present 
it  to  Harvard  University,  to  which  it  now  belongs. 

Corneille  (kur-nayV),  Pierre,  born  in  1606,  in  Rouen; 
French  dramatist;  was  educated  for  the  law,  but  the 
success  of  his  first  comedy,  "  Mdlite,"  induced  him  to 
devote  himself  to  literature.  It  was  followed  by  other 
comedies,  but  from  1635  he  preferred  tragedy,  producing 
"M^d^e,"  "Le  Cid "  (which  established  his  fame), 
"Horace,"  "Cinna,"  "Polyeucte,"  "La  Mort  de  Pom- 
pde,"  etc.  "Le  Menteur"  was  another  successful  com- 
edy.    Died,  1684. 

Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus,  was  the 
wife  of  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus,  who  was  consul, 
177  B.  C.  By  him  Cornelia  had  twelve  children,  and 
was  left,  still  in  the  prime  of  life,  a  widow.  To  her  chil- 
dren she  gave  all  her  care,  though  only  three  reached 
rnaturity,  but  these  owed  to  their  mother  the  high  dis- 
tinction which  they  gained  in  the  commonwealth.  A 
lady,  after  displaying  her  jewels,  asked  to  see  those  of 
Cornelia,  who,  producing  her  sons,  said,  "These  are 
mine."  Her  hand  was  sought  by  the  King  of  Egypt,  but 
she  withheld  her  consent.  She  encouraged  her  sons  to  be 
too  ambitious,  which  eventually  cost  them  their  lives. 

Cornell,  Ezra,  an  American  philanthropist;  born  in 
1807,  Westchester  Landing,  N.  Y.  He  accumulated 
a  large  fortune  and  is  best  known  as  the  founder  of 
Cornell  University.  He  began  life  as  a  mechanic  and 
miller  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  subsequently  became  a 
contractor  for  the  erection  of  telegraph  lines.  He  died 
in  Ithaca,  in  1874. 

Comwailis,  Charles,  Marquis,  born  in  1738; 
a  prominent  English  statesman  and  general,  celebrated 
as  the  general  -under  whom  the  British  forces  were 
finally  defeated  (1781)  in  the  American  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. He  was  afterwards  governor-general  and 
commander-in-chief  in  India,  where  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  victories  over  "Tippoo  Sahib; 
and  still  later  (1798),  he  was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  (1802),  plenipotentiary  of  Great  Britain  to  negotiate 
the  Peace  of  Amiens.  Appointed,  in  1805,  governor- 
general  of  India  a  second  time;  he  died  (1805)  at  Ghaze- 
pur,  in  the  province  of  Benares,  while  on  his  way  to  as- 
sume the  command  of  the  troops. 

Co  rot  (ko-ro'),  Jean  Baptistc  Camille,  born  in  Paris, 
1796;  French  painter,  pupil  of  Michallon  and  Bertin, 
and  founder  of  the  impressionist  school;  began  to  ex- 
hibit in  1827,  but  did  not  produce  his  masterpieces, 
"Dante  and  Virgil,"  and  "Macbeth  meeting  the  Witches," 
till  1859.     Died,  1875. 

Correggio  (kor-ra'-je-o),  Anionic  Allegrl  da,  an 
artist  of  great  fame;  was  born  at  Correggio  in  1494,  in 
the  duchy  of  Modena.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  Lombard  School,  and  was  distinguished  above 
all  his  rivals  by  the  grace  and  beauty  of  his  figures,  and 
by  the  richness  and  harmony  of  his  coloring.  He  painted 
"  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  for  the  cathedral  church 
of  Parma;  and  among  his  numerous  productions  are, 
the  "Nativity,"  the  "Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,"  the 
"Holy  Family,"  etc.     Died,  1534. 

Cortelyou,  George  Bruce,  ex-secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury; born  in  New  York,  1862;  graduated  at  Hempstead 
(L.  I.)  Institute  and  State  Normal  School,  Westfield, 
Mass.;  graduate  of  the  law  schools  of  Georgetown  and 
(Jolumbian  (George  Washington)  universities;  in  1883 
general  law  reporter;  was  principal  of  schools  in  New 
York  from  1885  to  18S9;  entered  the  public  service  as 
private  secretary  to  public  officials;  1895,  was  appointed 
stenographer  to  President  Cleveland;  1896,  executive 
clerk;  1898,  assistant  secretary  to  President  McKinley; 
1900,  secretary  to  the  president;  reappointed  by  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt;  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  newly 
established  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  1903 ; 


BIOGRAPHY 


423 


1904,  was  elected  chairman  of  the  Republican  National 
Committee,  and  conducted  the  campaign  which  resulted 
in  the  election  of  President  Roosevelt.  He  entered  the 
new  cabinet,  1905,  as  postmaster-general,  and  on  March 
4,  1907,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In 
1909,  became  president  of  New  York  Gas  Co. 

Cortes,  or  Cortez  {kor'-lez),  Hernando,  a  Spanish 
adventurer;  born  in  Medellin  in  Estremadura,  in  1485. 
He  was  first  destined  for  the  law;  but  a  passion  for  arms 
carrying  him  to  the  military  profession,  he  went  early 
in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  with  Velasquez,  to  Cuba,  and 
subsequently  obtained  the  command  of  the  expedition 
sent  against  Mexico.  With  seven  hundred  men  under 
his  command,  he  landed  at  Tobasco  in  1519,  and  imme- 
diately burned  his  ships,  that  his  followers  might  have 
no  hope  but  in  victory.  He  advanced  to  Mexico,  where 
he  was  at  first  received  with  friendly  demonstrations; 
but  on  his  seizing  Montezuma,  the  Mexican  king,  whom 
he  subseqviently  put  to  death  by  fire,  a  struggle  ensued, 
in  which  many  thousands  of  lives  were  lost.  He  event- 
ually succeeded  in  putting  down  all  opposition,  and  in 
overrunning  Mexico.  While  effecting  this  he  is  be- 
lieved to  have  perpetrated  the  most  enormous  cruelties. 
He  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  marquis,  and  a  grant 
of  land;  but  subsequently,  on  his  return  to  Spain,  he 
found  himself  very  much  neglected.  He  died  near 
Seville,  in  1547. 

Cor'win,  Thomas,  an  American  statesman;  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1794;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1818, 
and  after  serving  some  seven  years  in  the  State  legis- 
lature, was  elected  to  Congress  in  1830,  and  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1845.  In  1850,  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  the  treasury,  and,  in  1861,  minister  to  Mexico. 
Died  in  Washington  in  1865. 

Cox,  Kenyon,  painter;  born  in  Warren,  O.,  October 
27,  1856;  studied  in  Cincinnati  and  Philadelphia;  in 
Paris  under  Carolus  Duran  and  G^rome,  1877-82;  re- 
turned to  New  York.  Pictures  are  principally  portraits 
and  figure  pieces;  painted  two  decorations  in  Library 
of  Congress,  one  in  Walker  Art  Gallery,  Bowdoin  College; 
one  in  Minnesota  State  capitol,  one  in  Citizens'  building, 
Cleveland,  O.,  and  frieze  in  court  room.  Appellate  Court, 
New  York,  and  other  decorative  pictures.  Has  con- 
tributed to  leading  magazines  on  art  subjects;  part 
author  of  "Modern  French  Masters,"  edited  by  J.  C. 
Van  Dyke,  and  of  "The  Nineteenth  Century."  Author: 
"Mixed  Beasts,"  ".Old  Masters  and  New." 

Cox,  Palmer,  artist;  born  in  Granby,  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, April  28,  1840;  graduate  of  Granby  Academy; 
lived  in  San  Francisco,  1863-75,  contributing  to  "Golden 
Era"  and  "Alta  California";  since  1875,  has  lived  in 
New  York.  His  specialty  is  original  humorous  pictures 
illustrating  his  own  books.  Author:  "Squibs  of  Cali- 
fornia, or  Every-day  Life  Illustrated,"  "Hans  von  Pel- 
ter'sTrip  to  Gotham,"  ".  How  Columbus  Found  America," 
"That  Stanley,"  "The  Brownies,  their  Book,"  "Queer 
People,"  "Queer  People  with  Wings  and  Stings,"  "Queer 
People  with  Paws  and  Claws,"  "Another  Brownie 
Book,"  ".The  Brownies  at  Home,"  "The  Brownies 
Around  the  World,"  ".The  Brownies  Through  the  Union," 
"The  Brownies  Abroad,"  "The  Brownies  in  Fairyland" 
(cantata  in  two  acts),  "Palmer  Cox's  Brownies"  (spec- 
tacular play  in  three  acts),  "  The  Brownies  in  the  Philip- 
pines." 

Craik,  Dinah  Maria,  born  in  1826;  daughter  of 
Mr.  Muloch,  a  clergyman.  Besides  poems  and  essays, 
she  wrote  many  novels,  of  which  "John  Halifax,  Gen- 
tleman" (1857)  is  the  best  known.     Died,  1887. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  born  in  1489;  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  obtained  the  favor  of  Henry  VIII.  by 
furthering  his  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and 
was  appointed  primate  in  1533.  He  favored  the  Re- 
formed doctrines  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
in  that  of  Edward  VI.  Protestantism  was  thoroughly 
established,  and  the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer  "  compiled 
(1549)  under  his  guidance.  He  was  committed  to  the 
"Tower  on  the  accession  of  Mary,  condemned  at  Oxford 
for  heresy  in  1554,  and  after  two  years'  imprisonment, 
burnt  there,  openly  rejecting  the  recantation  of  Protes- 
tantism which  he  had  been  induced  to  sign.    Died,  1556. 

Crassus,  Lucius  Licinlus,  the  greatest  Roman 
orator  of  his  day,  became  consul  in  95  B.  C;  during  his 
consulship  a  law  was  passed,  requiring  all  but  citizens 
to  leave  Rome,  an  edict  which  provoked  the  Social 
War.     Born  140  B.  C. ;   died  91  B.  C. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius,  the  triumvir  with  Pom- 
pey  and  Csesar;  was  avaricious,  and  amassed  great 
wealth;  appointed  to  the  province  of  Syria,  provoked 
out  of  cupidity  war  with  the  Parthians,  in  which  he  was 
treacherously  slain;  Orodes,  the  king,  cut  off  his  head, 
and  poured  melted  gold  into  his  mouth,  saying  as  he 
did  so,  "Now  sate  thyself  with  the  metal  of  which  thou 
wert  so  greedy  when  alive."     (105-53  B.  C). 


Crawford,  Thomas  (krau'jurd),  an  American  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  New  York,  in  1814.  He  early  mani- 
fested a  taste  for  artistic  studies,  and,  in  1834,  repaired 
to  Rome,  where  he  entered  the  studio  of  Thorwaldsen. 
His  principal  works  are  the  bronze  statue  of  Beethoven, 
executed  for  the  Boston  Music  Hall;  the  colossal  eques- 
trian statue  of  Washington  at  the  capitol,  Richmond; 
and  the  marble  and  bronze  statuary  for  the  capitol, 
Washington.     Died  in  London  in  1857. 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward  (Jcre'se),  an  English  historian, 
born  in  1812,  is  the  author  of  the  "Fifteen  Decisive 
Battles  of  the  World,"  which  has  exhausted  some  ten 
editions;  ".The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Con- 
stitution" (1856);  and  a  "History  of  England,"  the 
first  volume  of  which  was  published  in  1869.   Died,  1878. 

Crispl,  Francesco,  born  in  1819;  Italian  statesman, 
joined  in  the  conspiracies  which  led  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  (1848);  planned  the 
second  Sicilian  revolt  of  1859-60;  fought  under  Gari- 
baldi; became  a  minister  of  state;  represented  Palermo 
in  the  first  Italian  Parliament,  in  which  he  was  leader 
of  the  constitutional  opposition.  In  1877,  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior;  in  1887,  president 
of  the  council  and  premier,  and  resigned  in  1891.  Died, 
1901. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordon  (krU'-n-den),  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1787.  After  having 
studied  and  engaged  in  the  practice  of  the  law,  he,  in 
1816,  became  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  House  of 
Representatives,  and,  in  1817,  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate.  In  1841,  he  became  attorney-general  in 
President  Harrison's  administration;  and,  in  1848,  was 
elected  governor  of  Kentucky.  He  served  as  attorney- 
general  in  President  Fillmore's  cabinet  from  July,  1850, 
till  the  accession  of  President  Pierce.  Throughout  his 
political  career,  Crittenden's  name  is  identified  with 
most  of  the  measures  introduced  and  advocated  by  his 
friend,  Henry  Clay.     Died,  1863. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  inventor  of  the  spinning-mule; 
born  near  Bolton,  England;  for  five  years  he  worked  at 
his  project,  and  after  he  got  it  into  shape  was  tormented 
by  people  prying  about  nim  and  trying  to  find  out  his 
secret;  at  last  a  sum  was  raised  by  subscription  to  buy 
it,  and  he  got  some  £60  for  it,  by  which  others  became 
wealthy,  while  he  had  to  spend,  and  end,  his  days  in 
comparative  poverty,  all  he  had  to  subsist  on  being  a 
life  annuity  of  £63,  which  some  friends  bought  him 
(1753-1827). 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  the  Protector,  son  of  Robert 
Cromwell,  was  born  in  Huntingdon  in  1599,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  free  school  and  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
did  not  graduate;  represented  Huntingdon  in  the  par- 
liament of  1628;  always  an  advocate  of  puritanical 
views,  first  became  seriously  religious  himself  about 
1638;  was  member  for  Cambridge  in  the  short  and  long 
parliaments,  and  soon  made  himself  prominent  by  his 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  liberty;  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  raised  a  troop  of  horse  for  the  parliament; 
distinguilhed  himself  in  the  battles  which  followed,  and 
was  specially  exempted  from  the  Self-denying  Ordi- 
nance (1645);  joined  the  Independent  party  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Presbyterians,  and  by  the  ejection  of 
members  known  as  "Pride's  Purge,"  secured  the  condem- 
nation and  execution  of  Charles  I.  (1649).  After  reduc- 
ing Ireland  to  submission,  he  attacked  the  Scottish 
Royalists,  defeating  them  at  Dunbar  (1650)  and  Worces- 
ter (1651).  He  dissolved  the  Long  Parliament  in  1653, 
and,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  constitutional 
government,  assumed  the  title  of  Protector,  and  ruled 
as  a  military  despot,  enforcing  order  at  home,  and  win- 
ning the  respect  of  foreign  countries.     Died,  1658. 

Cromwell,  William  Xelson,  lawyer,  born  1854; 
now  senior  of  law  firm  of  Sullivan  &  Cromwell ;  specialty 
is  corporation  law;  organized,  1899,  National  Tube  Com- 
pany (capital,  $80,000,000) ;  since  then  many  other  cor- 
porations; appointed  assignee  and  reorganized  Decker, 
Howell  &  Company,  1890,  and  later.  Price,  McCormick  & 
Company,  which  had  failed  for  several  millions,  and  put 
both  on  paying  basis;  officer,  director,  or  counsel  of  more 
than  twenty  of  the  largest  corporations  in  the  United 
States,  including  United  States  Steel  Corporation.  En- 
gaged by  Panama  Canal  Company  of  France,  and  was 
instrumental  in  securing  passage  of  Panama  Canal  bill 
in  Congress.  He  perfected  the  details  of  the  transfer  of 
Panama  Canal  to  United  States  Government. 

Croolies,  Professor  Sir  William,  scientist;  born  in 
1832.  Past-president  of  the  Chemical  Society;  past-pres- 
ident of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers;  president 
of  the  British  Association,  1898;  vice-president  of  Royal 
Society,  1895-96;  president  of  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  1897;  discoverer  of  Thallium  and  of  prop- 
erties of  radiant  matter;  inventor  of  the  radiometer, 
spinthariscope,  and  other  instruments.     Wrote  "Manu- 


424 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


facture  of  Beet  Sugar,"  "Handbook  of  Dyeing,"  "Man- 
ual of  Practical  Assaying,"  "Select  Methods  in  Chemical 
Analysis,"  "The  Wheat  Problem,"  etc.;  editor  of  the 
"Chemical  News." 

Cujast  Jacques  (fcoo'zAas) ,  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  in  1522;  became  professor  of  the  Roman  law  at 
Bourges  and  Valence.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
II  Commentaries  on  Justinian's  Institutes,"  and  on  the 
"Pandects  and  Decretals."  Cujas  has  been  styled  by 
Hallam  the  "greatest  of  all  civil  lawyers."  Died,  1590. 
Culberson,  Charles  A.,  United  States  senator  from 
Texas;  born  in  Dadeville,  Ala.,  June  10,  1855;  graduate 
of  Virginia  Military  Institute,  1874;  studied  law  at 
University  of  Virginia,  1876-77;  settled  in  Texas,  1856; 
county  attorney,  Marion  County,  attorney-general  of 
Texas,  1890-94;  governor,  1894-98;  delegate  and 
chairman  of  Texas  delegations  to  Democratic  National 
conventions,  1896,  1904;  elected  United  States  senator, 
1899,  to  succeed  Roger  Q.  Mills:  reelected,  1905  and 
1911;  minority  leader  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
60th  and  61st  Congresses. 

.  Ciunmlns,  Albert  Baird,  governor,  lawyer;  born 
in  Carmichaels,  Pa.,  February  15,  1850;  academic  edu- 
cation at  Waynesburg,  Pa.;  admitted  to  bar;  settled 
in  practice  at  Des  Moines,  la.;  member  of  Republican 
National  Committee,  1896-1900;  governor  of  Iowa, 
1902-1908;    United  States  senator  since  1908. 

Curtis,  William  Eleroy,  journalist;  born  in  Akron, 
O.,  November  5,  1850;  graduate  of  Western  Reserve 
College,  1871.  On  staff  of  "Chicago  Inter-Ocean," 
1873-87;  Washington  correspondent  for  "Chicago  Rec- 
ord," 1887-1901;  "Chicago  Record-Herald,"  since 
March,  1901.  Special  commissioner  from  United  States 
to  Central  and  South  American  republics;  executive 
officer  of  International  American  Conference,  1889-90; 
director  of  Bureau  of  American  Republics,  1890-93; 
chief  of  Latin-American  department  and  historical  sec- 
tion at  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  1891-93;  com- 
missioner of  Columbian  Exposition  to  Madrid,  and 
special  envoy  to  the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  and  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  1892.  Author:  "Tibbalses  Folks,"  "A 
Summer  Scamper,"  "The  Life  of  Zachariah  Chandler," 
"Children  of  the  Sun,"  "Capitals  of  Spanish  America," 
"The  Land  of  the  Nihilist,  "Trade  and  Transporta- 
tion," "Handbook  to  the  American  Republics,"  "Guate- 
mala," "Costa  Rica,"  "Ecuador,"  "Venezuela:  a  Land 
Where  It  is  Always  Summer,"  "The  United  States  and 
Foreign  Powers,"  "The  Existing  Autographs  of  Colum- 
bus," 1893  (American  Historical  Association) ;  "  Relics 
of  Columbus,"  "Recent  Discoveries  Concerning  the 
Early  Settlement  of  America  in  the  Archives  of  the 
Vatican,"  "The  Yankees  of  the  East,"  "To-day  in 
France  and  Germany,"  "Between  the  Andes  and  the 
Ocean,"  "The  True  'Thomas  Jefferson,"  "The  Turk  and 
His  Lost  Provinces,"  "Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway," 
"The  True  Abraham  Lincoln,"  "To-day  in  Syria  and 
Palestine,"  "Modern  India,"  "Egypt,  Burma,  and  the 
British  East  Indies."  Member  of  nearly  all  learned 
societies  of  United  States  and  several  in  Europe. 

Curtlss,  Glenn  H.,  aeronaut,  sportsman,  manu- 
facturer, was  born  at  Hammondsport,  N.  Y.,  1878:  in 
1906,  at  Ormond  Beach,  Curtiss  covered  a  mile  on  a 
motorcycle  of  his  own  construction  in  twenty-six  and 
two-fifths  seconds,  the  fastest  mile  ever  traveled  by  a 
hurnan  being  on  earth;  director  of  experiments  of 
Aerial  Experiment  Association,  1907;  winner  of  inter- 
national contest  at  Rheims,  1909,  covering  the  course  of 
12.42  miles  in  15  minutes,  50  3-5  seconds,  in  a  biplane  of 
his  own  design;  flew  over  Hudson  River,  Albany  to 
New  York,  1910;  manufacturer  of  Curtiss  motorcycle 
and  member  of  Herring-Curtiss  Co.,  engaged  in  manu- 
facture of  aeroplanes. 

Curzon  of  Kedleston,  Baron,  English  statesman 
and  author;  viceroy  of  India,  1899-1905.  His  term  of 
office  was  extended.  In  June,  1905,  difficulties  over  the 
new  military  scheme  in  India  led  to  his  resigning.  The 
resignation  was  withdrawn  at  request  of  home  author- 
ities, but  in  August,  controversy  again  reached  an 
acute  stage,  and  Lord  Curzon  finally  relinquished  office. 
He  remained  in  India  to  receive  the  Prince  and  Princess 
of  Wales.  The  "Times"  spoke  of  his  work  as  "among 
the  most  brilliant  and  strenuous  accomplished  for  the 
empire  in  our  times,"  and  of  his  having  infused  into 
Indian  civil  administration  a  new  spirit  born  of  his  own 
indomitable  belief  in  reform  and  his  own  unshaken 
determination  to  carry  it  into  practice.  His  wife  died 
in  1906.  Elected  chancellor  of  Oxford  University, 
March,  1907. 

Cuvier  {ku'-ve-a),  George  Leopold  Christian  Fred- 
ericl^  Dagobert,  Baron,  was  born  at  Montb^liard  in 
the  duchy  of  Wiirttemburg  in  1769.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  natural  history,  and  gained  extra- 
ordinary celebrity.     He  was  placed  by  Bonaparte  in 


the  most  important  oflices  in  the  department  of  public 
instruction.  The  additions  he  made  to  the  general 
stock  of  knowledge  gave  him  fame  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  and  he  was  received  with  appropriate 
honors  by  the  scientific,  when  he  visited  England  in 
1818,  and  in  1830.     He  died  in  1832. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  born  about,  590  B.  C;  founder  of 
the  Persian  Empire;  was  the  son  of  Cambyses  and 
Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages,  King  of  Media.  His 
early  history  is  probably  mythical;  in  549  B.  C,  he 
excited  the  Persians  against  the  Medes,  defeated  Asty- 
ages, and  usurped  his  throne.  He  subsequently  con- 
quered Lydia  and  Babylon,  and  marched  against  the 
Massegatse,  governed  by  Queen  Tomyris,  by  whom  he 
was  defeated  and  slain.     Died,  529  B.  C. 

Cyrus  the  Younger,  born  in  424  B.  C;  son  of 
Darius,  and  governor  of  the  western  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor;  after  unsuccessfully  plotting  against  his  elder 
brother,  Artaxerxes,  he  raised  a  large  army,  including 
about  12,000  Greek  soldiers,  with  which  he  marched 
against  him,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Cunaxa. 
Xenophon  then  conducted  the  retreat  of  the  10,000 
surviving  Greeks.     Died,  401  B.  C. 

Daguerre,  Louis  Jacques  Mandd,  born  in  1789; 
the  inventor  of  photography  by  the  daguerreotype 
process,  by  which  the  portrait  was  fixed  on  a' plate  of 
copper  thinly  coated  with  silver,  by  the  successive 
action  of  the  vapors  of  iodine,  bromine,  and  mercury, 
in  which  invention  he  was  associated  with  M.  Nifepce 
Daguerre.  He  was  also  celebrated  as  a  dioramic  painter; 
was  named  by  the  French  Government  as  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  granted  a  pension  of  six  thou- 
sand francs.     Died,  1851. 

Daizell,  John,  congressman,  lawyer;  born  in  New 
York,  April  19,  1845;  removed  to  Pittsburgh,  1847; 
graduate  of  Yale,  1865;  admitted  to  bar,  1867;  has 
practiced  ever  since;  for  years  one  of  the  attorneys  for 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  for  all  its  western 
lines;  also  attorney  for  many  corporations  in  Allegheny 
County,  Pa.  Member  of  Congress  since  1887;  member 
of  Committee  on  Rules  and  Committee  on  Ways  and 
Means,  54th,  55th,  56th,  57th,  58th,  59th,  60th,  and 
6l8t  Congresses. 

Daniel,  one  of  the  Jewish  prophets,  is  affirmed  by 
Josephus  to  have  descended  from  the  royal  family  of 
Judah.  While  young,  he  was  carried  as  a  captive  from 
Jerusalem  to  Babylon.  There  his  talents  caused  him 
to  be  advanced  to  the  rank  of  chief  of  the  magi,  or  wise 
men,  and  to  the  government  of  the  province;  and  his 
wisdom,  courage,  and  skill  in  prophecy  gave  him  great 
distinction.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
year  534  B.  C. 

Daniel,  John  Warwiclt,  United  States  senator, 
1887-1910;  born  in  Lynchburg,  Va.,  September  5, 
1842;  educated  at  Lynchburg  College  and  Dr.  Gessner 
Harrison's  University  School;  in  Confederate  States 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia  throughout  war;  became 
adjutant-general  on  General  Early's  staff;  studied  law 
at  University  of  Virginia,  1865-66.  Member  of  Virginia 
house  of  delegates,  1869-70,  1871-72;  of  State  senate, 
1875-81;  presidential  elector,  1876;  defeated  for  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia,  1881;  member  of  Congress,  1885-87; 
member  of  National  Democratic  conventions,  1880, 
1888,  1892,  1896  (temporary  chairman),  1900  and  1904. 
Author:  "Attachments  Under  the  Code  of  Virginia," 
"Negotiable  Instruments,"  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Dante  Allgliieri,  Italian  poet;  was  born  in  Florence, 
1265.  Of  his  early  days  little  is  known,  till,  as  related 
in  his  "Vita  Nuova,"  he  first  met  "the  lady  of  his  heart, 
Beatrice."  According  to  Boccaccio,  she  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Folco  Portinari,  and  married  Simone  de  Bardi 
and  to  her  Dante  was  passionately  but  platonically 
attached.  She  died  in  1290,  and  shortly  afterwards 
Dante  married  Gemma  Donati,  a  daughter  of  one  of 
the  "Guelph"  families.  In  1289,  he  fought  at  Cam- 
paldino,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Caprona. 
After  filling  various  minor  offices,  in  1300,  he  became 
one  of  the  six  priors  of  Florence.  In  1301,  he  went  as 
ambassador  to  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  and  never  returned 
to  his  native  town.  Charles  of  Valois  aided  the  Neri  or 
Black  Guelphs  against  their  opponents,  the  Whites,  of 
whom  Dante  was  a  supporter,  and,  in  1302,  he  was 
banished.  He  made  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
return,  and  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  wander- 
ing from  town  to  town,  finally  settling  in  Ravenna, 
where  he  died  in  1321.  His  most  celebrated  work  is 
the  "Divina  Commedia,"  and  others  are  the  "Vita 
Nuova,"  the  "Convito,"  and  the  "Canzoniere." 

Danton  (ddn'ton).  George  James,  a  French  advo- 
cate, and  notorious  republican;  was  born  in  1759.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  dethroning  Ix)uis  XVI.,  and  was 
a  prominent  actor  in  the  sanguinary  scenes  that  followed. 
He  became  a  formidable  rival  to  his  associate  Robespierre, 


BIOGRAPHY 


425 


but  was  worsted  in  the  strife,  and  suffered  on  the  guillo- 
tine in  1794. 

D'Arblay,  Franees  Bumey,  English  novelist;  born 
in  1752,  was  the  third  child  of  Dr.  Charles  Bumey. 
From  the  age  of  eighteen  to  twenty-six  she  worked  at 
"Evelina,"  which  appeared  anonymously  in  1778,  and 
won  her  fame,  and  tlie  admiration  and  friendship  of 
Dr.  Johnson.  "Cecilia"  (1782)  was  equally  successful; 
her  works  gained  her  a  position  at  the  court  in  1786, 
and  in  her  "  Diary "  she  gives  a  graphic  description 
of  its  decorous  dullness.  In  1793,  she  married  General 
D'Arblay,  a  French  refugee.  Her  later  works  are 
"Camilla"  (1796),  "The  Wanderer"  (1814),  and  the 
"Memoirs"  of  her  father.     Died,  1840. 

DarluSt  born  about  558  B.  C;  son  of  Hystaspes,  de- 
throned Smerdis  the  usurper,  and  became  King  of 
Persia  in  521.  He  captured  Babylon  after  a  siege  of 
twenty  months,  conquered  Thrace,  and  defeated  the 
Scythians.  He  sent  two  armies  to  Greece  to  avenge 
the  destruction  of  Sardis  by  the  Athenians,  the  first  of 
which  was  repulsed  by  the  Thraeians,  and  the  second 
by  the  Athenians  at  Marathon  in  490.  He  died  in  B.  C. 
486,  while  organizing  a  third  expedition. 

Darrow,  Clarence  S.,  lawyer;  born  in  Kinsman,  O., 
April  18,  1857;  educated  in  Ohio  public  schools;  studied 
law;  admitted  to  bar,  1875.  Formerly  attorney  for 
Northwestern  Railway.  Has  been  identified  with  many 
prominent  cases ;  of  recent  years,  notably  in  cases  against 
monopolies,  including  litigation  against  gas  trust  in 
Chicago;  chief  counsel  for  anthracite  miners  in  the 
anthracite  coal  strike  arbitration  at  Scranton  and  Phila- 
delphia, 1902-03,  commission  appointed  by  President 
Roosevelt.  Elected  Illinois  Legislature,  1902.  Active 
in  political  campaigns  as  Independent  Democrat;  twice 
married.  Counsel  in  Debs  strike  case  and  large  number 
of  labor  injunction  and  labor  conspiracy  cases  on  side  of 
labor;  platform  speaker.  Author:  "Persian  Pearl" 
(essays),  "Resist  Not  Evil,"  "Farmington"  (novel), 
"An  Eye  for  an  Eye,"  various  pamphlets  on  social  and 
economic  questions. 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert,  an  English  naturalist; 
born  in  Shrewsbury,  February  12,  1809;  was  the  son  of 
Dr.  Robert  Darwin  and  grandson  of  Dr.  Erasmus  Dar- 
win. He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School,  and  at 
the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Cambridge.  He  early 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history.  In  1839, 
he  married  his  cousin  Emma  Wedgwood,  and  hence- 
forth spent  the  life  of  a  quiet  country  gentleman,  en- 
grossed in  scientific  pursuits  —  experimenting,  observ- 
ing, recording,  reflecting,  and  generalizing.  In  1859, 
his  name  attained  its  great  celebrity  by  the  publication 
of  " The  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection." 
This  work,  scouted  and  derided  though  it  wa.s  at  first  in 
certain  quarters,  may  be  said  to  have  worked  noth- 
ing less  than  a  revolution  in  biological  science.  In  it 
for  the  first  time  was  given  a  full  exposition  of  the  theory 
of  evolution  as  applied  to  plants  and  animals,  the  origin 
of  species  being  explained  on  the  hypothesis  of  natural 
selection.  The  rest  of  his  works  are  largely  based  on 
the  material  he  had  accumulated  for  the  elaboration  of 
this  great  theory.  He  died  April  19,  1882,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  a  poet  and  physician;  born  in 
Elston  near  Newark,  in  1731.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, obtained  a  doctor's  degree  at  Edinburgh,  and 
settled  at  Lichfield  as  a  physician.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  and  varied  talent,  but  some  of  his  opinions  were 
deemed  extravagantly  eccentric.  His  "Botanic  Gar- 
den "  was  admired  as  a  fine  specimen  of  polished  verse, 
and  his  "Zoonomia,"  or  "The  Laws  of  Organic  Life," 
was  admitted  to  be  ingenious,  though  built  upon  an 
hypothesis  which  was  repudiated  as  absurd.  In  1781, 
he  removed  from  Lichfield  to  Derby,  where  he  died  in 
1802. 

Davenport,  Homer  Calvin,  cartoonist;  born  in 
Silverton,  Ore.,  March  8,  1867 ;  reared  on  farm  in  Oregon ; 
never  attended  art  schools;  no  .school  education;  has 
been  jockey;  railroad  fireman;  clown  in  circus.  Given 
employment,  1892,  on  "San  Francisco  Examiner"; 
taken  to  New  York  by  W.  R.  Hearst,  1895;  since  then 
on  "New  York  Journal";  originated  the  Mark  Hanna 
$-mark  suit  of  clothes  and  the  giant  figure  of  the  trusts 
in  1899;  his  work  caused  attempt  to  pass  anti-cartoon 
bill  in  New  York,  1897.  Author:  "Davenport's  Car- 
toons," "The  Bell  of  Silverton,  and  Other  Short  Stories 
of  Oregon,"  "The  Dollar  or  the  Man?" 

David  (da'-vid),  the  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah; 
was  born  in  Bethlehem,  and  flourished  in  the  Eleventh 
Century,  B.  C.  He  watched  the  flocks  of  his  father, 
when  Samuel  was  sent  by  the  Most  High  to  Bethlehem, 
to  anoint  him  King  of  Israel  in  the  place  of  Saul  whom  he 
hadrejeeted.  War  having  broken  out  between  the  Israelites 
and  the  Philistines,  he  fought  and  vanquished  the  giant 


Goliath.  Saul  gave  him  the  command  of  a  body  of 
men,  but  later  conceived  a  great  hatred  of  him.  David 
was  exposed  to  imminent  danger,  and  compelled  to  seek 
a  refuge  among  the  Philistines.  After  the  death  of  Saul, 
he  was  recognized  as  King  of  Israel,  and  defeated  the 
Philistines,  the  Moabites,  the  Syrians,  and  the  Ammonites. 
Many  acts  of  weakness  were  committed  by  him,  but  he 
obtained  forgiveness  from  the  Almighty  by  exemplary 
penitence.  He  transported  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  and  is 
the  reputed  author  of  many  of  the  psalms. 

Davidson,  Samuel,  born  in  1807  ;  biblical  critic  ; 
was  educated  in  Ireland  at  the  Royal  College  of  Belfast. 
He  entered  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  was  called 
in  1835  to  the  chair  of  biblical  criticism  in  his  own 
college.  In  1842  he  became  professor  of  biblical  literature 
and  Oriental  languages  in  the  Congregational  College  at 
Manchester.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament 
Revision  Committee.     Died,  1899. 

Davis,  Henry  Gassaway,  capitalist;  born  in  Balti- 
more, November  16,  1823;  educated  at  country  schools, 
but  being  left  fatherless  went  to  work  young;  became 
superintendent  of  a  plantation,  then  brakeman,  con- 
ductor, and  later  agent  at  Piedmont,  W.  Va.,  of  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad ;  later  merchant  and  a  leading 
collier;  projected  and  carried  on  to  success  the  West 
Virginia  Central  &  Pittsburgh  Railway,  which  was  sold 
to  the  Wabash,  1902;  then  built  the  Coal  &  Coke  Rail- 
way of  West  Virginia,  of  200  miles,  of  which  he  is  president; 
also  president  Davis  National  Bank  of  Piedmont,  West 
Virginia,  Trust  Company  of  West  Virginia,  etc.;  mem- 
ber house  of  delegates.  West  Virginia,  1865;  State  sena- 
tor, 1867-71;  United  States  senator,  1871-83,  declining 
reelection;  Democrat  delegate  to  six  National  Demo- 
crat conventions;  one  of  American  delegates  to  Pan- 
American  congress;  is  member  United  States  Intercon- 
tinental Railway  Commission;  was  candidate  of  Demo- 
crat party  for  vice-president,  1904. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  born  in  1808;  American  states- 
man and  soldier,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1828,  and 
served  in  the  army  for  seven  years.  In  1845  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
first  regiment  of  Mississippi  volunteers.  In  1853  he  was 
secretary  of  war,  and  from  1857-61  was  again  member 
of  the  senate.  On  February  9,  1861,  he  was  unanimously 
elected  "  President  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America." 
War  followed,  and  commenced  with  a  Confederate  vic- 
tory at  Bull  Run,  but  the  South  soon  sustained  serious 
reverses,  then  finances  failed,  and  Grant's  defeat  of  Lee 
concluded  the  war.  Davis  was  captured  at  Irwinsville, 
and  conveyed  to  Fort  Munroe,  where  he  was  imprisoned 
for  two  years.  He  was  prosecuted  in  1867  for  treason, 
was  discharged,  and  his  name  included  in  the  general 
amnesty.     Died,  1889. 

Davis,  Richard  Harding,  novelist,  journalist; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  1864;  son  of  the  late  L.  Clarke  and 
Rebecca  (Harding)  Davis;  served  as  war  correspondent 
"London  Times"  and  "New  York  Herald"  in  Turkish- 
Greek,  Spanish  American,  South  African,  and  Russian- 
Japanese  Wars.  Author:  "Soldiers  of  Fortune,"  "Gal- 
lagher and  Other  Stories,"  "The  Princess  Aline,"  "Our 
English  Cousins,"  "Van  Bibber  and  Others,"  "About 
Paris,"  "The  Rulers  of  the  Mediterranean,"  "Three 
Gringos  in  Venezuela,"  "Cuba  in  War  Time,"  "A  Year 
from  a  Correspondent's  Note-Book,"  "Stories  for  Boys," 
"Cuban  and  Porto  Rican  Campaigns,"  "Cinderella  and 
Other  Stories,"  "Dr.  Jameson's  Raiders,"  "Exiles," 
"The  King's  Jackal,"  "The  Lion  and  the  Unicorn," 
"West  from  a  Car  Window,"  "Episodes  in  Van  Bibber's 
Life,"  "With  Both  Armies  in  South  Africa,"  "In  the 
Fog,"  "  Ranson's  Folly,"  "Captain  Macklin,"  "The  Bar 
Sinister,"  "Kits  and  Outfits."  Plays:  "Taming  of 
Helen,"  "Ranson's  Folly,"  "The  Dictator." 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  born  in  1778;  English  chemist, 
was  a  native  of  Penzance.  Two  papers  on  nitrous  oxide 
obtained  him  the  post  of  assistant  lecturer  on  chemistry 
to  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  and  in  a  few  weeks  he 
was  raisedi  to  the  chief  lectureship.  In  1803  he  became 
a  ■  fellow,  and  in  1807  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  Bakerian  lecture  in  1806  gained  him  the  3,000  franc 
prize  of  the  French  Institute.  In  1815  he  invented  the 
miner's  safety  lamp.  He  was  knighted  in  1812,  made  a 
baronet  and  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1820.  Failing  health  compelled  him  to  leave  England, 
and  he  died  at  Geneva  in  1829,  from  paralysis. 

Daw' son.  Sir  Joiui  William,  geologistand  naturalist; 
was  born  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  1820.  He  studied  in 
Edinburgh,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  palaeontologist. 
Published,  "Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,"  "Origin  of 
the  World,"  and  "Geology  and  History."  Dawson 
called  in  question  the  Darwinian  theory  as  to  the  origin 
of  species.  For  many  years  he  was  chancellor  of  McGill 
University,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  of  Canadian  edu- 
cators.    Died,  at  Montreal,  1899. 


426 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Day,  James  Roscoe,  clergyman,  educator;  born  in 
Whitney ville,  Me.,  October  17,  1845;  graduate  of  Bow- 
doin,  1874.  S.  T.  D.;  (D.  D.,  Wesleyan,  Conn.,  and  Dick- 
inson College;  LL.  D.,  Northwestern  University;  D.  C. 
L.,  Cornell  College,  la.).  Methodist  Episcopal  clergy- 
man in  Bath,  Portland,  Boston,  and  New  York.  Chan- 
cellor Syracuse  University  since  1894.  Elected  bishop 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  1904,  but  declined.  Is  a 
vigorous  writer  and  speaker,  and  well  known  publicist. 

Day,  William  Rufus,  jurist;  born  in  Ravenna,  O., 
April  17,  1849;  graduate  of  University  of  Michigan,  1870; 
studied  in  law  department,  same;  admitted  to  bar,  1872; 
established  in  practice  at  Canton,  O.;  judge  court  of 
common  pleas,  1886-90;  elected  as  nominee  of  both 
pohtical  parties;  appointed,  1889,  judge  United  States 
District  Court,  northern  district  of  Ohio,  but  because  of 
failing  health  resigned  before  taking  office;  appointed 
assistant  secretary  of  state,  March,  1897;  succeeded 
John  Sherman  as  secretary  of  state,  April  26,  1898,  but 
in  September,  1898,  was  succeeded  by  John  Hay,  be- 
coming chairman  United  States  peace  commissioners 
at  Paris,  at  close  of  war  with  Spain;  judge  United  States 
Circuit  Court,  sixth  circuit,  1899-1903 ;  associate  justice 
United  States  Supreme  Court  since  February,  1903. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  a  ■  United  States  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  1779.  On  various  occasions  he  was 
distinguished  by  his  skill  and  courage.  In  the  war  of 
1812,  between  England  and  America,  he  captured  the 
"Macedonian"  English  frigate.  In  the  year  1815,  he 
was  taken  by  the  British,  after  maintaining  a  running 
fight  for  more  than  two  hours.  He  died  in  1820,  being 
shot  in  a  duel  which  he  fought  with  Commodore  Barron. 

Defoe  (de-jo'),  Daniel,  a  much  admired  English 
novelist;  born  in  1661,  was  the  son 'of  a  butcher.  In 
16vS8  he  kept  a  hosier's  shop  in  Cornhill,  but  proving 
unsuccessful,  he  was  obliged  to  depend  upon  his  literary 
powers  for  a  livelihood.  He  obtamed,  in  1695,  the  ap- 
pointment of  accountant  to  the  commissioners  of  glass 
duty,  which  office  he  held  till  that  duty  was  repeal^  in 
1701.  He  was  an  active  writer,  but  his  "Robinson 
Crusoe,"  the  work  for  which  he  was  most  celebrated, 
did  not  appear  till  1719.  Among  his  productions  may 
be  mentioned  "  A  Journal  of  the  Plague  in  1665,"  by  a 
supposed  witness  of  it.     He  died  in  1731. 

De  Kalb  (k&lb),  John,  Baron,  was  born  about  1721, 
in  Bavaria,  Germany.  After  studying  the  art  of  war  in 
the  French  army,  he  accompanied  Lafayette  to  America 
in  1777.  After  being  appointed  a  major-general  by 
Congress,  he  served  in  the  field  in  New  Jersey  and  Mary- 
land, and  was  second  in  command  to  General  Gates. 
He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Camden,  1780. 

Deland,  Margaretta  Wade,  author;  born  (Camp- 
bell) in  Allegheny,  Pa.,  February  23,  1857;  educated  m 
private    schools.      Author:    "John    Ward,    Preacher," 

The  Old  Garden  and  Other  Verses,"  "Philip  and  His 
Wife,"  "Florida  Days,"  "Sydney,"  "The  Story  of  a 
Child,"  "The  Wisdom  of  Fools,'^'  "Mr.  Tommy  Dove 
and  Other  Stories,"  "  Old  Chester  Tales,"  "  Dr.  Laven- 
dar's  People."  "The  Common  Way." 

Delcass£,  Theophile,  was  born  in  Pamiers,  March 
1,  1852,  educated  in  Paris,  and  began  his  career  as  a 
journalist.  He  was  elected  to  the  chamber  in  1889,  for 
Foix;  in  1893,  became  under-secretary  for  the  colonies 
under  MM.  Ribot  and  Dupuy,  and  colonial  minister  in 
the  Dupuy  cabinet  of  May,  1894.  He  has  always  been 
a  consistent  advocate  of  colonial  expansion.  When  M. 
Brisson  formed  his  ministry  in  1898,  lie  entrusted  for- 
eign affairs  to  M.  Delcass^,  and  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  deal 
with  the  difficult  position  at  Fashoda.  He  retained 
his  portfolio  in  M.  Dupuy's  ministry,  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Brisson  administration.  In  1899,  he  negotiated  the 
agreement  with  Great  Britain  as  to  the  Nile  Valley  and 
Central  Africa,  and  still  remained  foreign  minister  when 
M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  succeeded  M.  Dupuy,  and  when 
M.  Combes,  in  1902,  succeeded  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau. 
He  brought  about  the  rapprochement  with  Italy,  visited 
England  with  the  president  in  1903,  and  with  Lord 
Lansdowne  prepared  the  Anglo-French  Agreement, 
signed  April  8,  1904.  The  difficulty  with  Germany 
about  Morocco  caused  his  retirement  in  1905. 

Delmas,  Delphin  IVIichael,  lawyer;  born  in  France, 
April  14,  1844;  removed  to  CalSornia  in  boyhood; 
graduate  of  Santa  Clara  College,  California,  1862; 
graduate  of  Yale  Law  School,  LL.  B.,  1865.  Admitted 
to  California  bar,  1866 ;  practiced  in  San  Jose,  Cal., 
1866-83  ;  since  then  in  San  Francisco  and  New  York. 
District  attorney  of  Santa  Clara  County,  Cal.,  1868 ; 
regent  of  University  of  California,  1885 ;  delegate-at- 
large  of  Democratic  National  Convention,  St.  Louis, 
1904.     Author:     "Speeches  and  Addresses." 

Demetrius,  surnamed  Poliorcetes,  King  of  Macedon, 
was  defeated  near  Gaza  by  Ptolemy  in  318.  He  deliv- 
ered Athens  from   Demetrius  Phalereus,   but  the  suc- 


cessors of  Alexander  defeated  him  at  Ipsus  (301).  In 
294,  he  seized  the  throne  of  Macedonia,  but  was  ex- 
pelled (287),  and  died  in  captivity  (283  C.  B.). 

Demosthenes,  born  about  385  B.  C;  Greek  orator, 
resolved  to  study  rhetoric,  though  his  lungs  were  weak, 
his  pronunciation  bad,  and  his  gesture  awkward.  He 
persevered  till  he  surpassed  all  other  orators,  and  is 
noted  for  his  "Philippics  and  Olynthiacs,"  aimed 
against  Philip  of  Macedon.  On  the  advance  of  Anti- 
pater  he  fled,  and  poisoned  himself  in  preference  to 
falling  into  his  enemies'  hands.     Died,  322  B.  C. 

Deneen,  Charles  Samuel,  governor;  born  in  Ed- 
wardsville.  111.,  May  4,  1863;  educated  in  public  schools 
at  Lebanon,  111.,  and  McKendree  College  (graduated, 
1882);  taught  school  about  three  years;  studied  law; 
admitted  to  bar.  Elected  to  Illinois  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, 1892;  served  one  term  as  attorney  for  sani- 
tary district  of  Chicago,  December,  1895-96;  State's 
attorney  of  Cook  County,  111.,  1896-1904;  governor  of 
Illinois  since  1904. 

Depew,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  an  American  lawyer; 
born  in  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  April  23,  1834;  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1856,  and  engaged  in  the  presidential 
campaign  for  Fremont  immediately  afterward;  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858.  He  was 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  Japan,  and  after 
holding  the  commission  a  month,  declined,  and  began 
his  career  as  a  railroad  official  as  attorney  for  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  Railroad.  He  was  made  attorney 
and  director  qf  the  consolidated  Hudson  River  and 
New  York  Central  railroads  in  1869;  general  counsel  of 
the  whole  Vanderbilt  system  in  1875;  second  vice- 
president  of  the  reorganized  New  York  Central  Railroad 
in  1882,  and  president  in  1885.  His  political  career, 
since  1866,  embraces  his  unsuccessful  candidacy  as 
lieutenant-governor  on  the  Liberal  Republican  ticket  in 
1872;  his  election  by  the  legislature  as  a  regent  of  the 
State  University  in  1874;  his  candidacy  for  United 
States  senator  to  succeed  Thomas  C.  Piatt,  in  which  he 
withdrew  his  name  after  eighty-two  days  of  balloting, 
in  1881;  his  declination  of  the  United  States  senator- 
ship  tendered  by  the  Republicans  of  the  legislature  in 
1885;  his  candidacy  for  the  presidential  nomination  in 
the  national  convention  in  1888;  and  his  election  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  in  1899  and  1905.  He  has 
an  international  reputation  as  an  unusually  entertaining 
speaker,  is  constantly  in  request  as  a  lecturer,  and  has 
delivered  many  addresses  of  large  public  importance. 

De  Qulncey,  Thomas,  English  essayist;  born  in 
Manchester  in  1785.  His  father,  Thomas  Quincey  (not 
De  Quincey),  was  a  merchant,  and  left  his  family  well 
provided  for.  De  Qiiincey  was  first  educated  at  Sal- 
ford  and  at  Bath,  and  afterwards  at  Winkfield  and 
the  Manchester  grammar  school,  from  which  he  ran 
away,  and  subsequently  went  through  the  adventures 
and  privations  which  he  described  in  the  "Confessions 
of  an  English  Opium  Eater."  In  1803,  he  went  up  to 
Worcester  College,  Oxford,  which  he  left  without  a 
degree,  and  soon  after  became  acquainted  with  Cole- 
ridge and  Wordsworth,  took  a  cottage  at  Grasmere, 
and  became  one  of  the  famous  Lake  scholars.  Here  he 
remained  for  many  years,  occasionally  visiting  London 
and  Edinburgh.  In  1830,  he  removed  his  wife  aii<l 
eight  children  to  the  latter  place,  and  lived  there 
till  his  wife's  death,  in  1837.  He  had  acquired  the 
habit  of  taking  opium  by  using  it  to  cure  an  attack  of 
neuralgia,  and  so  greatly  did  it  grow  upon  him  that  he 
was  known  to  t^e  as  many  as  12,000  drops,  equal  to 
ten  wineglasses,  in  a  day.  He  was  engaged  in  prepar- 
ing fourteen  volumes  of  his  works  for  the  press  within 
a  few  daj'S  of  his  death.  Besides  the  "Opium  Eater," 
the  following  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Murder  Con- 
sidered as  One  of  the  Fine  Arts,"  "Suspiria  de  Profun- 
dis,"  "The  English  Mail  Coach,"  and  "A  Vision  of 
Sudden  Death."       Died,  1859. 

De  Reszlte,  Edouard,  operatic  singer;  born  in 
Varsovie,  Poland,  December  22,  1856;  studied  under 
Ciaffei  and  Coletti;  d(5but,  Th<5!*itre  des  Italiens,  Paris, 
as  the  king  in  "Aida,"  April  22,  1876;  later,  sang  at 
Turin,  Milan,  and  other  European  cities;  London  d^but 
as  Indra  in  "Royal  Italian  Opera,"  April  13,  1880, 
remaining  there  four  seasons.  Has  since  then  appeared 
in  grand  opera  in  Europe  and  United  States,  taking 
basso  roles. 

De  Reszke,  Jean,  operatic  singer;  born  in  Varsovie, 
Poland,  January  14,  1853;  studied  under  Ciaffei,  Cotogni, 
and  Sbriglia;  d^but  as  baritone  singer  in  Favorita, 
Venice,  January,  1874;  tenor  d^but,  Madrid,  1879; 
has  appeared  in  leading  roles  in  grand  opera  in  Europe 
and  United  States. 

Descartes,  Rene  (da'-kfirt'),  a  great  French  philos- 
opher and  mathematician,  was  born  in  Touraine  in  1596. 
He  early  adopted  the  profession  of  arms,  and  served  in 


BIOGRAPHY 


427 


the  armies  of  the  Dutch  and  Bavarians.  In  1629,  he 
settled  in  Holland,  in  which  country  he  devoted  him- 
self to  his  favorite  studies  of  the  natural  and  exact 
sciences.  In  1637,  he  produced  his  celebrated  discourse 
on  the  "Method  of  Reasoning,  and  of  Investigating 
Scientific  Truth";  and,  in  1641,  he  published  his  "Medi- 
tationes  de  Prima  Philosophia,"  a  work  of  the  grandest 
metaphysical  research  and  speculation,  indoctrinating 
a  new  system  of  philosophy  named  after  its  author, 
"Cartesianism."  In  1644,  appeared  his  theory  of  the 
world  as  expounded  in  the  "Principia  Philosophise." 
In  1647,  the  French  Government  gave  him  a  pension 
of  3,000  livres.  In  1649,  he  proceeded  to  Sweden 
upon  the  invitation  of  Queen  Christina,  and  died  there 
tlie  following  year. 

De  Soto,  Hernando  (da-so'-to),  a  Spanish  explorer; 
born  about  1500,  followed  the  path  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro, 
under  the  latter  of  whom  he  served  in  Peru.  In  1539, 
he  conducted  an  expedition  from  Florida,  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  the  Mississippi.  Died  in  Louisiana 
in  1542. 

Dewar,  Sir  James,  F.  R.  S.,  Fullerian  professor  of 
chemistry,  Royal  institution,  London;  was  born  in 
Kincardine,  September  20,  1842;  educated  at  Dollar 
Academy  and  Edinburgh  University;  M.  A.  and  Hon. 
LL.  D.,  Glasgow,  St.  Andrews,  Aberdeen,  and  Edin- 
burgh; D.  Sc,  Oxford,  Victoria,  and  Dublin.  With 
Sir  Frederick  Abel  he  invented  cordite,  and  he  has  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  researehes  into  the  properties 
of  matter  at  low  temperatures,  and  into  the  nature 
and  properties  of  atmospheric  air.  He  was  the  first  to 
liquefy  and  solidify  hydrogen.  Received  French  Acad- 
emy's Lavoisier  gold  medal,  in  1894,  and  Matteucci 
medal  of  Italian  Society  of  Science  in  1906;  elected 
foreign  member  of  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Wash- 
ington, in  1907,  and  corresponding  member  of  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1907.     Knighted,  June  24,  1904. 

Dewey,  George,  admiral  in  United  States  Navy; 
born  in  Montpelier,  Vt.,  December  26,  1837;  appointed 
to  Naval  Academy,  September  23,  1854;  graduated  in 
1858,  as  passed  midshipman;  LL.  D.,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Princeton  University,  1898.  Attached  to 
steam  frigate  "Wabash,"  Mediterranean  squadron,  until 
1861;  then  to  steam  sloop  "Mississippi"  of  West  Gulf 
squadron;  commissioned  lieutenant,  April  19,  1861; 
in  Farragut's  squadron  which  forced  the  passage  of 
Fort  St.  Philip  and  Fort  Jackson,  April,  1862,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  attack  on  Fort  St.  Philip  and  the  sub- 
sequent fights  with  gunboats  and  ironclads,  which  gave 
Farragut  possession  of  New  Orleans.  In  the  smoke  of 
the  battle  of  Port  Hudson,  the  "Mississippi"  lost  her 
bearings  and  ran  ashore  under  the  guns  of  the  land 
batteries,  and  the  officers  and  men  took  to  the  boats 
after  setting  the  vessel  on  fire.  Was  afterward  on  sev- 
eral vessels  in  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron, 
then  in  European  squadron,  and  later  on  various  duties 
and  at  different^tations,  being  promoted  to  commander, 
April,  1872;  captain,  September,  1884;  commodore, 
February  9,  1896.  In  January,  1898,  assumed  command 
of  Asiatic  squadron.  On  May  1,  1898,  in  Manila  Bay, 
he  commanded  in  the  greatest  naval  battle  since  Trafal- 
gar, completely  annihilating  the  Spanish  Asiatic  squad- 
ron under  Admiral  Montojo,  destroying  eleven  and 
capturing  all  other  vessels  and  all  the  land  batteries, 
without  the  loss  of  a  man  on  the  American  side.  Imme- 
diately upon  receipt  of  official  news  of  victory  he  was 
promoted  to  rear  admiral,  and  thanked  by  resolution  of 
Congress;  member  of  United  States  Philippine  Commis- 
sion, 1899;    promoted  to  admiral,  March  2,  1899. 

De  Witt,  John,  a  Dutch  statesman;  was  born  in 
1625,  at  Dort,  in  Holland.  A  work,  entitled  the  "Ele- 
ments of  Curved  Lines,"  which  he  produced  at  the  age 
of  23,  was  greatly  admired.  In  1650,  he  was  chosen 
pensionary  of  Dort,  and  subsequently  attained  the 
higher  dignity  of  pensionary  of  Holland.  In  1654,  he 
promoted  a  perpetual  edict  for  abolishing  the  office  of 
Stadtholder,  and  was  publicly  thanked  for  his  patriotic 
services.  At  a  later  period,  Holland  being  invaded  by 
the  French,  popular  rage  was  unjustly  directed  against 
him,  and  he,  with  his  brother,  Cornelius,  were  assassi- 
nated, with  great  cruelty,  by  the  populace,  in  1672. 

Diaz,  Porflrlo,  president  of  Republic  of  Mexico; 
was  born  at  Oaxaca,  September  15,  1830.  Took  part 
in  resistance  to  French  invasion,  1863;  commander  of 
the  Army  of  the  East,  1867;  headed  an  insurrection 
against  the  government,  1875;  elected  president,  1877- 
80;  after  a  lapse  of  one  term,  re-elected,  1884,  since 
when  he  held  office  continuously. 

Dicltens,  Charles,  was  born  in  1812,  in  Landport, 
Portsmouth,  where  his  father  held  a  small  appointment 
in  the  navy  pay-office;  but  when  this  position  was  lost 
the  family  came  to  London  and  Dickens's  youth  was 
spent  in  constant  penury  and  want.     For  some  time  he 


was  employed  in  a  blacking  factory,  but  at  12  years  of 
age  he  was  again  sent  to  school,  and  after  three  years' 
tuition  he  entered  an  attorney's  office.  Then  he  became 
a  shorthand  writer,  and  at  19  obtained  the  position  of 
parliamentary  reporter.  During  the  years  1831  to  1836 
he  represented  various  papers  —  latterly  the  "Morning 
Chronicle" — and  in  1836  his  "Sketches  by  Boz  "  were 
published  in  a  collected  form.  A  publishing  firm  wish- 
ing to  produce  an  illustrated  periodical,  Dickens  under- 
took the  letterpress,  and  produced  the  "Pickwick  Papers." 
At  the  same  time  he  was  writing  "Oliver  Twist."  In 
1842,  he  visited  America,  and  wrote  on  his  return  the 
"American  Notes."  In  1843  he  began  to  publish  "Mar- 
tin Chuzzlewit,"  which  at  first  fell  rather  fiat,  and,  in 
order  to  economize,  Dickens  went  to  live  at  Genoa. 
When  the  "Daily  News"  was  started  Dickens  was  ap- 
pointed editor,  but  he  retired  very  soon,  and  busied 
himself  in  further  novel-writing —  "Dombey  and  Son," 
"David  Copperfield,"  "Bleak  House,"  and  "Little 
Dorrit,"  all  being  produced  between  1846  and  1855. 
In  1850  he  started  the  periodical  "Household  Words," 
afterwards  changed  to  "All  the  Year  Round."  In  1868, 
he  separated  from  his  wife.  In  this  year  he  first  ap- 
peared as  a  public  reader  of  his  own  works,  and  from 
1866  to  1870,  he  was  almost  continuously  employed  in 
this  task,  his  success  being  unexampled.  In  1867,  he 
made  a  lecturing  tour  in  America,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm,  despite  his  unpalatable  "Amer- 
ican Notes."  The  strain  proved  too  great  for  his  constitu- 
tion, and  he  died  (1870),  suddenly  at  his  house  at  Gads- 
hill,  leaving  his  last  novel,  "Edwin  Drood,"  incomplete. 

Dickinson,  Jacob  M.,  lawyer,  cabinet  officer;  born 
Columbus,  Miss.,  1851;  graduate  University  of  Nash- 
ville, 1871,  A.  M.,  1872;  studied  law  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity and  Leipzig.  Admitted  to  bar,  1874;  special  judge 
Supreme  Court  of  Tennessee ;  assistant  attorney-general 
United  States,  1895-97;  general  counsel  of  Illinois  Cen- 
tral R.  R. ;  counsel  for  United  States  before  Alaskan 
Boundary  tribunal,  1903;  president  American  Bar 
Association,  1907-08;   appointed  secretary  of  war,  1909. 

Dielman,  Fredericli,  artist;  born  in  Hanover,  Ger- 
many, December  25,  1847;  came  to  United  States  in 
childhood ;  graduate  of  Calvert  College;  was  topographer 
and  draughtsman  in  United  States  engineering  depart- 
ment, 1866-72;  studied  art  under  Diez  at  Royal  Acad- 
emy, Munich;  opened  studio  in  New  York,  1876;  Na- 
tional Academician  since  1883;  president  National 
Academy  of  Design,  1899-1909;  member  Art  Commis- 
sion, New  York,  1901-03;  etc.  Illustrator  and  figure 
painter;  designer  of  mosaic  panels  "Law"  and  "His- 
tory" in  new  Congressional  Library,  and  of  large  mosaic, 
"Thrift,"  Albany  Savings  Bank,  and  the  decorations 
in  new  building  of  the  Washington  "Evening  Star"; 
professor  descriptive  geometry  and  drawing,  college 
city  of  New  York,  since  1903. 

Dill,  James  Brool^s,  lawyer,  capitalist;  born  in 
Spencerport.  N.  Y.,  July  25, 1854;  graduate  of  Yale,  1876, 
New  York  University  Law  School,  1878;  admitted  to 
bar,  18'78;  Philadelphia  specialty,  corporation  law. 
Author:  "Business  Corporations,"  "Dill  on  Corpora- 
tions," "Banking  and  Trust  Company  Laws  of  New 
Jersey."     Died,  1910. 

Dillon,  John,  M.  P.,  born  in  1851;  was  educated  at 
the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin.  He  assisted  Parnell 
and  Michael  Davitt  in  founding  the  Land  League  in 
America,  and  in  1880,  was  elected  member  of  parliament 
for  County  Tipperary  (a  position  his  father,  John  Blake 
Dillon,  had  previously  held).  In  May,  1881,  he  was 
arrested,  but  in  a  few  months  was  liberated  on  the  ground 
of  ill-health,  and  for  a  time  withdrew  from  the  political 
arena,  not  sympathizing  with  Parnell's  attitude  towards 
the  land  act.  In  1885  he  again  took  his  seat  in  parlia- 
ment as  member  for  East  Mayo, .and  in  1886,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  supporting  the  "Plan  of  Campaign,"  was 
indicted  for  conspiracy,  and  bound  over  to  keep  the 
peace.  Under  Lord  Salisbury's  administration  of  1886, 
he  took  one  of  the  most  prominent  parts  in  opposition 
to  the  government  as  a  leader  of  the  Irish  party,  and 
was  twice  convicted  under  the  Irish  crimes  act.  After 
enduring  an  imprisonment  of  three  months,  he  went  to 
Australia  to  collect  funds  for  the  Irish  party.  Returning, 
he  was  again,  with  O'Brien,  convicted  under  the  crimes 
act,  but  escaped  fromi  Ireland  in  a  yacht,  and  came  to 
America  to  collect  funds.  During  his  absence  Parnell's 
leadership  was  repudiated  by  the  larger  section  of  the 
Irish  party,  and  Dillon  went  to  France  to  endeUvor  to 
heal  the  breach.  The  negotiations  having  proved  fruit- 
less, he  returned  to  England,  and  was  at  once  arrested 
and  imprisoned  under  the  sentence  passed  upon  him 
before  his  tour  in  America. 

Diogenes  (di-o'-gen-es),  a  philosopher  of  the  school 
of  Cynics;  was  born  in  Asia  Minor.  Becoming  a  citizen 
of  Athens,  he  made  himself  notorious  by  his  abnegation 


428 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  all  social  laws  and  customs,  lived  upon  alms,  and  took 
up  his  abode  in  a  tub.  Of  his  cynicism  many  well- 
known  anecdotes  are  related.  Died  at  Corinth,  at  the 
age  of  90,  323  B.  C. 

Disraeli  {dU-rdl'e),  Benjamin,  an  English  states- 
man and  author,  was  born  1804.  He  was  of  Jewish  de- 
scent, and  for  years  was  the  leader  of  the  conservative 
party  in  the  Commons,  holding  the  office  of  prime 
minister  in  1868-70,  and  1874-80.  In  1876  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Beaconsfield.     Died,  1881. 

Dixon,  Thomas,  Jr.,  lecturer  and  author;  born  in 
Shelby,  N.  C,  January  11,  1864;  graduate  of  Wake 
Forest  College,  N.  C,  1883,  A.  M.,  1883;  graduate  of 
Greensboro?  N.  C,  law  school,  1886;  admitted  to  bar  all 
courts.  North  Carolina  and  United  States  district,  and 
Supreme  Court,  1886;  scholarship,  history  and  politics, 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  1883-84;  member  North 
Carolina  Legislature,  1881-86;  resigned  to  enter  Baptist 
ministry,  October,  1886;  pastor  llaleigh,  N.  C,  1887, 
Boston,  1888-89,  New  York,  1889-99;  popular  lyceum 
lecturer,  1889-1903.  Author:  "The  Leopard's  Spots," 
"The  One  Woman,"  "The  Clansman,"  ".The  Life  Worth 
Living." 

Dollineer,  Johan  Joseph  Ignaz,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian;  was  born  1799.  He  was  leader  of  the 
German  Catholics  who  refused  to  accept  the  doctrine 
of  the  pope's  infallibility,  and  which  afterwards  founded 
the  Old  Catholic  sect.     Died,  1890. 

Dolliver,  Jonathan  Prentiss,  United  States  senator, 
lawyer;  born  near  Kingwood,  Preston  County,  W.  Va., 
February  6,  1858;  graduated  at  West  Virginia  Univer- 
Bity,  1875;  admitted  to  bar,  1878;  established  practice 
in  Iowa;  member  51st,  52d,  63d,  54th,  55th,  and  56th 
Congresses,  tenth  Iowa  district;  appointed  United  States 
senator  to  succeed  late  Hon.  J.  H.  Gear,  August  23, 1900; 
elected  1902,  and  reelected,  1907.  He  earned  a  high 
reputation  as  an  orator  and  lecturer.     Died,  1910. 

Dore,  Paul  Gustave,  French  painter  and  book 
illustrator;  was  born  in  Strasburg,  in  1833,  and  edu- 
cated at  a  Parisian  lyc^e.  He  became  known  by  his 
illustrations  of  ".Rabelais"  and  "Don  Quixote,"  and  for 
some  years  was  a  constant  contributor  to  the  "Journal 
pour  Rire."  At  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War  he  pro- 
duced his  ".Alma"  and  "Inkermann";  in  1861,  he 
published  the  first  of  his  famous  illustrations  to  Dante's 
I  Divine  Comedy";  and  next  his  illustrations  to  the 
".Bible,"  "Paradise  I-ost,"  "The  Ancient  Mariner,"  and 
"The  Idylls  of  the  King."  These  works  secured  for  him 
a  greater  reputation  in  England  than  was  accorded  to 
him  in  his  native  country.  He  afterwards  devoted  him- 
self to  the  production  of  large  pictures  on  religious  sub- 
jects, such  as  ".The  Dream  of  Pilate's  Wife,"  ""The  Entry 
mto  Jerusalem,"  and  "Ecce  Homo."     Died,  1883. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  an  American  statesman, 
was  born  at  Brandon,  Vermont,  in  1813.  His  early 
youth  was  one  of  poverty;  but  he  managed  to  spend 
three  years  at  the  Canandaigua  Academy,  having  the 
study  of  law  in  view.  In  1833,  he  went  West  and  set- 
tled in  Jacksonville,  111.,  where  he  entered  on  the  practice 
of  law,  and  was  chosen  attorney-general  of  the  State. 
He  soon  after  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  1840 
became  secretary  of  state  for  Illinois.  He  was  judge 
of  the  Illinois  supreme  court  from  1841  to  1843,  when 
he  resigned,  and  was  chosen  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat; 
where  he  at  once  became  recognizea  as  one  of  the  ablest 
men  of  his  party.  He  was  opposed  to  slavery,  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  celebrated  Wilmot  Proviso,  and 
argued  in  favor  of  States  rights.  Douglas  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  in  1847,  and  it  was  as  a  member  of  the 
Senate  that  he  introduced,  in  1854,  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  which  provided  that  their  own  citizens  should  deter- 
mine whether  these  territories  should  become  free  or  slave 
States.  In  1860,  the  Democratic  party  split  into  two 
divisions,  one  of  which  nominated  Mr.  Douglas  for  presi- 
dent, and  the  other  John  C.  Breckenridee.  'The  ensuing 
election  resulted  in  favor  of  Mr.  Lincoln.  Mr.  Douglas 
was  strongly  opposed  to  secession,  and  delivered  several 
addresses  on  the  subject  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War.     He  died  at  Chicago,  111.,  June  3,  1861. 

Douglas,  William  Lewis,  governor,  manufacturer; 
born  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  August  22,  1845;  educated  at 
brief  irregular  periods  in  public  schools  of  Massachusetts; 
when  5  years  old  lost  father  by  death;  at  age  of  7  went 
to  work  for  an  uncle,  who  set  him  to  pegging  shoes,  and 
except  for  a  brief  return  to  his  mother  when  11  years 
old,  worked  for  uncle  eight  years;  worked  in  cotton  mill 
at  Plymouth  at  15,  and  later  in  factory  at  Chiltonville, 
Mass.;  afterward  went  to  Hopkinton  and  South  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  where  he  learned  bootmaking;  at  Brockton, 
1876,  began  with  small  shop,  from  which  he  has  built 
up  a  business  with  combined  capacity  of  over  20,000 
pairs  of  shoes  daily,  and  owns  seventy-three  retail  shoe 
stores    in    large    cities    selling    the    ".Douglas"    shoe. 


Member  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives, 
1884-85,  and  of  Massachusetts  Senate,  1887;  mayor 
of  Brockton,  1891  ;  elected,  November,  1904,  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  Delegate  to  National  Democratic 
Conventions,  1884,  1892,  1896,  delegate-at-large,  1904. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  American  orator;  was  born 
in  1817,  a  mulatto  slave  in  Maryland,  but  he  escaped 
as  a  young  man,  and  in  1841  began  to  deliver  lec- 
tures against  slavery,  which  attracted  much  attention. 
In  1845-47,  he  made  a  very  successful  lecturing  tour 
in  England,  and,  returning  to  America,  he  became  a 
newspaper  editor.  From  1876  to  1881  he  was  United 
States  marshal  for  the  district  of  Columbia.  Died, 
1895. 

Doyle,  Sir  A.  Conan,  the  grandson  of  John  Doyle, 
the  famous  political  caricaturist  "H.  B.,"  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1859,  and  educated  at  Stonyhurst  and  in 
Germany.  In  1876,  he  commenced  to  study  medicine 
at  the  Edinburgh  University,  and  remained  there  for 
five  years.  From  1882  till  1890,  he  practiced  his  pro- 
fession at  Southsea,  writing  all  the  while  various  short 
stories,  some  of  which  have  been  since  published  under 
the  title  of  "The  Captain  of  the  Polestar."  After  "A 
Study  in  Scarlet,"  "Micah  Clarke,"  and  "The  Sign  of 
Four,"  came  "The  White  Company,"  which  led  to  the 
final  abandonment  of  medicine  for  literature.  "The 
Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes"  and  "The  Memoirs  of 
Sherlock  Holmes"  formed  a  brilliant  series  of  detective 
stories.  In  1894,  he  wrote  a  short  play,  "A  Story  of 
Waterloo,"  successfully  produced  by  Sir  Henry  Irving. 
"The  Exploits  of  Brigadier  Gerard"  and  Rodney 
Stone,"  in  1896,  "Uncle  Bernac  "  in  1897,  "The  Tragedy 
of  the  Korosko,"  a  volume  of  poems  ("Songs  of  Action  ") 
in  1898,  "A  Duet"  in  1899,  "The  Hound  of  the  Basker- 
villes"  in  1902,  "The  Adventures  of  Gerard"  in  1903, 
"Return  of  Sherlock  Holmes"  in  1904,  "Sir  Nigel"  in 
1906,  and  "Through  the  Magic  Door"  in  1907.  He 
volunteered  for  service  in  the  Transvaal  War,  and,  in 
1900,  gave  his  medical  services  for  some  months  in  the 
hospitals  there,  afterwards  publishing  a  history  of  the 
war,  entitled  "The  Great  Boer  War."  Knighted,  June 
26,  1902. 

Draco  (dra'ko)  was  the  first  lawgiver  of  Athens. 
His  code  was  published  in  621  B.  C.  The  laws  were 
severe,  and  popularly  said  to  have  been  written  in  blood. 

Dralie,  Francis,  Sir,  a  distinguished  English  naval 
commander,  was  born  in  1540.  He  circumnavigated 
the  globe  under  a  commission  against  the  Spaniards, 
destroying  many  vessels  and  capturing  immense  booty 
in  Spanish  America.  In  1587,  he  commanded  the  fleet 
which  destroyed  over  100  ships  at  Cadiz,  breaking  up 
a  contemplated  invasion  of  England.  He  was  made 
vice-admiral,  and  commanded  in  the  battle,  in  1588, 
which  destroyed  the  Spanish  Armada.     Died,  1596. 

Draper,  John  William  (drd'pur),  an  American 
chemist,  physiologist,  and  author,  was  born  in  England, 
in  1811.  He  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1836;  became  successively  professor 
of  natural  sciences  in  Hampden-Sidney  College,  Virginia, 
and,  in  1841,  professor  of  chemistry  in  New  York  Uni- 
versity, and,  in  1850,  of  physiology.  Of  his  numerous 
works  we  may  mention  "Human  Physiology,  Statical 
and  Dynamical;  or  the  Conditions  and  Course  of  the 
Life  of  Man,"  in  1856;  and  a  "History  of  the  American 
Civil  War,"  in  1867-70.     Died,  1882. 

Dryden,  John  (dn'dn),  an  English  poet;  was  born 
in  1631.  After  graduating  at  Cambridge,  he  entered 
upon  a  literary  career,  and  succeeded  Sir  William  Dav- 
enant  as  poet-laureate  in  1670.  His  "Essay  on  Dra- 
matic Poesy,"  according  to  Dr.  Johnson,  created  the 
school  of  English  criticism.  Dryden,  by  his  dramas 
and  political  satires, —  especially  his  "Absalom  and 
Achitophel"  (1681)  —  stands  at  the  head  of  English 
poets  of  the  second  rank,  and  his  works  have  elicited 
high  eulogy  from  such  judges  as  Pope,  Scott,  Macaulay, 
and  Brougham.     Died,  1700. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  the  Elder,  a  celebrated  French 
author,  born  in  Villers-(5otterets,  1802,  son  of  General  Du- 
mas, a  Creole;  lost  his  father  at  four,  and  led  for  a  time  a 
miscellaneous  life,  till,  driven  by  poverty,  he  went  to 
Paris  to  seek  his  fortune;  there  he  soon  made  his  mark, 
and  became  by-and-by  the  most  popular  dramatist  and 
romancer  of  his  time;  his  romances  are  numerous, 
and  he  reached  the  climax  of  his  fame  by  the  production 
of  "  Monte  Cristo "  in  1844,  followed  soon  after  by  the 
"Three  Musketeers"  ;  he  was  unhappy  in  his  marriage, 
and  with  his  wife,  as  afterwards,  he  squandered  Bis 
fortune  in  reckless  extravagance;  before  tne  end  it  was 
all  spent,  and  he  died  at  Dieppe,  broken  in  health  and 
impaired  in  intellect,  ministered  to  by  his  son  and 
daughter.     Died,  1870. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  born  in  1824;  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and,  like  him,  a  novelist  and  dramatist,  accom- 


BIOGRAPHY 


429 


panied  his  father  in  a  voyage  to  the  Mediterranean  in 
1846,  and,  in  1848,  produced  the  work  which  made  his 
reputation —  "La  Dame  aux  CamdHas,"  a  novel  which 
drew  the  encomium  of  his  own  father.  Subsequently 
his  work  was  chiefly  dramatic,  and  included  such  plays 
as  the  "Demi-Monde,"  "La  Princesse  Georges,"  "Mon- 
sieur Alphonse,"  and  "Denise."  In  1874,  he  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  member  to  the  French  Academy.    Died,  1895. 

Du  Maurier,  George  Louis  Palmella  Busson, 
artist  and  draughtsman;  born  in  Paris  in  1834,  but 
educated  in  London,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands. 
For  many  years  a  valuable  contributor  to  "Punch," 
at  the  same  time  illustrating  many  other  books  and 
magazines.  His  mode  of  satirizing  the  extravagances 
of  the  so-called  "^Esthetic"  school  and  other  society 
foibles,  have  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation.  In 
1891,  he  published  a  novel,  "Peter  Ibbetson,"  followed 
by  "Trilby."     Died,  1896. 

Dunnc«  Finley  Peter,  journalist,  author;  born  in 
Chicago,  July  10,  1867;  educated  in  Chicago  public 
schools;  entered  newspaper  life  as  reporter,  in  1885 
served  on  various  papers;  on  editorial  staff  of  "Chicago 
Evening  Post"  and  "Times-Herald,"  1892-97;  editor 
of  "Chicago  Journal,"  1897-1900.  Author;  "Mr. 
Dooley  in  Peace  and  in  War,"  "Mr.  Dooley  in  the 
Hearts  of  His  Countrymen,"  "Mr.  Dooley's  Philosophy," 
".Mr.  Dooley's  Opinions,"  "Observations  by  Mr.  Dooley." 

Duns  Scotus,  born  in  1265;  divine  and  writer. 
Residing  in  Paris,  he  occupied  there  the  post  of  head 
of  the  theological  schools,  and  was  known  as  the  "Subtle 
Doctor."  He  was  the  first  to  promulgate  the  doctrine 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  At  one  time  a  follower 
of  Thomas  Aquinas,  he  later  founded  a  school  of  his  own 
in  antagonism  to  the  system  of  Aquinas.     Died,  1308. 

Duse,  Eleonora,  Italian  actress  of  the  first  rank, 
was  born  in  Vigevano,  October  3,  1861.  She  appeared 
about  1880,  on  the  Italian,  chiefly  Roman,  stage,  as 
leading  lady  in  the  plays  of  Dumas  and  Sardou,  but 
afterwards  played  parts  of  greater  depth.  She  earned 
golden  opinions  by  her  combined  force  and  gracefulness; 
in  1892,  appearing  at  Vienna  and  Berlin;  in  1893,  at 
New  York,  and  her  recent  visits  to  England  have,  by 
a  unanimous  accord,  reaffirmed  her  triumphs.  Al- 
though she  appears  chiefly  in  grave  parts  ("Magda," 
"Nora,"  "Adrienne  Lecouvreur"),  her  versatility  has 
also  allowed  her  to  please  in  the  lighter  vein  of  Dumas' 
VFrancillon,"  and  as  the  hostess  in  Goldoni's  "Locan- 
diera."  More  recently  she  has  produced  d'Annunzio's 
".Gioconda"  and  ".  Francesca  da  Rimini." 

Dwight,  Timothy,  born  in  1752;  American  divine, 
served  as  army  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army,  and, 
after  working  on  a  farm,  was  ordained  a  minister.  In 
1795,  he  became  president  of  Yale  College.  He  wrote 
"The  Conquest  of  Canaan,"  an  epic  poem,  ".Theology 
Explained  and  Defended,"  etc.     Died,  1817. 

Eads,  James  Buchanan,  born  in  1820;  American 
engineer,  constructed  the  steel  bridge  over  the  Missis- 
sippi at  St.  Louis  (completed,  1874);  partly  carried  out 
a  plan  of  deepening  the  Mississippi  by  means  of  jetties, 
and  was  engaged  at  his  death  in  planning  a  ship-canal 
over  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.     Died,  1887. 

Early,  Jubal  A.,  born  in  1816;  American  general 
and  lawyer,  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  on  the 
Confederate  side  in  the  American  Civil  War,  holding 
Fredericksburg  in  1863  and  commanding  a  division  at 
Gettysburg.  He  published  "Memoirs  of  the  Last  Year 
of  the  War."     Died,  1894. 

Eddy,  Mary  Baker  Glover,  founder  of  Christian 
Science,  born  in  Bow,  N.  H.,  1821;  received  her  educa- 
tion in  public  schools,  in  an  academy,  and  under  private 
tutors.  She  was  connected  with  the  Congregational 
Church  till  1866,  when  she  discovered  the  principles  of 
Christian  Science.  In  1867  she  began  to  teach  them, 
and  in  1879  founded  the  Church  of  Christ  (Christian 
Scientist)  in  Boston,  Mass.  In  1881  she  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry;  in  the  same  year  established  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Metaphysical  College  in  Boston;  and  in  1883 
started  the  "Christian  Science  Journal."  Author  of 
"Science  and  Health,  With  Key  to  the  Scriptures"  (the 
Christian  Science  text-book);  "Unity  of  Good";  "No 
-and  Yes";  " RudimeTntal  Divine  Science " ;  "Manual  of 
the  Mother  Church,"  and  other  works  on  related  subjects. 
Mrs.  Eddy  left  her  entire  fortune  to  the  Christian  Science 
Church,  specifying  that  $100,000  be  used  for  the  benefit 
of  indigent,  educated,  well-qualified  persons  who  desire 
to  enter  the  Christian  Science  work,  while  the  residue  of 
her  fortune  is  to  be  used  by  the  church  for  furthering 
the  Christian  Science  movement.     Died,  1910. 

Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  electrician;  was  born  at 
Milan,  O.,  February  11,  1847;  received  some  instruction 
from  his  mother  (Ph.  D.,  Union,  1878);  at  12  years  of 
age,  became  newsboy  on  Grand  Trunk  Railway;  later, 
learned    telegraphy;     worked    as    operator    at    various 


places  in  United  States  and  Canada;  invented  many 
telegraphic  appliances,  including  automatic  repeater, 
quadruplex  telegraph,  printing  telegraph,  etc.  Estab- 
lished workshop  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  removing  to  Menlo 
Park,  N.  J.,  1876,  and  later  to  West  Orange,  N.  J. 
Invented  machines  for  quadruplex  and  sextuplex  tele- 
graphic transmission;  the  carbon  telegraph  transmitter; 
the  microtasimeter  for  detection  of  small  changes  in 
temperature;  the  megaphone,  to  magnify  sound;  the 
phonograph;  the  aerophone;  the  incandescent  lamp 
and  light  system;  the  kinetoscope;  also  scores  of  other 
inventions.  Was  made  chevalier,  officer,  and  after- 
ward commandant,  of  Legion  of  Honor,  by  French 
Government;  appointed,  1903,  honorary  chief  consult- 
ing engineer,  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis. 

Edward,  the  name  of  ten  kings  of  England.  Of 
them,  three  belong  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  line.  Edward  I., 
"the  Elder,"  son  and  successor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
crowned  901,  died  925.  Edward  II.,  "the  Martyr," 
great-grandson  of  the  former,  succeeded  his  father  Ed- 
gar, 975,  and  was  assassinated  by  direction  of  his  step- 
mother Elfrida,  979.  Edward  III.,  "the  Confessor," 
who  succeeded  his  half-brother  Edmund  Ironsides,  1042, 
died  1066.  In  the  Plantagenet  line  there  were  five  of 
the  name;  Edward  I.,  "  Longshanks,"  who  succeeded 
his  father,  Henry  III.,  1272,  died  in  1307.  Edward  II.. 
his  son,  born  in  Wales,  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title 
of  Prince  of  Wales,  since  bestowed  upon  the  heir  to  the 
throne.  He  succeeded  his  father,  1307,  and  was  mur- 
dered by  Roger  de  Mortimer,  paramour  of  his  queen, 
Isabella  of  France,  1327.  Edward  III.,  his  son  and 
successor,  born  in  1312<  died  in  1377.  Edward  IV.,  son 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  great-great-grandson  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  was  born  in  Rouen,  France,  1441,  and  claimed 
the  throne  in  right  of  his  mother  and  as  the  head  of  the 
house  of  York,  in  opposition  to  Henry  VI.,  king  de  jure, 
representing  the  house  of  Lancaster.  The  long  and 
bloody  civil  "War  of  the  Roses"  ensued,  Edward  finally 
vanquishing  his  enemies.  Died  in  1483.  Edward  V., 
his  son  and  successor,  born  1470,  was  murdered  along 
with  his  younger  brother  in  the  Tower  of  London,  1483, 
by  order  of  their  uncle,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
afterwards  Richard  III.  In  the  Tudor  line  there  was 
but  one  of  the  name  —  Edward  VI.,  only  son  of  Henry 
VIII.  by  Jane  Seymour,  born  in  1537.  He  succeeded 
his  father,  1547,  and  died  in  1553.  Edward  VII.,  son  of 
Victoria  and  Albert  Edward,  born  1841,  died  1910. 

Edward  "the  Confessor"  was  born  about  1004, 
son  of  Ethelred  the  Unready  and  Emma,  daughter  of 
Richard  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  brought 
up  at  the  Norman  court,  and  after  his  accession,  on 
the  death  of  Hardicanute,  in  1042,  showed  a  preference 
for  Norman  customs  and  ideas.  Outrages  were  com- 
mitted with  impunity  by  his  Norman  favorites,  while 
the  English  earls,  Leofrio  of  Mercia,  and  Godwine  of 
Wesse.x,  were  engaged  in  private  quarrels.  At  last,  in 
1052,  Godwine,  who  had  been  outlawed,  rose  in  rebel- 
lion, installed  Stigand,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
place  of  Robert  of  Jumi^ges,  who  had  fled  with  the 
other  Normans,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  reign  all  real 
power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Godwine.  Ed- 
ward codified  the  customary  law  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
which  thus  became  known  as  the  "laws  of  King  Ed- 
ward."    Died  1066. 

Edward  I.,  King  of  England,  born  1239,  succeeded 
his  father,  Henry  III.,  in  1272.  Imbued  with  high 
notions  of  feudal  sovereignty,  he  sought  to  establish 
his  supremacy  throughout  the  island  of  Britain.  His 
e.xpeditions  against  Llewellyn-ap-Gruffydd,  Prince  of 
Wales  (1282),  and  his  brother,  David  (1283),  resulted 
in  the  reduction  of  the  principality,  the  government  of 
which  he  settled  by  the  statute  of  Wales  (1284).  The 
struggle  between  John  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce  for  the 
throne  of  Scotland  gave  him  a  pretext  for  interfering 
in  that  country  (1290).  After  vainly  endeavoring  to 
maintain  Baliol  as  his  vassal,  he  set  to  work  to  conquer 
Scotland  for  himself,  sending  the  Earl  of  Warrenne 
thither  as  viceroy,  but  was  forced  to  contend  with  a 
succession  of  claimants,  and  died  near  Carlisle,  whilst 
marching  against  Robert  Bruce.  A  man  of  strictly 
legal,  but  somewhat  narrow  mind,  he  secured  order 
and  good  government  by  the  Statutes  of  Winchester 
and  Westminster  and  other  enactments,  and  carried  on 
Simon  de  Montfort's  work  of  molding  the  English 
Parliament  (1295),  though,  at  the  same  time,  somewhat 
inclined  to  strain  the  royal  prerogative.  His  personal 
character  was  extremely  high.     Died,  1307. 

Edward  VII.,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Emperor  of  India,  born  November  9,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  attended  the  public  lec- 
tures at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In  the  summer  of 
1860  he  paid  a  visit  to  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Two  years  later  he  traveled  in    the  East  and  visited 


430 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Jerusalem.  On  March  10,  1863,  he  married  Princess 
Alexandra  of  Denmark,  the  surviving  issue  being  one 
son  and  three  daughters.  Late  in  1871,  he  suffered 
from  a  dangerous  attack  of  typhoid  fever,  and  his 
recovery  in  February,  1872,  was  celebrated  by  a  national 
thanksgiving  festival.  Between  November,  1875,  and 
March,  1876,  the  prince  was  engaged  in  a  grand  tour  of 
India.  He  took  great  interest  in  exhibitions  and  insti- 
tutions, as  the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibitions,  the  Royal 
College  of  Music,  and  Imperial  Institute.  Ascended 
throne,  January  22,  1901.     Died,  1910. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  was  born  at  East  Windsor, 
Connecticut,  October  5,  1703.  He  was  a  celebrated 
metaphysician  and  divine,  chiefly  remembered  as  the 
author  of  a  treatise  on  "The  Freedom  of  the  Will." 
He  was  the  author,  however,  of  several  other  treatises, 
especially  of  one  on  the  "Religious  Affections,"  and  of 
a  "History  of  Redemption,"  which  have  been  many 
tiroes  republished.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had 
just  been  appointed  to  the  presidency  of  Princeton 
College,  New  Jersey.  As  a  preacher,  Edwards  was 
especially  famous;  and,  according  to  some  authorities, 
he  ranks  by  his  writings,  in  the  Calvinistic  school  of 
theology,  amongst  the  greatest  luminaries  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.     Died,  175& 

Egan,  Maurice  Francis,  educator,  author,  diplo- 
mat; born  in  Philadelphia,  May  24,  1852;  graduated 
at  La  Salle  College;  entered  Georgetown,  D.  C,  College, 
1875  (A.  M.,  LL.  D.);  afterward  sub-editor,  consecu- 
tively, of  McGee's  "Illustrated  Weekly,"  "Catholic  Re- 
view," and  (editor)  "Freeman's  Journal";  professor  of 
English  literature.  University  of  Notre  Dame,  Ind.; 
J.  U.  D.,  Ottawa  University,  1891.  Author:  "A  Garden 
of  Roses,"  "Stories  of  Duty,"  "The  Life  Around  Us," 
"The  Theater  and  Christian  Parents."  Translator  (for 
Mr.  Augustin  Daly),  of  "Copp^e's  Pater,"  "Modern 
Novelists,"  "  Lectures  on  English  Literature,"  "  A  Gentle- 
man," "Jack  Chumleigh,"  "Jack  Chumleigh  at  Boarding 
School,"  "A  Primer  of  English  Literature,"  "The  Dis- 
appearance of  John  Longworthy,"  "A  Marriage  of  Rea- 
son," "The  Success  of  Patrick  Desmond,"  "The  Flower 
of  the  Flock,"  "Preludes"  (poems);  "Songs  and  Son- 
nets," and  other  poems;  "The  Vocation  of  Edward  Ck)n- 
way,"  "The  Chatelaine  of  the  Roses,"  "Jasper  Thome," 
"In  a  Brazilian  Forest,"  "The  Leopard  of  Lancianus," 
"Stixdies  in  Literature,"  "The  Watson  Girls,"  "Belinda," 
"Belinda's  Cousins,"  "The  Sexton  Maginnis  Stories." 
One  of  the  editors  of  "The  World's  Best  Literature," 
"Encyclopedia  of  Irish  Literature,"  etc.  In  1907,  ap- 
pointed United  States  minister  to  Denmark. 

Egmont,  Lamoral^  Count,  Prince  de  Gavre,  Flem- 
ish noble,  was  born  in  1522;  accompanied  Charles  V. 
on  his  expedition  to  Africa  (1541),  and  distinguished 
himself  against  the  French  in  the  battles  of  St.  Quentin 
and  Gravelines.  During  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of 
Parma  he  sought  to  mediate  between  her  and  the  people 
of  the  Netherlands.  Becoming  obnoxious  to  Philip  II., 
owing  to  his  connection  with  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he 
was  seized  and  executed  at  Brussels  by  the  Duke  of 
Alva.     Died,  1568. 

Eiffel,  Gustave  {I'-fel),  an  eminent  French  engi- 
neer, born  at  Dijon,  1832;  early  obtained  a  reputation 
for  bridge  construction;  designed  the  great  Garabit 
viaduct,  and  also  the  enormous  locks  for  the  Panama 
canal;  his  most  noted  work  is  the  gigantic  iron  tower 
which  bears  his  name;  in  1893  became  involved  in  the 
Panama  scandals,  and  was  fined,  and  sentenced  to  two 
years'  imprisonment. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Earl  of,  was  born  1751,  son  of 
a  Newcastle  coalfitter;  after  a  successful  career  at 
Oxford,  entered  the  Middle  Temple  (1773),  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  (1776);  entered  parliament  as  a  sup- 
porter of  Pitt  (1783);  became  solicitor-general  (1788), 
and  as  attorney-general  (1793)  prosecuted  Thelwall, 
Home  Tooke,  and  other  revolutionary  agitators.  He 
became  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  1799, 
and  was  lord  chancellor  from  1801  to  1806,  and  1807 
to  1827.  In  politics  he  was  an  unbending  Tory,  oppos- 
ing all  improvements  in  the  law  or  constitution.  Died, 
1838. 

Eliot,  Charles  William,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
March  20,  1834;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1853.  He 
taught  mathematics  and  chemistry  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1863  he  went  to  Europe  for  study  of  chemistry  and  to 
investigate  the  educational  institutions  of  that  conti- 
nent. While  at  Vienna  was  chosen  in  1865  professor 
of  analytical  chemistry  in  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  which  post  he  filled  for  a  period  of  four 
years  and  again  went  to  Europe  and  spent  fourteen 
months  in  further  investigation,  mainly  in  France.  In 
1869,  Dr.  Eliot  succeeded  Dr.  Thomas  Hill  as  president 
of  Harvard  College,  and  continued  at  its  head  until 
1900.     During  his  administration  many  notable  changes 


in  the  government  of  the  college  occurred,  its  scope 
was  broadened  and  there  was  a  great  increase  in  tne 
number  of  its  professors  and  students,  while  its  wealth 
by  gifts  and  benefactions  was  greatly  increased,  so 
that  now  it  more  than  successfully  competes  with 
the  great  European  universities  in  its  curriculum. 
Mr.  Eliot  was  given  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  by  Williams 
and  Princeton  colleges  in  1869,  and  by  Yale  in  1870,  and 
is  an  honored  member  of  many  scientific  and  literary 
bodies.  Besides  numerous  addresses,  chemical  memoirs, 
and  technical  investigations,  he  published  in  conjunction 
with  Prof.  F.  H.  Storer  a  "Manual  of  Inorganic  Chem- 
istry," and  a  "Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analy- 
sis." More  recently  he  published  "American  Contribu- 
tions to  Civilization,"  "Educational  Reform,"  and 
"Charles  Eliot:    Landscape  .Architect." 

Eliot,  George,  the  nom  de  plume  of  Marian  Evans, 
the  great  English  novelist.  She  was  born  in  Warwick- 
shire, England,  November  22,  1819.  She  received  a 
superior  education,  and  became  familiar  with  Latin, 
German,  and  the  higher  mathematics.  In  1844-46  she 
translated  Strauss's  "Leben  Jesu,"  and  later  Spinoza's 
"Ethics,"  and  other  works.  In  1851  she  became  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  "Westminster  Review."  At  this  time 
she  first  met  George  Henry  Lewes,  and  with  him  she 
formed  a  connection,  only  terminated  by  his  death  in 
1878.  Lewes  had  been  married  many  years,  but  his 
wife  proved  unfaithful.  He  condoned  her  offense  by 
taking  her  back  to  his  home,  and,  when  she  left  him 
finally,  he  was  unable,  by  reason  of  the  condonation,  to 
secure  a  divorce  under  the  law  of  England.  Under 
these  circumstances,  and  after  due  deliberation,  Lewes 
and  Miss  Evans  decided  to  live  together. 

In  1857,  the  first  of  the  "Scenes  of  Clerical  Life" 
appeared  in  "Blackwood,"  and  in  1858  "Adam  Bede" 
was  published.  This  magnificent  piece  of  work  at  once 
placed  its  author  in  the  front  rank  of  living  writers. 
It  was  followed  in  succession  by  "The  Mill  on  the  Floss," 
"Silas  Marner,"  "Romola,"  and  "Felix  Holt,"  the  latter 
appearing  in  1866.  George  Eliot  published  her  first 
poem,  "The  Spanish  Gypsy,"  but  neither  this  nor 
others  which  followed  proved  as  successful  as  her  prose 
writings.  "Middlemarch,"  by  many  considered  as  even 
superior  to  "Adam  Bede,"  was  issued  in  1871-72,  and 
about  five  years  later  appeared  "Daniel  Deronda,"  a 
much  inferior  work.  Mr.  Lewes  died  in  November,  1878, 
and  Miss  Evans  married  on  May  6,  1880,  a  stockbroker, 
named  John  Cross,  a  man  much  younger  tlian  herself. 
Died,  1880. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  was  born  1533.  Her  education 
was  entrusted  to  the  most  learned  men  of  the  age,  and 
she  became  an  accomplished  scholar.  During  the  reign 
of  her  sister  Mary  she  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  in  the 
Tower.  On  her  accession  (1558),  Mary's  enactments  in 
favor  of  Romanism  were  abrogated;  by  the  Act  of 
Supremacy  the  sovereign  again  became  head  of  the 
Church,  and  a  form  of  worship  was  established  which,  it 
was  hoped,  would  conciliate  moderate  men  of  all  parties. 
At  first  the  spirit  of  discontent  dared  not  show  itself 
amidst  the  general  satisfaction.  But  after  the  escape  of 
Mary  Stuart  into  England  (1568),  her  presence  in  the 
country  was  a  constant  source  of  disquiet.  She  was  the 
heir  to  the  throne,  and  as  Elizabeth  persistently  refused 
to  marry,  it  seemed  probable  that  she  would  be  her 
successor.  The  disaffected  Papists  were  further  encour- 
aged by  the  sentence  of  excommunication  pronounced 
against  Elizabeth  by  the  Pope,  and  by  the  triumph  of 
their  cause  abroad;  Jesuits  from  Douay  traversed  the 
country  in  disguise,  several  plots  were  formed,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  put  the  penal  enactments  against 
Recusants  more  stringently  in  force.  The  Protestantism 
of  the  country  was  acutely  aroused,  and  a  strong  party 
in  the  council  urged  the  queen  to  put  herself  forward  as 
the  champion  of  the  Reformed  faith  on  the  Continent. 
But  Elizabeth  chose  rather  to  encourage  a  feeling  of 
independence  and  energy  at  home  than  to  involve 
England  in  foreign  complications;  the  prudence  and 
patriotism  of  her  policy  were  fully  proved  by  the  after 
history  of  her  reign.  The  growing  feeling  of  nationality 
proved  stronger  than  the  lingering  attachment  to  the 
old  faith,  especially  after  the  hopes  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  had  been  dashed  by  the  execution  of  Mary 
(1587),  and  when  Philip  of  Spain  sent  his  long-pro- 
jected expedition  against  England  (1588)  Papists  as 
well  as  Protestants  came  zealously  forward  in  defense 
of  the  realm.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign,  the 
disturbances  created  by  the  Puritans  foreshadowed  the 
troubles  of  the  opening  century.     Died,  1603. 

Elizabeth,  St.,  of  Hungary,  was  bom  1207,  a 
daughter  of  Andrew  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  and  the  wife 
of  Louis  IV.,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia.  Left  a  widow 
after  six   years  of  marriage,   and   when   she  was  only 


BIOGRAPHY 


431 


twenty  years  of  age,  she  was  deprived  of  her  regency 
by  her  husband's  brother  Henry,  and  hved  for  some 
time  in  great  poverty.  Ultimately,  the  regency  was 
once  more  offered  to  her,  and  her  son  Hermann  was 
declared  heir  to  the  throne;  but  she  preferred  hence- 
forth to  live  in  retirement  at  Marburg,  and  to  devote 
herself  to  works  of  piety  under  the  direction  of  her  con- 
fessor Conrad.     Died,   1231. 

Elliott,  Maxlne  (Mrs.  N.  C.  Goodwin),  actress;  born 
in  Rockland,  Me.,  1873 ;  made  ddbut  with  E.  S.  Willard  in 
small  parts;  soon  after  played  leading  parts  in  Rose 
Coghlan's  company;  was  under  Augustin  Daly's  man- 
agement two  seasor.s;  later  played  in  "  Nathan  Hale  "  as 
co-star  with  her  husband,  Nat.  C.  Goodwin,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1908. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  jurist,  was  born  in  Windsor, 
Conn.,  April  29,  1745.  He  became  prominent  in  State 
affairs  and  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  federal  convention  of  1787,  which  prepared 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  It  was  on  his 
motion  that  the  words  "  National  government "  in  that 
organic  act  were  replaced  by  the  definition  "Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States."  He  became  United  States 
senator  from  Connecticut  in  1789,  and  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  which  organized  the  federal  judicial  sys- 
tem. He  led  the  Federalist  party  in  the  Senate,  and 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  Jay's  treaty  with  England  in 
1794.  From  1796  to  1800  he  was  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1800  negotiated, 
with  Patrick  Henry  and  Governor  Davie,  a  treaty  with 
France.  He  afterward  served  on  the  governor's  council 
of  Connecticut,  and  in  May,  1807,  became  chief  justice 
of  the  State  Supreme  Court.     Died,  1807. 

Emanuel,  Filibert,  Duke  of  Savoy,  son  of  Charles 
III.,  born  1528,  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial 
troops  in  Italy  against  the  French,  who,  on  his  father's 
death,  seized  most  of  his  inheritance;  appointed  govern- 
or of  the  Netherlands  by  Philip  II.  in  1556,  he  attacked 
P'rance,  winning  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin,  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  Chateau-Cambresis  (1559)  recovered  his  ances- 
tral domains,  and  married  Marguerite,  sister  of  the  King 
of  France.  He  appUed  himself  to  the  administrative 
and  military  organization  of  his  country,  and  is  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  Sardinian  monarchy.  Died, 
1580. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  an  American  poet  and 
prose  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1803.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1821,  for  five  years  taught  in  a  school,  and 
in  1829  became  minister  to  a  Unitarian  church  in  Bos- 
ton, but  in  1832  resigned  his  charge.  He  spent  the  greater 
part  of  1833  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  began  his 
career  as  a  lecturer  on  various  subjects,  in  which  capacity 
he  acted  for  a  long  series  of  years.  In  1834  he  took  up 
his  permanent  residence  at  Concord,  Mass.,  and  in  1836 
published  a  small  volume  called  "Nature."  He  was  one 
of  the  original  editors  of  the  Dial,  a  transcendental 
magazine  begun  in  1840.  Two  volumes  of  his  essays 
were  published  in  1841  and  1844,  and  his  poems  in  1846. 
His  miscellaneous  addresses  had  been  published  in  Eng- 
land in  1844,  and  on  visiting  Great  Britain  in  1847  he 
was  welcomed  by  a  large  circle  of  admirers.  In  1850, 
he  published  "Representative  Men";  in  1856,  "English 
Traits";  in  1860,  "The  Conduct  of  Life";  in  1869, 
"May  Day  and  Other  Poems" ;  in  1870,  "  Society'and  Soli- 
tude"; in  1874,  "Parnassus,"  a  collection  of  poems;  in 
1875,  "Letters  and  Social  Aims."  Emerson  showed 
certain  similarities  with  Carlyle,  of  whom  he  was  a 
friend  and  correspondent.  Their  correspondence  ap- 
peared in  1883.  He  was  one  of  the  most  original  and 
influential  writers  that  the  United  States  has  produced. 
Died,  1882. 

Emmet,  Robert,  Irish  revolutionist,  born  1778; 
son  of  a  Dublin  doctor;  expelled  from  Dublin  Univer- 
sity in  1798  owing  to  his  anti-English  sympathies;  in 
,  1803  led  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Dublin  Castle;  es- 
caped into  Wicklow,  but  was  captured  and  executed. 
His  fate  is  the  subj  ec t  of  some  verses  by  Moore.  Died ,  1803. 
Epictetus,   a  Stoic  philosopher  of   the   1st  century, 

A.  D.,  born  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia;  was  bought  as  a 
slave  by  Epaphroditiis,  a  favorite  of  Nero.  When  eman- 
cipated he  lived  at  Rome,  until  banished  by  Domitian, 
and  then  became  a  teacher  at  Nicopolis  in  Epirus.  His 
lectures  were  transcribed  by  his  pupil,  Arrian. 

Epicurus,   Greek  philosopher,   was  born  about  342 

B.  C.  It  is  doubtful  whether  his  birth  occurred  before 
or  after  his  parents'  removal  from  Gargettus,  in  Attica, 
to  Samos.  His  youth  was  spent  in  that  island,  whence 
he  removed  to  Athens,  when  about  eighteen,  and  after- 
wards taught  at  Colophon,  Mitylene,  and  Lampsacus. 
He  returned  to  Athens  about  306,  and  remained  there 
till  his  death.  He  was  founder  of  the  Epicurean  school, 
who  hold  that  the  summum  bonum  consists  in  pleasure 
—  chiefly  mental  pleasure.     Died,  270  B.  C. 


Erasmus,  Desiderius,  one  of  the  greatest  scholars 
of  the  Renaissance;  born  in  1467,  at  Rotterdam;  on  his 
parents'  death  entered  a  monastery,  which  he  left  to 
become  a  teacher  at  Paris,  and,  at  the  invitation  of  his 
pupil.  Lord  Mountjoy,  came  to  England.  He  settled  at 
Oxford,  where  he  became  the  friend  of  More,  and  studied 
divinity  under  Colet,  and  Greek  under  Grocyn  and 
Linacre.  In  1506  he  visited  Italy,  staying  at  Bologna 
and  Rome,  where  he  was  warmly  received,  but  returned, 
to  England,  and  was  made  Margaret  professor  of  divinity 
and  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  He  returned  to 
the  Continent,  and,  after  a  journey  to  the  Low  Countries, 
settled  at  Basel,  where  he  published  his  edition  of  the 
New  Testament.  Erasmus  was  in  favor  of  moderate  ■ 
reform  in  the  church,  as  is  shown  by  his  "  Enchiridion 
Militis  Christiani "  and  "  Encomium  Moriae,"  but  he  gave 
little  support  to  Luther,  although  he  refused  to  write 
against  him.     Died,  1536. 

Eric  the  Red,  a  Norwegian  navigator,  who,  in  982, 
located  on  the  island  of  Iceland.  In  983  he  sailed  from 
Bredifiord  to  reach  some  western  shore  said  to  have 
been  visited  by  one  of  his  countrymen  in  former  times. 
On  the  voyage  he  passed  Cape  Farewell,  and  on  the 
coast  met  with  reindeer.  He  named  the  country  Green- 
land and  the  inlet  Ericfiord.  Returning  to  Iceland  in 
985,  he  interested  the  people  of  the  island  in  his  discov- 
ery, and  with  twenty-five  sail  set  out  for  the  voyage. 
Some  of  the  shiijs  were  lost  in  a  storm,  and  others  were 
driven  home;  but  he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Green- 
land coast  with  fourteen,  and  located  on  the  fiord,  at 
some  distance  from  the  ocean,  where  there  was  grass 
and  trees.  About  twelve  years  later  his  son  Lief  is  said 
to  have  discovered  the  continent  of  North  America, 
which  he  called  Markland  and  Vinland. 

Ericsson,  John,  engineer,  born  in  Lanzbanshyttan, 
Sweden,  July  31,  1803.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he 
tjecame  cadet  of  engineers,  and  at  seventeen  entered 
the  Swedish  army;  in  1827  he  was  promoted  captain. 
In  1828  he  constructed  a  flame  engine,  and  went  to 
London  to  introduce  it,  resigning  his  captaincy  in  the 
army.  He  also  produced  in  succession  an  instrument 
for  sea-sounding,  a  hydrostatic  weighing  machine,  and 
a  tubular  steam  boiler,  besides  other  important  devices. 
In  1833  he  constructed  the  caloric  engine,  and  in  1853 
the  ship  "Ericsson,"  of  2,000  tons,  propelled  by  this 
motor.  In  1836  Ericsson  invented  and  patented  the 
screw  propeller,  and  in  1839  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  where,  in  1841,  he  designed  for  the  government 
the  screw-propelled  war  ship  "Princeton."  This  was  the 
pioneer  screw  war  ship;  she  carried  a  twelve-inch 
wrought-iron  gun,  designed  by  Ericsson,  and  a  wrought- 
iron  gun  carriage,  which  took  up  the  recoil  without 
breaking.  In  1861  he  built  for  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, in  100  days,  the  iron-clad  "Monitor,"  which, 
on  March  9,  1862,  in  Hampton  Roads,  defeated  the 
Confederate  iron-clad  ram  "Merrimac."  In  1881  he 
built  for  the  United  States  a  vessel  called  the  "Destroyer." 
His  later  scientific  investigations  included  computa- 
tions of  the  influences  that  retard  the  earth's  rotary 
motion,  and  the  intensity  of  solar  heat.     Died,  1889. 

Ersklne,  Thomas,  Lord,  born  in  1750;  son  of  the 
tenth  Earl  of  Buchan;  after  serving  in  the  army  and 
navy,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1778,  and  soon  won  re- 
nown as  an  advocate  by  his  defense  of  Lord  Keppel 
and  of  Lord  George  Gordon.  A  strong  Whig,  he  acted 
for  the  defense  in  the  political  trials  of  the  time,  giving 
his  aid  to  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  and  Tom.  Paine; 
his  defense  of  the  latter  cost  him  the  post  of  attorney- 
general  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  was  now  regarded 
as  the  defender  of  popular  liberties  and  constitutional 
rights.  From  1790,  he  sat  in  parliament  as  a  supporter 
of  Fox;  in  1806,  became  chancellor  under  him,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  Henceforward  he  took  little  part 
in  politics,  but  vigorously  supported  Queen  Caroline 
in  1821.     Died,  1823. 

Estalne,  Charles  Hector,  Count  d',  born  in  1729; 
French  admiral;  after  serving  in  the  army  in  India, 
under  the  Marquis  de  Bussy,  and  being  made  prisoner 
at  the  siege  of  Madras,  entered  the  navy,  and  led  an 
expedition  to  Sumatra,  capturing  several  English  forts. 
Placed  in  command  of  a  squadron  sent  to  aid  the  United 
States  against  England,  he  captured  the  Isle  of  Grenada, 
but  ultimately  met  with  reverses,  and  returned  to  France 
in  disgrace.  He  was  guillotined  during  the  Revolution. 
Died,  1794. 

Euclid  of  Alexandria,  a  celebrated  geometrician. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life.  According  to  Proclus,  he 
lived  from  328  to  283  B.  C,  and  was  one  of  the  Platonic 
school.  He  is  said  to  have  written  other  works  besides 
the  "Elements  of  Geometry." 

Eugene,  Francois,  Prince  of  Savoy;  born  in  1663, 
son  of  Eug&ne  Maurice,  Count  of  Soissons;  joined  the 
Austrian    service;     distinguished    himself    against    the 


432 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Turks  in  1683,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade, 
in  1688.  After  serving  against  the  French,  and  defeat- 
ing Catinat  in  Italy,  he  overthrew  the  Turks  at  Zenta. 
Again  opposed  to  the  French  in  the  War  of  Succession 
he  captured  Villeroi  at  Cremona,  and  joined  Marl- 
borough in  1704,  taking  part  in  the  battle  of  Blenheim. 
He  then  went  to  Italy,  and  was  defeated  at  Cassano 
(1705),  but  soon  afterwards  gained  a  victory,  and  re- 
lieved Turin.  In  1708,  he  joined  Marlborough  in  Flan- 
ders, and  was  present  at  Oudenarde  and  Malplaquet. 
He  again  distinguished  himself  against  the  Turks  at 
the  battles  of  Peterwaradin  and  Belgrade.     Died,  1736. 

Euler,  Leonhard,  mathematician;  born  in  Basel  in 
1707;  was  invited  by  Catherine  II.  to  Russia  in  1727, 
and  taught  mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg.  In  1741, 
he  went  to  Berlin,  but  returned  to  St.  Petersburg  in 
1766.  His  writings  are  numerous  and  valuable.  Died, 
1783. 

EurlpideSt  Greek  tragedian;  born  in  Salamis  in 
480  B.  C;  rival  and  contemporary  of  Sophocles,  and 
friend  of  Socrates;  studied  under  Anaxagoras,  and  pro- 
duced his  first  tragedy  in  455.  He  sought  in  Macedonia 
a  refuge  from  the  satire  of  Aristophanes.  Among  his 
works  are  the  ".Alcestis,"  "Hecuba,"  and  "Medea." 
Died.  406  B.  C. 

Busebius,  Pamphlli  (,u-se'-be-us),  a  celebrated  divine 
honored  with  the  title  of  "Father  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory," was  born  in  Ca^sarea  in  264.  He  was  bishop  of 
his  native  city  from  313  till  his  death,  about  340. 

Eustachio,  Bartolommeo  (us-t&sh'e-o),  an  Italian 
physician  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  settled  in  Kome, 
and  made  several  anatomical  discoveries,  among  others 
those  of  the  tube  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  mouth, 
and  a  valve  on  the  wall  of  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart, 
both  called  "Eustachian"  after  him. 

Evans,  Roblcy  Dunglison,  officer  of  United  States 
Navy;  born  in  Floyd  County,  Va.,  August  18,  1846; 
educated  in  public  schools  of  Washington;  appointed 
to  the  United  States  Navy  for  Utah,  September  20, 
1860;  graduate  of  United  States  Naval  Academy,  1863; 
rear  admiral,  February  11,  1901.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  participated  in  both  attaclcs  on  Fort  Fisher,  January 
15,  1865,  and  in  land  attack  received  four  severe  rifle- 
shot wounds.  When  in  command  of  the  "Yorktown" 
at  Valparaiso,  Chile,  1891,  during  period  of  strained 
relations  between  Chile  and  United  States,  his  actions 
in  connection  with  various  incidents  earned  him  his 
popular  name  of  "Fighting  Bob."  In  war  with  Spain, 
commander  of  "Iowa"  in  Sampson's  fleet  off  Santiago, 
taking  active  part  in  battle  with  Cervera's  fleet,  ,Iuly  3, 
1898;  was  president  of  Board  of  Inspection  and  Survey; 
commander-in-chief  at  Asiatic  Station,  1902-04,  and 
in  command  of  the  Asiatic  expedition,  1908.  Author: 
"A  Sailor's  Log." 

Ev'erett,"  Alexander  Hill,  an  American  litterateur 
and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1792, 
and  died  while  commissioner  to  China,  in  1847.  He 
was  minister  to  Russia,  Holland,  and  Spain. 

Everett,  Edward,  born  in  1794;  American  author 
and  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding;  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Harvard  in  1815;  traveled  in  Europe 
from  1815  to  1818;  became  editor  of  the  "North  Ameri- 
can Review,"  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1824  to  1834;  governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1835  to 
1839;  and  from  1840  to  1845,  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  England,  in  which  capacity  he  succeeded  in  adjusting 
several  delicate  matters.  He  became  secretary  of  state 
in  1852,  and  was  elected  to  the  senate  in  1853.  He 
wrote  "The  Dirge  of  Alaric  the  Visigoth"  (a  poem), 
"Lives  of  Washington  and  General  Stark,"  ana  other 
works,  but  was  best  known  as  an  orator.     Died,  1865. 

Ezekiel  (e-ze'-ke-el),  one  of  the  four  great  Hebrew 
prophets,  was  the  son  of  Buzi,  and  one  of  the  sacerdotal 
race.  He  was  carried  to  Babylon  as  a  captive  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  598  B.  C.  Favored  by  the  Almighty 
with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  he  soothed,  and  comforted, 
and  admonished  his  countrymen,  till  at  length  he  was 
stoned  to  death  by  order  of  the  Babylonian  authorities. 

Fablus,  Maxlmus  Qulntus,  born  about  275  B.  C; 
Roman  general.  He  was  surnamed  "Cunctator"  be- 
cause, having,  in  217  B.  C,  been  appointed  dictator 
for  the  second  time  and  entrusted  with  the  defense 
of  Italy  against  the  victorious  Hannibal,  he  pursued 
a  course  of  cautious  and  patient  generalship,  never 
risking  a  general  engagement  with  his  opponent,  but 
cutting  off  his  supplies,  and  gradually  wearying  him 
out,  and  meeting  with  signal  success.  Before  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  dictatorsnip,  he  was  five  times  consul. 
Died,  203  B.  C. 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  born  in  1686;  Prus- 
sian experimental  philosopher;  after  traveling  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  France,  settled  in  Holland.  In 
1720,  it  occurred  to  him  to  use  quicksilver  instead  of 


spirits  of  wine  in  the  construction  of  thermometers. 
By  this  substitution  the  accuracy  of  the  instrimient  was 
greatly  enhanced.  In  1724,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  in  the  "Philosophical 
Transactions "  of  that  year  there  appeared  several 
papers  from  his  pen.     Died,  1736. 

Fairbanks,  Charles  Warren,  former  vice-president 
of  the  United  States;  bom  on  a  farm  near  IJnionville 
Center,  Union  County,  0.,May  11, 1852;  graduate  of  Ohio 
Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  O.,  1872;  admitted  to 
Ohio  bar,  1874,  and  established  practice  at  Indianapolis. 
Was  Republican  caucus  nominee  for  United  States 
senator,  1893,  but  defeated  by  David  Turpie,  Democrat. 
Appointed,  in  1898,  member  of  Joint  High  British- 
American  Commission,  and  chairman  of  American  com- 
missioners. Elected  United  States  senator  from  Indi- 
ana, 1897,  and  reelected  in  1903;  elected  vice-president, 
in  1904;   term  expired  in  1909. 

Falr'fax,  Thomas,  Lord,  an  English  parliamen- 
tarian general,  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  in  1612.  After 
serving  with  distinction  in  the  Low  Coimtries,  Lord 
Fairfax  was  declared  general-in-chief  of  the  parliament 
army  at  the  opening  of  the  civil  war,  in  1642,  and  again 
in  1645.  He  distinguished  himself  in  most  of  the  great 
battles  and  sieges  of  that  struggle,  and  after  its  close 
refused  to  act  as  one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  I.  In 
1659,  Lord  Fairfax  used  all  his  influence  with  the  army 
to  promote  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.     Died,  1671. 

Falconlo,  Dlomede,  Archbishop  and  apostolic  dele- 
gate; born  in  Pescocostanzo,  in  the  Abruzzi,  ltaly,in  1842; 
entered  Franciscan  Order,  September  2,  1860;  on  com- 
pletion of  studies,  November,  1865,  sent  as  missionary 
to  United  States;  ordained  priest,  January  4,  1866,  by, 
Bishop  Timon,  of  Buffalo;  professor  of  philosophy  and 
vice-president  of  St.  Bonaventure's  College,  Allegheny, 
N.  Y.,  1866;  professor  of  theology  and  secretary  of 
Franciscan  Province  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
1867;  president  of  college  and  seminary  of  St.  Bona- 
venture,  1868;  became  citizen  of  United  States,  1868; 
secretary  and  administrator  of  cathedral  at  Harbor 
Grace,  Newfoundland,  1872-82;  in  United  States, 
1882-83;  returned  to  Italy,  1883.  and  elected  provin- 
cial of  Franciscans  in  the  Abruzzi;  later  reelected  and 
was  also  commissary  and  visitor-general.  Province  of 
Naples,  1888;  synodical  examiner  in  diocese  of  Aquila; 
commissary  and  visitor-general  Franciscan  Province  in 
Puglia,  1889;  procurator-general  Franciscan  Order  and 
visitor-general  in  various  provinces  of  the  Order,  1889- 
92.  Consecrated,  July  17,  1892,  Bishop  of  Lacedonia, 
and  was  raised,  November  29,  1895,  to  be  Archbishop 
of  Acerenza  and  Matera,  in  Basilicata;  apostolic  dele- 
gate to  Canada,  1899-1902;  apostolic  delegate  to 
United  States  since  September  30,  1902.  A  volume  of 
his  "Pastoral  Letters"  (translated  into  French)  pub- 
lished in  Canada,  1900. 

Faraday,  Michael  (j/lr'ah-da),  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  English  chemists  and  physicists,  was  born  in 
Surrey,  in  1791.  In  1833,  he  became  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  where  his 
lectures  attracted  the  admiration  of  European  and  Am- 
erican savants.  Faraday's  great  fame  principally  rests 
upon  his  discoveries  in  electricity  and  electro-magnet- 
ism. Of  the  latter  science  he  may  truly  be  termed  the 
founder.  His  earlier  writing  have  been  collected  into 
three  volumes,  entitled  "Experimental  Researches  in 
Electricity";  and,  among  his  later  works,  "Experi- 
mental Researches  in  Chemistry  and  Physics."  Died, 
1867. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow,  a  famous  American  ad- 
miral, of  Spanish  extraction;  born  at  Knoxville,  Ten- 
nessee, 1801;  entered  the  navy  as  a  boy;  rose  to  be  captain 
in  1855,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  attached 
himself  to  the  Union;  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring 
capture  of  New  Orleans;  in  1862  was  created  rear-ad- 
miral, and  two  years  later  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
the  Confederate  fleet  at  Mobile  Bay;  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  admiral  in  1866,  being  the  first  man  to  hold  this 
position  in  the  American  Navy.     Died,  1870. 

F6nelon  Uin'-a-l6ng),  Francois  de  Sallgnac  de  la 
Mothe,  an  eminent  French  divine  and  writer;  was  born 
in  1651,  and  died  in  1715. 

Ferdinand  I.,  "the  Great,"  King  of  Castile,  of  Leon 
and  Galicia;  was  the  second  son  of  Sancho  III.,  King  of 
Navarre  and  Castile,  and  succeeded  to  the  latter  king- 
dom in  1037.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archs  of  his  age,  and  disputed  with  Henry  III.  of  Ger- 
many for  the  imperial  crown.     Died,  1065. 

Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile,  III.  of  Naples,  and  II.  of 
Aragon  and  Sicily,  surnamed  "the  Catholic."  He  was 
the  son  of  John  II.,  and  succeeded  his  father  on  the 
throne  of  Aragon  and  Sicily  in  1466.  In  1469  he  was 
married  to  IsaiDella,  sister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile,  and 
in  1479  became,  through  her.  King  of  Castile,  Isabella 


BIOGRAPHY 


433 


sharing  with  him  the  royal  dignity.  The  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  was  signalized  by  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus.  Ferdinand  died  in  1516,  Isa- 
bella having  died  twelve  years  before  him.  After  the 
death  of  Isabella,  he  acted  simply  as  regent  of  the  king- 
dom, having  handed  over  the  crown  to  his  daughter 
Juana,  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  Isabella. 

Flchte  iflk'ta),  Johann  Gottlieb«  one  of  the  most 
eminent  German  thinkers  and  philosophers;  was  born 
in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1762,  and  received  his  education  in 
the  universities  of  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Wittenberg.  At 
Konigsberg,  where  his  friendship  with  Kant  commenced, 
his  first  published  work,  "An  Attempt  at  a  Criticism  of 
all  Revelation,"  appeared.  The  celebrity  he  thus  ac- 
quired obtained  for  Fichte  the  professional  chair  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1799,  in 
consequence  of  atheistic  views  being  attributed  to  him 
in  connection  with  the  new  doctrine  of  metaphysics  he 
had  introduced.  In  1810,  Fichte  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  Berlin  University,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
bestirring  the  patriotism  of  his  countrymen  till  it  found 
a  vent  in  the  war  of  liberation,  1812-13.     Died,  1814. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  an  American  merchant ;  was  born  in 
Stockbridge,  Mass.,  in  1819.  Was  the  original  organizer 
of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company,  1856-66,  which 
succeeded  after  many  reverses  in  establishing  telegraphic 
communication  between  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
Died,  1892. 

Field,  David  Dudley,  born  in  1805;  American  jurist, 
and  brother  of  Cyrus  Field  and  Stephen  Field;  was,  in 
1857,  appointed  to  draw  up  a  political,  civil,  and  penal 
code,  of  which  parts  have  been  adopted  by  several  of  the 
States.  To  him  is  due  the  formation  of  an  association 
for  the  reform  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  for  the  adoption 
of  arbitration  in  place  of  war.  In  1889,  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
Died,  1894. 

Fieldt  Eugene,  American  poet  and  journalist;  born 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  September  2,  1850.  He  moved  to 
New  England,  but  was  educated  later  in  Missouri.  Field 
entered  journalism  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  ten  years 
later  becoming  editor  of  the  "Sharps  and  Flats"  column 
of  the  "Chicago  Daily  News."  His  humorous  sayings 
therein  during  the  following  decade  established  his  repu- 
tation in  newspaper  work.  He  was  an  author  and  poet 
of  rare  sympathy,  his  poems  of  childhood  exhibiting  rare 
qualities  of  appreciation  and  power  of  expression,  and 
gaining  for  him  the  title,  "The  Child's  Poet."  Among 
his  works  are:  "The  Denver  Tribune  Primer,"  "Cul- 
ture's Garland,"  "  Love  Affairs  of  a  Bibliomaniac," 
"Little  Book  of  Western  Verse,"  "With  Trumpet  and 
Drum,"  etc.     Mr.  Field  died  November  4,  1895. 

Field,  Marshall,  merchant;  born  in  Conway,  Mass., 
in  1835;  spent  boyhood  on  farm;  studied  at  academy 
until  1852;  dry  goods  clerk,  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1852-56; 
in  Chicago,  1856-60;  junior  partner,  1860-65,  then 
senior  partner  in  house,  which  became,  1865,  Field,  Pal- 
mer &  Leiter.  Potter  Palmer  retired,  1867,  and  Levi  Z. 
Leiter,  1881,  Mr.  Field  becoming  head  of  Marshall  Field 
&  Company,  now  having  the  largest  wholesale  and  retail 
dry  goods  business  in  the  world.  Founded,  with  gift 
of  $1,000,000,  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  of  Chicago; 
gave  money  and  land  to  the  amount  of  $450,000  to  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  Twice  married;  second  time  in 
London,  Septernber  5,  1905,  to  Mrs.  Delia  Spencer  Caton, 
of  Chicago.     Died  in  1906,  leaving  an  immense  fortune. 

Fielding,  Henry,  the  father  of  English  fiction,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  prose-writers  in  the  language; 
wa^  born  in  Somersetshire,  in  1707,  of  a  noble  family 
allied  to  the  imperial  house  of  Austria.  After  dissipating 
a  handsorne  fortune  in  the  pleasures  of  youth.  Fielding 
launched  into  authorship,  and  in  1742  produced  his 
"Joseph  Andrews,"  a  sparkling  satire  upon  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  Richardsonian  school  of  fiction.  In 
1749,  the  novel  of  "Tom  Jones"  appeared  like  a  comet 
in  the  literary  world,  to  still  remain  without  a  rival  in 
the  language.  "Amelia"  followed,  in  1751,  to  entrance 
the  minds  of  such  critics  as  Burke,  Gibbon,  and  Dr. 
Johnson.     Died  in  Lisbon,  in  1754. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  American  statesman;  born  in 
Siraimerhill,  N.  Y.,  in  1800;  was  apprenticed  to  a  wool 
carder,  but  became  a  clerk  in  a  judge's  office,  and  then 
found  entrance  to  the  bar.  He  entered  Congress  in  1832, 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means  in  1840,  and  was  author  of  the  tariff  of  1842.  He 
became  comptroller  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1847, 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States  in  1848, 
and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  General 
Taylor  in  1850.  By  signing  the  act  for  the  surrender 
of  fugitive  slaves  he  brought  about  the  utter  defeat  of 
the  Whig  party  in  1852.  In  1866  he  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency,  but  received  only  scanty  support. 
Died,  1874. 


Firdausi  ijur-dou' se) ,  or  Firdusi,  the  most  eminent 
of  Persian  poets,  was  born  in  Khorassan,  about  A.  D. 
940.  During  his  lifetime  his  fame  filled  the  East,  and 
he  was  the  recipient  of  great  honors  from  the  Sultan 
Mahmud.  His  chief  poem,  the  "Shah-Namah,"  or 
"Book  of  Kings,"  has  been  termed  by  Sir  William  Jones 
"a  glorious  monument  of  Oriental  genius  and  learning." 
Died  about  1020. 

Fisher,  Harrison,  illustrator;  born  in  Brooklyn, 
July  27,  1875;  educated  in  San  Francisco;  recent  books 
illustrated  by  him:  "The  Market  Place,"  by  Harold 
Frederic;  ""Three  Men  on  Wheels,"  by  Jerome  K.  Je- 
rome; ".The  Eagle's  Heart,"  by  Hamlin  Garland;  "Hia- 
watha," by  Longfellow;  now  illustrating  "The  Saturday 
Evening  Post,"  "McClure's  Magazine,"  "Life,"  "Puck," 
"Ladies'  Home  Journal,"  "Scribner's,"  etc. 

Fiske,  Minnie  3Iaddem,  actress;  born  in  New 
Orleans,  in  1865;  appeared  in  child's  part  when  3  years 
old;  at  12  was  alternately  playing  leading  rdles  and  old 
women  parts,  and  at  15  became  a  star,  under  name  of 
Minnie  Maddern.  Retired,  about  1890,  for  five  years; 
married  March  19,  1890,  Harrison  Grey  Fiske,  journalist 
and  playwright,  in  whose  "Hester  Crewe"  she  returned 
to  the  stage;    since  then  starring  in  various  plays. 

Fitch,  William  Clyde,  author  and  playwright; 
born  in  New  York,  May  2,  1865;  graduated  at  Amherst, 
1886  (A.  M.,  1902).  Author:  ''a  Wave  of  Life,"  "The 
Knighting  of  the  Twins,"  "Some  Correspondence,  and 
Six -Conversations,"  "The  Smart  Set,"  "Nathan  Hale," 
"Barbara  Frietchie,"  "Captain  Jinks  of  the  Horse  Ma- 
rines." Original  plays:  "Beau  Brummell,"  "Betty's 
Finish,"  "Frederic  Lemaitre,"  "A  Modern  Match," 
"Pamela's  Prodigy,"  "April  Weather,"  "His  Grace  de 
Grammont,"  "The  Career  of  Betty  Singleton,  or  Mistress 
Betty,"  "."The  Moth  and  the  Flame,"  "Nathan  Hale," 
"Barbara  Frietchie,"  "The  Cow-boy  and  The  Lady," 
"The  Climbers,"  "Captain  Jinks  of  the  Horse  Marines," 
"Lover's  Lane,"  "The  Girl  and  the  Judge,"  "The  Way 
of  the  World,"  "The  Last  of  the  Dandies,"  "The  Stub- 
bornness of  Geraldine,"  "The  Girl  with  the  Green  Eyes," 
"Her  Own  Way,"  "Major  Andr^,"  "Glad  of  It,"  "The 
Coronet  of  the  Duchess,"  "The  Woman  in  the  Case." 
Adaptations:  "The  Masked  Ball,"  "Bohemia,"  "The 
Frisky  Mrs.  Johnson,"  "The  Head  of  the  Family," 
"Granny,"  "Cousin  Billy."     Died,  1909. 

Fletcher  {jUch'ur),  John,  an  English  dramatist, 
whose  name  is  inseparably  associated  with  that  of 
his  friend  and  co-worker,  Francis  Beaumont,  was 
born  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1579.  His  plays,  such 
as  "The  Scornful  Lady,"  and  "Rule  a  Wife  and  Have  a 
Wife,"  were  during  two  centuries  the  delight  of  the  stage 
Died,  1625. 

Flint,  Austin,  physician;  born  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  March  28,  1836;  removed  to  Buffalo  in  infancy; 
educated  at  private  schools,  Buffalo,  and  freshman. 
Harvard,  1852-53 ;  studied  medicine  in  office  and  at  medi- 
cal department  University  of  Louisville,  1854-56; 
graduate  Jefferson  Medical  College,  1857  (LL.  D.,  1885); 
practiced  in  Buffalo,  1857-59;  editor  Buffalo  Medical 
Journal,  1857-60;  professor  of  physiology,  medical  de- 
partment. University  of  Buffalo,  1858-59,  visiting  sur- 
geon, Buffalo  General  Hospital,  1858.  Removed  to 
New  York,  1859;  professor  of  physiology.  New  York 
Medical  College,  1859-60,  New  Orleans  School  of  Medi- 
cine, 1860-61;  acting  assistant  surgeon.  United  States 
Army,  at  general  hospital.  New  York,  1862-65.  One  of 
founders  and  professor  of  physiology,  1861-98,  Bellevue 
Hospital  Medical  College;  professor  of  physiology.  Long 
Island  College  Hospital,  1862-68;  Cornell  University 
Medical  College,  since  1898.  Author:  "Physiology  of 
Man"  (five  volumes,  two  editions),  "Chemical  Examina- 
tion of  the  Urine  in  Disease"  (six  editions),  "Physiologi- 
cal Effects  of  Severe  and  Prolonged  Muscular  Strain," 
"'Text-Book  of  Human  Physiology"  (four  editions), 
"Source  of  Muscular  Power,"  "  Handbook  of  Physiology." 
Also  many  articles  on  medical  and  physiological  sub- 
jects in  medical  periodicals  and  transactions. 

Folk,  Joseph  Wlngate,  governor;  born  in  Browns- 
ville, Tenn.,  October  28,  1869;  graduate  of  Vanderbilt 
University;  admitted  to  bar,  1890;  circuit  attorney, 
St.  Louis,  1900-04;  prosecuted  numerous  bribery  cases; 
governor  of  Missouri,  1905-09. 

Foraker,  Joseph  Benson,  United  States  senator, 
1897-1909;  born  July  5,  1846,  on  farm  near  Rains- 
boro.  Highland  County,  Ohio.  Enlisted  July  14,  1862, 
in  the  89th  Ohio  volunteer  infantry,  and  served  to  end 
of  war,  becoming  first  lieutenant  and  brevet  captain; 
graduated  at  Cornell,  1869;  admitted  to  bar  and  began 
practice  at  Cincinnati,  1869.  Judge  Superior  Court, 
Cincinnati,  1879-82;  resigned  on  account  of  ill-health; 
Republican  candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio,  1883  ; 
defeated,  but  elected  governor  in  1885  and  1887; 
again    defeated,     1889,     for     same     office  ;     chairman 


434 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Republican  conventions,  Ohio,  1886,  1890,  1896,  1900; 
delegate-at-large  from  Ohio  national  Republican  con- 
ventions. 1884-1904;  in  conventions  of  1892  and  1896, 
served  as  chairman  committee  on  resolutions,  and  as 
such  reported  the  platform  each  time  to  the  convention; 
presented  name  of  William  McKinley  to  the  conventions 
of  1896  and  1900  for  nomination  to  the  presidency. 
He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1896,  re- 
elected in  1902,  and  served  as  one  of  the  conspicuous 
members  of  that  body  until  March  3,  1909. 

Forrest  (fbr'rlsl),  Edwin,  an  eminent  American  tra- 
gedian; born  in  Philadelphia  in  1806;  was  the  patriarch 
of  his  country's  stage,  having  performed  with  distin- 
guished merit  for  two  generations,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England.  In  the  parts  of  "  Richard  III.," 
"Macbeth,"  and  "Othello,"  his  acting  was  of  the  highest 
order.     Died,  1872. 

Foster,  John  Watson,  diplomatist;  born  in  Pike 
County,  Ind.,  March  2,  1836;  graduated  from  Indiana 
State  University,  1855;  student  one  year  at  Harvard 
Law  School  (LL.  D.,  Princeton,  Yale,  Wabash  College); 
admitted  to  Indiana  bar;  was  major,  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  colonel  in  Indiana  regiments.  After  war  editor  of 
"Evansville  Daily  Journal";  postmaster,  Evansville, 
1869-73;  minister  to  Mexico,  1873-80 ;  to  Russia,  1880- 
81.  Established,  1881,  in  practice  in  international 
cases  in  Washington,  representing  foreign  legations  be- 
fore commissions,  arbitration  boards,  etc.  Minister  to 
Spain,  1883-85;  special  plenipotentiary  to  negotiate 
reciprocity  treaties  with  Brazil,  Spain,  Germany,  British 
West  Indies,  etc.,  1891 ;  secretary  of  state.  United  States, 
1892-93;  agent  for  United  States  in  Bering  Sea  Arbitra- 
tion, at  Paris,  1893;  invited  by  Emperor  of  China  and 
participated  in  peace  negotiations  with  Japan ;  ambas- 
sador on  special  mission  to  Great  Britain  and  Russia, 
1897;  member  Anglo-Canadian  Commission,  1898; 
agent  for  United  States  Alaskan  Boundary  Tribunal, 
London,  1903.  Author:  "Biography  of  Matthew  Wat- 
son Foster,"  "A  Century  of  American  Diplomacy," 
"  American  Diplomacy  in  the  Orient,"  "Arbitration  and 
The  Hague  Court." 

Fox,  Charles  James,  statesman;  born  in  West- 
minster in  1749;  was  the  third  son  of  Henry  Fox,  Lord 
Holland,  who  early  inducted  him  into  gambling  and  the 
other  fashionable  vices,  which  clung  to  him  through  life. 
Educated  at  Eton  and  at  Hertford  College,  Oxford,  he 
entered  parliament  at  the  age  of  19  as  member  for  Mid- 
hurst,  and,  having  immediatelv  made  his  mark  as  a  de- 
bater, became  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  was  in  1773 
nominated  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  soon,  however, 
quarreled  with  Lord  North.  In  1782,  Fox  became 
secretary  of  state  under  Lord  Rockingham,  but  on  the 
latter's  death  (in  the]  same  year),  refused  to  serve  under 
Lord  Shelburne.  His  name  was  struck  off  the  list  of 
privy  councilors,  and  in  1797,  he  retired  from  parlia- 
mentary life  to  superintend  the  education  of  his  nephew. 
Lord  Holland,  and  to  write  the  "History  of  the  Reign  of 
James  II."  When  his  great  rival,  Pitt,  formed  his  last 
administration,  he  wished  Fox  to  join  it,  but  the 
king  gave  a  steady  refusal.  On  Pitt's  death,  in  1806, 
he  was  at  last  obliged  to  adnnit  him  to  office,  and  Fox 
became  foreign  secretary  in  Grenville's  ministry  of  "All 
the  Talents."  But  the  term  of  his  life  had  nearly  run 
out,  and  he  had  no  time  to  realize  the  high  expectations 
of  his  followers.  His  last  motion  in  parliament  was 
directed  against  the  slave  trade,  and  he  died  (at  Chis- 
wick  in  1806)  within  a  few  months  of  the  measure 
founded  upon  it  being  passed  into  law.  He  was  ad- 
mittedly the  first  orator  of  his  time;  he  was  also  a  man  o£ 
wide  reading,  and  he  showed  himself  equal  to  sacrifices 
to  principle  such  as  few  statesmen  have  cared  to  make. 

Fox,  George,  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends; 
was  born  in  County  Leicester,  England,  in  1624.  Early 
adopting  the  peculiar  tenets  and  manners  known  as 
Quakerism,  he  suffered  for  many  years  continual  perse- 
cution. In  1671,  he  sailed  for  the  West  Indies  and  the 
American  Colonies,  to  propagate  the  doctrines  of  the 
sect  he  had  originated;  and  on  his  return  to  England, 
in  1673,  he  was  again  imprisoned,  but  soon  released 
through  the  influence  of  William  Penn.  After  the  ac- 
cession of  William  III.  to  the  throne,  the  public  worship 
of  the  Society  of  Friends  became  tolerated  and  legalized. 
Died  in  London  in  1691. 

Francis  Joseph  Charles,  Emperor  of  Austria  and 
King  of  Hungary;  born  in  1830;  is  the  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Francis  I.,  and  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 
The  revolution  of  1848  compelled  Ferdinand  to  abdi- 
cate, and  his  brother  resigning  his  claims  to  the  throne 
in  favor  of  his  own  son,  the  latter  was  at  the  early 
age  of  18  called  to  rule  an  empire  shaken  by  civil  war. 
He  took  part  in  the  campaign  against  the  Hungarians, 
and  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Raab  in  June,  1849. 
Restored  to  the  mastery  of  his  dominions,  he  proceeded 


to  undo  the  work  of  1848.  The  Hungarian  constitution 
was  suspended,  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Habsburg 
monarchy  in  the  Austrian  dominions  proclaimed,  and 
the  imperial  ministers  were  declared  responsible  only 
to  the  emperor.  The  absolute  regime  was  maintained 
during  the  first  ten  years  of  his  reign,  though  his  own 
sentiments  inclined  to  a  more  liberal  rule.  It  was  not 
till  Austria  had  sustained  severe  reverses  abroad  that 
the  system  fell.  The  demand  of  Napoleon  III.  that  the 
question  of  the  Lonibardo-Venetian  states  should  be 
referred  to  a  European  conference  being  refused,  war 
was  declare<l.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Solferino  on  June  24,  1859,  and  the  emperor  was  com- 
pelled to  sign  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  by  which  all 
claims  to  Lombardy  were  resigned.  A  partial  return 
to  constitutionalismi  was  then  attempted,  and  repre- 
sentative diets  were  restored  in  the  different  states,  but 
the  Hungarians  did  not  cease  to  demand  restoration 
of  their  old  natic^iial  institutions  in  their  integrity.  A 
dispute  between  Austria  and  Prussia  as  to  Schleswig- 
Holstein  led  to  war  between  the  two  nations  in  1866. 
Here  again  the  Austrians  were  completely  defeated,  and 
were  compelled  to  accept  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion under  the  leadership  of  Prussia,  and  to  give  up  Venice 
to  Italy.  After  these  disasters  the  emperor  restored 
national  self-government  to  Hungary,  and  in  June,  1867, 
was  declared  king  of  that  country.  In  later  years  the 
emperor's  influence  in  foreign  politics  has  been  chiefly 
directed  to  forming  a  closer  alliance  with  Germany  and 
Italy.  In  1878,  the  treaty  of  Berlin  allowed  Austria 
to  occupy  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina.  In  1887  the 
emperor  took  part  in  a  series  of  military  councils  held  to 
provide  for  the  defense  of  Galicia  against  Russia.  By 
the  suicide  of  the  Crown  Prince  Rudolph  in  February, 
1889,  he  was  deprived  of  all  hope  of  a  direct  successor, 
and  the  crown  will  pass,  on  his  death,  to  his  nephew, 
Francis  Ferdinand,  son  of  his  brother,  Charles  Louis. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  born  in  1706;  statesman, 
philosopher,  and  publisher;  was  the  fifteenth  of  seven- 
teen children  of  a  soap-boiler  of  Boston,  Mass.  Quarrel- 
ing with  his  brother,  he  went  to  Philadelphia  almost 
penniless.  Here,  in  1729,  he  purchased  the  "Pennsyl- 
vania Gazette,"  formed  a  club  called  "The  Junto,"  and 
began  to  acquire  political  influence.  He  was  chosen 
clerk  of  the  provincial  assembly  in  1736,  and  in  1753, 
became  postmaster-general  for  British  North  America. 
In  1754,  when  a  rupture  with  France  was  expected,  he 
sat  as  a  delegate  in  the  Congress  at  Albany,'  and  in  1756, 
for  a  third  time  held  a  military  command.  In  1757,  he 
was  sent  to  England  as  agent  for  Pennsylvania,  and  his 
reputation  as  a  practical  philosopher  having  preceded 
him,  he  was  received  with  great  respect,  Edinburgh, 
Oxford,  and  St.  Andrews  conferring  upon  him  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  laws.  In  1764  he  revisited  England  as 
colonial  agent,  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  securing 
the  repeal  of  the  stamp  act.  When  the  rupture  with 
England  took  place  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
American  Congress,  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  subsequently  aided  in  framing  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  In  1776  he  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  France,  and  held  the  post  until 
1785.  He  returned  to  America  to  assume  the  office  of 
president  of  Pennsylvania,  to  which  he  was  twice  re- 
elected, retiring  from  public  life  in  1788.  Ainong  his 
scientific  discoveries  was  the  identity  of  lightning  with 
electricity,  which  he  demonstrated  by  his  famous  kite 
experiment.  He  also  discovered  the  course  taken  by 
storms  over  the  North  American  continent.     Died,  1790. 

Fredericlc  II.,  usually  called  "the  Great,"  was  born 
in  A.  D.  1712;  King  of  Prussia  from  1740  to  1786. 
During  his  reign  the  power  of  Prussia  was  greatly  ex- 
tended. The  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63),  in  which  he 
took  part  with  England,  secured  to  him  a  decided  in- 
fluence in  the  affairs  of  Europe,  and  added  Silesia  to 
his  dominions;  in  1772,  he  shared  in  the  partition  of 
Poland,  and  obtained  as  his  portion  all  Polish  Prussia 
and  a  part  of  Great  Poland;  and,  in  1779,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Teschen,  he  obtained  Franconia.  Thus,  at  his  death, 
his  kingdom  was  one-half  larger  in  area  than  it  had  been 
at  his  accession ;  his  army  was  as  well  organized  as  any 
in  Europe;  and  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country  were 
directed  by  him  with  vigor,  and,  on  the  whole,  with 
prudence.  He  was  in  many  respects  one  of  the  greatest 
figures  in  modern  history.  The  "History  of  Friedrich 
II.  of  Prussia,  commonly  called  Frederick  the  Great," 
by  Thomas  Carlyle,  brings  out  clearly  and  forcibly  the 
good  and  the  bad  sides  of  his  character.     Died,  1786. 

IFrederlck  Charles,  Prince  of  Prussia,  born  in  1828; 
known  as  the  "Red  Prince"  from  the  color  of  his  favor- 
ite hussar  uniform,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Prince  Charles, 
brother  of  the  German  Emperor  William,  his  mother 
being  a  sister  of  the  Empress  Augusta.  He  served  in 
the  first  Schleswig-Holstein  War,  and  having  become  a 


BIOGRAPHY 


435 


general  of  cavalry,  with  command  of  the  third  army 
corps,  he  commanded  the  fight  wing  of  the  Prussian 
army  during  the  Danish  War  of  1864.  In  the  Austrian 
War  of  1866,  he  commanded  the  first  army,  and  to  him 
the  crowning  victory  of  Sadowa  was  mainly  due.  In 
the  Franco-German  War  he  commanded  the  second 
army,  which  he  led  to  victories  at  Thionville,  Grave- 
lette,  and  St.  Privat,  and  thus  blockaded  Bazaine  in  the 
entrenchments  of  Metz.  After  Bazaine's  surrender  with 
170,000  men,  the  prince  hastened  westward  to  check 
the  armies  of  Chanzy  and  D'Aurelles  de  Paladine  in 
their  attempts  to  relieve  Paris  from  the  south.  A 
series  of  battles  lasted  almost  uninterruptedly  from  the 
middle  of  November  till  the  middle  of  January,  when  the 
French  army  of  the  west  was  rendered  impotent  at 
Le  Mans.  In  the  previous  October,  he  had  been  created 
field-marshal.  Prince  Frederick  was  father  of  the 
Duchess  of  Connaught.     Died,  1885. 

Freeman,  Edward  Augustus,  born  in  1823;  an 
eminent  historian,  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford. 
His  first  work  was  a  "History  of  Architecture"  (1849). 
After  several  minor  works,  his  most  important  one  on 
the  "History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  '  appeared  be- 
tween 1867  and  1879,  and  was  followed  by  that  of  "The 
Reign  of  William  Rufus  and  Accession  of  Henry  I." 
He  also  wrote  histories  of  the  "Saracens"  and  of  the 
"Ottoman  Power  in  Europe,"  and  various  other  works, 
some  of  a  more  popular  character,  besides  many  articles 
and  reviews.  In  1884,  he  was  appointed  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  Modern  History  at  Oxford.     Died,  1892. 

French,  Daniel  Chester,  sculptor;  born  in  Exeter, 
N.  H.,  April  20,  1850;  educated  in  Exeter,  N.  H.; 
Massachusetts  Institution  of  Technology,  Boston,  one 
year;  A.  M.,  Dartmouth  College;  studied  in  Boston 
and  in  Florence,  Italy;  had  studio  in  Washington, 
1876-78;  in  Boston  and  Concord,  Mass.,  1878-87;  and 
in  New  York,  since  1887.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  "The  Minute  Man  of  Concord,"  at  Concord, 
Mass.;  a  statue  of  General  Cass,  in  the  capitol  at  Wash- 
ington; statue  of  Rufus  Choate,  Boston  courthouse; 
John  Harvard,  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  Thomas  Starr 
King  statues;  "Dr.  Gallaudet  and  His  First  Deaf -Mute 
Pupil,"  the  Milmore  Memorial;  and  colossal  "Statue  of 
the  Republic,"  at  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  Ke- 
ceived  medal  of  honor,  Paris  Exposition,  1900. 

Frlck,  Henry  Clay,  manufacturer;  born  in  West 
Overton,  Pa.,  December  19,  1849;  began  business  hfe 
as  a  clerk  for  his  grandfather,  a  flour  merchant  and 
distiller;  later  embarked  in  small  way  in  coke  business. 
Was  president,  and  since  1897  chairman,  of  board  of 
directors  of  H.  C.  Frick  Coke  Company,  now  largest 
coke  producer  in  the  world,  operating  nearly  40,000 
acres  of  coal  and  12,000  coke  ovens,  with  daily  capacity 
of  25,000  tons.  Came  into  public  notice  by  his  vigorous 
management  during  the  famous  strike  at  Homestead, 
1892,  when  he  was  several  times  shot  and  stabbed  by 
one  of  the  strikers.  Chairman  of  board  of  the  firm  of 
Carnegie  Bros.,  1889-92,  and  chairman  of  board  of 
managers  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  since  1892; 
is  also  director  or  officer  in  numerous  other  business 
enterprises. 

Froebel,  Frledrlch  {frO'h'il),  the  founder  of  the 
famous  Kindergarten  system,  was  a  devoted  German 
educationist  on  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  which  com- 
bined physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  training,  com- 
mencing with  the  years  of  childhood.  Born,  1782;  died, 
1852. 

Froude,  James  Anthony  (frood),  an  English  essay- 
ist and  historian,  was  born  m  Devonshire,  in  1818,  and 
educated  at  Oxford.  In  1849,  appeared  from  his  pen 
that  remarkable  book,  "The  Nemesis  of  Faith."  His 
reputation,  however,  chiefly  rests  on  his  "  History  of 
England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada."     Died,  1894. 

Frye,  William  Pierce,  lawyer,  United  States  senator 
from  Maine  since  1881;  born  in  Lewiston,  Me.,  Septem- 
ber 2,  1831;  graduate  of  Bowdoin  College,  1850  (LL.D., 
1889  ;  also  LL.  D.,  Bates,  1881)  ;  studied  and  prac- 
ticed law.  Member  of  Maine  Legislature,  1861,  1862, 
and  1867;  mayor  of  Lewiston,  1866-67;  attorney- 
general  of  Maine,  1867-69;  presidential  elector,  1864; 
member  of  Congress,  1871-81.  Chairman  of  Commerce 
Commission  of  Senate;  member  of  Peace  Commission, 
Paris,  1898;  president  pro  tem.  of  the  Senate,  1896- 
1901,  after  the  death  of  Vice-President  Hobart;  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  that  office  during  the  56th  Con- 
gress; and  was  also  president  pro  tem.  during  Mr. 
Roosevelt's  administration. 

Fuller,  Melville  Weston,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Augusta,  Me.,  February  11, 
1833.  He  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in 
1853,  and  attended  a  course  of  lectures  at  Harvard 
Law   School.     He   was    admitted    to    the    bar,    1855 ; 


formed  a  law  partnership  at  Augusta  ;  was  associate 
editor  of  "  The  Age,"  a  Democratic  paper  there,  presi- 
dent of  the  common  council,  and  city  solicitor.  Went 
to  Chicago  in  1856,  and  practiced  law  until  1888.  Was 
member  of  the  Illinois  State  Constitutional  Convention, 
1862,  and  of  the  legislature,  1863-65.  Chief  Justice  of 
the  United  States,  from  1888  to  1910.     Died,  1910. 

Flil'ton,  Robert,  an  American  engineer,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1765;  began  life  as  a  miniature  por- 
trait and  landscape  painter,  in  which  he  made  some 
progress,  but  soon  turned  to  engineering.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  apply  steam  to  the  propulsion  of  vessels, 
and  devoted  much  attention  to  the  invention  of  sub- 
marine boats  and  torpedoes;  he  built  a  steamboat  to 
navigate  the  Hudson  River,  with  a  very  slow  rate  of 
progress,  however,  making  only  five  miles  an  hour. 
Died,  1815. 

Funston,  Fred,  brigadier-general  of  United  States 
Army;  born  in  Ohio,  November  9,  1865;  graduate  of 
lola,  Kan.,  high  school,  1886;  studied  in  Kansas  State 
University,  Lawrence,  two  years,  but  was  not  gradu- 
ated; reporter,  Kansas  City,  1890;  botanist  in  United 
States  Death  Valley  expedition,  1891;  commissioner  for 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  explore  Alaska  and  report 
on  its  flora,  1893,  camping  on  the  Klondike  in  winter  of 
1893-94;  floated  down  Yukon,  alone,  in  a  canoe;  joined 
insurgent  army  in  Cuba,  1896;  served  eighteen  months: 
was  wounded;  returned  to  United  States;  commissionea 
colonel  of  20th  Kansas  Volunteers,  1898;  went  to  Philip- 
pines; took  part  in  several  battles;  for  crossing  Rio 
Grande  River  at  Calumpit  on  small  bamboo  raft  in  face 
of  heavy  fire  and  establishing  rope  ferry,  by  means  of 
which  the  United  States  troops  were  enabled  to  cross 
and  win  the  battle,  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general 
of  United  States  Volunteers,  May  2,  1899.  Continued 
in  active  service  in  Philippines.  Organized  and  com- 
manded expedition  resulting  in  capture  of  Aguinaldo, 
head  of  Filipino  insurrection,  and  was  appointed  briga- 
dier-general of  United  States  Army,  March  30,  1901; 
commanding  department  of  California,  with  headquarters 
at  San  Francisco,  1905-07. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas  (gdnz'bro),  an  English 
painter,  born  in  Sudbury  in  1727,  was  the  first  great 
landscapist  of  the  English  school.  His  works,  highly 
prized  by  collectors,  excel  in  richness  of  coloring  and 
vigor  of  chiaroscuro.     Died,  1788. 

Ga'Ien,or  Gale' nus,  Clau'dius,  born  in  Pergamus,  in 
Mysia,  about  A.  D.  130;  a  very  celebrated  physician, 
who  practiced  first  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  in 
Rome,  where  he  attended  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  Lucius  Verus.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  medical  and  philosophical  writings,  of  which 
upwards  of  eighty  are  still  e.\tant.     Died  about  200. 

Galilei,  Galileo,  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher; 
born  in  Pisa  in  1564;  was  educated  first  m  Florence, 
but  afterwards  returned  to  Pisa  to  study  medicine, 
for  which  profession  his  father  designed  him.  Here, 
after  becoming  known  as  an  opponent  of  the  Aristo- 
telian maxims,  he  discovered,  in  1582,  the  law  of  the 
vibrations  of  the  pendulum.  Soon  afterward  he  began 
to  study  mathematics,  and  was  appointed  professor  at 
Pisa  when  only  25.  Thence  he  removed  to  Padua  in 
1592,  and  during  his  residence  there  invented  a  ther- 
mometer and  constructed  his  first  telescope,  the  inven- 
tion of  which  he  had  heard  of  at  Venice.  He  also  made 
astronomical  discoveries,  and  was  reestablished  in  1610, 
at  Florence,  by  his  patron,  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Here  it  was 
that  his  opposition  to  traditional  views,  and  especially 
his  advocacy  of  the  Copernican  doctrine  that  the  sun 
was  the  center  of  the  universe,  brought  him  into  con- 
flict with  the  Inquisition,  but  proceedings  were  dropped 
on  Galileo's  promise  not  to  teach  the  obnoxious  doctrine. 
On  the  publication,  however,  in  1632,  seventeen  years 
after,  of  his  "Dialogue"  on  the  same  subject,  he  was 
again  summoned  to  Rome,  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  and  required  to  solemnly  recant  his  opinion.  He 
was  confined  at  first  in  the  house  of  one  of  the  Inquisi- 
tors, his  pupil,  but  was  afterwards  allowed  to  live  in 
Florence,  where  he  died,  having  been  blind  four  years. 
His  works  were  published  in  Florence  in  the  years 
1843-46.     Died,  1642. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins  (g&l-law-dH') ,  an 
American  philanthropist,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1787,  and  died  in  1851.  He  founded  the  first  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum  in  the  United  States,  at  Hartford,  Conn. 

Gallinger,  Jacob  H.,  M.  D.,  United  States  senator 
from  New  Hampshire,  1891-1909;  born  in  Cornwall, 
Ont.,  March  28,  1837;  academic  education;  graduate 
in  medicine,  1858  (hon.  A.  M.,  Dartmouth);  practiced 
medicine  until  he  entered  public  life.  Member  of  New 
Hampshire  Legislature,  1872-73,  1891;  State  constitu- 
tional convention,  1876;  State  senator,  1878,  1879, 
1880;    president  of  State  Senate,  1879,  1880.     Surgeon- 


436 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


general  of  State,  with  rank  of  brigadier-general,  1879-80.  I 
chairman    of    Republican    State    Committee,    1882-90, 
1898-1907;   member  of  Congress.  1885-89. 

Galva'ni,  Lui'gl,born  in  Bologna,  September 9, 1737; 
a  celebrated  Italian  physiologist,  from  whom  "Galvan- 
ism "  derived  its  name.  He  was  educated  for  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine,  and,  in  1762,  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  in  which  city 
he  practiced.  It  was  while  holding  this  lectureship  that 
he  made  those  discoveries,  partly  by  means  of  experi- 
ments on  the  muscles  of  frogs,  which  he  published  to 
the  world,  in  1791,  in  his  treatise  entitled,  "De  Viribus 
Electricitatis  in  Motu  Musculari  Commentarius."  The 
now  fully-established  doctrine  of  animal  electricity  owes 
its  origin  to  the  patient  and  laborious  investigations 
(at  first  little  thought  of)  of  the  Bologna  professor. 
Died,  December  4,  1798. 

Gambetta,  L^on  3Iichel,  born  in  1838;  French 
statesman;  son  of  a  grocer  of  Cahors;  went  as  a  young 
man  to  Paris  with  the  object  of  practicing  at  the  bar, 
but  did  nothing  remarkable  till  his  thirtieth  year.  In 
1868,  he  attracted  notice  by  his  conduct  of  the  defense 
in  the  "proems  Delescluze,"  and  in  the  next  year  was 
elected  deputy  for  both  Paris  and  Marseilles,  when  he 
immediately  became  the  most  influential  member  of  the 
Opposition.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  in  the 
midst  of  the  siege  of  Paris,  he  went  to  Tours  in  a  bal- 
loon, and  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  organizing  the 
government  and  the  conduct  of  the  war.  During  the 
years  between  the  treaty  of  peace  that  followed  and  1879, 
Gambetta  was  chiefly  occupied  with  the  progressive 
development  of  Opportunism.  In  the  latter  year  it 
was  his  influence  which,  in  the  main,  brought  about  the 
abdication  of  Marshal  MacMahon.  On  the  election  of 
M.  Gr^vy,  he  became  president  of  the  chamber,  and, 
in  1881,  prime  minister  of  France,  but  only  held  office 
a  few  months,  resigning  on  January  27,  1882,  after 
which  he  took  very  little  part  in  affairs.  He  died  on 
December  31st  of  the  same  year,  from  a  wound  accident- 
ally inflicted  on  himself  by  a  pistol  shot. 

Gardiner,  Samuel  Rawson,  born  in  1829;  English 
historian;  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Christ 
Church.  In  1884,  he  was  elected  fellow  of  All  Souls', 
and  was  for  some  years  professor  of  modern  history  at 
King's  College,  London.  His  historical  works  include 
"The  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I. 
to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief  Justice  Coke,"  "Prince  Charles 
and  the  Spanish  Marriage,"  "England  Under  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  and  Charles  I.,"  "The  Personal  Govern- 
ment of  Charles  I.,"  and  the  "Fall  of  the  Monarchy  of 
Charles  I.,"  all  these  being  republished  as  a  continuous 
work  in  1883-84;  "An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
English  History"  (with  J.  B.  Mullinger),  "History  of 
the  Great  Civil  War,"  and  a  complete  "History  of 
England."     Died,  1902. 

Garfield,  James  Abram,  born  in  Orange  Township, 
Cuyahoga  County,  Ohio,  November  19,  1831;  the  twen- 
tieth president  of  the  United  States.  He  was  elected 
to  the  presidency  at  the  close  of  1880,  and  entered  upon 
office  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year;  but  on  the 
2d  of  July,  he  was  shot  by  an  assassin  (Guiteau) 
while  at  the  Washington  station  of  the  Baltimore  & 
Potomac  Railway,  and  died  at  Elberon,  New  Jersey, 
after  lingering  for  nearly  three  months.  His  early 
poverty,  nis  manly  independence,  his  hard-won  attain- 
ments, and  his  incorruptible  integrity,  had  all  caused 
his  career  to  be  watched  as  that  of  a  man  of  excep- 
tional powers  and  of  brilliant  promise;  and  his  untimely 
death  was  mourned,  not  only  by  his  own  countrymen, 
but  by  the  whole  civilized  world.  Died,  September 
19,  1881. 

Garfield,  James  Rudolph,  ex-secretary  of  the  Inte- 
rior; son  of  James  Abram  Garfield,  twentieth  president  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hiram,  Ohio,  October  17, 
1865;  graduate  of  Williams  College,  Massachusetts,  1885; 
studied  at  Columbia  Law  School;  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1888;  practiced  law  in  Ohio,  1888-1902;  member  of 
Ohio  Senate,  1896  to  1899;  trustee  of  Williams  College; 
member  of  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission  from 
1902  to  February,  1903;  commissioner  of  corporations, 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  from  February, 
1903,  to  March,  1907.  Appointed  secretary  of  the 
interior,  March,  1907. 

Garibaldi  (g&r-e-bdl'de),  an  Italian  patriot,  began 
life  as  a  sailor.  He  associated  himself  enthusiastically 
with  Mazzini  for  the  liberation  of  his  country,  but  being 
convicted  of  conspiracy,  fled  to  South  America,  where, 
both  as  a  privateer  and  a  soldier,  he  gave  his  services 
to  the  young  republics  struggling  there  for  life.  Re- 
turning to  Europe,  he  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Rome 
against  France,  but  being  defeated,  fled  to  New  York,  j 
to  return  to  the  Isle  of  Caprera,  biding  his  time.  He  ! 
joined  the  Piedmontese  against  Austria,  and,  in  1860,  ! 


set  himself  to  assist  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples  and  the  union  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel. 
Landing  in  Calabria,  he  entered  Naples,  and  drove  the 
royal  forces  before  him  without  striking  a  blow,  after 
which  he  returned  to  his  retreat  at  Caprera,  ready  still 
to  draw  sword,  and  occasionally  offering  it  again  in  the 
cause  of  republicanism.     Born  m  1807;    died  in  1882. 

Garrick,  David,  English  actor,  son  of  a  captain  in 
the  army;  was  born  in  Hereford  in  1717,  and  went  to 
London  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  1736,  to  study  law.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  however,  he  joined  his  brother, 
a  wine  merchant,  but  soon  gave  this  up  to  go  on  the 
stage.  He  made  his  first  appearance,  under  the  name 
of  Lyddal,  at  Ipswich,  in  1741,  and  soon  after  played 
"Richard"  in  the  theater  of  Goodman's  Fields,  where 
his  success  enabled  him  to  get  an  engagement  at  Drury 
Lane.  In  1742,  he  went  to  Dublin;  in  1747,  became 
joint  patentee  of  Drury  Lane,  two  years  later  marrying 
Mademoiselle  Violette.  He  acted  at  Drury  Lane  until 
1776,  when  he  retired  and  sold  his  share  in  the  concern. 
His  last  appearance  was  on  June  10th,  as  Don  Felix  in 
"The  Wonder."  He  died  on  January  20,  1779,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  born  in  1805;  American 
abolitionist,  of  humble  birth;  was  apprenticed  at  the 
age  of  13  to  the  printer  of  the  "Newburyport  (Mass.) 
Herald,"  for  which  paper  he  afterwards  wrote.  In  1826, 
he  became  owner  and  editor  of  the  "Free  Press,"  and 
in  the  next  year,  editor  of  the  "National  Philanthropist," 
in  which  temperance  and  emancipation  were  advocated. 
In  1831,  he  started  "The  Liberator,"  and  from  hence- 
forth devoted  himself  entirely,  at  great  personal  risk, 
to  the  cause  of  slavery  abolition.  He  visited  England 
five  times—  1833,  1846,  1848,  1867  and  1877,— and  was 
well  received.  In  1847,  "Sonnets  and  Other  Poems" 
from  his  pen  were  published,  and,  in  1852,  a  selection 
from  his  speeches  and  writings.     Died,  1879. 

Gasliell,  Elizabeth,  born  in  1810;  English  novelist 
(n^e  Stevenson),  married  a  Unitarian  minister,  and  wrote 
"Mary  Barton"  (1848),  "Moorland  Cottage"  (1850), 
and  several  contributions  to  "Household  Words," 
which  included  "Cranford"  and  "North  and  South"; 
"Wives  and  Daughters"  was  appearing  in  the  "Corn- 
hill"  at  the  time  of  her  death.  She  also  wrote  a  biog- 
raphy of  Charlotte  Bronte.  She  was  a  friend  and 
helper  of  Thomas  Wright,  and  was  very  active  in  char- 
itable works  during  the  cotton  famine.     Died,  1865. 

Gates,  Horatio,  American  general;  born  in  England 
in  1728,  and  accompanied  General  Braddock,  but  sub- 
sequently purchased  an  estate  in  Virginia,  where  he 
lived  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1775,  when  he  was 
appointed  by  Congress  adjutant-general.  He  per- 
formed many  services  to  the  American  cause,  the  great- 
est of  which  was  the  defeat  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  war  he  held  a  command  in  the 
South,  and  was  not  so  successful,  being  defeated  by  Lord 
Cornwallis  at  Camden.     Died,  1806. 

Gatling,  Richard  Jordan,  born  in  1818;  American 
inventor;  a  doctor  by  profession.  In  1850,  he  invented 
a  double-acting  hemp-brake,  and,  in  1857,  a  steam 
plough;  but  his  most  celebrated  invention  was  that  of 
the  revolving  gun,  which  bears  his  name,  the  conception 
of  which  came  to  him  in  1861.  In  1865,  the  gun  was 
improved  and  tested,  and  was  forthwith  brought  into 
use  by  the  United  States  service;  and  several  European 
governments  also  adopted  it.  Among  Dr.  Gatling's 
later  inventions  were  an  improved  method  of  casting 
steel  cannon  and  a  pneumatic  gun  for  discharging  ex- 
plosives.    Died,  1903. 

Gauss,  Karl  Friedrich,  born  in  1777;  German 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  patronized  by  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick,  who  defrayed  the  expenses  of  his  education 
at  Brunswick  and  Gottingen,  where  in  1801  he  produced 
"  Disquisitiones  Arithmetics!."  In  1807,  he  became 
professor  and  director  of  the  observatory  at  Gottingen, 
and  held  the  position  until  his  death.  During  this  period 
he  brought  out  many  works  on  pure  mathematics,  astron- 
omy, and  other  sciences,  among  which  the  chief  are 
""Theoria  Motus  Corporum  Ca?lestium,  in  Sectionibus 
conicis  Ambientium,  "  Recherches  sur  la  G6od^sie 
Bupdrieure,"  and  invented  the  Heliotrope.     Died  in  1855. 

Geneis  Khan,  born  in  1162;  Emperor  of  the  Mon- 
gols, whose  real  name  was  Temoutchin,  the  title  meaning 
"  the  chief  of  the  most  powerful."  Having  consolidated 
the  Tartar  tribes,  he  marched  against  the  Emperor  of 
China,  whose  general  he  was,  overran  his  empire  (1212- 
1214),  ravaged  northern  India,  which  he  temporarily 
subdued,  and  penetrated  into  Russia  through  Persia. 
Having  reached  the  Crimea,  sacked  numerous  towns, 
and  slaughtered  millions  of  men,  the  Tartars  returned. 
Died,  1227. 

Genseric,  born  in  406;  King  of  the  Vandals,  reigned 
at  first  with  his  brother  Gonderic,  afterwards  alone,  and 


BIOGRAPHY 


437 


greatly  strengthened  the  Vandal  power  in  Spain.  In 
429  he  invaded  northern  Africa,  stamped  out  Christianity, 
and  from  his  new  capital,  Carthage,  made  incursions  on 
the  inhabitants  of  Italy  and  Sicily.  In  455,  being  in- 
vited to  Rome  by  the  widow  of  Valentinian  to  take  part 
against  his  murderer  Maximus,  he  caused  the  city  to 
be  sacked  for  fourteen  days,  and  carried  away  among 
his  prisoners  the  Empress  Eudocia  and  her  children,  be- 
sides much  treasure.     Died,  477. 

George  is  the  name  given  to  four  (Hanoverian)  kings 
of  England.  George  I.  (Lewis),  son  of  Ernest  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Hanover,  by  Sophia,  granddaughter  of  James 
I.,  was  born  at  Osnaburg,  1660,  and  died  in  1727.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  1698,  and  on  the  death  of  Queen 
Anne  was  declared  her  successor  under  the  act  of  settle- 
ment which  excluded  the  Roman  Catholic  descendants 
of  James  II.  George  was  entirely  ignorant  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  was  only  tolerated  by  the  English 
people.  George  II.  (Augustus),  son  and  successor  of 
the  former,  was  born  at  Hanover,  1683;  crowned  in  1727, 
and  died  in  1760.  George  distinguished  himself  in  the 
general  European  War  of  1740,  in  which  he  was  the 
ally  of  Austria  against  France,  Spain,  and  Prussia,  and 
commanded  in  person  in  the  victory  over  the  French  at 
Dettingen,  1743.  In  1756,  war  was  renewed,  and  George 
allied  himself  with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  against 
France  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  George  III.,  grandson 
of  the  former,  and  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
was  born  in  1738,  and  died  in  1820,  after  the  longest 
reign  of  any  English  monarch.  George  IV.,  son  and 
successor  of  the  former,  was  born  in  1762,  and  died  in 
1830.  He  was  an  unpopular  monarch,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  William  IV. 

George  V.,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Em- 

Eeror  of  India,  and  second  son  of  Edward  VII.,  was 
orn  at  Marlborough  House,  London,  June  3,  1865. 
After  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Albert,  in  1892,  he 
became  heir  apparent  to  the  British  throne  and  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  Duke  of  York.  Upon  the 
accession  of  Edward  VII.  in  1901,  he  received  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Cornwall.  At  this  time  he  made  a  tour  of 
the  world,  visiting  all  the  great  British  colonies  and  on 
his  return  was  created  Prince  of  Wales.  In  July,  1893,  he 
married  Princess  Victoria  May  of  Teck,  and  six  children 
were  born  to  them.  Upon  the  death  of  Edward  VII., 
the  new  king  ascended  to  the  throne,  under  the  title  of 
George  V.,  May  7.  1910. 

George,  Henry,  American  land  reformer;  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1839,  and,  after  being  successively 
in  a  counting-house  and  a  printer's  office  and  at  sea, 
settled  in  California,  and  in  1866  joined  the  staff  of  a 
San  Francisco  paper.  He  afterwards  became  editor  of 
two  papers  there,  and  wrote  his  first  essay  on  the  land 
question  in  "Our  Land  and  Land  Policy,"  published  in 
1871.  In  1876  he  was  state  inspector  of  gas-meters, 
but  in  1880  removed  to  New  York,  and  the  next  year 
visited  Ireland  on  his  way  to  England.  He  was  there 
arrested  as  a  "suspect"  under  Mr.  Forster's  act,  but 
was  soon  released.  "Progress  and  Poverty"  had  been 
written  in  1879,  and  its  author  undertook  lecturing  tours 
in  1883  and  1889  in  support  of  his  principles.  Besides 
this  book  he  published  "The  Irish  Land  Question," 
"Social  Problems,"  and  "Protection  or  Free  Trade." 
In  1886  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of  New 
York.     Died  in  1897 

Gibbon,  Edward,  English  historian ;  born  in  Putney, 
in  1737,  and  educated  at  Westminster  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  While  at  the  university  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Romish  Church,  but  having  been  sent  to 
a  Calvinist  at  Lausanne  became  a  Protestant  again  the 
ne.xt  year.  At  Lausanne  he  met  Voltaire,  and  fell  in 
love  with  Mademoiselle  Curchod,  afterwards  Madame 
Necker.  He  returned  to  London  in  1758,  and  after  a 
short  term  of  service  in  the  Hampshire  militia,  revisited 
the  Continent,  staying  especially  at  Paris  and  Rome. 
When  again  in  England  he  wrote  "  Mdmoires  Litt^raires 
de  la  Grand  Bretagne,"  and  set  to  work  on  his  great  book, 
"The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  the  first 
volume  of  which  appeared  in  1776  and  the  last  in  1788. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1774,  as  a  supporter  of  Lord 
North,  wrote  the  "M^moire  Justificatif,"  and  obtained 
a  place  at  the  board  of  trade.  From  1783  to  1793,  he 
lived  at  Lausanne,  and  died  (1794)  soon  after  his  return. 
Gibbons,  James,  Roman  Catholic  cardinal;  born  in 
Baltimore,  July  23,  1834 ;  at  early  age  taken  by  parents 
to  their  former  home  in  Ireland;  began  his  education 
there;  returned  to  United  States,  and  resided  in  New 
Orleans  with  his  family,  1848;  entered  St.  Charles  Col- 
lege, Maryland,  1855;  transferred,  1857,  to  St.  Mary's 
Seminary,  Baltimore;  ordained  priest,  June  30,  1861; 
assistant  St.  Patrick's,  Baltimore,  for  a  few  months; 
then  pastor  of  St.  Bridget's,  Canton  (suburb  of  Balti- 
more) ;    later  private  secretary  to  Archbishop  Spalding 


and  chancellor  of  the  arch-diocese;  assistant  chancellor, 
second  plenary  council  of  American  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  Baltimore,  October,  1866;  vicar  apostolic  of 
North  Carolina,  with  rank  and  title  of  bishop,  1868;  coad- 
jutor archbishop  of  Baltimore,  May  20,  1877;  succeeded 
to  the  see,  October  3,  1877 ;  presided  at  third  national 
council  at  Baltimore,  November,  1884;  was  nomi- 
nated as  cardinal;  invested  with  the  princely  insignia, 
June  30,  1886.  Author:  "The  Faith  of  Our  Fathers," 
"Our  Christian  Heritage,"  "The  Ambassador  of  Christ." 

Gibson,  Charles  Dana,  illustrator;  born  in  Rox- 
bury,  Mass.,  September  14,  1867;  educated  at  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  also  Art  Students'  League,  New  York,  1884-85; 
has  done  much  illustrating  in  principal  magazines;  also 
illustrated  numerous  books.  Author:  "Sketches  in 
London,"  "People  of  Dickens,"  "Drawings,"  "Pictures 
of  People,"  "Sketches  and  Cartoons,"  "The  Education 
of  Mr.  Pipp,"  "Sketches  in  Egypt,"  "The  Americans," 
"A  Widow  and  Her  Friends,"  "The  Social  Ladder." 

Glldersleeve,  Basil  Lanneau,  professor  of  Greek  in 
Johns  Hopkins  since  1876;  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
October  23,  1831;  graduated  at  Princeton.  1849,  A.  M., 
1852;  studied  at  universities  of  Berlin,  Bonn  and  Got- 
tingen  (Ph.  D..  1853;  LL.  D.,  William  and  Mary,  1869, 
Harvard,  1896,  Yale,  1901,  University  of  Chicago,  1901 ; 
D.  C.  L.,  University  of  the  South,  1884;  L.  H.  D., 
Princeton,  1899);  professor  of  Greek,  1856-76,  and  of 
Latin,  1861-66,  University  of  Virginia.  Editor  "Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Philology "  since  it  was  founded,  1880. 
Author:  "Latin  Grammar,"  "Latin  Series"  (primer, 
reader,  school  Latin  grammar,  Latin  composition,  etc.), 
"Essays  and  Studies,"  "Greek  Syntax."  Editor:  "Per- 
sius,"  "Justin  Martyr,"  "Odes  of  Pindar." 

Giiman,  Daniel  Coit,  educator;  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  July  6,  1831;  graduated  at  Yale,  1852  (A.  M., 
1855) ;  continued  studies  in  Cambridge,  New  Haven 
and  BerUn  (LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1876;  St.  John's,  Md.,  1876; 
Columbia,  1887 ;  Yale,  1889 ;  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, 1889;  Princeton,  1896;  University  of  Toronto, 
1903;  University  of  Wisconsin,  1904);  librarian,  secre- 
tary of  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  and  professor  of  physi- 
cal and  political  geography,  Yale,  1856-72;  president 
of  University  of  California,  1872-75;  first  president  of 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  1875-1902;  first  president 
of  Carnegie  Institution,. Washington,  1901-1904.  Author 
" Bi-centennial  Discourse,  Norwich,  Conn.,"  "Inaugural 
Address,"  "Life  of  James  Monroe,"  "University  Prob- 
lems," "Introduction  to  De  Tocqueville's  Democracy 
in  America,"  "Life  of  James  D.  Dana,  geologist,"  "Sci- 
ence and  Letters  in  Yale,"  editor-in-chief,  ".New  Inter- 
national Encyclopaedia."     Died,  1908. 

Giotto,  Ambroglotto  Bondone,  born  in  1276; 
Italian  painter  and  architect;  pupil  of  Cimabue  and 
friend  of  Dante,  whose  portrait  he  painted  at  Ravenna; 
was  son  of  a  citizen  of  Florence,  and  apprenticed  to  a 
woolstapler;  painted  frescoes  at  Assisi,  and  was  probably 
the  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  portrait-painting. 
About' '1299  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted  and 
worked  in  mosaics;  and  subsequently  was  employed 
at  Padua  and  Florence,  where  his  frescoes  in  the  Peruzzi 
chapel  of  Santa  Croce  were  discovered  in  1863.  He  also 
painted  the  "Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes,"  at 
Naples,  and  designed  the  campanile  of  Florence.  He 
died  in  1337,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  there. 

Girard,  Stephen  (zhe-rahrd'),  an  Ainerican  philan- 
thropist, born  near  Bordeaux,  France,  in  1750;  rose 
from  a  humble  sphere  of  life  to  become  a  trader  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1776,  in  which  city  he  eventually  be- 
came a  merchant  and  banker,  and  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  Dying  in  1831,  he  bequeathed  over  82,000,- 
000  to  the  erection  of  a  college  for  orphan  boys,  con- 
ducted on  rigidly  secular  principles.  This  building,  the 
finest  in  the  Grecian  style  in  the  United  States,  was 
commenced  in  1833,  and  completed  in  1848. 

Gladden,  Washington,  author.  Congregational  cler- 
gyman; born  in  Pottsgrove,  Pa.,  February  11,  1836; 
graduate  of  Williams,  1859  (D.  D.,  Roanoke  College,  Va., 
LL.  D.,  University  of  Wisconsin  and  Notre  Dame  Uni- 
versity, Ind.);  held  several  pastorates  and  editorial 
positions  prior  to  becoming  (1882)  pastor  of  First  Con- 
gregational Church,  Columbus,  O.;  especially  known  as 
writer  upon  social  reforms.  Author:  "Plain  Thoughts 
on  the  Art  of  Living,"  "From  the  Hub  to  the  Hudson," 
"Workingmen  and  'fheir  Employers,"  "Being  a  Chris- 
tian," "The  Christian  Way,"  .The  Lord's  _  Prayer," 
"The  Christian  League  of  Connecticut,"  "Things  New 
and  Old,"  "The  Young  Men  and  the  Churches,"  "Ap- 
plied Christianity,"  "Parish  Problems,"  "Burning  Ques- 
tions," "Santa  Claus  on  a  Lark,"  "Who  Wrote  the 
Bible,"  "Tools  and  the  Man,"  ".The  Cosmopolis  Citj- 
Club,"  "The  Church  and  the  Kingdom,"  "Seven  Puz- 
zling Bible  Books."  "Social  Facts  and  Forces,"  "Art 
and  Morality,"   "The  Christian  Pastor,"   "How  Much 


438 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


ia  Left  of  the  Old  Doctrines,"  "Straight  Shots  at  Young 
Men,"  "Social  Salvation,"  "The  Practice  of  Immor- 
tality," "Where  Does  the  Sky  Begin?"  "Christianity 
and  Socialism." 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart  (.gldd'atun),  statesman, 
orator,  and  scholar;  born  in  Liverpool  in  1809,  son  of 
a  Liverpool  merchant,  sometime  of  Leith,  and  of  Ann, 
daughter  of  Andrew  Robertson,  Stornoway;  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  entered  parliament  in 
1832,  as  member  for  Newark  in  the  Tory  interest. 
Gladstone  delivered  his  maiden  speech  on  slavery  eman- 
cipation, June  3,  1833;  accepted  office  under  Sir  Robert 
Peel  in  1834,  and  again  in  1841  and  1846;  and  as  mem- 
ber for  Oxford,  separating  from  the  Tory  party,  took 
office  under  Lord  Aberdeen,  and,  in  1859,  under  Lord 
Palmerston,  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer; 
elected  member  for  South  Lancashire  in  1865,  he  became 
leader  of  the  Commons  under  Lord  John  Russell; 
elected  for  Greenwich,  he  became  premier  for  the  first 
time  in  1868,  holding  office  until  1874;  after  a  brilliant 
campaign  in  Midlothian,  he  was  returned  for  that 
county  in  1880,  and  became  premier  for  the  second 
time;  became  premier  a  third  time  in  1886,  and  a  fourth 
time  in  1892.  During  his  tenure  of  office,  he  intro- 
duced and  carried  a  great  number  of  important  meas- 
ures, but  failed  from  desertion  in  the  Liberal  ranks  to 
carry  his  pet  measure  of  home  rule  for  Ireland,  so  he 
retired  frorn  office  into  private  life  in  1895,  and  spent  his 
last  days  chiefly  in  literary  work,  the  fruit  of  which,  added 
to  earlier  works,  gives  evidence  of  the  breadth  of  his 
sympathies  and  the  extent  of  his  scholarly  attainments; 
but,  being  seized  by  a  fatal  malady,  his  strong  constitu- 
tion gradually  sank  under  it,  and  he  died  at  Hawarden, 
May  19,  1898,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Glasgow,  Ellon  Anderson  Gholson,  novelist;  born 
in  Richmond,  Va.,  April  22,  1874;  private  education. 
Author:  "The  Descendant,"  "Phases  of  an  Inferior 
Planet,"  "The  Voice  of  the  People,"  "The  Freeman 
and  Other  Poems,"  "The  Battle  Ground,"  "The  Deliv- 
erance." 

Glenn,  Robert  Brodnax,  governor,  lawyer;  born 
in  Rockingham  County,  N.  C,  August  11,  1854;  edu- 
cated by  tutor  at  home,  high  school,  Leaksville,  N.  C, 
Davidson  College,  N.  C.,  University  of  Virginia,  and 
Pearson's  Law  School,  Richmond  Hill,  N.  C.  Engaged 
in  general  practice  of  law  at  Danbury,  N.  C,  since  1878; 
was  assistant  director  for  Southern  Railway,  attorney 
for  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  etc.  Was 
member  of  legislature.  1881;  solicitor  for  State,  1886; 
elector  for  Cleveland,  1884,  1892;  district  attorney  for 
United  States,  1893-97;  governor  of  North  Carolina, 
1905-09. 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  crusader.  King  of  Jerusalem; 
set  out  in  1096;  took  Nicaja  and  Antioch;  defeated  the 
Saracens,  and,  in  1099,  after  a  month's  siege,  took 
Jerusalem  and  slaughtered  the  inhabitants.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  king,  but  refused  to  assume 
the  title,  and  won  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  dying,  probably 
by  poison,  in  1100. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  German  poet, 
philosopher,  and  romance  writer;  was  born  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1749,  of  noble  family,  and  received 
a  liberal  education.  At  sixteen,  he  went  to  Leipzig  to 
study  law,  to  which,  however,  he  did  not  confine  him- 
self. After  about  two  years'  study  of  alchemy  and 
mystical  writers,  he  went  to  Strasburg  in  1770,  where 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Herder.  On  his  return 
to  Frankfort,  two  years  later,  he  published  "Goetz  von 
Berlichingen "  and  "Die  Leiden  des  Jungen  Werther," 
the  latter  of  which  was  immensely  popular.  In  1775, 
he  went  to  Weimar,  where  the  grand  duke  gave  him 
the  office  of  chamberlain;  and,  in  1786,  to  Italy,  where 
he  traveled  for  two  years,  and  conceived  some  of  his 
greatest  works.  The  dramas  of  "  Iphigenia,"  "  Egmont," 
and  "Torquato  Tasso"  were  produced  between  1786 
and  1790,  in  which  year  also  the  first  fragments  of 
"Faust"  were  published.  In  1794,  Goethe's  botanical 
researches  brought  him  into  connection  with  Schiller, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  produced  "Wilhelm  Meister." 
The  results  of  his  scientific  studies  were,  besides  "The 
Metamorphosis  of  Plants,"  the  "Beitrage  zur  Optik" 
(1791-92),  and  a  book  on  the  theory  of  color,  "Farben- 
lehre,"  published  in  1810,  in  opposition  to  Newton's 
theories.  Meanwhile  "Hermann  und  Dorothea"  had 
appeared  in  1797,  and  the  greater  part  of  "Faust"  in 
1808,  the  latter  not  being  finished  till  the  year  before 
his  death.  In  the  same  year  he  accompanied  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Weimar  to  Erfurt,  and  had  an  interview  with 
Napoleon.  During  his  last  years  he  was  occupied  with 
his  autobiography.     Died,  1832. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  born  in  1728;  English  poet  and 
romance  writer;  son  of  a  poor  Irish  clergyman  of  Pallas, 
Lon|(ford,   went  as  sizar,   in   1744,   to  Trinity  College, 


Dublin,  where  he  led  a  miserable  life  till  he  took  his 
degree  five  years  later.  After  this  —  having  failed  to 
obtain  ordination,  took  pupils  for  a  time,  and  lost  his 
money  by  extravagance  —  he  went  to  Edinburgh  in 
1752,  and  from  thence  to  Leyden;  but,  after  staying 
there  a  year,  found  himself  penniless,  and  traveled  to 
London  through  France,  Switzerland,  and  Northern  Italy, 
supporting  himself  by  flute-playing.  After  a  precarious 
existence  as  a  surgeon,  an  author,  and  a  literary  hack,  he 
produced,  in  1759,  his  "Inquiry  into  the  Present  State  of' 
PoUte  Learning  in  Europe."  This  sold  well,  and  gained 
for  the  author  the  acquaintance  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Soon 
after  he  was  engaged  to  contribute  to  the  "Public 
Ledger,"  writing  the  famous  "Chinese  Letters,"  after- 
ward published  as  "The  Citizen  of  the  World."  His  next 
important  work  was  the  "Letters  from  a  Nobleman  to  His 
Son."  "The  Traveler"  followed  in  1765,  and  "The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield  "  (sold  for  fifty  guineas  only)  in  1 766, 
but  Goldsmith  was  improvident  as  ever.  As  a  dramatist 
he  became  known  as  the  writer  of  the  "Good-Natured 
Man,"  brought  out  at  Covent  Garden  in  1768,  and  "She 
Stoops  to  Conquer"  in  1773,  and  as  a  poet  by  "The 
Deserted  Village  "  (1770) ,  and  his  last  work,  "The  Retali- 
ation." He  wrote  numerous  other  works,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  "Animated  Nature."  He  died, 
heavily  in  debt,  in  1774. 

Gompers,  Samuel,  president  of  American  Federation 
of  Labor;  born  in  England,  January  27,  1850;  cigar- 
maker  by  trade;  has  been  advocate  of  the  rights  of 
labor,  and  connected  with  the  efforts  to  organize  the 
workmg  people  since  his  15th  year;  one  of  the  founders 
of  American  Federation  of  Labor  and  editor  of  its  official 
magazine;  has  written  a  number  of  pamphlets  on  the 
labor  question  and  the  labor. movement;  with  an  inter- 
mission of  one  year,  has  been  president  of  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  since  1882. 

Goodwin,  Nathaniel  C,  actor;  born  in  Bbston  in 
1857;  studied  under  Wyzeman  Marshall,  then  manager 
of  Boston  Theater;  went  to  New  York  and  played  in 
"Law  in  New  York,"  1876,  and  later  as  Captain  Crosstree 
in  "Black-eyed  Susan"  (burlesque);  starred  in  Rice's 
"Evangeline,"  "Hobbies,"  "The  Member  from  Slocimi," 
"In  Mizzoura,"  "Nathan  Hale,"  and  other  plays. 

Goodwin,  William  Watson,  educator;  born  in 
Concord,  Mass.,  May  9,  1831;  graduate  of  Harvard, 
1851;  studied  at  universities  of  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and 
Bonn  (Ph.  D.,  Gottingen,  1855;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1881; 
Cambridge,  Eng.,  1883;  Columbia,  1887;  Edinburgh, 
1890;  Harvard,  1891;  Chicago,  1901;  Yale,  1901; 
D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  Eng.,  1890).  Tutor  at  Harvard, 
1856-60;  first  director  of  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies,  Athens,  Greece,  1882-83;  knight  of  Greek  Order 
of  the  Redeemer;  professor  of  Greek  literature,  Har- 
vard, 1860-1901;  professor  emeritus,  1901;  overseer  of 
Harvard,  1903-9.  Author:  "Syntax  of  the  Moods 
and  Tenses  of  the  Greek  Verb,"  "Greek  Grammar." 
Editor:  "  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown." 

Goodyear.  Charles,  the  inventor  of  vulcanized 
rubber,  was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1800.  His 
career  was  a  troubled  one;  he  failed  as  an  iron-founder, 
and  when,  after  ten  years'  labor,  amidst  every  disad- 
vantage of  poverty  and  privation,  he,  in  1844,  produced 
his  new  method  of  hardening  rubber  by  means  of  sul- 
phur, he  became  involved  in  a  fresh  series  of  troubles, 
as  well  as  poverty,  consequent  on  the  infringement  of 
his  inventions.  His  patents  latterly  amounted  to  sixtj', 
and  both  medals  and  honors  were  awarded  him  in  Lon- 
don and  Paris.     Died,   1860. 

Gordon,  George  Angier,  Congregational  clergyman; 
born  in  Scotland,  January  2,  1853;  educated  in  conmion 
schools,  Insch,  Scotland;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1881 
(D.  D.,  Bowdoin  and  Yale,  1893;  S.  T.  D.,  Harvard, 
1895) ;  Minister  of  Old  South  Church,  Boston,  since  1884; 
lecturer  in  Lowell  Institute  Course,  1900;  Lyman 
Beecher  lecturer,  Yale,  1901.  Author:  "The  Witness 
to  Immortality,"  "The  Christ  of  To-day,"  "Immortality 
and  the  New  Theodicy,"  "The  New  Epoch  for  Faith," 
University  preacher  to  Harvard,  1886-90;  Yale, 
1888-1901;   Harvard  overseer. 

Gordon,  Major-General  Charles  George,  born  in 
Woolwich,  January  28,  1833;  a  distinguished  military 
commander  and  administrator,  who  was  killed  while 
defending  Khartoum  against  the  forces  of  the  Mahdi 
during  the  expedition  to  the  Soudan  in  1884-85.  He 
had  already  distinguished  himself  in  the  course  of  the 
Crimean  War,  and,  subsequently,  in  China  and  in  India. 
From  1865  to  1871,  he  lived  quietly  at  Gravesend, 
devoting  himself  chiefly  to  works  of  philanthropy;  but 
in  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  British  representa- 
tive on  the  European  Commission  of  the  Danube,  and, 
two  years  later,  governor  of  the  equatorial  provinces  of 
Egypt.  He  held  this  position,  with  marvelous  success, 
till  tlie  close  of  1876,  when  be  returned  to  England ; 


BIOGRAPHY 


439 


but,  in  1877,  upon  the  khedive's  earnest  solicitation, 
he  went  out  once  more  to  the  Soudan,  afterwards  serv- 
ing his  own  government  for  a  time  in  India  and  in  South 
Africa.  In  January,  1884,  he  accepted  from  the  king 
of  the  Belgians  the  command  of  the  anti-slavery  expe- 
dition which  was  about  to  be  dispatched  to  the  region 
of  the  Congo;  but,  before  he  could  set  out,  he  was 
offered  by  the  English  Government,  and  accepted,  a 
commission  to  go  again  to  the  Soudan,  on  the  enter- 
prise which  ultimately  cost  him  his  life.  Died,  January 
26,  1885. 

Gorky,  Maxim,  pen  name  of  Alexei  Maximovitch 
Pyeshkoff,  a  self-educated  Russian  novelist,  born  in 
Nizhni-Novgorod,  1868;  son  of  an  upholsterer.  After 
the  death  of  his  parents,  he  was  engaged  in  various 
occupations  until,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
Kalushni,  his  attention  was  turned  to  literary  work, 
and  liis  first  story,  "Makar  Chudra,"  appeared  in  1892. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  popular  of  modern 
Russian  writers.  In  1905,  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  time 
for  political  offenses.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Song 
of  the  Falcon,"  "The  Song  of  the  Petrel,"  "TheOrloff 
Couple,"  "Malva,"  "  Foma  Gordeyeff,"  "Children  of 
the  Sun."  and  "The  Barbarians." 

Gould,  George  Jay,  capitalist;  born  in  New  York, 
February  6,  1864;  private  education;  president  and 
director  of  Missouri  Pacific  Railway  since  May  10,  1893, 
Texas  &  Pacific  Railway  Company  since  1893,  Inter- 
national &  Great  Northern  Railroad  Company  since 
1893,  Little  Rock  Junction  Railway  since  1888,  Man- 
hattan Railway  Company  since  1892,  St.  Louis,  Iron 
Mountain  &  Southern  Railway  Company  since  1893, 
Arkansas  Midland  Railway,  Kansas  City  Northwestern 
Railroad  Company,  Kansas  &  Arkansas  Valley  Railway, 
Sedalia,  Warsaw  &  Southwestern  Railway  Company, 
Weatherford,  Mineralwells  &  Northwestern  Railway; 
chairman  board  of  directors  of  Wabash  Railroad  Com- 
pany, Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Railroad  Company,  Rio 
Grande  Western  Railway  Company;  vice-president  and 
director  of  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  Rio 
Grande  Southern  Railroad,  Kansas  City  Southern  Rail- 
way Company;  director  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
Railroad  Company,  Chicago  &  Alton  Railway  Company, 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Southern  Pacific 
Company,  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society  of  United 
States,  National  Bank  of  Commerce,  National  Surety 
Company,  Mercantile  Trust  Company,  Colorado  Fuel  & 
Iron  Company,  Colorado  Midland  Railway  Company, 
Oregon  Short  Line  Railroad  Company,  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  American  District  Telegraph 
Company,  and  numerous  other  corporations. 

Gould,  Helen  sillier,  born  in  New  York,  June  20, 
1868 ;  daughter  of  late  Jay  and  Helen  Day  (Miller)  Gould ; 
identified  with  benevolent  work;  gave  United  States 
Government  $100,000  at  beginning  of  war  with  Spain; 
active  member  Women's  National  War  Relief  Associa- 
tion; gave  freely  to  its  work;  at  Camp  Wyckoff  made 
care  of  sick  and  convalescent  soldiers  her  personal  care, 
and  gave  $50,000  for  needed  supplies. 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois,  French  composer; 
born  in  Paris  in  1818,  and  educated  at  the  Conservatoire 
under  Hal^vy  and  Zimmermann,  whose  daughter  he 
married  in  1852.  In  1839,  he  gained  the  prize  for  com- 
position, and,  after  visiting  Rome  and  Vienna,  became 
an  organist  in  Paris,  where,  in  1849,  a  high  mass  by  him 
attracted  attention.  "Sappho,"  his  first  opera,  was 
produced  in  1851,  and  the  composer  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  Orphfon.  After  some  minor 
works,  "Faust"  appeared  in  1859,  being  brought  out  at 
the  Th(i4tre  Lyrique.  "Mereille"  followed  in  1864,  and 
"Romeo  et  Juliette"  in  1867.  Of  his  later  works  the 
chief  are  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  "The  Redemption,"  and 
"  Mors  et  Vita."     Died,  1893. 

Gracchus  (gr&k'-kits),  Caius  Sempronlus,  a  Roman 
orator  and  statesman  who,  as  tribune,  was  the  originator 
of  many  excellent  laws;  was  born  B.  C.  159,  and  killed 
in  a  massacre  organized  by  Opimius,  121.  His  brother, 
Tiberius  Sempronius,  born  B.  C.  163,  was  elected  tribune, 
and  was  also  killed  in  an  uprising  of  the  patricians  against 
his  proposal  to  distribute  the  public  lands.     Died,  133. 

Grant,  Frederick  Dent,  major-general  United 
States  Army;  born  in  St.  Louis,  May  30,  1850;  son  of 
Ulysses  S.  and  Julia  D.  Grant;  graduated  at  West  Point, 
1871;  assigned  to  fourth  cavalry,  was  lieutenant-colonel 
United  States  Army  when  he  resigned  his  commission, 
1881;  afterward  United  States  minister  to  Austria,  and 
more  recently,  police  commissioner.  New  York,  until 
January,  1898.  Became  colonel  of  14th  New  York 
volunteer  infantry  upon  beginning  of  war  for  Cuba,  and 
May  27,  1898,  was  appointed  brigadier-general.  United 
States  volunteers.  Served  in  Porto  Rico  one  year,  and 
after  war  commanded  military  district  of  San  Juan; 
transferred  to  Philippines,  April,  1899;   commanded  sec- 


ond brigade,  first  division,  8th  Army  Corps  (Lawton's) ; 
occupied  advance  of  southern  line  fighting  battles  of 
Big  Bend,  October  3,  and  Binacian,  October  6,  1899; 
transferred  November  1,  1899,  to  second  brigade,  second 
division  for  the  advance  into  Northern  Luzon,  where 
this  brigade  covered  flanks  and  rear  of  McArthur's  di- 
vision; later  detached  to  invade  provinces  of  Batuan 
and  Zamballes;  assigned  January,  1900,  to  district 
Northern  Luzon,  which  he  commanded  during  guerilla 
war  (this  district  was  first  brought  under  control  to  ac- 
cept civil  government) ;  transferred  to  separate  brigade, 
Southern  Luzon,  October,  1901  — order  restored;  trans- 
ferred, April,  1902,  to  Sixth  Separate  Brigade,  Samar, 
where  he  received  surrender  of  last  of  insurgent  forces; 
appointed  brigadier-general  United  States  Army,  Febru- 
ary 18,  1901;  commanded  department  of  Texas,  1902, 
January  15,  1904,  department  of  lakes  until  Septem- 
ber 28,  1904;  major-general,  1906;  commanded  depart- 
ment of  the  East,  1904-08. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  born  in  1822;  American 
general  and  statesman;  entered  the  army  in  1843,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Texas  campaign  of  1845. 
In  1848,  he  married,  and  in  1854,  resigned  his  commis- 
sion. During  the  Civil  War  he  captured  Fort  Henry 
(February,  1862),  and  Fort  Donelson;  won  the  battle 
of  Shiloh  (April  6-7) ;  defeated  Price  at  luka  (September 
19th),  and  for  his  capture  of  Vicksburg  in  July,  1863, 
was  made  major-general.  He  further  distinguished 
himself  by  the  relief  of  Cliattanooga  in  November,  and 
was  voted  a  gold  medal  for  his  services.  In  March,  1864, 
he  became  lieutenant-general  and  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Federal  Armies,  and  in  little  more  than  a  year 
brought  the  war  to  a  close.  On  July  25,  1866,  he  was 
named  general  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  and 
in  1868,  became  president,  being  re-elected  in  1872.  He 
successively  superintended  the  pacification  of  the  South- 
ern States,  the  restoration  of  the  finances,  and  the  dis- 
banding of  the  army,  and  he  obtained  from  England 
the  payment  of  the  Alabama  claims.  On  his  retirement 
from  office  he  made  a  tour  round  the  world.  Having 
lost  his  moderate  fortune  in  an  unfortunate  speculation, 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  which,  being  successful, 
to  some  extent  relieved  him.  He  died,  in  1885,  of  can- 
cer, after  a  year's  severe  suffering. 

Grattan,  Henry,  born  in  1746;  Irish  patriot,  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  in  1772;  entered  the  Irish  Parliament  in  1775,  and 
became  an  Opposition  leader.  In  1780  he  moved  that 
the  crown  was  the  only  link  between  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  in  1782,  by  means  of  the  volunteer  movement, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  legislative  independence  for  his 
country.  His  views  on  Catholic  emancipation  were 
not  shared  by  the  whole  of  his  party,  and,  after  the  re- 
call of  Fitzwilliam,  power  passed  from  his  hands  to  the 
United  Irishmen.  Having  been  some  years  in  retire- 
ment, he  actively  opposed  the  union,  and  after  an  inter- 
val of  two  years  entered  the  British  Parliament  as  mem- 
ber for'Malton.  He  was  offered  office  by  Fox,  but  re- 
fused; supported  the  Irish  insurrection  bill  of  1807, 
and  devoted  his  last  years  to  the  cause  of  the  Catholic 
emancipation.     Died,  1820. 

Gray,  Asa,  a  distinguished  American  botanist;  born 
in  Paris,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1810;  graduated  in 
medicine  in  1831;  became  Fisher  professor  of  natural 
history  in  1842  at  Harvard,  and  in  1874,  succeeded 
Agassiz  as  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  His 
writings  did  much  to  promote  the  study  of  botany  in 
America  on  a  sound  scientific  basis,  and  also  to  forward 
the  theories  of  Darwin.  In  conjunction  with  Doctor 
"Torrey,  he  wrote  "The  Flora  of  North  America,"  and 
by  himself  various  manuals  of  botany  and  "Natural 
Science  and  Religion."     Died,  1888. 

Gray,  George,  jurist;  born  in  New  Castle,  Del., 
May  4,  1840;  graduated  at  Princeton,  1859  (A.  M.,  1863; 
LL.  D.,  1889);  studied  law  at  Harvard;  admitted  to 
bar,  1863;  practiced  at  New  Castle,  1863-69;  afterward 
at  Wilmington;  attorney-general  of  Delaware,  1879-85; 
United  States  senator,  1885-99;  Democrat;  member 
foreign  relations  and  judiciary  committees  in  senate; 
in  1896  affihated  with  the  national  (gold-standard) 
Democrats  in  the  presidential  election;  member  Peace 
Commission,  Paris,  1898;  appointed  by  the  president 
member  of  the  Joint  High  Commission  at  Quebec,  1898, 
and  member  of  the  International  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration  under  The  Hague  convention,  November, 
1900;  judge  United  States  Circuit  Court,  third  judicial 
circuit,  since  1899 ;  chairman  Anthracite  Coal  Strike 
Commission,  1902. 

Gray,  Tiiomas,  an  English  poet,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, 1716,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  in  which  uni- 
versity he  became  professor  of  modern  literature  in  1768. 
His  "Odes"  occupy  a  high  rank  in  English  poetry,  and 
his  well-known   "Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Church- 


440 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


yard"  (1749),  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  compositions 
of  its  kind  in  the  language.     Died,  1771. 

Greeley,  Horace,  bom  in  1811;  American  journalist 
and  politician;  son  of  a  New  Hampshire  farmer;  came 
to  New  York,  and,  after  sonje  failures,  established  in 
1841,  the  "New  York  Tribune,"  in  which  he  supported 
Lincoln  and  the  Union.  In  1848,  he  became  a  member 
of  Clongress,  and,  though  not  prominent  there,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party  in  1854.  He 
ultimately,  however,  became  a  Democrat,  and  unsuc- 
cessfully opposed  Grant  for  the  presidency  in  1872,  but 
died  (1872)  the  same  year.  He  twice  visited  Europe. 
He  was  author  of  "The  American  Conflict,"  "What  I 
Know  about  Farming,"  and  "Recollections  of  a  Busy 
Life." 

Green,  John  Richard,  English  historian;  born  in 
Oxford  in  1837,  and  educated  at  Magdalen  College  school 
and  Jesus  College;  took  orders  in  1860,  and  was  some 
time  vicar  of  .St.  Philip's,  Stepney,  becoming  in  1869, 
librarian  at  Lambeth.  He  was  author  of  "A  Short  His- 
tory of  the  English  People,"  "A  History  of  the  English 
People,"  "The  Making  of  England,"  and  "The  Conquest 
of  England,"  published  after  his  death,  in  1883,  by  his 
wife,  who  assisted  him  in  various  other  works,  and  her- 
self wrote  "Henry  II."  in  the  "Twelve  English  States- 
men" series.      Died,  1883. 

Greene.  Nathanael,  born  in  1742;  American  general ; 
educated  himself,  and  broke  with  the  Quakers  on  ac- 
count of  his  later  military  pursuits;  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  the  Brandy  wine ;  was  defeated  several 
times  by  Cornwallis,  but  won  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs. 
Died,  1786. 

Gregory   I.,   Pope,   called   the  "Great";    was    ap- 

Cointea  by  the  Emperor  of  the  East,  Governor  of  Rome, 
ut,  on  inheriting  his  father's  wealth,  resigneti  it,  and 
became  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's,  Rome.  After  being 
secretary  to  Pelagius  II.,  he  succeeded  him  as  Bishop 
of  Rome;  renounced  communion  with  the  Eastern 
Christians  because  of  the  assumption  of  the  title  "Uni- 
versal Bishop"  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople; 
composed  chants,  and  established  a  musical  school,  in 
which  he  himself  taught,  and  collected  and  arranged 
fragments  of  ancient  hymns.  He  was  a  great  opponent 
of  secular  learning,  but  was  author  of  numerous  sacred 
works,  of  which  the  chief  was  his  "Morals  from  the  Book 
of  Job."     Died.  604. 

Gregory  VII.,  "  Hildebrand  " ;  born  in  1020;  a  man 
of  modest  birth,  who  became  monk  of  Clugny  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Rome;  exercised  great  influence  over  Leo  IX. 
and  succeeding  popes,  till  he  was  himself  appointed,  in 
1073,  to  succeed  Alexander  II.  He  attacked  simony 
and  concubinage  in  the  Church,  and  carried  the  power 
of  the  papacy  to  a  high  pitch,  declining  to  submit  to  rati- 
fication of  election  from  the  emperor,  and  attempting 
to  enforce  spiritual  control  over  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 
He  was  firmly  opposed  by  William  I.  of  England  and 
Philip  I.  of  France,  but  he  excommunicated  Henry  IV. 
of  Germany,  and  compelled  him  to  do  penance  in  1077, 
although  he  was  eventually  deposed  by  him.  He  died 
in  Salerno,  in  1085,  where  he  had  been  taken  after  his 
rescue  from  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo  by  the  Normans  of 
Apulia. 

Gr^vy,  Francois  Paul  Jules,  born  in  1807;  French 
statesman,  came  to  the  front  at  Paris  as  a  defender  of 
republicans  in  political  cases,  and  in  1848.  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  constituent  a.ssembly.  He  joined  the 
Cot^  Gauche,  became  vice-president  of  the  Assembly, 
and  opposed  the  presidency  of  I-ouis  Napoleon.  In  1868. 
his  native  department  (the  Jura)  returned  him  for  the 
Assembly,  and,  on  resuming  public  life,  he  strongly  op- 
posed the  second  empire.  He  became  president  of  the 
Assembly  in  1871,  and  was  reelected  three  times.  Be- 
tween 1873  and  1876,  when  he  was  a  private  member, 
he  strongly  opposed  the  Monarchists,  and  he  afterwards 
vigorously  resisted  the  schemes  of  MacMahon,  on  whose 
resignation,  in  1879,  he  became  President  of  the  Republic, 
in  which  office  he  displayed  much  tact,  and  in  1885, 
made  peace  with  China  on  his  own  responsibility.  In 
December  of  that  year  he  was  reelected,  but  in  1887, 
was  obliged  to  resign  owing  to  the  discovery  of  his  son- 
in-law's  (M.  Wilson)  implication  in  the  decoration  scan- 
dals.    Died,  1891. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  born  in  1537;  grand-niece  of 
Henry  VIII.;  was  appointed  heir  to  the  throne  by  Ed- 
ward VI.  in  contravention  of  the  previous  settlement  of 
the  succession,  and  having  married  a  son  of  Dudley, 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  was  made  queen  and  reigned 
ten  days;  she  was  beheaded  with  Lord  Dudley.  Died 
in  1554. 

Griggs,  James  M.,  congressman,  lawyer;  born  in 
Lagrange,  Ga.,  March  29,  1861;  graduate  of  Peabody 
Normal  College,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1881 ;  taught  school 
and  studied  law;    admitted  to  bar,  1883;    practiced  at 


Alapaha,  Berrien  County,  Ga. ;  was  for  short  time  in 
newspaper  business;  removed  to  Dawson,  Ga.,  1885; 
solicitor-general  (prosecuting  attorney)  Pataula  judicial 
circuit,  1888-93;  judge  of  same  circuit,  1893-96;  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1897-1909;  chairman  of  Democratic 
Congressional  Committee,  1902.     Died,  1910. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwlg  (grim),  a  German  philologist 
born  at  Hanau,  1785,  associated  in  his  literary  labors 
with  his  brother,  Wilhelm  Karl,  born  1786.  Their  prin- 
cipal joint  work  is  the  well-known  and  highly  esteemed 
"German  Dictionary"  bearing  their  names,  and  pub- 
lished in  1859.  Jakob,  who  died  in  1863,  was  also  the 
author  of  the  " Legal  Antiquities  of  Germany,"  a  "His- 
tory of  the  German  Language,"  and  "German  My- 
thology" —  all  standard  works.     Wilhelm  died  in  1859. 

Grosvenor,  Charles  Henry,  lawyer;  born  in  Pom- 
fret,  Windham  County,  Conn.,  September  20,  1833;  went 
to  Ohio,  May,  1838;  attended  country  log-school  house; 
taught  school ;  studied  law;  admitted  to  oar,  1857;  en- 
gaged in  practice.  Served  in  Eighteenth  Ohio  volunteers, 
from  1861  to  1865,  as  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  colonel, 
and  brevet  brigadier-general.  Member  of  Ohio  Legis- 
lature, 1874-78  (speaker,  two  years);  presidential  elec- 
tor, 1872  and  1880;  trustee  Ohio  Soldiers'  and  Sailors' 
Orphans'  Home,  1880-88,  and  president  for  five  years; 
delegate  at  large  to  National  Republican  Convention, 
1896  and  1900;  member  of  Congress  1885-91.  and 
again  from  1893  to  1907,  eleventh  Ohio  district; 
member  of  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  and  chair- 
man of  Committee  on  Mines  and  Mining,  55th,  and 
member  of  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  Committee 
on  Rules,  and  chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchant  Marine 
and  Fisheries,  56th,  57th,  58th,  and  59th  Congresses. 
Author:     ".William  McKinley,  His  Life  and  Work." 

Grosvenor,  Edwin  Augustus,  educator,  author; 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  August  30,  1845;  graduate 
from  Amherst,  1867,  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1872  (A.  M..  Amherst,  1871;  LL.  D.,  Wabash.  1903, 
Alfred  University,  1904);  professor  of  history,  Robert 
College,  Constantinople,  1873-90;  professor  of  European 
history,  1892-98,  modern  governments  and  their  admin- 
istration, 1898-1901,  modern  government  and  inter- 
national law  since  1901,  Amherst.  Author:  "  The  Hippo- 
drome of  Constantinople";  "Constantinople"  (2  vols.) ; 
"The  Permanence  of  the  Greek  Type";  "Contemporary 
History";  etc. 

Grote,  George, born  in  1794;  historian  and  politician; 
educated  at  the  Charterhouse;  entered  the  family 
bankinghouse,  but  devoted  his  leisure  time  to  literary 
work.  He  published  many  pamphlets  on  reform,  and 
contributed  to  the  "Westminster  Review."  In  1832 
he  was  elected  for  the  City  of  London,  for  which  he  con- 
tinued to  sit  till  1841,  as  one  of  the  "Philosophical 
Radicals."  His  "History  of  Greece"  appeared  between 
1846  and  1856,  and  was  followed  by  "Plato  and  Other 
Companions  of  Socrates."     Died,  1871. 

Grotius,  Hugo,  German  statesman  and  writer; 
born  at  Delft,  1583;  entered  public  life  as  pensionary 
of  Rotterdam;  went  to  England  in  1615  as  a  commis- 
sioner on  the  Greenland  fisheries'  question,  and  there 
met  Casaubon.  As  a  friend  of  Barnevelt,  and  a  sup- 
porter of  Arminius,  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  stadtholder, 
Maurice  (1619),  but  two  years  after  his  wife  contrived  his 
escape,  and  he  went  to  Paris  for  some  years.  After  a 
short  stay  in  Holland,  and  a  residence  of  two  years  at 
Hamburg,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1635,  as  Swedish 
ambassador,  where  he  remained  till  shortly  before  his 
death.  Chief  among  his  many  works  were  "Poemata 
Sacra,"  "De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,"  and  "  Annotationes  in 
Novum  Testamentum."     Died,  1645. 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel,  Marquis  de  (groo-she'),  a 
marshal  of  France;  born  in  Paris,  1766.  He  served 
with  distinction  under  Napoleon  I.;  received  a  marshal's 
baton  in  1814,  and,  in  1815,  refused  to  march  his  corps 
from  Wavre  to  the  assistance  of  the  emperor  at  Waterloo, 
alleging  his  having  received  no  order  from  Napoleon  to 
that  effect.  It  is  not  certain  whether  he  intended  to 
betray  the  cause  of  Napoleon,  but  his  culpable  indecision 
certainly  contributed  to  the  disaster  which  befell  the 
French  arms.  Exiled  in  the  same  year,  he  was  restored 
to  his  rank  and  honors  in  1830,  and  died  in  1847. 

Guericlte,  Otto  von,  born  in  1602;  German  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Magdeburg,  of  which  he  became  burgo- 
master, after  traveling  in  France  and  England,  and 
studying  at  Leyden.  He  invented  the  air-purnp,  and 
made  experiments  before  the  diet  at  Ratisbon  in  1654. 
He  also  constructed  the  first  electric  machine,  and  de- 
scribed his  "Magdeburg  Hemispheres,"  in  his  ".Nova 
Experimenta."     Died,  1686. 

Guffey,  James  McClui«,  petroleum  producer;  born 
in  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  January  19,  1839;  edu- 
cated in  public  schools  and  a  term  in  commercial  school; 
railroad  and  express  clerk  in  South;    returned  to  Penn- 


BIOGRAPHY 


441 


sylvania,  1872;  since  then  in  oil  and  gaa  production; 
probably  the  largest  individual  oil  producer  in  the  United 
States;  extensively  engaged  in  silver  and  gold  mining, 
with  large  bituminous  coal  holdings;  well-known  as  a 
leader  in  Democratic  politics,  and  a  member  for  Penn- 
sylvania on  National  Committee,  but  never  held  or  was 
a  candidate  for  office. 

Guido  (gue'do),  Renl,  a  famous  Italian  painter  of  the 
Bolognese  school;  born  in  1575.  After  studying 
under  the  Caracci,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Rome, 
where  he  obtained  the  patronage  of  Pope  Paul  V.  His 
pictures  are  characterized  by  an  exquisite  grace  of 
expression  and  delicacy  of  touch.  Among  his  "chefs- 
d'oeuvre"  may  be  quoted  "The  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Peter"  (in  the  Vatican),  "The  Assumption,"  and  ".The 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents."     Died,  1642. 

Gulscard,  Robert,  bornin  1015;  Norman  soldier;  son 
of  Tancred  d'Hauteville;  defeated  Leo  IX.  at  Civitella, 
and,  upon  the  death  of  his  brother  Humphrey,  was  in- 
vested with  the  dukedom  of  Apulia.  Subsequently  he 
rescued  Gregory  VII.  from  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  in- 
vaded the  Greek  Empire,  and  died  when  on  another 
expedition  against  it,  having  defeated  the  fleets  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  and  Venice.     Died,  1085. 

Guiteras,  John,  professor  of  general  pathology  and 
tropical  diseases.  University  of  Havana,  since  August, 
1900;  born  in  Matanzas,  Cuba,  January  4,  1852;  edu- 
cated at  La  Empresa,  Matanzas;  M.  D.,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1873  (Ph.  D.).  In  marine  hospital  service, 
1879-89;  served  as  expert  in  yellow  fever  in  all  epi- 
demics since  1881 ;  was  professor  of  pathology.  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania ;  on  staff  of  General  Shatter  as  yellow 
fever  expert  in  Santiago  campaign,  1898.  Prominent  in 
Cuban  politics  in  this  country.  Editor  ".La  Revista  de 
Medicina  Tropical." 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume  (oe-zo'),  a  dis- 
tinguished French  scholar,  historian,  and  statesman, 
was  born  in  1787.  As  an  author,  Guizot  has 
been  pronounced  by  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "the 
greatest  French  writer  of  his  time,  and  scarce  owning  an 
equal  in  any  other  country."  His  chief  works  are  a 
translation  of  Gibbon's  "  Decline  and  Fall,"  a  "History 
of  Civilization"  (fifth  edition,  1845),  "Histoire  de  la  Re- 
volution d'Angleterre"  (1827-56),  a  "  Life  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well," and  a  "History  of   France"  (1870).     Died,  1874. 

Gustavus  (gus-tdv'us)  is  the  name  of  four  kings  of 
Sweden.  Gustavus  I.  (Vasa)  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
1496.  He  drove  the  Danish  usurper.  Christian  II.,  from 
the  country,  and  was  crowned  king,  1523;  died,  1560. 
Gustavus  II.  (Adolphus),  grandson  of  above,  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  history,  was  born,  1594;  crowned, 
1611;  killed  at  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  Germany,  1632. 
He  defeated  the  Prussians  and  Poles,  and  as  champion 
of  the  Protestant  cause  overran  nearly  the  whole  of 
Germany.  Gustavus  III.,  born  in  1746,  was  crowned, 
1771;  assassinated  by  Ankarstrom,  one  of  his  nobles, 
1792.  Gustavus  IV.,  born  in  1778,  succeeded  his  father, 
Gustavus  III.,  1792;  was  deposed,  and  died  in  Switzer- 
land, 1837. 

Gutenberg,  Johann  {goo' ten-hair g),  the  inventor  of 
the  art  of  printing;  born  in  Mainz,  Germany,  1400. 
In  1450,  he  entered  into  partnership  with  John  Fust, 
a  connection  severed  five  years  later  by  a  lawsuit 
between  the  parties,  in  consequence  of  which  Gutenberg 
was  compelled  to  resign  to  Fust  all  the  appliances  and 
profits  of  his  invention.     Died,  1468. 

Gujfot,  Arnold,  born  in  1807;  Swiss  geographer  and 
geologist;  came  to  America  in  1848,  and  devoted  his  life 
to  science;  was  professor  of  geology  and  physical  geog- 
raphy at  Princeton  College;  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Agassiz,  and  made  numerous  maps,  mathematical  tables 
and  text-books.  His  greatest  works  were  ".The  Meteor- 
ological and  Physical  Tables,"  issued  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  his  ".Earth  and  Man."  Died, 
1884. 

Hadley,  Arthur  Twining,  president  of  Yale  since 
June  29,  1899;  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  April  23, 
1856;  graduate  of  Yale,  1876;  student  of  University 
of  BerUn  (LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1899;  Columbia,  1900; 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902).  Tutor,  1879-83,  lecturer,  1883-86, 
Yale;  appointed  commissioner  of  statistics,  Connecticut, 
1885;  professor  of  political  science,  Yale,  1886-99. 
Author:  "Railroad  Transportation,  Its  History  and 
Laws,"  "Connecticut  Labor  Reports,  1885-86,"  "Eco- 
nomics: An  Account  of  the  Relations  Between  Private 
Property  and  Public  Welfare,"  "The  Education  of  the 
American  Citizen,"  "Freedom  and  Responsibility." 
American  editor  of  the  tenth  edition  of  Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrlch,  born  in  Potsdam,  1834; 
German  naturalist,  was  appointed  in  1861  professor  of 
zoology  at  Jena.  He  afterwards  traveled  in  all  parts  of 
Europe,  and  visited  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.     In 


1881,  he  went  to  India.  His  chief  works  are  "Natural 
History  of  Creation,"  "The  Origin  of  the  Human  Race," 
"Popular  Lectures  on  Evolution,"  contributions  to  the 
".Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Challenger,"  etc. 

Haggard,  Henry  Rider,  English  novelist;  born  in 
Bradenham,  Norfolk,  1856;  went  to  Natal  in  1875,  as 
secretary  to  Sir  H.  Bulwer,  and  was  afterwards  master 
of  the  High  Court  of  the  Transvaal.  In  1879,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  published  in  1882,  "Cetywayo  and  his 
White  Neighbors."  This  was  followed  by  several  novels, 
the  chief  of  which  were  "Dawn,"  ".The  Witch's  Head," 
"King  Solomon's  Mines,"  and  "She,"  "Jess,"  ".Cleopa- 
tra," "Beatrice,"  and  "Eric  Brighteyes,"  etc. 

Hahnemann,  Christian  Samuel  Friedrlch,  born  in 
1755;  German  physician,  the  founder  of  homcEopathy, 
to  which  he  was  led  by  experiments  made  on  himself  with 
Peruvian  bark.  He  practiced  at  Leipzig,  but  was 
obliged  to  retire  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  apothe- 
caries there.  He  was  invited  to  Kiithen  by  the  Duke  of 
Anhalt,  and  afterwards  spent  eight  years  in  Paris.  He 
expounded  his  system  in  "Organon  of  the  Healing  Art," 
and  other  works.     Died,  1843. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  author,  chaplain  United 
States  Senate;  born  in  Boston,  April  3,  1822;  studied 
in  Boston  Latin  school;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1839, 
S.  T.  D.,  1879;  (LL.  D.,  Dartmouth,  1901,  Williams, 
1904);  studied  theology;  licensed  to  preach;  minister 
Church  of  the  Unity,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1846-56;  Prom- 
inent promoter  of  "Chautauqua"  circles  and  "Lend-a- 
Hand  clubs.  Editor ".  Lend-a-Hand  Record."  Author 
(stories) :  "The  Man  Without  a  Country;  "  "Ten  Times 
One  is  Ten,"  "Margaret  Percival  in  America,"  "In  His 
Name,"  "Mr.  Tangier's  Vacations,"  "Mrs.  Merriam's 
Scholars,"  "His  Level  Best,"  "The  Ingham  Papers," 
"Ups  and  Downs,"  "PhiHp  Nolan's  Friends," 
"Fortunes  of  Rachel,"  "Four  and  Five,"  "Crusoe  in 
New  York,"  "Christmas  Eve  and  Christmas  Day," 
"Christmas  in  Narragansett,"  "Our  Christmas  in  a 
Palace."  Other  works:  "Sketches  in  Christian  His- 
tory," "Kansas  and  Nebraska,"  "WhatCareer?"  "Boy's 
Heroes,"  "The  Story  of  Massachusetts,"  "Sybaris  and 
Other  Homes,"  "For  Fifty  Years"  (poems),  "A  New 
England  Boyhood,"  "Chautauquan  History  of  the 
United  States,"  "If  Jesus  Came  to  Boston,"  "Memories 
of  a  Hundred  Years,"  "Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,"  ".We, 
the  People,"  "New  England  Ba'lads,"  "Prayers  in  the 
United  States  Senate."  Editor:  "  Modern  Achievement," 
ten  volumes,  1905.     Died,  1909. 

Hale,  Eugene,  United  States  senator  from  Maine, 
1881-1911;  born  in  Turner,  Oxford  County,  Me.,  June 
9,  1836;  academic  education  (LL.  D.,  Bates  College, 
Colby  University  and  Bowdoin  College);  admitted  to 
bar,  1857;  county  attorney  of  Hancock  County  for 
nine  years;  member  of  Maine  Legislature,  1867,  1868, 
and  1880;  member  of  Congress,  1869-79.  Was  appoint- 
ed postmaster-general  by  President  Grant,  1874,  but 
declined ;  was  tendered  naval  portfolio  by  President 
Hayes,  but  declined;  delegate  to  National  Republican 
conventions,  1868,  1876,  and  1880. 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  born  in  1609;  English  judge, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1637.  Though  a  Royalist,  he 
was  appointed  head  of  the  committee  for  prevention  of 
delays  and  expenses  of  law  in  1652;  became  a  judge  of 
common  pleas  in  1654,  and  sat  in  parliament  till  the 
Restoration,  when  he  was  made  lord  chief  baron.  In 
1671,  he  became  lord  chief  justice,  and  resigned  just 
before  his  death.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Pleas  of 
the  Crown,"  "Difficiles  Nugse,"  and  an  essay  on  "Gravi- 
tation of  Fluids."     Died,  1676. 

Hall,  Granville  Stanley,  president  and  professor  of 
psychology,  Clark  University,  since  1888;  born  in  Ash- 
field,  Mass.,  February  1,  1846;  graduate  of  Williams, 
B.  A.,  1867,  A.  M.,  1870;  Ph.  D.,  Harvard,  1878; 
LL.  D.,  University  of  Michigan,  1888;  Johns  Hopkins, 
1902.  Professor  of  psychology,  Antioch  (O.)  College, 
1872-76;  studied  in  Berlin,  Bonn,  Heidelberg  and 
Leipzig;  lecturer  on  psychology  in  Harvard  and  Williams 
1880-81 ;  professor  of  psychology,  Johns  Hopkins,  1881- 
88;  married.  Author:  "Aspects  of  German  Culture," 
"Hints  'Toward  a  Select  and  Descriptive  Bibliography 
of  Education"  (with  John  M.  Mansfield);  "Adoles- 
cence" (2  vols.);  editor  and  founder  of  "The  American 
Journal  of  Psychology,"  "The  Pedagogical  Seminary," 
"American  Journal  of  Religious  Psychology  and  Edu- 
cation." 

Hailam,  Henry,  an  English  historian;  born  in 
Windsor,  in  1777.  His  greatest  works  comprise  a  "View 
of  the  State  of  Europe  During  the  Middle  Ages,"  "The 
Constitutional  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of 
Henry  VII.  to  the  Death  of  George  II.,"  and  his  master- 
piece, the  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  in 
the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries." 
Died,  1859. 


442 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Hamaiit  a  courtier  of  Ahasuerus,  King  of  Persia; 
out  of  motives  of  personal  revenge,  sought  the  extermi- 
nation of  the  Jewish  race  in  that  kingdom,  in  which 
design  he  was  thwarted  by  Esther,  who  effected  his 
disgrace,  about  485  B.  C. 

Hamllcar,  Barca,  a  Carthaginian  leader,  father  of 
Hannibal,  and  head  of  a  faction  at  Carthage;  com- 
manded in  Sicily  in  the  first  Punic  War,  at  the  close  of 
which  he  defeated  the  mercenaries,  who  had  rebelled; 
was  killed  in  battle  with  the  Vettones  when  meditating 
a  fresh  attack  upon  the  Romans.     Died,  228  B.  C. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  American  general  and  states- 
man; born  in  the  island  of  Nevis  in  1757;  published, 
when  17,  some  papers  on  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  and 
before  he  was  19,  was  captain  of  artillery.  In  1777,  he 
was  Washington's  aide-de-camp,  in  1782,  a  member  of 
Congre-ss,  and,  in  1787,  a  delegate  to  the  convention 
which  drew  up  the  American  Constitution.  Washing- 
ton appointed  him  secretary  to  the  treasury,  and,  in 
1798,  he  became  second-in-command  of  the  army,  of 
which  he  became  afterwards  commander-in-chief.  He 
was  killed  (1804)  in  a  duel  with  Colonel  Burr,  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Wllilam,  Bart.,  born  in  1788; 
Scottish  metaphysician,  appointed  in  1821  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  civil  history  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. From  1836,  when  he  became  professor  of 
logic  and  metaphysics,  he  was  widely  known  as  a 
philosophical  writer.  His  chief  books  were  an  edition 
of  Reid's  works,  "Discussions  in  Philosophy,  Litera- 
ture, and  Education,"  and  his  "Lectures,"  published 
after  his  death.  He  left  his  library  to  the  University 
of  Glasgow.     Died,  1856. 

Hamiin,  Hannibal,  American  statesman;  born  in 
Paris,  Maine,  in  1809;  practiced  as  a  lawyer,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  In  1842,  he  was 
elected  as  a  Democrat  to  Congress;  was  United  States 
senator  from  1848  to  1857.  when  he  was  elected  governor 
on  the  Republican  ticket,  but  resigned  immediately  on 
again  being  elected  senator.  In  1861,  he  became  vice- 
president  under  Lincoln,  whose  views  he  shared.  He 
was  again  senator  from  1869  to  1881,  when  he  was  named 
minister  to  Spain.  He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  pass- 
ing the  "Wilmot  proviso"  through  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives.    Died,  1891. 

Hammond,  James  Bartlett,  typewriter  inventor; 
born  in  Boston,  April  23,  1839;  graduate  of  University 
of  Vermont,  1861;  newspaper  correspondent  during 
Civil  War;  graduate  of  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
1865;  studied  philosophy  and  science  at  University  of 
Halle,  Germany;  devoted  many  years  to  mechanical 
experiments;  patented,  1880,  a  typewriting  machine 
made  on  scientific  principles;  introduced  "Ideal"  key- 
board and  true  alignment  in  the  "Hammond  Type- 
writer"} put  machine  on  market,  1884;  won  highest 
honors  in  competitions.  Collaborator  on  American 
tran.slation  of  "Lange's  Commentary  on  The  Psalms," 
1884. 

Hammond,  John  Hays,  mining  engineer;  born  in 
San  Francisco,  March  31,  1855;  graduate  of  Sheffield 
Scientific  School,  Yale,  Ph.  B.,  1876  (A.  M.,  Yale); 
mining  course  at  Royal  School  of  Mines,  B'reiburg, 
Saxony.  Special  expert  of  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  1880,  examming  California  gold  fields;  later 
in  Mexico,  and  afterward  consulting  engineer  of  Union 
Iron  Works,  San  Francisco,  and  to  Central  and  Southern 
Pacific  railways;  has  examined  properties  in  all  parts 
of  the  world;  became  consulting  engineer  for  Barnato 
Bros.,  1893,  and  later  for  Cecil  Rhodes,  of  whom  he 
became  a  strong  supporter;  consulting  engineer  of  Con- 
solidated Gold  Fielcls  of  South  Africa,  British  South 
Africa  Company,  and  the  Randfontein  Estates  Gold 
Mining  Company.  Was  one  of  four  leaders  in  reform 
movement  in  the  Transvaal,  1895-96;  after  Jameson 
Raid  (with  which  he  was  not  in  sympathy),  was  ar- 
rested and  sentenced  to  death;  sentence  was  afterward 
commuted  to  fifteen  years'  imprisonment;  and  later 
was  released  on  payment  of  a  fine  of  $125,000;  went 
to  London  and  became  interested  in  many  large  mining 
companies;  returned  to  the  United  States  and  has 
traveled  extensively,  examining  mines  in  United  States 
and  Mexico. 

Hampden,  John,  an  English  patriot  and  parlia- 
mentary leader,  was  born  in  London,  in  1594.  During 
the  twenty-two  years  he  held  a  seat  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  he  identified  himself  as  an  advocate  of  public 
opinion  and  champion  of  popular  rights,  when  the 
latter  were  encroached  upon  by  Charles  I.  and  his  gov- 
ernment. He  suffered  imprisonment  for  his  refusal  to 
pay  the  obnoxious  ship  money;  was  one  of  the  framers 
of  the  Grand  Remonstrance;  and  also  one  of  the  five 
members  illegally  committed  to  prison  by  order  of  the 


king.  Hampden  was  killed  in  the  fight  of  Chalgrove 
Field,  1643. 

Hancoclt,  John,  born  in  1737;  American  politician, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt  in  Massachusetts, 
the  seizure  of  his  sloop,  "The  Liberty,"  being  the  occa- 
sion of  a  riot  in  Boston.  He  was  very  active  in  denounc- 
ing the  "Boston  massacre,"  and  was  one  of  the  persons 
whose  seizure  was  attempted  by  tlie  expedition  which 
led  to  the  Lexington  affair.  He  was  president  of  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1775-77,  and  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  1780-85  and  1787-93.     Died,  1793. 

Hancock,  Wlnfleld  Scott,  an  American  general ; 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1824;  after  graduating  at  West 
Point  in  1844,  served  with  great  gallantry  during  the 
Mexican  War.  Appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  1861,  he  took  part  in  the  campaign  on  the 
Potomac,  fought  at  Antietam,  and  commanded  a  corps 
in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he  was  wounded, 
1863.  In  August,  1864,  Hancock  became  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army;  held  from  August,  1867, 
till  March,  1868,  the  command  of  the  5th  Military  Dis- 
trict. June,  1880,  became  the  unsuccessful  Democratic 
nominee  for  president.  At  his  death,  February  9,  1886, 
he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  East. 

Handel,  George  Fredericlf,  the  greatest  composer 
of  oratorio  music  that  has  yet  appeared,  was  born  in 
Halle,  Germany,  in  1685.  After  producing  some  minor 
operas,  etc.,  in  Italy,  he  settled  in  England,  in  1712, 
where  he  became  chapel-master  to  George  I.  In  1738, 
appeared  his  oratorio  of  "Saul,"  and  four  years  later 
that  sublime  conception,  "The  Messiah."  "Samson," 
"Moses  in  Egypt,"  "Joshua,"  and  "Jephtha"  are  his 
later  works.     Died,  1759. 

Hanly,  J.  Franl{,  lawyer;  born  in  St.  Joseph,  111., 
April  4,  1863;  educated  in  common  schools,  Champaign 
Cbunty,  111.  Taught  school  nine  years  in  Warren 
County,  Ind.;  admitted  to  bar,  1889;  practiced  at 
Williamsport,  Ind.,  1889-96;  elected  to  State  Senate, 
1890;  Congress,  1894,  serving  one  term;  candidate  for 
United  States  Senate,  1899;  governor  of  Indiana, 
190.5-09. 

Hanna,  Marcus  Alonzo,  an  American  politician  and 
legislator;  born  in  New  Lisbon  (now  Lisbon),  Colum- 
biana County,  O.,  September  24,  1837.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  United  States  Senate  as  a  Republican  by 
Governor  Bushnell,  March  5,  1897,  to  fill  vacancy 
caused  by  the  resignation  of  John  Sherman,  who  re- 
signed to  accept  the  position  of  secretary  of  state  in 
President  McKinley's  cabinet;  took  his  seat  March  5, 
1897.  His  term  of  service  under  the  appointment 
expired  in  January,  1898,  and  he  was  elected  for  a  full 
term,  and  served  until  his  death  in  1904. 

Hannibal,  born  in  247  B.  C;  Carthaginian  general, 
son  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  who  devoted  him  from  an  early 
age  to  war  with  the  Romans.  After  attacking  the 
allies  of  the  latter  in  Spain,  he  marched  into  Italy,  over 
the  Pyrenees  and  Alps,  and,  arriving  in  218,  won  the 
battles  of  the  Ticinus  and  the  Trebia,  and  next  year- 
defeated  Flaminius  on  Lake  Thrasymenus.  After  his 
great  victory  at  Cannie  in  216,  he  wintered  at  Capua, 
but  was  unable  to  take  Rome.  In  203,  he  returned  to 
Africa,  and  was  defeated  at  Zama  in  the  following  year 
by  Scipio  Africanus.  He  became  chief  magistrate  at 
Carthage,  but  was  compelled  by  the  hostility  of  rivals 
to  flee  to  the  court  of  Antiochus.  When  his  surrender 
was  demanded  by  the  Romans,  he  took  refuge  in  Bi- 
thynia,  but  took  poison  from  apprehension  of  being 
given  up.     Died,  183  B.  C. 

Hapgood,  Norman,  editor,  author,  and  critic;  born 
in  Chicago,  March  28,  1868;  graduate  of  Harvard, 
1890;  A.  M.,  1893;  LL.  B.,  Harvard  Law  School,  1893; 
Author:  "Literary  Statesmen,"  "Daniel  Webster," 
"Abraham  Lincoln,"  "The  Stage  in  America";  Dra- 
matic critic  of  "New  York  Commercial  Advertiser"  and 
"Bookman"  1897-1902;  editor  of  "  Collier's  Weekly " 
since  1903. 

Hardy,  Thomas,  novelist,  educated  as  an  architect; 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1840,  the  scene  of  his  novels 
being  laid  in  the  south  of  England,  the  early  Wessex. 
His  chief  works  are  "Desperate  Remedies,"  "Under  the 
Greenwood  Tree,"  "Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd," 
"The  Trumpet  Major,"  "The  Woodlanders,"  "The 
Mayor  of  Casterbridge,"  and  "Wessex  Tales,"  "Tess  of 
the  D'Urbervilles,"  etc. 

Harlan,  John  Marshall,  associate  justice  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  since  November  29,  1877;  born 
in  Boyle  County,  Ky.,  June  1,  1833;  graduated  at  Centre 
College,  Ky.,  1850  (LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1883;  CentreCol- 
lege,  and  College  of  New  Jersey,  1884) ;  studied  law  at 
Transylvania  University;  practiced  at  Frankfort; 
county  judge,  1858;  Whig  candidate  for  Congress  in 
Ashland  district,  1859 ;  elector  on  Bell  and  Everett  ticket, 
1860;    removed  to  Louisville  in  1867  and  practiced  law 


BIOGRAPHY 


443 


there.  Colonel  10th  Kentucky  regiment  in  Union  Army, 
1861-63;  attorney-general  Kentucky,  1863-67;  re- 
turned to  practice;  Republican  nominee  for  governor, 
1871;  defeated,  and  again  in  1875,  defeated;  his  name 
was  presented  by  Republican  convention  of  Kentucky 
for  vice-president  of  United  States  in  1872;  member 
Louisiana  Commission,  1877;  one  of  American  arbitra- 
tors on  Bering  Sea  Tribunal  which  met  in  Paris,  1893. 

Harmon,  Judson,  lawyer,  governor;  born  in  Hamil- 
ton County,  O.,  February  3,  1846;  graduated  Denison 
University,  1866  (LL.  D.,  1891);  graduated  Cincinnati 
Law  Scliool,  1869.  Judge  common  pleas  court,  1876-78; 
superior  court  of  Cincinnati,  1878-87 — resigned;  attor- 
ney-general United  States,  1895-97;  president  Ohio  Bar 
Association,  1897-98;  member  faculty  law  department, 
University  of  Cincinnati.  Elected  Governor  of  Ohio, 
1908;   re-elected,  1910. 

Harold  I.,'  King  of  England,  surnamed  Harefoot 
on  account  of  his  fleetness  in  running,  was  second  son 
of  Canute  the  Great,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1037 
and  died  three  years  later. 

Harold  II.,  son  of  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  England  in  1066,  on  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor;  and  in  the  same  year  utterly  de- 
feated an  invasion  of  the  Norsemen,  only  to  be  a  few 
days  later  overthrown  himself  by  William  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, near  Hastings,  on  the  14th  of  October. 

Haroun  Al  Raschld,  born  in  763;  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
organized  his  dominions  against  the  attacks  of  the 
Eastern  Empire;  massacred  the  Barmecides;  com- 
pelled Nicephorus  to  resume  payment  of  his  tribute, 
and  ravaged  his  dominions  when  the  peace  was  not  kept; 
sent  an  embassy  to  Charles  the  Great.  He  died  in  809, 
when  on  an  expedition  against  Khorassan. 

Harper,  William  Rainey,  president  of  University 
of  Chicago  1891-1906:  born  in  New  Concord,  O.,  July  26, 
1856;  graduated  at  Muskingum  College,  1870  (Ph.  D., 
Yale,  1875;  D.  D.,  Colby,  1891;  LL.  D.,  University  of 
Nebraska,  1893,  Yale,  1901,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902);  prin- 
cipal Masonic  College,  Macon,  Tenn.,  1875-76;  tutor, 
1876-79;  principal  preparatory  department  Denison 
University,  Granville,  O.,  1879-80;  professor  of  Hebrew, 
Baptist  Union  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago,  1879-80; 
professor  of  Semitic  languages,  Yale,  1886-91,  and  pro- 
fessor Biblical  literature,  1889-91;  principal  Chautau- 
qua College  Liberal  Arts,  1885-91;  head  professor  of 
Semitic  languages  and  literature,  1891  to  1906.  Author 
of  many  text-books.     Died  in  1906. 

Harrlman,  Edward  Henry,  capitalist;  born  Hemp- 
stead, L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  February  25,  1848;  son  of  clergyman; 
common  school  education.  He  became  a  broker's  clerk, 
in  Wall  Street,  at  14;  later  a  stock  broker  on  his  own 
account.  Was  member  New  York  Stock  Exchange  after 
1870;  president  and  director  Southern  Pacific  Railway; 
director  of  Union  Pacific  Railway  Co.,  Delaware  &  Hud- 
son Railroad,  Central  Pacific  Railway,  Illinois  Central 
Railway,  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  Pacific 
Mail  Steamship  Company,  Oregon  Railroad  and  Naviga- 
tion Company,  Wells-Fargo  and  Company,  Colorado 
Fuel  and  Iron  Company,  National  City  Bank,  etc., 
trustee  Equitable  Trust  Company.     Died,  1909. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  author;  born  in  Eatonton, 
Ga.,  December  8,  1848 ;  served  apprenticeship  to  printing 
trade;  an  editor  of  Atlanta  "Constitution"  twenty-five 
years.  Author:  "Uncle  Remus:  His  Songs  and  His  Say- 
ings," "Nights  with  Uncle  Remus,"  "Uncle  Remus  and 
His  Friends,"  "Mingo,"  "  Little  Mr.  Thimble-finger,"  "On 
the  Plantation,"  "Daddy  Jake,  the  Runaway,"  "Balaam 
and  His  Master,"  "Mr.  Rabbit  at  Home,"  "The  Story 
of  Aaron,"  "  Sister  Jane,"  "  Free  Joe,"  "  Stories  of 
Georgia,"  "Aaron  in  the  Wild  Woods,"  "Tales  of  the 
Home  Folks,"  "Georgia,  From  the  Invasionof  De  Soto 
to  Recent  Times,"  "Evening  Tales,"  "Stories  of  Home 
Folks,"  "Chronicles  of  Aunt  Minerva  Ann,"  "On  the 
Wings  of  Occasion,"  "The  Making  of  a  Statesman," 
"Gabriel  ToUiver,"  "Wally  Wanderoon,"  "A  Little 
Union  Scout,"  "The  Tar  Baby  Story  and  other  Rhymes 
of  Uncle  Remus,"  etc.     Died,  1908. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  twenty-third  president  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  North  Bend,  O.,  August  20,  1833. 
He  was  a  great-grandson  of  Benjamin  Harrison,  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  grandson  of 
William  Henry  Harrison,  ninth  president  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  graduated  at  Miami  University;  studied 
law  in  Cincinnati;  removed  to  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  in 
1854,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  fine  legal  practice; 
entered  the  Union  Army  in  1862,  serving  with  conspicu- 
ous gallantry  in  the  Atlanta  campaign,  finally  returning 
to  civil  life  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  the  rank  of  brevet 
brigadier-general;  was  the  Republican  candidate  for 
governor  of  Indiana  in  1876,  but  was  defeated;  entered 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1881,  and  June,  1888.  was 
nominated    for  the  presidency  of    the   United    States; 


elected  in  the  ensuing  November  ;  and  inaugurated 
March  4,  1889.  His  administration  was  quiet,  success- 
ful and  measurably  popular.  It  was  marked  by  the 
amicable  settlement  of  the  trouble  with  Chile  and  by  the 
passage  of  the  McKinley  tariff  bill.  In  1892  he  received 
again  the  nomination  in  the  National  Republican  Conven- 
tion, but  by  this  time  the  able  and  persistent  attacks 
of  the  Democracy  on  the  high  tariff  policy  led  to  a  general 
revulsion  against  it,  and  he  was  defeated  at  the  election 
by  Cleveland.  He  thereupon  pursued  a  private  law 
practice,  occasionally  giving  public  addresses.  He  died 
in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  March  13,  1901. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  born  in  1773;  ninth 
President  of  the  United  States,  distinguished  himself  in 
wars  with  the  Indians,  and  in  that  of  1812-14  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  for  some  time  governor  of  the  newly 
formed  Territory  of  Indiana,  and  was  made  in  1828  min- 
ister to  Colombia.  After  his  recall  he  was  an  unsuccess- 
ful candidate  for  the  presidency,  but  was  elected  in  1840 
in  opposition  to  the  Democrat,  Van  Buren,  He  died 
suddenly  in  1841. 

Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  professor  of  history.  Har- 
vard; born  in  Clarksville,  Pa.,  July  1,  1854;  graduated 
at  Harvard,  1880  (Ph.  D.,  Freiburg,  Baden,  1883; 
LL.  D.,  Richmond  College,  1902).  Author:  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Federal  Government,"  "Epoch 
Maps,"  "Formation  of  the  Union,"  "Practical  Essays 
on  American  Government,"  "Studies  in  American  Edu- 
cation," "Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History" 
(with  Edward  Channing),  "Salmon  Portland  Chase," 
"  Handbook  of  the  History,  Diplomacy,  and  Government 
of  the  United  States,"  "Foundations  of  American  For- 
eign Policy,"  "Actual  Government,"  "Essentials  of 
American  History."  Editor:  "Epochs  of  American 
History"  (three  volumes),  "American  History  Told  by 
Contemporaries"  (four  volumes),  "American  Citizen 
Series,"  "Source-Book  of  American  History,"  "Source 
Readers  in  American  History"  (four  volumes),  "The 
American  Nation."  Joint  editor:  "American  History 
Leaflets,"  "Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine,"  "Ameri- 
can History  Review"  since  1895. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret,  American  writer;  born  in 
Albany  in  1839 ;  was  at  different  times  a  miner,  school- 
teacher, printer,  and  editor.  From  1864  to  1870  he  was 
in  San  Francisco  as  secretary  of  the  United  States  Mint, 
where,  in  1870,  he  published  "The  Heathen  Chinee." 
He  was  named  American  consul  at  Crefeld  in  1878,  and 
at  Glasgow  in  1880,  and  after  leaving  the  latter  in  1885, 
lived  in  London.  Chief  among  his  works  are  "  Condensed 
Novels,"  "The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp  and  Other 
Sketches,"  "Poetical  Works,"  "Tales  of  the  Argonauts," 
"The  Twins  of  Table  Mountain  and  Other  Stories," 
"By  Shore  and  Sedge,"  "A  Millionaire  of  Rough  and 
Ready,"  "Devil's  Ford,"  "A  Ward  of  the  Golden  Gate," 
etc.     Died,  1902. 

Harvard,  John,  born  in  1607;  son  of  a  butcher  in 
Southwark,  was  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, a^id  in  1637  married  and  came  to  New  England, 
but  died  next  year  (1638),  and  left  one  half  of  his  estate 
to  be  devoted  to  the  foundation  of  a  college  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  which  subsequently  became  Harvard 
University. 

Harvey,  George  Brinton  McClellan,  editor  of 
"North  American  Keview,"  and  president  of  Harper  & 
Brothers;  born  in  Peacham,  Vt.,  February  16,  1864; 
educated  at  Peacham  Academy;  was  consecutively  re- 
porter "Springfield  Republican,"  " Chicago  J^ews,"  and 
"New  York  World";  managing  editor  "New  York 
World";  insurance  commissioner.  New  Jersey;  colonel 
and  aide-de-camp  of  governors  Green  and  Abbett,  New 
Jersey;  constructor  and  president  of  various  electric 
railroads;  bought  "N6rth  American  Review,"  March, 
1899;  president  of  Harper  &  Brothers,  October,  1900: 
bought  "Metropolitan  Magazine,"  1903. 

Harvey,  William,  born  in  1578,  English  physiolo- 
gist; discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge  and  at  Padua,  and,  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land, became  physician  at  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital 
and  delivered  the  Lumleian  lectures.  His  great  dis- 
covery was  described  in  "  Exercitatio  Anatomica  de 
Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,"  published  in  1628.  He  was 
afterwards  physician  to  Charles  I.  and  warden  of  Merton 
College,  Oxford.     Died,  1657. 

Hastings,  Warren,  born  in  1732;  English  adminis- 
trator in  India;  went  to  Bengal  as  a  writer  in  1750,  but 
was  seven  years  later  appointed  agent  of  the  East  India 
Company  at  the  court  of  the  Nabob  of  Bengal.  In  1764, 
lie  returned  to  England,  where  he  remained  four  years 
studying  Eastern  literature.  On  his  return  to  India  he 
became  a  member  of  the  council  of  Madras,  and  in  1772, 
Governor  of  Bengal,  a  position  which,  in  1774,  became 
that  of  Governor-General  of  India.  He  was  now  in- 
volved in  quarrels  with  his  council,  and  sent  in  his  resig-  • 


444 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


nation,  which,  however,  when  accepted,  he  disavowed. 
The  Supreme  Court  decided  in  his  favor,  and  he  was 
reappointed.  During  his  first  term  of  office  he  sold  the 
vale  of  Rohilcund  to  Sujah  Dowlah  and  obtained  the 
execution  of  Nuncomar,  his  enemy.  During  his  second 
term,  in  order  to  obtain  money,  he  took  those  measures 
against  the  Rajah  of  Benares  and  the  Nabob  of  Oude 
which  were  afterwards  charged  against  him,  but  left  the 
affairs  of  the  company  in  a  very  prosperous  condition. 
Three  years  after  his  return  he  was  impeached  before  the 
lords  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  but,  after  a 
trial  which  proceeded  at  intervals  for  seven  years,  and 
in  spite  of  the  eloquence  of  Burke  and  Sheridan,  he  was 
acquitted  in  1795.  He  was  ruined  by  the  expense,  but 
was  granted  an  annuity  by  the  court  of  directors.  Died, 
1818. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  an  eminent  American, 
romancist,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1804.  He 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825,  and  in  1837 
he  published  his  "Twice-told  Tales,"  —  a  work  highly 
spoken  of  by  the  "North  American  Review."  In  1846, 
he  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the  port  of  Salem,  and  in 
1853,  United  States  Consul  at  Liverpool,  England,  a 
position  he  held  for  four  years.  Hawthorne's  reputation 
will  mainly  rest  upon  "The  Scarlet  Letter,"  "The 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables,"  and  "The  Blithedale  Ro- 
mance," works  of  the  very  highest  order  of  merit.  Died, 
1864. 

Ha^,  John,  an  American  statesman  and  writer; 
born  m  Salem,  Ind.,  1838.  He  was  graduated  from 
Brown  University,  and  settled  in  Illinois  as  a  lawyer,  but 
went  to  Washington  in  1861,  as  one  of  Lincoln's  private 
secretaries,  acting  also  as  his  aide-de-camp.  He  served 
under  generals  Hunter  and  Gillmore  with  the  rank  of 
major  and  assistant  adjutant-general.  He  was  subse- 
quently in  the  United  States  diplomatic  service,  stationed 
at  Paris,  Vienna,  and  Madrid.  In  1897,  he  was  made 
ambassador  to  England,  and  in  1898,  secretary  of  state. 
His  literary  reputation  rests  upon  "Pike  County  Ballads," 
"Castilian  Days,"  a  volume  of  travel;  and  "Life  of 
Abraham  Lincoln"  (with  J.  G.  Nicolay).  As  secretary 
of  state,  Mr.  Hay  gained  a  standing  equal  to  that  of  the 
most  eminent  men  who  have  held  that  high  office.  In 
coolness,  foresight,  and  statesmanlike  appreciation  of 
current  and  coming  events  he  had  no  superior  among 
contemporary  diplomats.     Died,  1905. 

Haydn,  Joseph,  a  celebrated  musical  composer; 
born  in  Austria,  1732,  and  studied  under  Porpora.  In 
1791,  Haydn  produced  in  London  six  grand  symphonies 
followed  at  Vienna,  in  1798,  by  his  "chef-d'cEUvre,"  ".The 
Creation."     Died,  1809. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  the  nineteenth  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  succeeding  Grant,  was  born 
in  Ohio,  1822,  and  practiced  law  in  Cincinnati.  Mar- 
ried, in  1852,  Lucy  Ware  Webb.  He  supported  Scott 
in  1852,  Fremont  in  1856,  and  Lincoln  for  the  presidency. 
He  entered  the  army  as  major  of  the  23d  Ohio  Infantry, 
and  participated  in  the  campaigns  of  West  Virginia  arid 
the  battles  around  Winchester;  was  severely  wounded 
at  South  Mountain;  elected  to  Congress  from  Ohio  in 
1864;  twice  governor  of  Ohio;  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency by  the  Republican  Convention  at  Cincinnati, 
June,  1876,  in  opposition  to  S.  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York; 
took  his  seat  March  4,  1877.     Died,  1893. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  an  American  statesman; 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1791 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1812;  served  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain;  and  at  its 
close  returned  to  his  practice  in  Charleston.  He  sat  in 
the  United  States  Senate  from  1823  to  1832.  He  was  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  protection,  and  in  1832  boldly  sup- 
ported in  Congress  the  doctrine  of  Nullification.  Daniel 
Webster's  reply  ranks  among  his  ablest  speeches.  In 
November,  1832,  South  Carolina  adopted  an  ordinance 
of  nullification,  in  December  Hayne  was  elected  governor, 
and  the  State  prepared  to  resist  the  federal  power  by 
force  of  arms.  A  compromise,  however,  was  agreed  to 
and  the  ordinance  was  repealed.  Hayne  died  September 
24,  1840. 

Hazlitt,  William,  born  in  1778;  critic  and  essayist, 
son  of  a  Nonconformist  minister;  as  an  artist  became 
acquainted  with  Leigh  Hunt  and  Lamb,  and  published 
his  "Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Human  Action,"  after 
which  he  contributed  to  the  "Examiner"  many  essays, 
including  "The  Round  Table,"  "Table  Talk,"  criticisms 
on  "The  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  and  lectured  on  Elizabethan 
dramatists  at  the  Surrey  Institution.  He  also  wrote 
"Characters  of  Shakespere's  Plays,"  "View  of  the  Con- 
temporary English  Stage,"  and  a  "Life  of  Napoleon." 
Died,  1830. 

Hearst,    Phoebe,    philanthropist;      born    in    1840; 
maiden    name   Apperson;    married   in    1861    George   F.  ' 
Hearst,  late  United  States  Senator  from  California,  who 
died   in    1891.     Has   established  and  endowed  five  kin- 


dergarten classes  for  poor  children,  and  a  manual  training 
school  in  San  Francisco;  several  kindergartens,  and  a 
kmdergarten  training  school  in  Washington,  D.  C; 
made  donations  to  the  American  University,  Washington 
and  given  $250,000  to  build  National  Cathedral  School 
for  girls;  has  donated  from  $3,000,000  to  $4,000,000  for 
buildings  for  the  Greater  University  of  California,  having 
previously  paid  the  cost  of  a  competition  of  the  best 
architects  of  America  and  Europe  for  the  plans;  main- 
tains a  school  for  mining  engineers  at  the  University  of 
California  as  a  memorial  to  her  husband;  has  built, 
endowed  and  given  thousands  of  dollars  to  free  libraries, 
established  working  girls'  clubs,  and  done  much  other 
educational  and  charitable  work. 

Hearst,  William  Randolph,  newspaper  publisher; 
born  in  San  Francisco  in  1863;  son  of  late  Senator 
George  F.  and  Phoebe  Apperson  Hearst;  educated  in 
public  schools,  San  Francisco,  and  Harvard.  Editor 
and  proprietor  of  "San  Francisco  Examiner,"  1886; 
bought  "New  York  Journal,"  1895;  later  bought  "Ad- 
vertiser," to  secure  news  franchise,  and  consolidated  it 
with  the  "Journal";  started  "Chicago  American," 
1900.  In  1902,  changed  name  of  morning  issue  in 
Chicago  to  "The  Examiner,"  and  morning  issue  in 
New  York  to  "The  American."  Elected  to  58th  and 
59th  congresses,  11th  New  York  district;  Democrat. 
President  of  National  League  of  Democratic  Clubs. 
Candidate  for  mayor  of  New  York  on  Municipal  Owner- 
ship ticket,  1905;  and  for  governor,  1906.  Promoter 
of  the  Independence  League. 

Hedin,  Sven  Anders,  Swedish  traveler;  born  in 
Stockholm,  1865,  and  educated  at  Stockholm  and  in  Ger- 
many. He  began  his  explorations  in  Persia  in  1885,  and 
has  traveled  through  Khorasan  and  Turkestan,  several 
times  through  Tibet  and  other  parts  of  Central  Asia. 
His  books  include  "Through  Asia,  1898,"  "Central  Asia 
and  Tibet,"  and  "Scientific  Results  of  a  Journey  in  Cen- 
tral Asia,  1899-1902." 

Hegel,  Georg;  Wllhelm  Friedrich  {ha'-gail),  a  Ger- 
man metaphysician;  born  in  Stuttgart,  1770,  became, in 
1801,  a  lecturer  in  Jena  University;  in  1816  entered 
upon  the  professorship  of  philosophy  at  Heidelberg,  and 
two  years  later  filled  a  similar  chair  at  Berlin. 
The  Hegelian  system  of  philosophy  is  looked  upon 
as  an  attempt  to  combine  the  real  and  the  ideal,  and, 
though  perhaps  but  imperfectly  understood  so  far,  it  is 
accounted  in  Germany  as  forming,  or  rather  associating 
together,  the  salient  doctrines  of  the  Pantheistic  school. 
Died,  1831. 

Heine,  Heinrich,  German  poet;  born  in  1799  in  Dtts- 
seldorf  of  Jewish  parents,  and  sent  to  Hamburg  to  prepare 
for  a  commercial  life,  but  preferred  studying  law.  At 
Bonn  he  was  pupil  of  Schlegel,  and  at  Berlin  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Varnhagen  von  Ense.  In  1825,  he 
renounced  Judaism,  and  after  1830  lived  at  Paris,  where 
he  married  Mathilde  Mirat.  He  traveled  much,  but  about 
1847  had  an  attack  of  paralysis,  and  soon  after  became 
blind.  His  chief  works  are  Buch  der  Lieder,"  followed 
by  other  poems;  "Heisebilder,"  "Der  Salon,"  "Ueber 
Borne,"  a  satire;  "Deutschland  ein  Wintermarchen," 
and  "Atta  Troll."     Died,  1856. 

Helmhqltz,  Hermann  Ludwig  Ferdinand,  a  Ger- 
man scientist;  born  in  Potsdam,  1821,  became  professor 
of  physiology  at  Heidelberg,  1858.  He  ranks  among  the 
ablest  of  recent  natural  philosophers;  has  written  many 
profoundly  erudite  treatises  on  the  relations  of  physical 
forces;  and  is  the  inventor  of  the  ophthalmoscope,  an 
instrument  for  the  examination  of  the  ball  of  the  eye. 
Died,  1894. 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea,  nee  Browne,  born  in 
1793;  English  verse- w^riter;  wrote  "Early  Blossoms" 
before  she  was  15,  and  afterwards  "Domestic  Affec- 
tions." "  Hymns  for  Childhood,"  etc.  She  died  in  Dublin, 
1835,  where  she  lived  after  Captain  Hemans  left  her. 

Heney,  Francis  Joseph,  lawyer;  born  in  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  March  17,  1859;  resident  of  San  Francisco  since 
1864;  educated  at  public  primary,  grammar  and  night 
schools,  1866-75,  University  of  California,  1879-80, 
Hastings  Law  School,  1883-84.  Admitted  to  bar,  Sep- 
tember, 1883;  in  cattle  business  in  Arizona,  1885-89; 
conducted  Indian  trader  store.  Fort  Apache,  Arizona, 
1886-88;  practiced  law,  Tucson,  Arizona,  1889-95; 
took  prominent  part  in  litigation  by  which  titles  under 
Mexican  land  grants  in  Arizona  were  settled,  and  in 
argument  of  three  land-grant  cases  before  United  States 
Supreme  Court;  was  attorney-general  of  Arizona,  1893- 
94;  removed  to  San  Francisco,  1895,  and  confined  cases 
to  civil  business  until  urged  by  United  States  Attorney- 
General  Knox  to  undertake  land  fraud  cases  at  Portland, 
Ore.;  discovered  conspiracy  of  United  States  Attorney 
John  H.  Hall  to  protect  guilty  politicians  in  consideration 
of  reappointment;    secured  removal  and  indictment  of 


BIOGRAPHY 


445 


Hall,  and  indictment  of  Senator  Mitchell,  George  C. 
Brownell,  and  others. 

Hennepin,  Louis,  a  French  recollet  friar,  missionary, 
and  traveler  in  North  America;  born  in  Flanders  about 
1640.  At  length  he  embarked  for  Canada  and  arrived  at 
Quebec  in  1675.  Between  that  period  and  1682  he  ex- 
plored the  regions  afterward  called  liouisiana,  and 
returning  to  Europe,  published  an  account  of  his  re- 
searches. The  geographical  portions  of  his  works  are 
feeble  but  they  present  much  interest  as  descriptions  of 
the  manners  of  the  aboriginal  races  which  the  author 
visited.     He  died  in  Utrecht  about  1706. 

Henry  I.,  King  of  England;  born  in  1068,  youngest 
son  of  William  I.,  seized  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
William  II.  (1100),  and  forced  Robert  to  be  content  with 
Normandy,  but  deprived  him  of  this  also  after  the  battle 
of  Tenchebrai;  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm 
III.  and  descendant  of  the  Saxon  kings;  established 
"Justices  in  Eyre,"  the  court  of  exchequer,  and  a 
standard  of  weights  and  measures,  abolished  the  curfew, 
and  compromised  the  Investiture  question  by  an  agree- 
ment with  Paschal  II.  His  charter  was  the  foundation 
of  the  Great  Charter.     Died,  1135. 

Henry  II.,  born  in  1133,  grandson  of  last-named,  and 
son  of  Matilda  and  Geoffrey  Plantagenet;  came  to  the 
throne  in  1154,  having  married  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  (di- 
vorced wife  of  Louis  VII.),  and  acquired  by  the  marriage 
Guienne  and  Poitou;  put  down  private  war  and  juris- 
dictions, and  subdued  the  last  great  feudal  rising,  which 
was  aided  by  William  the  Lion,  of  Scotland,  whom  he  com- 
pelled to  do  homage ;  was  engaged  in  a  long  quarrel  with 
Becket  as  representative  of  the  immunity  of  clerks  from 
civil  jurisdiction,  and  sanctioned  the  first  expedition 
against  Ireland,  afterwards  accepting  the  kingdom. 
His  last  years  were  much  troubled  by  wars  with  his  sons. 
The  most  important  enactments  of  his  reign  were  the 
Assizes  of  Clarendon  and  Northampton,  and  the  Assizes  of 
arms,  besides  the  grant  of  charters  to  towns.  He  was  the 
most  powerful  prince  of  his  time,  was  offered  the  im- 
perial throne,  and  possessed  by  various  titles  the  greater 
part  of  France.     Died,  1189. 

Henry  III.,  born  in  1207,  son  of  John  by  Isabella  of 
Angouleme;  came  to  the  throne  in  1216  when  a  minor, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  long  reign  provoked  much  hostility 
by  his  foreign  favorites  and  his  submission  to  papal 
exactions,  discontent  culminating  in  the  Barons'  War 
(1263-65),  in  which  he  was  defeated  at  Lewes  and  com- 
pelled to  submit  to  control  of  the  government  by  De 
Montfort  and  his  friends.  These,  however,  quarreled 
among  themselves,  and  al  Evesham,  De  Montfort  was 
defeated  and  slain.  During  this  reign  the  Great  Charter 
(with  important  clauses  omitted)  was  frequently  renewed, 
and  Westminster  Abbey  was  almost  entirely  built. 
Died,  1272. 

Henry  VII.,  born  about  1457;  first  of  the  Tudor 
Dynasty,  son  of  Edmund  Tudor  and  Margaret  Beaufort, 
a  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt;  invaded  England  in 
1485,  and  defeated  Richard  III.  at  Bosworth,  after 
which  he  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  three  Yorkist  risings,  which  he 
defeated,  by  the  measures  he  enforced  against  the  nobles, 
by  his  system  of  marriages  with  foreign  princes,  and  the 
enactment  of  Poyning's  law.     Died,  1509. 

Henry  VIII.,  born  in  1491;  son  of  Henry  VII., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1509;  married  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  wife  of  his  deceased  brother,  his  divorce  from 
whom  was  the  proximate  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
Papal  jurisdiction  was  renounced,  more  especially  by 
the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  of  Appeals,  but  the  king 
was  strongly  averse  to  doctrinal  changes.  The  early 
years  of  the  reign  were  marked  by  a  war  with  France, 
in  which  Henry  took  part  in  person ;  attempts  at  union 
with  Scotland  were  made,  but  defeated  by  French  and 
papal  influence;  a  system  of  balance  was  maintained  in 
foreign  relations;  a  large  amount  of  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty was  annexed  to  the  Crown,  which  gained  complete 
control  over  the  Church :  the  rising  called  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  was  suppressed;  and  the  king  became  prac- 
tically absolute,  being  granted  by  parliament  the  right 
of  making  laws  by  proclamation,  and  of  settling  the 
succession  in  his  will.     Died,  1547. 

Henry  II.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  1519;  son  of 
Francis  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1547.  By  his  alliance 
with  the  German  Protestants,  he  acquired  Metz,  Toul, 
and  Verdun,  while  he  also  regainecl  Calais  from  the 
English.  He  carried  on  his  father's  war  with  Spain 
with  some  success  until  the  disaster  at  St.  Quentin,  and 
died  (1559)  of  a  wound  inflicted  in  a  tournament  held 
to  celebrate  its  conclusion  by  the  marriage  of  his  daugh- 
ter and  Philip  II.  , 

Henry  IV.,  of  France,  was  born  in  1553;  as  son 
of  Anthony  of  Navarre,  a  descendant  of  Louis  IX., 
was  founder  of  the  Bourbon  Dynasty,  succeeding  Henry 


III.  in  1589.  His  marriage  with  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
in  1572,  was  the  occasion  of  the  Bartholomew  massa- 
cres. In  1576,  he  quitted  the  court  and  became  leader 
of  the  Huguenots  and  opponent  of  the  League,  being 
the  rival  of  the  tluises  for  the  succession.  He  defeated 
them  at  Arques  and  Ivry,  but  was  unable  to  conquer 
Paris  without  becoming  a  Roman  Catholic,  which  he 
did  in  1593.  He  concluded  peace  with  Philip  II.  at 
Vervins,  and  issued  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  rest  of 
his  reign  was  occupied  by  domestic  reforms.  He  was 
assassinated  by  Ravaillac.     Died,  1610. 

Henry  IV.,  of  Germany,  born  in  1050;  son  of 
Henry  III.,  began  the  Investiture  disputes  with  the 
papacy,  in  the  course  of  which  he  deposed  Gregory  VII., 
but  was  himself  excommunicated  and  deposed,  and  was 
obliged  to  submit  at  Canossa  in  1077,  but,  in  1084, 
again  invaded  Italy,  and  captured  Rome.  In  Germany 
he  had  enemies  in  Rudolf  of  Swabia  (whom  he  defeated 
finally  at  Wolksheim  in  1080),  in  the  Saxons,  and  in 
his  sons,  Conrad  and  Henry,  by  the  latter  of  whom  he 
was  dethroned.     Died,  1106. 

Henry,  Joseph,  an  eminent  American  physicist; 
born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1797;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  at  Princeton,  in  1832;  and,  in  1846,  was  called 
to  the  office  of  secretary  or  director  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  at  Washington,  to  the  organization  and  wide 
reputation  of  which  he  had  mostly  contributed.  Henry 
made  most  important  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism. 
Died,  1878. 

llenry,  Patrick,  born  in  Virginia  in  1736;  American 
orator  and  statesman;  practiced  as  an  advocate  in 
Virginia,  where  he  first  came  into  prominence  in 
1763,  by  his  pleading  in  the  case  of  clerical  incomes; 
was  an  active  opponent  of  the  Stamp  Act,  and  the 
chief  leader  of  the  revolution  in  Virginia,  being  more 
extreme  in  his  views  than  Washington.  He  was  for 
some  years  governor  of  his  State,  during  which  he 
opposed  the  Federal  Constitution  as  not  democratic 
enough.  He  was  an  eloquent  but  reckless  speaker,  and 
was  obliged  to  resume  his  profession  in  order  to  cover 
his  heavy  debts.     Died,  1799. 

Hepburn,  William  Peters,  congressman;  born  in 
Wellsville,  O.,  November  4,  1833;  taken  to  Iowa  Terri- 
tory, April,  1841;  educated  in  local  schools  and  in  a 
printing  office;  admitted  to  bar,  1854;  in  Union  army, 
1861-65;  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant-colonel,  2d 
Iowa  cavalry;  presidential  elector,  1876  and  1888; 
member  of  Congress,  1881-87,  and  1893-1909.  He 
was  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Interstate  and  Foreign 
Commerce,  and  author  of  the  Hepburn  Bill  to  regulate 
interstate  commerce. 

Herbert,  Victor,  conductor,  composer;  born  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  February  1,  1859.  Began  musical  edu- 
cation in  Germany  at  7,  studying  under  leading  masters ; 
first  position  of  prominence  that  of  principal  violoncello 
player  in  court  orchestra,  Stuttgart;  heard  in  concerts 
throughout  Europe  before  coming  to  the  United  States 
as  solo  violoncellist  in  Metropolitan  Orchestra,  New 
York,  1886;  since  then  has  been  connected  with  Theo- 
dore "Thomas's,  Seidl's,  and  other  orchestral  organizations 
as  soloist  and  conductor.  Bandmaster  of  22d  Regiment 
Band,  New  York,  since  1894;  conductor  of  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  Orchestra,  1898-1904;  Victor  Herbert's  New  York 
Orchestra  since  1904.  Composer:  " The  Captive  "  (ora- 
torio written  for  and  performed  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
Festival) ;  "  Prince  Ananias,"  "The  Wizard  of  the  Nile," 
"The  Serenade,"  "Cyrano  de  Bergerac,"  "The  Ameer," 
"The  Viceroy,"  "The  Idol's  Eye,"  "The  Fortune  Teller," 
"The  Singing  Girl,"  "Babette,"  "Babes  in  Toyland," 
"It  Happened  in  Nordland  "  (all  comic  operas).  Also 
several  compositions  for  orchestra,  songs,  and  a  concert 
for  violoncello  and  orchestra. 

Herod  the  Great,  born  in  62  B.  C;  King  of  Judaea; 
put  to  death  his  wife,  Mariamne,  and  two  sons;  massa- 
cred the  children  of  Bethlehem,  and  rebuilt  the  Temple. 
Died,  4  B.  C. 

Herodotus,  born  in  Halicarnassus,  in  Caria,  484 
B.  C;  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  usually  called  "the 
Father  of  History."  His  great  work,  for  which  he  ap- 
pears to  have  collected  the  materials  during  long  travel, 
is  believed  to  have  been  written  at  Thurii.  It  comes 
down  to  478  B.  C;  and,  except  for  the  author's  love  of 
the  marvelous,  his  history  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
trustworthy  of  all  ancient  histories,  while  in  the  grace 
of  its  style  it  is  unrivaled.  The  best  English  translation 
of  Herodotus  is  probably  that  by  Canon  Rawlinson 
(1858-60).      Died,  in  Thurii,  in  Italy,  about  424  B.  C. 

Herschel,  William,  Sir,  an  eminent  astronomer; 
born  in  Hanover,  in  1738,  and  died  in  1822.  Most 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  England.  John  Frederick  Wil- 
liam, his  son,  who  was  also  distinguished  in  the  same 
line,  was  born  in  England  in  1792,  and  died  in  1871. 


446 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Hezekiah,  son  of  Ahaz,  ascended  the  throne  of 
Judah  in  726  B.  C.  He  uprooted  idolatry,  and  ob- 
tained the  help  of  God  against  the  Assyrians  under 
Sennacherib,  who  had  invaded  his  dominions.  Died, 
697  B.  C. 

Higeinson,  Henry  Lee,  banker;  born  in  New  York, 
November  18,  1834;  entered  Harvard,  1851,  but  did 
not  complete  course.  Employ^  in  counting-house  of 
S.  &  E.  Austin,  Boston;  then  went  to  Vienna;  studied 
music;  served  in  United  States  volunteers  in  Civil  War, 
becoming  major  and  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  of  1st 
Massachusetts  cavalry;  severely  wounded  at  Aldie,  Va., 
June,  1863 ;  later  of  Lee,  Higginson  &  Company,  bankers, 
Boston.  He  has  devoted  a  considerable  sum  to  organ- 
ization of  a  symphony  orchestra  in  Boston. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  American  writer; 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1823;  at  first  a -Unitarian 
minister,  entered  keenly  into  the  movement  against 
slavery,  and  was  severely  wounded  during  the  Civil 
War.  Among  his  works  are  "Malbone:  an  Oldport 
Romance,"  and  "Oldport  Days,"  "Harvard  Memorial 
Biographies,"  "Brief  Biographies  of  European  States- 
men," "Common-sense  About  Women,"  and  "Women 
and  Men,"  "Part  of  a  Man's  Life,"  and  many  other 
books. 

Hildretb,  Richard,  born  in  1807;  American  his- 
torian; author  of  a  "History  of  the  United  States," 
"Japan  as  It  Was  and  Is,"  "The  White  Slave,"  a  novel; 
was  for  some  time  consul  at  Trieste.     Died,  1865. 

Hill,  David  Jayne,  diplomat;  born  in  Plainfield, 
N.  J.,  June  10,  1850;  graduate  of  Bucknell  University, 
Pa.,  1874;  A.  M.  (LL.  D.,  Colgate,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Union) ;  student  in  Universities  of  Berlin  and 
Paris.  President  of  Bucknell  University,  1879-88; 
president  of  University  of  Rochester,  1888-96;  resigned ; 
spent  nearly  three  years  in  study  of  public  law  of  Europe ; 
professor  of  European  displomacy  in  School  of  Compar- 
ative Jurisprudence  and  Diplomacy,  Washington. 
Assistant  secretary  of  state  of  United  States,  1898-1903, 
envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  of 
United  States  to  Switzerland,  1903-05;  to  the  Nether- 
lands, 190o-<)7;  ambassador  to  Germany  since  1908. 
Author:  "  Life  of  Washington  Irving,"  "  Life  of  William 
CuUen  Bryant,"  "Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  "Science  of 
Rhetoric,  "Elements  of  Psychology,"  "Social  Influ- 
ence of  Christianity,"  "  Principles  and  Fallacies  of 
Socialism',"  "Genetic  Philosophy,"  "International  Jus- 
tice," "A  Primer  of  Finance,"  "The  Conception  and 
Realization  of  Neutrality,"  "The  Life  and  Work  of 
Hugo  Grotius,"  "The  Contemporary  Development  of 
Diplomacy,"  "A  History  of  Diplomacy  in  the  Inter- 
national Development  of  Europe."  Also  numerous 
political  pamphlets  in  English  anci  German,  and  printed 
addresses. 

Hill,  James  J.,  railway  magnate ;  born  near  Guelph, 
Ont..  September  16,  1838;  Scotch-Irish  descent;  edu- 
cated in  Rockwood  Academy;  left  his  father's  farm  for 
business  life  in  Minnesota;  was  in  steamboat  offices  in 
St.  Paul,  1856-65;  agent  of  Northwestern  Packet  Com- 
pany, 1865;  later  established  general  fuel  and  transpor- 
tation business  on  his  own  account;  head  of  Hill,  Griggs 
&  Company,  same  line,  1869-75;  established,  1870, 
Red  River  Transportation  Company,  which  was  first  to 
open  communication  between  St.  Paul  and  Winnipeg; 
organized,  1875,  the  Northwestern  Fuel  Company,  and 
three  years  later  sold  out  his  interest,  in  the  meantime 
having  organized  a  syndicate  which  secured  control  of 
the  St.  Paul  &  Pacific  Railroad,  from  Dutch  owners  of 
the  securities;  reorganized  system  as  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
apolis &  Manitoba  Railway  Company,  and  was  its 
general  manager,  1879-82;  vice-president,  1882-83; 
president  1883-90;  it  became  part  of  Great  Northern 
system,  1890;  interested  himself  in  building  the  Great 
Northern  Railway,  extending  from  Lake  Superior  to 
Puget  Sound,  with  northern  and  southern  branches, 
and  a  direct  steamship  connection  with  China  and 
Japan,  1883-93 ;  presiaent  of  entire  Great  Northern 
system,  1893-1907.  Gave  $500,000  toward  establishing 
Roman  Catholic  Theological  Seminary  at  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie,  statesman;  born  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  August  29,  1826;  graduated  from  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1846,  and  afterwards  from  the  Dane  Law  School. 
Harvard.  He  practiced  law  at  Worcester,  was  elected 
to  the  State  Legislature  in  1852,  to  the  State  Senate  in 
1857;  was  member  of  Congress  1869-77,  and  United 
States  Senator  from  1877  until  his  death.  He  has  left 
valuable  memoirs  of  his  observations  during  his  long 
career.     Died  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  September  30,  1904. 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  philosopher;  born  in  Malmes- 
bury  in  1588,  and  educated  at  Oxford;  met  Descartes 
and  Gassendi  at  Paris  when  tutor  to  members  of  the 
Devonshire  family;    waa  afterwards  mathematical  tutor 


to  Prince  Charles  (Charles  II.).  He  received  a  pension 
at  the  Restoration,  but  his  chief  works  were  censured 
by  parliament;  these  were  "The  Leviathan"  and  "  De 
Cive."  He  also  wrote  "Behemoth,"  a  history  of  the 
Civil  War.     Died  in  1679. 

Hobson,  Ricliraond  Pearson,  congressman;  born 
in  Greensboro,  Ala.,  August  17,  1870;  graduated  from 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  1889;  also  student  at 
Ecole  National  Superieur  des  Mines  and  ficole  d'Appli- 
cation  du  Gdnie  Maritime,  Paris.  Served  on  flagship 
"New  York"  in  blockade  duty,  in  bombardment  of  Man- 
tanzas,  in  expedition  against  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico; 
commanded  collier  "  Merrimac  "  and  sunk  her  in  Santiago 
harbor;  prisoner  in  Spanish  fortress,  June  3d  to  July  6, 
1898;  inspector  of  Spanish  wrecks;  in  charge  of  opera- 
tions to  save  same;  success  with  "Teresa"  ;  on  duty  in  far 
East,  1899-1900;  directed  reconstruction  at  Hong-Kong  of 
three  Spanish  gunboats — ' '  Isla  de  Cuba, ' ' ' '  Isla  de  Luzon ," 
and  "Don  Juan  de  Austria";  in  charge  of  construction 
department,  Cavite,  P.  I.;  special  representative  Navy 
Department,  Pan-American  Exposition,  1901,  Charles- 
ton Exposition,  1901-02;  superintending  naval  construc- 
tion, Crescent  shipyard,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  May-June, 
1902;  resigned  from  United  States  Navy,  February  6, 
1903,  and  elected  to  Congress  from  the  sixth  Alabama 
district,  1907.  Author:  "A  Study  of  the  Situation  and 
Outlook  in  Europe,"  "The  Disappearing  Gun  Afloat," 
"The  Yacht  Defender,  and  the  Use  of  Aluminum  in 
Marine  Construction,"  "The  Sinking  of  the  Merrimac," 
"  Why  America  Should  Hold  Naval  Supremacy,"  "  Para- 
mount Importance  of  Immediate  Naval  Expansion," 
"America  Must  be  Mistress  of  the  Seas." 

Hodges,  George,  dean.  Episcopal  Theology  School, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  since  1894;  born  in  Rome,  N.  Y., 
October  6,  1856;  graduated  from  Hamilton,  1877  (A.  M., 
1882;  D.  D.,  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1892; 
D.  C.  L.,  Hobart,  1902);  ordained  deacon,  1881;  priest, 
1882;  assistant,  1881-89;  rector,  1889-94,  Calvary 
Church,  Pittsburgh.  Author:  "The  Episcopal  Church," 
"Christianity  Between  Sundays,"  "The  Heresy  of  Cain," 
"In  This  Present  World,"  "Faith  and  Social  Service," 
"The  Battles  of  Peace,"  "The  Path  of  Life,"  "William 
Penn"  (Riverside  Biographical  Series),  "Fountains 
Abbey,"  "The  Human  Nature  of  the  Saints,"  "When 
the  King  Came,"  "The  Cross  and  Passion." 
_  Hoe,  Robert,  manufacturer,  inventor;  born  in  New 
York,  1839;  educated  at  public  schools;  entered  print- 
ing press  factory  of  R.  Hoe  &  Company,  founded  by 
his  grandfather  Robert.  He  developed  the  printing 
press  from  the  "Hoe  cylinder"  of  the  1846  patent  to  the 
present  double-sextuple  Hoe,  and  also  presses  of  greatly 
improved  type  for  printing  in  colors;  also  manufacturer 
of  circular  saws  and  saw-bits.  Had  large  factories  in 
New  York  and  London.  One  of  founders  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art.     Died,  1909. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  jurist;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  8,  1841;  graduated  from  Harvard,  1861; 
Harvard  Law  School,  1866  (LL.  D.,-1895;  Yale,  1886); 
served  three  years  20th  Massachusetts  volunteers; 
wounded  in  breast  at  Ball's  Bluff,  October  21,  1861,  in 
neck  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  in  foot  at  Marye's 
Hill,  Fredericksburg,  May  3,  1863.  Engaged  in  practice 
in  Boston;  editor  "American  Law  Review,"  1870-73; 
member  law  firm  of  Shattuck,  Holmes  &  Munroe,  1873- 
82;  professor  of  law.  Harvard  Law  School,  1882;  as- 
sociate justice,  1882-99,  chief  justice,  1899-1902,  Su- 
preme Judicial  Court,  Massachusetts;  associate  justice 
Supreme  Court  of  United  States  since  December  4,  1902. 
Author:  "The  Common  Law"  (lectures  at  Lowell  In- 
stitute), "Speeches,"  etc.  Edited:  I' Kent's  Commen- 
taries" (twelfth  edition). 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1809;  a  distinguished  American  author  and  man  of 
letters.  He  published  one  or  two  novels,  besides 
essays  and  poems,  but  is  best  known  for  his  three  works, 
"The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  "The  Professor 
at  the  Breakfast  Table,"  and  "The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast 
Table."  These  first  appeared  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly," 
and  are  full  of  a  quaint  knowledge,  breadth  of  thought, 
and  genial  humor  which  will  keep  them  favorites  wher- 
ever the  English  language  isspoken.  Died,  October  7, 1894. 

Hoist,  Hermann  Eduard  von,  a  German-American 
historian;  born  in  Fellin,  Livonia,  Russia,  June  19,  1841. 
Coming  to  the  United  States  in  1866,  he  engaged  in 
literary  work  and  lecturing;  he  returned  to  Europe, 
becoming  professor  in  the  universities  of  Strasburg  (1872), 
and  Freiburg  (1874);  appointed  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  (1892),  he  came  to  this  country  again. 
He  has  written:  "Constitutional  and  Political  History 
of  the  United  States,"  "Constitutional  Law  of  the  United 
States,"  "Life  of  John  Calhoun,"  etc.     Died,  1904. 

Homer,  the  greatest  name  in  epic  poetry,  has  come 
down  to  us  as,  unfortunately,  little  better  than  a  name. 


BIOGRAPHY 


447 


and  many  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  Homeric  poetry 
hardly  leave  us  even  the  name.  The  traditions  agree 
in  making  Homer  an  Asiatic  Greek,  probably  born  at 
Smyrna  about  the  year  850  B.  C.  He  is  represented 
as  blind,  and  as  reciting  his  poems  from  place  to  place. 
All  scholars  agree  that  the  poems  were  not  written,  but 
handed  down  from' memory,  as  there  is  little  evidence 
that  writing  was  practiced  at  so  early  a  period.  One 
theory  of  their  authorship  is  that  they  are  the  work  or 
compilation  of  a  company  of  poets,  or  Homeric  guild, 
who  composed,  collected,  and  handed  down  in  this  form 
these  legends  of  early  history.  The  Iliad  and  the 
Odysseu  are  sometimes  referred  also  to  different  writers, 
and  sometimes  to  the  early  and  later  periods  of  Homer's 
genius.  They  are  the  greatest  epics  of  any  age;  the 
Iliad  is  called  the  "beginning  of  literature." 

Hopkins,  Mark,  born  in  1802;  American  education- 
ist, prmcipal  of  Williams  College  from  1836  to  1872,  and 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  wrote  "The  Law  of  Love 
and  Love  as  a  Law,"  and  "An  Outline  Study  of  Man." 
Among  his  pupils  was  President  Garfield.     Died,  1887. 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  born  in  1737 ;  American  writer, 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence; 
wrote  "The  Battle  of  the  Kegs"  (1778),  "The  Pretty 
Story"  (1774),  "The  Political  Catechism"  (1777),  and 
other  works  in  prose  and  verse.  His  son,  Joseph  (died 
in  1842),  judge  of  the  United  States  District  Court,  wrote 
"  Hail  Columbia  I  "     Died,  1791. 

Horace,  Quintus  Horatius  Flaccu.s,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  Latin  poets,  born  at  Venusia,  65-  B.  C, 
studied  at  Rome  under  Orbilius  Pupillus,  and  com- 
pleted his  education  at  Athens.  He  then  joined  the 
Roman  army,  and  fought  under  Brutus  at  Philippi; 
thereby  occasioning  the  confiscation  of  his  patrimonial 
estate.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  embraced  literature 
as  a  profession,  and  was  so  fortunate  as  to  find  a  liberal 
and  life-long  patron  in  Maecenas.  His  poetical  works 
consist  of  odes,  satires,  and  epistles  —  all  replete  with 
elegance  of  diction  and  perfect  propriety  of  thought  and 
expression,  and  withal  pervaded  by  a  certain  atmos- 
phere of  calm  and  well-bred  philosophy,  that  renders 
them  irresistibly  attractive  to  the  minds  and  tastes  of 
cultivated  men.     Died,  8  B.C. 

Hornaday,  William  Temple,  director  of  the  New 
York  Zoological  Park  since  1896;  born  in  Plainfield,  Ind., 
December  1,  1854;  educated  at  Iowa  Agricultural  Col- 
lege; studied  zoology  and  muscology  in  this  country  and 
Europe;  as  collecting  zoologist,  visited  Cuba,  Florida, 
the  West  Indies,  South  America,  India,  Ceylon,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  Borneo,  1875-79;  married  September  11, 
1879,  Josephine  Chamberlain,  Battle  Creek,  Mich. 
Chief  taxidermist  United  States  National  Museum,  1882- 
90;  in  real  estate  business  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1890-96. 
Author:  "Two  Years  in  the  Jungle,"  "Free  Rum  on  the 
Congo,"  "The  Extermination  of  the  American  Bison," 
"Taxidermy  and  Zoological  Collecting,"  "The  Man  Who 
Became  a  Savage,"  "Guide  to  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park,"  "The  American  Natural  History,"  "Campfires 
on  Desert  and  Lava,"  etc. 

Hosmer,  Harriet,  American  sculptor;  born  in  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  1830,  was  a  pupil  of  Gibson  at  Rome,  and 
executed  bust  of  "Daphne,"  "CEnone,"  "Beatrice  Cenci," 
and  "Zenobia  in  Chains."  She  devised  a  method  for 
converting  Italian  limestone  into  marble.     Died,  1908. 

Houston,  Sam,  an  American  general,  was  born  in 
Virginia,  1793.  He  entered  Congress  in  1823,  and  four 
years  later  became  governor  of  Tennessee.  After 
emigrating  to  Texas  in  1832,  he  was  elected  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  which  defeated  the  Mexicans 
under  Santa  Ana  at  San  Jacinto,  April  21,  1836.  He 
was  elected  president  of  Texas  the  same  year,  and  re- 
elected in  1841.  After  the  admission  of  Texas  into  the 
Union  as  a  State,  Houston  twice  represented  her  in  the 
National  Senate,  and  filled  the  gubernatorial  chair  in 
1859.     Died,  1863. 

Howard,  John,  a  noted  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
Hackney,  Middlesex,  1726.  Howard  was  left  in  easy 
circumstances  at  his  father's  death.  A  bitter  experience 
as  a  French  prisoner-  of  war  and  observations  made 
whilst  acting  as  sheriff  of  Bedfordshire  roused  him  to 
attempt  some  reform  of  the  abuses  and  misery  of  prison 
life;  he  made  a  tour  of  the  county  jails  of  England,  and 
the  mass  of  information  which  he  laid  before  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1774  brought  about  the  first  prison  reforms; 
he  continued  his  visitations  from  year  to  year  to  every 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  to  every  quarter  of  the 
continent;  during  1785-87,  he  made  a  tour  of  inspection 
through  the  principal  lazarettos  of  Europe,  visited  plague- 
smitten  cities,  and  voluntarily  underwent  the  rigors  of 
the  quarantine  system,  and  finally  died,  1790,  at  the 
Crimea  whilst  on  a  journey  to  the  East.  He  published 
at  various  times  accounts  of  his  journeys.     His  deep 


piety,  cool  sense,  and  single-hearted  devotedness  to  his 
one  great  object  won  him  universal  respect  throughout 
Europe. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  an  American  author;  born  in 
New  York  City,  May  27,  1819.  A  philanthropist, 
interested  especially  in  woman's  suffrage,  she  was  the 
wife  of  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  the  philanthropist,  and  with 
him  edited  the  anti-slavery  journal,  the  "Boston  Com- 
monwealth." She  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the 
"Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic"  written  during  a  visit 
to  the  camps  near  Washington.  Among  her  works, 
besides  several  volumes  of  verse,  are:  "The  World's 
Own,"  a  drama;  "Life  of  Margaret  Fuller."    Died,  1910. 

Howell,  Clark,  editor;  born  in  Barnwell  County, 
S.  C,  September  21,  1863;  has  lived  in  Atlanta,  Ga., 
from  infancy;  graduated  from  University  of  Georgia, 
June,  1883.  Entered  newspaper  work,  succeeding  Henry 
Grady  as  managing  editor,  "Atlanta  Constitution,"  in 
1889,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  editor-in-chief  in  1897. 
In  1901  bought  out  Colonel  W.  A.  Hemphill's  stock  in 
"Constitution"  and  8uc(feeded  him  as  president  of  the 
company.  Member  of  Georgia  House  of  Representatives 
six  years  (speaker,  1890-91);  member  from  Georgia  of 
Democratic  National  Committee  since  1892 ;  member 
and  .president  of  Georgia  Senate,  Atlanta  district,  1900- 
06;  director  of  Associated  Press  of  America  since  1897. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  American  novelist,  born 
in  Martins  Ferry,  Ohio,  1837;  was  United  States  consul 
at  Venice  from  1861  to  1865.  From  1872  to  1881  he 
edited  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  but  soon  began  to  devote 
his  time  to  novel-writing.  Chief  among  his  novels  are 
"The  Lady  of  the  Aroostook,"  "A  Modern  Instance," 
"A  Fearful  Responsibility,"  etc.,  and  "The  Shadow  of  a 
Dream."  He  also  wrote  lives  of  Lincoln  and  Hayes, 
'-Modern  Italian  Poets,"  and  some  poems. 

Hubbard,  Elbert,  author,  journalist,  lecturer;  born 
in  Bloomington,  111.,  1859;  common  school  education. 
Editor  "The  Philistine";  proprietor  "The  Roycroft 
Shop,"  devoted  to  making  de  luxe  editions  of  the  classics. 
Author:  "No  Enemy  but  Himself,"  "Little  Journeys 
to  Homes  of  Good  Men  and  Great,"  "Little  Journeys  to 
the  Homes  of  American  Authors,"  "Little  Journeys  to 
the  Homes  of  Famous  Women,"  "Little  Journeys  to 
the  Homes  of  American  Statesmen,"  "Little  Journeys 
to  the  Homes  of  Eminent  Painters,"  "All  Baba  of 
East  Aurora,"  "As  it  Seems  to  Me,"  "A  Message  to 
Garcia,"  "."Time  and  Chance,"  "The  Legacy,"  "Forbes 
of  Harvard,"  "One  Day,"  "A  Tale  of  the  Prairies," 
"Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  English  Authors,"  "Little 
Journeys  to  Homes  of  Great  Musicians,"  "  Little  Journeys 
to  Homes  of  Eminent  Orators,"  "Little  Journeys  to 
Homes  of  Eminent  Artists,"  "Little  Journeys  to  Homes 
of  Great  Philosophers,"  "Old  John  Burroughs,"  "Con- 
templations," "(Consecrated  Lives,"  "The  Man  of  Sor- 
rows." 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans,  lawyer;  born  in  Glens 
Falls,  N.  Y..  April  11,  1862;  graduate  from  Brown  Uni- 
versity, 1»81,  A.  M.,  1884;  graduated  from  Columbia 
Law  School,  1884.  Teacher  Delaware  Academy,  Delhi. 
N.  Y.,  1881-82;  admitted  to  New  York  bar,  June,  1884; 
practiced  in  New  York,  1884-91;  prize  fellow  Columbia 
Law  School,  1884-87;  professor  of  law  (contracts, 
evidence,  etc.),  Cornell  University  School  of  Law, 
1891-93;  active  practice  in  New  York,  1893-1906; 
special  lecturer  at  Cornell  University  School  of  Law, 
1893-95,  New  York  LJiw  School,  1893-1900.  Trustee 
of  Brown  University;  member  of  law  firm  Hughes, 
Rounds  &  Schurman;  Republican  nominee  for  mayor. 
New  York,  1905,  but  dechned;  attorney  for  Armstrong 
Commission  of  New  York  Legislature,  investigating 
methods  of  large  life  insurance  companies.  Governor  of 
New  York,  1906-10;  justice  of  Supreme  Court,  1910. 

Hughes,  Thomas,  born  in  1823,  English  writer; 
educated  under  Arnold  at  Rugby,  and  at  Oriel;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1848,  and  sat  in  parliament  as  a 
liberal  for  Lambeth  (1865-68),  and  Frome  (1868-74). 
He  became  Queen's  counsel  in  1869,  and  county  court 
judge  in  1882.  His  chief  works  are  "Tom  Brown's 
School  Days,"  "Tom  Brown  at  Oxford',"  and  "A  Memoir 
of  Daniel  Macmillan."     Died,  1896. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  French  poet  and  romance 
writer;  born  of  noble  parents  in  Besangon,  1802;  began 
to  write  verse  at  the  age  of  14,  and  soon  deserting  classic 
models,  became  the  founder,  with  Sainte-Beuve  and 
others,  of  the  French  romantic  school.  In  like  manner 
his  early  royalism  gave  place  to  ardent  republicanism. 
"Cromwell,"  "  Le  Dernier  Jour  d'un  Condamnf?,"  "Marion 
Delorme,"  and,  above  all,  "Hernani,"  were  strongly 
censured  by  the  Academic;  but  Charles  X.  would  not 
prohibit  the  performance  of  the  last.  "  Le  Roi  s' Amuse," 
was,  however,  interdicted  by  the  ministry.  Between  the 
years   1830-40  appeared  also  "Notre-Dame  de  Paris," 


448 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


and  several  volumes  of  verse,  and  the  poet  was  elected 
to  the  Acad^mie  in  1841.  In  1845  he  also  became  "pair 
de  France."  In  1848,  he  was  elected  by  Paris  to  the 
Constitutional  Assembly,  and  acted  with  the  moderates, 
but  in  the  next  Assembly  he  became  one  of  the  orators 
of  the  left,  and,  having  attempted  to  resist  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Louis  Napoleon,  was  banished  in  I80I.  He 
lived  chiefly  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  and  wrote  "Les 
Contemplations"  and  "La  L^gendes  des  Si^cles."  He 
refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  amnesties  of  1859  and 
1869,  but  returned  to  Paris  in  1870.  In  1866,  appeared 
"Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer,"  and,  after  the  return, 
"  Quatre-vingt  Treize,"  "L'Histoire  d'un  Crime,"  and 
many  other  works.  "Hernani"  was  revived  in  1867, 
and  Hugo  became  a  senator  in  1876.  He  was  buried  in 
the  Pantheon,  which  was  secularized  for  the  purpose. 
Chief  among  his  lyrics  were  his  earlv  "Odes  et  Ballades," 
"Les  Feuilles  d'  Automne,"  "Les  Chants  du  Cr^puscule," 
"Les  Rayons  et  les  Ombres,"  and  "Chansons  des  Rues 
et  des  Bois."  The  romance  "Les  Mis^rables,"  was  trans- 
lated into  many  languages.     Died,  1885. 

Hull,  Isaac,  an  American  naval  officer;  born  in 
Derby,  Conn.,  March  9,  1773.  In  July,  1812,  he  com- 
manded the  frigate  "Constitution,"  which  was  chased 
by  a  British  squadron  for  three  days,  but  escaped  by 
skillful  sailing.  While  cruising  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence he  met  the  British  frigate  "Guerri^re,"  which, 
after  a  bloody  fight  of  half  an  hour,  surrendered,  August 
19,  1812.  The  "Gue^ri^re"  was  so  injured  in  the  battle 
that  she  soon  sank.  The  British  ship  lost  nearly  100 
men;  the  "Constitution"  had  fourteen  men  killed  and 
wounded,  and  within  an  hour  or  so  was  ready  for  an- 
other fight.  This  was  the  first  naval  battle  of  the  War 
of  1812,  and  Congress  gave  Captain  Hull  a  gold  medal 
for  his  services.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  February 
13,  1843. 

Hutn'boldt.Friedrich  Heinrich  Alex.,  Baron  von, 

§reat  traveler  and  naturalist,  born  in  Berlin,  1769, 
evoted  all  his  life  to  the  study  of  nature  in  all  its  de- 
partments, traveling  all  over  the  continent,  and  in  1799, 
with  Aim6  Bonpland  for  companion,  visiting  South 
America,  traversing  the  Orinoco,  and  surveying  and 
mapping  out  in  the  course  of  five  years,  Venezuela, 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Mexico,  the  results  of 
which  he  published  in  his  "Travels."  His  chief  work  is 
the  "Kosmos,"  or  an  account  of  the  visible  universe,  in 
four  volumes,  originally  delivered  as  lectures  in  Paris  in 
the  winter  of  1827-28.  He  was  a  friend  of  Goethe,  who 
held  him  in  the  highest  esteem.     Died,  1859. 

Hume,  David  (hum),  an  eminent  historian,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  1711;  after  laying  the  basis  of  a  great  literary 
reputation  by  his  "Treatise  of  Human  Nature,"  pro- 
duced "Essays, Moral, Political,  and  Literary,"  and  other 
works.  His  celebrated  "History  of  England,"  pub- 
lished between  the  years  1754  and  1761,  for  two  genera- 
tions esteemed  the  ablest  work  of  its  class,  was  consid- 
ered by  many  critics  open  to  objection  on  the  score  of 
skepticism  and  undue  partiality.     Died,  1776. 

Hunter,  John,  the  most  eminent  English  anato- 
mist of  motlern  times;  born  near  Glasgow-'in  1728; 
became  surgeon  of  St.  George's  Hospital,  London,  and 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  acquired  high  celeb- 
rity by  his  discoveries  in  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology.     Died,  1793. 

Huss,  or  Hus,  Johann,  born  probably  in  1369; 
Bohemian  reformer,  attacked  abuses  in  Prague  Univer- 
sity and  among  the  clergy,  and  opposed  German  predomi- 
nance. He  was  excommunicated  by  John  XXIll.  for 
giving  adhesion  to  WyclifTe's  doctrines,  and  afterwards 
wrote  his  "Tractatus  de  EcclesiA."  Having  gone  to  the 
council  of  Constance  under  a  safe-conduct  from  the 
emperor,  his  enemies  procured  his  imprisonment  as  a 
heretic,  and,  on  refusal  to  retract,  he  was  burnt.  Died, 
1415. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  an  English  biologist  and 
essayist;  born  in  Ealing,  England,  May  4,  1825.  He 
was  graduated  at  London  University  in  1845.     In  1846- 

1850  he  sailed  around  the  world  as  a  naval  surgeon.     In 

1851  he  was  made  F.  R.  S.  by  the  Royal  Society;  he 
became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  School  of 
Mines  in  18.54;  Hunterian  professor  in  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  in  1863;  president  of  the  British  Geological 
and  Ethnological  Societies  in  1869;  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1872;  Lord  Rector  of  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity in  1872;  and  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1883.  He  was  an  able  advocate  of  Darwinian  evolution, 
and  was  perhaps  best  known  to  the  popular  apprehen- 
sion by  his  agnostic  speculations,  in  expounding  which 
he  came  into  controversy  with  the  defenders  of  Theism 
and  Christianity.  He  wrote  a  niimber  of  scientific 
works.     He  died  in  Eastbourne,  England,  June  29,  1895. 

Huyghens,  Christian,  born  in  1629;  Dutch  natural 
philoiopher  and  astronomer;    was  compelled   to  leave 


Paris  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He 
had  been  invited  to  France  by  Colbert,  and  during  his 
residence  there  visited  England,  and  was  made  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  applied  the  pendulum  to 
clocks,  ascertained  the  laws  of  collision  of  elastic  bodies, 
and  discovered  the  rings  of  Saturn.     Died,  1695. 

Hypatla,  born  about  370;  daughter  of  Theon,  head 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school  of  Alexandria,  gave  public 
lectures  in  philosophy,  but  was  brutally  murdered  by 
the  partisans  of  the  Patriarch  Cyril.     Died,  415. 

Ibsen,  Henrik,  born  in  1828;  Norwegian  dramatist, 
appointed  director  of  the  theater  at  Bergen  in  1851, 
and,  in  1857,  of  that  at  Christiania.  Among  his  playa 
are  "Brand,"  "Peer  Gynt,"  "The  Pillars  of  Society," 
"A  Doll's  House,"  "Ghosts,"  etc.     Died,  1906. 

Ingalls,  Melville  Ezra,  railroad  president;  born  in 
Harrison,  Me.,  September  6,  1842;  brought  up  on  a 
farm;  educated  in  Bridgeton  Academy  and  studied  in 
Bowdoin  College;  graduate  of  Harvard  Law  School, 
1863;  practiced  first  at  Gray,  Me.,  but  soon  removea 
to  Boston;  member  of  Massachusetts  Senate,  1867 
President  in  1870,  receiver  in  1871,  of  the  Indianapolis, 
Cincinnati  &  Lafayette  Railroad,  and  from  bankrupt 
condition,  with  aid  of  reorganizations  in  1873  and  1880, 
put  its  successor,  the  Cincinnati,  Indianapolis,  St.  Louis 
&  Chicago,  upon  a  sound  footing,  consolidating  it  with 
other  roads  into  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  & 
St.  Louis  Railroad,  of  which  he  is  chairman  (comprising 
the  "Big  Four"  system);  also  from  October  1,  1888, 
until  February,  1900,  president  of  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 
Railway  Company;  president  of  Merchants'  National 
Bank,  Cincinnati.  Was  Democratic  candidate  for  mayor 
of  Cincinnati,  1903 ;  president  of  National  Civic  Federa- 
tion, 1905. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  Green,  born  in  1833;  American 
lawyer;  was  colonel  of  a  federal  regiment,  1862-65; 
and,  in  1866,  State  attorney-general.  Was  a  well-known 
orator  and  anti-Christian  lecturer.     Died,  1899. 

Innocent  III.,  Pope,  born  about  1161;  son  of  Count 
Trasimund,  a  Roman  noble;  elected  in  1198,  aimed  at 
making  the  papacy  supreme  in  all  European  affairs. 
In  1212,  he  deposed  the  Emperor  Otho,  setting  up 
Frederick  II.  in  his  place.  His  dispute  with  John  of 
England  concerning  the  appointment  of  Langton  to  the 
See  of  Canterbury,  lasted  from  1207  to  1213.  In  that 
year  John  admitted  Langton,  and  surrendered  England 
to  the  pope,  at  tlie  same  time  receiving  it  back  as  a  papal 
fief.  Innocent  favored  the  fourth  crusade  (1200). 
Died.  1216. 

.  Ireland,  John,  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  St. 
Paul  since  May,  1888;  born  in  Ireland,  September  11, 
1838;  came  to  United  States  in  boyhood.  Educated  in 
Cathedral  School,  St.  Paul;  studied  theology,  France; 
(LL.  D.,  Yale,  1901);  ordained  priest,  December  21, 
1861;  chaplain  of  5th  Minnesota  regiment  in  Civil  War; 
rector  cathedral,  St.  Paul;  secretary  and  later  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  Grace,  of  St.  Paul;  consecrated  December 
21,1875.  Author:  " The  Church  and  Modern  Society," 
etc. 

Irving,  Sir  Henry  (John  Henry  Brodribb),  actor, 
born  in  Keinton,  near  Glastonbury,  in  1838;  acted  at 
the  Theater  Royal,  Edinburgh,  from  1856  to  1859,  and 
afterwards  for  seven  years  at  Manchester.  He  played 
in  London  in  1859,  but  attracted  little  notice  till  his 
appearance  at  St.  James'  Theater  in  1866.  He  soon 
established  a  connection  with  the  Lyceum,  of  which  he 
became  manager  in  1878.  There  he  played  his  chief 
parts,  in  conjunction  with  Miss  Ellen  Terry,  producing, 
amongst  other  plays,  "Hamlet,"  "The  Merchant  of 
Venice,"  "Faust,"  "Macbeth,"  "Henry  VIII. ,"  "The 
Bells,"  and  other  well-known  productions.     Died,  1905. 

Irving,  Washington,  born  in  1783;  American  man 
of  letters,  son  of  a  New  York  merchant;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1806,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
In  1810,  he  became  a  partner  in  his  brother's  commer- 
cial establishment,  which  failed  in  1818.  He  lived  in 
Europe  from  1815  to  1832,  acting  as  secretary  to  the 
American  embassy  in  London  from  1829  to  1831.  From 
1842  to  1846,  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Spain. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New 
York,"  "Geoffrey  Crayon's  Sketch  Book,"  "The  Life  of 
Columbus,"  "The  Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada," 
and  lives  of  "Mahomet"  and  "Washington."  Died, 
1859. 

Isabella  of  Castile,  born  in  1451 ;  daughter  of  John 
II.;  was  married  to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in  1469,  and, 
in  1474,  succeeded  her  brother,  Henry  IV.,  on  the  throne 
of  Castile.  Isabella  promoted  the  expedition  of  Colum- 
bus. She  was  a  wise  and  humane  ruler,  but  her  relig- 
ious zeal  led  her  to  consent  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition.     Died,  1504. 

Isaiah  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets.     He  was  the  son  of  Amoz,  but  of  his  personal 


BIOGRAPHY 


449 


history  very  little  is  known.  He  prophesied  under 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah. 
His  prophecies,  though  delivered  later  in  point  of  time 
than  several  of  those  uttered  by  other  prophets,  occupy, 
in  our  Bible,  the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  their 
bulk,  and  for  the  sublimity  and  importance  of  the 
predictions. 

Ito,  Marquis  Hirobumi,  a  Japanese  statesman; 
born  in  the  province  of  Choshu,  in  1841.  In  1871, 
visited  the  United  States  to  examine  the  coinage  system, 
and  on  return  to  Japan  was  successful  in  establishing 
a  mint  at  Osaka.  In  1878,  was  transferred  from  the 
office  of  minister  of  public  works  to  the  home  office. 
He  became  prominent  in  the  Japanese  cabinet  in  1886, 
and  made  many  reforms.  In  1897-98,  made  a  tour  of 
the  United  States  and  Europe.  In  the  latter  year  he 
visited  China  to  arrange  an  alliance  between  that 
country  and  his  own ;  in  1900,  on  the  resignation  of 
Yamagata  ministry,  he  was  summonetl  by  the  emperor 
to  form  a  cabinet.  Revisited  the  United  States  in 
1901.     Assassinated  in  Corea,  1909. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  the  seventh  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  March  15, 
1767,  of  Irish  parentage.  After  a  harum-scarum  youth, 
Jackson,  in  1788,  commenced  the  practice  of  the  law 
in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  became  that  State's  sole  repre- 
sentative in  Congress  in  1796,  and  senator  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Between  1798  and  1804,  he  served  as  a  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Tennessee;  in  1806,  killed  Mr. 
Charles  Dickinson  in  a  duel;  in  1807,  appeared  as  the 
champion  of  Aaron  Burr;  and,  in  1812,  upon  the  break- 
ing out  of  hostilities  with  England,  offered  his  services 
to  the  Government.  In  1813,  he  was  severely  wounded 
in  a  duel  fought  with  Colonel  Benton,  and  defeated  the 
Creeks  at  Talladega  in  the  same  year.  In  May,  1814, 
he  received  the  appointment  of  major-general  in  the 
United  States  Army,  and  commanded  in  the  battle 
won  over  the  British  Army  at  New  Orleans,  in  January, 
1815.  This  great  victory  raised  the  reputation  of 
Jackson  as  a  general  to  the  highest  point,  and  made 
him  the  idol  of  a  large  portion  of  the  American  people. 
In  1817-18,  General  Jackson  conducted  the  Seminole 
War  to  a  successful  conclusion,  and  was  appointed 
governor  of  Florida  in  1821.  Three  years  later  he  was  an 
unsuccessful  aspirant  for  the  presidency,  to  which  office 
he  was,  however,  elected  in  1828,  and  reelected  at  the 
end  of  his  four-years'  term,  in  1832.  Among  the  chief 
occurrences  during  his  double  tenure  of  office  were: 
his  veto  of  a  new  charter  to  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States;  the  proclamation  denouncing  the  South  Caro- 
lina Nullification  movement;  and  the  senatorial  censure 
passed  on  the  president  for  his  authorizing  the  removal 
of  the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States.     Died,  June  8,  1845. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan,  better  known  the 
world  over  as  "Stonewall  Jackson,"  an  American  gen- 
eral; born  in  Lewis  County,  Virginia,  in  1824,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  Academy  in  1846.  After 
serving  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  War,  Jackson 
became  a  professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lexing- 
ton, Va.,  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  Appointed 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  his  command  on  that 
occasion  "stood  like  a  stone  wall,"  to  use  the  words  of 
a  distinguished  general  present.  In  September,  he  re- 
ceived the  rank  of  major-general;  defeated  General 
Banks  at  Front  Royal,  May  23, 1862;  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  with  Fremont  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8th;  com- 
manded a  corps  in  the  battles  of  Gaines'  Mill,  June  27th, 
and  Malvern  Hill,  July  1st;  again  defeated  General 
Banks  at  Cedar  Mountain,  August  9th;  captured  Har- 
per's Ferry  with  11,000  Federal  prisoners,  September 
15th ;  commanded  a  corps  at  Antietam,  September  17th; 
and  was  made  lieutenant-general  for  his  services  in  largely 
contributing  to  the  National  defeat  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862.  On  May  2,  1863,  by  a  clever  flank 
movement,  he  defeated  the  11th  corps  of  General  Hook- 
er's army  at  Chancellorsville;  and  on  the  evening  of 
the  same  day  was  fired  at  by  a  patrol  party  of  his  own 
men,  who  mistook  him  and  his  staff,  in  the  darkness, 
for  a  detachment  -oi  Union  cavalry,  and  died  of  his 
wounds  on  the  10th. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie  (zhah-kahr),  a  French 
mechanic  and  inventor,  was  born  in  1752,  and  died  in 
1834.  His  invention  of  the  Jacquard  loom  revolution- 
ized the  art  of  weaving. 

James.  The  name  of  a  number  of  sovereigns  of 
European  states,  the  most  noted  of  whom  were  James  I. 
(VI.  of  Scotland)  of  England,  who  was  born  in  1566, 
and  crowned  King  of  Scotland  while  an  infant  on  the 
abdication  of  his  mother,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Eliza- 
beth of  England  having  declared  in  his  favor.  He 
succeeded   to   her   throne  in    1603,   and   died   in   1625. 


James  II.,  born  in  1633,  succeeded  his  brother,  Charlei 
II.,  in  1685,  was  driven  from  his  kingdom  by  William 
Prince  of  Orange,  in  1688,  utterly  defeated  in  Ireland, 
and  died  an  exile  in  France,  in  1701.  James  IV.  of 
Scotland,  "  the  handsomest  and  most  chivalrous  prince 
of  his  age,"  born  in  1473,  succeeded  his  father,  James 
III.,  who  was  murdered  after  the  disastrous  defeat  near 
Bannockburn,  in  1488;  James  was  kilted  in  the  sangui- 
nary battle  at  Flodden  Field,  in  1513,  in  which  nearly 
the  entire  Scotch  peerage  of  mature  age  perished  with 
their  king. 

James,  St.,  one  of  Christ's  favorite  apostles,  son  of 
Zebedee  and  brother  of  St.  John.  He  was  martyred 
about  44,  by  order  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

James,  Edmund  Janes,  educator;  born  in  Jackson- 
ville, 111.,  May  21,  1855;  educated  at  Illinois  State  Nor- 
mal School  and  Northwestern  and  Harvard  universities 
(A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  1877,  University  of  Halle;  LL.  D.,  Cor- 
nell College,  Wesleyan,  Queen's  College) ;  principal  high 
school,  Evanston,  111.,  1878-79;  principal  Model  High 
School,  Normal,  111.,  1879-82;  professor  of  public  finance 
and  administration,  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and 
Economy,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1883-95;  pro- 
fessor of  political  and  social  science.  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1884-95;  professor  of  public  administration, 
director  of  extension  division  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  1896-1901;  president  of  the  Northwestern 
University,  February  1,  1902,  to  September  1,  1904; 
president  of  University  of  Illinois  since  September  1, 
1904.  Author:  "  Relation  of  the  Modern  Municipality 
to  the  Gas  Supply,"  "The  Legal  Tender  Decisions, 
"The  Canal  and  the  Railway,"  "Federal  Constitution  of 
Germany,"  "Federal  Constitution  of  Switzerland," 
"Education  of  Business  Men  in  Europe,"  "Charters  of 
City  of  Chicago,"  "Growth  of  Great  Cities  in  Area  and 
Population,"  "Government  of  a  Typical  German  City  — 
Halle,"  also  over  100  papers,  monographs,  and  addresses 
in  transactions  of  societies,  etc. 

James,  Henry,  author;  born  in  New  York,  April  15, 
1843;  educated  in  France  and  Switzerland,  and  Harvard 
Law  School;  began  as  contributor  to  periodicals,  1866; 
since  1869,  has  lived  in  England;  brother  to  the  late  Pto- 
fessor  William  James,  of  Harvard.  Author:  "  Watch  and 
Ward,"  "A  Passionate  Pilgrim,"  "Roderick  Hudson," 
"Transatlantic  Sketches,"  "The  American,"  "French 
Poets  and  Novelists,"  "  The  Europeans,"  "  Daisy  Miller," 
"An  International  Episode,"  "Life  of  Hawthorne," 
"A  Bundle  of  Letters,"  "Confidence,"  "Diary  of  a 
Man  of  Fifty,"  "Washington  Square,"  "The  Portrait 
of  a  Lady,"  "Siege  of  London,"  "Portraits  of 
Places,"  "Tales  of  Three  Cities,"  "A  Little  Tour  in 
France,"  "Beltraffio,"  "The  Bostonians,"  "Princess 
Casamassima,"  "Partial  Portraits,"  "The  Aspern 
Papers,"  "The  Reverberator,"  "A  London  Life,"  "The 
Tragic  Muse,"  "Terminations,"  "The  Spoils  of  Poynton," 
"What  Maisie  Knew,"  "In  the  Cage,"  "The  Two 
Magics,"  "The  Awkward  Age,"  "The  Soft  Side,"  "A 
Little  Tour  in  France,"  "The  Sacred  Fount,"  "The 
Wings  of  ti'ie  Dove,"  "The  Better  Sort,"  "  Question  of  our 
Speech,"  "The  Lesson  of  Balzac  "  (two  lectures). 

James,  William,  born  in  New  York,  January  11, 
1842.  An  eminent  American  psychologist  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  professor  of  Philosophy  in  Harvard 
University,  1897-1907.  In  1899-1901  he  was  Gifford 
lecturer  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Author: 
"Principles  of  Psychology,"  "The  Will  to  Believe," 
"Talks  to  Teachers,"  "Human  Immortality,"  "The 
Varieties  of  Religious  Experiences,"  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Jay,  John,  an  eminent  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  1745,  where  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1768.  In  1774,  as  a  member  of  the  first  Con- 
tinental Congress,  he  formed  one  of  the  committee  of 
three  which  drew  up  the  celebrated  address  to  the  people 
of  Great  Britain.  He  also  largely  assisted  in  framing 
the  National  Constitution,  and,  in  1777,  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  New  York,  and  in  the  following  year 
president  of  Congress.  He  next  took  part  in  negotiating 
the  treaty  of  peace  entered  into  at  Paris,  1783,  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  On  his  return 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  and  in 
1789  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In  1794  he 
proceeded  on  a  special  mission  to  England,  where  he 
concluded  a  treaty  which  met  with  violent  opposition 
from  the  Anti-Federalist  party.  He  afterwards  held 
the  governorship  of  New  York  State,  and,  after  refusing 
a  second  nomination  to  the  chief-justiceship,  died,  1829. 

Jeejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamsetjee,  Indian  philanthropist; 
a  Parsee  by  birth  and  creed,  born  in  Bombay  in  1783; 
realized  a  fortune  as  a  merchant,  and  employed  it  in 
releasing  debtors  from  jail  by  paying  their  debts,  and  in 
founding  a  hospital  and  schools;  in  1857  was  made  a 
baronet.     Died,  1859. 


45C 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


JefTerson,  Thomas,  third  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Virginia,  1743,  and,  after  graduating 
at  William  and  Mary  College,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1767.  He  practiced  law  with  signal  success,  and  in  1769, 
became  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses, 
and  in  1773,  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress, 
where  he  assisted  in  framing  the  celebrated  "Summary 
View  of  the  Rights  of  British  America."  In  1775,  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  with  a 
commanding  voice  in  its  deliberations,  so  that  in  the 
year  following  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee which  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
In  1779,  he  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  in  the  governorship 
of  Virginia.  In  1783,  he  acted  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee charged  with  the  report  to  Congress  of  the  treaty 
of  peace  entered  into  at  Paris,  1783,  and,  two  years  later, 
succeeded  Franklin  as  minister  at  Paris.  On  his  return, 
in  1789,  he  entered  General  Washington's  first  cabinet 
as  secretary  of  state.  In  this  position  he  gradually 
came  to  be  considered  the  head  of  the  Democratic  party. 
In  1793,  he  resigned  office,  and  four  years  afterwards 
became  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  ex- 
officio  president  of  the  Senate.  In  1801,  he  was  elected 
to  the  presidency,  and  during  his  first  administration 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  was  effected.  He  retired  to 
private  life,  1809,  at  the  close  of  his  second  term.  Died, 
1826. 

Jehoiachin  (je-hoi'ah-Kin),&,  king  of  Judah;  succeeded 
his  father  Jehoiakim,  597  B.  C,  and  was  carried  a  pris- 
oner to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Jehoiakim  (je-hoi'  ah-kXm) ,  a  king  of  Judah,  succeeded 
his  father  Josiah,  609  B.  C.  During  his  reign,  Jerusalem 
was  plundered  by  Nebuchadnezzar.     Died,  597  B.  C. 

Jehoram,  or  Jo  ram.  King  of  Judah;  succeeded  his 
father  Jehoshaphat,  892  B.  C;  died,  885  B.  C.  Also  a 
king  of  Israel,  son  of  Ahab,  succeeded  his  brother  Aha- 
ziah,  896  B.  C;  died,  884  B.  C. 

Jehoshaphat,  Kingof  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Asa 
at  the  age  of  35,  914  B.  C,  and  reigned  with  wisdom. 
Died.  890  B.  C. 

Jehu,  King  of  Israel,  was  an  officer  in  the  army  of 
Jehoram,  whom  he  killed.  He  reigned  twenty-eight 
years,  884-856  B.  C.     (2  Kings  ix.  x.) 

Jelliffe,  Smith  Ely,  physician;  born  in  New  York, 
October  27,  1866;  graduate  of  Brooklyn  Polytechnic, 
1886;  medical  department  of  Columbia  University, 
1889,  Ph.  D.,  1899,  A.  M.,  1900,  Columbia.  Began  practice, 
1889;  interne  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Brooklyn;  spent  one 
year  in  Europe;  since  January.  1895,  practicing  in  New 
York;  professor  of  pharmacognosy  and  instructor  in 
pharmacology  and  therapeutics,  Columbia.  Author: 
"Essentials  of  Vegetable  Pharmacognosy"  (with  Dr. 
H.  H.  llusby),  "Morphology  and  Histology  of  Plants" 
(with  same),  also  "  Nervous  Diseases "  in  Butler's  Di- 
agnostics, "Outlines  of  Pharmacognosy."  Reviser 
"May's  Physiology,"  "Butler's  Materia  Medica,"  "Shaw 
on  Nervous  Diseases."  Editor  and  translator:  "Dubois' 
Psychoneuroses";  co-editor,  "  Encyclopedia.Americana," 
"Scientific  American,"  1904;  editor"  Reissig  Haus  Arzt," 
1905,  "Medical  News,"  New  York,  1900-05;  maga- 
zine editor  "Journal  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Disease," 
since  1902;  also  contributor  to  medical,  botanical,  and 
pharmaceutical  press. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah  Whipple,  professor  of  political 
economy  and  politics,  Cornell,  since  1891;  born  in  St. 
Clair,  Michigan,  September  2,  1856;  graduated  from 
University  of  Michigan,  1878,  A.  M.,  1879,  LL.  D..  1903; 
Ph.  D.,  University  of  Halle,  1885;  studied  law;  ad- 
mitted to  Michigan  bar;  taught  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ger- 
man, Mt.  Morris  College;  professor  of  political  science 
and  English  literature,  Knox  College,  1886-89;  professor 
of  political  economy  and  social  science,  Indiana  Univer- 
sity, 1889-91;  expert  agent  of  United  States  Industrial 
Commission  on  Investigation  of  Trusts  and  Industrial 
Combinations  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  1899- 
1901,  and  consulting  expert  of  United  States  Department 
of  Labor  on  same  subject.  Special  commissioner  of 
War  Department,  United  States,  to  investigate  questions 
of  currency,  labor,  internal  taxation  and  police  in  the 
Orient,  1901-02.  Author:  " Henry  C. Carey  als  Nation- 
Ulokonom,  Jena,"  "The  Trust  Problem,"  "Vol.  XVIII. 
Report  of  Industrial  Commission  of  Industrial  Combi- 
nations in  Europe,"  "  Report  on  Certain  Economic 
Questions  in  the  English  and  Dutch  Colonies  in  the 
Orient."  Editor  and  part  author:  (Reports  United 
States  Industrial  Commission)  "Trusts  and  Industrial 
Combinations,"  Vol.  I.,  1900,  Vol.  XIII.,  1901.  Compiler: 
"Statutes  and  Digested  Decisions  of  Federal,  State,  and 
Territorial  Law  Relating  to  Trusts  and  Industrial  Com- 
binations." Part  author  and  compiler  of  "  Reports  of 
Commission  on  International  Exchange."  J'requent 
contributor  to  periodical  literature  on  economic  and 
political  questions.     Special  expert  on  currency  reform 


of  government  of  Mexico,  1903;  member  of  United 
States  Commission  on  International  Exchange  in  special 
charge  of  reform  of  currency  in  China. 

Jenner,  Edward,  famous  as  the  discoverer  of  vaccina- 
tion, was  born  in  1749,  in  Berkeley,  England;  died  there, 
1823.  After  many  years  devoted  to  the  consideration  of, 
and  experiments  made  with,  vaccine  lymph  as  a  specific 
for  smallpox,  Jenner  was  for  the  first  time,  in  1796,  ena- 
bled to  satisfy  many  medical  men  of  the  valid  properties 
of  this  new  agent  as  a  preventive  of  the  disease. 

Jereml'ali,  in  Scripture  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  and  author  of  the  book  which  bears 
his  name,  and  of  "Lamentations."  He  flourished  in 
the  Sixth  Century,  B.  C. 

Jeroboam,  two  kings  of  Israel  bore  this  name,  viz., 
one  who  was  elected,  975  B.  C,  by  the  ten  tribes  who  had 
rebelled  against  Hehoboam.  Died,  954.  The  other,  a  son 
of  Joash,  ascended  the  throne  about  825  B.  C,  and  filled 
it  for  forty-one  years.     Died,  784  B.  C. 

Jerome,  or  Hieronymus,  St.,  born  about  343,  in 
Stridon,  in  Dalmatia,  of  Christian  parents,  studied  at 
Rome  under  Donatus;  after  traveling  in  Gaul  and  else- 
where, adopted  a  studious  and  ascetic  life,  spending  four 
years  in  the  desert  of  Chalcis,  in  Syria;  was  ordained 
priest  in  379;  visited  Constantinople,  where  he  be- 
came the  friend  and  pupil  of  Gregory  Nazianzus;  re- 
turning to  Rome,  became  secretary  to  Pope  Damasus, 
but  after  his  death  (384)  withdrew  to  the  Holy  Land, 
accompanied  by  Paula,  Eustochium,  and  other  Roman 
ladies  devoted  to  the  ascetic  life.  For  the  remainder 
of  his  days  he  presided  over  a  monastery  established  by 
Paula  at  Bethlehem.  Here,  he  completed  his  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  Hebrew  into  Latin,  known  as  the 
Vulgate.  He  wrote  numerous  commentaries  on  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  was  engaged  in  contro- . 
versies  with  Rufinus,  the  Pelagians,  and  others.  Died 
in  420. 

Jerome,  William  Travers,  lawyer;  born  in  New 
York,  April  18,  1859';  educated  at  Williston  Seminary 
and  Amherst  College  (honorary  A.  M.);  graduated  from 
Columbia  Law  School,  1884;  admitted  to  bar,  1884; 
justice  of  special  sessions,  1895-1902;  district  attorney 
New  York  County,  elected  1901 ;  Democrat.  Reelected 
as  independent  candidate,  1905.  Author:  "Liquor 
Tax  Law  in  New  York." 

Jesus  Christ  (lesous,  the  Greek  form  of  Joshua  or 
Jeshua,  contracted  from  Jehoshua.  meaning,  help  of 
Jehovah,  or  saviour;  Christos,  anointed),  the  Son  of  God, 
the  Saviour  of  men,  whose  birth,  life,  and  death  were 
predicted  by  prophets,  and  attended  with  miraculous 
manifestations  of  divine  power;  was  born  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  was  betrothed  to  Joseph, 
the  descendant  and  heir  of  the  house  of  David.  Two 
genealogies  of  Joseph  are  given  —  one  by  Matthew, 
chapter  one;  the  other  by  Luke,  chapter  three.  The 
former  is  supposed  to  contain  the  list  of  heirs  of  the  house 
of  David,  whether  by  direct  or  indirect  descent;  the 
other  the  direct  ancestors  of  Joseph.  It  was  foretold 
that  Christ  should  be  of  the  seed  of  Abraham  and  the 
son  of  Dsivid.  The  place  of  His  birth  was  Bethlehem; 
the  time,  according  to  the  received  chronology,  was  in 
the  year  of  Rome  754.  Scholars  are  now  almost  unani- 
mously agreed  that  this  date  is  too  late,  and  it  is  generally 
placed  about  four  years  earlier.  The  coming  of  a  fore- 
runner to  the^  Saviour,  John  the  Baptist,  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  Elias,  was  foretold  by  an  angel  (Luke  i:  17). 
The  angel  Gabriel  announced  to  Mary  that  the  power 
of  the  Highest  should  overshadow  her,  and  that  she 
should  bear  a  son  who  should  rule  over  the  house  of 
Jacob  forever;  and  on  the  night  of  His  birth  an  angel 
appeared  to  some  shepherds,  and  announced  the  coming 
of  a  Saviour.  On  the  eighth  day  He  was  circumcized 
according  to  the  law  of  Moses,  and  on  the  fortieth  was 
presented  in  the  temple,  where  the  aged  Simeon  pro- 
nounced Him  to  be  the  light  of  nations  and  the  glory 
of  Israel.  Herod  ordered  the  extirpation  of  all  children 
of  Bethlehem  and  its  vicinity  of  the  age  of  less  than  two 
years,  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  the  death  of  Jesus. 
But  Joseph,  being  miraculously  warned  of  the  danger, 
fled  to  Egypt  with  the  Virgin  and  her  child,  and  on  his 
return,  after  the  death  of  Herod,  went  to  reside  at  Naza- 
reth in  Galilee,  whence  Jesus  is  called  a  Nazarene.  We 
have  no  further  accounts  of  the  earlier  years  of  Jesus, 
except  the  remarkable  scene  in  the  temple  when  He 
was  12  years  old,  and  the  general  observation  of  Luke, 
that  He  remained  in  Nazareth  with  His  parents  and 
served  them.  At  the  age  of  about  30  (Luke  iii:  23),  He 
was  baptized  by  John  in  the  River  Jordan,  the  Spirit 
of  God  descending  upon  Him  like  a  dove,  and  a  voice 
from  heaven  proclaiming,  "Thou  art  my  beloved  Son; 
in  thee  I  am  well  pleased."  Previously,  however,  to 
entering  on  His  oflBce  of  divine  teacher  He  retired  to  a 


BIOGRAPHY 


451 


solitary  place,  where  He  passed  forty  days  in  fasting, 
meditation,  and  prayer,  previous  to  the  remarkable 
scene  of  the  temptation  described  by  the  evangelists 
—  Matt.,  chap,  iv.;  Mark  i:  12-13;  Luke,  chap.  iv. 
He  was  afterward  transfigured  in  the  presence  of  three 
of  His  disciples,  when  Moses  and  Elias  appeared  to  Him 
from  heaven,  and  His  raiment  became  white  and  shining, 
and  His  face  shone  as  the  sun.  On  this  occasion  again, 
a  voice  came  from  heaven  saying,  "This  is  my  beloved 
Son;  hear  ye  Him"  (Matt.,  chap,  xvii.;  Mark,  chap,  ix.; 
Luke,  chap,  ix.,  verses  28-36).  His  mission  is  generally 
considered  to  have  occupied  three  years,  spent  in  acts 
of  mercy  (chiefly  miraculous),  in  inculcating  a  purer 
system  of  morals,  more  exalted  notions  of  God,  and  more 
elevating  views  of  man  and  his  destiny  than  had  yet 
been  presented  to  the  world.  His  doctrine  is  embodied 
chiefly  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.,  chap,  v.-vii., 
and  Luke,  chap,  vi.),  containing  the  form  of  prayer  He 
taught  to  His  disciples,  commonly  called  the  Lord's 
Prayer;  in  His  discourses  to  the  Jews  in  John,  chap, 
v.-viii.  and  X.;  to  His  disciples,  chap,  xiv.-xvi.;  and  His 
intercessory  prayer,  chap.  xvii.  He  chose  twelve  apostles 
to  be  the  companions  of  His  ministry,  the  witnesses  of 
His  miracles,  and  the  depositories  of  His  doctrine;  and 
He  was  betrayed  into  the  power  of  His  enemies  by  one 
of  these  with  the  mockery  of  a  friendly.salutation.  Be- 
trayed by  one,  denied  by  another,  and  abandoned  by  all, 
He  was  carried  before  the  Jewish  priests,  found  guilty, 
and  by  them  delivered  over  to  the  Roman  magistrates, 
who  alone  had  the  power  of  life  and  death.  Condemned 
to  death  as  a  disturber  of  the  public  peace.  He  was  nailed 
to  the  cross  on  Mount  Calvary,  and  it  was  in  the  agonies 
of  this  bitter  death  that  He  prayed  for  the  forgiveness 
of  His  executioners,  and  with  a  touching  act  of  filial  love 
commended  His  mother  to  His  favorite  disciple.  The 
evangelists  relate  that  from  the  hour  of  noon  the  sun 
was  darkened  and  three  hours  after,  Jesus,  having  cried 
out,  "It  is  finished!"  gave  up  the  ghost.  The  veil  of 
the  temple,  they  add,  was  torn  asunder,  the  earth  shook, 
rocks  were  rent,  and  the  tombs  opened.  The  centurion 
who  was  present,  directing  the  execution,  exclaimed, 
"Truly  this  was  the  Son  of  God!"  The  body  of  Jesus 
was  taken  down  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  placed  in 
a  tomb,  about  which  the  Jewish  priests,  remembering 
His  prophecy  that  He  should  rise  on  the  third  day,  set  a 
guard,  sealing  up  the  door.  Notwithstanding  these 
precautions  His  prophecy  was  fulfilled  by  His  resurrection 
on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (Sunday),  and  He  appeared 
repeatedly  to  His  disciples  to  encourage,  console,  and 
instruct  them.  On  the  fortieth  day  after  His  resurrec- 
tion, while  with  them  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  after  He 
had  given  them  instructions  to  teach  and  proselytize  all 
nations,  promising  them  the'  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  a 
cloud  received  Him  out  of  their  sight,  and  He  was  taken 
up  to  heaven.  While  the  disciples  stood  gazing  after 
Him  two  men  in  white  apparel  appeared  to  them,  and 
predicted  His  coming  again  in  like  manner  as  they  had 
seen  Him  go.  See  the  closing  chapters  of  the  four 
evangelists  and  Acts  i:   1-14. 

Joan  of  Arc-     See  Arc,  Joan  of. 

John,  St.,  called  the  Baptist,  son  of  Zacharias,  a  priest 
of  the  Jews,  and  of  Elizabeth,  was  the  cousin  of  Mary, 
the  mother  of  Jesus.  He  early  exercised  the  apostolic 
call,  and  began  to  preach  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
where  Jesus  received  baptism  at  his  hands.  He  after- 
wards suffered  imprisonment  and  death  by  command 
of  Herod. 

John,  St.,  the  Apostle;  born  about  4;  was  one  of  the 
earliest  of  Christ's  disciples.  During  the  crucifixion  our 
Lord  commended  His  mother  to  his  care,  and  he  "took 
her  to  his  own  home."  John  afterwards  became  Bishop 
of  Ephesus.  According  to  Tertullian,  he  was  plunged 
into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil  during  the  persecution  under 
Domitian,  but  received  no  injury.  He  was  subsequently 
exiled  to  the  island  of  Patmos,  where  he  wrote  the  "  Book 
of  Revelation."  He  was  also  author  of  the  Gospel  and 
Epistles  which  bear  his  name.     Died  about  99. 

John  XXII.,  Pope  (Jacques  d'Euse);  born  about 
4244;  a  native  of  Cahors,  was  elected  in  1316,  during 
the  "Babylonish  Captivity."  He  was  at  variance  with 
the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  whom  he  excommunicated 
in  1324.  He  was  nominally  deposed  by  Louis  in  1327, 
but  continued  to  exercise  the  papal  functions  at  Avignon. 
Died,  1334. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  seventeenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  in  1808. 
By  trade  a  tailor,  and  a  self-educated  man,  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Legislature  of  Tennessee  (his  adopted 
State);  was  elected  to  Congress,  1843-53,  and  became 
governor  of  Tennessee  in  1853,  and  again  in  1855.  In 
1857,  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Senate,  and,  in 
1862,  appointed  military  governor  of  his  State.  Elected 
Vice-President  of  the  Union  by  the  Republican  party 


in  1864,  he  was  sworn  in  as  President  in  the  following 
year,  on  the  assassination  of  Mr.  Lincoln.  In  this 
position,  his  opposition  to  the  measures  adopted  by 
Congress  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States 
involved  him  in  a  struggle,  which  ended  in  1868,  with 
his  impeachment  on  charges  of  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors against  the  state.  He  was  accordingly 
brought  to  trial,  in  March,  and  acquitted  on  the  26th 
of  May  following.  In  January,  1875,  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  for  the  second  time.  Died, 
July  31,  1875. 

Johnson,  Eastman,  artist;  born  in  Lovell,  Me.,  in 
1824;  educated  in  public  schools,  Augusta,  Me. ;  studied 
two  years  in  Royal  Academy,  Dusseldorf.  Among 
many  notable  genre  pictures  are  "The  Old  Kentucky 
Home,"  "Husking  Bee,"  "The  Old  Stage  Coach,"  "Pen- 
sion Agent,"  "Prisoner  of  State,"  and  portraits  "Two 
Men,"  ex-Presidents  Arthur,  Cleveland,  and  Harrison; 
W.  H.  Vanderbilt,  Commodore  Vanderbilt,  Secretary 
Folger,  Daniel  Webster,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Wm.  B. 
Astor,  John  D.  Rockefeller,  W.  D.  Sloane,  Mrs.  Alexander 
Hamilton,  Mrs.  Dolly  Madison  (from  life),  Mrs.  August 
Belmont,  Mrs.  Hamilton  Fish,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  I.  A.  Burden, 
Mrs.  W.  T.  Blodgett;  College  Presidents  McCosh,  Noah 
Porter,  Barnard,  and  Andrew  White;  Charles  O'Conor, 
Wheeler  H.  Peckham,  Longfellow,  Hawthorne,  Emer- 
son, Bishop  Potter,  Morris  K.  Jesup,  etc.  Represented 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  Lenox  Galleries, 
New  York;  Corcoran  Gallery,  White  House  and  Treas- 
ury Building,  Washington;  capitol  at  Albany ;  Knicker- 
bocker, Century,  and  Union  League  Clubs,  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  etc..  New  York.     Died,  1906. 

Johnson,  John  A.,  journalist,  governor  of  Minne- 
sota from  1904  until  his  death  in  1909;  born  in  St.  Peter, 
Minn.,  July  28,  1861;  educated  in  public  schools,  St. 
Peter.  Care  of  family  devolving  upon  him  at  12,  went 
to  work  in  printing  office  in  St.  Peter,  and  continued  in 
that  business,  becoming  member  of  firm  of  Essler  & 
Johnson,  publishers  of  the  St.  Peter  "Herald,"  of  which 
he  was  editor.  Democrat.  Served  seven  years  in 
Minnesota  National  Guard,  becoming  captain.  Was 
State  senator  from  St.  Peter  district,  and  prominent 
candidate  for  presidential  nomination,  1908. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  a  distinguished  English 
writer  and  lexicographer,  was  born  in  Lichfield,  Eng- 
land, September  18,  1709.  He  was  educated  in  his 
father's  library  and  at  Oxford,  where  he  spent  an  un- 
happy period.  After  a  varied  and  precarious  early 
career,  he  slowly  gained  a  foremost  place  in  the  litera- 
ture of  his  day.  Among  many  great  works  the  most 
useful  to  mankind  was  his  "Dictionary."  In  1759,  he 
wrote  his  celebrated  romance  of  "Rasselas,  Prince  of 
Abyssinia,"  which  fine  production  he  composed  in  the 
evenings  of  one  week  in  order  to  defray  the  funeral 
expenses  of  his  aged  mother.  He  died  at  London, 
December  13,  1784.  His  remains  were  interred  in 
Westminster  Abbey  with  great  solemnity,  and  his  statue 
was  placed  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  Among  his  works 
are  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  "The  Rambler,"  and  "The 
Vanity  of  Human  Wishes." 

Johnson,  Tom  Loftin,  capitalist,  ex-mayor;  born 
Georgetown,  Ky.,  July  18,  1854;  went  to  Indiana  in 
boyhood;  educated  there;  clerk  in  street  railway  office, 
Louisville,  Ky.,  1869-75;  invented  several  street  rail- 
way devices;  bought  a  street  railway  in  Indianapolis; 
later  acquired  large  street  railway  interests  in  Cleveland, 
Detroit,  and  Brooklyn;  is  also  iron  manufacturer  in 
Cleveland.  Member  of  Congress,  1891-95;  prominent 
advocate  of  the  "single-tax"  theories  of  late  Henry 
George.  He  has  now  practically  retired  from  business 
and  is  devoting  his  entire  time  to  taxation  questions, 
municipal  reform  and  official  duties ;  mayor  of  Cleveland 
for  four  terms,  1901-10. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  a  distinguished  American 
Confederate  general,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  in  1803, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  In  1837,  he 
superseded  General  Houston  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Texan  army;  next  became  Texan  war  secretary, 
and  served  as  a  colonel  of  American  regulars  during  the 
Mexican  War.  In  1857,  he  commanded  the  expedition 
sent  against  the  Mormons  of  Utah;  and  in  1861,  was 
made  military  commander  of  the  department  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee,  by  the  so-called  Confederate  Gov- 
ernment. After  the  surrender  of  Fort  Donelson,  he 
formed  a  junction  with  the  army  of  General  Beauregard, 
and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6,  1862. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eggleston,  born  in  1807;  Ameri- 
can soldier,  joined  the  Confederate  army,  and  became 
commander  of  the  Confederate  forces  in  South  Carolina 
in  February,  1865,  but  surrendered  with  his  army  in  the 
following  April.     Died,  1891. 

Jokai,  Maurice,  born  in  1825;  Hungarian  novelist; 
took  part  as  a  journalist  in   the   revolution  of   1848; 


452 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


wrote  about  200  novels,  including  "Timar's  Two 
Worlds,"  "Black  Diamonds,"  "The  Romance  of  the 
Coming  Century,"  etc.     Died,  1904. 

Jonathan,  son  of  Saul,  and  the  bosom  friend  of 
David,  who  bewailed  his  untimely  death  in  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  his  songs.  Also,  a  son  of  Mattathias, 
and  brother  of  Judas  Maccabeus.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Judas  in  the  leadership  of  the  Jews,  and  was 
made  high-priest  by  Alexander  Balas.  After  sofne 
vicissitudes  of  fortune,  he  renewed  the  league  his  brother 
had  formed  with  the  Romans,  and  was  at  last  treach- 
erously slain  by  Tryphon. 

Jones,  Paul  (real  name  John  Paul),  a  brilliant  Amer- 
ican naval  commander  in  the  Revolution,  was  born  in 
Scotland  in  1747.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain,  he  became  rear-admiral  in  the  Russian 
service,  but  was  dismissed  on  account  of  a  private 
quarrel,  and  died  in  Paris  (1792)  in  poverty. 

Jonson,  Benjamin,  or  Ben,  born  about  1573;  dram- 
atist, was  educated  at  Westminster  under  Camden.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  he  studied  at  Cambridge.  After 
following  the  trade  of  a  bricklayer,  he  went  as  a  volun- 
teer to  Flanders,  and  on  his  return  became  an  actor, 
also  writing  plays  in  conjunction  with  others.  His  first 
independent  work,  "Every  Man  in  His  Humour,"  was 
followed  by  "Every  Man  Out  of  His  Humour,"  "Cyn- 
thia's Revels,"  "Sejanus,"  "Volpone,"  "The  Alche- 
mist," and  many  others.     Died,  1637. 

Jordan,  David  Starr,  president  of  Leland  Stanford 
Jr.  University;  born  in  Gainesville,  N.  Y.,  January  19, 
1851;  graduate  of  Cornell,  M.  S.,  1872;  M.  D.,  Indiana 
Medical  College,  1875  (Ph.  D.,  Butler  University,  1878; 
LL.  D.,  Cornell,  1886,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902).  Professor 
in  various  collegiate  institutions,  1872-79;  assistant  to 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  1877-91;  professor  of 
loology,  1879-85,  and  president,  1885-91,  Indiana  Uni- 
versity ;  president  of  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  since 
1891;  president  of  California  Academy  of  Sciences, 
1896-1904  and  since  1908;  also  United  States  commis- 
sioner in  charge  of  fur  seal  investigations,  etc.  Author: 
"A  Manual  of  Vertebrate  Animals  of  Northern  United 
States,"  "Science  Sketches,"  "Fishes  of  North  and 
Middle  America,"  "Footnotes  to  Evolution,"  "The 
Story  of  Matka,"  "Care  and  Culture  of  Men,"  "The 
Innumerable  Company,"  "Imperial  Democracy,"  "Ani- 
mal Life,"  "Animal  Forms"  (with  V.  L.  Kellogg  and  H. 
Heath);  "The  Strength  of  Being  Clean,"  "Standeth 
God  Within  the  Shadow,"  "To  Barbara"  (verse),  "The 
Philosophy  of  Despair,"  "The  Blood  of  the  Nation," 
"Food  and  Game  Fishes  ofj North  America"  (with  B. 
W.  Evermann),  "A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Fishes," 
"Voice  of  the  Scholar,"  "The  Call  of  the  Twentieth 
Century  " ;  also  numerous  papers  on  ichthyology  in  pro- 
ceedings of  various  societies  and  government  bureaus. 

Joseph.  In  Scripture,  one  of  the  twelve  patriarchs, 
the  favorite  son  of  Jacob,  said  to  have  been  born  in 
Mesopotamia.  He  was  sold  by  his  envious  brothers  and 
taken  to  Egypt  as  a  slave,  but  rose  to  be  prime  minister. 
Also  the  name  of  the  husband  of  Mary,  mother  of  the 
Saviour.  Two  German  emperors  bore  this  name. 
Joseph  I.,  born  in  1678,  was  made  King  of  Hungary  and 
of  the  Romans,  and  succeeded  his  father  Leopold  I.  as 
emperor  in  1705,  and  died  in  1711.  Joseph  II.,  born  in 
1741,  succeeded  his  father,  Francis  I.,  in  1765,  and  died 
in  1790. 

Joshua,  or  Ho  shea,  son  of  Nun;  commander  of 
the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Moses,  led  them  into 
the  Holy  Land,  and  obtained  many  victories  over  the 
tribes  of  Canaan. 

Josiah  succeeded  his  father,  Amon,  as  King  of  Judah 
in  641  B.  C.  He  died  in  a  war  with  Pharaoh  Necho, 
King  of  Egypt,  in  609  B.C. 

Joubert,  Petnis  Jacobus,  born  in  1831;  one  of  the 
triumvirate  who  organized  a  Transvaal  revolt  against 
the  British  Government  in  1880,  held  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  engagements  at  Laing's  Nek,  Ingogo 
River,  and  Majuba  Hill.  In  1899,  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Boer  forces  in  the  war  with  England.  Died, 
1900. 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  born  in  1818;  electrician, 
pupil  of  Dalton;  made  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism, 
and,  in  1843,  established  his  theory  of  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat.     Died,  1889. 

Jourdan,  Jean  Baptlste,  Comte,  born  in  1762; 
French  marshal;  served  in  the  wars  of  the  republic, 
and,  in  1799,  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army 
of  the  Danube  by  the  Directory.  In  1797,  he  became 
president  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  but  was  ex- 
pelled in  1799,  owing  to  his  opposition  to  Bonaparte, 
by  whom,  however,  he  was  afterwards  employed.  He 
subsequently  followed  the  fortunes  of  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
He  owed  his  title  to  Louis  XVIII.,  but  joined  in  the 
revolution  of  1830.     Died,  1833. 


Jowett,  Benjamin,  M.  A.;  born  in  1817;  succes- 
sively scholar,  fellow,  and  master  of  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  Regius  professor  of  Greek  since  1855.  His 
works  include  translations  of  Plato  and  Thucydides. 
He  contributed  a  paper  "On  the  Interpretation  of 
Scripture"  to  "Essays  and  Reviews."     Died,  1893. 

Judas  Iscariot,  one  of  the  twelve  disciples  chosen 
by  Jesus,  and  the  one  who  betrayed  his  Master  for 
thirty  pieces  of  silver;  after  which  he  very  properly 
"went  and  hanged  himself." 

Jude,  St.,  or  Judas.  One  of  the  apostles,  brother 
of  St.  James  the  Less,  and  supposed  to  nave  been  mar- 
tyred at  Berytus  about  the  year  80.  The  "Epistle" 
which  bears  his  name  is  one  of  the  smallest  and  least 
important  books  in  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  one  whose  canonical  authority  has  been  much 
disputed  both  in  ancient  and  quite  modern  times. 

Judith.  A  heroine  of  Israel,  whose  name  has  been 
given  to  one  of  the  Apocryphal  books  of  the  Bible. 
She  is  said  to  have  by  artifice  gained  the  tent  of  the 
Assyrian  general,  Holofernes,  at  Bethulia,  whom  she 
decapitated  during  his  sleep;  bearing  away  his  gory 
head  in  triumph.  The  most  general  opinion  among 
critics  is  that  the  history  of  Judith  is  a  Jewish  romance, 
written,  probably  in  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  in  order 
to  animate  the  Jews  in  their  struggles  against  the 
Assyrians. 

Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  president  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  since  1907;  born  in  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 
December  20,  1849;  graduate  of  Williams,  1870  (A.  M., 
1883;  LL.  D.,  1893;  LL.  D.,  1903,  Queens  University, 
Canada).  Teacher  and  principal  of  high  school,  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1870-85;  professor  of  history.  University  of 
Minnesota,  1885-92;  was  co-editor  of  "American  His- 
torical Review."  Author:  "History  of  the  Troy  Citi- 
zens' Corps,"  "Caesar's  Army,"  "Csesar's  Commentaries" 
(co-editor),  "Europe  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  "The 
CJrowth  of  the  American  Nation,"  "The  Higher  Educa- 
tion as  a  Training  for  Business,"  "The  Latin  in  English," 
"The  Mississippi  Valley"  (in  Shaler's  United  States  of 
America),  "The  Young  American,"  "The  Government 
of  Illinois,"  "Graded  Literature  Readers"  (co-editor), 
"The  Essentials  of  a  Written  Constitution." 

Jugurtha.  a  king  of  Numidia  at  the  end  of  the 
Second  Century,  B.  C,  was  the  grandson  of  Masinissa, 
but  illegitimate,  and  brought  up  by  Micipsa,  along  with 
his  own  sons,  and  left  a  share  of  the  kingdom  by  him 
at  his  death.  He,  however,  murdered  both  of  them, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  whole.  The  Romans, 
therefore,  made  war  upon  him,  and  after  a  long  strug- 
gle he  was  conquered,  made  prisoner,  led  in  triumph 
by  Marius,  and  starved  to  death  in  prison  at  Rome, 
104  B.  C. 

Julian,  Julianus  Flavius  Claudius,  surnamed  "The 
Apostate,"  a  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Constantino  the 
Great,  was  born  in  Constantinople,  A.  D.  331,  and  was 
Emperor  of  Rome  from  A.  D.  361  to  363.  He  was  one 
of  the  best  emperors  of  the  later  period,  but  he  is  chiefly 
remembered  by  his  unwise  and  necessarily  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  restore  the  efifete  and  dethroned  paganism 
of  Rome. 

Julius  II.,  Pope  (Cardinal  Giuliano  della  Rovere), 
born  in  1443 ;  distinguished  as  a  warrior  and  patron  of 
the  arts;  became  pope  in  1503.  He  endeavored  to  ex- 
tend the  papal  territory,  and,  after  driving  Cesare  Borgia 
from  the  Romagna,  formed  the  league  of  Cambrai  with 
Maximilian  and  Louis  XII.  against  Venice  (1508). 
After  the  submission  of  the  republic,  he  turned  his  arms 
against  France  (1510).  In  1511,  the  Holy  Alliance  was 
formed,  and  the  French  army  driven  back  over  the  Alps. 
Died,  1513. 

Justinian  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East;  born  in  483; 
succeeded  his  uncle, .  Justin  I.,  in  527.  He  issued  a 
famous  code,  forming,  together  with  his  collections  of 
"Pandects,"  "  Institutiones,"  and  "Novelise,"  the  "cor- 
pus juris  civilis."  Under  .Justinian,  the  boundaries  of 
the  empire  were  much  extended  through  the  victories 
of  Belisarius  ar.d  Narses  over  the  Persians,  Vandals, 
and  Ostrogoths.     Died,  565. 

Juvenal,  a  celebrated  Latin  poet  and  satirist,  born 
in  Aquinum;  a  friend  of  Martial  and  contemporary  of 
Statins  and  Quintilian;  his  satires,  sixteen  in  number, 
are  written  in  indignant  scorn  of  the  vices  of  the  Romans 
under  the  empire,  and  in  the  descriptions  of  which  the 
historian  finds  a  portrait  of  the  manners  and  morals  of 
the  time  (60-140). 

Kant,  Immanuel,  a  celebrated  German  philosopher; 
born  in  Konigsberg,  1724;  was  the  son  of  a  saddler,  of 
Scotch  descent,  and  fortunate  in  both  his  parents.  He 
entered  the  university  in  1740,  as  a  student  of  theology; 
gave  himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  mathematics, 
and  physics;  wrote  an  essay,  his  first  literary  effort,  on 
motive  force  in   1746;    settled  at  the  university  as  a 


BIOGRAPHY 


453 


private  lecturer  on  a  variety  of  academic  subjects  in 
1755;  became  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
1770,  when  he  was  4o,  and  continued  till  his  retirement, 
in  1797,  from  the  frailties  of  age,  spending  the  last  seven 
years  of  his  life  in  a  small  nouse  with  a  garden  in 
a  quiet  quarter  of  the  town.  His  great  work,  the  "  Critique 
of  Pure  Reason,"  was  published  in  1781,  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  "  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  "  in  1788,  and 
the  "  Critique  of  Judgment "  in  1790.  His  works  inaugu- 
rate a  new  era  in  philosophic  speculation,  and  by  the 
adoption  of  a  critical  method  dealt  a  death-blow  to 
speculative  dogmatism  on  the  one  hand  and  skepticism 
on  the  other.  It  was,  he  says,  the  skepticism  of  Hume 
that  first  broke  his  dogmatic  slumber,  so  that  had  Hume 
not  been,  he  had  not  been,  and  the  whole  course  of  modern 
thought  miglit  be  different.  Kant  by  his  critical 
method  did  for  philosophy  what  Copernicus  did  for 
astronomy;  he  centralized  the  intelligence  in  the  rea- 
son or  soul,  as  the  latter  did  the  planetary  system  in  the 
sun.  Kant  was  a  lean,  little  man,  of  simple  habits,  and 
was  never  wedded.     Died,  1804. 

KaufTmann,  Angelica,  painter;  borninCoirein  1741; 
in  1766  went  to  England.  She  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1768.  In  1781  she  married  the 
Venetian  artist,  Antonio  Zucchi,  and  thenceforward  lived 
in  Italy.     Died,  1807. 

Kean,  Charles  John,  actor;  born  in  Waterford,  in 
1811;  son  of  Edmund  Kean;  was  educated  at  Eton; 
made  his  d^but  at  Drury  Lane  in  1827,  but  did  not  es- 
tablish his  reputation  till  1838,  when  he  acted  as  Hamlet, 
Richard  III.,  and  Sir  Giles  Overreach.  In  1842  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Ellen  Tree,  a  celebrated  actress.  From  1850 
to  1859  he  was  manager  of  the  Princess's  theater.  Died, 
1868. 

Keats,  John,  born  in  1795;  poet,  son  of  a  livery 
stable  proprietor  in  Finsbury;  was  educated  at  a  school 
at  Enfield,  where  he  formed  a  lifelong  friendship  with  the 
master's  son,  Charles  Cowden  Clarke.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  Mr.  Hammond,  a  surgeon  at  Edmonton,  whom 
he  left  in  1814,  but  pursued  his  studies  at  Guy's  Hospital 
till  1817.  He  then  determined  to  follow  the  bent  of  his 
genius.  "Endymion,"  his  first  long  poem,  appeared 
in  1818.  "Isabella  or  the  Pot  of  Basil,"  "Hyperion," 
"Lamia,"  "The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,"  and  the  "Odes," 
were  written  in  the  course  of  the  next  two  years.  Mean- 
while, an  hereditary  tendency  to  consumption  had  de- 
veloped itself,  and  in  September,  1820,  he  was  forced  to 
undertake  a  journey  to  Italy.  He  was  accompanied 
by  his  friend,  Joseph  Severn,  who  nursed  him  tenderly 
during  his  last  illness  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  February, 
1821. 

Keifer,  Joseph  Warren,  ex-speaker  United  States 
Congress;  born  in  Clark  County,  O.,  January  30,  1836; 
educated  at  Antioch  College;  since  1858  in  law  practice, 
Springfield,  O.;  served  in  Ohio  volunteers  in  field,  1861- 
65;  four  times  wounded;  declined  appointment  as  lieu- 
tenant-colonel 26th  United  States  Infantry,  1866; 
member  Ohio  Senate,  1868-69;  department  commander 
Ohio  G.  A.  R.,  1868-70;  vice-commander-in-chief  G.  A. 
R.,  1871-72;  delegate  to  Republican  National  Conven- 
tion, 1876;  member  of  Congress,  1877-85,  and  since 
1905  (speaker,  1881-83) ;  president  of  Lagonda  National 
Bank,  Springfield,  O.,  since  1873.  Appointed  and  served, 
1898-99,  as  major-general  volunteers  in  war  against 
Spain.     Author:    "Slavery  and  Four  Years  of  War." 

Kellar,  Harry,  public  entertainer  (magician) ; 
born  in  Erie,  Pa.,  July  11,  1849;  graduated  from  Paines- 
ville,  O.,  High  School,  1866.  When  a  young  man  was 
assistant  to  the  "Fakir  of  Ava,"  the  magician;  joined 
Davenport  Brothers,  spirit  mediums,  as  business  manager, 
1867;  with  Fay  toured  South  America  and  Mexico  as 
Fay  &  Kellar,  1871-73;  with  Ling  Look  and  Yamadura, 
under  name  of  Kellar,  Ling  Look  &  Yamadura,  royal 
illusionists,  played  through  South  America,  Africa, 
Australia,  India,  China,  Philippine  Islands,  and  Japan 
(Ling  Look  and  Yamadura  died  in  China,  1877);  then 
with  J.  H.  Cunard,  as  Kellar  &  Cunard,  traveled  five 
years  through  India,  Burmah,  Siam,  Java,  Persia,  Asia 
Minor,  Egypt,  and  Mediterranean  ports;  since  1884  has 
performed  in  leading  American  cities. 

Kelly,  Howard  Atwood,  physician;  born  in  Cam- 
den, N.  J.,  February  20,  1858;  graduated  from  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  B.  A.,  1877,  M.  D.,  1882;  founder  of 
Kensington  Hospital,  Philadelphia;  associate  professor 
of  obstetrics.  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1888-89; 
professor  gynecology  and  obstetrics,  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  1889-99 ;  professor  of  gynecology,  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  Author:  "  Operative  Gynecology  " 
(two  volumes),  "The  Vermiform  Appendix  and  Its  Dis- 
eases," also  about  300  articles  in  medical  journals. 

Kembles,  The,  a  celebrated  family  of  actors.  (1) 
John  Philip,  born  in  1757 ;  son  of  Roger  Kemble,  manager 


of  a  traveling  company;  was  educated  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood.  His  first  appearance  in  London 
was  in  the  character  of  Hamlet  at  Drury  Lane  (1783). 
He  was  manager  of  Drury  Lane  1788-1802,  and  part 
proprietor  of  Covent  Garden,  1803-17.  Died  in  1823. 
(2)  Sarah  Kemble  (Siddons).  (3)  Charles,  born  in  1775; 
educated  at  the  college  of  Douay,  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1794  as  Malcolm  in  Macbeth;  in  1803  joined 
his  brother  and  sister  at  Covent  Garden,  of  which  he  was 
manager  for  a  short  time  in  1817;  visited  the  United 
States  in  1832;  retired  from  the  stage  in  1840.  Died  in 
1854.     (4)  Frances  Anne,  born  in  1809;  died,  1893. 

Kem'pls,  Thomas  k,  born  at  Kempen,  near  Dussel- 
dorf ;  son  of  a  poor  but  honest  and  industrious  craftsman 
named  Hamerken ;  joined,  while  yet  a  youth,  the  "  Broth- 
erhood of  Common  Life,"  at  Deventer,  in  Holland,  and  at 
20  entered  the  monastery  of  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwolle, 
in  Overyssel,  where  he  chiefly  resided  for  seventy  long 
years,  and  of  which  he  became  sub-prior,  where  he  spent 
his  time  in  acts  of  devotion  and  copying  manuscripts, 
that  of  the  Bible,  among  others,  in  the  Vulgate  version 
of  it,  as  well  as  in  the  production  of  works  of  his  own, 
and  in  chief  the  "Imitation  of  Christ,"  a  work  that  in 
the  regard  of  many,  ranks  second  to  the  Bible,  and  is 
thought  likely  to  survive  in  the  literature  of  the  world 
as  long  as  the  Bible  itself;  it  has  been  translated  into 
all  languages  within,  as  well  as  others  outside,  the  pale 
of  Christendom.     Born  about  1380;  died,  1471. 

Kent,  James,  an  eminent  American  jurist;  was 
born  in  Putnam  County,  N.  Y.,  1763.  His  most  im- 
portant work,  "Commentaries  on  American  Law,"  is  a 
production  of  great  literary  merit,  and  a  work  of  high 
authority  in  England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 
Died,  1847. 

Kepler,  Johann,  astronomer;  born  of  poor  parents 
at  Wiirttemberg,  in  1571;  studied  at  Tubingen  under 
Maestlin;  in  1594  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Gratz;  in  1600  visited  Tycho  Brah4  at  Prague,  became 
his  assistant,  and  on  his  death  (1601),  was  appointed 
mathematician  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph  He  was  after- 
wards professor  at  Linz,  and  finally  at  Rostock.  He 
died  in  1630,  at  Ratisbon.  Two  of  Kepler's  laws  — 
that  enunciating  the  elliptic  form  of  the  planetary  orbits, 
and  that  of  the  "equable  description  of  areas"  —  are 
contained  in  "Astronomia  Nova."  His  third  law,  that 
the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  the  planets  are  as 
the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"Harmonice  Mundi." 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  author  of  "The  Star  Spangled 
Banner,"  was  born  in  Maryland,  United  States,  in  1780. 
He  wrote  the  words  that  have  immortalized  him  when 
he  saw  the  national  flag  floating  over  the  ramparts  of 
Baltimore  in  1814.     Died,  1843. 

King,  Henry  Churchill,  president  of  Oberlin  College, 
since  1902;  born  at  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  September 
18,  1858;  graduate  from  Oberlin,  1879;  Oberlin  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1882  (B.  D.);  post-graduate  from 
Harvard,  1882-84  (A.  M.,  1883);  Berlin,  1893-94 
(D.  D.,  Oberlin,  1897,  Western  Reserve,  1901,  Yale, 
1904);  tutoV  in  Latin,  Oberlin  Academy,  1879-81; 
tutor  of  mathematics,  1881-82;  associate  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Oberlin  College,  1884-90;  associate 
professor  of  philosophy,  1890-91;  professor,  1891-97;  pro- 
fessor of  theology  since  1897 ;  dean  of  Oberlin  College, 
1901-02.  Author:  "Outline  of  Erdmann's  History  of 
Philosophy,"  "Outline  of  the  Microcosmus  of  Hermann 
Lotze,"  "The  Appeal  of  the  Child,"  " Reconstruction  in 
Theology,"  "Theology  and  the  Social  Consciousness," 
"Personal  and  Ideal  Elements  in  Education,"  "Rational 
Living,"  also  various  pamphlets  on  philosophy,  etc. 

Kinglake,  Alexander  William,  historian;  born  in 
Taunton,  1809,  educated  at  Cambridge;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1837;  represented  Bridgewater  in  parliament, 
1857-68.  His  works  are  "Eothen,"  and  the  "History 
of  the  War  in  the  Crimea."     Died,  1891. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  an  English  divine  and  popular 
writer;  born  in  Devonshire,  1819.  His  best  works 
embrace  the  well-known  politico-economic  novel  "Alton 
Locke  " ;  the  powerful  philosophical  romance  "  Hypatia," 
and  the  historical  novel  entitled  "Westward  Ho!" 
His  writings  have  gone  through  several  English  and 
American  editions.  In  polemics,  he  belonged  to  the 
"broad"  school  of  the  Anglican  Church.     Died,  1875. 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  author;  born  in  Bombay,  India, 
December  30,  1865;  educated  in  United  Services  College, 
North  Devon,  England;  assistant  editor  of  "Civil  and 
Military  Gazette  and  Pioneer  in  India,"  1882-89; 
traveled  in  Japan,  China,  Africa,  and  Australia.  Author: 
"Departmental  Ditties,"  "Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills," 
"Soldiers  Three,"  "In  Black  and  White,"  "The  Story  of 
the  Gadsbys,"  "Under  the  Deodars,"  "Phantom  'Rick- 
shaw," "Wee  Willie  Winkle,"  "Life's  Handicap,"  "The 
Light  that  Failed,"   " Barrack- Room  Ballads,"   "Many 


454 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Inventions,"  "The  Jungle  Book,"  "Second  Jungle 
Book,"  "The  Seven  Seas,"  "Captains  Courageous," 
"The  Day's  Work,"  "Stalky  &  Co.,"  "From  Sea  to  Sea" 
(reprint  of  newspaper  articles),  "The  Brushwood  Boy," 
"The  Absent-Minded  Beggar,"  "Kim  of  the  Rishti," 
"Just  So  Stories,"  "The  Five  Nations,"  "Traffics  and 
Discoveries  " 

Kirkland,  James  Hampton,  chancellor,  Vander- 
bilt  University,  since  1893;  born  m  Spartanburg,  S.  C, 
September  9,  1859;  graduate  Wofford  College,  1877 
(A.  M.,  1878;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  Germany,  1885;  LL.  D., 
University  of  North  Carolina,  1894;  D.  C.  L.,  University 
of  the  South,  1902);  professor  of  Greek  and  German, 
Wofford  College,  1881-83;  traveled  and  studied  abroad, 
1883-86;  professor  of  Latin,  1886-93,  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity. Editor:  "Satires  and  Epistles  of  Horace." 
Has  published  monographs,  philological  review  articles, 
etc. 

Kl^ber,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  1754,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  of  the  French  revolution,  and  under 
the  Directory  became  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Sambre  and  Meuse.  He  went  to  Egypt  with  Napoleon, 
and  on  his  departure  remained  behind  as  commander-in- 
chief.  He  captured  Cairo,  and  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Murat  Bey,  but  was  assassinated  by  an  Arab.  Died, 
1800. 

Knapp,  Martin  Augustine,  jurist;  born  in  Sf)af- 
ford,  N.  Y.,  November  6,  1843;  graduate  from  Wesleyan 
University,  Connecticut,  1868  (A.  M.,  1871,  LL.  D., 
1892;  honorary  A.  M.,  Syracuse  University,  1892); 
admitted  to  New  York  bar,  1869;  practiced  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.;  corporation  counsel,  1877-83.  Ap- 
pointed interstate  commerce  commissioner  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison,  February,  1891;  reappointed  by 
Cleveland,  1897;  by  Roosevelt,  1902  and  1908; 
elected  chairman  of  the  commission,  1898.  Appointed 
first  chief  judge  of  commerce  court  by  Taft,  1910. 

Kneisel,  Franz,  musician,  director  of  Kneisel 
Quartette;  born  in  Rumania  (of  German  parentage), 
1865;  studied  music;  violin  instruction  under  Griin 
and  Hellmesberger ;  was  concert  master  of  Hofburg 
Theater  Orchestra,  Vienna;  later  of  Bilse's  Orchestra, 
Berlin;  concertmaster  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra; 
especially  prominent  as  violin  soloist. 

Knox,  John,  a  Scottish  divine  and  ecclesiastical 
reformer;  born  in  Haddingtonshire,  1505,  and  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews  University.  In  1542,  Knox 
became  a  fiery  advocate  of  the  Reformed  faith,  thereby 
encountering  much  persecution.  In  1551,  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  of  England,  and 
subsequently  passed  three  years  at  Geneva,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Calvin.  On  his  return  to  his 
native  country  in  1559,  he  became  the  leading  spirit  of 
the  Reformation  of  Scotland,  and  induced  the  parlia- 
ment to  abjure  the  papal  authority,  and  to  declare 
Protestantism  the  religion  of  the  land.  Tried  for  treason 
at  the  instance  of  Queen  Mary,  he  was  acquitted; 
and  assisted  in  bringing  about  that  sovereign's  abdi- 
cation, together  with  the  consequent  elevation  of  her 
brother,  the  Earl  of  Murray,  as  Regent  of  Scotland. 
Died,  1572. 

Knox,  Philander  Chase,  lawyer,  statesman; 
born  in  Brownsville,  Pa.,  May  6,  1853;  graduate  of 
Mt.  Union  College,  Ohio,  1872  (LL.  D.,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1905);  admitted  to  bar,  1875. 
Assis'tant  United  States  district  attorney.  Western 
District  of  Pennsylvania,  1876-77;  resigned;  engaged 
in  practice  since  1877,  with  firm  name  of  Knox  & 
Reed,  representing  many  large  corporations,  including 
the  Carnegie  Company;  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States, -1901-04.  Senator  from  Pennsylvania,  1904-09; 
secretary  of  state,  1909. 

Koch,  Robert,  M.  D.,  born  at  Clausthal,  Prussia, 
1843;  between  1879  and  1883  succeeded  in  iden- 
tifying the  germs  of  cattle  disease,  of  consumption 
and  of  cholera.  In  1884,  he  established  the  exist- 
ence of  a  bacterium  as  the  cause  of  cholera.  Ap- 
pointed professor  of  hygiene  at  Berlin,  1885;  in  1890, 
brought  out  a  lymph  for  the  cure  of  consumption.  Died, 
1910. 

Kohlsaat,  Hermann  Henry,  capitalist,  journalist; 
born  in  Albion,  Edwards  County,  111.,  March  22,  1853; 
educated  in  common  schools.  Galena,  111.,  and  Skinner 
School,  Chicago.  Began  business  life  as  cash  boy  and 
later  cashier  in  dry-goods  store;  traveling  salesman  for 
two  other  firms  and,  1875-80,  for  Blake,  Shaw  &  Co., 
wholesale  bakers;  became  junior  partner,  1880,  and  had 
charge  of  a  bakery  lunch  established  by  this  firm ;  bought 
that  branch  of  the  business,  1883,  and  greatly  enlarged  it; 
H.  H.  Kohlsaat  &  Co.  (incorporated)  now  owning 
several  large  establishments  and  also  doing  large  whole- 
sale bakery  business;  part  owner  in  Chicago  "Inter- 
Ocean,"  1891-93;  editor  and  publisher  "Chicago  Times- 


Herald,"  1894  (amalgamated  with  "Chicago  Record," 
becoming  "Record-Herald,"  1901);  also  of  "Chicago 
Evening  Post,"  1894-1901;  editor  of  Chicago  "Record- 
Herald"  since  January  1,  1910.  Has  been  largely 
identified  with  local  real-estate  operations;  presented 
statue  of  General  Grant  to  City  of  Galena,  111.;  has 
contributed  largely  to  charities;  member  of  National 
Republican  Convention,  1896. 

Kosciusko,  Tadeusz,  born  in  1746;  Polish  patriot; 
came-to  America  and  became  aide-de-camp  to  Washing- 
ton; in  1789,  received  the  appointment  of  major-general 
in  the  Polish  army;  distinguished  himself  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1792,  especially  at  the  battle  of  Dubienka; 
after  the  submission  of  Stanislaus  retired  to  Leipzig;  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  second  Polish  rising,  in  1794,  was 
chosen  commander-in-chief;  although  scantily  supplied 
with  troops,  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Russians  from 
Poland,  but  was  finally  overwhelmed  at  Macieowice  in 
October.  He  was  imprisoned  in  a  fortress  near  St. 
Petersburg,  but  released  on  the  accession  of  the  Emperor 
Paul.  In  1798,  he  settled  in  France.  He  died  in  Soleure, 
Switzerland,  1817. 

Kossuth,  Louis,  born  in  1802;  Hungarian  patriot; 
in  1847,  was  returned  to  the  diet  as  deputy  for  Pesth; 
became  leader  of  the  party  of  reform;  held  the  office  of 
minister  of  finance  in  the  new  Hungarian  ministry,  and 
after  its  fall  was  made  president  of  the  committee  of 
national  defense.  In  April,  1849,  the  Hungarians  de- 
clared themselves  independent,  and  Kossuth  carried  on 
the  government  from  Debreczin,  and  afterwards  from 
Szegedin;  but,  finding  it  impossible  to  act  in  conjunction 
with  Gorgey,  he  resigned  in  August,  1849.  The  ill-suc- 
cess of  his  countrymen  in  the  field  compelled  him  soon 
afterwards  to  flee  to  Turkey,  whence  he  removed  to  Eng- 
land in  1851.  During  his  late  years  he  lived  chiefly  in 
Italy.     Died,  1894. 

Kotzebue,  August  Frledrich  Ferdinand  von,  born 
in  1761;  German  man  of  letters;  in  1781,  was  attached 
to  the  Prussian  embassy  at  St.  Petersburg;  afterwards 
entered  the  Russian  Service,  and  in  1817,  was  sent  by 
the  Tzar  as  consul-general  to  Prussia.  His  Russian  sym- 
pathies made  him  unpopular  in  Germany,  and  led  to  his 
assassination.  His  works  embrace  a  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects.    Died,  1819. 

Krapotkin,  Prince  Peter,  born  in  1842,  Russian 
Nihilist;  in  1872  went  to  Belgium  and  Switzerland; 
became  an  internationalist;  after  his  return  to  Russia, 
lectured  under  assumed  names;  was  imprisoned,  but 
escaped  to  Switzerland;  has  since  taken  part  in  the 
agitation  carried  on  throughout  Europe  against  existing 
social  arrangements. 

Krauskopf,  Joseph,  rabbi,  lecturer,  author;  born 
in  Ostrowo,  Prussia,  January  21,  1858;  came  to  America, 
1872,  and  worked  as  clerk  at  Fall  River,  Mass.;  grad- 
uated B.  A.,  University  of  Cincinnati,  1883;  also  as  rabbi 
from  Hebrew  Union  College,  1883  (D.  D.,  1885);  soon 
after  graduation  accepted  call  from  Hebrew  congregation, 
Kansas  City;  rabbi  of  the  Reform  Congregation  Kene- 
seth  Israel,  Philadelphia,  1887;  founded  Jewish  Publi- 
cation Society  of  America;  founded,  and  president  since 
organization,  National  Farm  School,  in  which  Jewish 
boys  are  trained  in  practical  and  scientific  agriculture. 
Author:  "The  Jews  and  Moors  in  Spain"  (lecture); 
"Evolution  and  Judaism,"  "A  Rabbi's  Impressions  of 
the  Oberammergau  Passion  Play,"  "The  Seven  Ages  of 
Man,"  "Old  Truths  in  New  Books,"  "Society  and  ita 
Morals,"  "Some  Isms  of  To-day,"  "Gleanings  from  Our 
Vineyard,"  "The  Service  Manual,"  "The  Service  Ritual," 
"The  Mourner's  Service,"  "The  School  Service,"  "Sun- 
day Lectures." 

Kruger,  S.  J.  Paul,  born  in  1825,  Boer  statesman; 
formed  with  Joubert  and  Pretorius  the  provisional 
government  (December,  1880)  of  the  Transvaal,  or 
South  African  Republic;  held  a  high  position  during 
the  war  with  Engla,nd;  was  elected  president  in  1883, 
1888,  1893,  and  1898.     Died,  1904. 

Krupp,  Alfred,  a  metal  and  steel  founder,  was  born 
in  Essen,  where  through  his  father  he  became  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  small  foundry  which  grew  in  his  hands  mto 
such  dimensions  as  to  surpass  every  other  establishment 
of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The  Bessemer  process  was 
early  introduced  into  England  in  the  manufacture  of 
steel,  which  Krupp  was  the  first  to  employ  in  the  manu- 
facture of  guns.  The  works  cover  an  immense  area,  and 
employ  20,000  people,  and  supply  artillery  to  every 
government  of  Europe.     Born,  1812;  died,  1887. 

Ladd,  George  Trumbull,  an  American  educator; 
born  in  Painesville,  O.,  January  19,  1842:  he  was 
educated  at  Western  Reserve  College  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminary;  was  pastor  of  Spring  Street 
Congregational  Church,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1871-79; 
and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bowdoin  CoUege  va  1879- 


BIOGRAPHY 


455 


81,  when  he  assumed  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Yale. 
His  works  include  "Principles  of  Church  Polity,"  "Doc- 
trine of  Sacred  Scripture,"  and  "Elements  of  Physio- 
logical Psychology."  He  lectured  on  philosophy  in 
India,  1899-1900,  and  was  decorated  by  the  Emperor 
of  Japan. 

La  Farge,  John,  artist;  born  in  New  York,  March 
31,18.35;  studied  architectural  decoration;  then  studied 
painting  with  Couture  and  William  M.  Hunt.  Began 
painting  with  religious  subjects  and  decorative  work; 
painted  flowers,  a  few  portraits,  and  many  landscapes; 
for  a  short  time  made  illustrations  for  books  and  maga- 
zines; then  devoted  himself  to  mural  painting,  mostly 
of  religious  or  ecclesiastical  character;  afterward,  was 
for  years,  devoted  to  the  making  of  stained  glass  win- 
dows, for  which  he  invented  the  new  methods  known  in 
Europe  as  "American,"  changing  and  reforming  entire 
art  of  the  glass-stainer,  from  the  making  of  the  new 
glass  by  new  methods  to  the  painting  of  same;  much 
of  his  work  was  in  churches  and  residences  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Philadelphia,  Washing- 
ton, Detroit,  and  elsewhere.  Author:  "Lectures  on 
Art,"  "Letters  from  Japan,"  etc.     Died.  1910. 

Lafayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Rooh  Yves  Gilbert 
Motier,  Marquis  de,  born  in  17o7;  educated  at 
the  College  of  Plessis;  took  part  in  the  American  War 
of  Independence,  and  was  entrusted  by  Washington 
with  the  defense  of  Virginia;  was  one  of  the  earliest 
leaders  in  the  French  Revolution,  presenting  his  "Decla- 
ration of  Rights"  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
receiving  the  command  of  the  National  Guard  in  July, 
1789;  retained  his  post  till  1791,  but,  by  opposing 
mob  violence,  excited  the  animosity  of  the  Jacobins, 
which  was  increased  by  his  letter  denouncing  the  clubs 
(June,  1792).  After  vainly  attempting  to  make  his 
presence  felt  in  Paris,  he  fled  over  the  frontier,  but  was 
captured  by  the  Austrians  (August,  1792),  and  remained 
in  prison  till  released  by  Napoleon  in  1797.  After 
holding  office  under  the  Bourbons,  he  took  part  in  rais- 
ing Louis  Philippe  to  th^  throne  (1830),  but  afterwards 
opposed  his  government.     Died,  1834. 

La  FoUctte,  Robert  Marion,  lawyer,  statesman; 
born  in  Primrose,  Wis.,  June  14,  1855;  graduate  of 
University  of  Wisconsin,  1879  (LL.  D.,  19011;  ad- 
mitted to  bar,  1880.  District  attorney,  Dane  County, 
1880-84;  member  of  Congress,  1885-91;  as  member  of 
Ways  and  Means  Committee,  he  took  prominent  part  in 
framing  McKinley  Bill.  Elected  governor  of  Wiscon- 
sin, 1901,  1903  and  1905.  Led  movements  for  direct 
primaries,  adequate  railway  taxation,  control  of  railway 
rates  by  state  commission,  etc.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1905  and  re-elected  in  1911. 
Has  made  important  contributions  toward  railroad  and 
other  public  reforms  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
debaters  in  the  Senate. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  Count,  mathematician; 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  Turin  in  1736;  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  that  town  at  the  age  of 
19.  In  1766,  he  succeeded  Euler  as  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin.  Removing  to  Paris  in  1787,  he 
remained  there  during  the  Revolution,  and  was  after- 
wards patronized  by  Napoleon.     Died,  1813. 

Lamar,  Joseph  Rucker,  jurist,  born  at  Ruckers- 
ville,  Ga.,  1857.  He  received  his  education  at  Univer- 
sity of  Georgia,  Bethany  College,  Washington  and  Lee 
University.  Admitted  to  the  Georgia  bar,  1879;  mem- 
ber of  Georgia  legislature,  1886-89;  commissioner  to 
codify  the  laws  of  Georgia,  1895;  served  as  associate 
justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia,  1903-10;  in  1910 
he  was  appointed  by  President  Taft  associate  justice  of 
United  States  Supreme  Court. 

Lamartine,  Alphonse  3Iarle  Louis  de,  born  in 
1790;  French  author  and  statesman;  held  diplomatic 
posts  in  Italy  from  1820  to  the  accession  of  Louis 
Philippe;  traveled  for  about  two  years  in  the  East; 
returning  in  1833i^sat  in  the  National  Assembly  till  the 
revolution  of  1848,  when  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  but  retired,  ovang  to  what  he  considered  the 
absence  of  liberal  views  among  his  colleagues.  His 
chief  prose  works  are  "Histoire  des  Girondins,"  "Sou- 
venirs d'Orient,"  "Le  Tailleur  de  Pierres  de  St.-Point," 
and  "Histoire  de  la  Restauration."     Died,  1869. 

Lamb,  Charles,  essayist  and  poet,  was  born  in  the 
Temple,  where  his  father  was  clerk  to  a  bencher,  in  1775; 
received  his  education  at  Christ's  Hospital;  became  a 
clerk  in  the  South  Sea  House,  and  afterwards  in  the 
India  House,  retiring  on  a  pension  in  1825.  His  life 
was  devoted  to  the  care  of  his  sister,  Mary,  who  always 
remained  stibject  to  fits  of  insanity.  Most  of  the 
"Essays  of  Elia"  were  published  in  the  "London  Maga- 
zine" between  1820  and  1826;  others  appeared  in  the 
"New  Monthly"  and  the  "Englishman's  Magazine." 
Lamb    also    wrote    "Rosamund   Gray,"    "John    Wood- 


ville,",  a  drama;  studies  of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists, 
and  many  short  lyrics.  He  died  in  Edmonton  in 
1834. 

Landis,  Kenesaw  Mountain,  jurist;  born  in  Mill- 
ville,  O.,  November  20,  1866;  educated  in  public  schools, 
Logansport,  Ind.;  graduate  of  Union  College  of  Law, 
1891;  admitted  to  bar,  1891.  Practiced  law  in  Chi- 
cago, 1891-1905,  except  for  two  years  while  he  was 
private  secretary  to  secretary  of  state  Gresham;  judge 
of  United  States  District  Court,  northern  district  of 
Illinois,  since  March  28,  1905. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  born  in  1775,  descended 
from  a  good  Warwickshire  family;  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  where  he  won  a 
high  reputation  as  a  scholar.  He  next  passed  three 
years  of  solitude  in  South  Wales,  and  there  wrote  "  Gebir." 
"Simonidea"  appeared  in  1806,  and  "Count  Julian" 
in  1812.  In  the  year  1811  he  married,  and  his  agri- 
cultural schemes  at  Llanthony  Abbey  resulting  in  fail- 
ure (1814),  went  abroad  with  his  wife,  with  whom  he 
lived  very  unhappily  at  Florence  and  other  places,  and 
at  last  separated  from  her  in  1835.  From  1837  to  1858, 
he  resided  at  Bath,  and  from  1858  till  his  death  at 
Florence  in  1864.  The  first  series  of  "Imaginary  Con- 
versations" was  published  in  1824. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  Henry,  youngest  son  of  John 
Landseer,  was  born  in  London  in  1802;  showed  his 
genius  at  an  early  age;  was  elected  A.  R.  A.  in  1826, 
and  R.  A.  in  1830;  declined  the  presidency  in  1865. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "High  Life"  and  "Low 
Life,"  "Bolton  Abbey  in  the  Olden  Time,"  "The  Old 
Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner,"  "Dignity  and  Impudence," 
"Night  and  Morning,"  and  "Children  of  the  Mist." 
Died,  1873. 

Langtry,  Lillie,  actress;  born  in  Island  of  Jersey  in 
1852;  daughter  of  Rev.  W.  C.  Le  Breton;  married  (1). 
1874,  Edward  Langtry  (died,  1897);  (2)  1899,  Gerald, 
son  of  Sir  Hugo  de  Bathe.  D<;but,  Haymarket  Theater, 
London,  1881,  as  Hester  Grazebrook,  in  "An  Unequal 
Match";  made  American  tours,  appearing  as  Pauline 
in  "The  Lady  ot  Lyons";  Rosalind  in  "A*  You  Like 
It";  has  also  appeared  in  "A  Wife's  Peril,"  "Noa 
Intimes,"  "Esther  Sandraz,"  "As  in  a  Looking  Glass," 
etc.;  twice  leased  Prince's  (now  Prince  of  Wales) 
Theater,  London;  became  naturalized  citizen  of  United 
States,  1887;    leased  Princess's  Theater,  London,  1891. 

Laotse  (i.  e.,  the  old  Philosopher),  a  Chinese  sage; 
born  in  the  province  of  Ho-nan  about  B.  C.  565,  a  con- 
temporary of  Confucius,  who  wrote  the  celebrated 
"Tao-te-King"  canon,  that  is,  of  the  Tao,  or  divine 
reason,  and  of  virtue,  one  —  and  deservedly  so  on 
account  of  its  high  ethics  —  of  the  sacred  books  of  China; 
he  was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  principal  religions  of 
China,  Confucianism  and  Buddhism  being  the  other  two, 
although  his  followers,  the  Tao-sze,  as  they  are  called, 
are  now  degenerated  into  a  set  of  jugglers. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon  {lah-plahs'),  an  illustrious 
French  astronomer  and  mathematician;  born  in 
Calvados,  in  1749.  In  1768,  through  the  influence  of 
D'Alembert^  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  military  school,  and,  in  1785,  a  titular  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1796,  his  "Exposition  of 
the  System  of  the  Universe"  attracted  general  atten- 
tion, and  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. In  1817,  he  became  president  of  that  body,  and 
was  created  a  marquis.  The  grandest  monument  of  his 
genius  —  the  "Traits  de  la  M^canique  Celeste  "^ — has 
placed  him  as  a  scientist  among  the  greatest  names 
either  of  ancient  or  modern  times.     Died,  1827. 

Lardner,  Dionysius,  born  in  1793,  son  of  a  Dublin 
solicitor;  educated  in  Cambridge;  in  1827,  became 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  London, 
and  set  on  foot  his  "Cabinet  Encyclopaedia,"  for  which 
he  wrote  most  of  the  scientific  articles.     Died,  1859. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  born  in  Hawkhurst,  in  Kent, 
A.  D.  1684;  a  distinguished  Unitarian  minister,  cele- 
brated as  the  author  of  "The  Credibility  of  the  Gospel 
History"  (published  between  1727  and  1757).  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  "Collection  of  Jewish  and  Heathen 
Testimonies."  These  two  works  —  the  value  of  which 
in  Christian  apologetics  can  hardly  be  over-estimated  — 
occupied  Dr.  Lardner  for  the  greater  part  of  forty-three 
years.     Died,  1768. 

Larned,  Josephus  Nelson,  author,  librarian;  born 
in  Chatham,  Ont.,  May  11,  1836;  educated  in  public 
schools,  Buffalo;  on  editorial  staff  of  "Buffalo  Express," 
1859-72;  superintendent  of  education,  Buffalo,  1872-73; 
superintendent  of  Buffalo  library,  1877-97.  Author: 
"Talks  About  Labor,"  "History  for  Ready  Reference," 
"Talk  About  Books."  "History  of  England  for  Schools," 
"A  Multitude  of  Councilors,"  "Primer  of  Right  and 
Wrong,"  "History  of  the  United  States  for  Secondary 


456 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Schools,"  "Seventy  Centuries  —  a  Survey."  Eilitor: 
"The  Literature  of  American  History." 

La  SaUe,  Robert  Cavelier  de,  born  in  1643;  French 
traveler;  traced  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  in  1682; 
irh  1684,  attempted  to  establish  a  fortified  settlement 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  was  murdered  by  his  compan- 
ions, in  Texas,  in  1687. 

Lassaile,  Ferdinand,  founder  of  Socialism  in  Ger- 
many; born  in  Bre.slau,  in  1825,  of  Jewish  parents. 
He  attended  the  imiversities  of  Breslau  and  Berlin; 
became  a  disciple  of  Hegel;  took  part  in  the  Revolution 
of  1848,  and  was  sent  to  prison  for  six  months.  In 
1861,  his  "System  of  Acquired  Rights"  started  an  agi- 
tation of  labor  against  capital,  and  he  was  again  thrown 
into  prison;  and  on  his  release  founded  an  association 
to  secure  universal  suffrage  and  other  reforms.  Return- 
ing to  Switzerland,  he  conceived  a  pa-ssionate  affection 
for  a  lady  bethrothed  to  a  noble  whom  she  was  com- 
pelled to  marry,  and  whom  he  challenged,  but  by  whom 
he  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel  in  1864. 

Laurler,  Sir  Wilfrid,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  the  first  French- 
Canadian  Premier  of  the  Dominion,  was  born  in  St.  Lin, 
1841,  and  educated  for  the  bar.  Called  in  1864,  he  rose 
rapidly  in  his  profession,  and  in  1871  was  elected  as  a 
liberal  to  the  Quebec  Provincial  Assembly.  In  1874  he 
was  elected  to  the  Federal  Assembly,  and  his  high  per- 
sonal character,  his  undoubted  loyalty  and  attachment 
to  the  connection  of  the  colony  with  Great  Britain,  to- 
gether with  his  great  oratorical  powers,  which  have  earned 
for  him  the  title  "Silver-tongued  Laurier,"  soon  gave 
him  high  rank  in  the  Liberal  party.  On  the  retirement 
of  Mr.  Blake  in  1891  he  was  chosen  as  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party,  and  at  the  general  election  of  1896  he  led  his 
followers  to  a  notable  victory.  His  tariff  legislation 
during  1897,  giving  Great  Britain  the  benefit  of  preferen- 
tial trade  witn  Canada,  aroused  much  enthusiasm  both 
in  the  colony  and  at  home,  and  he  was  warmly  welcomed 
when  he  went  to  London  to  attend  the  Jubilee  festivities. 
He  was  then  appointed  a  member  of  the  privy  council 
and  made  a  G.  C.  M.  G.  In  1900  he  again  secured  the 
approval  both  of  the  dominion  and  of  the  empire  by  the 
prompt  despatch  of  Canadian  troops  to  aid  the  mother 
country  in  South  Africa,  and  led  his  party  to  another 
victory  at  the  polls  in  November.  He  attended  the 
colonial  conference  and  the  coronation  in  England  in 
1902.  He  was  again  returned  to  power  in  1904,  and  in 
1907  attended  the  imperial  conference  in  London. 

Lavoisier,  Antolnc  Laurent,  born  in  1743;  French 
chemist;  after  studying  at  the  Collfege  Mazarin,  obtained 
the  post  of  farmer-general  (1769),  and  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  chemical  experiments,  resulting  in  a  new 
theorv  of  chemistry,  the  "anti-phlogistic"  (1773-75), 
on  which  the  modern  science  is  based.  In  arriving  at 
his  results  he  was  much  indebted  to  Priestley,  who  made 
known  to  him  his  discovery  of  oxygen.  During  the  revo- 
lution he  was  accused  of  adulterating  tobacco,  and  guillo- 
tined in  1794. 

Lawson,  Thomas  William,  banker  and  broker, 
yachtsman,  author;  born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Febru- 
ary 26,  1857;  educated  at  public  schools,  Cambridge, 
Mass.;  in  business  as  banker  and  broker  since  April, 
1870;  now  senior  member  of  firm  of  Lawson,  Arnold  & 
Company,  members  of  Boston  and  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
changes; Republican;  prominent  as  yachtsman;  con- 
tributor to  magazines,  reviews,  and  newspapers  since 
1875.  Author:  "The  Krank,"  "History  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  "  (large  illustrated  4to.),  "Secrets  of  Success," 
"Collection  of  Poems  and  Short  Stories  from  Magazines," 
"Lawson  History  of  the  America's  Cup"  (for  private 
distribution),  "Frenzied  Finance." 

Lea,  Henry  Charles,  author;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
September  19,  1825;  private  education  (LL.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Harvard  and  Princeton) ;  mem- 
ber many  learned  societies  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  in  publishing  business,  184.3-80;  then  retired.- 
Author:  "Superstition  and  Force,"  "An  Historical 
Sketch  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in  the  Christian  Church," 
"Studies  in  Church  History,"  "A  History  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages,"  "Chapters  from  the  Religious 
History  of  Spain,"  "  Formulary  of  the  Papal  Penitentiary 
in  the  Thirteenth  Century,"  "A  History  of  Auricular 
Confession  and  Indulgences  in  the  Latin  Church,"  "The 
Moriscos  of  Spain:  Their  Conversion  and  Expulsion," 
"History  of  the  Inquisition  of  Spain,"  also  many  articles 
in  periodicals.     Died,  1909. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward,  born  in  1807;  American  gen- 
eral, educated  at  West  Point,  entered  the  corps  of  en- 
gineers; served  in  the  Mexican  War;  was  superintendent 
of  West  Point,  1852-55;  after  the  outbreak  of  Civil  War 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  anny  of  Northern  Vir- 
ginia (May,  1862);  repelled  McClellan,  and  relieved 
Richmond;  defeated  the  Northern  army  near  Manassas 
Junction;    was  beaten  by  McClellan  at  Antietam  (Sep- 


tember) ;  gained  the  victories  of  Fredericksburg  (De- 
cember), and  Chancellorsville  (May,  1863);  was  defeated 
at  Gettysburg  (July);  fought  several  battles  against 
Grant,  and  defended  Petersburg  for  ten  months;  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  Confederate  Armies  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1865;  surrendered  at  Appomattox  on  April  9, 
1865.     Died,  1870. 

Le  Gailienne,  Richard,  journalist,  author;  born  in 
Liverpool,  Eng.,  January  20,  1866;  in  business  seven 
years,  but  abandoned  it  for  literature;  for  some  time  in 
journalism  and  literary  work  in  United  States.  Editor: 
"Isaak  Walton,  The  Compleat  Angler,"  "Hazlitt's 
'Liber  Amoris,' "  "Hallam's  'Remains.'"  Author: 
"My  Ladies'  Sonnets,"  "Volumes  in  Folio,"  "George 
Meredith,"  "The  Book-Bills  of  Narcissus,"  "English 
Poems,"  "The  Religion  of  a  Literary  Man,"  "Prose 
Fancies,"  "  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  and  Other  Poems"; 
retrospective  reviews.  "Prose  Fancies,"  second  series, 
"The  Quest  of  the  Golden  Girl,"  "If  I  were  (jod," 
"Omar  Khayyam,  a  Paraphrase,"  "The  Romance  of 
Zion  Chapel,"  "Young  Lives,"  "Worshiper  of  the  Image," 
"Travels  in  England,"  "The  Beautiful  Lie  of  Rome," 
"  Rudyard  Kipling,  a  Criticism,"  "The  Life  Romantic," 
"Sleeping  Beauty,"  "Mr.  Sun  and  Mrs.  Moon,"  "Per- 
seus and  Andromeda,"  "An  Old  Country  House,"  "Odea 
from  the  Divan  of  Hafiz,"  "Painted  Shadows." 

Lenormant,  Francois,  a  distinguished  archaologist ; 
born  in  Paris  in  1837;  a  man  of  genius  and  of  vast  learn- 
ir^;  his  chief  works  "Manuel  d'Histoire  Ancienne  de 
rOrient,"  "  Lettres  Assyriologues,"  "Les  Premi&res  Civ- 
ilisations," and  "Les  Sciences  Occultes  en  Asie."  Died, 
1883. 

Leo  I.,  "the Great,"  Pope;  born  about 390;  succeeded 
Sixtus  III.  in  440;  zealously  opposed  the  Manicha?ans 
and  Pelagians,  and  secured  the  condemnation  of  the 
Eutychian  heresy  at  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon 
(451).  He  induced  Attila  to  spare  Rome  (452),  but  it 
was  pillaged  by  Genseric  (455).     Died,  461. 

Leo  X.,  Pope  (Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici);  son  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent;  born  in  Florence  in  1475;  was 
banished  with  his  family  in  1494;  traveled  in  Germany 
and  Flanders,  and  formed  a  friendship  with  Erasmus;  on 
his  return  to  Italy  became  legate  to  Julius  II.;  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Ravenna  (1512);  became  pope  in 
1513.  In  his  efforts  to  extend  the  papal  dominions  he 
allied  himself  at  one  time  with  France,  at  another  with 
the  empire.  In  1515  he  signed  the  famous  concordat 
with  Francis  I.  His  pontificate  is  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant periods  in  the  history  of  art  and  literature,  and  is 
also  memorable  as  the  time  when  the  Reformation  began. 
Died,  1521. 

Leo  XIIL  (Gioacchino  Pecci),  Pope;  son  of  Count 
Ludovico  Pecci;  born  in  Carpineto,  in  the  Papal  States, 
in  1810;  educated  at  the  Collegio  Romano  and  the 
Academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics;  administered  the  dis- 
tricts of  Benevento,  Spoleto,  and  Perugia  successively; 
became  archbishop  of  Damietta,  1843,  and  bishop  of 
Perugia,  1846;  was  nuncio  to  the  King  of  the  Belgians, 
1843-46;  was  created  a  cardinal,  1853,  and  in  1877,  be- 
came chamberlain.  He  was  elected  pope  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Moderates  in  1878,  and  down  to  his  death  in 
1903,  was  one  of  the  foremost  figures  of  modern  times. 

Leon'idas  was  a  Spartan  King  who  succeeded  his 
brother,  Cleomenes  I.,  491  B.  C.  In  480  B.  C,  he,  with  a 
few  soldiers,  defended  the  Pai>a  of  Thermopyla;  against 
Xerxes  and  his  Persian  Army,  nearly  a  million  strong, 
the  Greelts  perishing  to  a  man  after  killing  five  times 
their  number. 

Leopardi,  Giacomo,  modern  Italian  poet;  born  near 
Ancona,  1798;  a  precocious  genius ;  an  omnivorous  reader 
as  a  boy,  and  devoted  to  literature;  of  a  weakly  con- 
stitution, he  became  a  confirmed  invalid,  and  died  sud- 
denly; had  sceptical  leanings;  wrote  lyrics  inspired  by 
a  certain  somber  melancholy.     Died,  1837. 

Leopold  I.,  King  of  the  Belgians,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-(Joburg;  born  in  1790;  in  his  youth  served  in  the 
Russian  Army;  visited  England  in  1815,  and  married 
Princess  Charlotte,  who  died  two  years  later;  he  declined 
the  throne  of  Greece  in  1830,  but  accepted  that  of  the 
Belgians  in  1831,  and  proved  a  wise,  firm,  constitutional 
sovereign;  in  1832  he  married  the  French  Princess 
Louise;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leopold  II.  Died, 
1865. 

Leopold  II.,  King  of  the  Belgians;  born  in  1835;  son 
of  the  preceding;  married  Archduchess  Maria  of  Austria 
in  1853,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1865.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  quarrels  of  the  Liberals  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics. He  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the  International 
African  Association.     Died,  1909. 

Le  Sage,  Alain  Ren4,  French  novelist  and  dramatist; 
born  in  Sarzeau  in  Brittany,  in  1668;  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
College  at  Vannes;  went  to  Paris  in  1692;  learned  Span- 
ish, and  translated  or  imitated  several  Spanish  dramas; 


BIOGRAPHY 


457 


in  1707  produced  "Le  Diable  Boiteux,"  and  soon  after- 
wards a  comedy  called  "Turcaret."  "Gil  Bias"  was 
published  in  three  parts.     Died,  1747. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  Vicomte  de,  born  in  1805; 
after  holding  various  consular  posts,  went  to  Madrid  as 
ambassador  in  1848.  While  in  Egypt,  in  1854,  he  pro- 
posed the  scheme  of  the  Suez  canal  to  Said  Pa^ha,  and, 
a  company  having  been  formed,  the  canal  was  begun  in 

1859,  and  completed  in  1869.  He  was  also  author  of 
.the  Panama  canal  scheme.     Died,  1894. 

Lesslng,  Gotthold  Ephralm,  born  in  Kamenz, 
Lusatia,  in  1729;  educated  at  the  Meissen  Fiirstenschule 
and  the  university  of  Leipzig;  between  1749  and  1760 
lived  chiefly  in  Berlin,  where  Mendelssohn  and  Nicolai 
were  his  literary  associates;  was  secretary  to  General 
Tauentzien,  governor  of  Silesia,  1760-65;  in  1770  be- 
came librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  Wolfenbiittel. 
By  publishing  Reimarus's  "Wolfenbuttle  Fragments," 
of  which  he  was  supposed  to  be  the  author,  he  incurred 
the  hostility  of  the  Church.  His  chief  works  are  "Lao- 
koon,"  a  treatise  on  art,  and  the  following  dramas: 
"Miss  Sarah  Sampson,"  a  tragedy;  "Minna  von  Barn- 
helm,"  a  comedy;  "Emilia  Galotti,"  a  tragedy;  and 
"Nathan  der  Weise."     Died,  1781. 

Lleber,  Franz  (le'ber),  born  in  Berlin,  1800;  after 
suffering  imprisonment  for  his  political  opinions,  came 
to  America  (1827),  and  was  made  professor  of  history 
in  Columbia  College,  South  Carolina.  He  edited  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Americana"  (1829-3,3),  and  wrote 
"Political  Ethics"  (1838),  "Civil  Liberty  and  Self- 
Govemment"  (1853),  "Guerilla  Parties"  (1862),  etc. 
Died,  1872. 

Liebig,  Justus  (Whig),  Baron  von,  chemist,  born 
in  Darmstadt,  1803;  studied  at  Bonn  and  Erlangen; 
went  to  Paris,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  Humboldt 
by  a  paper  on  fulminic  acid;  was  appointed  professor 
at  Giessen  (1824),  where  his  laboratory  became  cele- 
brated, and  afterwards  at  Munich  (1852).  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "Organic  Chemistry  in  its  Application 
to  Agriculture"  (1840),  and  "Annalen  der  Chimie," 
edited  in  conjunction  with  Wohler.     Died,  1873. 

Liliuokalani,  Lydia  Kamekeha,  ex-queen  of 
Hawaiian  Islands;  born  in  Honolulu,  H.  I.,  December  2, 
1838 ;  made  vice-regent  when  King  Kalakaua  left  Hawaii, 
and  after  his  death  in  San  Francisco  was  proclaimed 
queen,  January  29, 189 1 .  Her  attempts  to  abolish  the  con- 
stitution of  1887  and  restore  absolute  monarchy,  though 
abandoned,  led  to  her  dethronement,  January  30,  1892. 
A  provisional  government  was  set  up,  and  although 
President  Cleveland  declared  in  favor  of  her  restoration 
to  the  throne,  her  efforts  in  that  direction  failed.  After 
her  dethronement  she  came  to  the  United  States. 
Hawaii  being  annexed  to  United  States,  July,  1898,  she 
returned  to  the  islands  in  August,  1898. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  sixteenth  President  of  the 
United  States;  born  near  Hodgensville,  Kentucky,  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1809.  His  father  was  a  poor  farmer,  who,  in 
1816,  removed  from  Kentucky  to  Indiana.  In  the  rude 
life  of  the  backwoods,  Lincoln's  entire  schooling  did  not 
exceed  one  year,  and  he  was  employed  in  the  severest 
agricultural  labor.  He  lived  with  his  family  in  Spencer 
County,  Indiana,  till  1830,  when  he  removed  to  Illinois, 
where,  with  another  man,  he  performed  the  feat  of 
splitting  300  rails  in  a  day,  which  gave  him  the  popular 
sobriquet  of  "the  Railsplitter."  In  1834,  he  was  elected 
to  the  Illinois  Legislature.  At  this  period,  he  lived  by 
surveying  land,  wore  patched  homespun  clothes,  aijd 
spent  his  leisure  hours  in  studying  law.  He  was  three 
times  reelected  to  the  legislature;  was  admitted  to 
practice  law  in  1837;  and  removed  to  Springfield,  the 
State  capital.  In  1844,  he  canvassed  the  State  for  Mr. 
Clay,  then  nominated  for  president.  Mr.  Clay  was  de- 
feated, but  the  popularity  gained  by  Lincoln  in  the 
canvass  secured  his  own  election  to  Congress  in  1846, 
where  he  voted  against  the  extension  of  slavery;  and 
in  1854  was  a  recognized  leader  in  the  newly-formed 
Republican  party.  In  1855,  he  canvassed  the  State  as 
a  candidate  for  United  States  senator,  against  Mr.  Doug- 
las, but  without  success.  In  1856,  he  was  an  active 
supporter  of  Mr.  Fremont  in  the  presidential  canvass, 
which   resulted   in   the    election  of    Mr.  Buchanan.     In 

1860,  Lincoln  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the 
Chicago  Convention  over  Mr.  Seward,  who  expected  the 
nomination.  The  non-extension  of  slavery  to  the  Terri- 
tories, or  new  States  to  be  formed  from  them,  was  the 
most  important  principle  of  his  party.  There  were 
three  other  candidates  —  Mr.  Douglas  of  Illinois,  North- 
ern Democrat;  Mr.  Breckenridge  of  Kentucky,  then 
vice-president,  and  afterwards  a  general  of  the  Confed- 
erate army.  Southern  Democrat;  and  Mr.  Bell  of  Ten- 
nessee, Native  American.  With  this  division,  Mr.  Lin- 
coln received  a  majority  of  votes  over  any  of  the  other 
candidates,  though  a  million  short  of  an  absolute  major- 


ity; every  Southern  and  one  Northern  State  voted 
against  him.  He  was  installed  in  the  president's  chair, 
March  4,  1861.  His  election  by  a  sectional  vote  and  on 
a  sectional  issue  hostile  to  the  South,  was  followed  by 
the  secession  of  eleven  Southern  States,  and  a  war  for 
the  restoration  of  the  Union.  As  a  military  measure, 
he  proclaimed,  January  1,  1863,  the  freedom  of  all 
slaves  in  the  rebel  States;  and  was  reelected  to  the 
presidency  in  1864.  The  war  was  practically  brought 
to  a  close  in  April,  1865,  through  his  efforts.  On  the 
14th  of  the  same  month  Lincoln  was  shot  by  an  assas- 
sin, and  died  the  next  day.  He  was  characterized  by 
a  strong  sense  of  duty  and  great  firmness.     Died,  1865. 

Lind,  Jenny  (Madame  Otto  Goldschmidt),  the  Swed- 
ish nightingale,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1820.  Giving 
evidence  of  her  power  of  song  in  childhood,  she  was  put 
under  a  master  at  9;  too  soon  put  to  practice  in 
public,  her  voice  at  12  showed  signs  of  contracting, 
but  after  four  years  recovered  its  full  power,  when, 
appearing  as  Alice  in  "Robert  le  Diable,"  the  effect  was 
electric;  henceforth  her  fame  was  established,  and  fol- 
lowed her  9ver  the  world;  in  1844  she  made  a  round  of 
the  chief  cities  of  Germany;  made  her  first  appearance 
in  London  in  1847,  and  visited  the  United  States, 
1850-52;  she  was  married  in  Boston,  1852,  and  then  left 
the  stage  for  good,  to  appear  only  now  and  again  at 
intervals  for  some  charitable  object.  She  was  plain 
looking,  and  a  woman  of  great  simplicity  both  in  man- 
ners and  ways  of  thinking.     Died,  1887. 

Linnaeus,  or  Carl  von  Linne  (lln-ne'ua  or  IXn'na'), 
was  born  at  Rashult,  in  the  province  of  Smaland, 
Sweden,  May  23,  1707.  He  was  the  most  eminent 
naturalist  of  his  day,  for  many  years  professor  of  physic 
and  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Upsala.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  clergyman,  whose  real  name  was  Bengtsson, 
but  who,  before  going  into  orders,  had  assumed  the 
name  of  Linnaeus.  He  ascribed  his  love  for  the  study 
of  botany  to  his  father,  who  was  himself  attached  to 
the  culture  of  his  garden;  but  this  love  for  the  science 
was  greatly  developed  during  his  residence,  as  a  student, 
at  the  University  of  Lund,  where  a  physician,  who 
possessed  a  good  library  and  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  received  the  young  student  into  his  house,  and 
gave  him  every  assistance  and  encouragement  In  1730, 
having  received  some  further  education  at  the  University 
of  Upsala,  he  became  assistant  and  deputy  to  Rudbeck, 
then  professor  of  botany  in  the  university;  and 
in  1741,  having  in  the  meantime  traveled  through 
Holland,  France,  England,  and  other  countries,  in  pur- 
suit of  knowledge,  he  was  himself  appointed  to  the 
professorship  at  Upsala,  which  he  held  nominally  till 
his  death.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  of 
which  the  most  important  was  "Systema  Naturae," 
which  was  first  printed  in  1735  in  twelve  folio  pages, 
and  grew  by  1768  into  three  volumes.  In  1761  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  the  nobility,  and  then  took  the 
name  of  Von  Linn^.  Although  his  system  of  classifica- 
tion has  long  been  to  a  large  extent  superseded,  he 
undoubtedly  prepared  the  way  for  other  discoverers, 
and  he  did  much  to  advance  the  study  of  natural  science. 
His  library  and  herbarium  were  purchased  for  the  sum 
of  one  thousand  pounds  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  and  were  by 
him  presented  to  the  Linnaean  Society  of  London,  which 
was  instituted  in  1788,  and  incorporated  in  1802,  for 
the  promotion  of  the  science  to  which  Linnaeus  had 
devoted  his  life.     Died  at  Upsala,  1778. 

Lippi,  Fra  Filippo  (lep'pe),  Italian  painter,  born  in 
Florence,  1412;  left  an  orphan,  was  brought  up  in  a 
monastery,  where  his  talent  for  art  was  developed  and 
encouraged;  went  to  Ancona,  was  carried  off  by  pirates, 
but  procured  his  release  by  his  skill  in  drawing,  and 
returning  to  Italy  practiced  his  art  in  Florence  and 
elsewhere,  till  one  day  he  eloped  with  a  novice  in  a 
nunnery  who  sat  to  him  for  a  Madonna,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  a  son  no  less  famous  than  himself; 
he  prosecuted  his  art  amid  poverty  with  zeal  and  success 
to  the  last;  distinguished  by  Ruskin  as  the  only  monk 
who  ever  did  good  painter's  work;  he  had  Botticelli 
for  a  pupil.     Died,  1469. 

Liszt,  Franz  (Abb6)  (list),  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
pianists  who  ever  lived,  was  born  October  22,  1811. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  at  a  concert  in  his  ninth 
year.  He  took  orders  and  received  the  tonsure  on 
April  25,  1865.  In  1871  his  native  country  of  Hungary 
granted  him  a  pension  of  £600  a  year,  and  in  1875  he 
was  named  director  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of 
Music.  One  of  his  two  daughters  married  Richard 
Wagner.     Died,  1886. 

Livingston,  Edward,  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, was  born  1764;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1794; 
followed  his  profession  at  New  Orleans  (1804-23); 
represented  that  town  in  Congress  (1823-9);  entered 
the  Senate  (1829);    became    secretary  of  state  (1831); 


458 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


was  minister  to  France  (1833-5).  He  wrote  a  cele- 
brated "System  of  Penal  Law"  (1833).     Died,  1836. 

Livingstone.  David,  born  at  Blantyre,  in  Lanark- 
shire, 1813.  He  worked  during  childhood  and  youth  in 
a  cotton  mill;  was  sent  to  South  Africa  by  the"  London 
Missionary  Society  in  1840;  resided  for  several  years  at 
various  stations  near  the  Limpopo,  discovering  Lake 
Ngami  in  1849,  and  penetrating  to  the  Makololo  country 
in  1851;  in  1853-4  crossed  Africa  from  the  Zambezi  to 
the  Congo,  and  in  1854-6  made  his  way  from  Loanda  to 
Quilimane,  following  the  course  of  the  Zambezi,  and 
discovering  the  Victoria  Falls;  went  to  England  in 
1856,  and  pubUshed  "Missionary  Travels"  (1857);  re- 
turned to  Africa  as  consul  at  Quilimane  in  1858;  ex- 
plored the  country  north  of  the  Zambezi  (1858-64), 
discovering  Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa,  and  in  1865 
published  his  "Narrative"  of  the  journey;  undertook 
his  third  expedition  in  1866,  and  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  endeavoring  to  ascertain  whether  the  Nile  flowed 
from  the  water-system  west  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  In 
November,  1871,  he  was  found  by  Stanley  at  tjjiji.  He 
died  of  dysentery  at  the  village  of  Chitambo,  1873. 

Llvy,  or  Titus  Livlus.  was  born  at  Patavium 
(Padua),  in  the  north  of  Italy,  59  B.  C.  He  was  the 
most  eminent  of  the  lloman  historians,  distinguished 
for  the  animation  of  his  narrative  and  for  the  purity  of 
his  style,  though  not  for  the  reliableness  of  his  historical 
statements.  His  "  History  of  Rome  "  was  written  partly 
at  Rome  and  partly  at  Naples,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Emperor  Augustus.  It  consisted  originally  of  142 
books;  but  of  these  only  thirty-five  have  come  down  to 
us,  and  some  of  these  in  a  very  imperfect  state.  Of  all 
but  two,  however,  we  possess  fragments,  with  short  epit- 
omes from  another  hand.  The  "History"  (or,  as  it 
was  called  by  its  author,  "The  Annals  of  the  Roman 
People")  begins  with  the  foundation  of  the  city,  and 
ends  with  the  death  of  Drusus,  the  younger  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Tiberius,  9  B.  C.     He  clied,  17  A.  D. 

Locke,  John,  an  English  pliilosopher;  born  in 
Wrington,  in  Somersetshire  in  1632.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford.  When, 
in  1672,  Lord  Shaftesbury  was  appointed  lord  chan- 
cellor, he  made  Locke  secretary  of  presentations,  and  at 
a  later  period,  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade.  As  a 
philosopher,  Locke  stands  at  the  head  of  what  is  called 
the  Sensational  School  in  England.  His  greatest  work 
is  the  "Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,"  in  which 
he  endeavors  to  show  that  all  our  ideas  are  derived 
from  experience,  tliat  is,  through  the  senses,  and  reflec- 
tion on  what  they  reveal  to  us.  He  is  best  known  to 
Americans  as  the  author  of  a  peculiar  constitution  for 
North  CaroUna,  which  included  orders  of  nobiUty,  etc. 
It  was  never  put  in  operation.     He  died  in  1704. 

Lockwood,  Belva  Ann  Bennett,  lawyer;  born  in 
Royalton,  N.  Y.,  October,  24,  1830;  daughter  of  Lewis 
Johnson  and  Hannah  (Green)  Bennett;  graduate  of 
Genesee  College,  Lima,  N.  Y.,  1857  (A.  M.,  Syracuse 
University,  1871);  taught  school,  1857-68.  Worked 
for  and  secured  passage  by  Congress  of  bill  giving  women 
employes  of  the  government  equal  pay  for  equal  work. 
Studied  law  in  Washington;  graduate  of  National 
University,  B.  L.,  1873;  admitted  to  District  of  Columbia 
bar;  secured  passage  of  a  bill  admitting  women  to 
United  States  Supreme  C!ourt,  1879;  was  admitted  under 
it,  February,  1879;  also  to  United  States  Court  of  Claims; 
has  been  engaged  in  many  important  law  cases,  several 
before  United  States  Supreme  Court;  for  years  identified 
with  claims  of  North  Carolina  Cherokee  Indians  vs. 
United  States;  presented  bill  to  Congress  to  remove 
intruders  from  Cherokee  Nation;  was  one  of  attorneys 
in  probate  of  will  of  Myra  Clarke  Gaines.  Took  a  course 
of  lectures.  University  Extension,  in  Oxford,  England, 
1890.  Prominent  in  temperance,  peace,  and  woman 
suffrage  movements;  nominated,  1884  and  1888,  by 
Equal  Rights  Party  for  president  of  United  States; 
commissioned  by  State  Department  to  represent  United 
States  at  Congress  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  1896;  one  of  committee  appointed  by 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  which  secured  law  giving 
equal  property  rights  for  women  and  equal  guardianship 
of  their  children  in  District  of  Columbia.  Elected,  Jan- 
uary 18,  1901,  president  of  Woman's  National  Press 
Association;  president  of  District  of  Columbia  Woman 
Suffrage  Association;  secretary  of  American  branch 
international  peace  bureau;  lecturer.  Writer  on  peace 
and  arbitration  and  on  political  and  social  subjects; 
has  prepared  amendments  to  Statehood  bill  before  Con- 
gress, granting  suffrage  to  women  in  Oklahoma,  Arizona, 
and  New  Mexico. 

Lodge.  Henry  Cabot,  author,  statesman,  was  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  12,  1850;  received  a  private 
school  and  collegiate  education;  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1871;    studied  law  at  Harvard  Law 


School  and  graduated  in  1874,  receiving  the  degree  of 
LL.  B.;  was  admitted  to  the  Sufi'olk  bar  in  1876;  in  the 
same  year  —  1876  —  received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  from 
Harvard  University  for  his  thesis  on  "The  Land  Law  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons";  profession,  that  of  literature;  has 
published,  1877,  "Life  and  Letters  of  George  Cabot"; 
1881,  "Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  Amer- 
ica"; 1882,  "Life  of  Alexander  Hamilton";  1883,  "  Life 
of  Daniel  Webster  "  ;  1885,  edited  the  works  of  Alexander 
Hamilton  in  nine  volumes;  published,  in  1886,  "Studies 
in  History";  1889,  "  Life  of  Washington,"  two  volumes; 
1891,  "History  of  Boston  "  (in  the  Histoiic  Towns  Series, 
published  by  the  Longmans);  1892,  "Historical  and 
Political  Essays,"  and  a  volume  of  selections  from 
speeches;  1895,  in  conjunction  with  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
"Hero  Tales  from  American  History";  1897,  "Certain 
Accepted  Heroes,"  and  Other  Essays;"  1898,  "Story  of 
the  Revolution,"  two  volumes;  1899,  "Story  of  the 
Spanish  War  "  ;  "A  Fighting  Frigate,  and  Other  Essays  " ; 
1906,  "  A  Frontier  Town,  and  Other  Essays;  "  is  a  membei 
of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  of  the  Virginia 
Hi.storical  Society,  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Science,  of  the  New  England  Historic  and  Genea- 
logical Society,  and  of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society, 
and  has  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from 
Williams  College,  Clark  University,  Yale  University,  and 
Harvard  University;  was  permanent  chairman  of  the 
Republican  National  Convention  which  met  in  Phila- 
delphia, June  19,  1900;  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
resolutions  of  the  Republican  National  Convention  of 
1904  at  Chicago;  was  a  member  of  the  Commission  on 
Alaskan  boundary  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt; 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  during  service  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  appointed  regent 
again  in  1905;  served  two  terms  as  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature;  was 
elected  to  the  50th,  51st,  52d,  and  53d  Congresses;  was 
elected  to  the  Senate,  1893,  and  reelected  in  1899,  1905, 
and  1911. 

Loeb,  Jacques,  professor  of  physiology.  University 
of  Cahfornia,  1902-10;  born  in  Germany,  April  7,  1859; 
graduate  of  Ascanisches  Gymnasium,  Berlin;  studied 
medicine  at  Berlin,  Munich  and  (graduate  M.  D.)  Strass- 
burg,  1884..  State  examiner,  Strassburg,  1885;  assistant 
in  physiology.  University  of  Wurzburg,  1886-88;  same. 
University  of  Strassburg,  1888-90;  biological  station, 
Naples,  1889-91;  associate  in  biology,  Bryn  Mawr, 
1891-92;  assistant  professor  of  physiology  and  experi- 
mental biology,  1892-95;  associate  professor,  1895-1900; 
profes.sor,  1900-02,  University  of  Chicago.  Author: 
"The  Heliotropism  of  Animals  and  Its  Identity  with  the 
HeliotropLsm  of  Plants,"  "Physiological  Morphology," 
"  Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Brain  and  Comparative 
Psychology,"  "  Studies  in  General  Physiology."  Also 
various  monographs  relating  to  artificial  parthenogeneses 
and  kindred  topics. 

Long.  John  Luther,  lawyer,  author;  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 1861.  Author:  "Madam  Butterfly,"  "Miss 
Cherry  Blossom  of  Tokyo,"  "The  Fox-Woman,"  "The 
Prince  of  Illusion,"  "Naughty  Nan,"  "Heimweh,  and 
Other  Stories." 

Longfellow.  Henry  Wadsworth.  an  American  poet; 
born  in  Portland,  Maine,  February  27,  1807;  was  grad- 
uated at  Bowdoin  College.  While  at  college  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  study  of  modern  languages, 
and  publishetl  some  short  poems.  In  1826  he  accepted 
the  professorship  of  modern  languages  at  Bowdoin,  being 
allowed  three  years  to  prepare  himself  for  tlie  post  by 
study  and  travel  in  Europe.  He  was  elected  to  the 
chair  of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  Harvard 
University.  After  spending  another  year  in  Europe, 
studying  Scandinavian  languages  and  literature,  he 
entered  on  his  professorship  in  1836.  In  1839  he  pub- 
lished "Hyperion,  a  Romance";  "Evangeline"  in  1847; 
in  1855  "Hiawatha";  in  1858  the  "Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish";  in  1863  "Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn";  in  1871 
the  "Divine  Tragedy";  in  1874  "The  Hanging  of  the 
Crane."  He  resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  in  1854.  In 
1868-69  he  again  traveled  in  Europe,  and  received 
the  degree  of  IJ...  D.  and  D.  C.  L.,  from  the  Universities 
of  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  respectively.  His  poems  are 
equally  popular  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  He  died 
in  Cambridge.  Ma.ss.,  March  24,  1882. 

Lorimer.  George  Horace,  editor-in-chief  of  "Satur- 
day Evening  Post'  since  March  17,  1899;  born  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  October  6,  1868;  educated  at  Mosely  High 
School,  Chicago;  college  course  at  Colby  and  Yale; 
Author:  "Letters  From  a  Self-Made  Merchant  to  His 
Son,"  "Old  Gorgon  Graham." 

Lotze,  Rudolf  Hermann  (Ibt'se),  a  German  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Bautzen,  Saxony,  May  21,  1817.  He 
ranks  among  the  first  of  metaphysicians,  and  has  given 
impulse    to    the    recent    development    of    physiological 


BIOGRAPHY 


450 


psychology.  Among  his  works  are  "Metaphysik" 
(1841),  "Universal  Pathology"  (1842),  "Logik"  (1843), 
"On  the  Idea  of  Beauty"  (1846),  "Medical  Psychology" 
(1852),  "Microcosmus,"  "Ideas  for  a  History  of  Nature," 
and  "Humanity"  (1856),  "System  of  Philosophy" 
(1874-84).     He  died  in  Berlin,  July  1,  1881. 

Louis  IX.  was  born  in  1215  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Louis  VIII.,  in  1226,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother, 
Blanche  of  Castile.  In  1229  the  Albigensian  crusade 
was  brought  to  a  close,  and  the  county  of  Toulouse  was 
incorporated  with  the  French  kingdom.  Henry  III.  of 
England  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to  recover 
his  lost  provinces,  and  in  1259  yielded  them  to  I^ouis. 
In  1248  Louis  embarked  on  a  crusade,  wasted  much 
time  in  Egypt  (1248-50),  where  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  returned  from  Palestine  in  1254  without  having 
effected  anything.  He  undertook  another  crusade  in 
1270,  but  died  whilst  besieging  Tunis.  He  was  canon- 
ized in  1297.     Died,  1270. 

Louis  XII.,  son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  was 
born  in  1462,  and  succeeded  Charles  VIII.  in  1498.  He 
laid  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  the  duchy  of 
Milan.  In  1499  he  invaded  Italy,  and  gained  possession 
of  Milan.  With  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon, 
he  conquered  Naples  in  1500,  but,  having  quarreled 
with  his  ally,  was  expelled  in  1503.  In  1508  he  united 
with  Ferdinand,  Pope  Julius  II.,  and  the  Emperor,  in 
the  I>eague  of  Cambrai  against  the  Venetians.  In  1511 
Ferdinand  joined  Julius  in  the  Holy  League  against  the 
French,  who  were  finally  driven  out  of  Italy  by  means 
of  the  Swiss  in  1513.  In  the  same  year  Henry  VIII. 
invaded  France,  and  was  successful  at  Guinegate.  In 
1499  Louis  married  Anne,  Duchess  of  Brittany,  widow 
of  (iharles  VIII.  By  his  good  government  he  earned 
the  title  of  "Father  of  his  People."     Died,  1515. 

Louis  XIV.  was  born  1638,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Louis  XIII.,  in  1643.  His  mother,  Anne  of  Austria, 
was  nominally  regent,  but  the  government  was  carried 
on  by  Cardinal  Mazarin.  France  was  then  engaged  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  which  Turenne  and  Cond^ 
gained  many  successes.  Peace  was  made  in  Germany 
by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648),  but  the  war  with 
Spain  continued  till  1659.  In  1660  Louis  married  Maria 
Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  The  unpopularity  of 
Mazarin's  government  occasioned  the  rising  of  the  Fron- 
deurs  (1648-53).  After  his  death  (1661)  Louis  conducted 
the  government  himself,  following  in  financial  matters 
the  advice  of  his  minister,  Colbert.  In  1665,  he  invaded 
the  Netherlands,  in  violation  of  his  agreement  with 
Spain.  In  consequence  of  his  attack  on  Holland  (1672), 
an  alliance  against  him  was  formed  between  Spain,  the 
Emperor,  and  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  a  war 
ensued,  which  was  terminated  by  the  Treaty  of  Nime- 
guen  (1678).  The  Edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  in  1685. 
Another  war,  undertaken  to  check  the  growing  power  of 
France,  was  concluded  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  (1697). 
In  1701  began  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  between 
the  rival  claimants,  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  Louis's  grand- 
son, and  the  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  who  was 
supported  by  England  and  the  Emperor.  Died,  1715. 
Louis  XV.,  "le  Bien-Aimd,"  was  born  1710,  and 
succeeded  his  great-grandfather,  Louis  XIV.,  in  1715, 
under  the  regency  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  nephew 
of  Lewis  XIV.  Fleury  became  chief  minister  in  1726. 
The  King's  attempt  to  enforce  the  claim  of  his  father- 
in-law,  Stanislas,  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  led  to  a  war 
with  the  Emperor  (1733-38).  France  was  next  engaged 
in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  Louis  supporting 
the  claim  of  Charles,  Elector  of  Bavaria  (1741-48).  Dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63)  France  was  de- 
prived by  England  of  most  of  her  colonial  possessions. 
Died,  1774. 

Louis  XVI.  of  France,  was  born  in  1754,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Louis  XV.  in  1774.  In  1770  he  had 
married  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of 
Austria.  The  finances  were  in  complete  disorder,  and 
Louis  was  not  fortunate  in  his  choice  of  ministers. 
Turgot  and  Necker  were  in  turn  dismissed,  and 
succeeded  by  the  incapable  Calonne  (1783-87)  and 
Lom^nie  de  Brienne  (1787-88).  Necker  was  then 
recalled,  and  advised  the  summoning  of  the  States- 
General,  which  had  always  been  eonformidable  to  mon- 
archical authority  but  had  not  been  summoned  since 
1614.  It  was  convoked  in  May,  1789,  and  in  June  was 
superseded  by  the  National  Assembly,  which  assumed 
the  whole  legislative  authority.  The  dismissal  of 
Necker  was  followed  by  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille, 
July  14,  the  declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  and  an 
attack  by  an  armed  mob,  chiefly  women,  on  the  palace 
at  Versailles  in  October.  The  king  and  the  queen  were 
forcibly  removed  by  Lafayette  to  Paris.  The  revolution 
then  begun  culminated  (so  far  as  the  king  was  concerned) 
in  the  insurrection  of  1792,  the  storm  of  the  Tuileries, 


the  abolition  of  monarchy,  the  declaration  of  the  repub- 
lic and  the  execution  of  the  king  on  the  scaffold  in 
January,  1793. 

Louis  Phiiippe  i-fe-leep'),  born  in  Paris,  1773,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  Due  d'Orleans,  com- 
monly known  as  "Philippe  Egalitd."  While  still  y9ung 
he  was  educated  in  opinions  of  advanced  political  liber- 
alism, and  served  in  the  revolutionary  army  against  the 
Austrians,  1792,  under  Dumouriez,  in  whose  conspiracy 
he  became  involved.  After  an  exile  of  many  years, 
during  which  he  resided  in  many  countries  (the  United 
States  among  others)  and  underwent  singular  vicissi- 
tudes, this  prince  shared  in  the  restoration  of  his  house, 
1814;  and,  after  the  fall  of  the  elder  Bourbon  dynasty 
in  1830,  was  popularly  elected  to  the  vacant  throne, 
under  the  title  of  "  King  of  the  French."  Louis  culti- 
vated peaceful  relations  with  foreign  powers,  sought  to 
strengthen  his  throne  by  gaining  the  support  of  the 
middle  classes,  and  repressed  all  the  extreme  parties  by 
what  became  known  as  the  "  Juste-milieu"  policy.  The 
extreme  democrats  hated  him,  and  frequent  attempts 
were  made  upon  his  life.  The  country  prospered  under 
his  government,  but  a  demand  for  reform  in  the  electoral 
system  became  loud  and  general,  and  this  being  unwisely 
opposed  by  the  king  and  his  minister  Guizot,  led  to  the 
revolution  of  1848,  when  Louis  Philippe,  deserted  by  all, 
fled  with  his  queen  to  England,  where  he  died,  1850. 

Low,  Setli,  an  American  educator;  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  January  18,  1850;  was  graduated  at  Columbia 
University  in  187();  made  a  member  of  his  father's 
mercantile  firm  in  1875;  mayor  of  Brooklyn  in  1881- 
85;  and  was  elected  president  of  Columbia  University 
in  1890.  In  1895,  he  erected  for  that  institution  a  grand 
university  library  at  a  cost  of  $1,175,000.  In  honor  of 
President  Low's  generosity  and  in  accord  with  his  desire, 
the  trustees  of  Columbia  founded  twelve  scholarships  in 
the  university  for  Brooklyn  boys  and  the  same  number 
in  Barnard  (College  for  Brooklyn  girls,  and  also  agreed 
to  found  eight  annual  scholarships.  In  1899,  he  was 
appointed  by  President  McKinley  a  member  of  the 
delegation  to  represent  the  United  States  at  the  Inter- 
national Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague.  Mr.  Low 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  mayor  of  Greater  New 
York  in  1897;  and  was  again  nominated  for  the  office  on 
a  fusion  ticket  in  1901.  He  was  elected  after  a  hard- 
fought  campaign,  and  was  again  candidate  on  the  fusion 
ticket  in  the  autumn  of  1903.  and  defeated. 

Lowell,  Abbott  Lawrence,  born  in  Boston,  Decem- 
ber 13,  1856;  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1877,  and  from 
Harvard  Law  School  in  1880;  practiced  law  in  Boston, 
1880-97;  acted  as  lecturer  at  Harvard,  1897-99,  and  was 
professor  of  the  science  of  government,  1900-09.  In 
the  same  year  he  became  a  trustee  of  the  Lowell  Institute 
of  Boston.  He  is  known  as  an  authority  in  the  field  of 
comparative  politics,  and  is  the  author  of  "Essays  on 
Government,"  "Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental 
Europe,"  "Colonial  Civil  Service"  (with  Prof.  H.  Morse 
Stephens),  "The  Influence  of  Party  upon  Legislation  in 
England  and  America,"  and  other  works.  In  January, 
1909,  upon  the  resignation  of  Dr.  EUot,  he  was  elected 
president  of  Harvard  University. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  an  American  poet,  was  born 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1819.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard University.  His  "  Legend  of  Brittany  "  appeared  in 
1844.  In  1845,  he  pubhshed  a  prose  work  entitled  "Con- 
versations on  Some  of  the  Old  Poets."  His  "Fable  for 
Critics,"  and  "The  Biglow  Papers,"  are  racy  with  humor. 
In  1855,  he  succeeded  Longfellow  as  professor  of  modern 
languages  at  Harvard;  from  1857  to  1862,  was  editor 
of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  and  from  1863  to  1872,  of 
the  "North  American  Review."  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  the  English  University  of  Cambridge  in 
1874.  Was  Minister  to  Great  Britain  1880-85.  In  1869, 
he  published  "Under  the  Willows,  and  Other  Poems"; 
and  "The  Cathedral,"  an  epic;  in  1870,  a  collection  of 
essays;  in  1871,  "My  Study  Windows  ";  in  1886,  "De- 
mocracy"; in  1888,  "Political  Essays."  He  died  in 
Cambridge,  1891. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de  (lo-yo'lah),  was  born  at  Loyola, 
in  the  Basque  Provinces,  1491.  He  was  an  ecclesiastic 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  founder  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  or  "the  Society  of  Jesus."  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Spanish  nobleman  (Bertram  de  Loyola),  and  was 
early  devoted  to  the  profession  of  arms;  but,  being 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  Navarre,  in  1521, 
he  devoted  his  life  to  the  service  of  the  Virgin,  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  founded  the  Society  of 
Jesus  on  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1534.  The  institution 
of  the  society  was  confirmed  iDy  a  bull  of  Pope  Paul  III., 
September  27,  1540;  and  in  the  following  year  Loyola  was 
appointed  the  first  General  of  the  order.  He  was  canon- 
ized by  Pope  Gregory  XV.  in  1622.     Died  in  Rome,  1556. 

Lubboclc,  Sir  John,  born  in  1834 ;  entered  parliament 


460 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


as  a  liberal  in  1870;  in  1871  passed  the  bank  holidays  act; 
represented  London  Uijiversity  1880-1900.  He  has 
published  " Pre-Historic  Times,"  "Ants,  Bees,  and 
Wasps,"  "The  Pleasures  of  Life,"  etc. 

Lucretius,  Titus  Cams,  Roman  poet  of  the  First 
Century  B.  C;  wrote  "De  Rerum  Natura,"  in  hexam- 
eter verse,  expounding  the  epicurean  system  of  phi- 
losophy. He  is  said  to  have  been  driven  mad  by  a  love 
philtre,  administered  by  his  wife,  and  to  have  committed 
suicide. 

Lulte,  St.,  one  of  the  four  Evangelists,  was  the  asso- 
ciate of  St.  Paul  in  his  mission  of  evangelizing  the  Gen- 
tiles. The  time  and  place  of  his  nativity  are  not  known 
with  any  approach  to  authenticity,  though  it  would 
appear  from  the  style  and  substance  of  his  writings  that 
he  must  have  received  a  liberal  scholarship.  Besides 
the  Gospel  called  after  him,  he  was  author  of  "The  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,"  written,  like  the  former,  in  Greek. 

Luther,  Martin,  one  of  the  greatest  of  religious 
leaders,  was  born  in  Eisleben,  Germany,  148.3.  After 
stiidying  at  the  University  of  Erfurt,  he  became  a  monk 
of  the  Augustine  order  in  that  city,  and,  in  1508,  was 
made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Wittenberg.  After 
a  visit  to  Rome,  in  pursuance  of  a  vow  he  had  made, 
his  ideas  regarding  the  tenets  and  practices  of  the  Roman 
Church  underwent  a  gradual  change.  In  1512,  he  began 
openly  to  declare  his  heterodox  views  upon  scriptural 
theology.  These  views,  embodied  in  his  celebrated 
"ninety-five  propositions,"  at  once  plunged  him  into 
bitter  controversy  and  exposed  him  to  as  bitter  perse- 
cution. He  soon  found  friends,  however,  among 
some  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  German  princes. 
Summoned  by  the  pope  to  defend  his  opinions,  through 
the  intervention  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  it  was 
arranged  that  a  hearing  should  be  given  to  Luther  at 
Augsburg,  before  the  papal  legate.  That  interview  was 
held,  and  it  decided  nothing.  Luther  then  continued 
his  public  discussions,  and  also  gave  vent  to  his  polemic 
innovations  in  writings  —  one  of  which,  the  "De  Capti- 
vitate  Babylonicft,  Ecclesia;,"  created  so  great  a  sensation 
that  a  papal  bull  was  issued,  condemning  to  a  public 
auto-da-fe  it  and  others  of  his  productions.  Luther, 
however,  finding  that  the  crisis  had  come,  proceeded  to 
the  walls  of  Wittenberg,  attended  by  a  number  of  his 
friends  and  disciples,  there  burned  the  pope's  bull,  and 
by  that  act  dissevered  forever  his  remaining  ties  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  After  this  Luther  became  the  spokes- 
man of  a  propaganda  whose  labors  never  rested  till  the 
spirit  of  the  Protestant  religion  had  taken  deep  and 
lasting  root  throughout  Northern  Germany,  and  thence 
extended  among  her  Scandinavian  neighbors.  Cited  to 
appear  before  the  Diet  of  Worms,  1521,  Luther  appeared 
there,  attended  by  a  retinue  of  the  Protestant  princes 
and  the  nobles  of  Germany,  and  after  ably  pleading  his 
cause  —  that  of  religious  liberty  —  before  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  in  person,  he  was  seized,  on  his  returnin,; 
home,  at  the  instigation  of  his  friend,  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  carried  to  the  castle  of  Wartburg,  where 
he  remained  about  a  year.  Returning  then  to  Witten- 
berg, he  doffed  his  monastic  character,  married,  pub- 
lished his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  in  1522, 
and  his  German  version  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1534. 
The  closing  years  of  the  life  of  Luther  were  passed  in 
comparative  tranquillity.     Died,  1546. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geologist,  was  bom  in  Forfar- 
shire in  1797;  educated  at  Oxford:  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1825,  but  abandoned  the  legal  profession  in  1827; 
after  traveling  on  the  Continent,  and  contributing  papers 
to  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Geological  Society,  pub- 
lished "Principles  of  Geology"  (1830-33),  which  substi- 
tuted the  Huttonian  doctrines  for  the  old  "catastrophic  " 
theory,  thus  raising  geology  to  the  rank  of  a  branch  of 
inductive  science.  He  became  president  of  the  Geolog- 
ical Society  in  1836,  and  again  in  1850.  He  visited 
America  in  1841  and  1845,  and  published  narratives  of 
both  expeditions,  written  in  a  popular  style.  In  1863 
appeared  "The  Antiquity  of  Man,"  in  which  he  gave 
his  assent  to  the  Darwinian  theory.     Died,  1875. 

Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton  Bulwer- 
Lytton,  Lord,  an  eminent  English  novelist,  was  born 
in  London,  of  an  ancient  family,  in  1803.  In  1826,  he 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  and  published,  in  1827,  his 
first  novel,  "Falkland."  Inthe  year  following  "Pelham" 
appeared  —  a  work  which  placed  him  at  once  in  the  first 
rank  of  contemporary  writers  of  fiction.  Thenceforward 
his  literary  career  was  one  of  meteoric  brilliancy;  novel 
after  novel,  drama  after  drama,  flowed  from  his  pen 
almost  without  intermission.  For  a  quarter  of  a  century 
he  reigned  the  great  master  of  English  fiction  —  the 
successor  to  Scott,  the  predecessor  of  Dickens.  In  1866 
he  was  created  a  peer  of  the  realm.  Among  his  principal 
novels  are:  "The  Disowned,"  "Devereux,"  "Paul 
Clifford,"  "Eugene  Aram,"  "The  Pilgrims  of  the  Rhine," 


"The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  "Rienzi,  the  Last  of 
the  Roman  Tribunes,"  "Ernest  Maltravers,"  and  its 
sequel,  "Alice,  or  the  Mysteries,"  "Night  and  Morning," 
"Zanoni,"  "The  Last  of  the  Barons,"  "Lucretia,  or  the 
Children  of  the  Night,"  "Harold,  the  Last  of  the  Saxon 
Kings,"  "The  Caxtons,"  "My  Novel,"  "What  Will  He 
Do  With  It,"  and  "  A  Strange  Story,"  He  is  also  author 
of  the  successful  and  favorite  plays  "The  Lady  of  Lyons," 
"Richelieu,"  and  "Money,"  and  of  the  poems,  "The 
New  Timon,"  and  "King  Arthur."     Died,  1873. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  Lord,  born  in  1800; 
British  historian  and  statesman;  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1826,  and  entered  parliament 
for  Calne  in  1830,  as  a  Whig.  He  was  secretary  at  war 
(1839-41),  and  paymaster-general  (1846-47),  and,  hav- 
ing represented  Edinburgh  for  many  years,  was  created 
a  peer  in  1857.  His  chief  works  were  "History  of  Eng- 
land from  the  Accession  of  James  II.,"  "Critical  Essays," 
most  of  which  were  written  for  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
and  "Lays  of  Ancient  Rome."     Died,  1859. 

Macdonald,  Sir  Jolin  Alexander,  distinguished 
Canadian  statesman;  born  in  Glasgow  in  1815:  was 
called  to  the  Canadian  bar  in  1836,  and  became  receiver- 
general  of  Canada  (1847),  commissioner  of  crown  lands 
(1847-48),  attorney-general  (1854-62  and  1864-67), 
(prime  minister  in  1858,)  government  leader  in  the  as- 
sembly (1864-67),  and  minister  of  militia  affairs  (1862- 
65-67).  He  was  chairman  of  the  London  Colonial  Con- 
ference of  1866-67,  and  more  than  any  other  person  was 
responsible  for  Canadian  federation;  was  head  of  the 
new  Dominion  Government,  as  minister  of  justice  and 
attorney-general,  from  1867  to  1873,  when  he  resigned 
on  the  Pacific  Railway  charges.  From  1878  till  his 
death  in  1891,  he  was  premier  of  the  Dominion. 

Machiavelli,  Niccolo  di  Bernardo  del,  born  in 
1469;  Florentine  writer  and  statesman;  son  of  a  jurist 
of  good  family;  as  secretary  of  state  at  Florence  from 
1498  to  J512,  went  on  several  important  missions,  but 
was  deprived  and  exiled  in  the  latter  year  by  the  Medici. 
His  chief  works  were  "  II  Principe,"  "  Istorie  Fiorentine," 
"Arte  della  Guerra,"  some  comedies  and  poems,  and 
"Discorsi  suUe  Deche  di  Tito  Livio."  In  1521,  he  again 
took  part  in  affairs  for  a  short  time,  but  died  in  poverty, 
in  1527,  a  few  years  later. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  Canadian  statesman;  born 
in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  1822;  early  emigrated  to 
Canada,  where  he  became  a  contractor  and  journalist. 
After  sitting  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  for  six  years, 
he  was  elected  to  the  Dominion  Legislature,  and  was 
also  provincial  secretary  and  treasurer  in  Ontario  till 
1872.  From  1873  till  1878  he  was  premier  and  minister 
of  public  works  for  the  Dominion.  He  more  than  once 
declined  the  honor  of  knighthood.     Died,  1892. 

MacMahon,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice  de, 
French  soldier  and  statesman  of  Irish  descent;  born, 
1808;  served  in  the  Algerian  War  of  1830,  took  part  in 
the  expedition  to  Antwerp  in  1832,  and  in  1855,  suc- 
ceeded to  Canrobert's  command  in  the  Crimea.  For 
his  services  in  Italy  in  1859,  he  was  made  Due  de  Magenta 
and  marshal  of  France,  and  became  governor-general  of 
Algeria  in  1864.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  vfith  Prussia 
he  was  given  the  command  of  the  first  army  corps.  He 
shared  in  the  disaster  at  Woerth,  and  was  in  chief  com- 
mand at  Sedan,  where  he  was  severely  wounded  and 
made  prisoner.  On  his  return  to  France  in  March,  1871, 
he  conducted  the  siege  of  Paris  against  the  Communists, 
and   reorganized   the  army.     In    1873,   he   was   named 

E resident  of  the  Republic  for  seven  years.  In  1877, 
e  began  to  entertain  monarchical  designs,  but  was 
defeated  in  the  elections,  and  two  years  later  retired 
rather  than  submit  to  the  law  against  monarchical 
officers.  He  continued  to  live  in  retirement  in  Paris 
until  his  death  in  1893. 

Macready,  William  Charles,  actor;  born  in  Lon- 
don, in  1793;  educated  at  Rugby;  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  Birmingham  in  1810,  and  was  engaged  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1816.  He  played  Richard  III.  in  1819, 
and  removed  to  Drury  Lane  in  1822,  and  after  a  tour  in 
the  United  States,  appeared  as  Macbeth  in  1827.  He 
subsequently  visited  Paris,  and  held  the  management 
of  Covent  Garden  and  Drury  Lane.  In  '1849,  he  nearly 
lost  his  life  in  a  riot  promoted  by  the  friends  of  Forrest 
at  the  Astor  Opera  House,  New  York;  and  he  made  his 
last  appearance  at  Drury  Lane  in  1851.     Died,  1873. 

Mac  Veagh,  Wayne,  lawyer;  born  near  Phoenix- 
ville,  Chester  County,  Pa.,  April  19,  1833;  graduated 
from  Yale,  1853;  admitted  to  bar,  1856;  district  at- 
torney, Chester  C!ounty,  Pa.,  1859-64;  captain  of  in- 
fantry, 1862,  and  of  cavalry,  1863,  when  invasions  of 
Pennsylvania  were  threatened;  chairman  Republican 
State  Committee  of  Pennsylvania,  1863;  United  States 
minister  to  Turkey,  1870-71;  member  Pennsylvania, 
constitutional    convention,    1872-74;     bead    of    "Mac- 


BIOGRAPHY 


461 


Veagh  commission  "  sent  to  Louisiana,  1877,  by  President 
Hayes  to  amicably  adjust  disputes  of  contending  parties 
there;  United  States  attorney-general  in  cabinet  of 
President  Garfield,  1881,  but  resigned  on  accession  of 
President  Artiiur,  resuming  law  practice  at  Philadelphia; 
supported  Cleveland  for  president,  1892;  ambassador 
to  Italy,  1893-97;  chief  counsel  of  United  States  in  the 
Venezuelan  arbitration  before  'the  Hague  Tribunal,  1903. 

Madison,  James,  fourth  President  of  the  United 
States;  was  born  in  King  George  County,  Virginia,  March 
16,  1751.  He  graduated  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1771,  and 
studied  law.  In  1776,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Convention,  and,  though  too  modest  for  an  orator,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  eminent,  accomplished,  and 
respected  of  American  statesmen.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Federal  Congress  in  1779;  in  1784,  to  the  Legislature 
of  Virginia,  in  which  he  supported  the  measures  of  Mr. 
Jefferson  in  the  revision  of  the  laws,  and  placing  all 
religious  denominations  on  an  equality  of  freedom  with- 
out State  support.  As  a  member  of  the  convention  of 
1787,  which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution,  Mr.  Madi- 
son acted  with  Jay  and  Hamilton,  and  with  them  wrote 
the  "Federalist."  He  supported  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  but  opposed  the  financial  policy  of  Hamil- 
ton, and  became  a  leader  of  the  Republican  or  Jeffer- 
sonian  party.  He  declined  the  mission  to  France,  and 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  but  in  1792  became  the 
leader  of  the  Kepublican  party  in  Congress,  and  wrote 
the  Kentucky  Resolutions  of  1798,  which  contain  the 
basis  of  the  State-rights  doctrines.  In  1801,  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son having  been  elected  president,  Mr.  Madison  was 
made  secretary  of  state,  which  post  he  held  during  the 
eight  years  of  Jefferson's  administration.  In  1808,  he  was 
elected  president.  The  European  wars  of  that  period, 
with  their  blockades  and  orders  in  council,  were  destruc- 
tive of  American  commerce.  The  claim  of  the  English 
Government  to  impress  seamen  from  American  vessels 
was  violently  resisted.  Mr.  Madison  vainly  endeavored 
to  avoid  a  war  with  England,  which  was  declared  in 
1812,  and  continued  for  two  years,  at  a  cost  of  30,000 
lives  and  100,000,000  dollars.  He  was  one  of  the  nine 
presidents  elected  for  a  second  term,  during  which  he 
approved  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank  as  a 
financial  necessity  —  a  measure  he  had  opposed  and 
vetoed.  In  1817,  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  Montpelier, 
Virginia,  where  he  served  as  a  rector  of  the  University 
of  Virginia,  and  a  promoter  of  agriculture  and  public 
improvements.  Witliout  being  a  brilliant  man,  he  was 
a  statesman  of  eminent  ability  and  purity  of  character. 
He  died  at  Montpelier,  June  28,  1836. 

Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  Belgian  author;  was  born 
in  1862.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  works,  some  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  English  and  have  at- 
tracted considerable  attention:  "La  Princesse  Maleine," 
"Pell^as  et  Melisande,"  "Alladine  et  Palomides,"  "Ag- 
lavaine  et  Selysette,"  "Douze  Chansons,"  "  Le  Tr^sor 
des  Humbles,"  "La  Mort  de  Tintagiles,"  "L'Intruse," 
and  "LaSagesse  et  la  Destinde."  He  is  also  the  author 
of  the  dramas  "Ariane  et  Barbebleue"  and  "Stcur 
Bfetrice."  "Monna  Vanna,"  and  of  "  Joyzelle." 

Magdalene,  Mary,  a  Galilaean,  belonging  to  Mag- 
dala,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  who  followed  Christ,  stood  by 
the  cross,  prepared  spices  for  His  sepulchre,  to  whom 
He  first  appeared  after  His  resurrection,  and  who  is  sup- 

gosed  by  some  recent  critics  to  be  the  sole  voucher  for 
[is  rising  again. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  Portuguese  navigator;  born 
about  1470;  served  his  country  first  in  the  East  Indies  and 
Morocco,  but  dissatisfied  with  King  Manuel's  treatment 
of  him,  offered  himself  to  Spain;  under  Charles  V.'s 
patronage  he  and  Ruy  Falero  set  out  to  reach  the  Mo- 
luccas by  the  west  in  1519;  he  reached  the  Philippines, 
and  died  in  battle  in  Mactan;  on  this  voyage  he  discov- 
ered the  Magellan  Strait,  375  miles  long  and  fifteen  miles 
wide,  between  the  South  American  mainland  and  Tierra 
del  Fuego;  he  gave  name  to  the  Pacific  from  the 
exceptional  calm  he,  it  appears,  experienced  on  enter- 
ing it.     Died,  1521. 

Magoon,  Charles  E.,  lawyer,  administrator;  born  in 
Minnesota,  December  5,  1861;  educated  at  high  school, 
Owatonna,  Minn.,  University  of  Nebraska;  admitted 
to  bar,  1882,  and  engaged  in  general  practice;  was  judge 
advocate  of  Nebraska  National  Guard;  law  officer  of 
Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  War  Department,  Washington, 
1899-1904;  general  counsel.  Isthmian  Canal  commission, 
1904-05;  governor  Canal  Zone,  1905-06;  American 
minister  to  Panama  1905-06  ;  1906-1909,  provisional 
governor  of  Cuba.  Author:  " The  Law  of  Civil  Govern- 
ment Under  Military  Occupation." 

Mahan,  Alfred  Tliayer  {Ma-han'),  an  American 
naval  officer  and  writer;  born  in  West  Point,  N.  Y., 
September  27,  1840;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States    Naval   Academy   in    1859;     served   in    the   Civil 


War  ;  was  president  of  the  Naval  War  College,  New- 
port, in  1886-89  and  1892-93;  visited  Europe  in 
command  of  the  "Chicago"  in  1893,  receiving  many 
honors,  among  them  degrees  from  both  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  He  was  retired  at  his  own  request  Novem- 
ber 17,  1896.  During  the  war  with  Spain  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Naval  Board  of  Strategy;  and  in  1899 
was  appointed  by  President  McKinley  as  one  of  the 
American  delegates  to  the  Universal  Peace  Conference 
at  The  Hague.  His  chief  work,  "Influence  -of  Sea 
Power  upon  History,"  with  its  continuation,  "Influence 
of  Sea  Power  upon  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire," 
gave  him  a  world-wide  reputation. 

Maine,  Sir  Henry  James  Sumner,  F.B.S.,D.C.L., 
born  in  1822;  English  jurist,  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  in  1847,  he  iecame  Regius  professor  of 
civil  law.  After  being  reader  at  the  Temple,  he  was  law 
member  of  the  council  of  India  for  seven  years,  and  in 
1870,  became  Corpus  professor  at  Oxford.  His  chief 
works  were  "Ancient  Law,"  "Village  Communities," 
and  "Early  History  of  Institutions,"  etc.  In  1871  he 
became  member  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  India's 
council,  and  in  1877  master  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge. 
Died,  1888. 

Malibran,  Maria  Felicita,  born  in  1808;  French 
singer,  daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia;  made  her  ddbut 
in  the  Italian  opera  in  1825,  and  soon  afterwards  mar- 
ried M.  Malibran,  from  whom  she  was  divorced.  In  1836, 
she  married  De  Beriot,  the  violinist.  She  met  with 
much  success  in  "Semiramis,"  and  other  operas,  making 
tours  in  England,  the  Continent,  and  the  United  States. 
She  died  from  the  consequence  of  a  fall  while  riding. 
Died,  1836. 

Malory,  Sir  Thomas,  flourished  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century;  was  the  author  of  "Morte  d' Arthur,"  being  a 
translation  in  prose  of  a  labyrinthine  selection  of  Arthu- 
rian legends,  which  was  finished  in  the  ninth  year  of 
Edward  IV.,  and  printed  fifteen  years  after  by  Caxton 
"with  all  care." 

Malpighi,  Mareello,  born  in  1628;  Italian  anato- 
mist and  chief  physician  to  Pope  Innocent  XII.;  lectured 
in  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  other  places,  and  wrote  works  on 
the  anatomy  of  plants,  the  physiology  of  the  silkworm, 
and  medical  subjects.  His  name  was  given  to  the  Mal- 
pighian  genus.     Died,  1694. 

Maltlius,  Tliomas  Robert,  F.  R.  S.,  born  in  1766; 
English  political  economist ;  some  time  Fellow  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge;  published  in  1798  his  "Essay  on 
Population,"  afterwards  took  orders,  and  held  from  1805 
the  professorship  of  history  and  political  economy  in 
the  East  India  Company's  college,  Haileybury.  Died, 
1834. 

Mann,  Horace,  an  American  statesman;  born  in 
Franklin,  Mass.,  1796;  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
untiring  efforts  in  the  cause  of  educational  extension 
and  reform,  in  the  suppression  of  slavery,  and  in  the 
promotion  of  temperance.     Died,  1859. 

Mann,  Louis,  actor;  born  in  New  York,  1865;  began 
acting  at  6,  at  18  traveling  with  small  companies;  later 
played  with  the  elder  Salvini,  Lewis  Morrison,  J.  K.  Em- 
mett,  etc.;  then  "barn-stormed"  in  classical  drama; 
played  Utterson,  the  lawyer,  in  Daniel  Bandmann's  pro- 
duction of  "  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr. Hyde";  appeared  in  one 
of  leading  roles  in  "Incog";  subsequently  was  original 
caricaturist  of  Svengali  in  "  Merry  World"  ;  created  Ger- 
man comedy  parts  in  "The  Strange  Adventures  of  Miss 
Brown,"  and  in  "Girl  from  Paris";  has  since  been  one 
of  the  leading  impersonators  of  these  and  character 
roles;  starred  five  years  jointly  with  Clara  Lipman,  his 
wife.     Author  of  short  stories. 

Mannering,  Mary,  actress;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, April  29,  1876;  daughter  of  Richard  and  Florence 
Friend  (stage  name  taken  from  maiden  name  of 
her  father's  mother) ;  educated  at  private  schools ; 
studied  for  stage  under  Herman  Vezin;  went  on  stage 
at  15;  appeared  in  "Hero  and  Leander"  at  Shaftesbury 
Theater,  London;  toured  English  provinces  two  years, 
playing  Shakesperian  roles;  then  leading  parts  in  "Sow- 
ing the  Wind";  "The  Late  Mr.  Costello,"  "Called 
Back"  (revised  for  English  provinces);  etc.;  came  to 
United  States  under  management  of  Daniel  Frohman; 
American  ddbut  at  Parsons'  Theater,  Hartford,  Conn.; 
November  20,  1896,  in  "The  Courtship  of  Leoni  "  ;  New 
York  ddbut,  Lyceum  Theater,  four  days  later;  has  since 
appeared  in  leading  roles  in  modern  drama;  married, 
May  2,  1897,  J.  K.  Hackett. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward,  Cardinal,  born  in  1808; 
English  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Balliol;  was  some  time  Fellow  of  Merton;  subse- 
quently took  orders,  and  became  Archdeacon  of  Chi- 
chester in  1840.  In  1851,  however,  he  seceded  to  the 
Roman  Church,  publishing  "Grounds  of  Faith"  next 
year.     In   1865  he  succeeded  Wiseman  as  Archbishop 


462 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


of  Westminster,  and  ten  years  later  was  made  cardinal. 
He  approved  the  infallibility  dogma  of  the  Vatican 
(Douncil  of  1869,  and  carried  on  a  controversy  with  Mr. 
Gladstone  on  the  subject.  He  sat  on  several  commis- 
sions, and  took  a  leading  part  in  bringing  to  a  conclusion 
the  dock  strike  of  1889.     Died  in  1892. 

Mansel,  Henry  Lon^eville,  born  in  1820;  English 
philosopher  and  theologian;  one  of  the  strongest  op- 
ponenta  of  the  Broad  Church  school;  was  educated  at 
Slerchant  Taylors  and  Oxford,  where  he  was  succes- 
sively Waynflete  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  in  1858,  delivered 
the  Bampton  lectures  on  "The  Limits  of  Religioas 
Thought."  He  had  previously  published  an  edition  of 
Aldrich's  "  Logic,"  and  several  works  on  metaphysics. 
His  appointment  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Paul's,  in  1868, 
was  strongly  opposed.     Died,  1871. 

Mansfield,  Richards  actor,  was  born  in  Heligoland, 
Germany,  in  1857;  studied  for  East  Indian  civil  service, 
but  came  to  Boston  and  oi>ened  a  studio;  studied  art  in 
England  and  later  entered  theatrical  profession.  Played 
small  parts  in  comic  opera;  came  to  United  States  again 
and  appeared  at  Standard  Theater,  New  York,  as 
Dromez  in  "  LesManteauxNoirs."  Was  very  successful  in 
a  wide  repertoire  from  Koko  in  "Mikado"  to  Richard  III. 
Head  of  his  own  company,  and  has  created  such  parts 
as  Beau  Brummel,  Baron  Chevrial,  and  the  titular  roles 
in  "  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde."  Appeared  as  Cyrano  de 
Bergerac  in  1898,  and  played  Shylock,  Henry  V.,  Beau- 
caire,  and  Brutus  in  "Julius  Ca'sar."  Married  Beatrice 
Cameron,  his  leading  woman.  Author:  "  Blown  Away," 
"Monsieur,"  "Ten  Thousand  a  Year,"  and  "Don 
Juan."     Died,  1907. 

Mansfleld,  William  Murray,  Earl  of,  was  born  at 
Perth,  Scotland,  March  2,  1705.  He  was  a  distinguished 
judge,  from  1756  to  1788  chief  justice  of  the  King's  Bench. 
He  was  remarkable  for  his  accomplishments  and  for  his 
eloquence,  and  was  styled  by  Pope  "the  silver-tongued 
Murray";  but  his  political  opinions  were  not  popular, 
and,  in  the  Gordon  riots  of  1780,  his  house  in  Blooms- 
bury  Square,  London,  was  burnt  down  by  the  mob. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.     Died,  1793. 

Mantell,  Robert  Bruce,  actor;  born  in  Irvine, 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  February  7,  1854;  professional 
d^but,  Rochdale,  England,  as  the  Sergeant  in  "  Arrah- 
na-Pogue,"  October  21,  1876;  came  to  United  States 
and  played  juvenile  roles  with  Mme.  Modjeska,  1878; 
returnetl  to  England,  and  for  three  years  supported  Miss 
Wallis  (now  Mrs.  Lancaster)  as  leading  man.  Later 
appeared  in  New  York  as  Loris  Ippanhoff  in  "Fedora," 
with  Fanny  Davenport;  afterward  became  a  star,  and 
has  been  at  the  head  of  his  own  company  in  classic  and 
romantic  plays,  including  "Hamlet,"  "Othello,"  "Rich- 
ard III.,'  "Macbeth,"  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "Riche- 
lieu," "Lady  of  Lyons,"  "Corsican  Brothers,"  "Mon- 
bars,"  "Dagger  and  Cross,"  etc. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul  {mah-rah'),  a  fanatical  democrat, 
born  in  Neuchatel,  1744.  His  father  was  an  Italian 
his  mother  a  Genevese;  studied  and  practiced  medicine, 
went  to  Paris  as  horse-leech  to  Count  d'Artois;  became 
infected  with  the  revolutionary  fever,  and  had  one  fixed 
idea:  "Give  me,"  he  said,  "  two  hundred  Naples  bravoes, 
armed  each  with  a  good  dirk,  and  a  muff  on  his  left  arm 
by  way  of  shield,  and  with  them  I  will  traverse  France 
and  accomplish  the  Revolution,"  that  is,  by  wholesale 
massacre  of  the  aristocrats;  he  had  more  than  once  to 
flee  for  his  life,  and  one  time  found  shelter  in  the  sewers 
of  Paris,  contracting  thereby  a  loathsome  skin  disease; 
he  was  assassinated  one  evening  as  he  sat  in  his  bath, 
by  Charlotte  Corday,  but  his  body  was  buried  with 
honors  in  the  Pantheon  by  a  patriot  people,  "that  of 
Mirabeau  flung  out  to  make  room  for  him,"  to  be  some 
few  months  after  himself  cast  out  with  execration. 
Died,  1793. 

March,  Francis  Andrew,  American  philologist; 
born  in  Milbury,  Mass.,  in  1825;  was  made  professor  of 
English  language  and  comparative  philology  at  Lafay- 
ette College,  Pennsylvania,  in  1856;  became  president 
of  the  American  Philological  Association  in  1873,  and 
took  the  direction  in  America  of  Dr.  Murray's  "  New 
English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles,"  in  1879. 
His  chief  works  are  "  Method  of  Philological  Study  of 
the  English  Language,"  "Comparative  Grammar  of 
Anglo-Saxon,"  and  "Introduction  to  Anglo-Saxon." 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  LL.  D.,  D.  Sc,  electrical  en- 
gineer and  pioneer  of  wireless  telegraphy,  was  born  in 
Griffone,  near  Bologna,  in  1874.  His  father  was  an 
Italian,  his  mother  an  Irish  woman.  He  was  educated 
at  Leghorn  and  Bologna  Universities.  It  was  at  Bo- 
logna that  his  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  first  at- 
tracted attention.  In  1896,  he  visited  England,  and. 
with  his  invention,  sent  messages  across  the  Bristol 
Channel  from  Penarth,  near  CftSliff,  to  Weston-super- 


Mare.  He  afterwards  set  up  installations  of  wireless 
telegraphy  between  the  South  Foreland  and  the  East 
Goodwin  light-vessel,  the  South  Foreland  and  Wime- 
reux  in  France,  Harwich  and  Chelmsford.  His  system 
was  definitely  adopted  by  the  Admiralty  in  1900.  In 
December,  1901.  Mr.  Marconi  succeeded  in  communi- 
cating across  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  1902,  he  set  up  a 
station  at  (ilace  Bay,  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  October,  1907, 
began  a  public  service  of  wireless  telegraphy  across  the 
Atlantic. 

Marcy,  William  Learned,  American  statesman, 
born  at  Southbridge,  Mass.,  in  1786;  died,  July  4,  1857. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1808,  studied 
law,  and  practiced  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  He  was  an  associate 
justice  of  the  New  Y'ork  supreme  court  from  1829  to 
1831,  when  he  was  elected  United  States  senator.  He 
was  elected  governor  of  New  York  in  1832,  1834,  and 
1836.  President  Van  Buren  appointed  him  member  of 
the  Mexican  Claims  Commission,  in  1839.  In  1846, 
President  Polk  appointed  him  secretary  of  war;  and 
he  was  secretary  of  state  in  President  Pierce's  cabinet, 
1853-57.  He  left  a  reputation  as  a  statesman  of  the 
highest  order  of  abilities. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  born  in  1480;  daughter  of 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Burgundy;  mar- 
ried first  John  of  Castile,  and  secondly  Philibert  of 
Savoy;  was  made  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  in 
1507,  and  negotiated  both  the  League  of  Cambrai  (1508) 
and  the  "Paix  des  Dames"  (1529).     Died,  1530. 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  born  in  1353;  succeeded 
her  father,  Waldemar  IV.,  became  queen  also  of  Norway 
on  the  death  of  her  husband,  Hakon  VI.,  but  was  soon 
expelled;  recovered  Norway  in  1387,  and,  having  de- 
feated Albert  of  Mecklenburg  in  1389,  united  the  three 
Scandinavian  kingdoms  by  the  union  of  Calmar  in  1397. 
Died,  1412. 

3Iargaret  of  Valols,  born  in  1492;  sister  of  Francis 
I.  and  grandmother  of  Henri  IV.;  married  first  the  Due 
d'Alengon,  and  secondly  Henri  d'Albret,  titular  King  of 
Nava^rre;  supported  the  Reformation,  and  wrote  "Miroir 
de  I'Ame  P^cheresse,"  and  "Contes  et  Nouvelles"  (ths 
"Heptameron ").     Died,  1549. 

3Iarla  Theresa,  born  in  1717;  Queen  of  Hungary, 
and  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.;  married 
Francis  of  Lorraine  in  1736,  and  was  supported  by  Eng- 
land against  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  claimed  the 
empire,  and  was  supported  by  France;  carried  on  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  with  the  help  of  France,  against 
Prussia,  who  had  obtained  part  of  Silesia;  took  part, 
against  her  will,  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland.  Died, 
1780. 

Marie  de'  Medici,  born  in  1573;  Queen  of  France, 
daughter  of  Francis  of  Tuscany;  married  Henri  IV.  in 
1600,  and  became  mother  of  Louis  XIII.,  during  whose 
minority  she  was  regent,  but  was  overthrown  by  Riche- 
lieu after  a  long  contest,  and  left  France  in  1631.  Died, 
1642. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  a  famous  Italian  opera-singer,  was 
born  at  Cagliari,  Italy,  in  1810,  and  was  the  son  of 
General  di  Candia.  In  1838,  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  opera  as  "Robert,"  in  "Robert  le  Diaole." 
In  this  he  achieved  the  first  of  many  successes  in 
Paris,  London,  St.  Petersburg,  and  America.  Mario 
married  the  famous  singer  Giulia  Grisi,  and  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1867.     He  died  December  11,  1883. 

Mark,  the  Evangelist.  "John,  whose  surname  was 
Mark,"  was  the  son  of  Mary,  a  woman  of  piety  who 
lived  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  disciples  occasionally 
assembled  at  her  house  for  prayer,  and  was  cousin  to 
Barnabas.  He  is  also  called  Marcus.  He  accompanied 
the  Apostle  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch,  Cyprus,  and 
Perga  in  Pamphylia,  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  went 
afterwards  to  Cyprus,  and  thence  to  Rome.  Eccle- 
siastical tradition  speaks  of  a  missionary  expedition  of 
Mark  to  Egypt  and  the  west  of  Africa,  of  his  suffering 
martyrdom  about  the  year  62  or  66  (the  Coptic  Church 
still  consider  him  their  founder  and  first  bishop),  and 
of  the  transmission  of  his  corpse  to  Venice',  which  city 
has  chosen  him  for  its  patron  saint.  It  is  said  that  he 
wrote  at  Rome  the  gospel  which  bears  his  name. 

Mark  Antony,  or  Marcus  Antonius,  an  eminent 
Roman,  was  born  about  83  B.  C.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  active  partisans  of  Julius  Csesar  down  to  the  death 
of  the  latter.  After  the  death  of  Caesar,  he  endeavored 
to  succeed  to  power,  but  was  defeated  by  Octavianus, 
the  great-nephew  of  the  dictator,  and  was  obliged  to 
cross  the  Alps.  He  afterwards  became  reconciled  to 
Octavianus;  and  Antony,  Octavianus,  and  Lepidus 
divided  the  government  between  them  under  the  title 
of  Triumvirs.  Cicero,  who  had  attacked  Antony  in  his 
Philippic  orations,  now  fell  a  victim  to  Antony.  Antony 
afterwards  went  to  Asia,  which  he  had  received  as  his 


BIOGRAPHY 


463 


share  of  the  Roman  world,  and  there  the  greater  part  of 
his  remaining  Ufe  was  spent.  There  he  became  capti- 
vated by  the  charms  of  Cleopatra,  and  assumed  the 
pomp  and  ceremony  of  an  Eastern  despot.  After  the 
sea-fight  off  Actium  (September  2,  31),  he  fied  with 
Cleopatra  to  Alexandria,  and  put  an  end  to  his  life  in 
the  following  year,  when  Octavianus  (Augustus)  ap- 
peared before  the  city.     Died,  30  B.  C. 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  first  Duke  of;  born 
in  1650;  soldier  and  diplomatist;  obtained  a  commis- 
sion through  the  influence  of  his  sister  with  the  Duke 
of  York,  and  first  served  under  Turenne;  deserted 
James  II.  at  the  Revolution,  but,  though  created  earl 
and  commander-in-chief  by  William  III.,  intrigued  with 
his  former  master;  after  a  period  of  disgrace,  went  to 
The  Hague  to  organize  the  Grand  Alliance;  was  appointed 
captain-general  and  duke  under  Anne,  and  won  the 
victories  of  Blenheim  (1704),  Ramillies  (1706),  Ouden- 
arde  (1708),  and  Malplaquet  (1709),  but  was  recalled 
in  1711,  and  dismissed  on  a  charge  of  peculation.  He 
was  restored  by  George  I.  in  1714,  but  never  fully  trusted. 
Died,  1722. 

Marlowe,  Julia,  actress;  born  in  England,  in  village 
of  Caldbeck,  Cumberlandshire,  August  17,  1870;  came, 
at  age  of  5,  to  United  States  with  parents;  lived  in 
Kansas  two  years;  moved  to  Ohio,  locating  finally  in 
Cincinnati;  attended  public  schools  until  12th  year; 
then  joined  juvenile  opera  company,  which  gave  "  Pina- 
fore," "Chimes  of  Normandy,"  and  other  light  operas. 
Was  christened  Sarah  Frances  Frost,  but  in  the  juvenile 
company  was  called  Frances  Brough  (the  latter  a  family 
name) ;  later  played  a  child's  part  in  "  Rip  Van  Winkle," 
and,  the  next  season,  played  small  parts  in  a  company 
which  gave  classic  dramas  in  the  West;  retired  from 
stage  and  studied  three  years  in  New  York;  rnade 
metropolitan  ddbut  as  Parthenia  in  "Ingomar";  since 
Noveml)er,  1888,  has  starred  in  Shakesperean  and  other 
tragic  and  romantic  roles  in  United  States;  married 
Robert  Taber,  who  had  been  leading  man  in  her  com- 
pany, but  afterward  secured  legal  separation. 

Marshall,  John,  an  eminent  American  jurist,  was 
born  in  Fauquier  County,  Va.,  in  1755.  He  served  in 
several  battles  of  the  Revolution,  afterwards  entered 
upon  the  study  and  practice  of  the  law,  and,  in  1788, 
became  a  member  of  the  convention  of  his  native  State, 
where  he  took  an  active  part  in  promoting  the  settle- 
ment of  its  constitution,  and  supported  the  Federalist 
party.  In  1797,  he  was  a  colleague  of  Mr.  Gerry  and 
General  Pinckney  on  a  special  mission  to  the  French 
Directory;  in  1799,  entered  Congress,  and  there  highly 
distinguished  himself.  In  the  following  year  he  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  secretary  of  state,  and,  in  1801,  was 
appointed  to  the  chief-justiceship  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  a  position  he  filled  with  liigh  honor 
to  himself  and  his  decisions  during  the  long  period  of 
thirty-four  years.  Marshall  was  a  statesman  of  the 
first  order.     Died,  1835. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  born  in  1802;  English  writer 
of  Huguenot  descent,  daughter  of  a  Norwich  surgeon; 
visited  the  United  States  in  1834,  and  the  East  in  1846, 
publishing  descriptive  works  on  her  return;  wrote 
"Deerbrook,"  "The  Hour  and  the  Man,"  and  other 
novels,  and  many  tales  for  children,  and  was  also  author 
of  a  condensation  of  Comte,  and  "  History  of  England 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace."     Died,  1876. 

Martineau,  James,  born  in  1805;  theologian, 
brother  of  the  last-named;  educated  at  Norwich  and 
Manchester  New  College,  York;  after  being  minister  at 
Little  Portland  Street  Unitarian  Chapel  for  more  than 
twelve  years,  became  principal  of  Manchester  New 
College,  London,  in  1868.  His  chief  works  are  "Essays, 
Philosophical  and  Theological,"  "The  Relation  Between 
Ethics  and  Religion,"  "Types  of  Ethical  Theory,"  "A 
Study  of  Religion,"  and  "The  Seat  of  Authority  in 
Religion."     Died,  1900. 

Marx,  Karl,  German  Socialist;  born  in  1818,  in 
Trfeves,  where  his  father  was  a  lawyer;  educated  at 
Bonn  and  Berlin;  took  an  active  part  in  the  Liberal 
movement  of  1840,  and,  after  the  suppression  of  the 
"Rhenish  Gazette"  (edited  by  him),  he  went  to  Paris, 
but  had  to  leave  it  for  Brussels  on  the  demand  of  the 
Prussian  Government.  Having  been  e.xpelled  from  Bel- 
gium, he  was  invited  to  Paris,  but  soon  went  to  Cologne, 
where  he  attempted  to  revive  the  "Rhenish  Gazette." 
He  now  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  engaged  in 
literary  work,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  International 
Working  Men's  Association.  After  the  secession  of  the 
Anarchist  section  in  1872,  he  took  little  further  part  in 
affairs,  and  died  at  Hampstead  eleven  years  later  (1883). 
His  cliief  work  was  "Das  Kapital." 

Mary  I.,  Queen  of  England;  born  in  1516,  daughter 
of  Henry  VIII.  by  Catherine  of  Aragon;  came  to  the 
throne  in  1553,  after  a  short  struggle  with  Northumber- 


land; restored  the  abbey  lands  taken  by  Henry  VIII. 
and  first-fruits  to  the  papacy;  deprived  and  imprisoned 
the  Protestant  bishops,  and,  having  married  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  persecuted  the  Protestants,  contrary  to  the 
promises  made  before  her  accession.  The  end  of  her 
reign  was  marked  by  a  war,  in  conjunction  with  Spain, 
against  France,  when  Calais  was  lost  by  England. 
Died,  1558. 

Mary  of  Guise,  born  in  1515;  daughter  of  Claude, 
Due  de  Guise;  married  James  V.  of  Scotland  in  1538, 
and  became  mother  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots;  as  regent 
of  Scotland,  after  her  husband's  death,  opposed  the 
Reformation,  till  deposed  in  1559,  by  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation.     Died,  1560. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  or  Mary  Stuart,  was  born 
at  Linlithgow,  December  8,  1542;  a  daughter  of  James 
V.  of  Scotland  and  Mary  of  Lorraine,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise;  and,  on  the  death  of  her  father,  before 
she  was  a  week  old,  his  successor  to  the  throne.  She 
was  educated  at  the  French  court,  and  when  16 
years  of  age  married  the  Dauphin  of  France,  who,  in 
1559,  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  II.,  under  the  title  of 
Francis  II.  Already,  however,  instigated  by  Henry  II., 
Francis  and  Mary  had  assumed  the  arms  and  title  of  the 
King  and  Queen  of  England,  on  the  ground  of  Eliza- 
beth's illegitimacy,  and  this  step  ultimately  proved  fatal 
to  Mary.  Soon  after  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1560, 
she  returned  to  Scotland,  and,  five  years  afterwards 
(■luly  29,  1565),  married  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley. 
On  the  9th  of  March,  1566,  Darnley  murdered  David 
Rizzio,  an  Italian  (whom  he  accused  of  improper  rela- 
tions with  Mary),  in  the  Palace  of  Holyrood;  and 
exactly  twelve  months  afterwards  he  was  himself  mur- 
dered by  the  Earl  of  Bothwell,  who  married  Mary  after 
an  interval  of  less  than  three  months.  These  proceed- 
ings, and  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  Bothwell  to  secure 
the  young  Prince  (afterwards  James  VI.)  who  had  been 
born  in  the  previous  June,  so  incensed  the  nobles  that 
they  took  up  arms  against  Mary.  She  was  able  to  lead 
an  army  against  them,  but  it  melted  away  without 
striking  a  blow  on  the  field  of  Carberry,  near  Edinburgh 
(June  15,  1567);  and  nothing  was  then  left  to  her  but  to 
abandon  Bothwell,  and  to  surrender  herself  to  the  Con- 
federated Lords,  by  whom  she  was  conducted  first  to 
Edinburgh,  and  next  to  an  island  castle  in  Loch  Leven, 
in  the  county  of  Kinross.  After  a  year's  confinement 
in  this  castle,  during  which  she  was  compelled  to  sign 
an  act  of  abdication  in  favor  of  her  son,  she  escaped 
and  gathered  together  her  supporters,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Regent  Murray  at  Langside,  near  Glasgow  (May 
13,  1568),  and  then  crossed  the  Solway  into  England, 
to  place  herself  under  the  protection  of  Elizabeth.  By 
Elizabeth,  however,  she  was  treated  as  a  prisoner;  was 
confined  successively  at  Carlisle,  Bolton,  Tutbury,  Wing- 
field,  Coventry,  Chatsworth,  Sheffield,  Buxton,  Chartley, 
and  Fotheringay  Castle  in  Northamptonshire;  and  there 
at  last,  after  nineteen  years  of  suffering  and,  as  was 
asserted,  of  constant  conspiracy,  she  was  brought  to 
trial  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  life 
of  Elizabeth,  and  was  beheaded.  She  was  at  first  buried 
in  the  cathedral  at  Peterborough;  but  in  1612  her 
remains  were  removed  to  Westminster  Abbey  by  her 
son  (at  this  time  James  I.  of  England),  and  Fotheringay 
Castle  was  razed  by  him  to  the  ground.     Died,  1587. 

Mather,  Cotton,  born  in  1663;  Puritan  minister  at 
Boston,  where  he  carried  on  a  witchcraft  persecution, 
and  wrote  "Memorable  Providences  Relating  to  Witch- 
craft" and  other  works.     Died,  1728. 

Mather,  Increase,  father  of  the  preceding;  born  in 
1639  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  where  his  father  had  been 
pastor;  became  president  of  Harvard  in  1685,  and 
visited  England  to  obtain  a  new  charter  for  his  colony 
in  1688.     He  also  wrote  many  works.     Died,  1723. 

Matthew,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  Christ,  was 
also  called  Levi,  and  was  the  son  of  Alpheus.  He 
appears  to  have  resided  at  Capernaum,  where  he  was  a 
revenue  officer  or  publican.  Of  his  personal  history 
nothing  more  is  recorded  in  the  sacred  volume. 

Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary;  born  in 
1443;  was  proclaimed  king  in  1458,  soon  after  his  re- 
lease from  imprisonment  at  Prague;  maintained  the 
throne  against  the  emperor,  and,  after  having  engaged 
in  successful  wars  with  the  Turks,  received  the  Bohemian 
Crown  from  the  pope  on  condition  of  extirpating  the 
Hussites.  While  thus  engaged  a  revolt  took  place  in 
Hungary,  supported  by  Poland  and  other  powers,  which 
combination  he  routed.  After  this  he  engaged  in  two 
wars  with  the  emperor,  and  captured  Vienna  in  1485, 
living  there  till  his  death,  in  J490. 

Maupassant,  Henri  Guy  de  (Mo-pa-son' (g)),  French 
novelist,  was  born,  1850;  pupil  and  follower  of  Flau- 
bert, under  whom  he  studied  for  seven  years,  beginning 


464 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


to  write  in  1880.  His  chief  works  are  "  La  Maison  Tel- 
lier,"  "  Les  Contes  de  la  B^casse,"  "Yvette,"  "Contes 
du  Jour  et  de  Nuit,"  "Pierre  et  Jean,"  and  "Afloat." 
In  1891  his  mind  became  deranged.  Died  at  Passy, 
1893. 

Maurice  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange,  son  of  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  "the  Silent,"  was  born,  1567;  became 
Stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces  and  head  of  the 
army  in  1587,  and  successfully  carried  on  the  struggle 
against  Spain;  refused  peace  in  1598,  but  consented  to 
a  truce  in  1609;  afterwards  supported  the  Gomarists 
against  the  Remonstrants,  and  put  to  death  Barneveldt, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  with  France  and  England  just 
before  his  death.     Died,  1625. 

Maximilian  !.«  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  Fred- 
erick III.,  born  in  14,59;  acquired  Burgundy  and  Flanders 
by  marriage,  which  involved  him  in  a  war  with  France; 
became  emperor  on  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1493;  be- 
came by  marriage  Duke  of  Milan,  and  brought  Spain 
under  the  power  of  his  dynasty  by  the  marriage  of  his 
son  Philip  to  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella; 
it  was  he  who  assembled  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  at 
which  Luther  made  appeal  to  the  pope.     Died,  1519. 

Maximilian  II.,  Emperor;  born  in  1527,  son  of  Fer- 
dinand I.;  married  a  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  was 
made  regent  in  1548;  was  elected  King  of  Bohemia 
(1562)  and  of  Hungary  (1563),  and  became  emperor  in 
the  following  year;  showed  great  toleration  in  his  relig- 
ious policy,  and  tried  to  unite  the  German  Protestants, 
besides  remonstrating  with  Philip  II.  on  the  subject  of 
his  persecutions  in  the  Netherlands.     Died,  1576. 

"Max  O'Rell,"  nom  de  plume  of  Paul  Blouet;  born 
in  1848;  French  writer,  who  graduated  at  Paris  in 
1864-65;  entered  the  army  in  1869,  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Sedan,  and  fought  against  the  Commune,  after  which 
he  went  to  England  as  a  correspondent;  was  French 
master  at  St.  Paul's  School  from  1876  to  1884,  and 
lectured  in  England  and  America.  He  has  written 
"John  Bull  et  son  He,"  "Les  Filles  de  John  Bull,"  etc. 
Died,  1903. 

Maxwell,  James  Clerlj,  F.  R.  S.,  physicist;  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1831;  after  being  second  wrangler  and 
Smith's  prizeman,  became  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
at  Aberdeen,  and  of  phvsics  and  astronomy  at  King's 
College  (1860-68).  In  1871,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  physics  at  Cambridge,  where  he  made  numerous 
researches,  resulting  in  "The  Kinetic  Theory  of  Gases," 
"Electricity  and  Magnetism,"  etc.     Died,  1879. 

May,  Sir  Tliomas  Erskine,  Right  Hon.,  historian; 
born  in  1815;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1838,  and  became 
clerk  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1871.  He  wrote  "A 
Treatise  on  the  Laws,  Privileges,  Proceedings,  and 
Usage  of  Parliament,"  "The  Constitutional  History  of 
England  from  1760  to  1860,"  and  several  other  works, 
and  was  created  a  peer  a  few  days  before  his  death. 
Died.  1886. 

Mazarin,  Giulio,  Cardinal,  French  statesman,  of 
Italian  birth,  born  in  1602.  After  being  in  the  diplo- 
matic service  of  Spain,  he  went  to  France  in  1634,  as 
nuncio-extraordinary  of  the  pope,  and,  having  been 
favored  by  Richelieu,  joined  him  five  years  later  in 
opposition  to  the  papacy,  and  became  naturalized  in 
France.  In  1641,  he  was  created  cardinal,  and,  having 
succeeded  to  the  place  of  Richelieu  soon  after,  supported 
Anne  of  Austria,  and,  after  having  twice  been  exiled 
by  his  enemies'  influence,  was  recalled  by  I^ouis  XIV. 
in  1653,  and  remained  supreme  till  his  death  (1661). 
He  had  a  share  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  and  nego- 
tiated the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees. 

McBumey,  Cliarles,  surgeon;  born  in  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  February  17,  1845;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1866, 
A.  M.,  1869;  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York,  1870.  In  practice  as  surgeon.  New  York,  since 
1870;  professor  of  clinical  surgery,  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  1892-1907.  Was  consulting  surgeon  to 
President  McKinley  after  he  was  shot  by  the  assassin. 

McCall,  Samuel  Wallcer,  congressman,  lawyer; 
born  in  East  Providence,  Pa.,  February  28,  1851; 
graduate  of  Dartmouth  College,  1874;  admitted  to  bar, 
1876;  delegate  to  National  Republican  conventions, 
1888,  1900;  member  of  Massachusetts  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, 1888,  1889,  and  1892;  member  of  Congress, 
8th  Massachusetts  district,  since  1893;  member  of 
Committee  on  Ways  and  Means.  Author:  "Life  of 
Thaddeus  Stevens"    (American  Statesmen  Series). 

McClellan,  George  Brinton,  ex-mayor  of  New  York; 
born  on  November  23,  1865,  in  Dresden,  Saxony,  where 
his  parents.  General  George  B.  (U.  S.  A.)  and  Ellen  M. 
(Marcy)  McClellan,  were  on  a  visit.  Graduate  of 
Princeton,  1886;  worked  as  reporter  and  in  editorial 
positions  on  New  York  dailies;  treasurer  of  New  York 
and  Brooklyn  Bridge,  1889-92;  admitted  to  bar,  1892; 
president  of  board  of  aldermen.  New  York,   1893  and 


1894;     member    of    Congress,    1895-1903;     Democrat. 
Mayor  of  New  York,  1903-09. 

3IcClellan,  George  Brinton,  American  general; 
born  in  1826;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  drew  up  a  report  on  the  organization  of 
European  armies  after  a  visit  to  the  Crimea;  during 
the  (5ivil  War  commanded  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
but  after  indecisive  engagements,  was  superseded  in 
1862  (November).  In  1864,  as  a  Democrat,  he  was  the 
unsuccessful  opponent  of  Lincoln  for  the  presidency. 
In  1877,  he  was  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey.  Died, 
1885. 

McCutcheon,  George  Barr,  journalist,  author; 
born  on  farm,  Tippecanoe  County,  Ind.,  July  26,  1866; 
educated  at  Purdue  University;  city  editor  "Lafayette 
Courier,"  1893.  Author:  "Graustark,"  "Beverly  of 
Graustark,"  "Brewster's  Millions,"  "Nedra,"  "Castle 
Craneycrow,"  "Jane  Cable,"  "The  Husbands  of  Edith," 
"Man  from  Brodney's,"  and  magazine  stories. 

McGratli,  Harold,  journalist,  author;  born,  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  September  4,  1871;  engaged  in  journalism 
since  1890.  Author:  "Arms  and  the  Woman,"  "The 
Man  on  the  Box,"  "  Hearts  and  Masks,"  "  Half  a  Rogue," 
""The  Best  Man,"  "The  Lure  of  the  Mask,"  "The  Goose 
Girl,"  and  numerous  magazine  stories. 

McKim,  Cliarles  Follen,  architect;  born  in  Chester 
County,  Pa.,  August  24,  1847;  student  of  Harvard 
Scientific  School,  1866;  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris, 
1867-70.  Began  practice,  1872;  joined  in  partnership 
by  Wm.  R.  Mead,  1877,  and  by  Stanford  White  in  1879. 
Awarded  Royal  gold  medal  by  King  Edward  for  pro- 
motion of  architecture,  1903.  Was  president  of  Ameri- 
can Institution  of  Architects.     Died,  1909. 

McKinley,  William,  twenty-fifth  President  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  Niles,  O.,  January  29,  1843. 
He  was  educated  at  the  public  schools,  and  at  the  Poland, 
Ohio,  Academy.  In  May,  1861,  he  volunteered  for  the 
army,  and  entered  the  23d  Ohio  Infantry  as  a  private. 
He  served  four  years,  rising  by  merit  and  faithfulness  to 
the  captaincy  of  his  company,  and  to  the  rank  of  major 
when  mustered  out  in  1865.  He  at  once  began  the 
study  of  law;  in  1867  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
commenced  practice  at  Canton,  O.,  where  he  afterward 
had  his  residence.  In  1869  he  was  elected  prosecuting 
attorney  for  Stark  County,  where  his  success  attracted 
local  attention.  Entering  politics,  he  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1876,  and  w.as  reelected  for  six  successive 
terms.  In  1882,  his  election  was  contested,  and  he  was 
unseated,  but  triumphantly  returned  at  the  next  elec- 
tion. His  reputation  in  Congress  rests  chiefly  on  the 
tariff  bill  that  bears  his  name.  It  was  drawn  by  him  as 
chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee,  and 
passed  by  the  fifty-first  Congress.  This  bill  and  his 
able  advocacy  of  it  before  the  House  distinguished  him 
as  the  leader  of  the  Republican  party,  on  the  tariff 
question.  The  Republican  party  went  before  the  coun- 
try in  1892  almost  solely  on  the  issue  raised  by  the 
McKinley  tariff,  but  a  reaction  against  it  had  set  in, 
and  Mr.  Cleveland  was  elected.  Meanwhile  McKinley 
failed  of  reelection  in  his  district,  though  largely  reduc- 
ing the  adverse  plurality  created  by  a  redistricting  that 
changed  the  limits  of  the  district.  In  1891  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Ohio  by  a  large  plurality  over  former 
Governor  James  E.  Campbell,  a  very  popular  Democrat, 
and  reelected  in  1893  in  the  reactionary  tidal  wave  of 
politics  following  a  contrary  tariff  policy,  that  carried 
the  Republican  party  back  to  power  in  Congress,  having 
a  plurality  of  over  80,000.  By  this  time  his  name  was 
frequently  mentioned  as  a  future  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  In  1895,  a  systematic  canvass  in  McKin- 
ley's  behalf  was  instituted  by  his  supporters,  which  was 
continued  till  the  election  of  1896.  He  was  nominated 
and  elected,  receiving  an  electoral  majority  of  95,  after 
a  campaign  of  more  intense  interest  than  was  displayed 
in  any  election  since  the  Civil  War. 

President  McKinley's  first  term  is  memorable  chiefly 
for  the  occurrence  of  the  Spanish-American  War  and 
its  unexpected  results.  That  his  policy  during  1896- 
1900  was  acceptable  was  shown  by  his  unanimous 
renomination  and  by  his  reelection  in  1900  by  an 
electoral  majority  of  137.  His  second  term  began 
most  auspiciously  and  ended  tragically.  On  Sep- 
tember 5,  1901,  he  visited  the  Pan-.\merican  Expo- 
sition in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  that  day  having  been  set 
apart  in  his  honor  and  called  the  "President's  Day." 
On  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day,  while  holding  a 
public  reception  in  the  Temple  of  Music,  he  was  shot 
twice  by  Leon  F.  Czolgosz,  an  anarchist,  who  was  at 
once  arrested.  The  wounded  president  was  first  taken 
to  the  Emergency  Hospital  on  the  exposition  grounds, 
for  immediate  treatment,  and  then  removed  to  the 
residence  of  John  G.  Milburn,  the  president  of  the 
exposition.     Hopes    of    his    recovery   were   entertained 


BIOGRAPHY 


465 


for  several  days,  but  on  September  13th  he  began  to 
sink  rapidly  and  died  at  2.15  A.  M.,  September  14th. 
His  remains  were  removed  to  Washington  on  September 
16th,  laid  in  state  in  the  capitol  on  the  17th,  and  taken 
to  his  home  city,  Canton,  Ohio,  where  they  were  interred 
on  the  18th,  amid  universal  mourning. 

McLean,  Emily  Nelson  Ritchie  (Mrs.  Donald  Mc- 
Lean), regent  of  New  York  City  Chapter  of  Daughters 
of  American  Revolution;  born  in  Prospect  Hall,  Fred- 
erick, Md.,  January  28,  1859;  daughter  of  Judge  John 
and  Betty  Ritchie;  graduate  of  Frederick  Seminary 
(now  Woman's  College),  June,  1873;  post-graduate 
courses  in  language,  history,  and  mathematics;  married 
in  Frederick,  Md.,  April  24,  1883,  to  Donald  McLean. 
Charter  member  of  Daughters  of  American  Revolution; 
regent  of  New  York  City  Chapter  for  ten  years. 
Scholarship  bearing  her  name  established,  1898,  in 
Barnard  College  by  Daughters  of  American  Revolution, 
New  York  Chapter.  Was  commissioner  from  New  York 
to  Cotton  States  and  International  Exposition,  1895-96; 
accepted  appointment  as  commissioner  to  South  Caro- 
lina Exposition,  1901-02.  Best  known  by  her  public 
addresses  throughout  the  country  on  patriotic  and 
educational  themes. 

McMaster,  John  Bach,  professor  of  American  his- 
tory in  University  of  Pennsylvania  since  1883;  born  in 
Brooklyn,  June  29,  1852;  graduate  of  College  of  City 
of  New  York,  1872,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D.,  LL.  D.; 
civil  engineer,  1873-77;  instructor  in  civil  engineering 
Princeton,  1877-83.  Author:  "A  History  of  the  People 
of  the  United  States"  (seven  volumes  published),  "Benja- 
min Franklin  as  a  Man  of  Letters,"  "With  the  Fathers," 
"Studies  in  American  History,"  "Origin,  Meaning,  and 
Application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,"  "A  School  History 
of  the  United  States,"  "A  Primary  School  History  of 
the  United  States,"  "Daniel  Webster,"  "Bri^  History 
of  the  United  States,"  "The  Struggle  for  the  Social, 
Political,  and  Industrial  Rights  of  Man." 

Meade,  George  Gordon,  general  in  the  United 
States  army,  was  born  in  Cadiz,  Spain,  where  his  father 
was  an  agent  of  the  United  States  navy,  December  31, 
1815.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and,  after 
serving  but  one  year  in  the  army,  resigned  to  begin 
practice  as  a  civil  engineer.  He  was  frequently  em- 
ployed by  the  government,  and  reentered  its  military 
service  in  1842.  He  served  with  distinction  on  the  staffs 
of  Taylor  and  Scott  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  in  scientific 
work.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  brigade  of  volunteers,  soon  rising  to 
the  command  of  a  division,  and  joining  his  fortunes 
permanently  to  those  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He 
led  his  division  through  the  Seven  Days'  battle,  being 
severely  wounded  at  Glendale,  through  the  Antietam 
campaign,  and  at  Fredericksburg,  where  he  particularly 
distinguished  himself.  At  Chancellorsville  he  com- 
manded the  fifth  corps;  and  when  Hooker  resigned  the 
command  of  the  army,  and  while  the  army  itself  was  in 
hasty  movement  northward  to  check  Lee's  invasion  of 
the  North  in  1863,  Meade  was  appointed  to  the  command. 
He  accepted  it  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  and  alto- 
gether from  a  sense  of  duty.  He  had  inclined  to  fight 
on  the  line  of  Pipe  Creek,  to  the  south  of  Gettysburg; 
but  Reynolds  fell  into  collision  with  Lee's  advance  at 
Gettysburg,  other  corps  hurried  to  support,  and  Gettys- 
burg became  historical.  When  Grant  assumed  general 
command  in  1864,  Meade  continued  to  command  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  under  him,  and  mutual  good- 
feeling  enabled  them  to  maintain  this  delicate  relation 
without  friction,  and  with  the  best  results.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  being  major-general  in  the  regular  army, 
he  commanded  the  military  division  of  the  Atlantic 
until  his  death  at  Philadelphia,  November  6,  1872. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de',  "il  Magnifico";  born  in  1448; 
son  of  Pietro,  became  dominant  in  Florence  after  the  sup- 

Eression  of  the  Pazzi,  by  whom  his  brother,  Giuliano, 
ad  been  murdered  (1478).  His  alliance  with  Venice 
and  Milan  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  papacy,  and  Sixtus 
IV.  excommunicated  Florence  on  his  account.  He  was 
reconciled,  however,  with  Innocent  VIII.,  and  his  son, 
Giovanni,  was  made  cardinal.  He  was  a  great  patron 
and  collector  of  manuscripts.     Died,  1492. 

Melssonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest,  painter;  born  in 
Lyons  in  1815;  attracted  attention  by  his  "Little  Mes- 
senger" in  1836,  and  continued  to  exhibit  at  the  Paris 
Salon  for  many  years,  his  best  pictures  distinguished 
for  minute  detail  being  the  "Napoleon  Cycle,"  among 
which  the  picture  called  "1814"  was  sold,  in  1890,  for 
$100,000.  Meissonier  served  in  the  Italian  campaign 
and  the  early  part  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and 
was  colonel  at  the  siege  of  Paris.  Died  in  Paris  in 
1891. 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  born  in  1497;  German  reformer; 
studied  under  Reuchlin,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 


Greek  at  Wittemberg  at  an  early  age,  thus  becoming 
acquainted  with  Luther.  He  drew  up  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  of  which  he  sent  a  copy  to  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  inviting  his  adhesion;  and  by  his 
moderation  as  well  as  his  writings  did  much  to  help  the 
reformation.     Died,  1560. 

3Ielba,  3Iadanie,  operatic  vocahst,  born  in  Aus- 
tralia, May  19,  1865.  At  6  sang  ballads  to  her  own 
accompaniment  at  a  charitable  concert.  Studying  under 
Madame  Marchesi  in  Paris,  she  made  her  stage  d^but 
October  15,  1887,  in  "Rigoletto,"  at  the  Theatre  de  la 
Monnaie,  Brussels.  Next  year  appeared  as  Lucia  at 
Covent  Garden.  In  1889  played  "Ophelia"  at  Paris 
Grand  Opera.  For  her  Bemberg  specially  wrote 
"Elaine,"  produced  in  London  in  1892.  She  has  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  recent  opera  seasons  in  London  and 
New  York,  and,  in  1908,  proved  herself  equally  success- 
ful in  concert. 

Mellen,  Charles  Sanger,  railway  official;  born  in 
Lowell,  Mass.,  August  16,  1851;  in  railway  service  since 
September  22,  1869,  beginning  as  clerk  in  cashier's 
office  Northern  New  Hampshire  R.  R.;  clerk  to  chief 
engineer  Central  Vermont  R.R.,  1872-73;  superintendent's 
clerk  to  chief  clerk  and  assistant  treasurer  of  Northern 
New  Hampshire  R.  R.,  1873-80;  assistant  to  manager  of 
Boston  &  Lowell  R.  R.,  1880-81;  auditor,  1881-83, 
superintendent,  1883-84,  general  superintendent,  1884- 
88,  Boston  &  Lowell  and  Concord  railroads;  general  pur- 
chasing agent,  1888,  assistant  general  manager,  1888-89, 
general  traffic  manager,  1889-92,  Union  Pacific  System; 
general  manager  New  York  &  New  England  R.  R.  at 
Boston,  1892;  2d  vice-president  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford  R.  R.,  1892-96;  president  of  Northern  Pacific 
Railway  Co.,  1896-1903,  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford R.  R.  Co.,  since  1903. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Felix  (-bar-tWde)  a  dis- 
tinguished German  musical  composer,  born  in  Hamburg, 
1809,  manifested  a  precocious  taste  and  genius  for  music. 
In  his  ISth  year  he  produced  his  famous  "Overture  to 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  as  well  as  the  opera  of 
the  "Wedding  of  Camacho."  His  fame  was  at  once 
secured.  In  1836,  appeared  his  oratorio  of  "St.  Paul," 
and  in  1846,  the  magnificent  one  called  "Elijah"- — a 
masterpiece,  second  only  to  the  greatest  works  of  Handel. 
Mendelssohn's  "Songs  Without  Words"  are  the  most 
admired  of  his  minor  compositions.     Died,  1847. 

3Ieredith,  George,  poet  and  novelist,  was  a  native  of 
Hampshire,  and  was  born  in  1828.  After  studying  for 
some  time  in  Germany  he  commenced  his  literary  career 
with  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  poems.  This  was 
followed  by  the  "Shaving  of  Shagpat,  an  Arabian  Enter- 
tainment"; "Farina,  a  Legend  of  Cologne,"  "The 
Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel,"  "Modern  Love:  Poems  and 
Ballads,"  "Emilia  in  England,"  "Rhoda  Fleming," 
"Vittoria,"  "The  Adventures  of  Harry  Richmond," 
"The  Egoist,"  "The  Tragic  Comedians,"  "Poems  and 
Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth,"  "Diana  of  the  Crossways," 
"One  of  Our  Conquerors,"  "Lord  Ormont  and  his 
Aminta,"  "The  Amazing  Marriage,"  and  a  volume  of 
short  stories.     Died,  1909. 

Mergenthaler,  Ottmar,  inventor  of  the  typesetting 
machine  bearing  his  name,  was  born  in  Wiirttemberg, 
Germany,  in  1854;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1872, 
and  received  a  government  position  in  Washington  to 
care  for  the  mechanism  of  bells,  clocks,  and  signal 
service  apparatus;  became  connected  with  a  mechanical 
engineering  firm  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1876;  subse- 
quently, while  still  engaged  with  that  company,  he 
began  experiments  which  resulted  in  the  invention 
named.     He  died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1899. 

Merivale,  Charles,  dean  of  Ely;  born  in  Exeter  in 
1808;  held  a  succession  of  appointments  as  lecturer; 
wrote  a  history  of  Home  from  its  foundation  in  753'  B.C. 
to  the  fall  of  Augustus  in  476  A.  D.,  but  his  chief  work  is 
the  "History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,"  indis- 
pensable as  an  introduction  to  Gibbon  (1808-1893). 

Merrltt,  Wesley,  major  general  of  United  States 
Army,  retired  June  16,  1900;  born  in  New  Y'ork,  June 
16, 1836;  graduated  from  West  Point,  1860;  commissioned 
brigadier-general  United  States  volunteers,  June  29,  1863; 
major-general.  United  States  volunteers,  April  1,  1865. 
After  war  regularly  promoted  from  lieutenant-colonel  to 
major-general,  UnitedStates  Army.  Served  in  armyof  the 
Potomac  until  June,  1864;  participated  in  all  its  battles 
and  earned  six  successive  brevet  promotions  for  gallantry 
at  Gettysburg,  Yellow  Tavern,  Hawes'  Shop,  Five 
Forks,  etc.  Afterward  accompanied  General  Sheridan 
on  cavalry  raid  toward  Charlottesville,  and  engaged  in 
battle  of  Trevilian's  Station;  commanded  cavalry  divi- 
sion in  Shenandoah  campaign,  August,  1864,  to  March, 
1865;  was  engaged  in  battles  of  Winchester,  Fisher's 
Hill,  etc.;  commanded  corps  of  cavalry  in  Appomattox 
campaign;     one   of    three   eommanders   from   National 


466 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Army  to  arrange  with  Confederate  commanders  for  sur- 
render of  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  After  war  served 
in  various  departments,  participated  in  several  Indian 
campaigns;  superintendent  of  United  States  MiUtary 
Academy,  1882-87;  commanded  department  of  the  Atlan- 
tic until  assigned.  May,  1898,  to  command  of  United 
States  forces  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  continuing  there 
until  summoned  to  the  aid  of  the  American  Peace  Com- 
missioners in  session  in  Paris,  December,  1898;  returned 
to  United  States;  in  command  of  department  of  the  East, 
Governor's  Island,  until  retirement,  1900.     Died,  1910. 

Merry  del  Val,  Raphael,  pontifical  secretary  of 
state,  was  born  in  London  of  Spanish  parents  on  October 
10,  1865,  and  educated  in  England,  where  he  has  resided 
for  some  length  of  time  at  different  periods  in  his  career. 
He  was  at  first  attached  to  the  diocese  of  Westminster, 
acted_  for  many  years  as  Camerieri  Segreto  to  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the  Accademia 
■  Pontificia  in  1899,  and  Italian  Archbishop  of  Nicosia  in 
1900.  He  visited  England  as  papal  envoy  on  the  occa- 
sions of  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  and  King  Edward's 
Coronation,  and  was  sent  to  Canada  on  an  educational 
mission.  In  July,  1903,  on  the  death  of  Leo  XIII.,  he 
was  nominated  consistorial  secretary,  and  in  October 
succeeded  Cardinal  Rampolla  as  secretary  of  state, 
being  afterwards  created  a  cardinal. 

Metternich,  Clemens  Wenzel,  Prince  von,  a  great 
Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman ;  born  in  Coblenz, 
1773,  after  a  distinguished  diplomatic  career,  became 
foreign  minister  of  the  empire  in  1809.  This  high  office 
he  held  w^ith  consummate  ability  for  a  period  of  thirty 
years,  exercising,  almost  without  control,  the  highest 
authority  in  .Austria.  The  revolution  of  1848  sent  him 
into  exile,  from  which  he  returned  three  years  alter. 
Died,  1859.  Prince  Metternich  was  an  adroit  intriguer, 
and  exercised  in  his  day  a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
cabinets  of  Europe. 

Meyer,  Adolf,  pathologist,  alienist;  born  in  Nieder- 
weningen,  near  Zurich,  Switzerland,  September  13,  1866; 
educated  at  gymnasium,  Zurich,  University  of  Zurich, 
M.  D.,  1892;  post-graduate  studies  in  Paris,  London, 
Edinburgh,  Zurich,  Vienna,  and  Berlin,  1890-92  (LL.D., 
Glasgow,  1901);  came  to  the  United  States,  Septem- 
ber, 1892.  Honorable  fellow  and  later  docent  in  neu- 
rology, University  of  Chicago,  1892-95;  pathologist  to 
Illinois  Eastern  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Kankakee,  111., 
1893-95;  pathologist  and  later  director  of  clinical  and 
laboratory  work,  Worcester  (Mass.)  Insane  Hospital, 
and  docent  in  psychiatry,  Clark  University,  1895-1902; 
director  Pathological  (psychiatric)  Institute,  New  York 
State  Hospitals,  1902-10.  Professor  psychiatry,  Cor- 
nell LTniversity  Medical  College,  1904-09.  Extensive 
contributor  to  neurology,  pathology,  and  psychiatry,  etc. 

Meyer,  George  von  Lengerke,  cabinet  officer;  born 
in  Boston,  June  24,  1858;  graduated  at  Harvard,  1879; 
engaged  in  business  as  merchant  and  trustee,  1879-99. 
Member  of  Boston  common  council,  1889-90;  member 
of  board  of  aldermen,  1891;  member  of  Massachusetts 
Legislature,  1892-96,  and  speaker  of  house,  1894-96; 
chairman  of  Massachusetts  Paris  Exposition  Managers; 
elected  member  of  Republican  National  Committee, 
1898-1905.  Director  of  Amoskeag  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, the  Amory  Company,  Old  Colony  Trust  Company, 
National  Bank  of  Commerce;  the  Electric  Corpora- 
tion, United  Electric  Security  Company,  Walter  Baker 
Company;  president  of  Ames  Plow  Company.  United 
States  ambassador  to  Italy,  1900-05.  Ambassador  to 
Russia,  1905-07;  postmaster-general,  1907-09;  secretary 
of  navy  since  1909. 

Michael  VIII.  (Pateologus),  born  in  1234,  having 
been  crowned  Emperor  at  Nica-a  with  John  Lascaris, 
regained  Constantinople  from  the  Latins  in  1261,  and 
ordered  his  colleague  to  be  blinded,  for  which  he  was 
excommunicated  and  did  public  penance;  attempted  to 
unite  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  at  the  Council 
of  Lyon  (1274),  and  subsequently  defeated  a  French 
invasion.     Died,  1282. 

Mlche'let,  Jules,  born  in  Paris,  August  21,  1798; 
a  popular  French  historian,  for  many  years  professor  of 
history  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1843-46,  he  became 
widely  known,  not  only  in  his  own  country,  but  also  in 
England,  by  his  attacks  upon  the  Jesuits  in  his  three 
works:  "The  Jesuits,"  "Priests,  Women,  and  Families  "; 
and  "The  People."  He  was  the  writer  of  many  other 
works,  several  of  them  of  considerable  interest;  but 
those  of  most  permanent  value  are  his  "History  of 
France,"  his  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and 
his  "History  of  the  Nineteenth  Century."  Died,  Feb- 
ruary 9,  1874. 

Miles,  Nelson  Appleton,  an  American  military  of- 
ficer; born  in  Westminster,  Mass.,  August  8,  1839.  At 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  engaged  in 
mercaatile  pursuits  in  Boston,  Mass.;  entered  the  serv- 


ice as  first  lieutenant  of  the  22d  Massachusetts  Regi- 
ment in  Septernber,  1861 ;  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  Charles  City  Cross  Roads,  and 
Malvern  Hill.  In  September,  1862,  he  was  commis- 
sioned colonel  of  the  61st  New  York  regiment,  which 
he  led  at  Fredericksburg  and"Chaiicellorsville,  where  he 
was  severely  wounded.  He  commanded  the  first  bri- 
gade, first  division,  second  army  corps,  in  the  Richmond 
campaign,  and  was  promoted  brigadier-general,  May  12, 
1864;  and  brevetted  major-general  for  gallantry  at 
Ream's  Station  in  August,  1864.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  40th  United 
States  Infantry.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general 
in  December,  1880;  major-general  in  April,  1890;  and 
succeeded  Lieutenant-General  John  M.  Schofield  as  com- 
mander of  the  army  in  1895.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  wars  with  the  Indians  in  1874,  and  thereafter. 
On  July  13,  1898,  he  went  to  the  front  and  assumed  per- 
sonal command  of  the  army  around  Santiago,  Cuba;  and 
after  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish  Army  commanded  the 
expedition  which  left  Guantanamo  Bay,  July  21st,  landed 
at  Guanica,  Porto  Rico,  July  25th,  and  was  marching  on 
San  Juan,  the  capital,  when  the  armistice  stopped  hostile 
operations.  On  the  reorganization  of  the  army  in  1901, 
the  grade  of  lieutenant-general  was  revived  and  he  was 
promoted  to  it.  In  December,  1901,  he  publicly  ex- 
pressed satisfaction  with  Admiral  Dewey's  report  on 
Rear-Admiral  Schley  and  was  reprimanded  therefor. 
He  was  retired  upon  reaching  the  age  limit,  .\ugust,  1903. 

Mill,  James,  a  British  historian  and  political  econo- 
mist, was  born  near  Montrose,  Scotland,  in  1773.  He 
has  written  much  that  is  of  standard  value;  as  witness 
his  "History  of  British  India  "  (five  volumes) ;  the  "  Lib- 
erty of  the  Press,"  the  "Law  of  Nations,"  "Elements 
of  Political  Economy,"  and  "Analysis  of  the  Phe- 
nomena of  the  Human  Mind."     Died  in  London  in  1836. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  son  of  James  Mill,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1806,  established  his  reputation,  in  1843,  by  the 
publication  of  "A  System  of  Logic,  Ratiocinative  and 
Inductive,"  a  work  the  success  of  which  paved  the  way 
for  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  with  some  of 
their  Applications  to  Social  Philosophy."  His  later 
works  are  an  "Essay  on  Liberty,"  "An  Examination  of 
Sir  William  Hamilton's  Philosophy,"  and  the  'Subjec- 
tion of  Women,"  in  which  he  avows  himself  a  partisan 
of  what  has  been  popularly  termed  the  ".Woman's 
Rights  Movement."     Died,  1873. 

Slil'man,  Henry  Hart,  born  in  London,  1791;  an 
ecclesiastical  historian  and  poet,  for  several  years 
professor  of  poetry  in  the  University  of  O.xford,  and 
from  1849  to  his  death  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
His  best  known  poems  are  "The  Fall  of  Jerusalem," 
and  "The  Martyr  of  Antioch";  his  historical  works  are 
a  "History  of  the  Jews,"  a  "History  of  Christianity 
from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in 
the  Roman  Empire,"  and  a  '1  History  of  Latin  Christian- 
ity, including  that  of  the  Popes  to  the  Pontificate  of 
Nicolas  V."     Died,  1868. 

Milton,  John,  born  in  1608;  English  poet;  son  of  a 
London  scrivener  of  some  culture,  who  sent  him  to  St. 
Paul's  school  and  Cambridge  (Christ's  College),  after 
le.aving  which  he  lived  with  nis  father  in  Buckingham- 
shire, and  then  traveled  in  France  and  Italy.  In  1644 
he  published  "  Areopagitica,"  a  speech  for  the  liberty  of 
unlicensed  printing,  among  his  other  prose  works  being 
"Eikonoklastes"  and  "Defensiffpro  Populo  Anglicano  ' 
(in  answer  to  Salmasius),  this  last  work  being  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  his  loss  of  sight.  He  was  appointed 
foreign  secret.ary  to  the  Council  of  State  in  1649,  and 
some  years  after  became  blind.  "The  Allegro,"  "Pen- 
seroso,"  "Comus,"  "Lycidas,"  etc.,  were  written  in  his 
early  days,  and  his  greatest  work,  "Paradise  Lost,"  was 
published  in  1667,  and  "Paradise  Regained"  in  1671. 
He  was  married  three  times.     Died,  1674. 

Mitchell,  John,  labor  leader,  was  born  at  Braid- 
wood,  111.,  February  4,  1870;  received  common  school 
education,  read  law  one  year,  and  made  special  study  of 
economic  questions;  began  work  in  coal  mines,  1882, 
and  has  since,  as  worker  or  labor  leader,  been  identified 
with  mines  and  mining;  his  official  connection  with  the 
United  Mine  Workers  of  America  began  in  1895,  and 
from  1899  to  1908  he  served  as  president  of  that  organi- 
zation. He  is  the  autlior  of  a  book,  "  Organized  Labor, 
Its  Problems,  Purposes,  and  Ideals." 

Modjeska,  Helena  (Mme.  Chlapowski),  actress; 
born  in  Cracow,  Poland,  October  12,  1844;  d^but, 
Bochnia,  Poland,  1861;  soon  became  leading  actress  in 
her  native  country;  married,  in  1868,  Charles  Bozenta 
Chlapowski,  compatriot.  First  appearance  in  English, 
San  Francisco,  1877,  in  Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  followed 
by  a  starring  tour  through  United  States  and  England. 
Returned  here  and  played  leading  Shakesperean  parts, 
"Camille,"  "Mary  Stuart,"  etc.     Died,  1909. 


BIOGRAPHY 


467 


Mohammed  was  in  his  youth  employed  as  a  camel- 
driver  between  Mecca  and  Damascus  by  his  uncle,  who 
had  adopted  him,  but  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  married 
Khadija,  a  rich  widow.  He  now  led  a  life  of  medita- 
tion, during  which  the  Koran  was  drawn  up.  When  at 
the  age  of  40  he  claimed  to  be  a  prophet,  he  was  opposed 
by  his  family,  and  in  622  left  Mecca  for  Medina  (the 
Hegira).  Here  his  followers  increased,  and  were  incited 
by  him  against  the  Arabian  Jews.  Mecca  was  stormed, 
and  in  time  all  Arabia  and  Syria  conquered,  but  the 
prophet  died  (632)  soon  after  at  Medina,  perhaps  from 
poisoned  food. 

Mol]£re,  Jean  Baptiste  (Poquelin),  born  in  1622; 
dramatist:  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and  studied 
law,  but  about  1645,  changed  his  name,  and  became  an 
actor.  He  began  to  write  plays  in  1653,  and  took  part 
in  them  himself,  first  performing  before  Louis  XIV.  in 
1658.  In  1673,  whfle  playing  Argan  in  "Le  Malade 
Imaginaire,"  he  was  seized  with  convulsions,  and  died 
soon  after.  It  was  only  by  the  intervention  of  the 
king  that  the  Church  allowed  him  burial.  His  chief 
plays  were  "L'Etourdi,"  "L'ficcrie  des  Femmes,"  "Le 
Misanthrope,"  "Le  M(?decin  Malgr6  Lui,"  "/I'artufe," 
"Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme." 

Moltke  {moU'ka),  von,  Helmuth  Karl  Bemhard, 
Count,  chief  marshal  of  the  German  Empire;  was  born 
in  Parchim,  in  Mecklenburg,  in  1800.  He  entered  the 
Prussian  service  in  1822,  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  eighth 
infantry  regiment.  In  1836,  he  undertook  a  tour  in 
Turkey,  remained  there  several  years,  and  took  part  in 
the  campaign  of  the  Turks  in  Syria,  against  the  viceroy 
of  Egypt.  He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1859,  and 
sketched  the  plans  of  the  campaigns  against  Denmark, 
1864,  and  Austria,  1866.  He  was  the  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  Franco-German  War,  1870-71,  and  to  his 
brilliant  strategy  are  ascribed  the  splendid  victories 
of  the  German  arms.  The  illustrious  marshal,  who  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  first  strategist  of  the  day,  was 
created  a  count  in  1870,  and  chief  marshal  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  in  1871.     Died,  1891. 

Monk,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  an  English 
general;  born  in  County  Devon  in  1608;  after  a  brief 
service  in  Holland,  fought  at  first  on  the  side  of  Charles  I. 
during  the  civil  war;  then,  changing  his  coat,  he  com- 
manded a  republican  army  in  Ireland,  1646-50,  and  in 
1651  reduced  Scotland  into  submission  to  Cromwell. 
In  1653,  he  commanded  in  the  sea-fight  in  which  the 
Dutch  were  defeated,  and  their  admiral.  Van  Tromp, 
killed.  After  the  death  of  the  Protector,  1658,  Monk 
proclaimed  his  son,  Richard  Cromwell,  his  successor, 
and  himself  retained  command  of  the  army  in  Scotland. 
With  that  army,  he,  in  1660,  marched  upon  London,  and 
declared  for  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  which  con- 
summation he  succeeded  in  bringing  about.  His  last 
great  victory  at  sea  was  over  the  Dutch  in  1666.  Monk 
died  in  1670. 

Monroe,  James,  fifth  President  of  the  United  States; 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  1758.  After 
graduating  at  William  and  Mary  College,  he  served  with 
distinction  in  the  army  during  the  War  of  the  Revolution, 
and  in  1783,  entered  the  general  Congress  as  a  delegate 
from  his  native  State.  In  the  Virginia  convention,  1788, 
he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution, 
and  allied  himself  with  the  Republican  party,  which 
party  elected  him  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1790.  Four  years  later  he  proceeded  to  France  as 
minister-plenipotentiary,  from  which  office  he  was  re- 
called in  1796.  During  the  years  1799-1802,  he  filled 
the  office  of  governor  of  Virginia.  In  1802,  as  the  as- 
sociate of  Livingston,  he  was  dispatched  on  a  special 
mission  to  negotiate  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  In 
1803,  in  England,  and  in  1805,  in  Spain,  he  performed 
special  diplomatic  services  for  his  country.  In  1811,  he 
again  accepted  the  governorship  of  Virginia,  and  in  the 
same  year  became  secretary  of  state  under  President  Madi- 
son's administration,  which  position  he  occupied  with 
credit  till  March,  1817.  The  year  before  he  had  been 
the  elected  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency. 
During  his  term  of  office,  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  1819.  Reelected  in  1820,  during  his  second  term, 
the  United  States  recognized  the  de  facto  independence 
of  the  Spanish-American  cdonies.  In  December,  1823, 
he  gave  utterance  in  his  message  to  the  celebrated  prin- 
ciple touching  the  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States, 
since  known  as  the  "Monroe  Doctrine."  In  1825,  Mon- 
roe retired  from  the  presidential  chair,  and  died  in  New 
York,  1831. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de,  born  in  1533; 
French  writer;  was  educated  at  the  College  de  Guienne 
at  Bordeaux,  partly  under  George  Buchanan,  and  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  parliament  there  in  1554.  He  took 
no  part  in  affairs,  but  was  driven  from  his  ch&teau  for 
two  years  by  the  wars  of  the  league,  during  which  time 


he  formed  his  friendship  with  Marie  de  Gournay.  In 
1588,  he  was  chosen  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  Guise 
and  Navarre  at  Blois.  His  "Essais,"  of  which  Shakes- 
pere  and  Ben  Jonson  possessed  translations,  were  first 
published  in  1580.     Died,  1592. 

Montcalm  de  Saint  V^ran,  Louis  Joseph,  Mar- 
quis de,  born  in  1712;  French  general;  was  named 
commander  of  the  French  forces  in  Canada  in  1756,  where 
he  won  several  victories,  and  fortified  Quebec,  but  was 
defeated  by  Wolfe  in  1759,  and  miortally  wounded. 
Died,  1759. 

Mon'tesquieu,  Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron  de, 
born  at  the  Castle  of  La  Brfede,  near  Bordeaux,  January 
18,  168^;  an  eminent  political  philosopher  of  France, 
best  known  as  the  author  of  a  work  on  "The  Spirit  of 
Laws,"  which  was  published  in  1748.  In  this  work, 
which  occupied  its  writer  for  more  than  fourteen  years, 
he  discusses  with  great  ability  the  principles  of  political 
science,  as  those  principles  were  understood  in  his  time. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  some  "Persian  Letters  "  (1721), 
in  which,  in  the  character  of  a  Persian,  he  described  and 
satirized  the  peculiarities  of  his  countrymen;  of  a  dis- 
course on  "The  Causes  of  the  Greatness  and  of  the  Decay 
of  the  Romans  "  (1734) ;  and  of  numerous  other  works. 
Died  in  Paris,  February  10,  1755. 

Montezuma  I.,  Emperor  of  Mexico;  after  having 
been  the  victorious  general  of  his  uncle,  succeeded  him 
in  1436.  He  defeated  the  people  of  Chalco,  and  em- 
banked the  lake  of  Tezcuco.     Died,  1464. 

Montezuma  II.,  born  in  1466;  his  grandson;  became 
emperor  in  1502,  and  governed  with  great  cruelty.  His 
dominions  having  been  attacked  and  conquered  by 
Cortez,  he  Was  killed  (1520)  by  his  subjects  while  per- 
suading them  to  submit  to  the  Spaniards. 

Montgom'ery,  Richard,  an  American  general;  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1736.  In  1772,  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  British  service,  and  settled  in  Dutchess 
County,  N.  Y.,  representing  it  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, 1775.  As  brigadier  in  the  national  army  he  took 
Montreal,  and  was  killed  in  the  assault  on  Quebec, 
December,  1775. 

Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of.  Royalist 
leader;  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1612,  and  lived  some 
time  in  France  as  an  officer  in  the  Scottish  Guard.  On 
his  return  he  first  joined  the  Covenanters,  but  afterwards 
became  a  zealous  Royalist,  gaining  several  battles  for  the 
king,  but  was  defeated  by  Leslie  at  Philiphaugh  in  1645, 
and  five  years  later,  having  been  captured  in  Orkney, 
was  brought  to  Edinburgh  and  executed  in  1650. 

3Ioody,  Dwight  Lyman,  American  preacher;  born 
in  Massachusetts  in- 1837;  renounced  Unitarianism  and 
became  a  Congregationalist,  served  during  the  Civil 
War  on  the  Christian  commission,  and  from  1856  entirely 
abandoned  business.  His  church  and  school-house  at 
Chicago  having  been  burnt  down  in  1871,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land to  raise  funds  for  rebuilding  them,  and  was  success- 
ful in  his  object.  Established  a  school  for  Christian 
workers  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  and  a  Bible  institute  at 
Chicago.     Died,  1899. 

Moody,  William  Henry,  associate  justice  United 
States  Supreme  Court;  born  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  De- 
cember 23,  1853;  graduated  from  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass.,  1872;  Harvard  University,  1876 ;  lawyer 
by  profession;  district  attorney  for  eastern  district  of 
Massachusetts,  1890-95;  member  54th  Congress  from 
sixth  Massachusetts  district  to  fill  vacancy;  also  member 
55th,  56th,  and  57th  Congresses;  secretary  of  the  navy, 
1902-04;  attorney  general  United  States,  1904-06; 
in  1906,  associate  justice  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1910. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  soldier;  born  in  1761,  son  of  a 
doctor  in  Glasgow,  who  edited  Smollett's  works;  served 
in  the  American  war,  in  Corsica  (1794),  in  the  attack  on 
St.  Lucia,  of  which  he  became  governor,  and  subse- 
quently in  Ireland,  Holland,  Egypt,  and  Sicily  (1806). 
On  his  return  from  an  expedition  in  aid  of  Sweden,  he 
was  sent  to  Portugal  to  command  an  army  to  cooperate 
with  the  Spaniards.  He  was  obliged  to  retreat  from 
Salamanca  to  the  sea,  and  won  the  victory  of  Corunna 
(1809),  but  fell  in  the  battle  and  died. 

Moore,  John  Bassett,  publicist;  born  in  Smyrna, 
Del.,  December  3,  1860;  graduate  of  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1880;  studied  law,  Wilmington,  Del.;  passed 
civil  service  examination,  1885,  and  appointed  law  clerk 
in  state  department  at  $1,200  a  year;  in  1886,  became 
third  assistant  secretary  of  state.  Although  a  Demo- 
crat, was  retained  in  that  position  by  Mr.  Blaine;  re- 
signed, 1891,  to  become  professor  international  law 
and  diplomacy  at  Columbia  College;  appointed,  April, 
1898,  assistant  secretary  of  state,  resigning  in  Septem- 
ber to  become  secretary  and  counsel  to  Peace  Commis- 
sion at  Paris ;  member  of  Institut  de  Droit  International, 
and  the  Institute  Colonial  International  (LL.  D.,  Yale, 


468 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


1901).  An  authority  on  international  law.  Author: 
"  Report  on  Extraterritorial  Crime,"  "  Keport  on 
Extradition,"  "Extradition  and  Interstate  Rendition" 
(two  volumes),  "American  Notes  on  the  Conflict  of 
Laws,"  "History  and  Digest  of  International  Arbitra- 
tions" (six  volumes),  "American  Diplomacy,  Its  Spirit 
and  Achievements."  One  of  the  editors  of  "Political 
Science  Quarterly";  and  of  the  "Journal  du  Droit 
International  Priv^e." 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  statesman  and  writer;  born  in 
1478,  son  of  Sir  J.  More,  a  judge;  was  educated  in  the 
household  of  Archbishop  Morton,  who  sent  him  to 
Oxford,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Erasmus. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1504,  where  he  took  an  inde- 
pendent course,  refusing  a  pension  from  the  king,  whose 
favor,  however,  and  that  of  Wolsey,  he  enjoyed;  was 
knighted  in  1521,  became  speaker  in  1523,  and,  on  the 
fall  of  Wolsey,  cliancellor,  but  resigned  in  1532,  and  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  two  years  later  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy.  He  was  then  condemned 
by  attainder,  and  executed  •  on  a  charge  of  treason. 
He  wrote  "Utopia"  and  several  other  works,  most  of 
them  in  Latin.     Diet],  1535. 

3Iorean,  John  Pierpont,  banker,  financier;  born 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  April  17,  1837;  son  of  Junius  Spencer 
and  Juliet  (Pierpont)  Morgan;  graduate  of  English  high 
school,  Boston;  student  of  University  of  Gottingen, 
Germany.  Entered  bank  of  Duncan,  Sherman  &  Co., 
1857;  became  agent  and  attorney  in  United  States, 
1860,  for  George  Peabody  &  (Do.,  bankers,  London,  in 
which  his  father  was  partner;  member  of  Dabney, 
Morgan  &  C!o.,  investment  securities,  1864-71;  be- 
came member,  1871,  of  firm  of  Drexel,  Morgan  &  (3o., 
now  J.  P.  Morgan  &  (Do.,  leading  priv-ate  bankers  of 
United  States;  also  has  important  branch  house  in 
London.  Largely  occupied  as  financier  in  largest 
reorganizations  of  railways  and  consolidation  of  in- 
dustrial properties;  floated  United  States  bond  issue 
of  $62,000,000  during  Cleveland  administration;  organ- 
ized and  floated  securities  of  United  States  Steel  Cor- 
poration, 1901  (capital,  $1,100,000,000);  secured  Ameri- 
can subscriptions  of  $50,000,000  to  British  war  loan  of 
April,  1901;  organized  existing  agreement  of  anthracite 
operators  of  Pennsylvania,  also  of  soft  coal  interests  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Pennsylvania;  controls  over  50,000 
miles  of  railways,  large  American  and  British  ocean 
transportation  lines,  and  English  traction  railways. 
Gave  site,  buildings,  and  funds,  amounting  to  about 
$1,500,000  to  lying-in  hospital.  New  York,  and  large 
donations  to  the  New  York  trade  schools,  the  cathedral 
of  St.  John  the  Divine,  and  many,  other  institutions. 
Has  made  valuable  gifts  to  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Metrop)olitan  Museum  of  Art,  and  New  York 
Public  Library.  Owns  famous  collections  of  pictures 
(including  famous  Gainsborough  painting),  books,  man- 
uscripts, curios,  etc.  President  of  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art;  member  of  many  societies,  clubs,  etc.,  in  United 
States  and  abroad. 

Morgan,  John  Tyler,  United  States  senator  from 
Alabama,  1877-1907;  born  in  Athens,  Tenn.,  June  20, 
1824;  emigrated  to  Alabama  when  9  years  old;  aca- 
demic education;  admitted  to  bar,  1845;  practiced 
until  elected  to  the  senate.  Presidential  elector,  1860; 
delegate  to  Alabama  secession  convention,  1861; 
joined  Confederate  States  Army,  May,  1861,  as  private; 
prornoted  through  all  grades  to  colonel  of  51st  Alabama 
Regiment,  which  he  raised;  was  brigadier-general, 
1863-65.  After  war,  re.sumed  practice  at  Selma,  Ala. ; 
presidential  elector,  1876;  Democrat.  Appointied  by 
President  Harrison  as  arbitrator  on  Bering  Sea  fish- 
eries, 1892;  appointed  by  President  McKinley,  July, 
1898,  one  of  the  commissioners  to  organize  government 
in  Hawaii,  after  pas.sage  of  annexation  bill.     Died,  1907. 

Morley,  Right  Hon.  John,  statesman  and  writer; 
born  in  Blackburn  in  1838,  and  educated  at  Cheltenham 
and  Oxford;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1873,  but  devoted 
his  time  to  writing.  He  edited,  among  other  publica- 
tions, the  "Fortnightly  Review"  from  1867  to  1882, 
the  "  Pall  Mall  Gazette  "  from  1880  to  1883,  and  "  Mac- 
millan "  in  1883-85,  and  after  two  unsuccessful  candi- 
datures (in  1869  and  1880)  entered  parliament  in  1883, 
as  member  for  Newcastle.  He,  from  the  first,  adopted 
Home  Rule,  and,  in  1886,  became  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  and  again  in  1892.  His  chief  works  are  "Ed- 
mund Burke:  an  Historical  Study,"  "Voltaire,"  "Rous- 
seau," "Diderot,"  "On  Compromise,"  "Life  of  Cobden," 
"Walpole,"  and  "Chatham  in  the  "Statesmen"  series; 
and  he  edited  the  "  English  Men  of  Letters  "  series. 

Morris,  Clara,  actress;  born  in  Toronto,  Canada, 
in  1849;  lived  there  until  three  months  old,  then  went 
to  Cleveland  and  grew  up  there;  became  member  of 
ballet  in  Academy  of  Music,  Cleveland,  1861,  rapidly 
advancing  to  leading  lady;    in   1869,   became  leading 


lady  at  Wood's  Theater,  Cincinnati;  became  member 
Daly's  Fifth  Avenue  (Company,  New  York,  1870;  soon 
became  prominent  in  emotional  roles  and  has  appeared 
as  star  in  principal  American  theaters.  Leading  r61es: 
Camille,  Alixe,  Miss  Multon,  Mercy  Merrick  in  "The 
New  Magdalene,"  Ckira  in  "L'Article  47,"  etc.;  married 
in  1874,  to  Frederick  C.  Harriott.  Contributor  to  "St. 
Nicholas,"  "Century  Magazine,"  "Pearson's,"  "North 
American  Review,"  "Ladies'  Home  Journal,"  etc. 
Author:  "A  Silent  Singer,"  "My  Little  Jim  Crow," 
"Life  on  the  Stage,"  " A  Paste-Board  Crown"  (novel), 
"Stage  C!onfidences,"  "The  Trouble  Woman,"  "New 
East  Lynne,"  "Left  in  Charge." 

Morris,  Gouvemeur,  American  statesman;  born  in 
1752;  became  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of 
New  York,  and  was  one  of  those  who  drew  up  the  State 
Constitution  in  1776;  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1777-80,  being  the  colleague  of 
R.  Morris  as  superintendent  of  finance.  He  was  one  of 
the  draughters  of  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787, 
after  which  he  passed  many  years  in  Europe,  being 
minister  to  France  during  the  Revolution,  and  laecame 
United  States  senator  on  his  return.  He  wrote  "Obser- 
vations on  the  American  Revolution,"  and  his  "Corre- 
spondence "  'throws  much  light  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.    Died,  1816. 

Morris,  Robert,  American  financier;  born  in  Liver- 
pool in  1734;  emigrated  at  an  early  age  and  settled  in 
Philadelphia,  becoming  a  partner  in  the  counting-house 
of  C.  Willing;  opposed  the  Stamp  Act,  and  signed  the 
Non-importation  Agreement  (1765).  Having  become  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  he  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  greatly  helped  the 
American  cause  from  his  own  purse,  both  during  the 
war  and'  afterwards.'  He  founded  the  Bank  of  North 
America,  was  superintendent  of  finance  from  1781  to 
1784,  but  declined  the  secretaryship  of  the  treasury; 
was  finally  ruined  by  his  speculations,  and  imprisoned 
for  debt.     He  died  in  1806. 

Morris,  Wiliiam,  English  poet  and  socialist;  born 
in  1834,  son  of  a  London  merchant;  was  educated  at 
Marlborough  and  Oxford,  and,  in  1863,  with  D.  G. 
Rossetti,  Burne-Jones,  and  others,  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  artistic  wall-paper  and  household 
decorations.  During  his  leisure  hours  he  gave  socialist 
lectures,  and  wrote  poetry,  his  chief  productions  having 
been  ""The  Life  and  Death  of  Jason,"  "The  Earthly 
Paradise,"  "The  Story  of  Sigurd  the  Volsung,"  besides 
translations  of  the  "vEneid"  and  the  "Odyssey,"  and 
some  prose  works,  of  which  the  chief  is  "A  Tale  of  the 
House  of  the  Wolfings."     Died,  1896. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese,  born  in  1791 ;  Amer- 
ican electrician;  son  of  a  Congregationalist  minister  in 
Massachusetts;  having  graduated  at  Yale,  went  to  Eng- 
land in  1810,  and,  becoming  a  pupil  of  West,  exhibited 
"The  Dying  Hercules"  at  the  academy  in  1813.  He 
afterwards  abandoned  art  for  science,  and,  in  1837,  took 
out  a  patent  for  his  electric  telegraph,  the  first  overhead 
message  being  sent  from  Washington  to  Baltimore  in 
1844.  It  was  afterwards  generally  adopted,  the  inventor 
receiving  an  international  testimonial  in  1858.  Disputes 
subsequently  arose  as  to  priority  of  invention  with  Pro- 
fessor Henry,  and  on  account  of  the  infringement  of 
Morse's  patent.     Died,  1872. 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons,  American  banker  and  states- 
man, Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  1889-93;  born 
in  Shoreham,  Vt.,  May  16,  1824;  graduated  from 
Shoreham  Academy  (LL.  D.,  Dartmouth  College,  1881, 
Middlebury  College,  1882) ;  founded  banking  houses  of 
L.  P.  Morton  &  Company  and  Morton,  Bliss  &  Company, 
New  York;  Morton,  Rose  &  Company,  Morton,  Chaplin 
&  (Company,  London,  and  Morton  Trust  Company,  New 
York;  member  Congress  from  New  York,  1879-81; 
Uniteid  States  minister  to  France,  1881-85;  governor 
of  New  York,  1895-96. 

Moses,  a  great  Hebrew  prophet  and  legislator,  and 
son  of  Amram  of  the  Levitieal  tribe,  was  born  in  Egypt, 
about  1570  B.  C.  In  pursuance  of  a  royal  command 
that  all  male  infants  of  Hebrew  birth  should  be  destroyed, 
Moses,  to  escape  this  fate,  was  laid  in  a  basket  among  a 
clump  of  bulrushes  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  there 
discovered  by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  who  adopted 
him  as  her  son.  When  arrived  at  a  ripe  manhood, 
Moses  began  to  form  plans  for  the  deliverance  of  his  race 
from  bondage,  and  mcurring,  by  so  doing,  Egyptian 
mistrust,  he  fled  to  Midian,  where  he  served  as  a  shep- 
herd till  his  80th  year.  Then  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
recipient  of  the  Lord's  commands  to  guide  the  children 
of  Israel  out  of  captivity  into  the  Land  of  Canaan.  He 
accordingly  conducted  them  through  the  Red  Sea  into 
the  wilderness,  and  became  their  apostolic  chief  and 
lawyer,  composing  for  them  the  code  since  known  as  the 
"Mosaic  Dispensation."     After  appointing  Joshua  as  his 


BIOGRAPHY 


469 


succeesor,  Moses  died  on  Mount  Pisgah,  at  the  patri- 
archal age  .of  120. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  an  American  historian; 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1814,  and  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1831,  after  which  he  traveled  for 
some  years  in  Europe.  In  1841,  he  became  secretary 
of  legislation  at  St.  Petersburg;  was  minister-plenipo- 
tentiary at  Vienna  from  1861  till  1867;  and  in  1869 
was  appointed  American  minister  to  the  court  of  St. 
James,  a  post  from  which  he  was  removed  in  1870.  The 
three  great  works  upon  which  Motley  has  built  up  one 
of  the  foremost  literary  reputations  of  the  age,  are  "The 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  —  a  History,"  its  sequel, 
"The  History  of  the  United  Netherlands  from  the  Death 
of  William  the  Silent  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,"  and  "John 
of  Barneveld  " ;  all  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
the  French,  Dutch,  and  German  languages.  Died  in 
England  in  1877. 

Moulton,  Louise  Chandler,  novelist  and  poet;  born 
in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  April  10,  1835;  daughter  of  Lucius 
L.  and  Louisa  R.  (Clark)  Chandler.  Author:  "This, 
That,  and  the  Other,"  "Juno  Clifford,"  "My  Third 
Book,"  "Bed-Time  Stories,"  "More  Bed-Time  Stories," 
"Some  Women's  Hearts,"  "Swallow  Flights,"  poems; 
"New  Bed-Time  Stories,"  "Random  Rambles,"  "Fire- 
light Stories,"  "Ourselves  and  Our  Neighbors,"  "Miss 
Eyre  From.Boston,  and  Other  Stories,"  "In  the  Garden 
of  Dreams,"  "Stories  Told  at  Twilight,"  "Lazy  Tours 
in  Spain  and  Elsewhere,"  "In  Childhood's  Country," 
"At  the  Wind's  Will."  Edited:  "Garden  Secrets," 
"A  Last  Harvest,"  by  Philip  Bourke  Marston;  "Col- 
lected Poems  of  Philip  Bourke  Marston,"  "Selections 
from  Poems  of  Arthur  O'Shaughnessy."     Died,  1908. 

Moulton,  Richard  Green,  educator,  author;  born 
in  Preston,  Eng.,  May  5,  1849;  graduated  from  London 
University,  1869;  Cambridge,  Eng.,  University,  1874 
(Ph.  D.,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1891);  university 
extension  lecturer  since  1874,  with  English  and  American 
universities.  Now  professor  of  literary  theory  and  in- 
terpretation. University  of  Chicago.  Author:  "Shakes- 
pere  as  a  Dramatic  Artist,  a  Study  of  Inductive  Literary 
Criticism,"  "The  Ancient  Classical  Drama,  a  Study  of 
Literary  Evolution,"  "Four  Years  of  Novel  Reading  — 
Account  of  an  Experiment  in  the  Study  of  Fiction," 
"The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible,"  "A  Short  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Literature  of  the  Bible,"  "The  Moral  System 
of  Shakespere."  Editor:  "The  Modern  Reader's  Bible," 
twenty-one  volumes,  1895-98. 

Moultrie,  William,  an  American  Revolutionary 
general,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1731;  was  the  recip- 
ient of  tlie  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  heroic  defense  of 
the  fort  on  Sullivan's  Island,  Charleston  Harbor,  since 
called  by  his  name.  In  1785,  he  became  governor  of 
his  native  State,  and  died  in  1805. 

Moxom,  Philip  Stafford,  clergyman;  born  in 
Markham,  Canada,  August  10,  1848;  educated  in  Kala- 
mazoo College,  Mich.,  1866-68;  Shurtleff  College,  111., 
1868-70;  graduate  of  University  of  Rochester,  A.  B., 
1879;  A.  M.,  1882  (D.  D.,  Brown,  1892);  studied  in 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  1875-78;  ordained  to 
ministry,  September  19,  1871.  Served  with  Army  of 
the  Cumberland  at  Ft.  Donelson  as  "captain's  boy," 
1862;  enlisted  in  the  17th  Illinois  Cavalry,  October  3, 
1863,  serving  until  November  30,  1865.  Pastor  of 
First  Baptist  Church,  Cleveland,  O.,  1879-85;  First 
Baptist  Church,  Boston,  1885-93;  South  Congregational 
Church,  Springfield,  Mass.,  since  March,  1894;  Univer- 
sity preacher.  Harvard,  1894-97;  preacher  at  Yale, 
Cornell,  Vassar,  Wellesley,  Amhers.t,  Williams,  Dart- 
mouth, Bowdoin,  etc.  Author:  "The  Aim  of  Life," 
"From  Jerusalem  to  NicKa:  The  Church  in  the  First 
Three  Centuries,"  "The  Religion  of  Hope,"  also  numer- 
ous articles  in  religious  and  secular  periodicals. 

Mozart,  JohannChrysostomWolfgangAmadeus, 
German  composer,  was  born  in  Salzburg  in  1756;  com- 
posed some  pieces  at  the  age  of  five,  when  he  was  taken 
to  Municii,  and  performed  with  his  sister  before  the 
elector  of  Bavaria.  In  1763,  the  children  went  on  a 
tour  to  all  tlie  principal  German  towns,  as  well  as  Brus- 
sels and  Paris,  and  in  April,  1764,  gave  concerts  in 
London.  On  his  return  to  Salzburg  in  1769,  Mozart 
became  director  of  the  archbishop's  concerts,  and  soon 
after  made  a  tour  in  Italy,  after  his  return  from  which, 
in  1781,  he  settled  in  Vienna.  Here,  in  his  25th  year, 
he  wrote  "  Idomeneo "  on  the  occasion  of  the  first 
rejection  of  his  suit  to  Constance  Weber,  whom  he 
married  in  1782.  "  L'Enl^vement  du  Serail"  was  com- 
posed in  1782,  "Nozze  di  Figaro"  in  1786,  "Don 
Giovanni "  in  1787,  "  Die  Zauberflote  "  and  "  La  Clemenza 
di  Tito"  in  1791,  and  the  "Requiem"  on  his  death- 
bed, in  addition  to  which  he  produced  many  masses, 
symphonies,  concertos,  etc.     Died,  1791. 


MUlIer,  Friedrich  Max,  philologist;  born  in  Dessau 
in  1823;  son  of  a  German  poet,  Wilhelm  Miiller;  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig;  studied  at  Paris,  and  came  to  England 
in  1846;  was  appointed  Taylorian  professor  at  Oxford 
in  1854,  and  in  1868,  professor  of  comparative  philology 
there,  a  science  to  which  he  has  made  large  contributions; 
besides  editing  the  "Rig-Veda,"  he  published  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Science  of  Language,"  and  "Chips  froni  a 
German  Workshop,"  dealing  therein  not  merely  with 
the  origin  of  languages,  but  that  of  the  early  religious 
and  social  systems  of  the  East.     Died  in  1900. 

Munsey,  Frank  Andrew,  publisher;  born  in  Mercer, 
Me.,  August  21,  1854;  educated  in  public  schools  in 
Maine;  unmarried;  started  business  career  in  country 
store;  became  manager  Western  Union  Telegraph  office, 
Augusta,  Me.;  went  to  New  York,  1882,  and  started 
"The  Golden  Argosy,"  juvenile  weekly  (now  the  adult 
monthly,  "The  Argosy");  in  February,  1889,  launched 
"Munsey's  Weekly,"  converted  October,  1891,  into 
"Munsey's  Magazine";  now  also  owns  "The  All-Story 
Magazine,"  the  "Washington  Times,"  and  "Boston 
Journal."  Author:  "Afloat  in  a  Great  City,"  "The 
Boy  Broker,"  "A  Tragedy  of  Errors,"  "Under  Fire," 
"  Derringforth." 

Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  professor  of  psychology,  Har- 
vard, since  1892;  born  in  Danzig,  Germany,  June  1,  1863; 
graduated  from  Danzig  Gymnasium,  1882;  post-gradu- 
ate studies  in  philosophy,  natural  sciences,  and  medicine 
in  Leipzig  and  Heidelberg,  1882-87  (Ph.  D.,  Leipzig, 
1885,  M.  D.,  Heidelberg,  1887;  LL.  D.,  Washington 
University,  1904);  instructor  University  of  Freiburg, 
Germany,  1887;  assistant  professor  same,  1891.  Author: 
"Psychology  and  Life,"  "Grundzuege  der  Psychologic," 
also  other  works  in  German,  "American  Traits,"  "The 
Americans,"  "Principles  of  Art  Education,"  "Eternal 
Life." 

Murfree,  »Iary  Noailles  ("Charles  Egbert  Crad- 
dock"),  author;  born  in  Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  January 
24,  1850;  for  years  concealed  her  identity  and  sex  under 
her  pen-name.  Author:  "  In  the  Tennessee  Mountains," 
"Where  the  Battle  was  Fought,"  "Down  the  Ravine," 
"The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountain,"  "In  the 
Clouds,"  "The  Story  of  Keedon  Bluffs,"  "The  Despot 
of  Broomsedge  Cove,"  "In  the  'Stranger-People's'  Coun- 
try," "  His  Vanished  Star,"  "The  Phantoms  of  the  Foot- 
bridge," "The  Mystery  of  Witchface  Mountain,"  "The 
Juggler,"  "The  Young  Mountaineers,"  "The  Story  of 
Old  Fort  Loudon,"  "The  Bushwhackers  and  Other 
Stories,"  "The  Champion,"  "A  Spectre  of  Power," 
"Storm  Centre,"  "The  Frontiersman." 

Murillo,  Bartolomfi  Esteban,  born  in  1617;  Span- 
ish painter,  pupil  of  Juan  del  Castillo;  after  living  in 
great  poverty,  made  the  acquaintance  of  Velasquez, 
who  introduced  him  to  the  Escorial.  He  made  a  repu- 
tation by  his  pictures  in  the  "Claustro  Chico"  of  the 
Seville  Franciscan  Convent,  and  afterwards  painted 
Madonnas  and  holy  families,  his  "chef-d'cEuvre"  being 
"The  Immaculate  Conception,"  now  in  the  Louvre. 
Murillo  died  (1682)  from  the  effects  of  a  fall  from  scaf- 
folding when  engaged  on  a  picture  of  "The  Espousals 
of  St.  Catherine." 

Murray,  James  Stuart,  Earl  of,  regent  of  Scotland; 
born  in  1^33;  was  a  natural  son  of  King  James  V.  Dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  his  half-sister,  Mary 
Qiieen  of  Scots,  he  became  her  chief  minister,  and  after 
her  deposition  was  appointed  to  the  regency.  Assas- 
sinated, January,  1570. 

Nansen,  Fridtjof,  born  near  Christiania,  Norway, 
about  1861 ;  made  his  first  Arctic  exploration  in  1882, 
followed  by  a  second  in  1888-89,  when  he  crossed 
Greenland;  from  1893  to  1896,  was  engaged  in  his 
famous  expedition  in  the  "Fram,"  when  he  penetrated 
farther  north  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  Was  professor 
of  zoology  at  Christiania  University;  took  an  active  part, 
1905,  in  effecting  separation  of  Norway  from  Sweden, 
and  was  Norwegian  ambassador  to  England,  1906-08. 

Napoleon  I.  was  born  in  1769,  in  Ajaccio,  being  the 
second  son  of  Charles  Bonaparte,  a  Corsican  advocate. 
He  was  educated  at  Brienne,  entered  the  French  Army 
in  1785,  and  first  became  notable  for  his  conduct  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon  in  1793,  when  he  commanded  the  artillery. 
Two  years  later  he  led  the  troops  of  the  Convention  against 
the  Sections,  and  in  1796,  soon  after  his  first  marriage, 
received  the  command  of  the  army  of  Italy.  After  his 
great  successes  in  this  war,  he  in  May,  1798,  set  out  for 
Egypt,  where  he  defeated  the  Mamelukes  and  invaded 
Syria,  but  was  checked  at  Acre.  Having  left  Egypt 
secretly  he  reached  France  in  October,  1799,  overthrew 
the  Directory,  and  became  first  consul.  He  now  again 
invaded  Italy,  and  made  peace  with  Austria  and  England 
in  1801  and  1802,  reconstructing  the  German  Empire 
in  the  interests  of  France,  while  he  also  concluded  a  con- 
cordat with  the  pope,  and  remodeled  the  French  con- 


470 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


stitution  and  legal  system.  War  broke  out  again  with 
England  in  1803,  and  Austria  in  1805.  He  crushed  the 
latter  at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  but  failed  in  his  designs 
on  the  former.  Next  year  Prus.sia  was  conquered  at 
Jena  and  Auerstiidt,  and  in  1807,  after  an  indecisive 
campaign,  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  was  made  with  Russia. 
The  continental  system  was  now  organized  against  Eng- 
land, and  the  crown  of  Spain  given  to  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
The  second  great  attempt  of  Austria  ended  with  the  de- 
feat of  Wagram  (1809);  after  which  Napoleon  divorced 
Josephine  Beauharnais,  and  married  Maria  Louisa, 
daughter  of  the  emperor.  Meanwhile,  however,  in  the 
Iberian  Peninsula,  the  French  arms  had  been  held  in 
check,  and  a  breach  with  Russia  occurred  in  1812,  the 
results  of  which  were  tlie  invasion  of  that  country,  the 
disastrous  retreat  of  the  Grand  Army  and  the  rising  of 
Germany.  After  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  France  was  in- 
vaded froni  east  and  soutii,  and  on  April  11,  1814,  Na- 
poleon abdicated,  and  was  banished  to  Elba.  Next  year 
he  escaped,  held  France  at  his  feet,  but  after  a  hundred 
days  met  his  final  defeat  at  Waterloo  (June  18,  1815). 
He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  exile  at  St.  Helena,  where 
he  dictated  his  "Memoirs."     Died,  1821. 

Napoleon  III.,  born  in  1808;  the  third  son  of  Louis 
Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland,  and  Hortense  de  Beau- 
harnais ;  became  head  of  the  house  after  the  death  of  his 
elder  brothers  and  of  the  King  of  Rome,  and  in  1836, 
made  a  first  attempt  to  assert  his  claims,  the  result  of 
which  was  exile  to  the  United  States.  In  1840,  he  made 
another  attempt,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Ham,  whence  he  escaped  to  England  in  May, 
1846.  He  was  elected  to  the  Assembly  in  1848,  and  soon 
after  became  president  of  the  republic.  After  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851,  his  term  of  office  was  prolonged 
to  ten  years,  and  less  than  a  year  later  a  plebiscite  was 
held,  and  Louis  Napoleon  became  Emperor  of  the  French. 
He  joined  England  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  in  1859  (the 
year  after  his  life  was  attempted  by  Orsini),  helped 
Sardinia  against  the  Austrians,  and  also  took  part  in  the 
operations  against  China  (1858-60),  and  Mehemet  Ali 
(1860-61),  but  he  failed  in  Mexico  in  1861,  and  his  govern- 
ment becoming  increasingly  unpopular  in  France,  he 
sought  a  remedy  in  the  quarrel  with  Prussia.  The  re- 
sult was  his  defeat  and  capture  at  Sedan  (September  1-2, 
1870),  after  which  he  was  deposed,  and  on  his  release 
lived  in  England  till  his  death.  Napoleon  HI.  was  the 
author  of  several  works,  the  chief  of  which  were  "  LaVie 
de  C^sar,"  and  "Des  Idees  Napoleonmennes."  Died, 
1873. 

Neander,  Johann  August  Wilhelm,  born  in  1789 
(David  Mendel) ;  German  theologian  of  Jewish  parentage, 
professor  of  theology  at  Berlin.  Many  of  his  works  have 
been  translated,  the  chief  of  them  being  "History  of  the 
Christian  Religion  and  Church,"  "Life  of  Jesus  Christ," 
and  "The  Emperor  Julian  and  his  Age."     Died,  1850. 

Nebuchadnezzar  succeeded  his  father,  Nabopo- 
lassar,  as  King  of  Babylon,  and  after  taking  Jerusalem, 
in  606  B.  C,  carried  off  to  Babylon  numerous  captives, 
among  them  the  prophet  Daniel.  He  afterwards  con- 
quered Tyre  and  Egypt.     Died,  562  B.  C. 

Necho,  one  of  the  Pharaoh  Dynasty  of  Egyptian  kings, 
succeeded  his  father,  Psarametichus,  in  610  B.  C,  de- 
feated Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  and  was  himself  defeated 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  in  605. 

Needham,  Charles  Willis,  educator;  born  in  Castile, 
N.  Y.,  September  30,  1848;  graduate  of  Albany 
Law  School,  1869  (LL.  D.,  University  of  Rochester, 
Georgetown  College.  Kentucky) ;  practiced  law  in 
Chicago,  1874-90.  Washington  1890-97;  assisted  in 
organizing  Chicago  University  and  was  one  of  board 
of  trustees:  elected  professor  of  law,  1897;  organized, 
and  elected  dean,  school  of  comparative  jurisprudence 
and  diplomacy,  1898;  professor  of  transportation  and 
interstate  commerce  in  school  of  comparative  jurispru- 
dence and  diplomacy;  president  The  George  Washing- 
ton University  (formerly  Columbian)  since  1902.  Lec- 
turer upon  legal  ethics,  trusts  and  trades  unions.  Mem- 
ber of  American  Economic  Association,  and  many  other 
learned  and  educational  societies.  Delegate  to  (3on- 
grJ-s  International  de  Droit  Compart,  1900;  delegate  to 
Congri's  International  des  Chemins  de  Fer;  delegate 
Congrfes  International  D'Assitance  Publique  at  de 
Bienfaisance  Priv^e,  Paris;  speaker  upon  jurisprudence, 
congress  of  arts  and  sciences,  St.  Louis  Exposition,  1904. 
Author  of  several  pamphlets  on  education,  law,  and 
jurisprudence;   contributor  to  periodicals. 

Nellson,  Adelaide,  an  English  actress;  born  in  Leeds, 
Yorkshire,  England,  March  3,  1848.  Her  real  name  was 
Elizabeth  Ann  Brown,  though  she  was  sometimes  called 
Lizzie  Bland  (Bland  being  the  name  of  her  step-father). 
She  made  her  d^but  as  Juliet  when  only  17  years  old. 
She  appeared  as  Amv  Robsart  in  1870,  in  London,  with 
immense  success,  and  by  1878,  stood  at  the  head  of  her 


profession.  In  1872,  she  came  to  the  United  States, 
playing  in  Booth's  theater.  New  York,  and  in  Boston, 
where  she  was  equally  successful.  She  made  four  visits 
to  the  United  States,  her  last  one  being  in  1880.  She 
died  in  Paris,  France,  August  15,  1880. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount,  born  in  1758;  English 
admiral,  son  of  a  Norfolk  clergyman;  entered  the  navy 
in  1770,  served  in  the  American  War,  and  under  Lord 
Hood  in  the  war  with  revolutionary  France,  becoming 
commodore  in  1796,  and  rear-admiral  after  the  battle  of 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  1797.  In  the  following  year  he  won 
the  battle  of  the  Nile,  for  which  he  was  made  baron,  and 
in  1801,  brilliantly  disobeyed  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  by  at- 
tacking Copenhagen.  After  this  he  commanded  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  October  21,  1805,  saved  England 
from  invasion  by  his  defeat  of  the  combined  French  and 
Spanish  fleets  at  Trafalgar,  but  fell  in  the  action. 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  a  Roman  historian  who  flourished 
during  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar  and  the  first  six  years  of 
the  reign  of  Augustus.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
Cicero,  and  his  only  extant  work  "Vitse  Excellentium 
Imperatorum,"  is  held  in  high  esteem  as  an  educational 
classbook. 

Nero,  Lucius  Domitius.  born  in  37;  Emperor  of 
Rome,  grandson  of  Germanicus;  was  adopted  by  Clau- 
dius in  the  year  50,  and  succeeded  him  in  54.  He  caused 
his  mother,  Agrippina,  to  be  murdered  for  opposing  his 
divorce  from  Octavia  and  marriage  with  Poppa^a  Sabina, 
this  being  accomplished  by  the  murder  of  the  former. 
He  persecuted  the  Christians,  whom  he  charged  with  the 
burning  of  Rome  in  64,  and  married  Messalina  after  the 
death  of  his  second  wife.  The  conspiracy  of  Piso  was 
discovered,  but  on  the  success  of  that  of  Galba,  Nero  put 
an  end  to  his  life. 

Nerva,  Marcus  Coccelus,  a  Roman  Emperor,  born 
in  Umbria,  A.  D.  32,  after  being  twice  consul,  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  on  the  death  of  Domitian,  96.  He 
ruled  with  mildness  and  justice,  and,  after  adopting  Tra- 
jan as  his  son  and  successor,  died,  98. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  astronomer;  born  in  Wallace, 
N.  S.,  March  12,  1835;  came  to  United  States,  1853; 
graduate  of  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Harvard,  B.  S., 
1858.  Appointed,  1861,  professor  of  mathematics, 
United  States  Navy;  assigned  to  duty  at  United  States 
Naval  Obser%atorv ;  professor  in  mathematics  and  astron- 
omy, Johns  Hopkins,  1884-94,  and  editor  "American 
Journal  Mathematics."  In  1874  made  correspondent, 
and  in  1893,  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates,  institute 
of  France;  made  officer  of  Legion  of  Honor  of  France, 
1893.  Author:  "Secular  Variations  and  Mutual  Rela- 
tions of  the  Orbits  of  the  Asteroids,"  "Investigation  of 
the  Orbit  of  Neptune,"  "Researches  on  the  Motion  of 
the_Moon,"  "Popular  Astronomy,"  "Calculus,"  "A  Plain 
Man's  Talk  on  the  Labor  Question,"  "Principles  of 
Political  Economy,"  "Elements  of  Astronomy,'  "His 
Wisdom  the  Defender,"  "The  Stars,"  "Astronomy  for 
Everybody,"  "Reminiscences  of  an  Astronomer,"  also 
various  other  books  on  astronomy  and  economic  topics, 
magazine  articles,  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Cardinal,  born  in  1801; 
theologian,  son  of  a  London  banker;  graduated  from 
Trinity  (College,  Oxford,  in  1820,  and  was  elected  Fellow 
of  Oriel.  He  took  orders  in  1824,  in  1825  became  vice- 
principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  and  in  1828,  became  vicar 
of  St.  Mary's.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Tractarian 
movement,  and  in  1841,  wrote  "Tract  XC,"  which  was 
severely  condemned.  After  living  at  Littlemore  for 
some  years  in  seclusion,  he  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Church,  in  1845,  founded  the  Brompton  oratory  in  1850, 
and  directed  the  Edgbaston  oratory  for  the  greater  part 
of  his  remaining  years.  He  took  part  in  controversies 
with  Kingsley  in  1864,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1874,  and 
accepted  the  Infallibility  dogma  with  some  reservations. 
He  was  created  cardinal  in  1879.  Chief  among  his  works 
were  "  Apologia  pro  Vit&  Sufi,  An  Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Gram- 
mar of  Assent,"  and  "The  Dream  of  Gerontius."  Died, 
1890. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  the  greatest  of  philosophers, 
was  born,  December  25,  1642,  at  Woolsthorpe,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, and  early  displayed  a  talent  for  mechanics  and 
drawing.  He  was  educated  at  Grantham  School,  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  studied  mathematics 
with  the  utmost  assiduity.  In  1667,  he  obtained  a  fel- 
lowship; in  1669,  the  mathematical  professorship;  and 
in  1672,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  It 
was  during  his  abode  at  Cambridge  that  he  made  his 
three  great  discoveries,  of  fluxions,  the  nature  of  light 
and  colors,  and  the  laws  of  gravitation.  To  the 
last  of  these  his  attention  was  first  turned  by  his 
seeing  an  apple  fall  from  a  tree.  The  "  Principia,"  which 
unfolded  to  the  world  the  theory  of  the  universe,  was  not 
published  till  1687.  In  that  year  also  Newton  was  chosen 
one  of  the  delegates   to   defend   the   privileges  of  the 


BIOGRAPHY 


471 


university  against  James  II.;  and  in  1689,  and  1701,  he 
was  elected  one  of  tlie  members  of  parliament  for  the 
university.  He  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint  in 
1696;  was  made  master  of  it  in  1699;  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  in  1703;  and  was  knighted  in 
1705.  He  died,  March  20,  1727.  Among  his  works  are: 
"Arithmetica  Universalis,"  "A  New  Method  of  Infinite 
Series  and  Fluxions,"  "Optics,"  "Tlie  Olironology  of 
Ancient  Kingdoms,"  amended;  and  "Observations  on 
the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,"  and  the  "Apocalypse." 

Ney,  3Ilchel,  peer  and  marshal  of  France;  born  in 
Saarlouis,  1769,  son  of  a  cooper;  entered  the  army  as  a 
private  hussar  in  1788;  distinguished  by  his  bravery 
in  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Empire,  and  earned 
for  himself  from  the  army  under  Napoleon,  and  from 
Napoleon  himself,  the  title,  "  Brave  of  the  braves";  on 
Napoleon's  abdication  in  1814  he  attached  himself  to 
Louis  XVIll.,  but  on  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba 
Ney  joined  his  old  master,  and  stood  by  him  during  the 
hundred  days;  on  the  second  Restoration  he  was  arrested, 
tried  by  his  peers,  and  sliot.     Died,  1815. 

Nicholas  II.,  who  on  November  1,  1894,  succeeded 
Alexander  III.  as  "Emperor  of  All  the  Russias,"  was 
born  in  St.  Petersburg  on  May  18,  1868,  his  motlier  being 
the  Princess  Dagmar,  a  daugliter  of  the  late  King 
Christian  IX.  of  Denmark,  and  sister  to  Queen  Alexandra, 
the  Duchess  of  Cumberland,  and  the  King  of  Greece. 
During  the  famine  of  1891,  he  was,  at  his  own  request, 
made  president  of  the  committee  of  succor,  and  worked 
hard  in  the  organization  of  relief.  As  Czarevitch  he  held 
several  military  commands  in  his  own  country  —  in  the 
famous  Prdobrajensky  regiment  among  others  • —  and 
in  England  he  had  conferred  upon  him,  in  1893,  the  order 
of  the  garter.  He  married  the  Princess  Alix  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  in  November,  1894.  Four  daughters  came 
first,  but  a  son  was  born  on  August  12,  1904,  and  was 
named  Alexis.  Tlie  coronation  of  the  czar  took  place  with 
impressive  ceremonial  at  Moscow  in  May,  1896,  and  in 
August  of  the  same  year  he  commenced  a  tour  which 
included  visits  to  the  Emperors  of  Austria  and  Germany, 
to  the  King  of  Denmark,  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  to  the 
President  of  France.  The  famous  peace  proposals  which 
he  made  to  the  powers  during  1898,  led  to  the  first  peace 
conference  at  'The  Hague  in  1899,  the  establishment  of 
the  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  there,  and  indirectly 
to  the  second  conference  in  1907.  He  is  gifted  with  the 
linguistic  facility  of  most  of  his  countrymen,  and  fluently 
speaks  French,  German,  Italian,  and  especially  English, 
of  whose  literature  he  has  a  thorough  knowledge.  The 
czar  must  belong  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  and  his 
consent  is  necessary  to  the  marriage  of  any  prince  or 
princess  of  the  Imperial  family. 

Nicholas  V.,  "  Da  Sarzana  "  born  in  1398,  was  elected 
pope  in  1447  (the  abdication  of  the  anti-pope,  two  years 
later,  bringing  to  an  end  the  "Great  Schism"),  and 
defeated  the  conspiracy  of  Porcari  in  1452.  He  was  a 
great  scholar,  was  chief  founder  of  the  Vatican  library, 
and  of  several  Italian  universities,  and  offered  an  asylum 
to  the  Greeks  driven  out  of  Constantinople.     Died,  1455. 

Nlebuhr,  Barthold  Georg,  historian  and  philol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Copenhagen,  in  1776,  but  in 
1806  entered  the  Prussian  service,  and  became  privy 
councilor.  He  was  several  years  minister  at  Rome,  and 
negotiated  the  concordat  of  1821.  In  1823,  he  obtained 
a  chair  at  Bonn,  and  his  "Roman  History"  ap- 
peared in  enlarged  form  in  1827.  It  was  translated  by 
Hare  and  Thirlwall.  He  was  also  author  of  a 
work  on  the  Byzantine  historians  and  other  works,  and 
•discovered  at  Verona  the  fragments  of  Gaius.  Died, 
at  Bonn,  Prussia,  1831. 

Niehaus,  Charles  Henry,  sculptor;  born  in  Cin- 
cinnati, January  24,  1855;  educated  at  Cincinnati 
schools;  art  education  at  Royal  Academy,  Munich,  Ger- 
many; took  degree  and  won  first  medal  ever  given  to 
American,  and  prizes  at  different  times.  Made  Garfield 
statue,  Cincinnati;  Ingalls,  Allen,  Garfield,  and  Morton, 
in  rotunda  of  Capitol,  Washington;  statues  of  Gibbon 
and  Moses,  Congressional  Library,  Hahnemann  at  Scott 
Circle,  Washington;  Astor  historical  doors.  Trinity 
Church,  New  York;  pediment  to  appellate  court-house. 
New  York;  statues  of  Hooker  and  Davenport,  Conn. 
State  House;  statue  to  Drake,  erected  by  Standard  Oil 
Company,  at  Titusville,  Pa.;  two  large  groups,  "Mineral 
Wealth,"  Pan-American  Exposition,  1901;  statues  of 
Lincoln,  Farragut,  and  McKinley,  Muskegon,  Mich. ; 
Lincoln,  Buffalo;  Apotheosis  of  St.  Louis  for  St.  Louis 
Exposition;  equestrian.  General  Forrest,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

Nielsen,  Alice,  opera  singer;  born  in  Nashville, 
Tenn.;  daughter  of  Erasmus  Ivarius  and  Sarah  A. 
Nielsen;  musical  education  in  San  Francisco,  under 
Mile.  Ida  Valerga;  first  stage  appearance  with  opera 
company  at  Oakland,  Cal.,  1893,  as  Yum  Yum  in 
"Mikado";    after  Tivoli  engagement,  joined   the  Bos- 


tonians,  1896,  and  took  the  r61e  of  Annabel  in  "  Robin 
Hood,"  the  following  season  played  leading  part  of 
Maid  Marion;  also  principal  soprano  r61e  in  "The  Ser- 
enade." Stellar  debut  at  (irand  Opera  House,  Toronto, 
Canada,  September  14,  1898,  in  "The  Fortune  Teller." 

Nightingale,  Florence,  was  born  in  Florence  in 
1820,  and,  in  1851,  entered  an  institution  of  sisters  of 
mercy  at  Kaiserswerth.  On  November  4,  1854,  she 
arrived  with  a  corps  of  women  at  Scutari,  and  brought 
the  hospital  there  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  A  tes- 
timonial was  offered  her  but  declined.  She  wrote 
"Notes  on  Hospitals,"  "Notes  on  Nursing,"  and  other 
works.     Died,  1910. 

Nilsson,  Christine,  an  operatic  singer,  born  in 
Sweden,  1843;  daughter  of  a  peasant,  and  one  of  the 
foremost  sopranos  of  her  day;  distinguished  for  her 
dramatic  talent  no  less  than  by  her  powers  as  a  vocalist. 
Her  husband  died,  1882,  and  she  was  again  married  in 
1887. 

Nlmrod,  a  grandson  of  Ham,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  tiie  founder  of  Babylon,  and  also  the  first  king 
and  the  first  conqueror.  In  the  Scripture  he  is  called 
"a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord." 

Ninus,  the  supposed  founder  of  the  Assyrian  mon- 
archy, and  builder  of  the  city  of  Nineveh,  flourished 
about  2000  B.  C,  and  was  husband  of  the  famous 
Semiramis. 

Nixon,  Lewis,  shipbuilder;  born  in  Leesburg,  Va., 
April  7,  1861;  early  education  in  Leesburg;  appointed 
midshipman.  United  States  Navy,  1878;  graduate  of 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  1882,  at  head  of  class, 
and  sent  to  Royal  Naval  College,  Greenwich,  England, 
by  navy  department;  transferred  to  construction  corps 
of  navy,  1884;  in  1890,  designed  battle-ships  "Oregon," 
"Indiana,"  and  "Massachusetts,"  and  then  resigned 
from  navy  to  become  superintending  constructor  of 
Cramp  shipyard,  Philadelphia;  resigned,  1895,  and 
started  Crescent  shipyard,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  on  his  own 
account,  where  he  has  built  100  vessels  in  six  years, 
among  others  the  sub-marine  torpedo-boat,  "Holland," 
monitor  "Florida,"  torpedo-boat  "O'Brien,"  and  cruiser 
"Chattanooga."  Appointed  by  Mayor  Van  Wyck  presi- 
dent of  East  River  Bridge  Commission,  January,  1898; 
appointed,  1902,  New  York  commissioner  to  Louisiana 
Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis;  trustee  of  Webb's 
Academy  and  home  for  shipbuilders;  Democrat  (Tam- 
many Hall) ;  succeeded  Richard  Croker  as  leader  of 
Tammany  Hall,  November,  1901,  to  May,  1902;  chair- 
man of  finance  committee.  Democratic  congressional 
campaign  committee.  President  and  director  of  United 
States  Shipbuilding  Company,  which  includes  Bethle- 
hem Steel  Company,  Union  Iron  Works,  Cal.,  Bath 
Iron  Works,  Crescent  Shipyard,  Eastern  Shipbuilding 
Company,  and  Harlan  &  Hollingsworth  Company,  Wil- 
mington, Del.  Director,  Guardian  Trust  Company, 
Trust  Company  of  the  Republic,  and  many  other  corpo- 
rate concerns. 

Noali,  an  eminent  patriarch,  the  ninth  in  descent 
after  Adam,  was  born  about  2950  B.  C.  He  was 
600  years  old  when  the  grand  deluge  destroyed  all 
the  human  race  except  himself  and  his  family,  who  were 
saved  in  the  ark,  and  entered  into  a  new  and  everlasting 
covenant.     Died  at  the  age  of  950  years. 

Nordlca,  Lillian  (Mme.  Zoltan  Dome),  prima  donna; 
born  (Lillian  Norton)  in  Farmington,  Me.,  in  1859; 
musical  education  in  New  England  Conservatory,  by 
John  O'Neill,  and  with  San  Giovanni,  Milan,  Italy; 
married,  first,  to  Mr.  Gower;  second,  to  Herr  Dome; 
third,  to  G.  W.  Young.  Operatic  d^but,  Brescia,  Italy, 
in  "La  Traviata";  appeared  in  London,  1887,  and  in 
Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  and  other  European  capitals. 
Repertoire  embraces  forty  operas  and  all  the  standard 
oratorios;  best  known  in  Wagnerian  parts. 

North,  Fredericli,  Earl  of  Guilford,  commonly 
known  as  Lord  North;  statesman;  born  in  1732,  of 
the  same  family  as  first  earl;  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  in  1767,  and  from  1770  to  1782,  was 
prime  minister,  after  which  he  formed  a  coalition  with 
Fox,  and  was  joint  secretary  with  him  for  a  few  months. 
He  was  the  favorite  minister  of  George  III.,  but  towards 
the  end  of  his  administration  wished  to  conclude  peace 
with  the  colonies.     Died,  1792. 

North,  Simon  Newton  Dexter,  journalist,  statis- 
tician; born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  November  29,  1849; 
graduate  of  Hamilton  College,  1869.  Managing  editor 
"Utica  Morning  Herald,"  1869-86;  president  of  New 
York  State  Associated  Press,  1885-86;  editor  and  joint 
proprietor  of  "Albany  Express,"  1886-88.  Secretary 
of  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers,  1888- 
1903.  Appointed  member  of  United  States  Industrial 
Commission  by  President  McKinley,  1898;  resigned, 
1899,  to  accept  position  of  chief  statistician  for  manu- 
factures, twelfth  census;     appointed,    April,    1903,    di- 


472 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


rector  United  States  census;  resigned,  1909.  Author: 
"An  American  Textile  Glossary,"  "A  History  of  the 
American  Wool  Manufacture,"  "Old  Greek,  an  Old  Time 
Professor  in  an  Old-Fashioned  College  " ;  also  numerous 
pamphlets  and  lectures  on  economical,  industrial,  and 
educational  subjects. 

Norton,  Charles  Eliot,  professor  of  history  of  art. 
Harvard,  1874-98;  professor  emeritus,  1898-1908; 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  November  16,  1827;  grad- 
uate of  Harvard,  1846  (Litt.  D.,  Cambridge,  England, 
1884;  L.  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1885;  LL.  D.,  Harvard, 
1887,  Yale,  1901;  hon.  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford  University, 
England,  1900).  Entered  commercial  office  in  Boston, 
1846;  went  as  supercargo  on  East  Indian  voyage,  1849; 
later  made  several  trips  to  Europe.  Known  as  a  Dante 
scholar  and  an  authority  on  art.  Author:  "Consider- 
ations on  Some  Recent  Social  Theories,"  "Historical 
Studies  of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  "Notes 
of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy."  Editor:  "North  Amer- 
ican Review,"  1862-68;  "Letters  of  James  Russell 
Lowell,"  "Writings  of  George  William  Curtis,"  "Corre- 
spondence of  Carlyle  and  Emerson,  and  of  Goethe  and 
Carlyle,"  "Reminiscences  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Car- 
lyle," "Letters  of  John  Ruskin."  Translator  of  Dante's 
.Vita  Nuova"  and  "Divina  Commedia."     Died,  1908. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  born  in  Kerry  in  1775;  educated 
at  St.  Omer  and  Douay,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1798.  His  agitation  for  removing  the  political  disabil- 
ities of  the  Roman  Catholics  culminated  in  1828,  when 
he  was  elected  for  Clare,  but  not  allowed  to  take  his 
seat.  Amidst  great  excitement  the  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion Bill  was  passed  in  1829.  He  first  demanded  the 
repeal  of  the  Union  in  1841.  After  holding  several 
monster  meetings  in  Ireland,  he  was  arrested,  fined,  and 
imprisoned,  but  this  judgment  was  reversed  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  O'Connell  was  opposed  to  the  use  of 
physical  force,  and  discountenanced  the  Chartists  and 
the  "  Young  Ireland  "  party.     He  died  in  Genoa  in  1847. 

Odell,  Benjamin  B.,  Jr.,  governor  of  New  York, 
1901-05;  born  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  January  14,  1854; 
educated  in  public  schools,  Bethany  (W.  Va.)  College, 
and  three  years  at  Columbia  College;  since  1875,  in 
commercial  pursuits;  now  president  of  ice  and  electric 
lighting  companies.  Member  of  Republican  State  Com- 
mittee 1884-96;  chairman  of  executive  committee, 
1898-1900.  Member  of  Congress,  1895-99.  Chairman 
of  Committee  on  Accounts,  5oth  Congress,  and  later 
chairman  of  Republican  State  Committee,  New  York. 

Odoacer,  a  Herule  or  Rugian  chieftain,  after  attack- 
ing and  slaying  the  patrician  Orestes,  and  deposing  his 
eon,  the  Emperor  Romulus  Augustulus  (476),  ruled 
Italy  as  patrician  under  the  Eastern  Emperor  Zeno, 
but  was  practically  an  independent  sovereign.  He  was 
overthrown  by  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who 
put  him  to  death  in  493. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward,  born  in  1696;  English 
general,  served  under  Marlborough  and  Eugene;  in 
1733,  founded  the  colony  of  Georgia,  which  he  named 
after  George  II.;  returned  to  England  in  1743,  and  held 
a  command  against  the  Jacobites  (1745).     Died,  1785. 

Otim,  Georg  Simon,  born  in  1787;  German  man  of 
science;  discovered  "Ohm's  law"  of  electricity,  by 
which  the  intensity  of  a  current  is  stated  in  terms  of 
the  electro-motive  force  and  the  resistance  of  the  circuit. 
Died,  1854. 

Olcu,  General  Count,  was  born  in  1845,  and  has 
seen  about  forty  years'  service  with  the  Japanese  army. 
In  1877,  when  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  major,  he 

greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Kumamoto 
astle  by  the  Satsuma  insurgents,  cutting  his  way  out 
and  opening  communication  with  the  relieving  army. 
When  the  war  broke  out  with  China  in  1894,  he  was 
given  the  command  of  a  division  in  the  Manchurian 
campaign,  and  received  his  title  of  nobility  in  recognition 
of  his  great  services.  His  knowledge  of  the  ground, 
and  his  capacity,  marked  him  out  for  service  in  the  war 
with  Russia,  and  he  commanded  the  second  army, 
which  landed  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Liao-tung  Penin- 
sula in  May,  1904,  won  the  brilliant  victory  at  Ivinchau, 
and  did  splendid  service  in  the  subsequent  fighting  in 
Manchuria.     Count,  1907. 

Olaf,  St.,  a  Norwegian  king;  wrested  the  throne 
from  Eric,  and  set  himself  to  propagate  Christianity  by 
fire  and  sword,  excited  disaffection  among  his  people, 
who  rebelled  and  overpowered  him  with  the  assistance 
of  Cnut  of  Denmark,  so  that  he  fled  to  his  brother-in- 
law,  Jaroslav  of  Russia;  by  his  help  he  tried  to  recover 
the  throne,  but  was  defeated  and  slain,  his  body  being 
buried  in  'Trondhjem;  he  was  canonized  in  1164,  and  is 
patron  saint  of  Norway. 

Olcott,  *'  Chauncey  "  (Chancellor  John  Olcott), 
singer  and  actor;  born  in  Buffalo,  July  21,  1860;  edu- 
cated in  Buffalo  common  schools;   brought  out  as  singer 


by  late  R.  M.  Hooley,  1880.  With  Hooley's  company 
two  years,  then  consecutively  with  Haverly's  company, 
Carncross  Minstrels,  Denman  Thompson,  Duff's  Opei-a 
Company  for  several  seasons;  sang  two  years  in  England 
in  comic  opera,  then  succeeded  W.  J.  Scanlan  as  star 
in  Irish  musical  dramas;  has  since  appeared  in  various 
leading  roles  in  United  States  and  England. 

Olney,  Richard,  ex-United  States  attorney-general, 
ex-United  States  secretary  of  state;  born  in  Oxford, 
Mass.,  September  15,  1835;  graduate  of  Brown,  1856; 
Harvard  Law  Sclwol,  1858;  (LL.  D.,  Harvard,  Brown, 
Yale).  Admitted  to  bar,  1859;  practiced  law  in  Boston 
(serving  in  Massachusetts  Legislature,  1874)  till  ap- 
pointed United  States  attorney-general  by  President 
Cleveland,  serving  from  March  6,  1893,  to  June  9,  1895, 
and  from  June  10,  1895,  until  March  4,  1897,  as  secre- 
tary of  state,  United  States.     Resumed  practice  of  law. 

Omar  Khayyam  (o'mur  ky-ya'm),  astronomer-poet 
of  Persia,  born  in  Nishapur,  in  Khorassan;  lived  in 
the  later  half  of  the  Eleventh  Century,  and  died  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  Twelfth.  He  wrote  a  collection  of 
poems  which  breathe  an  Epicurean  spirit,  and  while 
they  occupy  themselves  with  serious  problems  of  life, 
do  so  with  careless  sportiveness,  intent  on  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  sensuous  pleasures  of  life,  like  an  easy- 
going Epicurean.  The  great  problems  of  destiny  do 
not  trouble  the  author,  they  are  no  concern  of  his,  and 
the  burden  of  his  songs  assuredly  is,  as  his  translator 
says,  "If  not,  'let  us  eat,  let  us  drink,  for  to-morrow 
we  die.'  " 

Oppenheim,  Nathan,  physician,  medical  author; 
born  m  Albany,  N.  Y.,  October  17,  1865;  graduate  of 
Harvard,  1888;  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons 
(Columbia),  1891.  Attending  physician,  "children's  de- 
partment. New  York  Red  Cross  Hospital,  and  New 
York  City  Children's  Hospital  and  schools;  specialty  in 
diseases  of  children.  Author:  "The  Development  of 
the  Child,"  "The  Medical  Diseases  of  Childhood,"  "The 
Care  of  the  Child  in  Health,"  "Mental  Growth  and  Con- 
trol."    Also  various  scientific  essays. 

Opper,  Fredericli  Burr,  artist;  born  in  Madison, 
Lake  County,  O.,  January  2,  1857;  left  school  at  14; 
worked  a  year  or  more  in  the  village  newspaper  office; 
went  to  New  York  and  worked  in  a  store  for  a  short 
time  and  then,  having  sold  some  humorous  sketches  to 
"Wild  Oats"  and  other  comic  papers,  went  to  drawing 
as  a  profession;  on  art  staff  of  "Frank  Leslie's"  three 
years;  an  artist  of  "Puck"  eighteen  years;  severed 
connection  with  "Puck"  to  accept  offer  from  "Hearst's 
New  York  Journal,"  May,  1899;  stockholder  in  the 
"  Puck "  company.  Illustrator  for  Bill  Nye,  Mark 
Twain,  Hobart  (Dinkelspiel),  Dunne  (Dooley),  etc. 
Author:  "The  Folks  in  Funny ville"  (with  his  own 
verses  and  pictures),  "Our  Antediluvian  Ancestors," 
"Happy  Hooligan,"  "Alphonse  and  Gaston,"  "John 
Bull.'" 

Orange,  Princes  of,  (1)  William  I.,  "the  Silent" 
born  in  1533,  son  of  William,  Count  of  Nassau;  inherited 
large  domains  in  Brabant,  Flanders,  and  Holland;  was 
sent  as  a  boy  to  the  court  of  Charles  V. ;  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  that  emperor,  but  was  distrusted  by  his  son, 
Philip  II.  On  learning  the  designs  of  Philip  and  Henri 
II.  of  France  against  the  Protestants  (1559),  he  deter- 
mined to  espouse  their  cause.  When  the  Duke  of  Alva 
arrived  in  the  Low  Countries  (1567),  he  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  and,  aifter  a  protracted 
struggle,  founded  the  republic  of  the  Netherlands  (1579) 
of  which  he  was  elected  the  first  stadtholder.  He  was 
assassinated  at  Delft.  Died,  1584.  (2)  Maurice  of  Nassau 
born  in  1567,  second  son  of  the  preceding;  was  one  of 
the  most  skillful  strategists  of  the  age.  Was  appointed 
stadtholder  of  Holland  in  1587,  and  soon  afterwards  of 
Utrecht,  Overysesl,  and  Gueldres.  The  war  with  Spain 
was  continued  till  1609,  after  which  the  Dutch  were  able 
to  maintain  their  independence.  In  1619,  Barneveldt, 
who  accused  Maurice  of  ambitious  projects,  was  put  to 
death.  Maurice  succeeded  his  elder  brother  as  Prince 
of  Orange  (1618).     Died,  1625. 

Oscar  I.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  son  of  Berna- 
dotte,  born  in  Paris,  reigned  from  1844  to   1857. 

Oscar  II.,  King  of    Sweden    and    Norway,    son    of 

C receding,  succeeded  his  brother  Charles  XV.  in  1872; 
as  distinguished  himself  in  literature  by  translating 
Goethe's  "Faust"  into  Swedish,  and  by  a  volume  of 
minor  poems  under  his  "nom deplume"  Oscar  Frederick; 
born  in  1829;   died,  1907. 

Osier,  William,  physician,  educator,  author;  born 
in  Tecumseh,  Ont.,  1849;  graduate  of  McGill 
Montreal,  1872;  (LL.  D.,  McGill,  Toronto,  University  of 
Edinburgh,  University  of  Aberdeen,  Harvard,  Yale; 
D.  Sc,  Oxford);  professor  of  institutes  of  medicine, 
McGill  University,  1874-84;  professor  of  clinical  medi- 
cine,  University   of   Pennsylvania,    1884;     professor  of 


BIOGRAPHY 


473 


medicine,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  1889-1905;  Regius 
professor  of  medicine,  Oxford  University,  since  1905. 
Author:  "Tlie  Cerebral  Palsies  of  Children,"  "Chorea 
and  Choreiform  Affections,"  "Lectures  on  Abdominal 
Tumors,"  "Angina  Pectoris  and  Allied  States,"  "The 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  "Cancer  of  the 
Stomach,"  "Science  and  Immortality"  (Ingersoll 
lecture.  Harvard  University).  "  .Equanimitas,  and 
Other  Addresses." 

Osslan  (osh'e-an),  a  Celtic  bard,  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  Scotland  or  Ireland  about  fifteen  hundred 
years  ago.  He  was  the  son  of  Fingal,  King  of  Morven, 
a  famous  hero,  and  was  blind.  Ossian's  poems  are  re- 
markable for  their  grandeur  and  wild  beauty,  and  are 
very  different  from  all  other  poetry.  They  have  been 
published  in  nearly  all  European  languages. 

Otto  I.,  "the  Great,"  Emperor  of  the  West,  born  in 
912,  son  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  was  chosen  King  of  Ger- 
many in  936;  in  951  was  summoned  to  aid  the  Italians 
against  Berengar,  and  married  Adelheid,  widow  of  King 
Lothair;  routed  the  Hungarians  near  Augsburg,  in  955; 
in  962,  was  crowned  Emperor  at  Rome  by  Pope  John  XII. 
He  subsequently  deposed  John,  and  set  up  Leo  VIII.  in 
his  stead.  He  extended  his  dominion  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  Italy,  reestablished  the  Western  Empire,  and 
made  many  reforms  in  church  and  state.     Died,  973. 

Owen,  Robert,  the  founder  of  socialism  in  England, 
was  born  of  poor  parents  in  Newtown,  Montgomeryshire, 
1771.  In  1800  he  became  owner  of  the  New  Lanark 
Cotton  Factory,  where  he  proceeded  to  put  in  practice 
his  theories  of  a  new  system  of  society.  He  afterwards 
made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  establish  communistic  set- 
tlements at  New  Harmony  in  America  (1825),  and  Har- 
mony Hall  in  Hampshire  (1844).  To  his  efforts  may  be 
traced  the  first  factory  legislation,  the  co-operative 
movement,  and  the  establishment  of  infant  schools. 
Died,  1858. 

Oxenstlema,  Axel,  Count,  born  in  1583,  Swedish 
statesman,  was  made  chancellor  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
in  1611 ;  succeeded  him  eis  leader  of  the  Protestant  party 
in  Germany  (1632-35) ;  acted  as  regent  throughout  the 
minority  of  Christina,  and  became  her  chief  minister 
when  she  assumed  the  government  (1644).      Died,  1654. 

Oyama,  Field-Marshal  Prince,  was  born  in  Kago- 
shima,  in  1842.  Entered  the  Japanese  Army,  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  in  1871,  promoted  major-general  in  the 
same  year,  lieutenant-general  in  1878,  general  in  1891, 
and  in  1898,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal. 
Having  served  as  military  attache?  on  the  Prussian  side 
during  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  upon  his  return  to 
Japan  he  entered  the  ministry  of  war,  and  assisted  in  the 
work  of  reorganising  the  army.  In  the  Satsuma  rebellion 
(1877)  he  took  command  of  a  brigade,  and  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  subduing  the  revolt.  Afterwards  he 
was  appointed  under-secretary,  and  subsequently  minis- 
ter of  war.  When  war  broke  out  between  Japan  and 
China  he  was  minister  of  war,  but  he  took  the  field 
as  commander  of  the  second  army,  and  captured 
Kinchow,  Talienwan,  Port  Arthur,  and  Wei-hai-wei. 
In  1904,  Oyama  was  chief  of  the  general  staff,  and  when 
war  broke  out  with  Russia  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  in  Manchuria,  defeating  the  Russians  at  the  three 
great  battles  of  Liao-Yang,  the  Shaho,  and  Mukden.  He 
received  the  order  of  merit,  February  21,  1906,  and 
resigned  his  post  as  chief  of  the  general  staff  in  April. 
Received  the  first  class  of  the  order  of  the  golden  kite, 
December,  1906,  Prince,  1907.  His  wife  was  educated  in 
America,  and  took  a  degree. 

Paderewskl,  Ignace  Jan,  famous  pianist  and  com- 
poser, was  born  on  November  6,  1860,  in  Padolia,  a  prov- 
ince of  Russia  Poland.  He  began  to  play  the  piano  at 
the  age  of  3,  and,  when  7  years  old,  was  placed  under 
Pierre  Lowinski,  a  local  tutor.  In  1872,  he  went  to  War- 
saw, learning  harmony  and  counterpoint  from  Roguski, 
and  subsequently  from  Frederick  Kiel.  He  toured 
through  Russia,  Siberia,  and  Roumania,  playing  only  his 
own  compositions.  In  1878,  he  became  professor  of 
music  in  Warsaw  Conservatoire,  and  for  a  while,  in  1884, 
he  was  a  professor  at  Strasburg  Conservatoire,  but  then 
definitely  decided  to  try  his  fortune  as  a  virtuoso.  After 
three  years'  study  with  Leschetizky,  in  Vienna,  he  made 
his  debut  in  1887  with  instant  success.  He  has  toured 
Germany,  Paris,  London,  and  America. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  author;  born  in  Oakland 
Plantation,  Hanover  County,  Va.,  April  23,  1853;  edu- 
cated at  Washington  and  Lee  (Litt.  D.);  graduate  of  law 
department  of  University  of  Virginia;  Litt.  D.,  Yale; 
practiced  law  in  Richmond,  Va.,  1875-93;  lecturer. 
Author:  "In  Ole  Virginia,"  "Two  Little  Confederates," 
"On  Newfoimd  River,"  "The  Old  South,"  "Among  the 
Camps,"  "Elsket  and  Other  Stories,"  "Befo' de  War" 
(with  Armistead  C.  Gordon) ;  "Pastime  Stories,"  "The 
Burial   of    the   Guns,"   "Uno'    Edinburg,    Meh    Lady," 


"Mars  Chan,"  "Polly,"  "Social  Life  in  Old  Virginia,"  "The 
Old  Gentleman  of  the  Black  Stock,"  "Two  Prisoners." 
"Red  Rock,"  "Santa  Claus's  Partner,"  "A  Captured 
Santa  Claus,"  "Gordon  Keith,"  "The  Negro — The 
Southerner's  Problem." 

Paine,  John  Knowles,  professor  of  music.  Harvard, 
1876-1906;  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  January  9,  1839; 
studied  music  under  Hermann  Kotzschmar  Ihere;  made 
first  appearance  as  organist,  1857;  studied  in  Germany 
under  Haupt  and  others,  1858-61;  made  artistic  tour 
there,  1866-67;  instructor  of  music.  Harvard,  in  1862 
(A.  M.,  Mus.  D.).  Composer  of  music  to  "  ffidipus  Tyran- 
nus"  of  Sophocles  as  performed  in  Greek  at  Cambridge, 
1881;  spring  symphony;  symphony  in  0  minor;  sym- 
phonic poems;  Shakespere's  "  Tempest " ;  "  Island  Fan- 
tasy." overture  to  "As  You  Like  It":  cantatas.  Nativity 
and  Song  of  Promise,  choruses  to ' '  Birds"  of  Aristophanes ; 
etc.;  opera  of  Azara;  "Centennial  Hymn"  to  Whittier'a 
words,  sung  at  opening  of  Philadelphia  Exposition,  1876; 
Columbus  march  and  hymn  for  World's  Columbian 
Exposition,  1893;  Hymn  of  the  West,  words  by  Sted- 
man,  sung  at  the  opening  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition, 
1904;  also  mass,  oratorio  of  St.  Peter;  cantatas.  Realm 
of  Fancy  and  Phoebus  Arise,  etc.     Died,  1906. 

Paine,  Thomas,  a  political  writer;  born  in  England, 
1737.  In  1774  came  to  the  United  States,  became  editor 
of  the  "Pennsylvania  Magazine";  issued  his  pamphlet, 
"Common  Sense,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  independ- 
ence of  the  colonies.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1787,  and  in 
1791-92  published  in  England  his  "Rights  of  Man";  in 
1792,  elected  a  member  of  the  French  National  Assembly, 
acting  with  the  Girondists,  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
guillotine.  While  he  was  in  France,  appeared  his  deistical 
work,  "Tne  Age  of  Reason."  Returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1802.     Died  in  New  York,  1809. 

Paley,  William,  born  in  1743,  English  theologian, 
professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  and  archdeacon  of 
Cariisle;  wrote  "  Horje  Paulina;,"  "Natural  Theology," 
"Evidences  of  Christianity,"  etc.     Died,  1805. 

Pallssy,  Bernard  (pah-le-se'),a,  famous  French  potter, 
chemist  and  enameler,  was  born  near  Agen,  about  1510. 
The  pottery  made  by  Palissy,  known  as  the  Palissy 
ware,  is  much  prized  by  collectors,  and  is  distinguished 
for  the  high  relief  of  the  figures  and  ornaments.  Died, 
1589. 

Palma,  Tomas  Estrada,  Cuban  patriot;  born  in 
Bayamo,  Cuba;  studied  law  at  University  of  Seville,  but 
never  practiced.  Took  part  in  the  Cuban  revolution  of 
1868-78,  in  the  early  part  of  which  his  mother  had  been 
captured  and  starved  to  death  by  the  Spaniards.  Her 
death  made  him  heir  to  a  vast  estate,  which  the  Span- 
iards confiscated.  He  became  President  of  Cuban 
Republic,  but  was  captured,  1877,  and  imprisoned  until 
hostilities  ceased,  1878;  then  went  to  Honduras;  became 
teacher  and  later  postmaster-general;  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  President  Guardiola.  Came  to  the  United  States; 
settled  in  Central  Valley,  Orange  County,  N.  Y.  Dur- 
ing last  revolution  delegate-at-large  and  minister  pleni- 
potentiary for  Cuban  Republic.  President  of  Cuba, 
1902-06.     Died,  November  4,  1908. 

Palmer,  George  Herbert,  Alford  professor  of 
natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and  civil  polity, 
Harvard,  since  1889;  born  in  Boston,  March  19,  1842; 
graduate  of  Harvard,  1864;  studied  at  University  of 
Tubingen,  1867-69;  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1870  (LL.  D.,  University  of  Michigan,  1894,  Union, 
1895;  Litt.  D.,  Western  Reserve,  1897);  tutor  of  Greek. 
Harvard,  1870-73;  assistant  professor  1873-83,  professor 
philosophy,  1883-89.  Author:  "The  Odyssey,"  (Eng- 
lish translation  in  rythmic  prose);  "The  New  Education," 
"The  CJlory  of  the  Imperfect."  "Self  Cultivation  in  Eng- 
lish," "The  Antigone  of  Sophocles"  (translation),  "The 
Field  of  Ethics,"  "The  Nature  of  Goodness." 

Papin,  Denis,  born  in  Blois,  in  France,  1647;  a 
celebrated  mathematician  and  physicist;  from  1687 
to  1696  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University 
of  Marburg.  He  was  one  of  the  early  inventors  of  the 
steam  engine,  and  made  many  other  discoveries  in  phy- 
sical science.  A  statue  to  his  memory  was  erected  at 
Blois  in  1880.     Died,  at  Marburg,  in  Hesse-Cassel,  1712. 

Park,  Roswell,  physician,  born  in  Pomfret,  Conn., 
May  4,  1852;  graduate  of  Racine  College,  M.  D.,  medi- 
cal department  Northwestern  University,  1876  (honorary 
M.  D.,  Lake  Forest  University;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1902); 
instructor  in  anatomy.  Woman's  Medical  College,  Chicago 
1877-79;  adjunct  professor  of  anatomy,  medical  depart- 
ment. Northwestern  University,  1879-82;  lecturer  on 
surgery.  Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago,  1882;  since 
1883,  professor  of  surgery,  medical  department.  Univer- 
sity of  Buffalo,  and  surgeon  to  Buffalo  General  Hospital. 
Attended  President  McKinley  after  he  was  shot,  1901. 
Author  " Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology,"  "History  of 
Medicine,"  "Text-book  of  Surgery"  (two  volumes). 


474 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Parker,  Alton  Brooks,  jurist,  lawyer;  born  in 
C!ortland,  N.  Y.,  May  14,  1852;  educated  at  public 
schools,  Cortland  Academy,  Cortland  Normal  School; 
graduate  of  Albany  Law  School  (LL.  D.,  Union); 
admitted  to  bar;  practiced  in  Kingston;  surrogate 
Ulster  County,  1877-85;  delegate  to  Democrat  National 
Convention,  1884;  tendered  office  of  first  assistant  post- 
master-genefal,  1885;  chairman  of  Democratic  State 
Committee,  1885;  appointed  justice  of  Supreme  Court, 
N.  Y.,  1885,  elected,  1886;  member  Court  of  Appeals, 
2d  division,  1889-92;  member  of  general  term,  1893-96, 
of  appellate  division,  1896-97;  chief  justice  Court  of 
Appeals,  N.  Y.,  January  1,  1898,  to  August  5,  1904; 
resigned  to  accept  Democratic  nomination  for  the  presi- 
dency made  on  first  ballot,  July  9,  1904;  now  practicing 
law. 

Parker,  Theodore,  born  in  1810,  American  minister, 
son  of  a  farmer  at  Lexington,  Miiss.;  ejected  by  the  Uni- 
tarians for  his  writings,  became  leader  of  a  society  of  free- 
thinkers; was  also  an  active  abolitionist.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1863.     Died,  1860. 

Parkhurst,  Charles  Henry,  Presbyterian  clergy- 
man; born  in  Framingham,  Mass.,  April  17,  1842; 
graduated  from  Amherst,  1866  (D.  D.,  LL.  D.);  studied 
theology  at  Halle,  1869-70;  Leipzig,  1872-73;  taught 
in  Williston  Seminary,  Easthampton,  Mass.,  1870-71; 
pastor  Congregational  Church,  Lenox,  Mass.,  1874-80; 
since  1880  pastor  Madison  Square  Presbyterian  Church, 
New  York.  Became  president,  1891,  Society  for  Pre- 
vention of  Crime,  ana  his  assertion  of  partnership  of 
police  with  criminals  led  to  an  investigation  of  the  New 
York  police  by  the  New  York  Legislature.  Author: 
"Forms  of  the  Latin  Verb  Illustrated  by  the  Sanskrit," 
"The  Blind  Man's  Creed,"  "The  Pattern  on  the  Mount," 
"Three  Gates  on  a  Side,"  "What  Would  the  World  Be 
Without  Religion?"  "The  Swiss  Guide,"  "Our  Fight 
with  Tammany,"  "The  Sunny  Side  of  Christianity." 

Parknian,  Francis,  American  historical  writer; 
born  in  Boston  in  1823;  lived  some  time  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  wrote  "The  Con- 
spiracy of  Pontiac,"  "The  Old  Rf^gime  in  Canada," 
Count  Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV.," 
and  "Montcalm  and  Wolfe,"  etc.     Died  in  1893. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart,  Irish  politician;  was 
born  in  1846,  in  .\vondale,  Countv  Wicklow,  and  educated 
at  Cambridge.  He  entered  public  life  as  member  for 
Meath  in  1875,  and  two  years  later  became  conspicuous 
by  the  "obstruction"  with  which  he  met  the  prisons 
bill.  He  gradually  ousted  Mr.  Butt  from  the  leadership 
of  the  home  rule  party,  and,  in  1880,  became  leader  of  the 
Irish  party  and  entered  upon  the  land  agitation.  At  the 
general  election  he  was  elected  for  three  constituencies, 
but  chose  Cork,  and  as  the  heacl  of  the  Land  League  was 
prosecuted  in  1880,  by  the  Gladstone  government,  the 
result  being  a  disagreement  of  the  jury.  In  the  following 
session  he,  with  the  majority  of  his  followers,  was  re- 
moved by  the  sergeant-at-arms  for  obstruction,  and  in 
October  was  imprisoned  in  Kilmainham  under  the 
coercion  bill.  He  was  released  in  April,  1882,  but  the 
"no  rent"  manifesto  had  meanwhile  been  issueid,  and  in 
1883,  the  National  League  took  the  place  of  the  sup- 
pressed Land  League.  At  the  general  election  of  1885, 
ne  nominated  every  home  rule  candidate,  and  subse- 
quently entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  followers  of 
Mr.  Gladstone.  In  the  next  parliament  he  proposed  a 
bill  to  suspend  evictions  and  reduce  rent,  after  the  re- 
jection of  which  the  aRitation  continued.  In  1888,  a 
special  commission  was  appointed  to  examine  the  charges 
made  against  Mr.  Parnell  and  others  by  the  "Times," 
the  result  being  his  acquittal  on  the  greatest,  but  con- 
demnation on  many  others.  In  consequence  of  the 
result  of  the  O'Shea  divorce  case  in  1890,  he  was  deposed 
by  the  majority  of  his  party,  but  continued  to  lead  the 
minority  and  to  carry  on  an  active  campaign  until  his 
death  in  1891. 

Parsons,  Frank,  lawyer,  educator,  author;  born  in 
Mt.  Holly,  N.  J.,  November  14,  1854;  graduated  in 
mathematics  and  engineering  course,  Cornell,  1873;  ad- 
mitted to  Boston  bar;  law  clerk  for  a  time;  then 
opened  offices  of  his  own;  text  writer  for  Little, 
Brown  &  Company,  publishers;  public  lecturer  on 
economics  and  sociology;  professor  of  history  and  politi- 
cal science,  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  1897-1900; 
lecturer  on  law,  Boston  University,  1892-1908.  Author: 
"The  World's  Best  Books,"  "Our  Country's  Need," 
"The  Drift  of  Our  Time,"  "Rational  Money,"  "The 
New  Political  Economy,"  "The  Power  of  the  Ideal," 
"The  City  for  the  People,"  "Direct  Legislation,"  "The 
Bondage  of  Cities,"  ".The  Story  of  New  Zealand."  Died, 
1908. 

Parton,  James,  American  writer;  born  in  Canter- 
bury in  1822,  but  was  brought  to  America  when  a  child, 
and  wrote  many  works,  the  chief  of  which  were  "Life  of 


Horace  Greeley,"  "General  Butler  in  New  Orleans," 
"Life  and  Times  of  Benjamin  Franklin,"  and  "Life  of 
Jefferson."     Died  in  1891. 

Partridge,  William  Ordway,  sculptor,  author; 
born  in  Paris,  France,  April  11,  1861:  student  Columbia 
College;  art  education  in  Rome,  Florence,  and  Paris; 
works  include  statue  of  Shakespere,  Lincoln  Park,  Chi- 
cago; bronze  statue,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Brooklyn; 
Kauffmann  Memorial,  Washington;  bust  of  Edward 
E.  Hale,  Union  League  Club,  Chicago;  Whittier,  Boston 
Public  Library;  equestrian  statue  General  Grant  for 
Union  League  Club,  Brooklyn;  Schermerhorn  Memorial, 
Columbia  University;  baptismal  font  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  Cathedral,  Washington;  group  Christ  and  St.  John, 
Brooklyn  Museum  Fine  Arts,  etc.  Author:  "Art  for 
America,"  "The  Song  Life  of  a  Sculptor,"  "The  Tech- 
nique of  Sculpture,"  "The  Angel  of  Clay"  (novel), 
"Nathan  Hale,  the  Ideal  Patriot." 

Pasteur  (pas-tor'),  Liouis,  an  .eminent  French  chem- 
ist, was  born  in  Dole,  in  department  of  Jura  in  1822. 
Pasteur  was  celebrated  for  his  studies  and  discoveries 
in  fermentation,  and  also  for  his  researches  in  hydropho- 
bia, and  his  suggestion  of  inoculation  as  a  cure.  The 
Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris  was  the  scene  of  his  researches 
from  1886.     Died,  1895. 

Patmore,  Coventry,  English  poet;  born  in  Essex, 
1823;  best  known  as  the  author  of  "The  Angel  in  the 
House,"  a  poem  in  praise  of  domestic  bliss,  succeeded 
by  others,  superior  in  some  respects,  of  which  "The 
Unknown  Eros"  is  by  many  much  admired.  Died, 
1896. 

Patti,  3Ime.  Adelina,  famous  high  soprano,  the 
greatest  operatic  prima  donna  the  world  has  ever  seen; 
of  late  years  heard  once  a  year,  at  the  annual  concert 
she  has  given  at  the  Albert  Hall,  London;  was  born 
at  Madrid  in  1 843,  but  was  brought  to  America  when  only 
a  few  years  old,  and  in  this  country  she  appeared  as  a 
prodigy  vocalist.  She  is  said  to  have  earned  nearly  two 
millions  during  the  course  of  her  brilliant  ojmratic  career 
all  over  the  world.  Mme.  Patti  has  been  married  three 
times  —  first  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  then  to  Signor 
Nicolini,  the  famous  tenor,  and  is  now  Baroness  Ceder- 
strcim. 

Pattlson,  Mark,  born  in  1813;  scholar  and  divine: 
became  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  1839,  ana 
rector  in  1861.  He  was  at  first  a  follower  of  Newman, 
but  afterwards  contributed  to  "Essays  and  Reviews,'' 
and  became  an  active  university  reformer.  His  chief 
works  were  "Life  of  Casaubon,"  "Milton"  in  the  Men 
of  Letters  series,  and  an  edition  of  Pope's  works. 
Died,  1884. 

Patton,  Francis  Landey,  educator,  theologian; 
born  in  Warwick  Parish,  Bermuda,  January  22,  1843; 
educated  at  Knox  College,  Toronto,  University  of  Toron- 
to; graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1865  (LL.  D.,  Wooster  University,  1878,  Harvard,  1889, 
Toronto,  1894,  Yale,  1901,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902);  or- 
dained to  Presbyterian  ministry  June  1,  1865;  pastor 
84th  Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York,  1865-67; 
Presbyterian  Church,  Nyack,  1867-70;  South  Church, 
Brooklyn,  1871.  Professor  in  Cyrus  H.  McCormick  Theo- 
logical Seminary  of  the  Northwest  (now  McCormick 
Seminary),  Chicago,  1872-81;  also,  1874-81,  pastor 
Jefferson  Park  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago;  mod- 
erator general  assembly,  1878;  professor  of  Relations  of 
Philosophy  and  Science  to  the  Christian  Religion,  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  1881-88,  this  chair  being 
founded  and  endowed  for  Dr.  Patton  by  late  Robert  L. 
Stewart;  president  Princeton  University,  1888-1902, 
resigned;  since  1886  professor  of  ethics,  Princeton 
University,  and  lecturer  on  theism,  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  which  positions  he  still  holds;  president 
of  Princeton  "Theological  Seminary  since  1902.  Author: 
"The  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,"  "Summary  of 
Christian  Doctrine";  also  many  articles  and  reviews. 

Paul,  St.,  this  eminent  apostle,  originally  named 
Saul,  was  a  Jew  of  pure  Hebrew  descent,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin.  He  was  born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  and  was 
by  birth  a  free  Roman  citizen.  The  mysterious  circum- 
stances that  led  to  and  attended  his  conversion,  and  his 
apostolic  travels,  are,  doubtless,  familiar  to  our  readers, 
and  need  not  be  given  here.  Much  diversity  of  opinion, 
however,  prevails  among  the  learned  about  the  dates 
of  the  principal  events  of  his  life.  About  A.  D.  59, 
having  visited  Jerusalem  for  the  fifth  time  since  his 
conversion,  the  populace  there  assailed  him,  and  would 
have  killed  him,  but  an  officer  took  him  into  custody 
and  sent  him  to  the  Roman  Governor  Felix,  at  Ctrsarea, 
where  he  was  unjustly  detained  a  prisoner  for  two  years. 
Having  finally  appealed  to  the  Roman  Emperor,  ac- 
cording to  the  privilege  of  a  Roman  citizen,  he  was  sent 
to  Rome.  On  the  voyage  thither,  he  suffered  shipwreck 
at    Melita     (probably    Malta),    in    the    spring    of    61. 


BIOGRAPHY 


475 


At  Rome,  he  was  treated  with  respect,  being  allowed  to 
dwell  "for  two  whole  years  irr  his  own  hired  house." 
Whether  he  ever  left  the  city  or  not  cannot  be  positively 
demonstrated,  but  it  is  believed  by  many  critics,  from 
a  variety  of  considerations,  that  he  did  obtain  his  liberty 
about  A.  D.  64,  and  that  he  made  joiirneys  both  to  the 
East  and  to  the  West,  revisiting  Asia  Minor,  and  carry- 
ing out  his  long-cherished  wish  of  preaching  the  gospel 
in  Spain,  then  thought  to  be  the  western  limit  of  the 
world.  Meanwhile  occurred  the  great  and  mysterious 
burning  of  Rome,  generally  attributed  to  Nero.  The 
latter  threw  the  blame  on  the  Christians,  who  were,  in 
consequence,  subjected  to  a  severe  persecution.  Among 
the  victims  was  Paul,  who,  according  to  tradition,  suf- 
fered A.  D.  67. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  born  in  1792;  American 
actor  and  dramatist;  wrote  for  the  press  at  13,  and  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  at  16;  made  his  d^but  at  Drury 
Lane  in  1813,  when  21,  and  composed  a  number  of 
pieces,  in  one  of  which  the  air  "Home,  Sweet  Home" 
was  first  heard.     He  died  as  consul  at  Tunis  in  1852. 

Payne,  Serene  E.,  congressman,  lawyer;  born  in 
Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  June  26,  1843;  graduate  of  University 
of  Rochester,  1864;  admitted  to  bar,  1866;  practiced 
at  Auburn  (LL.  D.,  Colgate,  1902,  University  of 
Rochester,  1903);  married,  1873,  to  Gertrude  Knapp. 
City  clerk.  Auburn,  1868-71;  supervisor,  1871-72; 
district  attorney,  Cayuga  County,  1873-79;  president 
of  board  of  education,  1879-82;  member  of  Congress, 
1883-87;  and,  since  1889,  31st  New  York  district. 
Chairman  of  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means;  was 
active  in  framing  McKinley  and  Dingley  Tariff  laws. 
Member  of  High  Joint  Commission  to  negotiate  treaty 
with  Canada,  1898. 

Peabody,  Francis  Greenwood,  Plummer  professor 
of  Christian  morals,  Harvard,  since  1886;  born  in 
Boston,  1847;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1869;  Harvard 
Divinity  School,  1872  (D.  D.,  Yale);  pastor  of  First 
Parish  Church,  Cambridge,  1874-80;  Parkman  profes- 
sor of  theology  in  Harvard  Divinity  School,  1881-86. 
Author:  "Mornings  in  the  College  Chapel,"  "Short 
Addresses  to  Young  Men  on  Personal  Religion," 
"Founder's.  Day  at  Hampton,"  "Afternoons  in  the 
College  Chapel,"  "Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question," 
"Happiness,"  "Religion  of  an  Educated  Man." 

Peabody,  George,  born  in  1795;  philanthropist; 
having  made  a  fortune  as  a  dry-goods  merchant  in 
America,  went  to  England,  and  established  a  banking 
business  in  London  in  1843.  Besides  giving  half  a 
million  to  be  invested  for  the  London  poor,  he  assisted 
with  funds  Dr.  Kane's  Arctic  expedition,  and  founded 
and  endowed  many  institutions  at  Baltimore  and  other 
places  in  the  United  States.     Died,  1869. 

Peary,  Josephine  Dlebltsch,  arctic  traveler,  author; 
born  (Diebitsch)  and  educated  in  Washington,  D.  C; 
married  Lieutenant  R.  E.  Peary,  United  States  Navy, 
explorer,  1888;  accompanied  him  on  his  1891-92  and 
1893-94  expeditions  as  far  as  winter  quarters  in  Green- 
land; was  the  first  white  woman  to  winter  with  an 
arctic  expedition;  gave  birth  to  a  daughter  (Marie 
Ahnighito),  the  most  northerly  born  white  child  in  the 
worla;  accompanied  her  husband  on  his  arctic  trip  in 
1897.  Went  north  to  meet  her  husband  in  1900.  Ship 
caught  in  ice  and  she  wintered  with  her  little  daughter 
at  Cape  Saline,  78°  42'  north  latitude;  went  north  again 
in  1902,  returning  with  her  husband.  Author:  "My 
Arctic  Journal,"  "The  Snow  Baby." 

Peary,  Robert  Edwin,  arctic  explorer,  officer  in 
United  States  Navy;  born  in  Cresson,  Pa.,  May  6, 
1856.  Entered  United  States  Navy  as  civil  engineer, 
October  26,.  1881 ;  assistant  engineer  on  Nicaragua  ship 
canal  under  government  orders,  1884-85;  engineer  in 
charge  of  Nicaragua  canal  surveys,  1887-88;  invented 
rolling-lock  gates  for  canal;  now  commander  and  civil 
engineer  in  United  States  Navy.  Made  reconnaissance, 
1886,  of  the  Greenland  inland  ice-cap,  east  of  Disco 
Bay,  70°  north  latitude;  chief  of  arctic  expedition  of 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  June, 
1891,  to  September,  1892,  to  northeast  angle  of  Green- 
land (Independence  Bay  81°  37'  north  latitude);  dis- 
covered and  named  Melville  Land  and  Heilprin  Land, 
lying  beyond  Greenland.  Made  another  arctic  voyage, 
1893-95;  made  thorough  study  of  little  tribe  of  Arctic 
Highlanders;  discovered,  1894,  famous  Iron  Mountain 
(first  heard  of  by  Ross,  1818),  which  proved  to  be  three 
meteorites,  one  of  them  weighing  ninety  tons  (the  largest 
known  to  exist) ;  failed  to  reach  the  northern  end  of 
Greenland  on  third  trip.  Fitted  out  another  ship,  and 
sailed  on  another  Polar  expedition  in  1905.  Made  sum- 
mer voyages,  1896,  1897,  bringing  the  (jape  York 
meteorites  to  United  States;  commander  of  Arctic 
expedition  under  auspices  of  Peary  Arctic  Club  of  New 
York  City,  1898-1902;    rounded  northern  extremity  of 


Greenland  Archipelago,  the  last  of  the  great  Arctic  land 
groups;  named  the  northern  cape,  the  most  northerly 
land  in  the  world  (83°  39'  north  latitude).  Cape  Morris 
K.  Jesup;  in  1906,  attained  highest  north  in  Western 
Hemisphere  (87°  6'  north  latitude).  Announced  his  dis- 
covery of  the  North  Pole,  1909.  Author:  "Northward 
Over  the  Great  Ice,"  etc. 

Peclf,  Harry  Thurston,  professor  of  Latin,  Colum- 
bia University,  editor  of  the  "Bookman,"  1895-1907; 
born  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  November  24,  1856;  graduate 
of  Columbia,  1881  (A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  L.  H.  D.,  LL.  D.); 
studied  in  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Rome.  Author:  "The 
Personal  Equation,"  "The  Semitic  Theory  of  Creation," 
"Latin  Pronunciation,"  "The  Adventures  of  Mabel," 
"What  is  Good  English?"  "Greystone  and  Porphyry" 
(poems),  "Twenty  Years  of  the  Republic,"  "The  Life 
of  Prescott."  Editor:  " Harper's  Classical  Dictionary," 
"The  International  CyclopiEdia  "  (15  vols.),  "The  New 
International  Encyclopedia"  (20  vols.),  "American 
Atlas  of  the  World,"  "The  Library  of  the  World's 
Literature,"  "Masterpieces  of  Literature."  Consulting 
editor  of  International  Year  Book,  etc.  Translator  of 
"Trimalchio's  Dinner,"  etc. 

Peckham,  Rufus  Wheeler,  associate  justice  of 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  1895-1909;  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  November  8,  1838;  educated  at  Albany 
Academy  and  in  Philadelphia;  studied  law;  admitted 
to  bar,  December,  1859.  District  attorney  of  Albany 
County,  1868;  later  corporation  counsel,  city  of 
Albany;  justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  New  York, 
1883-86;  associate  justice  of  Court  of  Appeals,  New 
York,  1886-95.     Died,  1909. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  Bart.,  statesman;  born  in  1788, 
eldest  son  of  the  first  baronet;  was  named  under-secre- 
tary  for  the  Colonies  immediately  on  his  entering  par- 
liament in  1811,  and  was  Irish  secretary  from  1812  to 
1818.  In  the  following  year  he  was  chairman  of  the 
bank  committee,'  and,  in  1822,  was  appointed  to  the 
home  office,  becoming  leader  in  the  (Commons  on  the 
death  of  Canning  (1827).  As  such  he  introduced  the 
Catholic  emancipation  and  police  bills,  and  lost  his 
seat  for  Oxford  University  in  consequence  of  the 
former.  After  the  reform  bill  he  reconstructed  his 
party,  modern  Conservatism  dating  from  his  Tam- 
worth  manifesto  (1834).  He  now  held  office  a  few 
months,  and  was  finally  prime  minister  from  1841 
to  1846,  when  his  desertion  of  protection  cost  him  the 
support  of  the  majority  of  his  followers.  He  died  in 
1850. 

Pelz,  Paul  Johannes,  architect;  born  in  Seitendorf, 
County  of  Waldenburg,  Silesia,  Germany,  November  18, 
1841;  educated  in  College  of  St.  Elizabeth  and  College 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Breslau;  did  not  graduate,  but  left 
at  16  to  join  his  father,  who  settled  in  the  United  States, 
1851,  for  political  reasons;  studied  architecture,  1859- 
66,  in  New  York,  under  Detlef  Lienau.  In  practice  as 
architect;  was  connected  with  United  States  Light- 
house Board  as  architect  and  civil  engineer,  and  de- 
signed many  lighthouses.  Architect  of  Congressional 
library  building,  Georgetown  college  academic  building, 
Carnegie  library,  and  music  hall  building,  Allegheny, 
Pa.,  United  States  Government  army  and  navy  hos- 
pital. Hot  Springs,  Ark.;  Chamberlain  hotel.  Old  Point 
Comfort,  Va.;  clinic  hospital.  University  of  Virginia; 
Aula  Christi,  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.;  machinery  hall, 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  and  many  others. 

Penn,  William,  founder  of  Pennsylvania;  was  born 
in  1644,  son  of  Sir  W.  Penn,  who,  with  Venables,  took 
Jamaica.  He  became  a  Quaker  while  at  Oxford,  and 
was  several  times  imprisoned  for  his  writings.  In  1682, 
he  embarked  for  the  colony  of  the  New  Netherlands, 
which  had  been  granted  him  by  Charles  II.,  and  founded 
Philadelphia,  but  died  in  England,  in  1718,  having  been 
in  great  favor  at  court  under  James  II. 

Pennell,  Joseph,  artist,  illustrator,  author;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  .July  4,  1860;  pupil  of  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts  and  Pennsylvania  School  of  Industrial 
Art;  represented  in  national  collections  of  France 
(Cabinet  des  Estamps),  Dresden,  Buda-Pest,  Mel- 
bourne, Perth,  Adelaide,  and  in  many  State  and  munici- 
pal collections  in  Europe  and  America.  Chairman  of 
International  Jury  of  Awards,  St.  Louis  Exposition, 
1904.  Author:  "A  Canterbury  Pilgrimage,"  "An 
Italian  Pilgrimage,"  "Two  Pilgrims'  Progress,"  "Our 
Sentimental  Journey  Through  France  and  Italy,"  "Pen 
Drawing  and  Pen  Draughtsmen,"  "Our  Journey  to  the 
Hebrides,"  "The  Stream  of  Pleasure,"  "The  Jew  at 
Home,"  "Play  in  Provence,"  "To  Gypsyland,"  "Mod- 
ern Illustration,"  "The  Illustration  of  Books,"  "The 
Alhambra,"  "The  Work  of  Charles  Keene,"  "Lithog- 
raphy and  Lithographers."  Has  illustrated  a  large 
number  of  books. 


476 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Pennypacker,  Samuel  Whitaker,  jurist,  ex-gov- 
ernor; born  in  Phoenixville,  Pa.,  April  9,  1843;  edu- 
cated there  and  at  West  Philadelphia  Institute;  private 
of  26th  "Emergency"  regiment,  1863,  at  Gettysburg; 
graduated  in  law  from  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1866;  has  a  notable  library  of  early  Pennsylvania  im- 
prints; presiding  judge  of  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
Philadelpnia,  until  1902;  governor  of  Pennsylvania, 
1903-07.  Author:  "Pennsylvania  Colonial  Cases," 
"Annals  of  Phoenixville  and  Vicinity,"  "Historical  and 
Biographical  Sketches,"  "Index  to  the  English  Common 
Law  Reports,"  "The  Settlement  of  Germantown," 
"Congress  Hall,"  "Capture  of  Stony  Point,"  "Gen. 
Weedon's  Orderly  Book  at  Valley  Forge,"  "Penny- 
packer's  Supreme  Court  Reports"  (4  vols.);  and  sixty 
other  books  and  papers. 

Pepin  le  Bref.  born  in  714;  King  of  the  Franks  and 
father  of  Charlemagne,  deposed  Childeric  III.,  and 
founded  the  Carlovingian  Dynasty  (751),  and  after- 
wards, by  helping  Stephen  II.  against  the  Lombards, 
founded  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes.     Died,  768. 

Perry,  Bliss,  editor  of  "The  Atlantic  Monthly" 
since  1899;  born  in  Williamstown,  Mass.,  November  25, 
1860;  graduate  of  Williams,  1881,  A.M.,  1883  (L.  H.D., 
Princeton,  1900,  Williams,  1902;  Litt.  D.,  Bowdoin, 
1904);  stuilied  in  Berlin  and  Strassburg  universities. 
Professor  of  English,  Williams,  1886-93;  Princeton, 
1893-1900.  Editor:  "Selections  from  Burke,"  Scott's 
"Woodstock"  and  "Ivanhoe,"  and  "Little  Master- 
pieces." Author:  "The  Broughton  House,"  "Salem 
Kittredge,  and  Other  Stories,"  "The  Plated  City," 
"The  Powers  at  Play,"  "Chapter  on  Poetry  in  Counsel 
Upon  the  Reading  of  Books,'  "A  Study  of  Prose  Fic- 
tion," "The  Amateur  Spirit." 

PestalozzI,  Johann  Heinrich,  born  in  1746;  Swiss 
educationist;  established  an  institution  for  deserted 
children  at  Neuhof  in  1775,  and  afterwards  as  a  school- 
master at  Burgdorf  and  Yverdun,  practiced  his  "in- 
tuitive" system.  His  chief  works  were  "How  Gertrude 
Instructs  Her  Children"  and  his  "Mother's  Book." 
Died,  1827. 

PjBter,  St.,  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  twelve  apostles; 
originally  called  Simon,  he  was  the  son  of  Jona,  and  a 
resident  at  Bethsaida;  his  brother  Andrew,  being  a  dis- 
ciple of  John  the  Baptist,  was  by  John  directe<l  to  Jesus; 
and  speedily  he  prevailed  on  Simon  to  accompany  him 
to  one  who  he  felt  convinced  was  the  predictecf  Messiah. 
Our  Lord  kindly  received  the  newcomer,  and  gave  him 
the  name  of  Cephas,  the  Aramaic  equivalent  to  the  Greek 
Peter  (John  i.  35-42).  Peter  was  a  man  of  ardent  tem- 
perament, affectionate  and  generous.  He  was  favored 
with  special  manifestations  of  his  Master's  confidence, 
and  performed  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  sacred  his- 
tory than  any  other  of  the  twelve  disciples.  He  was 
crucified  with  his  head  downwards  in  the  persecution 
under  Nero,  about  A.  D.  66. 

Peter  I.,  Tsar  of  Russia  (Peter  the  Great) ;  born  in 
1672;  was  joint  ruler  with  Ivan  V.  from  1682  till  1696, 
when  he  became  sole  sovereign;  visited  Holland  and 
England  to  learn  ship-building,  and  on  his  return  sup- 

gressed  the  conspiracy  of  the  Strelitz  (1698);  founded 
t.  Petersburg  in  1703,  and,  after  a  defeat  at  Narva, 
won  the  victory  of  Pultowa  over  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
in  1709.  He  added  to  his  dominions  Esthonia,  Livonia, 
and  part  of  Finland,  and  again  visited  western  Europe 
in  1716-17.     Died,  1725. 

Peters,  John  Punnett,  clergyman;  born  in  New 
York,  December  16,  1852;  graduated  from  Yale,  1873; 
studied  philology  and  theology,  Yale  (Ph.  D.,  1876; 
D.  D.,  1895);  studied  in  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1879-83 
(honorary  scholar  of  divinity.  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1895) ;  professor  of  Old  Testament  languages  and 
literature  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity  School,  Phila- 
delphia, 1884-91;  professor  of  Hebrew,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1885-93;  in  charge  of  expedition  of  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  to  Babylonia,  conducting  excava- 
tions at  Nippur,  1888-95;  rector  of  St.  Michael's  Church, 
New  York,  1893-1904;  canon  residentiary,  Cathedral 
St.  John  the  Divine  since  1904.  Author:  "Scriptures, 
Hebrew  and  Christian"  (Volumes  I  and  II),  ""The  Bible 
as  Literature"  (part  author) ;  "In  Lauda  Zion,"  "Nip- 
pur, or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the  Euphrates," 
two  volumes,  "The  Old  Testament  and  the  New  Scholar- 
ship." Translator:  "Political  History  of  Recent  Times" 
(with  appendix  covering  period  1876-81).  Edited: 
"Diary  of  David  McClure,"  "Early  Hebrew  Story," 
"Some  Tombs  in  the  Necropolis  of  Marissa"  (with  Dr. 
Hermann  Thiersch). 

Petrarca,  Francesco,  Italian  poet;  born  in  Arezzo 
in  1304;  lived  chiefly  at  Avignon,  but  pa.ssed  his  later 
years  at  Milan,  Venice,  and  Padua;  with  Boccaccio  took 
an  active  part  in  the  revival  of  learning,  and  was  crowned 
as  laureate  in  the  capitol  by  King  Robert  of  Anjou  in 


1341.  His  chief  works  are  "Sonnetti,"  "Canzoni  et 
Trionfi  "  (in  praise  of  Laura,  a  married  lady  whom  he 
met  at  Avignon  in  1327),  and  some  Latin  treatises. 
Died  in  ArquA  in  1374. 

Phidias,  one  of  the  greatest  of  sculptors,  an  Athenian; 
is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  500  B.  C.  Little, 
however,  is  known  respecting  his  life.  Hegias  is  stated 
by  some  to  have  been  his  master;  he  also  studied  under 
Ageladas  of  Argos..  He  executed  several  statues  of 
Minerva,  particularly  that  in  the  Parthenon  (the  works 
of  which  temple  he  superintended) ;  a  statue  of  Jupiter 
Olympius;  and  various  other  admirable  productions. 
Died  about  432  B.  C. 

Philip,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  according  to  John's 
Gospel,  "of  Bethsaida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter," 
and  who  was  called  to  follow  Jesus  at  Bethany.  After 
the  resurrection  he  was  present  at  the  election  of  Matthias 
to  the  apostleship,  but  is  not  again  mentioned.  Philip 
the  Evangelist,  often  confounded  with  the  above,  is 
first  mentioned  in  Acts  vi :  5.  He  preached  at  Smyrna, 
where  Simon  Magus  was  one  of  his  converts;  baptized 
the  Ethiopian  eunuch;  and  entertained  Paul  and  his 
companion  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem. 

Philip,  an  Indian  chief,  whose  father  had  been  a 
staunch  friend  of  the  Pilgrim  sefTlers,  was  himself  friendly 
to  the  colonists,  till  in  1671  their  encroachments  pro.- 
voked  him  to  retaliation;  after  six  years'  fighting,  in 
which  many  colonists  perished  and  great  massacres 
of  Indians  took  place,  he  was  defeated  and  slain  in  1676. 

Philip  II.,  King  of  Macedon;  born  382  B.  C;  as- 
cended the  throne  in  359  B.  C;  instituted  the  phalanx, 
made  Thrace  and  Thessaly  tributary,  defeated  the 
Athenians  at  Chacronea  (338),  but  was  assassinated  at 
Mrsd  two  years  later.     Died,  336  B.  C. 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  born  in  1527;  succeeded  upon 
the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  in  1556.  He  married  (1) 
Maria  of  Portugal,  (2)  Mary  of  England,  (3)  Elizabeth 
of  France,  (C)  Anne  of  Austria.  His  reign  was  marked 
by  the  revo*  of  the  Netherlands,  the  annexation  of 
Portugal  (1580),  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Lepanto 
(1571),  and  the  loss  of  the  Armada  (1588).     Died,  1598. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  an  American  orator  and  abolition- 
ist; born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  November  29,  1811.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831,  studied  law  there,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1834.  But  before  clients  came 
he  had  been  drawn  away  from  his  profession  to  the  real 
work  of  his  life.  A  timely  speech  in  Faneuil  Hall,  in  1837, 
made  him  at  once  the  principal  orator  of  the  anti-slavery 
party;  and  henceforth,  till  the  president's  proclamation 
of  January  1,  1863,  he  was  Garrison's  loyal  and  valued 
ally,  his  lectures  and  addresses  doing  more  for  their 
cause  than  can  well  be  estimated.  He  also  championed 
the  cause  of  temperance,  and  that  of  women,  and  ad- 
vocated the  rights  of  the  Indians.  In  1870,  he  was  nomi- 
nated governor  by  the  Prohibitionists  and  the  Labor 
party.  His  speeches  and  letters  were  collected  in  1863 
(new  eflition  1884).  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Febru- 
ary 2,  1884. 

Phipps,  Henry,  manufacturer;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
September  27,  1839;  worked  in  stores  in  Pittsburg, 
1852-56;  office  boy  and  bookkeeper  for  Dilworth  & 
Bidwell,  spike  manufacturers,  1856-61;  partner  in  Bid- 
well  &  Phipps,  agents  for  Dupont  Powder  Company,  1861; 
also  partner  in  small  iron  mill,  Kloman  &  Phipps;  later 
associated  with  Thomas  M.  and  Andrew  Carnegie  in  iron 
and  steel  manufacture,  building  up  large  fortune,  and 
having,  next  to  Mr.  Carnegie,  largest  interest  in  United 
States  Steel  Corporation;  director  of  United  States 
Steel  Corporation,  Carnegie  C^ompany,  Van  Norden  Trust 
Company,  Mellon  National  Bank  (Pittsburg).. 

Pickering,  Edward  Charles,  professor  of  astron- 
omy and  director  Harvard  College  observatory  since 
1876;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  19,  1846;  graduated 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Harvard,  1865  (.\.  M.,  1880, 
LL.  D.,  universities  of  California,  1886,  of  Michigan,  1887, 
of  Chicago,  1901,  of  Harvard,  1903 ;  Ph.  D.  of  Heidelberg, 
1903;  divinity  scholar,  Victoria  University,  England, 
1900) ;  instructor  of  mathematics,  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  1865-67;  Thayer  professor  of  physics,  Massa- 
chusetts Institution  of  Technology,  1867-77;  established 
first  physical  laboratory  in  United  States;  under  his  direc- 
tion, the  invested  capital  and  income  of  the  observatory 
has  increased  fourfold;  study  of  light  and  spectra  of  the 
stars  have  been  special  features  of  his  work;  by  estab- 
lishing an  auxiliary  station  in  Arequipa,  Peru,  southern 
stars  are  also  observed,  extending  the  work  from  pole 
to  pole.  Author:  "  Elements  of  Physical  Manipulation," 
and  various  volumes  of  annals  and  other  publications  of 
Harvard  College  Observatory. 

Pilate,  Pontius,  Roman  procurator  of  Judea  and 
Samaria  in  the  days  of  Christ,  from  A.  D.  26  to  36;  per- 
suaded of  the  innocence  of  Christ  when  arraigned  before 
his  tribunal,  would  fain  have  saved  Him,  but  yielded 


BIOGRAPHY 


477 


to  the  clamor  of  His  enemies,  who  crucified  Him;  lie 
protested  before  they  led  Him  away  by  washing  his  hands 
in  their  presence  that  he  was  guiltless  of  His  blood. 

Pinchot,  Giflford,  forester;  born  in  Simsbury,  Conn., 
August  11,  1865;  graduated  from  Yale,  1889;  studied 
forestry  in  Prance,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Austria; 
began  first  systematic  forest  work  in  United  States  at 
Biltmore,  N.  C,  January,  1892  (M.  A.,  Yale,  1901,  Prince- 
ton, 1904);  member  National  Forest  Commission;  chief 
division,  afterward  Bureau  of  Forestry,  and  later  The 
Forest  Service,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1898-1910;  appointed  member  committee  on  organiza- 
tion of  government  scientific  work,  March  13,  1903, 
and  commission  on  public  lands,  October  22,  1903. 
Author:  "The  White  Pine"  (with  H.  S.  Graves),  "The 
Adirondack  Spruce,"  "A  Primer  of  Forestry." 

Plnero,  Arthur  Wing,  dramatic  author;  was  born 
in  London  in  1855;  commencing  a  legal  career,  he  after- 
wards became  connected  with  the  stage,  and  acted  at  the 
Lyceum  and  Haymarket  theaters.  Devoting  himself 
to  play-writing,  he  produced  his  first  piece,  which  was 
entitled  "Two  can  Play  at  that  Game,  at  the  Lyceum. 
Other  plays  from  his  pen  include  "£200  a  Year,"  "The 
Money  Spinner,"  "The  Squire,"  "Lords  and  Commons," 
"The  Rocket,"  "The  Magistrate,"  "Sweet  Lavender," 
"The  Profligate,"  "In  Chancery,"  "Lady  Bountiful," 
"The  Times,"  "The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray,"  "The 
Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith,"  and  "The  Benefit  of  the 
Doubt,"  "Tlie  Princess  and  the  Butterfly,"  "Trelawny 
of  the  Wells,"  "The  Gay  Lord  Quex,"  "Iris,"  "Letty," 
"A  Wife  without  a  Smile,"  and  "His  House  in  Order." 
He  also  collaborated  with  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  and  Mr. 
Comyns  Carr  in  "The  Beauty  Stone,"  a  romantic  musical 
drama  produced  in  May,  1898. 

Pitt,  William,  English  statesman,  born  m  1759; 
second  son  of  Lord  Chatham;  was  returned  for  Appleby 
in  1780,  as  a  follower  of  Shelburne,  whose  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  he  became  two  years  later.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  Coalition  ministry,  Pitt  became  prime  minis- 
ter, at  first  in  a  minority.  After  the  dissolution  of  1784, 
however,  he  had  a  majority,  with  which  he  passed  his 
India  Bill,  and  carried  on  the  war  with  revolutionary 
France.  In  1801,  he  resigned  on  account  of  the  king's 
opposition  to  the  removal  of  Catholic  disabilities,  with 
which  Pitt  had  hoped  to  accompany  the  Act  of  Union. 
From  1804,  till  his  death  (1806),  Pitt  was  again  in  office, 
and  continued  to  direct  the  struggle  against  France. 

Pius  v.,  Gliislieri,  born  in  1504;  elected  pope  in 
1566,  having  previously  been  inquisitor-general;  excom- 
municated Queen  Elizabeth  and  suppressed  heresy,  but 
also  carried  out  reforms,  and  encouraged  Spain  and 
Venice  in  their  war  against  the  Turks.     Died,  1572. 

Plus  IX.,  Giovanni  Mastai-Ferretti,  born  in  1792; 
was  elected  pope  in  1846,  and  immediately  granted  a  con- 
stitution, but  refused  to  declare  war  against  Austria. 
After  the  insurrection  at  Rome  (1848),  he  fled  to  Gaeta, 
but  was  restored  by  French  aid  two  years  later.  The 
same  year  he  established  a  Catliolic  hierarchy  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  1854,  defined  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception.  In  1859-60  he  lost  the  greater  part  of  his 
dominions,  but  was  maintained  in  Rome  by  a  French 
garrison.  In  1870,  the  Infallibility  dogma  was  promul- 
gated by  the  ecumenical  council  held  at  Rome.  In  that 
year,  when  the  French  left  the  city,  it  was  declared  the 
capital  of  Italy,  and  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Victor 
Emmanuel.     Died,  1878. 

Pius  X.,  is  the  258th  Roman  Pontiff.  His  name  is 
Giuseppe  (Joseph)  Sarto,  and  he  was  born  June  2, 
1835,  at  Riese,  in  the  diocese  of  Treviso,  his  father 
being  a  minor  municipal  official.  His  relatives  are  still 
shoplceepers  and  people  of  humble  position.  He  was 
educated  at  Castelfranco  and  the  diocesan  seminary  of 
Padua,  and  ordained  priest  September  18,  1858.  He 
officiated  nine  years  as  curate  at  Tombolo,  nine  years  as 
parish  priest  of  Salzano ;  and  was  made  canon  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  diocese  of  Treviso  in  1875.  In  1884,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Mantua,  and  Leo  XIII.  made  him  a 
cardinal  and  patriarch  of  Venice,  in  1893.  His  charity 
and  tact  brought  him  unbounded  popularity,  and  he  was 
more  than  once  instrumental  in  settling  serious  strikes 
and  labor  disputes.  He  came  into  direct  personal  con- 
tact with  the  King  and  Queen  of  Italy  while  he  was  cardi- 
nal, but  he  is  credited  with  an  inflexible  resolve  to  main- 
tain the  rights  and  liberty  of  the  Church.  On  the  death 
of  Leo  XIII.,  July  20,  1903,  the  conclave  met,  July  31st, 
and  on  August  4th,  at  the  seventh  scrutiny,  elected 
Cardinal  Sarto  as  pope,  and  he  chose  to  be  known  as 
Pope  Pius  X.  As  priest  and  bishop  his  life  was  spent  in 
the  pastoral  and  episcopal  service  of  the  Church  rather 
than  in  the  paths  of  diplomatic  and  official  service.  He 
has  always  displayed  deep  interest  in  social  questions  and 
in  bettering  tiie  life  of  the  poor,  to  whom  his  charity  at 
Venice  was  proverbial.     He  has  shown  himself  zealous 


in  the  reform  of  Church  music  and  in  other  matters  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline.  In  May,  1907,  he  issued  a 
decree  entrusting  the  revision  of  the  vulgate  to  the  Bene- 
dictine Order,  and  in  September  issued  an  encyclical 
against  the  modernist  movement  in  the  Church. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  born  in  1475;  Spanish  con- 
queror of  Peru;  embarked  for  America  in  1510,  and, 
after  having  once  visited  Peru,  he  returned  in  1831,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  a  civil  war,  got  possession  of  ttiat 
country,  founding  Lima  in  1535.  Six  years  later  he  was 
assassinated  by  the  friends  of  Almagro,  a  rival  whom  he 
had  caused  to  be  executed.  His  brother,  Gonzalo,  who 
had  accompanied  him,  was  put  to  death  in  1548,  for  a 
revolt  against  the  Spanish  viceroy.     Died,  1541. 

Plato,  a  Greek  philosopher;  born  in  Athens  or  in 
^gina,  in  429  B.  C,  the  year  in  which  Pericles 
died.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  after  the  death 
of  that  philosopher,  Plato  himself  became  a  teacher  in 
the  plane  tree  grove  of  the  Academia.  He  had  a  great 
number  of  disciples,  many  of  whom  became  eminent 
teachers.  Among  them  was  Aristotle,  distinguished  as 
the  "Mind  of  the  School,"  and  perhaps  Demosthenes. 
Women  are  said  to  have  attended.  In  his  40th  year, 
Plato  visited  Sicily,  but  he  offended  the  tyrant  Dionysius 
by  the  political  opinions  he  uttered,  and  only  escaped 
death  through  the  influence  of  his  friend,  Dion.  Two 
later  visits  to  the  court  of  the  younger  Dionysius  were 
the  only  interruptions  to  his  calm  life  as  a  teacher  and 
writer  at  Athens.  He  died  in  the  act  of  writing,  it  is 
said,  in  347  B.  C. 

Platt,  Tliomas  Collier,  United  States  senator;  born 
in  Owego,  N.  Y.,  July  15,  1833;  educated  at  Owego 
Academy;  member  of  cla.ss  of  1853,  Yale,  but  compelled 
to  give  up  course  because  of  ill  health  (A.  M.,  1876); 
entered  mercantile  life ;  was  president  of  Tioga  National 
Bank  at  its  organization;  became  largely  interested  in 
lumbering  in  Michigan;  clerk  of  Tioga  County,  1859-61; 
member  of  Congress,  1873-77;  elected  United  States 
senator,  January  18,  1881,  and  resigned,  May  16th,  same 
year,  with  Roscoe  Conkling.  Secretary  and  director  of 
United  States  Express  Co.,  1879,  and  its  president, 
1880-1910.  President  of  board  of  quarantine  commis- 
sioners, N.  Y.,  1880-88;  was  president  of  Southern 
Central  R.  R.  and  of  Addison  &  Northern  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  He  was  the  recognized  leader  in  New  York 
Republican  politics  for  years;  United  States  senator 
from  1897  to  1909.     Died,  1910. 

Plutarch  (ploo'l&rk),  the  most  distinguished  biog- 
rapher of  antiquity,  was  born  in  Bccotia,  about  A.  D.  50. 
After  studying  under  Ammonius  at  Atliens,  he  taught 
philosophy  at  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  as  is 
supposed.  He  belonging  to  the  platonic  school,  and  was 
a  most  prolific  writer.  His  "Lives"  of  eminent  Greeks 
and  Romans,  arranged  in  parallels,  ranks  as  a  standard 
classic. 

Pocahontas  (po-ka-hSn'tSs),  the  daughter  of  Pow- 
hatan, a  powerful  Indian  chief  of  Virginia,  was  born 
about  1595.  She  was  seized  by  the  English,  1612,  and 
held  by  them  as  a  safeguard  against  the  hostility  of  her 
tribe.  She  married  an  Englishman,  John  Rolfe,  who 
took  her  to  England,  where  she  died,  1617. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  an  American  poet,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  1809,  was  a  youth  of  wonderful  genius,  but  of 
reckless  habits,  who  came  to  an  unhappy  and  untimely 
end.  He  left  behind  him  tales  and  poems,  which,  though 
they  were  not  appreciated  when  lie  lived,  have  received 
the  recognition  they  deserve  since  his  death.  His 
poetical  masterpiece,  "The  Raven,"  is  well-known. 
Poe  died,  1849,  at  Baltimore  of  inflammation  of  the  brain, 
insensible  from  which  he  was  picked  up  in  a  street  one 
evening. 

Polli,  James  Knox,  born  in  1795;  eleventh  President 
of  the  United  States ;  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (1835-39)  and  governor  of  Tennessee  (1839- 
41),  and  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  the  presidency  in 
1844.  He  obtained  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  the 
cession  of  Upper  California  and  New  Mexico  by  Mexico, 
as  well  as  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon  boundary. 
Died,  184  J. 

Polloclc,  Sir  Fredericlt,  Bart.,  born  in  1845;  grand- 
son of  Sir  F.  Pollock;  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  Fellow;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1871,  became  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
University  College,  London,  in  1882,  and  at  Oxford,  in 
1883.  His  works  include  "The  Land  Laws"  (English 
Citizen  series),  "Essays  in  Jurisprudence  and  Ethics," 
and  "Introduction  to  Political  Science,"  "Spinoza,"  etc. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan,  a  Spanish  explorer,  the  dis- 
coverer of  Florida;  born  in  San  Servas,  Spain,  in  1460; 
was  a  court  page,  served  against  the  Moors,  and  in  1502, 
sailed  with  Ovando  to  Hispaniola,  and  became  governor 
of  the  eastern  part  of  the  islanl.  In  1510,  he  obtained  the 
government  of  Porto  Rico,  and  had  conquered  the  whole 


478 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


island  by  1512.  He  then  set  out  on  a  quest  for  the 
fountain  of  tierpetual  youth,  and  in  1512  found  Florida. 
He  securecl  the  appointment  of  adelantado  of  the 
country,  and  returned  in  1521,  to  conquer  his  new  sub- 
jects; in  this,  however,  he  failed.  He  retired  to  Cuba, 
and  died  there  in  July  from  the  wound  of  a  poisoned 
arrow. 

Pope,  Alexander,  English  poet;  son  of  a  linendraper; 
was  born  in  London  in  1688,  and  began  as  a  child  to 
write  verses.  He  made  his  reputation  by  the  "Essay 
on  Criticism,"  and  soon  became  the  friend  of  Swift  and 
other  leading  writers,  and  produced  "The  Rape  of  the 
Lock,"  verse  translations  of  the  "  Iliad  "  and  "  Odyssey," 
"The  Dunciad,"  and  the  "Essay  on  Man,"  besides  tak- 
ing part  in  "Miscellanies"  with  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and 
others.     Died,  1744. 

Porter,  Horace,  soldier,  diplomat;  born  in  Hunting- 
don, Pa.,  April  15.  1837;  educated  at  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  Harvard;  graduated  at  West  Point,  1860  (LL.  D., 
Union,  1894).  Served  in  field  through  the  Civil  War, 
every  commissioned  grade  up  to  brigadier-general; 
received  Congressional  medal  of  honor  for  gallantry  at 
Chickamauga-  private  secretary  of  President  U.  S. 
Grant,  1869-73;  since  then  prominent  in  business; 
president  of  several  railway  corporations,  clubs,  and 
patriotic  societies.  Orator  at  inauguration  of  Washing- 
ton Arch,  New  York,  May  4,  1895,  and  dedication  of 
Grant's  Tomb,  New  York,  April  27,  1897;  at  inaugura- 
tion of  Rochambeau  Statue,  Washington  May  24,  1902; 
at  Centennial  of  foundation  of  West  Point  Military 
Academy,  June  11,  1902,  etc.  Decorated  with  Grand 
Cross  of  Legion  of  Honor  by  French  Government,  1904; 
ambassador  to  France,  1897-1905.  Author:  "Cam- 
paigning with  Grant,"  "West  Point  Life,"  etc. 

Porter,  Jane,  born  in  1776,  English  writer;  author  of 
"Thaddeus  of  VVarsaw,"  and  "The  Scottish  Chiefs." 
Died,  1850.  Her  sister,  Anna  Maria,  died,  1832,  wrote 
"The  Hungarian  Brothers,"  and  other  tales. 

Porter,  Noah,  D.D.,  LL.  D.,  bornin  1811;  American 
philosopher;  became  professor  of  metaphysics  and  moral 
philosophy  at  Yale,  in  1846,  and  president  in  1871, 
resigning  in  1886.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Human 
Intellect,"  "Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy," 
"Elements  of  Moral  Science,"  etc.,  and  he  edited  the 
reissues  of  "Webster's  Dictionary"  in  1864  and  1880. 
Died,  1892. 

Potter,  Cora  Urquhart  (Mrs.  James  Brown  Potter), 
actress;  born  in  New  Orleans;  daughter  of  Colonel  David 
Urquhart.  Gained  fame  as  an  amateur  in  New  York; 
professional  d^but  Haymarket  Theater,  London,  as 
Anne  Sylvester  in  "Man  and  Wife,"  March,  1887; 
appeared  at  5th  Avenue  Theater,  New  York,  in  Mile,  de 
Bremier,  October,  1887;  since  then  has  appeared  in 
varied  repertory  and  played  during  three  tours  around 
the  world.  Was  instrumental  in  obtaining  many  thou- 
sands of  pounds  for  the  various  funds  in  aid  of  the  troops 
at  the  front  in  South  Africa;  also  one  of  the  prominent 
ladies  on  committee  of  the  "Maine"  hospital  ship  pre- 
sented by  America  to  British  Government.  A  number 
of  years  past  lias  appeared  continually  in  London  in 
various  theaters.  Author:  "My  Recitations,"  also 
magazine  articles. 

Potter,  Henry  Codman,  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  New  York,  1887-1908;  born  in  Schenectady 
N.  Y.,  May  25,  1835;  educated  at  Episcopal  Academy, 
Philadelphia;  theological  seminary  of  Virginia,  1857 
(A.  M.,  1863,  D.  D.,  1865,  LL.  D.,  1878,  Union; 
LL.  D.,  Yale,  1901;  D.  D.,  Harvard  and  Trinity;  also 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  England).  Ordered  deacon, 
1857;  ordained  priest,  1858;  pastorates:  Christ's  Church, 
Greensburg,  Pa.,  1857-58;  St.  John's,  Troy,  1859-66; 
assistant  at  Trinity  Church,  Boston, ;  rector  at  Grace 
Church,  New  York;  secretary  at  House  of  Bishops, 
1863-83;  coadjutor  to  his  uncle,  Horatio  Potter,  bishop 
of  New  York,  1883-87.  Author:  "Thirty  Years  Re- 
viewed," "Our  Threefold  Victory,"  "Young  Men's 
Christian  Associations  and  Their  Work,"  "The  Church 
and  Her  Children,"  "Sisterhood  and  Deaconesses," 
"The  Religion  for  To-day,"  "The  Gates  of  the  East," 
"Sermons  of  the  City,"  "  Waymarks,"  "The  Scholar  and 
the  State,"  "The  East  of  To-day  and  To-morrow,"  "The 
Industrial  Situation,"  "Law  and  Loyalty."     Died,  1908. 

Powell,  Major  John  Wesley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  born 
in  1834;  American  geologist  and  ethnologist;  lost  an  arm 
in  the  Civil  War,  became  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1887,  and  is 
the  author  of  several  geological  monographs,  and  "Intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  Indian  Languages."     Died,  1902. 

Powers,  Hiram,  born  in  1805;  American  sculptor, 
son  of  a  farmer  in  Vermont;  lived  at  Florence  from  1837 
till  his  death,  his  chief  productions  being  "The  Greek 
Slave,"  "The  Fisher  Boy,"  "Proserpine,"  and  "The 
Indian  Girl."     Died,  1873. 


Praxiteles,  a  famous  Grecian  sculptor,  is  believed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Athens,  to  have  flourished  early  in 
the  Fourth  Century  B.  C,  and  to  have  died  at  the  age 
of  eighty.  He  was  long  attached  to  the  celebrated 
Phryne,  of  whom  he  executed  two  statues,  one  of  which 
was  placed  in  the  temple  of  Delplii,  the  other  in  the 
temple  of  Love  at  Thespia.  His  Venus  at  Cnidus  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  finished  productions  of 
Greece. 

Prescott,  William  Hiekling,  born  in  Salem,  1796; 
American  historian ;  in  spite  of  very  bad  eyesight, 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  wrote  "  History 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  "The  Conquest  of  Mexico, 
"Conquest  of  Peru,"  and  "History  of  Philip  II."  (un- 
finished). He  was  made  D.  C.  L.  at  Oxford  in  1850. 
Died,  1859. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  F.  R.  S.,  born  in  1733;  Unitarian 
natural  philosopher;  gained  the  Copley  medal  in  1773, 
for  his  discoveries  concerning  the  properties  of  fixed  air, 
and  was  librarian  to  Lord  Shelburne  for  seven  years.  He 
also  made  important  observations  on  respiration.  In 
1791,  his  house  at  Birmingham  was  wrecked  by  a  mob 
who  disapproved  his  sympathy  with  the  P'rench  revolu- 
tion, and  three  years  after  he  went  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  died  (1804).  Besides  his  scientific  works,  he 
wrote  a  "History  of  Early  Opinions  Concerning  the 
Person  of  Christ,     and  several  similar  books. 

Prltcliard,  Jeter  Connelly,  jurist.  United  States 
senator  from  North  Carolina,  1894-1903;  born  in  Jones- 
boro,  Tenn.,  July  12,  1857;  common  school  education; 
apprenticed  in  Jonesboro  "Tribune-Herald"  office;  re- 
moved to  Bakersville,  N.  C,  1873;  joint  editor  and 
owner  of  "Roan  Mountain  Republican"  until  1887, 
when  he  removed  to  Marshall,  N.  C.  Was  a  Garfield 
elector,  1880;  legislator,  1884,  1886,  and  1890.  Li- 
censed to  practice  law,  1887.  Appointed  associate  jus- 
tice of  Supreme  Court,  District  of  Columbia,  1903; 
judge  of  United  States  Circuit  Court  since  1904. 

Prouty,  Charles  Azro,  lawyer,  government  official; 
born  in  Newport,  Vt.,  October  9,  1853;  graduate  of 
Dartmouth,  1875.  Assistant  to  Professor  S.  P.  Langley 
at  Allegheny  Observatory,  1875-76;  taught  several 
years;  admitted  to  Vermont  bar,  1882;  practiced  at 
Newport,  Vt.,  1882-96;  member  of  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Vermont,  1888;  repoHer  on  decisions  of 
Supreme  Court  of  Vermont,  1888-96;  since  December, 
1896,  member  of  United  States  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission. 

Ptolemseus  Claudius,  flourished  about  139;  Alex- 
andrian writer,  author  of  the  "Almagest"  or  "Syntax 
of  Astronomy,"  the  theories  of  which  were  accepted 
till  the  discoveries  of  Copernicus.  He  also  wrote  a 
"Geography,"  which  was  for  thirteen  centuries  the 
leading  authority. 

Ptolemaeus  Soter,  King  of  Egypt;  obtained  Egypt 
as  his  share  of  the  dominions  of  Alexander  the  Great  in 
323  B.  C;  was  engaged  in  continual  wars  with  Perdiccas 
and  Antigonus  (n  v.),  and  gained  his  surname  by 
saving  Rhodes  when  besieged  by  Demetrius.  Died, 
283  B.  C. 

PuffendoriT,  Samuel,  Baron  von,  born  in  1632; 
German  jurist  and  historian,  author  of  "  De  Jure  NaturtB 
et  Gentium,"  "  Life  of  Gustavus  of  Sweden,"  etc.  Died, 
1694. 

Pulitzer,  Joseph,  proprietor  of  "New  York  World" 
since  1883;  born  in  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  April  10, 
1847;  educated  by  private  tutor;  came  to  the  United 
States,  1864;  served  until  end  of  Civil  War  in  cavalry 
regiment;  went  to  St.  Louis;  became  reporter  on 
"  Westliche  Post"  (German  newspaper),  1868;  later  its 
managing  editor  and  part  proprietor.  In  1878,  bought 
the  "St.  Louis  Dispatch'  and  united  it  with  "The 
Evening  Post"  as  the  "Post-Dispatch,"  which  he  still 
owns;  member  of  Missouri  Legislature,  1869;  Missouri 
State  Constitutional  Convention,  1874;  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  New  York  for  term,  1885-87,  but  resigned 
after  a  few  months'  service;  delegate  to  Cincinnati 
Liberal  Republican  Convention,  which  nominated 
Horace  Greeley  for  president,  after  that  a  Democrat; 
advocated  the  "  National "  (gold-standard)  Democratic 
ticket,  1896.  In  1903,  endowed  with  $1,000,000  Colum- 
bia College  School  of  journalism. 

Pupln,  Michael  Idvorsky,  professor  of  electro- 
mechanics,  Columbia,  since  1901;  born  in  Idvor,  Banat, 
Hungary,  October  4,  1858;  graduate  of  Columbia,  1883; 
studied  physics  and  mathematics  under  von  Helmholtz, 
University  of  Berlin  (Ph.  D..  Berlin).  Wrote:  "Os- 
motic Pressure  and  Free  Energy,"  "Electrical  Oscilla- 
tion of  Low  Frequency  and  Their  Resonance,"  "Reson- 
ance Analysis  of  Alternating  Currents,"  "Electro- 
magnetic 'Theory,"  "Propagation  of  Long  Electrical 
Waves,"  "Wave  Propagation  Over  Non-uniform  Con- 
ductors." 


BIOGRAPHY 


479 


Purdy,  Milton  Dwlght,  lawyer,  government  ofBcial ; 
born  in  Mogadore,  O.,  November  3,  1866;  graduate  of 
University  of  Minnesota,  1891,  law  department  of  same, 
1892.  Admitted  to  bar,  1892;  assistant  city  attorney, 
Minneapolis,  1893-97;  assistant  county  attorney,  Hen- 
nepin County,  Minn.,  1897-98;  assistant  United  States 
attorney,  1898-1901;  United  States  attorney,  1901-02, 
for  Minnesota;  assistant  attorney-general  of  United 
States,  April  1,  1903,  to  July  27,  1905;  assistant  to 
the  attorney-general  of  United  States,  1900-08,  and 
prominent  as  a  trust  prosecutor. 

Putnam,  Herbert,  librarian  of  Congress;  born  in 
New  York,  September  20,  1861 ;  graduate  of  Harvard, 
1883  (Litt.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1898;  LL.  D.,  Columbian, 
1903;  University  of  Illinois,  1903;  University  of  Wis- 
consin, 1904);  partial  course  at  Columbia  Law  School; 
admitted  to  Minnesota  bar,  1886;  bar  of  Suffolk  County, 
Mass.,  1892;  practiced  law,  Boston,  1892-95.  Librarian 
of  Minneapolis  Athenaeum,  1884-87;  Minneapolis  Pub- 
lie  Library,  1887-91;  Boston  Public  Library,  1895-99; 
appointed  librarian  of  Congress,  1899;  president  of 
American  Library  Association,  1898,  1904;  overseer, 
Harvard  College,  1902-06.  Has  published  numerous  ar- 
ticles in  reviews  and  professional  journals. 

Putnam,  Israel,  an  American  patriot  and  Revolu- 
tionary general,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1718. 
He  early  served  in  the  frontier  war,  fought  against  the 
French,  and,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  fought 
with  distinguislied  valor  at  Bunker  Hill.  In  1775,  he 
was  appointed  major-general,  and,  in  1777,  commanded 
the  army  of  the  New  York  Highlands,  and  supervised 
the  erection  of  the  fortifications  at  West  Point.  Died, 
1790. 

Pyle,  Howard,  artist,  author;  born  in  Wilmington, 
Del.,  in  1853;  educated  in  private  scliools  and  Art 
Students'  League,  New  York;  contributes  as  artist  and 
author  to  leading  New  York  periodicals.  Author  and 
illustrator:  "The  Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood," 
"Pepper  and  Salt,  or.  Seasoning  for  Young  Folks," 
"Within  the  Capes,"  "The  Wonder  Clock,"  "The  Rose 
of  Paradise,"  "Otto  of  the  Silver  Hand,"  "A  Modern 
Aladdin,"  "Men  of  Iron,"  "Jack  Ballister's  Fortunes," 
"Twilight  Land,"  "The  Garden  Behind  the  Moon," 
"Semper  Idem,"  "Rejected  of  Men,"  Also  many  mag- 
azine stories  and  articles. 

Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus;  born  about  318  B.  C; 
came  to  the  throne  in  306  B.  C. ;  was  expelled  a  few 
years  later,  but  restored  by  the  help  of  Ptolemy  Soter 
m  295;  held  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  for  a  short 
time,  and,  in  281,  went  to  Italy  to  help  Tarentum 
against  the  Romans.  He  was  at  first  successful  (through 
his  elephants  and  the  phalanx),  but  was  finally  defeated 
in  275.  After  this  he  again  mastered  Macedonia,  but 
was  killed  by  a  tile  in  a  night  attack  on  Argos,  in  272. 

Pythagoras,  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Samos, 
which  he  left  for  Crotona,  in  Southern  Italy,  where  he 
exercised  so  much  influence  as  an  opponent  of  democ- 
racy that  his  followers  were  exposed  to  persecution  and 
exile.  He  left  no  writings,  but  his  doctrines  of  the 
"  Kosmos,"  "Metempsychosis,"  and  the  "Music  of  the 
Spheres"  are  well  known,  the  first  being  the  beginning 
of  physical  science.     Died,  about  500  B.  C. 

Ques'nay,  Francois,  born  in  A.  D.  1694;  an  eminent 
French  physician,  at  the  time  of  his  death  first  physician 
to  Louis  XVI.  He  is  now  remembered,  however,  as  a 
writer  on  political  economy,  to  which  science  he  is  said 
to  have  given  its  name.  Although  he  wrote  in  the 
infancy  of  the  science,  and  many  of  his  opinions  are  not 
now  maintained,  his  system  is  described  by  Adam 
Smith  as  being,  "  with  all  its  imperfections,  the  nearest 
approximation  to  the  truth  that  has  yet  been  published 
on  the  subject  of  political  economy."     Died,  1774. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  American  statesman,  born  in  Boston, 
1772;  was  bred  to  the  bar,  and  entered  Congress  in  1804, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  oratory  as  leader 
of  the  Federal  party,  as  the  sworn  foe  of  slave-holding, 
and  as  an  opponent  of  the  admission  of  the  Western 
States  into  the  Union;  in  1812,  he  retired  from  Congress, 
gave  himself  for  a  time  to  purely  local  affairs  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  at  lengtli  to  literary  labors,  editing  his 
speeches  for  one  thing,  without  ceasing  to  interest  him- 
self in  the  anti-slavery  movement.     Died,  1864. 

Rachel  (filisa  Rachel  F^lix),  actress,  of  Jewish  de- 
scent; born  in  Switzerland  in  1821.  As  a  child 
she  sang  for  bread  in  the  streets  of  Lyons.  In 
1838,  she  appeared  in  Paris  as  Camille  in  Corneille's 
"Les  Horaces,"  and  was  henceforward  the  unrivaled 
exponent  of  the  classical  school,  her  great  part  being 
Phfedre.     Died,  1858. 

Racine,  Jean,  the  greatest  French  dramatist  of  the 
classical  school,  was  born  in  La  Fert^-Milon  in  1639, 
and  educated  at  Port  Royal.  His  ode  on  the  marriage 
of  Louis  XIV.  (1660)  was  rewarded  by  a  pension  from 


the  king.  He  first  exhibited  his  genius  in  "Andro- 
maque,"  which  was  followed  by  a  brilliant  series  of 
tragedies,  closing  with  "Phfedre."  His  single  comedy, 
"Les  Plaideurs,"  appeared  in  1668.  In  1677,  he  was 
led  by  rehgious  motives  to  cease  writing  for  the  stage, 
but,  in  1691,  ho  published  a  sacred  drama,  "Athalie," 
which  is  by  many  considered  his  masterpiece.  Died, 
1699. 

Ragozin,  Zcnaide  Alexeievna,  author;  born  in 
Russia;  she  traveled  extensively  in  Europe;  came  to 
United  States,  1874,  and  became  naturalized  citizen. 
Author:  "Story  of  Chaldea,"  "Story  of  Assyria," 
"Story  of  Media,  Babylon,  and  Persia,"  "Story  of  Vedic 
India  "  (in  the  "  Stories  of  the  Nations  "  series),  "  History 
of  the  World  "  (first  and  second  parts:  "Earliest  Peoples 
and  Early  Egypt"),  "Siegfried,  the  Hero  of  the  Nether- 
lands," "Beowulf,  the  Hero  of  the  Anglo-Saxons," 
"  Frithjof,  the  Viking  of  Norway,"  "  Roland,  the  Paladin 
of  France,"  "Salammbo,  the  Maid  of  Carthage"  (in 
"Tales  of  Heroic  Ages"  series).  Translated  from 
French,  Anatole  Leroy  Beaulieu's  "The  Empire  of  the 
Tsars  and  the  Russians." 

Raleigh,  or  Ralegh,  Sir  Walter,  statesman,  navi- 
gator, and  author;  born  near  Budleigh  in  1552;  studied 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford ;  fought  in  support  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  France  (1569);  distinguished  himself  against 
the  rebels  in  Ireland,  1580-81 ;  rose  rapidly  in  Eliza- 
beth's favor;  in  1585,  despatched  an  expedition  to 
America,  which  discovered  Virginia,  so  named  in  honor 
of  the  queen;  took  part  in  the  repulse  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  (1588);  in  1595,  went  to  Guiana  in  search  of 
gold,  and  sailed  some  distance  up  the  Orinoco;  held  a 
command  in  the  attack  on  Cadiz  (1596).  After  the 
accession  of  James  I.  he  was  accused  of  complicity  in 
the  plot  to  raise  Arabella  Stuart  to  the  throne,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for  thirteen  years  (1603-16), 
during  which  he  wrote  his  "History  of  the  World." 
In  1616,  he  was  permitted  to  lead  an  expedition  to 
Guiana  against  the  Spaniards,  but  his  pardon  was  made 
dependent  on  his  success,  and,  as  the  attempt  was  a 
failure,  he  was  executed  on  his  return  (1618). 

Ranke,  Leopold  von,  German  historian;  born  in 
Thuringia  in  1795;  educated  at  Leipzig,  was  appointed 
extraordinary  professor  at  Berlin  in  1825,  ordinary  pro- 
fessor in  1834,  and  in  1841,  became  royal  historiographer. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  "History  of  the  Popes," 
the  "History  of  Germany  during  the  Reformation,"  and 
the  "History  of  England:  Chiefly  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century."     Died  in  1886. 

Raphael,  Raffaello  Santi,  or  Sanzio,  born  in  1483; 
son  of  Giovanni  Santi;  a  painter;  studied  under  Pietro 
Perugino;  in  1,")04,  went  to  Florence,  where  he  attached 
himself  to  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and  was  much  influenced  by 
the  works  of  the  Florentine  school;  in  1508,  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  to  adorn  with  frescoes  the 
walls  of  the  Vatican,  which  occupied  him  till  1513.  He 
was  much  employed  by  Leo  X.,  who  succeeded  Julius  in 
1513.  To  this  period  belong  the  cartoons  at  Hampton 
Court.  Raphael  also  displayed  genius  as  an  architect, 
and  after  the  death  of  Bramante  (1514),  superintended 
the  building  of  the  new  cathedral  of  St.  Peter's.  Died  in 
1520. 

Rawlinson,  George,  born  in  1812;  canon  of  Canter- 
bury, historian,  and  Orientalist;  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  was  appointed  Camden  professor  of  an- 
cient history  in  1861.  Among  his  chief  works  are  his 
version  of  Herodotus  (1858-60),  and  histories  of  "The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World," 
and  "Ancient  Egypt."     Died,  1902. 

Rayner,  Isidor,  United  States  senator,  lawyer;  born 
in  Baltimore,  April  11,  1850;  educated  at  University  of 
Virginia;  admitted  to  bar,  1871;  elected  to  Maryland 
legislature,  1878,  State  Senate,  1886;  member  of  Con- 
gress, 1887-89,  1891-95;  attorney-general,  Maryland, 
1899-1903;  counsel  for  Rear-Admiral  Schley  before 
investigation  commission,  1901 ;  United  States  senator, 
Maryland,  since  1905. 

Reade,  Charles,  novelist  and  dramatist;  born  in 
Oxfordshire  in  1814;  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  became  Fellow.  Among  his  novels, 
most  of  which  were  intended  to  e.xpose  some  social  abuse, 
were  "Peg  WofSngton,"  "It  is  Never  "Too  Late  to  Mend," 
"The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth,"  and  "Griffith  Gaunt." 
Died,  1884. 

Reclus,  Jean  Jacques  Elisee,  a  French  geographer; 
born  in  Sainte-Foix  la  Grande,  France,  March  15,  1830. 
In  consequence  of  his  extreme  democratic  views  he  left 
France  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851,  and  spent  the  next 
seven  years  in  England,  Ireland,  North  and  Central 
America,  and  Colombia.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1858, 
and  published  an  introduction  to  the  "Dictionary  of  the 
Communes  of  France"  (1864).  While  living  in  exile  in 
Switzerland  he  began  his  masterpiece,   "New  General 


480 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Geography."  Reclus  wrote  another  great  work,  a 
physical  geography,  entitled  "The  Earth."     Died,  1905. 

Reed,  Thomas  B.,  a  prominent  legislator;  born  in 
Portland,  Me.,  October  18,  1839;  educated  at  Bowdoin 
College;  studied  law,  and  began  practice  in  1865.  Dur- 
ing the  war  was  acting  assistant  paymaster  in  the  West- 
ern River  Navy.  He  entered  the  Maine  House  in  1868, 
and  the  Senate  in  1870;  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1877, 
where  he  remained  until  1899.  He  gradually  became  a 
leader  of  the  Kepublican  members,  and  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  51st  Congress,  in  which  he  made  the  fa- 
mous new  rule  that  all  members  present  should  be  coimted 
to  make  a  quorum,  whether  voting  or  not.  Retired  from 
Congress  in  1899,  and  died  in  1902. 

Rehan,  Ada,  actress;  born  in  Limerick,  Ireland, 
April  22,  1860;  came  to  United  States  in  childhood; 
made  first  appearance  on  stage  at  14,  in  Newark, 
N.  J.;  played  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Albany,  and 
IvOuisville  stock  companies.  Engaged  by  Augustin 
Daly  in  1879,  filling  leading  positions  in  Daly's  Theater 
until  his  death,  in  1899,  playingsuch  characters  in  Shakes- 
perean  and  old  comedies  as  Rosalind,  Katherine,  Viola, 
Beatrice,  Portia,  Lady  Teazle,  Peggy  in  the  Country  Girl, 
and  many  high-claas  modern  comedy  parts. 

Rcid,  Whltclaw,  born  in  1837;  American  journalist; 
became  editor  of  the  "New  York  Tribune"  in  1872; 
from  1889-92,  was  United  States  minister  to  France; 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain  since  1905.  Author:  "Af- 
ter the  War,  a  Southern  Tour,"  "Ohio  in  the  War," 
"Schools  of  Journalism,"  "Newspaper  Tendencies," 
"Town  Hall  Suggestions,"  "Two  Speeches  at  the  Queen's 
Jubilee,"  "Some  Consequences  of  the  Last  Treaty  of 
Paris,"  "Our  New  Duties,"  "Later  Aspects  of  Our  New 
Duties,"  "A  Continental  Union,"  "Our  New  Interests," 
"Problems  of  Expansion." 

Rembrandt  van  Rijn,  born  in  1607;  an  eminent 
painter  and  engraver;  was  the  son  of  a  miller  near  Ley- 
den.  He  studied  for  three  years  under  Jacob  van  Swan- 
enburch,  and  was  afterwards  the  pupil  of  Peter  Lastman 
at  Amsterdam,  and  of  Jacob  Pinas  at  Haarlem.  In  1630, 
he  settled  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1669.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "The  Anatomical  Lesson,"  and  "The 
Night  Watch." 

Remington,  Frederic,  artist,  author,  sculptor;  born 
in  Canton,  N.  Y.,  October  4,  1861 ;  educated  at  Yale  Art 
School  and  Art  Students'  League,  New  York;  was  clerk 
in  store,  then  cowboy  and  stockman  on  ranch  in  the  West; 
subsequently  illustrator  for  magazines,  treating  military 
and  western  American  subjects,  and,  during  1897-98, 
Cuban  scenes;  well  known  as  a  painter;  among  his  lead- 
ing works  in  sculpture  are  "The  Broncho  Buster"  and 
"The  Wounded  Bunkie."  Author:  "Pony  Tracks," 
"Crooked  Trails,"  "Frontier  Sketches,"  "John  Ermine 
of  the  Yellowstone"  (novel).     Died,  1909. 

Remsen,  Ira,  president  since  September,  1901,  and 
professor  of  chemistry  since  1876,  Johns  Hopkins;  born 
in  New  York,  February  10,  1846;  graduated  from  col- 
lege of  city  of  New  York,  1865;  M.  D.,  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  New  York;  Ph.  D.,  University  of 
Gottingen,  Germany  (LL.  D.,  Columbia,  1893,  Princeton, 
1896,  Yale,  1901,  Toronto,  1902);  professor  of  chem- 
istry, Williams,  1872-76;  founder,  1879,  and  editor, 
"American  Chemical  Journal."  Author:  "The  Prin- 
ciples of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  ".\n  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Compounds  of  Carbon,  or  Organic 
Chemistry,"  "The  Elements  of  Chemistry,"  "Inorganic 
Chemistry,"  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chemistry," 
"A  Laboratory  Manu.il,"  "Chemical  Experiments,"  and 
many  scientific  articles  and  addresses. 

Rcnan,  Joseph  Kmest,  Orientalist,  historian,  and 
essayist;  born  in  1823  in  Trdguier,  in  Brittany;  in  1842, 
he  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  but  later  gave 
up  the  priesthood.  His  first  important  work,  "  Averroes 
et  r  Averroisme,"  appeared  in  1852.  Appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  in  the  College  de  France,  1862,  was 
removed,  1863,  for  unorthodoxy,  and  reappointed  in 
1870.  The  "Vie  de  J»5sus,"  which  gave  rise  to  much 
discussion,  was  afterwards  expanded  into  "Histoiredes 
Origines  du  Christianisme."  He  also  published  ".Le 
Judaisme,"  and  numerous  other  works.     Died,  1892. 

Rennle,  John,  civil  engineer;  born  in  Phantassie,  East 
Lothian,  Scotland,  in  1761;  employed  by  the  firm  of  Messrs. 
Boulton  &  Watt,  at  Soho,  Birmingham,  and  entrusted  by 
them  to  direct  in  the  construction  of  the  Albion  Mills,  Lon- 
don, he  became  at  once  famous  for  his  engineering  ability, 
and  was  in  general  request  for  other  works,  sucn  as  the 
C9nstruction  of  docks,  canals,  and  bridges,  distinguishing 
himself  most  in  connection  with  the  last,  of  which 
Waterloo,  Southwark,  and  London  over  the  Thames, 
are  perhaps  the  finest.     Died,  1821. 

Reuter,  Baron  Paul  Julius,  born  in  Cassel  in  1821; 
in  1849,  established  an  office  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  for  sup- 
plying news  by  telegraph,  and  thereby  revolutionized 


the  press  of  Europe.  In  1851,  he  transferred  his  business 
to  London.  He  laid  several  important  telegraphic  cables. 
Died,  1899. 

Revere,  Paul,  an  American  patriot;  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  in  1735,  and  bred  a  goldsmith.  He  was 
conspicuous  for  his  zeal  against  the  mother  country,  and 
one  of  the  first  actors  in  the  revolt.     Died,  1818. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Josliua,  painter;  born  in  Plympton, 
in  Devonshire,  in  1723;  studied  under  the  portrait- 
painter  Hudson;  removed  to  London  in  1746;  traveled 
in  Italy,  1749-52;  on  his  return  to  London  was  imme- 
diately recognized  as  the  greatest  portrait  painter  of  the 
day.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Royal  Academy 
(1768-92),  and  in  1784,  was  appointed  painter  to  the 
king.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were  Johnson,  Burke, 
Goldsmith,  and  other  eminent  literary  men.  His  fifteen 
"Discourses  on  Painting"  were  delivered  before  the 
Royal  Academy  between  1769  and  1790.     Died,  1792. 

Rhees,  Rush,  president  of  University  of  Rochester 
since  July  1,  1900;  born  in  Chicago,  February  8,  1860; 
graduated  from  Amherst,  1883,  A.  M.,  1897,  LL.  D.,  1900; 
graduated  from  Hartford  Theological  Seminary.  1888; 
(D.  D.,  Colgate  University,  1901);  Walker  instructor 
of  mathematics,  Amherst,  1883-85;  ordained,  1889; 
pastor  Middle  Street  Baptist  Church,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
1889-92;  associate  professor  New  Testament  interpreta- 
tion, Newton  Theological  Institution,  Newton  Centre, 
Mass.,  1892-94;  professor  of  same,  1894-1900.  Author: 
"The  Life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  a  Study,"  "St.  Paul's 
Experience  as  a  Factor  in  His"  Theology,"  and  other 
articles  in  several  journals  and  periodicals. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  statesman;  born  in  Hertfordshire  in 
1853;  son  of  a  vicar;  went  to  South  Africa;  became 
director  of  the  diamond  mines  at  Kimberley,  and  amassed 
a  large  fortune;  entered  the  Cape  Parliament,  and  be- 
came prime  minister  in  1890;  he  was  active  and  suc- 
cessful in  extending  the  British  territories  in  South  Africa, 
aiming  at  destroying  the  race  prejudices  that  prevail  in 
it,  and  at  establishing  among  the  different  colonies  a 
federated  union;  founded  the  Rhodes  scholarships  at 
Oxford  University.     Died.  1902. 

Rhodes,  James  Ford,  author;  born  in  Cleveland, 
O.,  May  1,  1848;  educated  at  public  schools.  University 
of  New  York,  University  of  Chicago;  was  not  graduated 
(LL.  D.,  Adelbert  College,  Western  Reserve  University, 
1893;  Harvard,  1901 ;  Yale,  1901 ;  University  of  Wisconsin, 
1904;  Litt.  D.,  Kenyon,  1903);  Loubat  prize,  Berlin 
Academy  of  Science,  1901.  Author:  "History  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Compromise  of  1850  "  (volumes 
I  to  VII,  1850-77,  published). 

Ricardo,  David,  born  in  1772;  political  economist, 
son  of  a  Jewish  broker;  entered  parliament  in  1819. 
His  "Principles  of  Political  Economy  and  Taxation," 
containing  his  famous  theory  of  rent,  was  published  in 
1817.     Died,  1823. 

Richard.  The  name  of  three  kings  of  England. 
Richard  I.  (Occur  de  Lion)  was  born  1157,  third  son  of 
Henry  II.;  succeeded  his  father,  1189.  He  led  the 
English  contingent  in  the  third  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  while  on  his  return,  1192,  was  imprisoned  by  the 
Emperor  of  Germany,  being  ransomed  after  two  years. 
He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Limoges,  1199.  Richard 
II.,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  was  born  at  Bordeaux, 
1366;  succeeded  his  grandfather,  Edward  III.,  1377,  and 
was  deposed  in  favor  of  Henry  IV.  He  is  believed  to 
have  died  in  prison  about  1400.  Richard  III.,  son  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  born,  1452,  was  the  last  of  the 
Plantagenet  line.  He  usurped  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Edward  IV.,  1483,  imprisoning,  and  it  is 
believed  ordering  the  murder  of  his  two  young  nephews. 
Defeated  by  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  at  Bosworth, 
Richard  was  killed  on  the  field  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
victor,  as  Henry  VII. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Piessis,  Due  de,  born 
in  Paris,  1585,  French  cardinal  and  statesman,  became 
bishop  of  Lucon  in  1607;  in  1615,  entered  the  service  of 
the  Queen-mother,  Marie  de'  Medici,  and  in  1616,  became 
secretary  of  state  for  war  and  foreign  affairs.  He  fol- 
lowed Marie  de'  Medici  to  Blois  (1617),  and  was  exiled 
to  Avignon,  but  was  soon  afterwards  recalled,  and 
effected  a  reconciliation  between  the  king  and  queen, 
receiving  as  his  reward  a  cardinal's  hat.  In  1624,  he 
became  chief  minister,  an  office  which  he  retained  till  his 
death  (1642).  During  this  period  he  established  the  abso- 
lute power  of  the  king,  and  crushed  the  Calvinistic  party, 
although  he  was  led  by  political  motives  to  support  the 
Protestants  in  Germany. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  English  reformer;  born  in  Northum- 
berland, about  1500,  studied  at  Cambridge,  Paris,  and 
Louvain;  returned  to  Cambridge  in  1529;  became  chap- 
lain to  Cranmer,  in  1537,  and,  about  1540,  master  of 
Pembroke  Hall;  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rochester,  in 
1547,  and  of  London,  in  1550;    took  a  leading  part  in 


BIOGRAPHY 


481 


composing  the  liturgy  and  drawing  up  the  forty-two 
articles;  favored  the  attempt  to  place  Lady  Jane  Grey 
on  the  throne,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower;  was 
condemned  to  death  for  heresy,  and  burnt,  with  Latimer, 
at  Oxford,  in  October,  1555. 

Rlis,  Jacob  August,  journalist,  author;  born  in 
Ribe,  Denmark,  May  3,  1849,  and  was  educated  in 
Latin  school  there.  He  came  to  New  York  and  became 
police  reporter  for  "New  York  Sun";  active  in  small 
parks  and  playgrounds  movernent;  executive  officer  of 
Good  Government  clubs,  1896-97.  Author:  "How  the 
Other  Half  Lives,"  "The  Making  of  an  American," 
"The  Children  of  the  Poor,"  "The  Children  of  the  Slum," 
"The  Children  of  the  Tenement,"  "Peril  and  Preserva- 
tion of  the  Home,"  "Roosevelt,  the  Citizen,"  "Is  There 
a  Santa  Claus?"  and  numerous  magazine  articles  on 
social  and  economic  subjects. 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  author;  born  in  Green- 
field, Ind.,  in  1853;  educated  at  the  public  schools; 
began  contributing  poems  to  Indiana  papers,  1873,  and 
has  long  been  known  as  "  the  Hoosier  poet " ;  much  of  his 
verse  is  in  the  Middle- Western  or  Hoosier  dialect;  his 
earlier  Hoosier  dialect  verse,  and  his  first  book,  appeared 
under  the  pen-name  "Benj.  F.  Johnson,  of  Boone" 
(M.  A.,  Yale,  1902;  Litt.  D.,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1904).  Author:  "The  Old  Swimmin'  Hole  and  'Leven 
More  Poems,"  "The  Boss  Girl  and  Other  Sketches," 
" Afterwhiles,"  "Old-Fashioned  Hoses"  (published  in 
England) ;  "  Pipes  o'  Pan  at  Zekesbury,"  "  Rhymes  of 
Childhood,"  "Flying  Islands  of  the  Night,"  "Green 
Fields  and  Running  Brooks,"  "Armazindy,"  "A  Child- 
World,"  "Neighborly  Poems,"  "Home  Folks,"  "Poems 
Here  at  Home,"  "  Rubaiyat  of  Doc.  Sifers,"  "The 
Book  of  Joyous  Children,"  "  An  Old  Sweetheart  of  Mine," 
"Out  to  Old  Aunt  Mary's,"  "A  Defective  Santa  Claus." 

Ristori,  Adelaide,  born  in  1822;  Italian  actress,  the 
child  of  strolling  players;  married,  in  1847,  the  Marquis 
Capranica  del  GriUo,  but  afterwards  returned  to  the  stage. 
Having  established  her  reputation  in  Italy,  she  visited 
Paris,  1855,  London,  1856,  and  other  European  capitals, 
as  well  as  the  United  States  and  South  America.  In 
America  she  played  with  Edwin  Booth.     Died,  1906. 

Robbia,  Luca  della,  born  about  1399,  an  Italian 
sculptor;  famous  for  his  work  in  enameled  terra-cotta. 
Died,  1482.  His  nephew,  Andrea,  born  1438,  excelled 
in  the  same  art.     Died,  1528. 

Robert  Bruce,  King  of  Scotland;  born  in  1274,  was 
the  grandson  of  Balliol's  rival  in  1292.  In  1306,  he  mur- 
dered the  regent,  Comyn,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone, 
but  was  defeated  by  Edward  I.  the  .same  year.  After  many 
years  of  hardship  and  ill-fortune,  he  gained  a  final  victory 
over  Edward  II.  at  Bannockburn,  in  1314.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Northampton  (1328),  the  complete  independ- 
ence of  Scotland  was  recognized.     Died,  1329. 

Roberts,  Frederlcli,  Lord,  an  English  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Cawnpur,  India,  September  30,  1832.  He 
was  taken  to  England  when  two  years  old,  educated 
at  Clifton,  Eton,  Sandhurst,  and  Addiscombe,  and  en- 
tered the  Bengal  Artillery  in  1851.  His  first  taste  of 
actual  warfare  was  in  the  hot  time  of  the  siege  of  Delhi, 
during  the  mutiny,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
subsequent  operations  down  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow. 
He  discharged  the  duties  of  assistant  quartermaster- 
general  in  the  Abyssinian  expedition  of  1868,  and  in  the 
Lushai  expedition  of  1871-72.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Afghan  War  in  1878,  Roberts,  now  major-general, 
was  appointed  to  command  the  Kurram  division  of  the 
army.  He  forced  in  brilliant  fashion  the  Afghan  posi- 
tion on  the  peak  of  Peiwar  Kotul  (8,500  feet  above  sea- 
level).  After  the  murder  of  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari  and 
the  escort  of  the  British  mission  at  Kabul,  he  was  given 
command  of  the  force  sent  to  avenge  them.  He  de- 
feated the  Afghans  at  Charasia  on  October  6th,  took 
possession  of  Kabul  on  the  12th,  and  assumed  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country.  On  August  9th,  Sir  F.  Roberts 
set  out  on  his  memorable  march  through  the  heart  of 
Afghanistan  to  the  relief  of  Kandahar,  which  he  reached 
three  weeks  later.  He  immediately  gave  battle  to  Ayub 
Khan  and  routed  him  completely,  capturing  all  his 
artillery  and  his  camp;  was  appointed  oommander-in- 
chief  of  the  Madras  army  (1881),  and  held  the  rank 
of  commander-in-chief  in  India  (1885-93).  He  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland 
in  1895;  and  in  1899  took  command  of  the  English 
forces  in  South  Africa;  capturing  Cronje,  relieving 
Kimberley,  and  annexing  the  two  republics.  He  re- 
turned to  England  and  was  made  commander-in-chief 
to  succeed  Lord  Wolseley. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Marie  Isidore  {rob'aiz- 
peer),  a  French  revolutionist,  was  born  at  Arras,  1758. 
After  studying  law  and  gaining  some  distinction  as  an 
advocate,  he  entered  the  States-General  in  1789,  as  one 
of  the  representatives  of  Artois.     In  that  assembly  he 


soon  made  his  mark  as  a  rabid  Democrat,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  Jacobin  body.  In  1792,  the  City  of  Paris 
elected  him  one  of  its  deputies  to  the  convention, 
where  he  speedily  became  the  leader  of  the  Mountain 
party,  in  its  struggles  with  the  Girondins.  Over  the 
latter,  with  the  help  of  the  Commune  of  Paris  and  the 
mob,  he  achieved  a  decisive  triumph  in  June,  1793. 
After  this  he  inaugurated  the  Reign  of  Terror,  by  con- 
stituting himself  president  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  and  associating  along  with  him  Couthon  and  Saint- 
Just.  In  1794,  being  by  this  time  in  possession  of  almost 
unlimited  power,  Robespierre  opened  the  regime  of  the 
guillotine  by  first  sacrificing  his  Girondist  rivals,  and 
then  sending  indiscriminately  to  their  death  thousands 
of  innocent  persons  of  both  sexes.  The  excesses  of  this 
monster  at  last  raised  against  him  a  strong  combination 
of  opponents,  and  the  convention  declaring  him  an 
outlaw,  Robespierre  perished  under  the  guillotine,  July 
28,  1794. 

Roctiambeau,  JeanBaptiste  Donatien  de  Vlmeur, 
Conite  de,  born  in  1725,  marshal  of  France;  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  and  the  American 
War  of  Independence;  in  1790,  became  commander  of 
the  army  of  the  north,  but  resigned  in  1792,  and  narrowly 
escaped  execution  during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Died, 
1807. 

Roclcefeller,  Jolin  Davison,  capitalist;  born  in 
Richford,  N.  Y.,  July  8,  1839;  moved  to  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
1853;  public  school  education;  married  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  September  8,  1864,  Laura  C.  Spelman.  Was  clerk 
in  forwarding  and  commission  house;  at  19,  partner  in 
firm  of  Clark  &  Rockefeller,  commission  merchants; 
firm  became  Andrews,  Clark  &  Co.,  and  engaged  in  oil 
business;  in  1865,  the  firm,  then  William  Rockefeller  & 
Co.,  built  Standard  Oil  Works,  Cleveland;  this  was  con- 
solidated with  others  in  Standard  Oil  Company,  1870; 
other  interests  were  later  acquired  and  the  Standard  Oil 
Trust  was  formed,  1882,  but  dissolved,  1892;  the  various 
Standard  Oil  companies  now  being  operated  separately, 
with  Mr.  Rockefeller  at  the  head  of  the  entire  business.  He 
has  given  over  $30,000,000  to  the  University  of  Chicago; 
a  $100,000  building,  3,000  volumes  on  Greek  art  and 
literature,  and  money  donations  to  Vassar;  $1,375,000  to 
Barnard  College;  $50,000  to  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  for  a 
high-service  water  tower;  $250,000  to  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union  and  Home  Missionary  Society;  $43,- 
000,000  to  General  Education  Board;  $1,000,000  to 
Yale,  1905;  endowed  Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical 
Research,  New  York,  etc. 

Rockefeller,  Joiin  Davison,  Jr.,  capitalist;  born  in 
1877;  son  of  John  Davison  and  Laura  C.  (Spelman) 
Rockefeller;  graduate  of  Brown  University;  married,  in 
1901,  Abby  Green  Aldrich.  Associated  with  his  father 
in  business  enterprises ;  member  of  board  of  managers  of 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  Railroad  Company; 
director  of  Standard  Oil  Co.;  United  States  Steel  Corpo- 
ration, Missouri  Pacific  Railway  Company,  Colorado 
Fuel  and  Iron  Company,  Federal  Mining  and  Smelting 
Company,  American  Linseed  Company,  trustee  of  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Rocltefeller,  William,  capitalist;  born  in  Richford, 
Tioga  County,  N.  Y.,  May  31,  1841 ;  educated  at  Owego, 
N.  Y.,  and  Cleveland,  Ohio;  was  bookkeeper  and  later 
partner  in  produce  commission  trade;  soon  after  joined 
his  brother,  John  D.  Rockefeller,  in  oil  business;  since 
1865  at  head  of  the  business  in  New  York;  now  president 
of  the  Standard  Oil  Co.,  of  New  York;  vice-president  and 
director  of  Standard  Oil  Co.,  of  New  Jersey;  trustee 
of  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company,  Consolidated  Gas 
Company,  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company,  United 
States  Trust  Company;  director  of  Amalgamated  (jopper 
Company,  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway 
Company,  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railway 
Company,  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Rail- 
road Company,  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
Railroad  Company,  Union  Pacific  Railway  Company, 
Central  New  England  Railway  Company,  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  &  Western  Railroad  Company,  Hartford 
&  Connecticut  Western  Railroad  Company,  Harlem 
River  &  Portchester  Railroad  Company,  New  York  & 
Harlem  Railroad  Company,  Poughkeepsie  Bridge  Rail- 
road Company,  National  City  Bank,  Columbia  Bank, 
Hanover  National  Bank,  Leather  Manufacturers  National 
Bank,  Lincoln  National  Bank,  2d  National  Bank,  Mutual 
Alliance  Trust  Company,  National  Transit  Company, 
United  Metals  Selling  Company,  New  York  Mutual  Gas 
Light  Company,  New  York  Carbide  and  Acetylene 
Company,  Brooklyn  Union  Gas  Company,  etc. 

Roebling,  John  A.  (rdb'ltng),  an  American  civil 
engineer,  was  born  in  Miihlhausen,  Prussia,  1806.  He 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1831,  and  in  course  of 
years  became  the  designer  and  constructor  of  many 
great  public  works;    among  them  the  canal  aqueduct 


482 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


across  the  Allegheny  River,  and  the  Monongahela  sus- 
pension bridge,  both  at  Pittsburg;  the  suspension  bridge 
at  Niagara,  the  Ohio  bridge  at  Cincinnati,  etc.  Roebling 
died  in  1869,  having  just  before  projected  the  bridge 
over  the  East  River,  to  connect  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Brooklyn,  completed  by  his  son  and  opened  to  travel 
in  1883. 

Roebling,  Washington  Augustus,  engineer;  born 
in  Saxonburg,  Pa.,  May  26,  1837;  graduate  of  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute,  1857;  joined  his  father  in 
construction  of  Pittsburg  suspension  bridge  across  Alle- 
gheny River;  served,  1861-65,  in  Union  Army,  private 
to  brevet  colonel;  resigned  January,  1865,  to  assist  his 
father  in  building  Cincinnati  and  Covington  suspension 
bridge.  The  Brooklyn  bridge  was  undertaken  by  his 
father,  but  his  death,  July  22,  1869,  before  tlie  work  had 
been  begun,  left  the  entire  construction  in  his  hands,  and 
he  directed  it  to  completion.  He  is  president  of  The 
John  A.  Roebling's  Sons  Company,  manufacturers  of 
iron  and  steel  wire  and  wire  rope,  Trenton,  N.  J.  Author: 
"Military  Suspension  Bridge,     etc. 

Roentgen,  VViilielm  Conrad,  the  discoverer  of  the 
X-Rays,  is  of  Dutch  origin,  and  was  born  in  1845. 
He  began  his  university  studies  at  Zurich,  and  from  there 
followed  Professor  Kundt  to  Wurzburg,  and  afterwards 
to  Strasbiirg,  in  whose  university  he  acted  as  Kundt's 
assistant  in  1873.  In  1875,  he  became  professor  of 
physics  and  mathematics  at  the  Agricultural  Academy 
m  Wurttemberg;  in  1876,  he  returned  to  Strasburg;  in 
1879,  became  professor  at  Giessen,  in  1888  at  Wurzburg, 
and  at  Munich  since  1899.  He  has  written  several 
works  on  scientific  subjects,  and  of  late  years  has  studied 
the  effects  of  electricity  when  passed  through  various 
gases;  also  the  absorption  of  heat  rays  by  steam  and 
Mses.  His  discovery  of  the  rays  which  he  has  named 
A-Rays  came  by  chance  when  he  was  experimenting 
with  vacuum  tubes.  He  studied  them  thoroughly,  how- 
ever, before  making  his  discovery  public. 

Roger  II.,  King  of  Sicily;  born  in  1097.  He  gained 
some  territory  from  his  cousin,  William  of  Apulia,  after 
whose  death,  in  1127,  he  was  acknowledged  as  Duke  of 
Apulia,  Calabria,  and  Naples,  receiving  his  investiture 
from  Pope  Honorius  II.  (1128).  Soon  afterwards  the 
Prince  of  Capua  did  homage  to  him  as  his  over-lord. 
In  1129,  he  received  from  the  anti-pope,  Anacletus,  the 
title  of  King  of  Sicily.     Died,  1154. 

Rogers,  Henry  H.,  capitalist;  born  in  Fairhaven, 
Mass. ;  was  a  large  stockholder  and .  vice-president 
and  director  of  Standard  Oil  Company;' president  and 
director  of  Amalgamated  Copper  Company,  National 
Transit  Company,  Natural  Fuel  Gas  Company,  New 
York  Transit  Company,  Richmond  Light  and  Railroad 
Company;    vice-president  and  trustee  of  Anaconda  Cop- 

ger  Mining  Company;  vice-president  and  director  of 
Brooklyn  Union  Gas  Company,  United  Metals  Selling 
Company;  trustee  of  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company 
of  New  York;  director  of  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion, Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  F<5  Railroad  Company, 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway  Company, 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  New  Jersey  &  Staten 
Island  Ferry  Company,  Rapid  Transit  Ferry  Company, 
Staten  Island  Ferry  Company,  Atlas  Tack  Company, 
Farmers'  Loan  and  Trust  Company,  Guaranty  Trust 
Company,  Mutual  Alliance  Trust  Company,  National 
Bank  of  Fairhaven,  New  York,  Carbide  and  Acetylene 
Company.  He  made  many  gifts  to  his  native  town, 
including  a  library,  town  hall,  schools,  churches,  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Rogers,  Henry  Wade,  dean  law  department  of  Yale 
from  January,  1904;  born  in  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y., 
October  10,  1853;  graduate  of  University  of  Michigan, 
1874  (A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  Wesleyan  University,  Conn.). 
Admitted  to  bar,  1877;  professor  law  in  law  school. 
University  of  Michigan,  1883;  dean  of  same,  1885-90; 
president  of  Northwestern  University,  1890-1901;  pro- 
fessor of  law,  Yale,  1901-03.  Author:  "Illinois  Cita- 
tions," "Expert  Testimony,"  also  numerous  articles  for 
law  journals  and  reviews. 

Roland.  Marie  Jeanne  Phlipon,  born  in  1754; 
was  daughter  of  an  engraver  at  Paris,  and  married  Roland 
in  1780.  She  sympathized  with  his  revolutionary  ideas, 
and  exercised  much  influence  over  the  policy  of  the 
Girondist  party.  On  the  proscription  of  the  Girondists 
she  was  confined  in  the  Abbaye,  and,  after  five  months' 
imprisonment,  put  to  death.  Her  "M^moires"  were 
written  during  her  confinement.     Died,  1793. 

Romanes,  George  Jolin,  naturalist;  born  in  Kings- 
ton, Canada,  in  1848;  took  an  honorsdegree  in  science  at 
Cambridge;  came  under  the  influence  of  Darwin,  whose 
theory  of  evolution  he  advocated  and  developed  in 
lectures  and  various  works,  e.  g.,  "Scientific  Evidences 
of  Organic  Evolution,"  "Mental  Evolution  in  Animals," 
"  Mental  Evolution  in  Man  " ;  his  posthumous  "  Thoughts 


on  Religion"  reveal  a  marked  advance  from  his  early 
agnosticism  towards  a  belief  in  Christianity;  founded 
the  Romanes  Lectures  at  Oxford.     Died,  1894. 

RomanzofT,  Peter  Alexandrovltsch  {ro-man'tsof). 
Count  de,  a  Russian  general,  was  born  about  1730,  and 
entered  the  army  at  a  very  early  period.  After  having 
acquired  reputation  in  subordinate  ranks,  he  was,  in 
1769,  appointed  to  command  the  army  against  the 
Turks.  In  four  campaigns  he  obtained  several  victories, 
and  conquered  several  fortresses;  and  he  crowned  his 
labors  by  compelling  the  grand  vizier  to  sign,  in  1774, 
the  treaty  of  Kaiiiardji.  In  1788  he  was  again  placed 
at  the  head  of  an  army  against  the  Ottomans;  but  he 
was  thwarted  by  Potemkin,  and  resigned  in  disgust. 
He  died  in  1796. 

Romney,  George,  painter,  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lan- 
cashire, 1734;  after  receiving  some  lessons  from  a  coun- 
try artist,  went  to  London  in  1762;  visited  France  in 
1764,  and  Italy,  1773-75;  on  his  return  became  the  rival 
of  Reynolds  as  a  portrait  painter;  also  gained  distinc- 
tion as  a  painter  of  historical  pictures.     Died,  1802. 

Roosevelt,  Tiieodore,  twenty-sixth  President,  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  October  27,  1858,  the  son  of 
Theodore  and  Martha  (Bullock)  Roosevelt.  Though 
physically  delicate  in  youth,  he  entered  Harvard  Uni- 
versity at  18,  and  was  graduated  in  1880.  The  year 
following  he  began  the  study  of  law,  but  in  the  same 
year  was  elected  to  the  New  York  Legislature.  He 
was  twice  reelected,  and  became  the  candidate  of  the 
minority  party  for  speaker  in  his  second  term.  In  1884 
he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National 
Convention,  and  later  in  the  year  went  to  North  Dakota, 
where  he  spent  several  years  on  a  ranch,  raising  cattle. 
In  1886  he  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Mayor  of 
New  York.  President  Harrison  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission  in 
1889,  in  which  capacity  he  served  until  1895,  when  he 
resigned  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the  Police  Commis- 
sion of  New  York  City,  under  Mayor  Strong.  President 
McKinley  appointed  him  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  in  April,  1897,  and  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Span- 
ish-American War,  in  1898,  he  resigned  the  post  to  assist 
in  organizing  the  First  U.  S.  Volunteer  Cavalry  (after- 
wards known  as  Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders),  of  which 
he  became  lieutenant-colonel,  and  later  colonel,  for  gal- 
lantry in  the  battles  of  Las  Guasimas  and  San  Juan, 
Cuba.  In  September,  1898,  he  was  mustered  out,  with 
his  regiment,  at  Montauk,  Long  Island.  Shortly  follow- 
ing he  was  nominated  for  governor  of  New  York,  and 
elected,  November,  1898.  Iwo  years  later  he  was  unani- 
mously nominated  for  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  by  the  Republican  National  Convention,  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  elected.  He  succeeded  to  the  presidency 
September  14,  1901,  upon  the  death  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley, and  at  the  close  of  the  term  was  unanimously 
nominated  by  his  party  to  succeed  himself,  and  elected 
November,  1904.  His  second  term  embraced  a  strenu- 
ous, successful  campaign  for  political,  industrial,  and 
social  reform.  His  efforts  in  bringing  about  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  Japan  and  Russia  in  1905  were  import- 
ant and  effective.  He  refused  to  consider  a  third  term, 
and,  after  the  inauguration  of  President  Taf t,  headed  a 
large  hunting  party  to  Africa  for  tlie  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. _  In  1910  he  returned  through  Europe,  enjoying 
a  magnificent  triumph.  His  speeches  at  Cairo,  Paris, 
and  the  Guildhall,  London,  were  notable,  as  well  as  his 
review  of  the  German  army.  After  a  strenuous  cam- 
paign in  favor  of  Republican  candidates  in  1910,  he 
retired  to  private  life,  and  editorial  work  on  the  Out- 
look. He  has  contributed  widely  to  periodical  and  gen- 
eral literature.  Among  his  important  publications  are: 
".Winning  of  the  West,"  "History  of  the  Naval  War  of 
1812."  "Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman,"  "Life  of 
Thomas  Hart  Benton,"  "Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris," 
"Ranch  Life  and  Hunting  Trail,"  "History  of  New 
York,"  "American  Ideals  and  Other  Essays,"  "The 
Wilderness  Hunter,"  "The  Rough  Riders,"  "Life  of 
Oliver  Cromwell,"  and  "The  Strenuous  Life."  He  has 
been  twice  married;  first,  to  Alice  Lee,  in  1883,  who 
died  the  following  year;  second,  to  Edith  Kermit 
Carow,  in  1886. 

Root,  Elihu,  an  American  statesman  and  lawyer; 
born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  February  15,  1845;  was  graduated 
at  Hamilton  College  in  1864,  and  after  teaching  for  a 
while  entered  the  New  York  University  Law  School  and 
was  graduated  in  1867.  On  August  1,  1899,  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  war  by  President  McKinley,  and  on 
March  5,  1901,  was  reappointed.  After  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  Secretary  Root  represented  the  United 
States  Government  in  all  official  communications  with 
(Iluba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine  Lslands.  In  August, 
1903,  he  resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  war,  his  resigna- 
tion to  take  effect  in  January,  1904.     In  1905,  President 


BIOGRAPHY 


483 


Roosevelt  appointed  him  secretary  of  state,  and  while 
discharging  the  duties  of  that  office  he  did  much  to  unify 
the  Pan-American  countries.  In  1907,  he  visited 
Mexico  in  the  interests  of  a  closer  relationship  between 
that  country  and  the  United  States.  United  States  sen- 
ator from  New  York,  1909-1915. 

Rosebery,  Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  fifth  earl 
of;  born  in  1847;  was  chief  commissioner  of  works  in 
1885,  and  was  chairman  of  the  first  London  County 
Council;  became  foreign  secretary  under  Mr.  Gladstone 
in  1886  and  1892;  succeeded  to  the  premiership  in  1894, 
resigned  in  1895,  and  retired  from  the  leadership  of  the 
Liberal  party,  October,  1896;  since  then  he  has  been 
prominent  on  several  important  occasions,  notably  dur- 
mg  the  Fashoda  crisis  and  the  Transvaal  negotiations, 
in  both  of  which  he  supported  Lord  Salisbury;  has 
delivered  many  notable  speeches  on  literary  and  social 
subjects.  In  1900,  published  an  interesting  study  of 
Napoleon — "The  Last  Phase."  In  December,  1901, 
returned  to  political  life,  with  a  speech  at  Chesterfield, 
and  became  president  of  the  Liberal  League.  Has  been 
a  vigorous  critic  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  policy,  especially 
on  imperial  grounds. 

Rosecrans,  William  Starlie,  American  general, 
born  at  Kingston,  Ohio,  1819;  trained  as  an  engineer,  he 
had  settled  down  to  coal-mining  wlien  the  Civil  War 
broke  out;  joined  the  army  in  1861,  and  rapidly  came  to 
the  front;  highly  distinguished  himself  during  the  cam- 
paigns of  1862-63,  winning  battles  at  luka,  Corinth,  and 
Stone  River;  but  defeated  at  Chickamauga  he  lost  his 
command;  reinstated  in  1864  he  drove  Price  out  of  Mis- 
souri; was  minister  to  Mexico,  a  member  of  Congress, 
and  1885-1893  registrar  of  the  United  States  Treasury; 
died  near  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  1898. 

Rossetti,  Gabriele  (ros-set'te),  born  at  Vasto,  in  the 
province  of  Chieti,  Italy,  1783,  an  eminent  Italian  author, 
chiefly  celebrated  as  a  commentator  on  Dante,  and  as  the 
author  of  several  volumes  of  poems,  which  are  popular 
in  Italy.  He  went  to  England  as  a  political  refugee  in 
1824,  and  was  for  several  years  (till  1845)  professor  of 
Italian  Literature  in  King's  College,  London.  Died  in 
London,  1854.  His  son,  Gabriel  Charles  Dante  Rossetti 
born  in  London,  1828;  died  at  Birchington-on-the-Sea 
(April  9,  1882),  attained  considerable  eminence  as  an 
artist,  and  also  as  a  poet.  His  poems  are  contained  in 
two  volumes — "Poems"  (1870),  and  "Ballads  and 
Sonnets  "  (1881).  He  also  wrote  "  Dante  and  his  Circle  " 
(1861  and  1874.)  Christina  Rossetti,  daughter  and  sister 
of  the  two  above,  died  December  29,  1894,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-four.  She  wrote  "The  Prince's  Progress,"  etc., 
and  many  well-known  religious  poems  and  books, 
children's  stories,  etc. 

Rossini,  Gioachlno  Antonio  (ros-se'ne) ,  the  great- 
est of  the  Italian  opera  composers,  was  born  1792.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  strolling  horn-player.  He  studied  music 
under  Mattel  at  the  Lyceum  of  Bologna.  Among  his 
chief  operas  are  "Tancredi"  (1813),  "II  Barbiere  di 
Seviglia"  (1816),  and  "Guglielmo  Tell"  (1829).  He  also 
composed  a  "Stabat  Mater"  (1842),  and  other  Church 
music.  From  1824  onwards  he  lived  chiefly  in  Paris. 
Died,  1868. 

Rothschild  (Ger.  pron.  rot'shilt),  the  name  of  a  cele- 
brated Jewish  family  of  bankers  and  financiers.  Meyer 
Anselm  Rothschild,  was  born  at  Frankford,  1743,  died, 
1812.  Was  designed  for  the  priesthood,  but  showed  more 
aptitude  for  commercial  pursuits,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  his  family's  fortune  by  his  success  as  the  banker 
of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel.  His  son,  Nathan,  born 
1777,  died  1836,  went  to  England  in  1800  as  agent  for  his 
father,  after  whose  death  he  greatly  extended  his  busi- 
ness, acting  in  co-partnership  with  his  brothers,  who 
resided  in  various  European  capitals.  His  eldest  son, 
Lionel  de  Rothschild,  was  born  1808,  died  1879,  was 
elected  Whig  member  for  the  City  of  London  in  1847,  but 
did  not  take  his  seat  until  the  passing  of  the  Jewish  Dis- 
abilities Bill  (1858).  Nathaniel  Meyer,  was  born  1840, 
eldest  son  of  Lionel,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1885. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques  (Ro-sd'),  French  philoso- 
pher, was  born  1712,  son  of  a  watchmaker  at  Geneva; 
was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  but  made  his  escape 
into  Savoy  (1728),  where  he  was  found  by  a  priest,  who 
entrusted  him  to  the  care  of  Madame  de  Warens  at 
Annecy.  During  the  ensuing  years  the  greater  part  of 
his  time  was  spent  in  her  house,  but  he  finally  quarreled 
with  her  and  went  to  Paris  (1741),  whence  in  1742  he 
accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to  Venice  as  sec- 
retary. In  1750  he  gained  a  prize,  offered  by  the  Acad- 
emy of  Dijon,  by  an  essay  attacking  the  influence  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  on  society.  Of  his  subsequent  writings 
the  following  are  the  most  famous  —  "Julie,  ou  la  Nou- 
velle  Hfloise,"  a  romance  (1760),  "Du  Contrat  Social" 
(1762),  and  "Emile,"  a  philosophical  romance  treating 


of  education  (1762).  The  years  1766-67  he  spent  in  Eng- 
land as  the  guest  of  Hume,  but  quarreled  with  him,  and 
returned  to  France.     Died,  1778. 

Royce,  Josiah,  professor  of  history  of  philosophy. 
Harvard;  born  in  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  County,  Cal., 
November  20,  1855;  graduate  of  University  of  Califor- 
nia, 1875  (Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1878;  LL.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  1900;  LL.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins,  1902).  Instructor  in  English  literature  and 
logic.  University  of  California,  1878-82;  instructor  and 
assistant  professor.  Harvard,  1882-92;  professor  since 
1892.  Author:  "Religious  Aspect  of  Philosophy," 
"  History  of  California  "  (in  "American  Commonwealth" 
series),  "The  Feud  of  Oakfield  Creek"  (novel),  "The 
Spirit  of  Modern  Philosophy,"  "The  Conception  of  God  " 
(joint author),  "The  World  and  the  Individual"  (2  vols.), 
"The  Conception  of  Immortality,"  "Studies  of  Good 
and  Evil,"  "  Outlines  of  Psychology,"  "Herbert  Spencer, 
an  Estimate  and  a  Review,"  etc. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  a  distinguished  Flemish  painter; 
born  in  Siegen,  Westplialia,  June  29,  1577.  He  went  to 
Antwerp  in  1608,  and  was  soon  after  made  court  painter 
to  the  Archduke  Albert,  Spanish  governor  of  the  Low 
Countries.  In  1621  he  was  employed  by  the  Princess 
Marie  de'  Medici  to  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg 
with  a  series  of  paintings  illustrative  of  the  principal 
scenes  of  her  life.  While  thus  engaged  he  became  known 
to  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  who  purchased  his  museum. 
He  was  afterward  employed  by  the  Infanta  Isabella  and 
the  King  of  Spain  in  some  important  negotiations  which 
he  executed  with  such  credit  as  to  be  appointed  secretary 
of  the  Privy  Council.  He  acquired  immense  wealth,  and 
was  twice  married,  the  second  time,  in  1630,  to  a  girl  of 
sixteen.  Rubens,  beyond  all  comparison,  was  the  most 
rapid  in  execution  of  all  the  great  masters,  and  was  incon- 
testably  the  greatest  perfector  of  the  mechanical  part  of 
his  art  that  ever  existed.  His  works  are  very  numerous, 
and  very  diversified  in  subject.  There  are  nearly  100 
in  the  picture  gallery  at  Munich.  "The  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  at  Antwerp,  is  perhaps  his  masterpiece.  He 
died  in  Antwerp,  May  30,  1640. 

Rudolf,  or  Rodolf  I.,  King  of  Germany,  founder  of 
the  Habsburg  Dynasty,  was  born  1218;  was  elected 
emperor  in  1273,  and,  by  his  concessions  to  Gregory  X. 
at  his  coronation,  ended  the  feud  with  the  pope.  A  war 
with  Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia,  was  terminated  by  the 
defeat  and  death  of  the  latter  in  1278.  His  son,  Wen- 
ceslaus,  did  homage  to  Rudolf  for  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
Rudolf  curbed  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  granted 
charters  to  many  towns.     Died,  1291. 

Rudolf  II.,  German  emperor,  son  of  Maximilian  II., 
born  in  Vienna  in  1552;  became  King  of  Hungary  in  1572, 
and  of  Bohemia  three  years  later;  ascended  the  imperial 
throne  in  1576;  indolent  and  incapable,  he  left  the 
empire  to  the  care  of  worthless  ministers;  disorder  and 
foreign  invasion  speedily  followed;  persecution  inflamed 
the  Protestants;  by  1611,  his  brother,  Matthias,  sup- 
ported by  other  kinsmen,  had  wrested  Hungary  and 
Bohemia  from  him;  had  a  taste  for  astrology  and  al- 
chemy, and  patronized  Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe.  Died, 
1612. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count,  was 
born  in  Woburn,  Massachusetts,  March  26,  1753.  He 
was  an  American  scientist,  noted  especially  for  his  suc- 
cessful endeavors  to  apply  the  principles  of  natural  phi- 
losophy to  practical  uses.  He  was  originally  a  teacher 
at  Rumford,  near  Concord,  in  his  native  State;  but, 
having  taken  part  in  the  political  movements  of  the 
time,  he  was  sent  to  England  by  General  William  Howe 
as  the  bearer  of  despatches.  There  he  occupied  for  a 
time  the  position  of  under-secretary  of  state  in  the 
colonial  office;  and  then  returned  to  America,  where  he 
fought  on  the  royal  side.  Afterwards  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and  effected  many  reforms 
in  that  kingdom,  in  return  for  which  he  was  created 
(jount  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  choosing  Rumford 
for  his  titular  designation.  In  1795  he  was  once  more 
in  London,  where  he  assisted  in  founding  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution. In  1802  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where 
he  married  the  widow  of  the  celebrated  chemist,  Lavoi- 
sier; but,  having  separated  from  that  lady,  he  removed 
to  Auteuil,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  His  only 
literary  works  of  importance  are:  "Essays,  Political,  Eco- 
nomical, and  Philosophical"  (1797-1802),  and  a  volume 
of  "Papers  on  Natural  Philosophy  and  Mechanics" 
(1802).     Died,  1814. 

Runeberg,  Jolian  Ludvig,  born  in  1804;  Swedish 
poet;  studied  at  the  LTniversity  of  Abo;  was  rector  of 
the  College  of  Borga,  1847-50;  published  idylls,  lyrics, 
and  other  poems.     Died,  1877. 

Rupert,  Prince  Robert,  of  Bavaria,  was  born  1619. 
He  was  a  son  of  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  by  Eliza- 


484 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


beth,  eldest  daughter  of  James  I.,  of  England,  and  whose 
sister  is  known  in  English  history  as  the  Electress  Sophia 
of  Hanover.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  wars 
of  England  under  his  uncle,  Charles  I.,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  rash  courage  and  impetuosity.  In  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  he  served  in  the  fleet,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  Governor  of  Windsor.  In  his  last  years 
he  amused  himself  with  scientific  pursuits;  and  is  said 
to  have  invented  pinchbeck,  sometimes  called  prince's 
metal,  and  the  curious  scientific  toys  called  Prince  Ru- 
pert's drops.  He  is  buried  in  Henry  the  Seventh's 
Chapel,  Westminster.     Died,  1682. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  American  physician  and  politician, 
born  at  Philadelphia,  1745.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh; 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1776,  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  became  professor  in  the 
Institute  of  Medicine  at  Philadelphia  in  1791.  Among 
his  works  are.  "  Essays,  Literary,  Moral,  and  Philo- 
sophical"; "Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations";  and 
"A  History  of  the  Yellow  Fever."     Died,  1813. 

Ruskln,  John,  was  born  in  London,  1819,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  In  1843  appeared  the  first  volume  of 
"Modern  Painters,"  which  created  a  revolution  in  modern 
art  and  the  estimation  of  artistic  qualities.  The  remain- 
ing volumes  were  published  in  1846,  1856,  and  1860.  Of 
Ruskin's  other  works  on  art,  the  chief  are  the  "Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture,"  and  "Stones  of  Venice."  About 
1860  he  became  deeply  interested  in  thef  social  problems 
of  the  age,  and  published  "  Unto  this  Last,"  and  '  Munera 
Pulveris."  Among  his  later  works  are  "Sesame  and 
Lilies,"  "The  Ethics  of  the  Dust,"  and  "The  Crown  of 
Wild  OlLve,"  and  "Pneterita,"  a  charming,  though 
uncompleted  autobiography.  Mr.  Ruskin  was  appointed 
Rede  Lecturer,  at  Camoridge,  in  April,  1867,  and  the 
senate  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  upon  him.  May 
15th.  From  1869  to  1879,  and  during  1883-84  he  was 
Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Arts  at  Oxford.  He  was 
obliged  to  resign  the  post  in  1884  on  account  of  failing 
health.  For  several  years  prior  to  his  death  he  lived 
in  retirement  at  Brantwood,  on  Lake  Coniston.  Died, 
1900. 

Russell,  Annie  (Miss),  actress;  born  in  Liverpool, 
England,  in  1869;  first  stage  appearance  in  Montreal 
when  7;  afterward  at  New  York  in  juvenile  "Pinafore" 
company;  went  to  South  America  and  West  Indies  in 
varied  repertory;  returned  to  United  States  and  joined 
Madison  Square  Theater  Company;  became  famous  in 
"Esmeralda"  and  George  Parsons  Lathrop's  "Elaine"; 
retired  for  several  years  on  account  of  ill  health;  since 
1895,  has  appeared  in  several  leading  roles;  first  appear- 
ance in  London,  1898. 

Russell,  John,  Earl,  statesman,  tnird  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedford,  was  born  1792.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  and  Edinburgh;  entered  parliament  as 
a  Whig  in  1813;  became  an  advocate  of  parliamentary 
reform;  was  instrumental  in  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts  (1828),  and  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
Relief  Act  (1829):  was  paymaster-general  under  Lord 
Grey,  1830-34,  and  drew  up  the  Government  Reform  Bill 
(1832);  was  home  secretary  (1835-39),  and  colonial  sec- 
retary (1839-41)  under  Lord  Melbourne;  led  the  Oppo- 
sition (1841-46);  was  prime  minister  (1846-52);  wentas 
British  plenipotentiary  to  the  Vienna  Conference  (1855); 
was  foreign  secretary  under  Lord  Palmerston  (1859-65); 
again  became  prime  minister  in  1865,  but  resigned  on 
the  defeat  of  his  Reform  Bill  in  1866.  Earl  Russell 
published  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  the  English  Gov- 
ernment and  (Constitution,"  and  numerous  other  works. 
Died,  1878. 

Russell,  Lillian,  opera  singer;  born  (Helen  Louise 
Leonard)  in  Iowa  in  1861;  educated  in  Convent  Sacred 
Heart,  Chicago;  sang  in  church  choir,  and,  in  1879, 
was  engaged  by  E.  E.  Rice  to  play  in  "Pinafore." 
Later,  sang  ballads  at  Tony  Pastor's  Theater,  New  York ; 
joined  McCaull  Opera  (Company,  of  which  she  was  prima 
donna  until  her  own  company  was  organized;  has  since 
starred  in  various  operatic  roles  in  United  States  and 
England;  married,  first,  David  Braham,  musical  con- 
ductor; second,  Edward  Solomon,  composer;  third,  Sig. 
Perugini,  operatic  tenor. 

Ruysdaal  (row'daO.  or  Ruysdael,  Jacob  van,oneof 
the  most  distinguished  Dutch  landscape  painters,  born 
at  Haarlem,  probably  about  1625,  died  in  the  poorhouse 
of  his  native  place  1682.  His  paintings,  but  little  appre- 
ciated during  his  lifetime,  now  bring  great  prices.  Fine 
examples  of  his  works"  are  to  be  seen  in  the  National 
Gallery  at  London,  and  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris.  Land- 
scapes with  dark  clouds  hanging  over  them,  lakes  and 
rivulets  surrounded  by  overhanging  trees,  etc.,  are  his 
subjects,  and  are  represented  with  true  poetic  feeling 
and  admirable  technique.  It  is  said  that  the  figures  in 
his  paintings  were  executed  by  A.  van  de  Velde,  Philip 
and  Pieter  Wouwerman,  C.  Berghem,  and  others. 


Ruyter  (roi'ter),  Michael  Adriaanszoon  de,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  Admiral,  born  at  Flushing  in  1607,  died, 
1676,  in  the  port  of  Syracuse  from  a  wound  received  in  an 
engagement  with  the  French.  He  rose  to  his  rank  from 
the  situation  of  cabin-boy,  and  distinguished  himself  for 
remarkable  seamanship  and  bravery  in  many  naval 
battles,  but  more  especially  in  1653,  in  1666,  and  in  1672, 
against  the  British  fleet. 

Ryan,  Patriclc  John,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
was  born  near  Thurles,  Ireland,  in  1831.  He  was  or- 
dained deacon  and  completed  his  studies  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  and  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  in  1853.  In 
1872  was  elected  coadjutor  bishop  of  St.  Louis;  arch- 
bishop, 1883.  His  administration  was  energetic  and 
successful.  He  was  transferred  to  Philadelphia  in  1884. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  graceful  and  eloquent 
speaker.  Author  of  "  What  Catholics  Do  Not  Be- 
lieve"; "The  Causes  of  Modern  Skepticism,"  etc. 
Died,  1911. 

Ryan,  Thomas  Fortune,  financier;  born  in  Nelson 
County,  Va.,  October  17,  1851.  Began  business  life, 
1868,  Baltimore  dry  goods  house;  entered  Wall  Street, 
1870;  mernber  of  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  1874; 
afterwards  interested  in  consolidation  and  extension  of 
street  railway  and  lighting  systems,  New  York,  Chicago, 
and  other  cities,  and  in  reorganization  of  various  rail- 
ways in  the  South,  coal  properties  in  Oliio  and  West 
Virginia,  and  railways  in  Ohio.  Vice-president  of  Mor- 
ton Trust  Company;  trustee  of  American  Surety  Com- 
pany; director  of  Pere  Marquette  Railroad,  Hocking 
Valley  Railway,  Consolidated  Gas  Company  of  New 
York,  Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Metropolitan  Secur- 
ities Company,  Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light  and 
Power  Company  of  Baltimore,  American  Tobacco  Com- 

gany.  National  Bank  of  Commerce,  Union  Exchange 
lank,  and  many  other  corporations;  purchased  con- 
trolling interest  of  the  stock  of  Equitable  Life  Assur- 
ance Society  of  United  States,  1905.  Delegate  from 
Virginia,  National  Democratic  Convention,  1904. 

Sagasta,  Praxedes  Mateo,  born  in  1827;  Spanish 
statesman,  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country  for  his 
share  in  the  rising  of  1856,  and  again,  ten  years  later, 
to  seek  refuge  in  France.  On  his  return  he  changed 
his  views  and  joined  General  Prim,  and  held  the  port- 
folio of  the  interior  for  several  years.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  Alfonso  XII.,  he  formed  a  Liberal-constitution- 
alist party,  and  having,  in  1880,  joined  a  new  Liberal 
combination,  formed  a  coalition  with  Campos,  which 
lasted  till  1883.  In  1885,  Sagasta  again  became  head 
of  a  ministry,  and  continued  almost  uninterruptedly 
down  to  1902.     Died,  1903. 

Sage,  Margaret  Olivia  Slocum  (Mrs.),  born  in 
Syracuse,  N.  YT,  September  8,  1828;  daughter  of  Joseph 
and  Margaret  Pierson  (Jennain)  Slocum;  educated  in 
schools  of  Syracuse;  graduate  of  Troy  Female  Seminary, 
1847  (degree.  Mistress  of  Letters,  New  York  University, 
1904) ;  married  in  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  November  24, 1869, 
to  Russell  Sage.  President  of  Emma  Willard  Associa- 
tion; member  of  Society  of  Mayflower  Descendants. 
Has  added  large  sums  to  the  endowment  of  Troy  Fe- 
male Seminary,  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  and 
other  institutions. 

Saint  Clair,  Arthur,  an  American  general,  was  born 
in  Scotland,  in  1734.  He  emigrated  to  America, 
became  a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Revolutionary  army,  serving  with  dis- 
tinction at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  In 
1777,  he  became  major-general,  and  entered  Congress  in 
1785,  of  which  body  he  was  elected  president  two  years 
later.  In  1789,  he  was  made  governor  of  Northwest 
Territory,  and  two  years  afterwards  suffered  a  defeat 
with  heavy  loss,  at  the  hands  of  the  Miami  Indians. 
Died,  1818. 

Sainte-Beuve,  Charles  Augustin,  born  in  1804; 
French  critic;  after  having  been  a  surgeon,  wrote  verses 
for  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes "  and  other  period- 
icals, and,  in  1840,  became  Mazarin  librarian.  In  1849, 
he  joined  the  "  Constitutionel,"  in  which  appeared  his 
"Causeries  du  Lundi."  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  de  la  Langue  Francaise." 
Died.  1869. 

Saint  Gaudens,  Augustus,  sculptor;  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  in  1848;  came  to  United  States  in  infancy; 
learned  trade  of  cameo  cutter;  studied  drawing  at 
Cooper  Institute,  1861;  student  at  National  Academy 
of  Design,  1865-66  (lion.  LL.  D.,  Harvard;  L.  H.  D., 
Princeton);  at  Fcole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1867-70. 
In  Rome,  1870-72,  producing  there,  1871,  his  first 
figure,  "Hiawatha";  settled  in  New  York,  1872. 
Among  his  works  are  "Adoration  of  the  Cross"  (in  St. 
Thomas'  Church,  New  York),  "The  Puritan,"  "Diana" 
(on  tower  of  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York); 
statues  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  John  A.  Logan,  Chi- 


BIOGRAPHY 


485 


eago;  Admiral  Farragut,  New  York;  Peter  Cooper, 
New  York;  Colonel  R.  G.  Shaw,  Boston;  monument 
to  General  Sherman,  New  York,  and  numerous  other 
statues,  busts,  etc.     Died,  1907. 

Saionji,  Marquis,  Japanese  premier,  belongs  to  an 
illustrious  family  whicli,  in  the  past,  has  had  marriage 
connections  with  the  imperial  family.  Born  in  Kioto 
in  1849,  as  a  youth  of  18  he  gathered  volunteers  and 
fought  for  the  emperor  in  the  revolution.  He  then 
went  to  Paris,  was  a  student  in  the  Latin  Quarter, 
and  returned  to  Japan  in  his  33d  year.  He  at  once 
started  a  daily  paper  at  Tokio,  and  proclaimed  himself 
a  Liberal  of  the  European  type.  Subsequently,  the 
marquis  became  minister  to  Austria-Hungary  and  then 
to  Germany.  On  his  return  to  Japan  he  joined  the 
first  Ito  cabinet  as  minister  of  education,  a  post  which 
he  again  occupied  in  the  second  Ito  cabinet,  having 
been  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  interval.  A 
great  friend  of  Marquis  Ito,  Marquis  Saionji  assisted 
him  to  form  the  Constitutional  Association  (1900), 
and  became  its  leader  in  1903.  At  three  difficult  crises 
the  mikado  has  called  Marquis  Saionji  to  be  prime 
minister  pro  tem. 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of,  an  eminent  British  states- 
man; was  born  at  Hatfield  in  1830.  He  was  graduated 
from  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  in  1849,  and  sat  in 
parliament  for  Stamford,  1853-68.  He  was  secretary 
for  India,  1866-67,  and  again  1874-76.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  special  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  and  was 
practically  the  leader  of  the  Conference  of  Constanti- 
nople. In  1878  he  was  appointed  foreign  secretary,  and, 
with  Lord  Beaconsfield,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
congress  of  Berlin.  After  the  latter's  death  he  became 
the  principal  leader  of  the  Conservatives  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  later  rose  to  the  rank  of  premier.  His  death 
occurred  in  1903. 

Sallust,  Roman  historian;  born  at  Amiternum,  in 
the  territory  of  the  Sabines,  and  attained  the  quffistor- 
ship  and  the  tribunate,  though  a  plebeian;  for  a  misde- 
meanor was  expelled  from  the  senate;  joined  Cajsar's 
party  in  the  civil  war,  and  became  governor  of  Numidia; 
enriched  himself  by  extortions,  and  returned  to  Rome 
a  rich  man,  and  gave  himself  to  literature;  wrote  the 
"Catiline  Conspiracy,"  and  the  "War  with  Jugurtha," 
among  other  works,  in  a  terse  and  forcible  style,  and  was 
the  precursor  of  Livy  and  Tacitus;  as  a  writer  he  affects 
the  moralist,  though  he  lived  in  vice,  86-35  B.  C. 

Samuel,  a  Jewish  prophet,  born  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
about  1155  B.C.;  consecrated  by  his  mother  from  earliest 
years  to  the  service  of  the  Lord;  who  became  a  judge 
when  he  was  40,  anointed  first  Saul  and  then  David  to 
be  king  over  the  till  then  disunited  tribes  of  Israel,  and 
thus  became  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  monarchy. 

Sand,  George,  nom  de  plume  of  Madame  Dudevant; 
born  in  1804;  French  novelist;  separated  from  her  hus- 
band in  1831,  in  which  year  was  published,  under  the 
pseudonym  "Jules  Sand,"  a  novel  written  in  collabora- 
tion with  Sandeau.  Next  year  she  began  to  write  under 
the  well-known  signature,  her  chief  works  being  "Con- 
Buelo,"  "La  Comtesse  de  Rudolstadt,"  "Les  Sept  Cordes 
de  la  Lyre,"  "La  Petite  Fadette,"  "Elle  et  Lui,"  "  Le 
Marquis  de  Villemer,"  and  other  plays,  and  "Impres- 
sions et  Souvenirs."     Died,  1876. 

Santa  Ana  or  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de,  born  in 
1795;  Mexican  general;  fought  at  first-for  the  Span- 
iards, but  in  1829,  defeated  their  expedition,  and  be- 
came president  in  1833.  He  recognized  the  independence 
of  Texas,  and  defended  Vera  Cruz  against  the  French 
in  1838,  but,  after  having  been  dictator  from  1841  to 
1844,  was  banished.  He  returned  to  conduct  the  war 
against  the  United  States,  and  in  1853-55  was  again 
dictator.  He  was  afterwards  banished  once  more  for 
intriguing  against  Juarez.     Died,  1876. 

Santos-Dumont,  Alberto,  a  Brazilian  of  means  and 
leisure,  whose  ambition  it  is  to  establish  that  an  airship 
for  aerial  navigation  "is  not  a  mere  plaything  but  a  prac- 
tical invention,  capable  of  being  applied  in  a  thoroughly 
useful  fashion."  He  won  the  Deutsch  prize,  offered  to 
the  first  aeronaut  who  should  go  to  and  return  from  the 
Eiffel  Tower,  the  Aerostatic  Park,  in  Paris,  being  the 
starting-point,  on  October  19,  1901.  In  November, 
1901,  the  Brazilian  Congress  voted  him  £5,000  in  recog- 
nition of  his  great  services  to  aerostatic  science.  Chev- 
alier of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  1904.  He  is  now  devoting 
himself  to  flying  machines. 

Sardou,  Victorien,  born  in  1831 ;  French  dramatist, 
whose  first  comedy/"  produced  at  the  Od^on  in  1854,  was 
a  failure;  won  a  reputation  by  "M.  Garat,"  and  other 
pieces,  produced  at  the  D^jazet  Theater,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academy  in  1877.  Among  his  best-known 
plays  are  "Les  Pattes  du  Mouche,"  the  original  of  "A 
Scrap  of  Paper,"  "Nos  Intimes,"  of  "Peril,"  "Dora,"  of 


"Diplomacy,"  "Odette,"  "Fddora,"  ".La  Tosca,"  and 
"Rabagas,"  a  satire  on  Gambetta.     Died,  1908. 

Sargent,  John  Singer,  artist;  born  in  Florence, 
Italy,  1856;  educated  in  Italy  and  Germany;  studied 
painting  at  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Florence,  Italy,  and 
in  Paris  under  Carolus  Duran.  Exhibited  portrait  of 
Carolus  Duran  in  Paris  Salon  of  1877;  traveled  in  Spain, 
1879,  and  on  return  opened  studio  in  Paris;  removed 
to  London,  1884,  and  has  since  resided  there.  Has 
painted  many  portraits,  English  and  American,  one  of 
recent  note  being  that  of  President  Roosevelt,  painted 
in  1903 ;  also  various  other  pictures,  of  which  his  Japan- 
ese dancing  girl  was  awarded  a  grand  medal  at  Paris 
Exposition,  1889. 

Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  the 
first  King  of  the  Israelites,  was  anointed  by  Samuel,  B.  C, 
1091,  and  after  a  reign  of  forty  years,  filled  with  various 
events,  was  slain  with  three  of  his  sons  on  Mount  Gilboa. 
He  was  succeeded  by  David,  who  was  his  son-in-law, 
and  whom  he  had  endeavored  to  put  to  death.  His 
history  is  contained  in  I.  Samuel,  x.  to  xxxi. 

Savage,  MInot  Judson,  Unitarian  clergyman:  born 
in  Norridgewock,  Me.,  June  10,  1841;  graduated  from 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  1864  (D.  D.,  Harvard, 
1896) ;  Congregational  home  missionary  in  California, 
1864-67;  pastor  at  Framingham,  Mass.,  1867-69;  Han- 
nibal, Mo.,  1869-73;  became  Unitarian;  pastor  of  Third 
Unitarian  Church,  Chicago,  1873-74;  Church  of  the 
Unity,  Boston,  1874-96;  Church  of  the  Messiah,  New 
York,  1896-1906;  retired.  Author:  "Christianity,  the 
Science  of  Manhood,"  "The  Religion  of  Evolution," 
"Light  on  the  Cloud,"  "Bluffton,  a  Story  of  To-day," 
"Life  Questions,"  "The  Morals  of  Evolution,"  "Talks 
About  Jesus,"  "Poems,"  "Belief  in  God,"  "  Beliefs  About 
Man,"  "Beliefs  About  the  Bible,"  "The  Modern  Sphinx," 
"Man,  Woman,  and  Child,"  "The  Religious  Life,"  "Sa- 
cred Problems,"  "These  Degenerate  Days,"  "My  Creed," 
"Religious  Reconstruction,"  "Signs  of  the  Times," 
"Helps  for  Daily  Living,"  "Life,"  "Four  Great  Ques- 
tions Concerning  God,"  "The  Irrepressible  Conflict  Be- 
tween Two  World-Theories,"  "The  Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity," "Is  this  a  Good  World?"  "Jesus  and  Modern 
Life,"  "A  Man,"  "Religion  for  To-day,"  "Our  Unitarian 
Gospel,"  "Hymns,"  "The  Minister's  Hand-book," 
"Psychics,  Facts,  and  Theories,"  "Life  Beyond  Death," 
"Life's  Dark  Problems,"  Editor:  "Sacred  Songs  for 
Public  Worship"  (with  Howard  M.  Dow),  "Unitarian 
Catechism,"  "Lif6  Beyond  Death,"  "The  Passing  and 
the  Permanent  in  Religion,"  "Living  by  the  Day," 
"Men  and  Women,"  "Can 'Telepathy  Explain?" 

Savonarola,  Fra  Girolamo,  Italian  preacher;  born 
in  Ferrara  in  1452;  acquired  great  political  influence  in 
Florence,  where  he  denouncea  abuses  of  all  kinds.  He 
was  twice  sent  as  envoy  to  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  and 
after  the  expulsion  of  Piero  de'  Medici  was  real  ruler  of 
the  state,  but,  having  been  prohibited  preaching  and 
excommunicated  by  Alexander  VI.,  he  was  attacked  in 
his  priory  of  San  Marco,  with  his  friends,  and  burnt, 
after  being  put  to  the  torture.     Died,  1498. 

Saxe,  Maurice,  Comte  de,  born  in  1696;  marshal 
of  France;  was  a  natural  son  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony 
and  Poland.  His  greatest  achievements  were  the  vic- 
tories of  Fontenoy,  Laff'eld,  and  Raucoux,  and  the 
capture  of  Maestricht.  He  left  a  work  entitled  "Mes 
Reveries,"  which  was  published  in  1757,  and  subsequently 
translated.     Died,  1750. 

Schaeberle,  John  Martin,  astronomer;  born  in 
Germany,  1853;  removed  to  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1854; 
apprentice  in  Chicago  machine  shop,  1868-71;  became 
interested  in  astronomy;  studied  at  Ann  Arbor  High 
School;  constructed  a  number  of  telescopes;  graduated 
from  University  of  Michigan,  C.  E.,  1876  (LL.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  California,  1898) ;  private  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor Watson,  1876-78;  assistant  in  Ann  Arbor  Obser- 
vatory, instructor  in  astronomy  and  acting  professor  of 
astronomy  in  University  of  Michigan,  1878-88;  astrono- 
mer Lick  Observatory,  Mt.  Hamilton,  1888-97,  acting 
director,  1897-98;  had  charge  of  eclipse  expeditions  of 
Lick  Observatory,  1889,  1893,  Cayenne  ancl  Chile,  and 
in  1896  to  Japan;  has  discovered  three  comets,  and  has 
done  much  original  work;  extensive  contributor  to 
astronomical  journals. 

Schiff,  Jacob  Henry,  banker;  born  in  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  Germany,  1847;  educated  in  schools  of 
Frankfort;  came  to  the  United  States,  1865;  settled  in 
New  York;  member  of  firm  of  Kuhn,  Loeb  &  Co., 
bankers;  director  of  National  City  Bank,  Western 
National  Bank,  Columbia  Bank,  Morton  "Trust  Co., 
Bond  and  Mortgage  Guarantee  Co.,  Industrial  Trust  Co., 
Providence,  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society  of  United 
States,  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad  Company, 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  Com- 
I>any,  Western   Union  Telegraph  Company,  Woodbine 


486 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Land  and  Improvement  Company,  Northern  Securities 
Company,  Fidelity  Bank,  National  Bank  of  Commerce, 
Newport  Trust  Company,  President  Montefiore  Home  for 
Chronic  Invalids;  vice-president  and  trustee  of  Baron 
De  Hirsch  Fund;  ex-vice-president  of  New  York  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce;  founded  Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 
the  Semitic  Museum,  Harvard,  Nurses'  Settlement,  New 
York. 

Schiller,  Johann  Chrlstoph  Frledrich  von,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  German  national  poetSj  was  born  in  Mar- 
bach,  1759.  After  completing  his  studies  he  early 
adopted  the  medical  profession,  and  while  serving  as  an 
army  surgeon,  produced,  in  1781,  his  tragedy  of  "The 
Robbers,"  a  work  which  established  his  reputation  as  a 
dramatist.  After  quitting  the  army,  he,  in  1783,  as- 
sumed literature  for  a  means  of  livelihood,  and  became 
writer  to  the  theater  at  Mannheim,  in  which  capacity  he 
produced  his  tragedy  of  ".  Fiesco."  Two  years  after- 
wards, he  took  up  his  residence  in  Leipzig,  and  wrote  his 
"Ode  to  Joy."  In  1789,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
his  friend  Goethe,  Schiller  entered  upon  the  professorship 
of  history  at  Jena  University;  and,  three  years  later, 
published  his  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War";  and, 
m  1799,  his  masterpiece,  the  tragedy  of  "  Wallenstein." 
In  1799,  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Weimar,  where  he  com- 
posed his  dramas  of  "Mary  Stuart,"  "The  Maid  of 
Orleans,"  and  "The  Bride  of  Messina,"  as  well  as  his 
exquisite  poem  "The  Song  of  the  Bell."  Finally,  in 
1804,  appeared  one  of  the  most  popular  of  his  dramas, 
"William  Tell."  Died,  1805.  The  ballads  of  Schiller 
are  the  finest  things  of  the  kind  in  the  German  language. 
Schley,  Wlnfleld  Scott,  rear-admiral  of  United  States 
Navy:  oorn  near  Frederick,  Md.,  October  9,  1839; 
served  in  West  Gulf  blockading  squadron  from  1861; 
was  in  engagements  leading  to  capture  of  Port  Hudson, 
La.,  1863;  reniained  in  Southern  waters  until  1864. 
Then,  until  1866,  in  Pacific  station  as  executive  officer 
of  gunboat  "Wateree";  suppressed  insurrection  among 
Chinese  coolies  on  Chincha  Islands,  1864,  and  in  1865, 
landed  100  men  at  San  Salvador  to  protect  United  States 
consulate  and  custom  house  during  revolution.  In  1872, 
was  placed  at  head  of  department  of  modern  languages 
at  Annapolis;  served  in  Europe,  west  coast  of  Africa 
and  the  South  Atlantic  States  and,  1884,  took  command 
of  Greeley  Relief  Expedition  and  rescued  Lieutenant 
Greeley  and  six  survivors  at  Cape  Sabine.  Commanded 
"Baltimore"  and  settled  trouble  at  Valparaiso,  Chile, 
1891,  when  several  American  sailors  were  stoned  by  a 
mob.  Carried  Ericsson's  body  to  Sweden,  August,  1891, 
for  which  he  received  gold  medal  from  King  of  Sweden. 
Placed  in  command  of  the  "Flying  Squadron"  on  duty 
in  Cuban  waters  in  war  with  Spain.  Was  in  immediate 
command  at  the  destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet  off  San- 
tiago, July  3,  1898.  Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  1899; 
was  presented  with  a  gold  sword  by  people  of  Penn- 
sylvania; a  silver  sword  by  the  Royal  Arcanum;  a 
gold  and  jeweled  medal,  witn  the  thanks  of  the  Mary- 
land Legislature;  a  silver  service,  etc.,  for  services  at 
battle  of  Santiago.  Retired  at  age  limit,  1901.  Author: 
"Rescue  of  Greeley,"  "  Forty-five  Years  Under  the  Flag." 
Schofleld,  Jolin  3IcAllister,  lieutenant-general  in 
United  States  Army;  born  in  Gerry,  N.Y.,  1831;  entered 
West  Point,  1849;  graduated,  1853  (LL.  D.,  Chicago 
University).  Served  in  garrison  in  South  Carolina  and 
Florida  until  1855;  assistant  professor  of  natural  philos- 
ophy. West  Point,  1855-60;  under  leave  of  absence, 
Erofessor  of  physics,  Washington  University,  St. 
lOuis,  until  April,  1861;  in  the  Civil  War  became 
brigadier-general,  November,  1861,  and  major-general, 
November,  1862,  of  volunteers;  commanded  a  depart- 
ment and  army  in  the  field;  was  in  the  Atlanta  cam- 
paign and  later  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Franklin, 
Tenn.,  for  which  he  was  made  brigadier-general  and 
brevetted  major-general  in  regular  army.  After  war  be- 
came division  commander;  was  secretary  of  war,  1868-69, 
commanded  the  army  of  the  United  States,  1888-95; 
was  made  lieutenant-general,  1895;  retired  from  active 
service  by  operation  of  law,  September  29, 1895.  Author: 
"Forty-six  Years  in  the  Army."     Died,  1906. 

Schurman,  Jacob  Gould,  president  of  Cornell 
University  since  1892;  born  in  Freetown,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  Mav  22,  1854;  graduate  of  University  of  London, 
A.  B.  and  A.  M.,  in  course,  1877  and  1878,  and  1877-78 
studied  at  Paris  and  University  of  Edinburgh,  D.  Se.  in 
course.  Studied  two  years  at  Heidelberg.  Berlin  and 
Gottingen,  and  in  Italy  (LL.  D.,  Columbia  University, 
1892;  Yale  University,  1901 ;  University  of  Edinburgh, 
1902).  Was  1880-82,  professor  of  English  literature, 
political  economy  and  psychology,  Acadia  College; 
1882-86,  professor  of  metaphysics  and  English  literature, 
Dalhousie  College;  1886-92,  Sage  professor  of  philosophy 
and  latter  part  of  time  dean  of  Sage  School  of  Philosophy, 
Cornell;    appointed,  January,    1899,   by  the  president, 


chairman  of  United  States  Philippine  Commission,  and 
spent  most  of  1899  in  the  Philippines.  Author:  "Kan- 
tian Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evolution,"  "The  Ethical 
Import  of  Darwinism,"  "Belief  in  God,"  ".Agnosticism 
and  Religion,"  "A  Generation  of  Cornell,"  "Report  (to 
Congress)  of  the  Philippine  Commission"  (joint  author), 
four  volumes,  1900;  "Philippine  Affairs —  A  Retrospect 
and  Outlook." 

Schurz,  Carl,  publicist;  born  in  I^iblar,  near  Cologne, 
1829;  educated  at  gymnasium,  Cologne,  University  of 
Bonn  (LL.  D.,  Harvard,  and  of  University  of  Missouri; 
LL.  D.,  Columbia  University,  1899).  Published  a 
liberal  newspaper  at  Bonn;  took  part  in  revolutionary 
movements  in  1848-49,  and  was  compelled  to  leave  Bonn 
1849;  joined  revolutionary  army,  but  finally  had  to  flee 
to  Switzerland.  Newspaper  correspondent,  Paris,  1851; 
teacher  in  London.  Came  to  the  United  States,  1852; 
settled  in  Watertown,  Wis.;  was  defeated  as  Republican 
candidate  for  lieutenant-governor  of  Wisconsin,  1857; 
member  of  National  Republican  Convention,  1860; 
United  States  minister  to  Spain,  1861;  resigned  to  enter 
army;  appointed  brigadier-general,  April,  1862;  major- 
general,  March  14,  1863;  commanded  division  at  Second 
Bull  Run  and  at  Chancellorsville,  and  a  corps  at  (Gettys- 
burg. Washington  correspondent  to  "New  York 
Tribune,"  1865-66;  founded  "Detroit  Post,"  1866; 
editor  of  "St.  Louis  Westliche  Post,"  1867;  temporary 
chairman  of  Republican  National  Convention,  Chicago, 
1868;  United  States  senator  from  Missouri,  1869-75; 
one  of  the  organizers  of  Liberal  party,  1872;  presided 
over  convention  at  Cincinnati  which  nominated  (jireeley 
for  president;  supported  Hayes,  1876;  secretary  of  the 
interior,  1877-81;  editor  "New  York  Evening  Post," 
1881-84.  One  of  leaders  of  Independent  movement, 
1884;  supported  Cleveland  for  president;  contributor 
to  "Harper's  Weekly,"  1892-98;  Author:  "Speeches," 
"Life  of  Henry  Clay,"  "Abraham  Lincoln,  an  Essay." 
Died,  1906. 

Schwab,  Charles  M.,  capitalist,  ex-president  of 
United  States  Steel  Corporation;  born  in  Williamsburg, 
Pa.,  April  18,  1862;  childhood  from  5th  year  at  Loretto, 
Pa.;  educated  in  village  school  and  St.  Francis  College; 
as  a  boy  drove  sta^e  from  Loretto  to  Cresson,  Pa.,  five 
miles;  entered  service  of  Carnegie  Co.,  as  stake-driver  in 
engineering  corps  of  Edgar  Thompson  steel  works;  rose 
steadily;  Decame  superintendent  of  Homestead  works 
and  finally  president  of  Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  Ltd.;  presi- 
dent, 1901-03,  and  now  director  and  member  of  finance 
committee  of  United  States  Steel  Corporation;  built  new 
Catholic  church,  costing  $150,000,  at  Loretto,  Pa.; 
established  Homestead,  Pa.,  Industrial  School,  etc. 

Scipio,  Af  rlcanus,  Publlus  Cornelius,  born  in  234 
B.C.;  Roman  general;  took  Carthago  Nova  and  con- 
quered Spain,  became  consul  in  205  B.  C,  and  brought 
to  a  conclusion  the  second  Punic  War  by  the  defeat  of 
Hannibal  at  Zama  (202  B.  C).  He  became  a  second 
time  consul,  but  his  popularity  passed  away  on  account 
of  the  arrogance  of  his  later  years.     Died,  183  B.  C. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  Bart.,  born  in  1771;  novelist; 
was  the  son  of  a  writer  to  the  signet  in  Edinburgh,  and 
practiced  for  a  few  years  as  an  advocate,  being  appointed 
clerk  of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1806.  After  some  transla- 
tions from  the  German,  he  began  to  write  ballads,  the 
"Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  being  followed  by  "Mar- 
mion,"  "."The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  and  other  poems.  In 
1814,  he  published  ".Waverley,"  anonymously,  and  in 
succeeding  years  appeared  the  series  called  by  that  name. 
In  1820,  Scott  was  made  a  baronet,  but  six  years  after 
he  was  ruined  by  the  bankruptcy  of  Messrs.  Constable, 
and  he  spent  his  later  years  in  an  honorable  and  suc- 
cessful attempt  to  meet  his  liabilities  by  means  of  his 
"Life  of  Napoleon."  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  and  con- 
tributions to  the  "Quarterly  Review."  His  life  was 
written  by  his  son-in-law,  Lockhart,  and  his  "Journal" 
was  published  in  1890.     Died,  1832. 

Scott,  Winfleld,  born  in  1786;  American  general; 
was  made  prisoner  and  wounded  in  the  War  of  1812-14, 
and,  after  further  services,  became  commander-in-chief, 
in  1841.  Having  conducted  the  war  against  Mexico, 
he  was  Republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1852, 
but  was  not  elected.  He  retired  from  the  army  in  1861, 
and  died  at  West  Point,  1866. 

Seawell,  Molly  Elliot,  author;  born  in  Gloucester 
County,  Va.,  October  23,  1860;  daughter  of  John 
Tyler  Seawell  (a  nephew  of  President  Tyler) ;  educated 
at  home.  Her  father  died  and  she  and  her  mother 
removed  to  Washington,  D.  C.  Began  writing  sketches 
and  stories  in  1886.  Published  first  novel  in  1890. 
In  1890,  her  "Little  Jarvis"  took  a  prize  of  $500  offered 
by  "Youth's  Companion"  for  the  best  story  for  boys, 
and,  in  1895,  her  ''Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsac  "  took 
a  prize  of  $3,000  offered  by  the  "New  York  Herald." 
Author:      "Little    Jarvis,"     "Midshipman    Paulding." 


BIOGRAPHY 


487 


"Paul  Jones,"  "Maid  Marion,"  "Decatur  and  Somers," 
"A  Strange,  Sad  Comedy,"  "The  Sprightly  Romance 
of  Marsac,"  "A  Virginia  Cavalier,"  "The  Rock  of  the 
Lion,"  "Gavin  Hamilton,"  "The  House  of  Egremont," 
"Papa  Bouchard,"  "Francezka,"  " Children  of  Destiny," 
"Fifi,"  "The  Great  Scoop."  Plays:  "Maid  Marion," 
"Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsac." 

Seeley,  John  Robert,  historian;  born  in  1834.  In 
1863,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  at  University 
College,  London,  and,  in  1869,  became  Regius  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Cambridge.  In  1865,  he  published 
anonymously  "Ecce  Homo,"  and  he  also  wrote  "Life 
and  Times  of  Stein,"  "The  Expansion  of  England," 
and  "Greater  Greece  and  Greater  Britain."     Died,  1895. 

Sembrich,  Marcella,  born  in  1858;  Austrian  singer; 
made  her  debut  at  Athens  in  1877,  in  "I  Puritani," 
and  afterwards  sang  at  Vienna,  Dresden,  London,  and 
New  York,  her  favorite  parts  being  Susanna,  Martha, 
and  Zerlina. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Anna;u.s,  born  about  4  B.  C. ;  stoic 
philosopher;  was  banished  from  Rome  on  a  false  charge, 
but,  returning  after  eight  years,  became  tutor  to  Nero. 
Being  accused  of  conspiracy,  he  died,  65  A.  D.,  by  open- 
ing his  veins  and  suffocating  himself  in  a  warm  bath. 
His  works  consist  of  treatises  and  epistles,  but  the 
tragedies  ascribed  to  him  are  of  doubtful  authenticity. 

Servetus,  Michael,  born  in  1511 ;  Spanish  theologian; 
escaped  from  the  Inquisition  at  Vienna  to  Geneva, 
where  he  was  burnt  to  death  for  his  Arianism  by  the 
orders  of  Calvin,  in  1553. 

Seward,  Wiiliam  Henry,  born  in  1801;  American 
statesman;  was  elected  governor  of  New  York  in  1838, 
and,  in  1849,  became  United  States  senator.  He  now 
headed  the  Republican  party,  and,  having  been  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  presidential  nomination, 
became  secretary  of  state  under  Lincoln,  in  1861.  He 
was  attacked  at  the  same  time  as  the  latter,  but  recover- 
ed. He  wrote  a  "I^ife  of  John  Quincy  Adams,"  and 
other  works.     Died,  1872. 

Shatter,  William  Rufus,  major-general  in  United 
States  Army,  retired;  born  in  Galesburg,  Mich.,  October 
16,  1835.  Entered  Union  army  as  first  lieutenant. 
Brevetted  brigadier-general,  March  13,  1865,  for  gallant 
and  meritorious  services  during  the  war;  mustered 
out  of  volunteer  service,  November  2,  1865;  entered 
regular  army  as  lieutenant-colonel,  January  26,  1867; 
brevetted  colonel.  United  States  Army,  March  2,  1867, 
and  given  Congressional  medal  of  ihonor  for  gallant 
and  meritorious  services  at  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  Va. 
Major-general  of  volunteers.  May,  1898 ;  went  to  Tampa, 
Fla.;  thence  to  Cuba,  where  he  commanded  the  military 
operations  ending  in  capitulation  of  General  Linares' 
army  and  surrender  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  July,  1898. 
Retired,  June  30,  1901,  as  major-general.     Died,  1906. 

Shah-Jehan  ("King  of  the  World"),  fifth  of  the 
Mogul  emperors  of  Delhi;  succeeded  his  father  in  1627; 
a  man  of  great  administrative  ability  and  a  skilled 
warrior;  conquered  the  Deccan  and  the  kingdom  of 
Golconda,  and  generally  raised  the  Mogul  Empire  to 
its  zenith;  his  court  was  truly  Eastern  in  its  sumptuous 
magnificence;  the  "Peacock  Throne"  alone  cost  $35,- 
000,000.  Died  in  prison  in  1666,  a  victim  to  the  perfidy 
of  his  usurping  son,  Aurungzebe. 

Shaliespere,  or  Shaltspeare,  William,  the  greatest 
of  the  English  dramatic  poets,  was  born  in  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  Warwickshire,  in  1564.  Of  the  incidents  of  his 
youth  almost  nothing  is  known,  excepting  that  he  mar- 
ried in  his  19th  year,  and  soon  afterwards  resorted  to 
London,  where  he  became  an  actor  of  repute  at  the 
Globe  and  Blackfriars  theaters.  In  1593,  he  inaugu- 
rated his  literary  career  by  the  publication  of  his  poem 
"Venus  and  Adonis";  and,  in  the  following  year,  his 
first  published  play  appeared,  the  precursor  of  a  suc- 
cession of  works  which  constitute  the  crowning  glory 
of  English  dramatic  literature.  Shakespere  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  and  the 
friendship  of  Southampton,  Raleigh,  Ben  Jonson,  and 
other  of  the  principal  of  his  contemporaries.  After 
realizing  an  easy  fortune  by  his  contributions  to  the 
stage,  he  retired  to  his  native  town,  and  there  died  in 
1616.  Shakespere's  tragedies  of  "Hamlet,"  "Macbeth," 
"Othello,"  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  and  "King  Lear"  are 
wonderful  examples  of  his  power  of  expressing  the 
strongest  passions  of  the  human  soul;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  comedies,  particularly  "The  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,"  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing," 
"Twelfth  Night,"  "The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  etc., 
are  unsurpassed  in  the  English  language.  Of  his  dramas, 
strictly  so  called,  perhaps  the  finest  are  "As  You  Like 
It,"  "The  Merchant  of  Venice,"  and  "The  Tempest." 

Shaler,  Nathaniel  Southgate,  scientist;  born  in 
Newport,  Ky.,  in  1841;  graduate  of  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  Harvard,  1862,  Sc.  D.,  1865;   served  two  years 


as  artillerj^  officer  in  Union  army  during  the  Civil  War; 

instructor  in  zoology  and  geology,  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  1868-72;  professor  of  pateontology,  1868-87, 
and  afterward  professor  of  geology.  Harvard;  director 
of  Kentucky  geological  survey,  1873-80,  devoting  part 
of  each  year  to  that  work;  from  1884  to  1906,  geologist 
in  charge  of  Atlantic  division  of  United  States  geological 
survey.  Author:  "A  First  Book  in  Geology,"  "Ken- 
tucky, a  Pioneer  Commonwealth,"  "The  Nature  of 
Intellectual  Property,"  "The  Story  of  Our  Continent," 
"The  Interpretation  of  Nature,"  "Illustrations  of  the 
Earth's  Surface,"  "Sea  and  Land,"  "The  United  States 
of  America:  a  Study  of  the  American  Commonwealth," 
"Fossil  Brachiopods  of  the  Ohio  Valley,"  "American 
Highways,"  "Features  of  Coasts  and  Oceans,"  "Domes- 
ticated Animals:  Their  Relation  to  Man,"  "The  Indi- 
vidual: Study  of  Life  and  Death,"  "The  Neighbor," 
"The  Citizen,"  etc.     Died,  1906. 

Shaw,  Albert,  editor  of  "American  Monthly  Review 
of  Reviews";  born  in  Shandon,  Butler  County,  O., 
July  23,  1857;  graduate  of  Iowa  College,  1879;  took 
course  in  history  and  political  science,  Johns  Hopkins 
(Ph.  D.,  1884;  LL.  D.,  University  of  Wisconsin,  1904). 
Editorial  writer  with  "Minneapolis  Tribune,"  1883-88, 
1889-90;  studied  in  Europe,  1888-89.  Established, 
1891,  and  has  ever  since  conducted,  "American  Review 
of  Reviews."  Member  of  numerous  learned  societies; 
has  lectured  in  many  universities  and  colleges.  Author: 
"Icaria  —  A  Chapter  in  the  History  of  Communism," 
"Local  Government  in  Illinois,"  "Cooperation  in  the 
Northwest,"  "Municipal  Government  in  Great  Britain," 
"Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe." 
Editor:  "The  National  Revenues";  also  many  articles 
on  political  science  and  economics,  and  particularly  on 
municipal  governments,  in  magazines,  etc. 

Shaw,  GeorRC  Bernard,  was  born  in  Dublin,  July 
26,  1856,  and  went  to  London  in  1876.  He  published 
a  few  novels,  "Cashel  Byron's  Profession,"  etc.,  which 
attracted  little  attention ;  joined  the  Fabian  Society  in 
1884;  wrote  musical  critiques  in  the  "London  Star," 
1888-90,  and  the  "World,"  1890-94;  edited  Fabian 
essays  in  1889,  and,  in  1895,  began  his  work  as  a  dra- 
matic critic,  writing  in  the  "Saturday  Review."  In 
1898,  he  published  "Plays  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant," 
and  since  then  his  chief  literary  work  has  been  writing 
for  the  stage.  His  plays  include  "Man  and  Superman," 
"John  Bull's  Other  Island,"  "Major  Barbara,"  "The 
Doctor's  Dilemma,"  "Caesar  and  Cleopatra." 

Shaw,  Henry  Wheeler,  an  American  humorist; 
born  in  Lanesborough,  Mass.,  April  21,  1818.  In  1859, 
he  began  to  write,  and,  in  1860,  sent  "An  Essa  on  the 
Muel,  bi  Josh  Billings  "  to  a  New  York  paper.  It  was 
reprinted  in  several  comic  journals,  and  extensively 
copied.  His  most  successful  literary  venture,  however, 
was  a  travesty  on  the  'Old  Farmers'  Almanac,"  127,000 
copies  of  which  were  sold  in  its  second  year.  He  began 
to  lecture  in  1863,  and  for  twenty  years  previous  to  his 
death,  contributed  regularly  to  the  New  York  "World." 
He  died  in  Monterey,  Cal.,  October  14,  1885. 

Shays,  Daniel,  an  American  insurgent;  born  in 
Hopkinton,  Mass.,  in  1747;  served  as  ensign  at  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  attained  the  rank  of  captain 
in  the  Continental  army.  He  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  popular  movement  in  Western  Massachusetts  for 
the  redress  of  alleged  grievances,  appearing  before 
Springfield,  Mass.,  at  the  head  of  1,C)00  men,  to  prevent 
the  session  of  the  Supreme  Court  at  that  place,  and 
commanding  the  rebel  party  at  Pelham  and  at  the 
engagement  with  the  militia  at  Petersham.  After  the 
rebellion  was  put  down,  however,  he  was  pardoned  by 
the  government,  and  later,  in  his  old  age,  was  allowed 
a  pension  for  his  services  during  the  Revolutionary 
War.     He  died  in  Sparta,  N.  Y.,  September  29,  1825. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysslie,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
English  poets,  was  born  of  a  noble  family,  in  County 
Sussex,  in  1792.  He  was  early  distinguished  by  his 
original  turn  of  mind  for  speculative  inquiry,  and  was 
expelled  from  Oxford  University  on  an  alleged  charge 
of  atheism.  Refusing  to  recant  certain  philosophical 
opinions  he  had  formed,  and  which  had  given  rise  to 
his  expulsion,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  father 
and  family.  Retiring  to  London,  he  there  entered 
upon  authorship  by  the  production  of  his  fine  poem  of 
"Queen  Mab,"  and  contracted  an  unfortunate  marriage 
with  a  person  of  humble  rank,  from  whom  he  soon  sepa- 
rated. In  1816,  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  William  Godwin,  so  celebrated 
as  the  authoress  of  "Frankenstein";  and,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  gave  to  the  world  his  principal  work,  "The 
Revolt  of  Islam."  In  1818,  he  quitted  England  never 
to  return,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Italy,  where  he 
became  the  associate  of  Lord  Byron  and  Leigh  Hunt, 
and  where  he  wrote  his  tragedy  of  "The  Cenci";    the 


488 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


"Prometheus  Unbound,"  together  with  many  of  his 
minor  and  most  exquisite  poems.  In  1822,  he  perished 
by  the  capsizing  of  his  boat,  while  sailing  in  the  Gulf 
of  Leghorn. 

Shepard,  Edward  Morse,  lawyer;  born  in  New 
York,  m  1850;  graduate  of  College  of  City  of  New  York, 
A.  B.,  1869.  Civil  service  commissioner,  Brooklyn, 
1883-85,  chairman,  1888-90;  New  York  State  forestry 
commissioner,  1884-85;  Democratic  candidate  for  mayor 
of  Greater  New  York,  1901 ;  since  proposed  for  guber- 
natorial and  lother  nominations  of  his  party.  Director 
in  numerous  railway  and  other  corporations.  Author: 
"Martin  Van  Buren "  (American  Statesmen  series), 
"  Memoirs  of  Dugdale,"  and  many  reviews,  magazine 
and  other  articles  and  addresses  on  political,  industrial, 
and  educational  topics. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  born  in  1831;  American 
general;  distinguished  himself  during  the  Civil  War  at 
Stone  River,  and  by  his  victory  of  Cedar  Creek  (October 
19,  1864),  and  afterwards  under  Grant  at  Five  Forks 
(April  1,  1865),  and  Sailor's  Creek  In  1867,  he  quar- 
reled with  President  Johnson,  was  removed,  and  took 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Missouri.    Died,  1888. 

Sherman,  James  Schoolcraft,  was  born  in  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  October  24,  1855;  received  an  academic  and  col- 
legiate education,  graduating  from  Hamilton  College  in 
the  class  of  1878;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1880;  is  a 
practicing  lawyer;  also  president  of  the  Utica  Trust  and 
Deposit  Company,  and  president  of  the  New  Hartford 
Canning  Company;  has  served  in  these  public  positions: 
Mayor  of  Utica,  1884;  delegate  to  the  Republican  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1892;  chairman  of  New  York  State 
Republican  Convention  in  1895,  in  1900,  and  in  1908; 
chairman  of  the  National  Republican  Congressional 
Committee  in  1906;  was  elected  to  the  Fiftieth,  Fifty- 
first,  Fifty-third,  Fifty-fourth,  Fifty-fifth,  Fifty-sixth, 
Fifty-seventh,  F'ifty-eighth,  Fifty-ninth,  and  Sixtieth 
Congresses.  In  1908,  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  born  in  1820; 
American  general;  served  with  distinction  in  California, 
and,  having  in  the  interval  been  occupied  in  various 
pursuits  commandetl  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run  (July  21, 
1861),  was  wounded  at  Shiloh  (April  6-7,  1862),  and 
having  led  the  expedition  against  Vicksburg,  took 
Arkansas  Post  at  the  head  of  the  15th  Corps.  He  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Chattanooga  (November  23-25, 
1863),- and  was  soon  after  made  head  of  the  army  of  the 
Tennessee.  He  was  repulsed  by  Johnston  at  Kenesaw 
Mountain  (June  27,  18fe4),  but  defeated  his  successor. 
Hood.  After  further  victories  he  became  lieutenant- 
general,  and,  in  1869,  became  commander-in-chief,  a 
position  which  he  held  till  1884.     Died,  1891. 

Siddons,  Sarah,  born  in  1755;  English  actress,  nee 
Kemble;  joined  Garrick  in  1775,  and  acquired  a  rapid 
reputation.  In  1812  she  retired  with  a  fortune,  having 
given  unrivaled  renderings  of  the  greatest  characters  in 
the  tragedies  of  Shakespere  and  other  writers.  Died, 
1831. 

Siegel,  Henry,  merchant;  born  in  Eubigheim,  Ger- 
many, March  17,  1852;  educated  in  Germany,  and  in 
night  school,  Washington;  came  to  United  States,  1867; 
obtained  place  in  clothing  store,  Washington,  at  $3.50 
per  week,  worked  there  four  years  until  he  received  $15 
per  week;  went  to  work  for  his  brothers  who  had  a  store 
at  Parkesburg,  Pa.;  later  partner  in  store  established 
by  brothers  at  Lawrenceburg,  Pa.;  moved  to  Chicago, 
1876,  establishing  cloak  manufacturing  firm  of  Siegel, 
Hartsfeld  &  Company,  later  Siegel  Brothers;  with 
Frank  H.  Cooper,  Peoria  merchant,  established  Siegel, 
Cooper  &  Company,  department  store,  Chicago;  moving 
finally,  1893,  into  the  "Big  Store,"  State  and  Van  Buren 
streets;  in  1896,  established  store  of  Siegel-Cooper  Com- 
pany, New  York;  purchased  Simpson-Crawford  Com- 
pany store.  New  York,  January,  1902,  and  in  August, 
1902,  a  half  interest  in  Schlesinger  &  Mayer,  Chicago. 

Sigsbee,  Charles  Dwight,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  January  16,  1845;  Naval  Academy,  1859- 
63;  promoted  ensign,  October  1,  1863;  served  in  West 
Gulf  squadron,  1863-64,  and  was  present  at  battle  of 
Mobile  Bay;  in  North  Atlantic  squadron,  1865,  and  at 
both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  and  final  assault  on  same; 
after  Civil  War,  1874-78,  sounded  and  explored  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico;  introduced  numerous  inventions  and 
new  methods  in  deep  sea  exploration,  for  which  he  later 
received  decoration  of  Red  Eagle  of  Prussia  from 
Emperor  William  I.,  and  received  gold  medal  from 
abroad.  Took  command,  April  10,  1897,  of  battleship 
"Maine,"  which  was  blown  up  and  destroyed  in 
Havana  harbor,  February  15,  1898;  commanded  bat- 
tleship "Texas,"  September,  1898,  to  January,  1900; 
rear-admiral,  1903;  member  Naval  Construction  Board 
and     Naval    General     Board.       Author:     "Deep    Sea 


Sounding  and  Dredging,"  "Personal  Narrative  of  the 
Battleship  "Maine,"  "  etc. 

Sililman,  Benjamin,  an  American  naturalist;  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1779;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1796;  chosen  professor  of  chemistry  there  in  1802; 
studied  in  Philadelphia  and  later  abroad,  preparing  for 
his  professorship,  in  which  position  he  gained  great 
celebrity.  In  1818,  he  founded  "The  American  Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  -Arts,"  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the 
United  States.  Died  in  1864.  His  son  Benjamin  suc- 
ceeded his  father  at  Yale.     Born,  1816;   died,  1885. 

Simpson,  Sir  James  Young,  Bart.,  M.  D.,  born  in 
1811;  physician;  made  a  speciality  of  obstetrics.  He 
discovered  the  an.'psthetic  properties  of  chloroform. 
Besides  several  medical  works  he  was  author  of  "  Archaeo- 
logical Essays."     Died,  1870. 

Sismondi,  Jean  Charles  Simonde  de,  historian 
and  economist;  was  born  in  Geneva  in  1773;  was  im- 
prisoned there  in  1794,  as  an  aristocrat,  and  fled  to  Tus- 
cany, but  in  1800,  returned  to  his  native  place.  His 
chief  works  were  "History  of  the  Italian  Republics  of 
the  Middle  .'Xtces,"  "History  of  the  French,"  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe,"  and  some 
economical  works.     Died,  1842. 

Sitting  Bull,  a  chief  of  the  Sioux  Indians;  born  about 
1837;  was  regarded  as  a  great  "medicine  man"  by  his 
tribe;  and  was  an  obdurate  foe  of  the  whites.  He  was 
conspicuous  in  the  Sioux  massacre  of  1862;  was  con- 
stantly on  the  war  path  for  fourteen  years ;  was  a  leader 
in  the  Indian  outbreaks  of  1876;  and  was  in  command 
at  the  battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn  in  which  General 
Custer  and  his  entire  force  were  killed.  With  his  band 
he  escaped  into  Canada,  but  continued  even  there  to 
incite  rebellion  among  the  Sioux.  In  1880,  receiving 
the  promise  of  pardon,  he  returned  to  Dakota  and  sur- 
rendered to  General  Miles.  He  again  incited  the  Indians 
to  renewed  outbreaks.  His  arrest  was  ordered  and  the 
Indian  police  were  detailed  on  this  duty.  In  attempting 
to  resist  them,  he  was  killed  December  15,  1890. 

Sixtus  IV.,  born  in  1414;  was  elected  pope  in  1471; 
equipped  a  fleet  against  the  Turks,  supported  the  Pazzi 
against  the  Medici,  and  Venice  against  Ferrara,  but  ex- 
communicated the  former  for  not  agreeing  to  a  peace. 
He  built  the  Sistine  chapel.     Died,  1484. 

Sixtus  v.,  born  in  1521;  was  originally  a  shepherd 
boy  near  Ancona,  by  name  Felice  Peretti,  but  became 
successively  general  of  the  Cordeliers  at  Bologna,  con- 
fessor to  Pius  v.,  and  cardinal,  being  elected  successor 
to  (Gregory  XIII.  in  1585.  He  excommunicated  Henry 
of  Navarre,  Cond^,  and  Henri  III.  of  France,  and  ap- 
proved the  expedition  of  Philip  II.  against  England; 
and  at  Rome  rebuilt  the  Vatican  library,  estabUshed  the 
press,  spent  large  sums  in  improving  and  adorning  the 
city,  and  put  down  brigandage  in  his  dominions.  He 
also  fixed  the  number  of  cardinals  at  seventy.  Died, 
1590. 

Smalley,  George  Washburn,  American  correspond- 
ent to  London  "Times  "  since  July,  1895;  born  in  Frank- 
lin, Norfolk  County,  Mass.,  1833;  graduated  from  Yale, 
1853  (A.  M.);  Harvard  Law  School,  1855;  practiced 
law  in  Boston,  1856-61;  in  Civil  War,  1861-62,  war 
correspondent  to  "New  York  Tribune";  organized 
European  Bureau,  "New  York  Tribune,"  1866-67;  in 
charge  of  its  European  correspondence  until  1895; 
special  United  States  commissioner  at  Paris  Exposition, 
1878.     Author:    "London  Letters,"  "Studies  of  Men." 

Smith,  Goldwin,  author;  born  in  Reading,  England, 
August  23,  1823;  graduated  from  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford  University,  1845;  M.  A.  (D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  1882; 
LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896);  called  to  English  bar,  1847; 
Regius  professor  of  modern  history,  Oxford,  1858-66; 
active  champion  of  North  during  .American  Civil  War; 
visited  United  States,  1864;  came  to  United  States, 
1868;  lecturer,  1868-71,  and  later  honorary  professor 
of  English  and  constitutional  history,  Cornell;  lived 
in  Toronto  from  1871  until  his  death.  Author: 
"Irish  History  and  Irish  Character,"  "Rational  Re- 
ligion and  the  Rationalistic  Objections  of  the  Bramp- 
ton Lectures  for  1858,"  "Does  the  Bible  Sanction 
American  Slavery?"  "The  Empire,"  "On  the  Morality 
of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation,"  "A  Letter  to  a 
Whig  Member  of  the  Southern  Independence  Association," 
"England  and  America,"  "The  Civil  War  in  America," 
"Three  English  Statesmen,"  "Essays  on  Reform,"  "The 
Reorganization  of  the  University  of  Oxford,"  "The  Irish 
Question,"  "The  Relations  Between  America  and  Eng- 
land," ".William  Cowper,"  "Jane  Austen,"  "Lectures 
and  Essays,"  ".The  Conduct  of  England  to  Ireland," 
"False  Hopes,"  "Loyalty,  Aristocracy,  and  Jingoism," 
"The  Political  Destiny  of  Canada."  "Canada  and  the 
Canadian  Question,"  "William  Lloyd  Garrison:  a  Bio- 
graphical Essay,"  "A  Trip  to  England,"  "History  of  the 
United    States,"    "Oxford    and    Her    Colleges,"     'Bay 


BIOGRAPHY 


489 


Leaves:  Translations  from  the  Latin  Poets,"  "Speci- 
mens of  Greek  Tragedy,"  "Essays  on  Questions  of  the 
Day,"  "Guesses  at  the  Riddle  of  Existence,"  "The 
United  Kingdom,"  "Shakespere:  The  Man,"  "Com- 
monwealth or  Empire,"  "In  the  Court  of  History," 
"The  Founder  of  Christendom,"  "Lines  of  Religious 
Inquiry,"  "My  Memory  of  Gladstone,"  and  numerous 
articles  in  magazines.     Died,  1910. 

Smith,  Herbert  Knox,  lawyer,  government  official; 
born  in  Chester,  Mass.,  November  17,  1869;  graduated 
from  Yale,  A.  B.,  1891,  post-graduate  department,  1891- 
93,  Yale  Law  School,  LL.  B.,  1895;  practiced  law,  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  1895-1903;  served  two  terms,  Hartford 
common  council,  1900-02,  chairman  Hartford  Republican 
town  committee,  January  to  December,  1903;  member 
Connecticut  legislature,  1903-05;  commissioner  of  cor- 
porations, department  of  commerce  and  labor,  since 
1907. 

Smith,  John,  Captain,  born  in  1580;  colonist;  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks  when  in  the  Hurfgarian 
service,  but  after  his  escape  from  the  Crimea  went  out 
to  colonize  Virginia  in  1606.  He  was  captured  by  the 
Indians,  and  only  saved  from  death  by  Pocahontas,  the 
Indian  girl,  and  after  his  release  and  explorations  in 
Chesapeake  Bay,  was  made  president  of  the  Colonial 
Council.  He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1615, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  met  Pocahontas,  and  pre- 
sented her  to  the  queen.  His  ''History  of  Virginia, 
New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles"  appeared  in  1624. 
He  wrote  various  autobiographical  works.     Died,  1631. 

Smith,  Joseph,  born  in  1805;  founder  of  Mormon- 
ism;  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  in  Vermont  State,  built 
Nauvoo  on  the  Mississippi,  where  he  was  arrested  for 
treason  and  murdered  by  the  mob  (1844;.  The  "Book 
of  Mormon  "  was,  according  to  his  account,  a  translation 
of  records  written  on  thin  plates  of  metal,  to  the  dis- 
covery of  which  he  was  supernaturally  guided. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George,  born  in  1721;  novelist 
and  historian;  was  several  years  in  the  navy,  but  after- 
wards became  an  author,  his  chief  novels  being  "Roder- 
ick Random"  and  "Peregrine  Pickle."  He  also  con- 
tinued Hume's  "History  of  England,"  translated  "Don 
Quixote"  and  "Gil  Bias,"  and  was  employed  as  a  writer 
against  the  Whigs.     Died,  1771. 

Socrates  (born  about  469  B.C.),  Athenian  philosopher; 
worked  at  first  as  a  sculptor,  but  afterwards  devoted  him- 
self to  gratuitous  teaching.  He  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  saving  the  lives  of  his  pupils,  Alci- 
biades  and  Xenophon,  at  Potidaa  and  Delium;  was 
finally  condemned  to  drink  hemlock  on  a  charge  of 
impiety  and  the  corruption  of  youth.      Died,  399  B.  C. 

Solomon,  king  of  Israel  from  1015  to  975  B.  C. ; 
second  son  of  David  and  Bathsheba,  and  David's  suc- 
cessor; ir  high  repute  far  and  wide  for  his  love  of  wisdom 
and  the  glory  of  his  reign:  he  had  a  truly  Oriental  passion 
for  magnificence,  and  the  buildings  he  erected  in  Jerusa- 
lem, including  the  Temple  and  a  palace  on  Mount  Zion, 
he  raised  regardless  of  an  expense  which  the  nation 
resented  after  he  was  gone;  the  burden  of  which  it  would 
seem  had  fallen  upon  them,  for  when  his  successor,  follow- 
ing in  his  courses,  ascended  the  throne,  ten  of  the  tribes 
revolted,  to  the  final  rupture  of  the  community,  and  the 
fall  of  first  the  one  section  and  then  the  other  under 
alien  sway. 

Solyman  II.,  surnamed  "The  Magnificent"  born  in 
A.  D.  1496;  Sultan  of  Turkey,  from  1520  to  1566.  He 
was  the  greatest  of  the  Turkish  sultans,  and  was  scarcely 
less  remarkable  for  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  his  internal 
administration  than  for  the  extent  of  his  conquests.  He 
encouraged  literature,  and  was  himself  a  poet  of  no  mean 
rank.  He  died,  September  5,  1566,  of  fever  while  be- 
sieging the  town  of  Szigeth,  in  Hungary,  two  days  before 
the  capture  of  the  town. 

Sophocles  (sof  o-klez) ,  a  famous  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
was  born  in  495  B.  C.  He  succeeded  jEschylus  in  his 
improvement  of  the  drama,  and  raised  it  to  its  highest 
pitch  of  excellence  in  Greece.  We  possess  but  seven 
of  his  plays,  two  of  which  belong  to  the  trilogy  of  CEdipus. 
Died,  406  B.  C. 

Sothern,  Edward  H.,  actor;  born  in  New  Orleans, 
La.;  son  of  Edward  A.  S.,  famous  comedian;  first 
appeared  in  small  parts  with  his  father.  Abbey's  Park 
Theater,  New  York;  later  played  with  Helen  Dauvray 
in  "One  of  Our  Girls."  First  took  leading  role,  Lyceum 
Theater,  New  York,  May  23,  1887,  as  Jack  Hammerton 
in  "The  Highest  Bidder,"  and  since  has  starred  with  his 
own  company  in  "Lord  Chumley,"  "The  Maister  of 
Woodbarrow,"  "The  Prisoner  of  Zenda,"  "Under  the 
Red  Robe,"  etc.;  married  Virginia  Harned,  his  leading 
woman. 

Sousa,  John  Philip,  musician;  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  November  6,  1856;  studied  music;  teacher  at  15 
and  conductor  at  17 ;  was  one  of  the  first  violins  of  Jacques 


Offenbach's  orchestra  when  the  latter  was  in  the  United 
States;  band  leader  of  United  States  Marine  Corps, 
1880-92;  since  1892,  director  of  Sousa's  Band;  has 
composed  and  published  many  marches,  orchestral  suites, 
"Te  Deums,"  songs,  waltzes  and  the  light  operas  "El 
Capitan,"  "Bride  Elect"  (libretto  and  music),  "The 
Charlatan,"  and  "Chris,  and  the  Wonderful  I^amp." 
Author;     "The  Fifth  String,"  "Pipetown  Sandy." 

Southey,  Robert,  born  in  1774,  poet  and  biographer, 
son  of  a  finendraper  at  Bristol;  settled  at  Keswick  in 
1803,  and  there  wrote  "The  Curse,  of  Kehama,"  and  all 
his  chief  poems,  except  "Thalaba,"  as  well  as  his  lives  of 
Nelson  and  of  Wesley,  "The  Doctor,"  and  contributions 
to  the  "Quarterly."  He  became  poet  laureate  in  1813 
and  received  a  pension  in  1835.  He  was  twice  married, 
first  to  Edith  Fricker,  sister  of  his  friend  Coleridge's  wife, 
and  secondly  to  Caroline  Bowles,  romance-writer  and 
poet,  who  died  in  1854.     Died,  1843. 

Sparks,  Edwin  Erie,  educator,  historian;  was  born 
in  Licking  County,  O.,  1860;  was  graduated  from  the 
Ohio  State  University,  1884;  A.  M.,  1891;  Ph.  D., 
University  of  Chicago,  1900;  was  instructor  in  the  Ohio 
State  University,  1884-85;  professor  Pennsylvania  State 
College,  1890-95;  lecturer  American  Society  for  Uni- 
versity Extension,  1892-95;  lecturer,  instructor,  and  later 
professor  American  History,  University  of  Chicago, 
1895-1908,  and  dean  of  University  College,  1905-06; 
president  Pennsylvania  State  College,  1908;  member 
American  Historical  Association,  Illinois  Historical 
Society  (director);  and  councilor  American  Institute  of 
Civics.  Author:  "  Expansion  of  the  American  People"; 
"  The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation";  "Formative  Inci- 
dents in  American  Diplomacy" ;  "  The  United  States  of 
America"  ;  "  Foundations  of  National  Development,"  etc. 

Sparlts,  Jared,  born  in  1789;  American  writer: 
became  professor  of  history  at  Harvard  in  1839,  and 
president  of  the  college  in  1849.  His  chief  work  was 
"Life  and  Writings  of  Washington."     Died,  1866. 

Spartacus,  died,  71  B.  C;  a  Thracian,  who  headed 
the  revolt  of  the  gladiators  at  Capua.  After  some  suc- 
cesses he  was  defeated  by  Crassus  and  slain. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  born  in  1820;  utilitarian  philoso- 
pher; was  for  some  years  a  civil  engineer  before  engaging 
in  literature.  Going  to  London  he  became  intimate 
with  George  Eliot  and  G.  H.  Lewes,  and  in  1850, 
published  "Social  Statics."  He  undertook  a  lecturing 
tour  in  America,  in  1882,  previous  to  which  had  appeared 
"Principles  of  Psychology,"  "First  Principles,"  "Educa- 
tion," "Principles  of  Biology,"  "The  Study  of  Sociology," 
"The  Data  of  Ethics,"  "The  Man  vs.  The  State,"  and 
other  works  followed.     Died,  1903. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  born  in  1552;  English  poet; 
went  to  Ireland  in  1580,  as  secretary  to  Lord  Grey  de 
Wilton,  and  lived  in  Cork  County  in  the  intervals  till  the 
rebellion  of  Tyrone.  The  "Faerie  Queene  "  was  partly 
printed  in  1590,  his  other  chief  works  being  "The  Shep- 
herd's Calendar,"  "Colin  Clout's  Come  Home  Again," 
and  "View  of  the  State  of  Ireland."     Died,  1599. 

Speyer,  James,  banker;  born  in  New  York,  1861; 
educated  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Germany.  Entered 
family's  banking  house  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main  at  age 
of  22 ;  later  transferred  to  Paris  and  London  branches 
to  receive  thorough  business  education  before  returning 
to  take  charge  of  New  York  house ;  he  is  now  senior  of  the 
Speyer  houses.  One  of  founders  and  treasurer  of  The 
Provident  Loan  Society,  which  loans  money  to  needy 
people  on  personal  property  at  legal  rates  of  interest. 
Trustee  of  Union  Trust  Co.,  Central  Trust  Co.,  Girard 
Trust  Co.  (Philadelphia),  German  Savings  Bank,. 
Guaranty  Trust  Co.,  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.;  di- 
rector of  Southern  Pacific  Co.,  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co., 
B.  &  O.  Railroad  Company,  North  British  and  Mercantile 
Insurance  Company,  Bank  of  Manhattan  Co.,  Under- 
ground Electric  Railways  Company  of  London,  Limited, 
Rock  Island  Co.,  General  Chemical  Co.,  Lackawanna 
Steel  Co. ;   member  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Spofford,  Ainsworth  Band,  chief  assistant  librarian 
of  Congress;  born  in  Gilmanton,  N.  H.,  September  12, 
1825;  classical  education  from  private  tutors  (LL.  D., 
Amherst,  1882).  Bookseller  and  publisher,  Cincinnati; 
associate  editor  of  "Cincinnati  Daily  Commercial,"  1859— 
61;  first  assistant  librarian  of  Congress,  1861-64; 
librarian-in-chief,  1864-97;  since  then  chief  assistant 
librarian.  Editor:  "Catalogues  of  the  Congressional 
Library,"  "Annual  American  Almanac,  1878-89," 
edited,  with  others,  "Library  of  Choice  Literature"  (ten 
volumes),  "Library  of  Historic  Characters  and  Famous 
Events"  (ten  volumes),  "Library  of  Wit  and  Humor" 
(five  volumes).  Author:  "Practical  Manual  of  Parlia- 
mentary Rules,"  "A  Book  for  all  Readers  —  an  aid  to 
collection,  use,  and  preservation  of  books,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  libraries,"  numerous  articles  in  reviews  and  cyclo- 
pajdias,  lectures,  etc.     Died,  1908. 


490 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Spooner,  John  Colt,  lawyer;  United  States  senator: 
born  in  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  January  6,  1843;  removed 
to  Madison,  Wis.,  1859;  graduate  of  University  of  Wis- 
consin, 1864;  served  private,  Co.  A,  40th  Wisconsin 
infantry  volunteers;  captain  and  brevet-major  of  50th 
Wisconsin  infantry;  later  private  and  military  secretary 
to  Governor  Lucius  Fairchild,  of  Wisconsin.  Admitted 
to  bar,  1867;  assistant  attorney-general,  Wisconsin, 
1867-70;  practiced  law  at  Hudson,  Wisconsin,  1870-84; 
member  of  Wisconsin  Assembly,  1872.  United  States 
senator,  1885-91,  and  again  in  1897-1907.  Resigned 
in  1907  and  entered  upon  the  practice  of  law  in 
New  York. 

Spreckels,  Clans,  sugar  refiner;  born  in  Lamstedt, 
Hanover,  1828;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1846;  was 
employed  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  New  York;  went  to 
San  Francisco,  1856;  conducted  a  store,  and  later  a 
brewery.  Established  Bay  Sugar  Refinerv,  1863,  pro- 
curing raw  materiaFfrom  Hawaii;  invented  new  refining 
processes;  acquired  sugar  properties  in  Hawaii;  built 
new  refineries;  had  a  beet-sugar  farm  of  1,500  acres  and 
factory  at  Watsonville,  Cal.,  and  was  large  owner  in 
Oceanic  Steamship  Company,  plying  between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Honolulu.     Died,  1908. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon,  born  in  1834;  Baptist 
preacher;  was  born  in  Essex,  and  went  to  London  in 
1853,  the  Metropolitan  Tabernacle  being  opened  in  1861. 
His  sermons  were  published  weekly  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  had  a  large  sale.  In  1887,  he  withdrew 
from  the  Baptist  Union.     Died,  1892. 

Stand'ish,  Miles,  one  of  the  Puritan  fathers,  of 
Lancashire  birth,  and  a  cadet  of  a  family  of  knightly 
rank  in  the  country,  served  in  the  Netherlands  as  a 
soldier,  and  came  to  America  in  the  "Mayflower,"  in 
1620,  and  was  helpful  to  the  colony  in  its  relations 
both  with  the  Indians  and  the  mother  country.  Stan- 
dish  is  the  hero  of  a  poem  of  Ix)ngfellow's. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  born  in  1815;  divine, 
son  of  Edward,  Bishop  of  Norwich  (died,  1849);  author 
of  "  Familiar  History  of  Birds " :  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Balliol,  and  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  at  Oxford  in  1858.  He  visited  the  East  in 
1853  and  1862,  and  was  appointed  dean  of  Westminster 
in  1863.  Among  his  works  were  "Life  of  Dr.  Arnold," 
"Sinai  and  Palestine,"  and  "IDssays  on  Church  and 
State."     Died,  1881. 

Stanley,  Henry  Morton,  D.  C.  L.,  African  explorer; 
born  in  Wales  in  1841;  took  the  name  of  his  adopted 
father  in  place  of  that  of  Rowlands,  and  having  served 
in  the  American  Civil  War,  and  been  a  war  correspond- 
ent in  Turkey  and  Abyssinia,  was,  in  1870,  sent  to  find 
Livingstone,  whom  he  met  at  Ujiji  (November  10,  1871), 
and  having  explored  with  him,  came  home  in  1872. 
In  1874,  he  again  went  to  Africa,  and  in  the  course  of 
four  years  explored  Victoria  and  Albert  Nvanza,  and 
the  Congo.  In  1879-84,  he  once  more  visited  the  latter, 
and,  in  1887,  went  to  relieve  Emin  Pasha.  "How  I 
Found  Livingstone,"  "Through  the  Dark  Continent," 
and  "In  Darkest  Africa"  describe  his  expeditions. 
Died,  1904. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  an  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  Steubenville,  O.,  in  1814.  He  practioed  law 
with  success  in  his  native  town  until  1847,  when  he 
settled  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  there  became  leader  of 
the  bar.  In  1857,  ne  took  up  his  abode  in  Washington, 
and,  in  1860,  was  made  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States,  and,  in  1862,  secretary  of  war.  This  arduous 
post  he  filled  throughout  the  Civil  War  with  conspicuous 
energy,  industry,  and  ability.  He  retained  office  after 
the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  until  1867,  when  he  w«s 
suspended  by  President  Johnson,  who  appointed  General 
Grant  in  his  place  ad  interim.  The  latter,  however, 
only  held  the  appointment  a  few  months,  that  is  to  say, 
till  Stanton's  reinstation  by  the  senate  in  .January,  1868. 
In  May,  he  definitely  retired  from  the  secretaryship, 
and,  in  December,  1869,  was  appointed  an  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  and 
died  during  the  same  month. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  poet,  critic;  born  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1833;  educated  at  Yale,  class  of 
1853,  A.  M.  (L.  H.  D.,  (Columbia,  LL.  D.,  Yale).  Editor 
of  Norwich  (Conn.)  "Tribune,"  1852-53;  Winsted 
(Conn.)  "Herald,"  1854-55;  on  staff  of  New  York 
"Tribune,"  1859-61;  war  correspondent  for  "World," 
1861-63;  filled  a  position  under  United  States  Attorney- 
General  Bates;  member  of  New  York  Stock  Exchange, 
1869-1900.  Delivered  initiatory  course  of  lectures  of 
Turnbull  Chair  of  Poetry,  Johns  Hopkins,  later  re- 
peated at  Columbia  and  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Author:  "Poems,  Lyric  and  Idyllic,"  "Alice  of  Mon- 
mouth—  an  Idyl  of  the  Great  War,"  "The  Blameless 
Prince,"  "Poetical  Works,"  "Hawthorne,  and  Other 
Poems,"  "Lyrics  and  Idyls,  with  Other  Poems,"  "Poems 


Now  First  Collected,"  "Mater  Coronata,"  also  volumes 
of  poems.  Critical  works:  "Victorian  Poets,"  "Poets 
of  America,"  "The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry." 
Editor:  "Cameos  from  the  Poems  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor"  (with  T.  B.  Aldrich),  "Poems  of  Austin  Dob- 
son,"  "  A  Library  of  American  Literature "  (eleven  vol- 
umes, with  Ellen  M.  Hutchinson),  1888-89;  "The  Works 
of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  "  (ten  volumes,  with  Professor  G.  E. 
Woodbviry),  "A  Victorian  Anthology,"  "An  American 
Anthology,"  "History  of  New  York  Stock  Exchange." 
Died  in  New  Y'ork  in  1908. 

Stephen,  Leslie,  born  in  1832,  son  of  Sir  James; 
was  for  several  years  fellow  and  tutor  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge;  edited  the  "Cornhill"  for  eleven  years, 
and,  in  1882,  undertook  the  editorship  of  the  "Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography,"  which  he  resigned  in  1891. 
Among  his  works  are  "History  of  English  Thought  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  "The  Science  of  Ethics"; 
lives  of  Johnson,  Pope,  and  Swift  in  the  "Men  of  Letters  " 
series,*  and  a  "Life  of  Henry  Fawcett."     Died,  1904. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton,  an  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1812.  Sent  to  Con- 
gress by  the  Whig  party  in  1843,  he  retained  his  seat 
in  that  body  till  1859,  during  which  period  he  supported 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  promoted  the  passage  of  the 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  Act  of  1854,  and  joined  the  Dem- 
ocratic party  in  upholding  the  measures  of  President 
Buchanan.  In  ISQO,  he  opposed  the  secession  of  his 
State,  but  in  the  following  year,  gave  in  his  adhesion 
to  sectional  views,  and  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
so-called  Southern  Confederacy.  After  the  collapse  of 
the  latter,  Stephens  suffered  a  brief  imprisonment  in 
Fort  Warren,  and  after  being  reelected  senator  to  Con- 
gress, in  186(5,  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  In  1869, 
he  published  "A  History  of  the  War  of  Secession,"  and, 
in  1870,  "A  Constitutional  View  of  the  War  Between 
the  States."     Died,  1883. 

Stephenson,  George,  engineer;  was  born  in  Wylam 
in  1781 ;  worked  as  a  colher  and  brakesman.  The  in- 
vention of  a  safety  lamp,  in  1815,  brought  him  fame 
and  a  public  testimonial  of  1,000  pounds.  His  first 
engine  had  been  constructed  before  this,  and,  in  1829, 
he  won  a  prize  of  £500  for  the  best  engine,  his  loco- 
motive, the  "Rocket,"  being  fitted  with  the  "blast- 
pipe."     Died,  1848. 

Stephenson,  Robert,  born  in  1803;  son  of  the  above; 
won  tne  mathematical  prize  in  a  six-months'  course  at 
Edinburgh  University,  and  returned  to  help  his  father. 
He  constructed  the  "Planet,"  the  model  of  the  modern 
locomotive,  and  won  world-wide  reputation  as  a  con- 
structor of  bridges,  and  in  connection  with  railways. 
He  entered  parliament  for  Whitby  as  a  Conservative 
in  1847.     Died,  1859. 

Stepniak,  Sergius  Dragomanoff,  born  in  1852; 
Russian  writer;  was  removed  from  his  professorship  of 
Kiefl  and  exiled  in  1876,  for  his  political  opinions,  and 
then  settled  in  Geneva.  Among  his' works  are  "Hio- 
mada"  ("Common  Things"),  "Tyrannicide  in  Russia." 
and  "The  Turks  Within  and  Without,"  ".Underground 
Russia,"  etc.     Died,  1895. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  born  in  1713;  Irish  divine  and 
writer,  author  of  "Tristram  Shandy"  (1759-67),  "The 
Sentimental  Journey,"  and  "Letters  to  His  Friends" 
(posthumous),  etc.     Died,  1768. 

Stevenson,  AdIai  Ewing,  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  1893-97;  born  in  Christian  County,  Ky., 
October  23,  1835;  educated  in  common  schools  and 
Center  College,  Danville,  Ky. ;  was  not  graduated; 
family  removed  to  Bloomington,  111.,  when  he  was  I'T 
years  old;  admitted  to  bar.  May,  1857;  master  in  chan- 
cery, 1860-64;  member  of  Congress,  1875-77;  delegate 
to  National  Deniocratic  Convention,  1884  and  1892; 
first  assistant  postmaster-general,  1885-89;  after  term 
as  vice-president,  appointed  in  1897  member  of  the 
commission  to  Europe  to  try  to  secure  international 
bimetallism.  Democratic  nominee  for  vice-president  of 
the  United  States,  1900. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  born  in  1850;  novelist, 
poet,  and  son  of  a  Scottish  engineer;  gave  up  the 
family  profession  and  traveled,  afterwards  writing  the 
following  works,  among  others:  "An  Inland  Voyage," 
".  Virginibus  Puerisque,"  "New  Arabian  Nights,"  "Treas- 
ure Island,"  "A  Child's  Garden  of  Verse,"  "Prince 
Otto,"  "Strange  Case  of  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde," 
"Kidnapped,"  "The  Master  of  Ballantrae,"  'The 
Wrecker,"  "A  Footnote  to  History."  In  1890,  he  went 
to  live  in  Samoa,  where  he  died  in  1895. 

Stejm,  Martinus  Theunis,  a  Boer  statesman;  born 
in  Winburg,  Orange  Free  State,  October  2,  1857;  worked 
on  his  father's  farm  till  1876,  when  he  went  to  England 
to  study.  He  returned  to  Africa  in  1882,  and  practiced 
law  in  Bloemfontein  till  1889,  when  he  was  made  second 
puisne   judge   and   state   attorney.     Later,   he   became 


BIOGRAPHY 


491 


first  puisne  judge,  and    in  1896,  was  chosen  last  Presi- 
dent of  tlie  Orange  Free  State. 

Stillinan,  James*  former  president  of  National  City 
Bankjborn  inBrownsville.Tex., JuneQ,  1850;  youthspent 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  in  private  school  at  Sing  Sing, 
N.  Y.;  partner,  1871-73,  in  Smith,  Woodman  &  Still- 
man,  and  since  1873  in  their  successors.  Woodman  & 
Stillman,  cotton  commission  merchants;  now  senior 
partner;  director  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 
Railroad  Company,  Northern  Pacific  Railway  Company, 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Chicago  &  Alton  Rail- 
road Company,  Chicago  &  North-Western  Railway  Com- 
pany, Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railway  Company, 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  Delaware;  Lackawanna  & 
Western  Railroad  Company  (member  board  of  managers) , 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  Northern  Securities 
Company,  Allis-Chalmers  Company,  Hanover  National 
Bank,  National  Citizens  Bank,  Second  National  Bank, 
Riggs  National  Bank  (Washington),  Southern  Pacific 
Company,  United  States  Trust  Company,  Lincoln  National 
Bank,  Bank  of  The  Metropolis,  Amalgamated  Copper, 
American  Surety  Company,  George  A.  Fuller  Company, 
New  York  Life  Insurance  Company,  Northern  British 
&  Mercantile  Insurance  Company,  Queen  Insurance 
Company,  and  many  railway,  financial,  insurance,  and 
other  corporations,  etc.  He  has  lived  much  abroad, 
especially  in  France. 

Stimson,  Frederic  Jesup  ("J.  S.  of  Dale"),  lawyer, 
author;  born  in  Dedham,  Mass.,  July  20,  1855;  grad- 
uate of  Harvard,  1876;  Harvard  Law  School,  1878. 
Member  of  New  York  and  Boston  bars;  assistant  attor- 
ney-general, Massachusetts,  1884-85;  general  counsel  to 
the  United  States  Industrial  Commission,  1898-1902. 
Professor  of  comparative  legislation,  Harvard.  Besides 
writing  law  boolis,  he  has  written  several  novels  (the 
earlier  ones  under  the  pen-name,  "J.  S.  of  Dale"), 
essays,  etc.  Author:  "Rollo's  Journey  to  Cambridge," 
" Guerndale,"_  "The  Crime  of  Henry  Vane,"  "American 
Statute  Law"  (two  volumes),  "The  Sentimental  Calen- 
dar," "First  Harvests,"  "Stimson's  Law  Glossary," 
"In  the  Three  Zones,"  "Government  by  Injunction," 
"Labor  in  Its  Relation  to  Law,"  "Mrs.  KnoUys  and 
Other  Stories,"  "Handbook  to  the  Labor  Law  of  the 
United  States,"  "Uniform  State  Legislation,"  "Pirate 
Gold,"  "King  Noanett,"  "Jethro  Bacon  of  Sandwich," 
also  a  series  of  magazine  articles  on  "The  Ethics  of 
Democracy,"  etc. 

Stolypln,  Peter  Arkazhevlch,  Russian  prime  min- 
ister; born  in  1863;  the  son  of  a  popular  general,  he  had 
a  brilliant  career  at  the  University  of  St.  Petersburg, 
and,  after  graduating,  in  1884,  obtained  an  appointment 
at  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior.  After  two  years  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  where  he  re- 
mained another  two  years,  then  retiring  for  a  time  into 
private  life,  and  devoting  himself  to  the  management  of 
his  estate  in  Kovno  Government.  He  served  as  marshal 
of  the  district  -nobility,  president  of  the  arbitration 
board  and  justice  of  the  peace,  and  in  1899  became 
marshal  of  the  provincial  nobility.  He  was  appointed 
vice-governor  of  Grodno  in  1902,  governor  of  Saratoff 
in  1903,  and  from  Saratoff  he  was  called  to  St.  Peters- 
burg to  take  up  the  portfolio  of  the  interior.  He  was 
one  of  the  few  ministers  to  whom  the  Duma  was  ready 
to  listen.  When  M.  Goremykin  resigned  in  1906,  M. 
Stolypin  succeeded  hini  as  premier,  and  was  thanked 
by  the  czar  for  his  services  and  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  the  Empire,  January  13,  1907.  His  in- 
tegrity and  equity  are  recognized  on  all  hands. 

Storey,  Moorileld,  lawyer;  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
March  19,  1845;  graduated  from  Harvard,  1866  (.A..  M.); 
studied  at  Harvard  Law  School;  admitted  to  bar,  Septem- 
ber, 1869;  private  secretary  to  Charles  Sumner,  1867-69; 
editor,  "American  Law  Review,"  1873-79;  overseer. 
Harvard  College,  1877-88,  and  since  1892;  president 
of  American  Bar  Association,  1896;  president  of  Massa- 
chusetts Reform  Club ;  independent  in  politics.  Author: 
"Life  of  Charles  Sumner"  (statesman  series),  pamphlet 
" Politics  as  a  Duty  and  as  a  Career."  Also  wrote:  "The 
American  Legislature,  Proctor  of  American  Bar  As- 
sociation,"  1894,  "A  Year's  Legislation,"  "The  Govern- 
ment of  Cities,"  also  various  other  pamphlets  and  oc- 
casional addresses.  President  of  New  England  Anti- 
Imperialist  League,  1905'. 

Story,  Emma  Eames,  operatic  prima  donna;  born  in 
Shanghai,  China,  1867,  of  American  parentage,  her  father 
being  a  lawyer  in  the  international  courts  of  Shanghai; 
childhood  spent  in  Boston ;  studied  music ;  sang  in  choirs 
and  concerts ;  studied  in  Paris ;  d^but  in  Paris  Grand  Opera, 
March  13,  1889,  in  "Juliette";  Covent  Garden,  London, 
1891 ;  New  York,  1891 ;  has  sung  in  regular  opera  seasons 
in  London  and  United  States  since.  Officier  d'Acad^mie 
(French) ;  English  Jubilee  medal;  married,  1891,  to  Julian 
Story,  painter,  from  whom  she  is  now  divorced. 


Story,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  American  jurist; 
born  in  Marblehead,  Mass.,  in  1779;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1798,  and  after  being  called  to  the  bar 
rapidly  rose  to  eminence  as  a  special  pleader.  In  1809, 
he  entered  Congress,  and  in  1811,  became  one  of  the 
justices  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  As  a  jurist, 
and  an  exponent  of  international  law.  Judge  Story  stands 
in  the  front  rank,  not  only  in  his  own  country,  but  also 
in  Europe.  His  published  works  embrace  the  masterly 
"Commentaries  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  "Commen- 
taries on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  "Com- 
mentaries on  Equity  Jurisprudence,"  "A  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Agency,"  etc.     Died,  1845. 

Story,  William  Wetmore,  born  in  1819;  son  of  the 
above;  published  "Contracts  not  under  Seal,"  and  other 
legal  works,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  literature 
and  sculpture.  Among  his  publications  are  several 
poems,  "Origin  of  the  Italian  Language  and  Literature," 
"Conversations  in  a  Studio,"  etc.,  and  he  has  executed 
numerous  monuments,  statues,  and  busts.     Died,  1895. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beeeher,  an  American  novelist; 
was  born  in  Litchfield.  Conn.,  in  1811;  a  daughter  of 
Dr.  Lyman  Beeeher,  and  married,  in  1836,  Professor  C. 
E.  Stowe  of  Andover.  In  1851,  she  made  a  sensation 
in  the  literary  world  by  the  publication  of  ".Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  a  work  of  fiction  which  had  quite  an  astonishing 
success,  and  was  translated  into  almost  every  language 
of  Europe.  To  this  book  she  added  a  ".Key"  in  1853. 
Her  later  productions  comprise  "Dred,  a  Tale  of  the 
Great  Dismal  Swamp,"  "The  Minister's  Wooing," 
"Agnes  of  Sorrento,"  and  "Oldtown  Folks."  In  1869, 
she  brought  out  a  brochure  entitled  "The  True  Story 
of  Lord  Byron's  Life,"  in  which  she  accused  Lord  Byron 
of  incest.  This  article  evoked  a  storm  of  literary  criti- 
cism, which  was  by  no  means  allayed  by  the  publication, 
in  1869,  of  Mrs.  Stowe's  work,  entitled  "Lady  Byron 
Vindicated."  In  1871,  appeared  "Oldtown  Fireside 
Stories,"  "Pink  and  White  Tyranny,"  and  "My  Wife 
and  I,"  or  "Harry  Henderson's  History."     Died,  1896. 

Strathcona,  Baron,  Canadian  statesman;  born  in 
1820;  joined  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  at  an  early  age, 
and  acted  as  special  commissioner  in  Red  River  Re- 
bellion; became  governor  of  the  company  and  director 
of  Canadian  Pacific  and  other  Canadian  railways;  honor- 
ary president  Bank  of  Montreal;  chancellor  of  Aberdeen 
University  and  McGill  University;  represented  Selkirk 
and  Montreal  in  the  Dominion  House,  and  in  1896,  be- 
came high  commissioner  for  Canada.  Raised  Strath- 
cona's  Horse  for  service  in  South  African  War;  has  been 
a  munificent  benefactor  to  Canada.  With  Lord  Mount- 
Stephen,  gave  an  endowment  of  £16,000  a  year  to  the 
king's  hospital  fund. 

Straus,  Oscar  S.,  secretary  of  commerce  and  labor, 
1906-09;  was  born  December  23,  1850;  graduated  from 
Columbia  College  (now  Columbia  University),  New  York 
City,  and  Columbia  Law  School;  practiced  law  1873-81 ; 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  as  a  member  of  the 
New  York  firm  of  L.  Straus  &  Sons;  minister  to 
Turkey,  1887-89,  1898-1901,  1909-11;  appointed  by 
President  Roosevelt,  in  1902,  as  a  member  of  the  perma- 
nent court  of  arbitration  at  The  Hague  in  the  place  of 
ex-President  Harrison,  deceased.  Author  of  numerous 
publications  dealing  with  history  and  international  law: 
"The  Origin  of  Republican  Form  of  Government  in  the 
United  States,"  "Roger  Williams,  the  Pioneer  of  Re- 
ligious Liberty,"  "The  Development  of  Religious  Liberty 
in  the  United  States,"  "United  States  Doctrine  of  Citi- 
zenship and  Expatriation,"  "Reform  in  the  Consular 
Service,"  etc;  L.  H.  D.,  Brown  University,  and  LL.  D., 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  Washington  and  Lee,  and 
Columbia  universities. 

Strauss,  Richard,  musical  composer;  was  born 
June  11,  1864,  in  Munich,  where  his  early  studies  began, 
his  father  being  first  horn  player  in  the  orchestra  of  the 
Court  Opera-house.  Appointed  conductor  at  Meiningen 
in  1885,  from  1889  to  1894,  he  was  Hofkapellmeister 
(with  Eduard  Lassen)  at  Weimar,  and  later  conductor 
at  the  Munich  Opera-house.  He  has  written  many 
charming  songs,  but  his  distinctiveness  as  a  modern 
composer  is  chiefly  due  to  extraordinarily  elaborate  in- 
strumental works.  A  Richard  Strauss  festival  was  held 
at  St.  James's  Hall,  London,  England,  in  June,  1903, 
when  "Ein  Heldenleben,"  "Also  Sprach  Zarathustra," 
and  other  symphonic  poems  from  his  pen  were  per- 
formed. His  opera  "Salome,"  based  on  Oscar  Wilde's 
work,  has  provoked  much  discussion. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles,  "American  Stuart";  born 
in  1755;  portrait-painter;  went  to  England  when  young, 
and  lived  there  till  1793.  He  was  a  pupil  of"  West,  and 
executed  portraits  of  George  III.,  George  IV.,  Louis  XVI., 
Washington,  Reynolds,  and  other  contemporaries.  Died, 
1828. 


492 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Stuart,  James  E.  B.,  born  in  1833;  American  gen- 
eral;  celebrated  for  his  services  to  the  Confederates, 
his  chief  exploits  bcinR  the  night  attack  of  August,  1862, 
when  General  Pope's  i)apers  were  captured,  and  the  raid 
across  the  Potomac  in  the  same  year.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Yellow  Tavern;    died  at  Richmond,  1864. 

Stubbs,  William,  D.  D.,  born  in  182o;  historian 
and  divine;  became  Regius  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford  in  1866,  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1884,  and  of  Ox- 
ford in  1889.  His  chief  works  are  "Select  Charters," 
"Constitutional  History  of  England  to  1485,"  and  edi- 
tions of  the  "Chronicles"  of  Benedict  of  Peterborough 
and  Roger  of  Hoveden.     Died,  1901. 

Sudermann,  Hermann,  German  dramatist  and 
novelist,  was  born  in  Matzicken,  in  East  Prussia,  Septem- 
ber 30,  1857 ;  studied  in  the  universities  of  Koenigsberg 
and  Berlin,  and  became  a  teacher  and  journalist.  He 
published  a  series  of  tales,  of  which  "  Frau  Sorge,"  "Der 
Katzensteg,"  and  "Es  War,"  are  the  most  impressive. 
The  drama  "Sodom's  Ende"  was  produced  in  1890,  and 
was  followed  by  "Die  Heimat,"  which,  translated  as 
"  Magda,"  has  been  represented  by  Duse,  Sarah  Bern- 
hardt, and  Mrs.  Patrick  Campbell.  His  later  works 
include  "Das  Gluck  im  Winkel,"  "  Reiherfedern," 
"Morituri,"  "Johannes,"  and  "  Das  Johannisfeuer."  In 
October,  1906,  "Das  Blumenboot"  w^as  produced  in 
Berlin,  and  "  Rosen  "  at  Vienna  in  October,  1907. 

Sue,  Eugene,  an  eminent  French  novelist,  was  born 
in  Paris,  1804.  His  most  popular  works  are,  "The 
Mysteries  of  Paris,"  and  '"The  Wandering  Jew." 
Died,  1857. 

Sully,  Thomas,  an  eminent  American  painter,  was 
born  in  County  of  Lincoln,  England,  in  1783.  While  a 
boy  he  emigrated  to  America,  and  studied  his  art  at 
Charleston,  afterwards  successively  taking  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Richmond,  Va.,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
As  a  portrait  painter,  he  enjoyed  great  reputation,  many 
of  the  most  illustrious  personages  of  the  time  being 
among  his  sitters.  His  chief  historical  work  is  "Wash- 
ington Crossing  the  Delaware,"  now  in  the  Boston 
Museum.     Died,  1872. 

Sumner,  Charles,  born  in  1811;  American  states- 
man and  jurist;  delivered  a  powerful  speech  against  war 
in  1845,  "The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  and  in  1851 
was  elected  United  States  senator.  In  1856,  he  made  a 
speech,  "The  Crime  Against  Kansas,"  which  caused  a 
personal  attack  upon  him  by  a  Southern  delegate.  In 
1850,  he  made  his  oration,  "The  Barbarism  of  Slavery," 
was  chairman  of  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  1861-71 ; 
and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  American  claims  in 
the  "Alabama"  case.     Died,  1874. 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  founder  of  the  "New 
Church,"  was  born  in  Stockholm,  1688,  and  occupied 
himself  as  a  scientific  engineer  till  1743,  from  which  time 
he  began  to  write,  when  living  in  Sweden  or  England, 
among  his  numerous  works  being  "Arcana  Ccelestia," 
"  De  Cultu  et  Amore  Dei,"  "The  True  Christian  Relig- 
ion," and  several  scientific  treatises.     Died,  1772. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  The  greatest  of  English  satirists; 
born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  1667.  He  was  the  posjliumous 
son  of  Jonathan  Swift,  an  Englishman ;  and  waSeducated 
at  Kilkenny  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1701, 
he  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  in  1704,  he  published 
anonymously  his  famous  "Tale  of  a  Tub,"  to  which  was 
appended  the  "Battle  of  the  Books."  In  1710,  Swift 
began  his  "Journal  to  Stella,"  which  constitutes  a 
splendid  commentary  on  his  own  history.  He  wrote 
many  political  pamphlets  supporting  the  'Tory  policy  of 
his  day,  the  most  powerful  of  which  was  "The  Conduct 
of  the  Allies."  His  celebrated  "  Drapier's  Letters" 
made  hina  the  idol  of  the  Irish  people.  His  famous 
"Gulliver's  Travels,"  appea.ed  in  1726.  Swift  did 
much  to  make  public  opinion  a  governing  power  in 
English  politics.  He  died  in  Dublin  (1745),  bequeathing 
the  greatest  part  of  his  fortune  to  a  hospital  for  lunatics 
and  idiots. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles,  son  of  Admiral 
Swinburne,  was  born  in  Ixjndon,  1837.  Educated  at 
Balliol  College,  0.xford.  Visited  Florence,  and  passed 
some  time  there.  His  first  productions  were  two  plays 
"Queen  Mother,"  and  "Rosamond."  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  two  tragedies,  "Atalanta  in  Calydon,"  and 
"  Chastefard,"  and  "  Poems  and  Ballads,"  which  met  with 
severe  criticism.  His  later  works  are  "  A  Song  of  Italy," 
"William  Blake,  a  critical  essay";  "Songs  Before  Sun- 
rise," in  which  he  glorifies  Pantheism  and  Republicanism; 
"Studies  in  Song,"  "A  Century  of  Roundels,"  "  Life  of 
Victor  Hugo,"  a  poem  on  "The  Armada,"  "A  Study  of 
Ben  Jonsoh,"  "Astrophel,  and  other  Poems,"  "Studies 
in  Prose  and  Poetry,"  "The  Tale  of  Balen,"  "Rosamund, 
Queen  of  the  Lombards,"  "  A  Channel  Passage,  and  other 
Poems,"  and  "  Love's  Cross-Currents."     Died,  1909. 


Sybel,  Helnrich  von,  born  in  1817;  German  histo- 
rian and  politician,  held  chairs  at  Marburg,  Munich,  and 
Bonn  successively,  and  in  1875,  became  director  of  state 
archives.  He  opposed  Bismarck's  Polish  policy  in  the 
"  Prussian  Landtag,"  and  entered  the  Reichstag  in  1867. 
His  chief  work  is  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 
Died,  1895. 

Sylvester,  James  Joseph,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc., 
born  in  1814;  mathematician,  after  holding  chairs  at 
University  College,  in  the  University  of  Virginia,  at 
Woolwich,  and  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford, 
in'  1883.  He  discovered  the  "theory  of  reciprocants," 
invented  the  plagiograph  and  other  instruments.  Pub- 
lished "Laws  of  Verse"  and  other  works.     Died,  1897. 

Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius,  born  in  55;  Roman  histo- 
rian; married  the  daughter  of  the  consul  Agricola,  was 
nua^stor  under  Vespasian,  a!dile  under  Titus,  praetor  under 
Domitian,  and  consul  under  Nerva.  His  chief  works 
are  the  "Life  of  Agricola"  and  the  "Germania,"  both 
written  about  98,  the  "  Histories  "  extending  from  68  to 
96,  and  the  "Annals,"  extending  from  14  to  68.  Died 
about  117. 

Taft,  Lorado,  sculptor;  born  in  Elmwood,  III.,  April 
29,  1860;  graduate  of  University  of  Illinois,  1879; 
studied  at  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1880-83.  In- 
structor in  Chicago  Art  Institute  since  1886;  lecturer  on 
art  University  Extension  Department  of  University  of 
Chicago,  1892-1902.  Author:  "The  History  of  Ameri- 
can Sculpture." 

Taft,  William  Howard,  twenty-seventh  President 
of  the  United  States;  born  in  Cincinnati,  September  15, 
1857;  graduate  of  Yale,  B.  A.,  1878;  Law  School,  Cincin- 
nati College,  I>L.  B.,  1880  (LL.  D.,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1902,  Yale,  1903);  admitted  to  Ohio  bar,  1880; 
law  reporter  Cincinnati  'Times,  and  later  of  Cincinnati 
Commercial,  1880-81 ;  assistant  prosecuting  attorney, 
Hamilton  County,  Ohio,  1881-82;  collector  internal 
revenue,  first  district,  Ohio,  1882-83;  practiced  law,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1883-87;  assistant  county  solicitor,  Hamilton 
County,  1885-87;  judge  Superior  Court  of  Ohio,  1887-90; 
solicitor-general  of  United  States,  1890-92;  dean  and 
professor  in  law  department.  University  of  Cincinnati, 
1896-1900;  United  States  circuit  judge,  sixth  circuit, 
1892-1900;  president  of  United  States  Philippine  Com- 
mission, 1900-01;  first  civil  governor  of  Philippine 
Islands,  1901  to  1904;  secretary  of  war.  United  States, 
from  1904  to  1908.  On  November  3,  1908,  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  and  inaugurated 
March  4,  1909. 

Taine,  HIppolyte  Adolphe,  born  in  1828;  French 
writer;  became  professor  at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris,  in  1864.  He  has  published  a  "  History  of  English 
Literature,"  "The  Origin  of  Contemporary  France,"  etc. 
Died.  1893. 

Tait,  Peter  Guthrie,  born  in  1831 ;  a  man  of  science, 
educated  at  Cambridge,  became  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy at  Edinburgh,  in  1860.  He  has  published  works 
on  "Quaternions,"  "Heat  and  Light,"  a  "Treatise  on 
Natural  Philo.sophy,"  written  in'  conjunction  with  Sir 
William  Thomson,  and  other  works.     Died,  1901. 

Takahira,  Kogoro,  Japanese  diplomat;  born  in 
Japan,  1854;  educated  in  Tokio;  entered  foreign  office 
as  student  attache,  1876;  appointed  attach^,  1879,  sec- 
retary 1881,  charge?  d'affaires,  1882,  legation  at  Washing- 
ton; secretary  of  foreign  office,  1883,  charg^  d'affaires 
in  Korea,  1885-87,  acting  consul-general,  1888-89;  chief 
political  bureau,  foreign  office,  1890-91;  consul-general 
at  New  York,  1892;  minister  resident  to  Holland  and 
Denmark,  1893-94;  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Italy,  1894-95,  1906-07,  to  Austria 
and  Switzerland,  1896-99;  vice-minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  1889-1900;  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  United  States,  1900-06  and  since  1907. 

Tal'fourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon,  born  in  Reading,  in 
Berkshire,  1795;  an  English  judge,  distinguished  also  as 
a  graceful  novelist.  He  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy; 
"  Letters  of  Charles  Lamb,  with  a  Sketch  of  his  Life," 
"  Final  Memorials  of  Charles  Lamb,"  and  several  other 
works.     Diet!,  1854. 

Talma,  Francois  Joseph,  born  in  1763;  French 
actor;  made  his  d(^but  at  the  Comddie  Frangaise,  in  1787. 
He  confined  himself  to  tragedy  in  his  later  years.  Among 
his  finest  impersonations  were  Marigny  in  "Les  Tem- 
pliers,"  and  Charles  IX.     Died,  1826. 

Tamerlane,  or  TImour,  surnamed  The  Great,  an 
Asiatic  conqueror,  was  born  of  Mongol  race,  at  Kesh  in 
Independent  Tartary,  1336.  After  subjecting  to  his 
arms  Khorasan,  Armenia,  and  the  greater  part  of  Persia, 
he  defeated  the  Bashkirs,  took  Bagdad  and  Damascus, 
subjugated  Georgia,  and  advanced  into  Russia  as  far  as 
Moscow.  In  1398,  he  invaded  India,  where  he  defeated 
the  army  of  the  Grand  Mogul  near  Delhi.     After  gaining 


BIOGRAPHY 


493 


in  1402,  a  decisive  and  sanguinary  battle  in  Ancora,  over 
the  Ottoman  Turks  commanded  by  their  sultan  Bajazet, 
Tamerlane  died  on  his  march  towards  China,,  which 
country  he  next  intended  to  invade,  1405. 

Tarqulnlus,  Lucius  Prlscus  (lar-kivln'e-us),  the 
fifth  King  of  Rome,  according  to  the  legends,  succeeded 
Ancus  Martius,  61o,  and  died  578  B.  C.  Tarquinius 
Lucius  Superbus  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
had  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  Servius  TuUius,  but 
her  sister,  whose  ambition  resembled  his  own,  by  a  series 
of  horrid  crimes,  secured  him  as  her  husband,  and  urged 
him  to  the  murder  of  her  father  to  secure  the  throne, 
534  B.  C.  He  reigned  as  a  tyrant;  but  in  the  end  it  was 
the  rape  of  Lueretia,  by  his  son  Sextus,  which  over- 
threw at  once  both  him  and  the  kingly  rule  in  Rome. 
The  date  of  the  Regifuge  or  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins 
was  said  to  be  510  B.  C. 

Tasso,  Torquato,  Italian  poet,  was  born  in  Sorrento, 
1544,  and  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Padua,  where 
he  published  his  earliest  poem,  "Rinaldo,"  in  1562.  In 
1565,  he  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este,  and 
was  invited  to  the  court  of  his  brother,  Alfonso,  Duke  of 
Ferrara.  Whilst  there  he  wrote  his  pastoral  drama 
"Aminta,"  and  in  1575,  finished  his  great  epic,  "La 
Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  describing  the  first  Crusade, 
which  was  published  in  1581.  In  1577  he  was  fmprisoned 
by  Alfonso  in  a  convent,  from  which  he  escaped.  In 
1579,  he  returned  to  Ferrara,  but  was  confined  in  a  mad- 
house, where  he  remained  till  1586,  when  he  was  released 
at  the  intercession  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua  and  other 
princes.  In  1594,  Clement  VIII.  summoned  him  to 
Rome  to  receive  a  laurel  crown,  but  he  died  soon  after 
his  arrival  (1595). 

Taussig,  Frank  William,  professor  of  political 
economy,  Harvard;  born  in  St.  Louis,  December  28, 
1859;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1879  (Ph.  D.,  1883;' 
LL.  B.,  1886).  Author:  "Tariff  History  of  United 
States,"  "Silver  Situation  in  United  States,"  "Wages 
and  Capital,"  etc.  Editor  of  "Quarterly  Journal  of 
Economics." 

Taylor,  Bayard,  an  American  author  and  traveler, 
was  born  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  1825.  In  1847,  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "New  York  Tribune," 
and  later  traveled  extensively,  giving  the  results  of  liis 
observation  in  numerous  works,  prominent  among 
which  are  "El  Dorado,  or  Adventures  in  the  Path  of 
Empire,"  or  "Mexico  and  California,"  "Central  Africa," 
"Greece  and  Russia,"  "India,  China,  and  Japan,"  and 
"Lands  of  the  Saracen."  He  is  also  the  author  of  sev- 
eral novels,  volumes  of  poetry,  etc.  Some  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  French,  German,  and  Russian. 
Taylor  was  appointed  United  States  minister  at  Berlin, 
in  1878,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Taylor,  Hannis,  lawyer;  born  in  New  Berne,  N.  C, 
September  12,  1851 ;  educated  in  University  of  North 
Carolina  (LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  Dublin);  minister  to 
Spain,  1893-97.  Professor  of  constitutional  and  inter- 
national law,  George  Washington  (formerly  Columbian) 
University,  since  1892.  Special  counsel  for  Government 
of  United  States  before  Spanish  Treaty  Claims  Commis- 
sion. Author:  "The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English 
Constitution,"  "International  Public  Law,"  "Jurisdic- 
tion and  Procedure  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States." 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  divine;  born  in  Cambridge  in  1613; 
after  studying  in  the  university  of  that  town,  attracted 
the  attention  of  Archbishop  Laud,  who  presented  him 
to  a  fellowship  at  Oxford  (1636).  He  soon  afterwards 
became  chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  was  rector  of  Uppingham, 
1638-42,  and  accompanied  the  king  to  Oxford.  About 
1645,  he  withdrew  into  Wale9;  where  he  kept  a  school 
at  Newton,  in  Caermarthenshire,  and  afterwards  found 
a  shelter  in  the  house  of  the  Earl  of  Carbery.  He  re- 
moved to  Ireland  in  1658,  and,  after  the  Restoration, 
was  made  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.  His  chief 
works  are  "  Rules  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Living  and 
Dying,"  the  "  Liberty  of  Prophesying,"  "Ductor  Dubi- 
tantium,"  and  his  "Sermons."     Died,  1667. 

Taylor,  Robert  Love,  lawyer,  United  States  senator; 
born  in  Happy  Valley,  Carter  County,  Tenn.,  in  1850; 
educated  in  Pennington,  N.  J.;  admitted  to  Tennessee 
bar,  1878;*  member  of  Congress,  1879-81;  elector  at 
large  on  Cleveland  ticket,  1884;  pension  agent  at  Knox- 
ville,  1885-87;  elected  governor,  1886,  as  Democrat, 
his  opponent  being  his  brother,  Alfred  A.  Taylor;  was 
governor,  1887-91;  practiced  law  at  Chattanooga, 
1891-96;  presidential  elector  on  Cleveland  ticket,  1892; 
again  governor,  1897-99;  United  States  senator  since 
1907.     Editor-in-chief  of  "Bob  Taylor's  Magazine." 

Taylor,  Zachary,  American  general,  and  twelfth 
Presiaent  of  the  United  States;  born  in  Orange  County, 
Va.,  in  1784;  was  educated  in  Kentucky,  and,  after 
entering  the  army  in  1808,  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel 


in  1832,  and  fought  in  the  Black  Hawk  War.  After 
defeating  the  Seminoles  at  Okechobee  in  1837,  he  was 
given  the  chief  command  in  Florida  in  the  following 
year.  In  1846,  he  was  entrusted  with  the  command  of 
the  army  which  entered  Mexico;  there  he  gained  the 
battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  Buena 
Vista,  and  brought  the  campaign  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion in  1847.  In  the  following  year  he  was  returned 
as  Whig  candidate  for  the  presidency.  His  tenure  of 
office  was  chiefly  signalized  by  the  passing  of  Mr.  Clay's 
Compromise  Bill  with  regard  to  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia into  the  Union.     Died,  1850. 

Teeum'seh,  a  famous  Shawnee  chief,  was  born  on 
the  Scioto  River,  Ohio,  about  1768.  He  headed  an  Indian 
alliance  against  the  whites  in  the  Nortliwest,  and  was 
defeated  by  the  American  General  Harrison  at  Tippe- 
canoe, in  1811.  In  the  War  of  1812,  he  became  an  ally 
of  the  English,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in 
their  service,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  in  the 
battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813,  where  he  fell  mortally 
wounded. 

Tempest,  Marie  Susan  (Mrs.  Cosmo  Stuart),  opera 
singer;  born  in  London,  July  15,  1866;  daughter  of 
Edwin  and  Sarah  Etherington;  musical  education  in 
Convent  des  Ursulines,  Thildonck,  Belgium  and  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  London;  first  sang  in  concert,  but 
soon  went  into  light  opera  in  leading  roles;  came  to 
United  States  as  prima  donna  in  New  York  Casino 
Company;  has  appeared  in  comic  opera  in  principal 
American  cities;  more  recently  in  England;  received 
numerous  medals  for  Italian  and  declamatory  English 
singing;  married,  1898,  to  Cosmo  Charles  Gordon- 
Lennox  (Cosmo  Stuart),  son  of  the  late  Lord  Alexander 
Gordon-Lennox.  Created  Nell  Gwyn  in  "English  Nell," 
and  Becky  Sharp. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  Lord,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
George  Tennyson,  rector  of  Somersby  in  Lincolnshire, 
where  he  was  born  in  1809.  He  was  educated  at  Louth 
grammar  school,  and,  in  1827,  published  "Poems  by 
Two  Brothers,"  partly  the  work  of  his  brother  Charles. 
In  1828,  he  matriculated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  gained 
the  chancellor's  medal.  Poems:  "Chiefly  Lyrical."  was 
followed  in  1833,  by  a  volume  containing  "The  Palace 
of  Art,"  "ffinone,"  and  other  of  his  best  known  pieces. 
"The  Gardener's  Daughter,"  "  Locksley  Hall,"  and 
other  poems  were  added  in  1842,  and,  in  1847,  appeared 
"The  Princess,  a  Medley,"  in  blank  verse.  "In  Memor- 
iam,"  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Arthur  Hallam, "was 
published  in  1850.  In  the  same  year,  Tennyson  suc- 
ceeded Wordsworth  as  poet-laureate.  Among  his  sub- 
sequent poems  were  "Maud,"  "The  Idylls  of  the  King," 
"Enoch  Arden,"  "Becket,"  a  drama,  and  "  Demeter," 
"The  Foresters,"  etc.  In  1884,  he  was  created  a  peer. 
Died,  1892.  '^ 

Terry,  Ellen  (Mrs.  Carew),  English  actress;  born  in 
February  27,  1848;  first  appearance,  April,  1856,  at 
Prince.ss  Theater,  London,  under  Charles  Kean's  man- 
agement; in  1867,  first  acted  with  Henry  Irving  in 
"The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  at  Queen's  Theater,  then 
acted  at  Haymarket  Theater;  retired  for  seven  years; 
reappeared  at  Queen's  Theater  in  "The  Wandering 
Heir";  played  Olivia,  amongst  others,  at  Court  Theater 
(John  Hare's  management),  and  Portia,  amongst  others, 
at  Prince  of  Wales  Theater  (Bancroft's  management) ; 
played  Ophelia,  December  30,  1878,  for  first  time  at 
Lyceum  with  Henry  Irving;  visited  America  with  him, 
1883,  and  many  times  subsequently;  remained  at 
Lyceum  until  its  dissolution  in  1901;  produced  Ibsen's 
"The  Vikings,"  1903,  and  Shakesperean  plays  with  her 
own  company  at  Imperial  Theater;  in  1905,  played 
at  Duke  of  York's  Theater  in  J.  M.  Barrie's  "Alice-sit- 
by-the-fire."     Celebrated  her  stage  jubilee  in  1906. 

Tesla,  Nikola,  an  American  electrical  inventor; 
born  in  Smiljan,  Austria-Hungary,  in  1857;  studied 
engineering  in  Gratz;  and,  in  1884,  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  for  several  years  was  employed  at  Edison's 
laboratory,  near  Orange,  N.  J.  He  then  opened  a 
laboratory  of  his  own!  In  1888,  he  completed  his  dis- 
covery of  the  rotating  magnetic  field  by  the  invention 
of  the  rotary  field-motor,  the  multi-phase  system  of 
which  is  used  in  the  50,0()0  horse  power  plant  built  to 
transmit  the  water  power  of  Niagara  Falls  to  Buffalo 
and  other  cities.  He  invented  many  methods  and 
appliances  for  the  use  of  electricity,  among  them  the 
production  of  efficient  light  from  lamps  without  fila- 
ments, and  the  production  and  transmission  of-  power 
and  intelligence  without  wires.  In  November,  1898, 
Tesla  announced  the  discovery  of,  and,  on  May  1,  1900, 
patented,  a  method  of  transmitting  electrical  energy 
without  wires.  Working  along  the  same  line,  William 
Marconi  invented  his  wireless-telegraphy.  In  1901, 
Tesla  discovered  that  the  capacity  of  the  electrical 
conductor  is  variable.     Since   1903,  has  been  engaged 


494 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


in  developing  hia  system  of  world  telegraphy  and  te- 
lephony. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  novelist;  born 
in  Calcutta  in  1811;  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse 
and  Cambridge;  studied  art  in  Paris,  but  determined 
to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and,  in  1837,  became 
connected  with  "  Eraser's  Magazine,"  to  which  he  con- 
tributed the  "Great  Hoggarty  Diamond."  In  1840,  he 
published  the  "Paris  Sketch-book,"  and,  in  1842,  began 
to  write  for  "Punch,"  in  which  appeared  his  "Book  of 
Snobs."  His  first  great  novel,  "Vanity  Fair,"  was 
followed  by  "Pendennis,"  "Esmond,"  "The  Newcomes," 
and  others.  He  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  in  England 
and  America  on  the  "English  Humorists  of  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century,"  and  "The  Four  Georges,"  and  edited 
the  "Cornhill  Magazine."     Died,  1863. 

Thales  (tha'lcz),  a  celebrated  Grecian  philosopher, 
flourished  in  the  Seventh  and  Sixth  Centuries  B.  C. 
He  was  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece;  and  he 
also  predicted  the  famous  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which 
happened  in  585  B.  C. 

Theodorlc,  "the  Great,"  originally  chieftain  of  a 
tribe  of  Ostrogoths;  was  educated  at  Constantinople; 
after  overthrowing  Odoaeer  (493),  established  the  Ostro- 

goth  kingdom  in  Italy,  which  he  sought  to  consolidate 
y  effecting  a  union  of  Goths  and  Italians.  He  fixed 
his  capital  at  Ravenna,  where  he  erected  many  beautiful 
buildings.  His  "Edictum"  was  a  body  of  law  for 
Romans  and  barbarians  alike.     Died,  526. 

Thler'ry,  Jacques  Nicholas  Augustln,  born  in 
Blois,  May  10,  1795;  an  eminent  French  historian,  best 
known  as  the  author  of  "The  History  of  the  Conquest 
of  England  by  the  Normans."  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  other  historical  works,  his  last  being  "An 
Essay  on  the  Formation  and  Progress  of  the  Third 
Estate."  For  the  last  twenty-five  -years  of  his  life  he 
was  afflicted  with  total  blindness.     Died,  May  22,  1856. 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe  {te-air'),  an  eminent  states- 
rnan  and  historian,  and  president  of  the  French  Repub- 
lic; born  of  humble  parentage  in  Marseilles  in  1797; 
was  educated  for  the  law,  but  discarding  the  idea  of 
following  that  profession,  he,  at  an  early  age,  entered 
the  field  of  journalism  as  a  contributor  to  the  columns 
of  the  "Constitutionnel."  Between  the  years  1823-27, 
appeared  his  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  a 
work  which  stamped  him  an  historian  of  the  first  order. 
He  largely  contributed  to  the  Revolution  of  1830.  In 
1832,  he  was  made  minister  of  the  interior;  in  1834,  he 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy ;  and  from  Feb- 
ruary to  August,  1836,  filled  the  post  of  president  of  the 
council  and  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  In  March,  1840, 
he  was  recalled  to  power,  but  being  unable  to  prevail 
upon,  Louis  Philippe  to  support  his  Eastern  policy,  he 
resigned  office  in  October  and  employed  his  leisure  in 
writing  his  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire" 
(twenty  volumes,  8vo.),  one  of  the  greatest  historical 
works  of  the  age.  In  July,  1870,  he  resolutely  opposed 
the  impending  war  against  Germany.  In  1871,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  peace  on  the  best  terms  possible 
under  the  circumstances,  and,  in  the  same  year,  was 
elected  president  of  the  new  republic.  In  1873,  after 
an  adverse  vote  of  the  legislative  body,  he  resigned, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Marshal  MacMahon.     Died,  1877. 

Thomas,  M.  Carey  (Miss),  president  of  Bryn  Mawr 
College;  born  in  Baltimore,  January  2,  1857;  daughter 
of  Dr.  James  Carey  and  Mary  (Whitall)  Thomas;  grad- 
uate of  Cornell,  1877;  studied  in  Johns  Hopkins,  1877- 
78;  Leipzig  University,  Germany,  1879-83  (Ph.  D., 
University  of  Zurich,  1883;  LL.  D..  Western  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1896).  Since  1885,  professor  of  Enc- 
lish,  1885-95  dean,  and  since  1895,  president  of  Bryn 
Mawr  College;  first  woman  trustee  of  C!!ornell,  1895-99; 
trustee  of  Bryn  Mawr  CJoUege  since  1903.  Author: 
"Sir  Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight,"  "Education  of 
Women."  Also  "Should  the  Higher  Education  of 
Women  Differ  from  Tiiat  of  Men?"  and  "The  College," 
in  "Educational  Review";  also  various  educational 
addresses. 

Thompson,  William  Oxley,  president  of  Ohio  State 
University;    born  in  Cambridge,  O.,  November  5,  1855; 

fraduated  from  Muskingum  College,  1878;  Western 
heological  Seminary,  Allegheny  City,  Pa.,  1882  (A. 
M.,  1881;  D.  D.,  1891,  Muskingum  College;  LL.  D., 
Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1897) ;  ordained 
to  Presbyterian  ministry,  1882;  president  of  Miami 
University,  1891-99;  president  of  Onio  State  University 
since  1899. 

Thomson,  Elihu,  electrician;  born  in  Manchester, 
England,  March  29,  1853;  graduated  from  Central  High 
School,  Philadelphia,  1870  (A.  M.;  honorary  A.  M., 
Yale;  Ph.  D.,  Tufts  College);  professor  of  chemistry 
and  mechanics,  Philadelphia  Central  High  School,  1870- 
80;    since   1880  electrician  for  Thomson-Houston  and 


General  Electric  companies,  which  operate  under  his 
inventions,  more  than  50O  patents  having  been  obtained; 
inventor  of  electric  welding,  which  bears  his  name,  and 
many  other  important  inventions  in  electric  lighting, 
power,  etc. 

Tliomson,  Sir  William  (Lord  Kelvin),  born  in  Bel- 
fast in  1824;  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Cambridge; 
became  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Glasgow  in 
1846.  From  1846  to  1851,  he  edited  the  "Cambridge 
and  Dublin  Mathematical  Journal,"  to  which  he  contrib- 
uted several  important  papers.  Some  of  his  chief  dis- 
coveries are  announced  in  the  "Secular  Coating  of  the 
Earth,"  and  the  Bakerian  lecture,  the  "Electrodynamic 
Qualities  of  Metals."  He  invented  the  quadrant, 
portable,  and  absolute  electrometers,  and  other  scientific 
instruments.  To  "the  general  public  he  is  best  known 
by  his  work  in  connection  with  submarine  telegraphy. 
In  January,  1892,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Kelvin.     Died,  1907. 

Thoreau,  Henry  David,  born  in  1817;  American 
naturalist;  was  a  friend  of  Emerson,  and  a  member  of 
the  Transcendental  school.  In  1845,  and  the  following 
years  he  lived  a  life  of  complete  solitude,  described  in 
"Walden."  He  became  acquainted  with  John  Brown 
in  1859,  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  Liberation- 
ist  cause.     Died,  1862. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  Bertel,  born  in  1770;  Danish 
sculptor,  of  Icelandic  origin;  studied  at  the  free  school 
of  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen,  and  was  sent  by  that 
body  to  Rome  in  1796.  His  first  great  work  was  his 
"Jason."  Except  for  a  visit  to  Denmark  in  1819-20, 
when  he  executed  the  statues  of  "  Christ  and  the  Twelve 
Apostles  "  for  the  Frue  Kirke  at  Copenhagen,  he  remained 
in  Rome  till  1838.  After  that  date  he,  for  the  most  part, 
lived  ip  Denmark.  His  masterpieces  include  the  "Entry 
of  Alexander  into  Babylon,"  the  statue  of  "Prince  Ponia- 
towski,"  and  the  "Dying  Lion  "  at  Lucerne.     Died,  1844. 

Thueydldes,  Greek  historian;  born  at  Athens,  about 
471  B.  C. ;  is  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Olorus, 
King  of  Thrace.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  he  received  a  command,  but  failed  to  relieve  Amphi- 
polis  when  besieged  by  Brasidas,  and  was  banished  (423 
B.C.).  After  twenty  years  of  exile,  during  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  written  his  "History  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian War,"  he  returned  to  Athens  about  403.  Died 
about  400  B.  C. 

Thwing,  Charles  Franklin,  president  of  Western 
Reserve  University  and  Adelbert  College  since  1890; 
born  in  New  Sharon,  Me.,  November  9,  1853;  graduated 
from  Harvard,  1876;  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1879  (D.  D.,  LL.  D.);  pastor  North  Avenue  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1879-86;  Plymouth 
Church,  Minneapolis,  1886-90.  Author:  "American 
Colleges:  Their  Students  and  Work,"  "The  Reading  of 
Books,"  "The  Family"  (with  Mrs.  Thwing);  "The 
Working  Church,"  "Within  College  Walls,"  "The  Col- 
lege Woman,"  "The  American  College  in  American  Life," 
"The  Best  Life,"  "College  Administration,"  "The 
Youth's  Dream  of  Life,"  "God  in  His  World,"  "  If  I  Were 
a  College  Student,"  "The  Choice  of  a  College,"  "A  Liberal 
Education  and  a  Liberal  Faith,"  "College  Training  and 
the  Business  Man."  Associate  editor  of  "Bibliotheca 
Sacra,"  contributor  to  magazines  and  speaker  on  educa- 
tional topics. 

Ticknor,  George,  born  in  1791;  American -author; 
traveled  in  Europe  (1815-19);  was  professor  of  modern 
languages  at  Harvard  (1819-35).  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  Spanish  Literature,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Prescott."  Died, 
1871. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones,  born  in  1814;  American 
politician;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1841;  became  chair- 
man of  the  Democratic  State  Ojnvention  in  1866;  took 
a  leading  part  in  exposing  the  "Tammany  Ring";  was 
elected  governor  of  New  York  in  1874,  and  was  elected 
president  of  the  United  States  in  1876,  but  failed  to  be 
seated  on  account  of  alleged  irregularities  in  Louisiana. 
Died,  1886. 

Tillman,  Benjamin  Ryan,  United  States  senator, 
farmer;  born  in  Edgefield  County,  S.  C,  August  11, 
1847;  academic  education;  joined  Confederate  States 
Army,  July,  1864,  but  was  stricken  with  severe,  illness 
which  caused  the  loss  of  his  left  eye  and  k^pt  him  an 
invalid  for  two  years,  so  that  he  saw  no  military  service ; 
followed  farming  as  his  sole  pursuit  until  1886,  when  he 
became  prominent  in  an  agitation  for  industrial  and 
technical  education  and  other  reforms.  Was  elected 
governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1890  and  1892,  and  United 
States  senator  since  1895.  Founded  Clemson  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College  at  Calhoun's  old  home. 
Fort  Hill,  and  also  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  at  Rock  Hill ;  the  first  for  boys,  the  last  for  girls ; 
they  are  the  two  largest  schools  of  the  kind  in  the  South ; 
author  of  the  dispensary  system  of  selling  liquor  under 


BIOGRAPHY 


495 


State  control;  was  central  figure  in  the  South  Carolina 
Constitutional  Convention,  1895,  which  instituted  edu- 
cational qualification  for  suffrage;  one  of  the  leaders 
in  securing  the  insertion  of  advanced  positions  in  Demo- 
cratic platform  of  1896.  Prominent  in  Democratic  Na- 
tional conventions  of  1900  and  1904,  and  in  latter  was 
active  in  work  of  harmonizing  contending  factions  of 
Democracy. 

Til'ly,  Johann  Tserklaes,  Count  of,  one  of  the 
great  generals  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  born  in  Bra- 
bant in  1559;  was  designed  for  the  priesthood  and  edu- 
cated by  Jesuits,  but  abandoned  the  church  for  the  army. 
He  was  trained  in  the  art  of  war  by  Parma  and  Alva, 
and  proved  himself  a  born  soldier.  He  reorganized  the 
Bavarian  Army,  and,  devoted  to  tlie  Catholic  cause, 
was  given  command  of  the  Catholic  Army  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  during  the  course  of 
which  he  won  many  notable  battles,  acting  later  on  in 
conjunction  with  Wallenstein,  whom,  in  1630,  he  suc- 
ceeded as  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial  forces, 
and  in  the  following  year  sacked  with  merciless  cruelty 
the  town  of  Magdeburg,  a  deed  which  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  was  swift  to  avenge  by  crushing  the  Catholic  forces 
in  two  successive  battles  —  at  Breitenfeld  and  at  Rain  — 
in  the  latter  of  which  Tilly  was  mortally  wounded  (1632). 

Titian,  Tiziano  Vecelli,  born  in  1477;  Venetian 
painter;  studied  under  Giovanni  Bellini,  and  was  much 
influenced  by  his  fellow-pupil  Giorgione;  in  1612,  was 
employed  in  decorating  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice; 
in  1514,  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Alphonso,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  for  wliom  he  executed  several  works;  painted 
the  portrait  of  Cliarles  V.  during  his  visit  to  Bologna  in 
1530:  visited  Rome  1545-46,  and  was  afterwards  several 
times  summoned  to  Germany  by  Charles  V.  Among  his 
masterpieces  is  the  "Bacchus  and  Ariadne"  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London.     Died,  1576. 

Togo,  Count  Helhachiro,  admiral  in  command  of 
the  Japanese  fleet  —  the  Nelson  of  Japan — was  born  in 
1847.  After  Nogi's  guns  from  the  land  had  completed 
the  destruction  of  the  Port  Arthur  fleet,  Togo  hid  his 
ships  for  three  months,  pending  the  arrival  of  the 
Baltic  fleet.  Numerically  the  Russians  were  his  superior, 
notably  in  battleships;  but  in  speed,  rnanoeuvring,  gun- 
fire, and  discipline,  tlie  advantage  was  all  with  the 
Japanese.  The  battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan  was  fought  May 
27-28, 1905,  when  of  the  Baltic  fleet  twenty  ships  were  sunk, 
six  captured,  two  demolished  and  six  disarmed  and  in- 
terned. Admirals  Rojestvensky  and  Nebogatoff  were 
captured  with  some  8,000  men,  while  4,000  Russians  were 
killed.  Tlie  Japanese  losses  were  three  torpedo  boats 
sunk,  116  men  killed,  and  538  wounded.    Madecount,  1907. 

Tolstoi,  Leo  Nikoiaievitch,  born  in  1828;  Russian 
author  and  social  reformer;  studied  at  the  University  of 
Kazan;  served  in  tlie  Crimean  War;  published  "  War 
and  Peace,"  "Anna  Karenina,"  "The  Kreutzer Sonata," 
also  several  essays  in  moral  philosophy,  including  "  My 
Religion."     Died,  1910. 

Torricelli  (tor-re-chWle) ,  Evangellsta,  a  distin- 
guished Italian  philosopher;  born  in  the  Romagna  in 
1608;  succeeded  Galileo  as  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Florence  in  1641,  and  made  for  himself  a  title  to  celebrity 
as  the  inventor  of  the  barometer.     Died,  1647. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  Frangois  Dominique;  born 
in  1743;  son  of  African  slaves,  in  San  Domingo.  He 
was,  in  1796,  appointed  by  tlie  Directory  chief  of  the  army 
of  San  Domingo,  and  afterwards  established  his  au- 
thority throughout  the  island,  which  he  ruled  with  justice 
and  vigor.  When  Bonaparte  sought  to  restore  slavery 
in  San  Domingo  (1801),  Toussaint  resisted,  but  was 
forced  to  surrender,  and  was  sent  to  France,  where  he 
died  in  prison  in  1803. 

Tree,  Herbert  Beerbohni,  actor,  is  the  son  of  a 
grain  merchant  named  Beerbohm,  and  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1853.  Shortly  after  entering  his  father's  office, 
in  1870,  he  became  a  member  of  the  irrationals  amateur 
dramatic  club,  and  joined  the  profession  in  1877.  His  first 
hit  was  as  the  timid  curate  in  "The  Private  Secretary," 
and  immediately  after  he  played  the  grim  spy  Macari 
in  "Called  Back."  Taking  the  Comedy  Theater  (1887), 
he  produced  "The  Red  Lamp  ";  and  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year  took  the  Haymarket  Theater.  In  April,  1897, 
he  opened  his  new  theater,  "His  Majesty's,"  in  the  Hay- 
market.  Here  he  has  produced  the  greatest  of  his  suc- 
cesses: "Julius  Csesar,"  "King  John,"  "A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,"  and  "Herod,"  "Twelfth  Night,"  "The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  with  Miss  Ellen  Terry  and 
Mrs.  Kendal  in  the  cast,  "Ulysses,"  "The  Eternal  City," 
"King  Richard  II.,"  "The  Darling  of  the  Gods,"  "The 
Tempest,"  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing,"  "Business  is 
Business,"  "Oliver  Twist,"  "Nero,"  and  "Colonel  New- 
come,"  In  1905,  he  inaugurated  a  Shakespere  Festival, 
which  ia  now  one  of  the  annual  arrangements  of  the 
theater.     During  the  Shakespere  celebrations  in  1906,  he 


revived  "Hamlet,"  "Julius  Ca;sar,"  "Twelfth  Night," 
"Much  Ado  About  Nothing,"  "Henry  IV."  (Part  I.), 
and  "The  Tempest."  In  April,  1907,  he  produced 
several  of  Shakespere's  plays  in  Berlin,  and  was  received 
by  the  German  Emperor.  His  wife,  an  admirable  Greek 
scholar  formerly  connected  with  Queen's  College,  is  a 
very  refined  actress. 

Tripler,  Charles  E.,  physicist,  inventor;  born  in 
New  York,  1849;  educated  in  New  York;  made  special 
study  of  physical  sciences  and  phenomena ;  established 
private  physical  laboratory;  carried  on  various  experi- 
ments in  electricity  and  mechanics  and  later  in  the  study 
of  gases;  greatest  achievement  is  the  manufacture  of 
"liquid  air,"  which  he  has  experimentally  applied  to  the 
operation  of  an  engine  with  remarkable  results,  this 
product  being  obtained  by  compression  of  atmospheric 
air  at  a  temperature  of  over  300  degrees  below  zero. 

Trol'Iope,  Anthony,  born  in  1815,  a  popular  Eng- 
lish novelist,  the  author  of  a  large  number  of  works, 
all  of  which  exhibited  ingenuity,  if  not  genius.  He  was 
the  third  son  of  Mrs.  Frances  Trollope,  herself  a  novelist 
of  some  eminence;  and  received  his  education  first  at 
Winchester  School,  and  subsequently  at  Harrow.  For 
many  years  he  held  a  position  in  the  post-office.  Besides 
his  novels,  he  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Cicero,"  and 
of  several  other  works.     Died,  December  6,  1882. 

Troubetzkoy,  Amfilie,  Princess  (AmtSlie  Rives), 
novelist;  born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  August  23,  1863; 
daughter  of  Alfred  Landon  Rives,  engineer;  educated  by 
private  tutors;  married,  in  1888,  John  Armstrong  Chanler 
of  New  York,  from  whom  she  was  divorced;  married  2d, 
the  Prince  Troubetzkoy  (Russian).  Author:  "The 
Quick  or  the  Dead."  "A  Brother  to  Dragons,"  "Vir- 
ginia of  Virginia,"  "Herod  and  Mariamne,"  "Witness  of 
the  Sun,"  "According  to  St.  John,"  "Barbara  Dering," 
"  Athelwold,"  "Tanis,"  "Sel^n^,"  magazine  articles,  etc. 

Trumbull,  John,  a  distinguished  American  painter, 
was  born  in  Connecticut,  1756.  After  passing  some 
time  in  the  army,  during  which  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Washington,  1775,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Benjamin 
West,  in  London.  His  principal  works  are  to  be  found  in 
the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  numbering 
among  them  "The  Surrender  of  Cornwallis,"  "The  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,"  and  "The  Surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne."     Died,  1843. 

Tupper,  Sir  Cliarles,  a  Canadian  statesman;  born  in 
Amherst,  Nova  Scotia,  July  2,  1821;  studied  medicine 
in  Edinburgh  University  and  practiced  his  profession  in 
his  native  town.  In  1855,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
provincial  legislature  and  was  prime  minister  of  Nova 
Scotia  in  1864-1867.  He  warmly  advocated  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  which  took  place  in  1867 
and  became  a  member  of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald's  cabinet 
in  1870;  became  minister  of  public  works  in  1878;  and 
in  1879-1884  was  minister  of  railways  and  canals.  While 
filling  the  latter  office  he  promoted  the  construction  of 
the  great  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  In  1884,  he  was 
appointed  high  commissioner  for  Canada  in  London. 
He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  fisheries  treaty  with 
the  United  States  in  1887-1888,  and  was  created  a  baronet 
in  the  latter  year.  In  1895,  he  represented  Canada  at 
the  International  Railway  Conference  in  London.  In 
1896,  was  premier  of  Canada. 

Turenne,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne.  Vlcomte 
de,  born  in  1611;  French  general,  son  of  the  Due  de 
Bouillon,  and  grandson  of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange; 
entered  the  French  army  in  1630;  became  mar^chal  de 
camp  in  1635;  in  1643  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
forces  in  Germany,  where  he  remained  till  the  close  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  distinguishing  himself  by  his 
retreat  from  Marienthal  and  his  victory  at  Nordlingen; 
opposed  Conde  with  success  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde; 
was  made  marshal-general  in  1660;  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1668;  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  with  Holland,  in  the  course  of  which  he  was  killed 
by  a  cannon  shot  (1675). 

Turgeniefif,  Ivan  Sergyevltch,  born  in  1818;  Rus- 
sian novelist,  studied  at  the  University  of  Berlin;  after 
the  Franco-German  War  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
mainly  resided  till  his  death.  Among  his  novels  are 
"A  Nest  of  Nobles,"  "Fathers  and  Sons,"  and  "Virgin 
Soil."     Died,  1883. 

Turgot,  Anne  Robert  Jacques,  born  in  Paris,  May 
10,  1727;  a  distinguished  French  statesman  and  econo- 
mist, from  1774  to  1776,  comptroller-general  of  France 
under  Louis  XVI.  By  his  enhghtened  measures  he  did 
much  during  his  brief  period  of  office  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  people  and  to  reform  the  revenue;  but 
he  was  driven  from  power  by  a  combination  of  the  privi- 
leged classes,  to  whom  his  schemes  were  odious.  The 
last  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  chiefly  to  literary 
pursuits.  His  "  Life  "  was  written  by  Condorcet.  Died, 
March  20,  1781. 


496 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William,  born  in  1775; 
landscape  painter ;  son  of  a  liairriresser  in  Covent  Garden, 
studied  at  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy;  became 
A.  R.  A.  in  1799,  and  R.  A.  in  1802,  and  soon  won  a  repu- 
tation as  a  painter  both  in  water-colors  and  in  oils.  In 
1807,  he  began  the  "Liber  Studiorum,"  a  series  of  prints 
for  the  most  part  executed  by  himself.  For  "England 
and  Wales,"  the  "Southern  Coast,"  and  other  series  of 
engravings,  he  prepared  drawings,  which  are  now  highly 
prized.  Among  the  finest  of  his  oil-paintings  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  are  "  Dido  Building  Carthage," 
and  "The  Sun  Rising  in  a  Mist."     Died,  1851. 

Tyler,  John,  American  statesman;  born  in  Virginia, 
1790;  entered  Congress  in  1816;  became  vice-president 
under  Harrison  in  1840,  and  president  in  1841,  upon  the 
death  of  President  Harrison.  During  his  government 
Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  war  he  espoused  the  side  of  the  South. 
Died,  1862. 

Tyndall,  John,  man  of  science;  born  in  County  Car- 
low,  Ireland,  1820;  jbined  the  Irish  Ordnance  Survey  in 
1839;  was  a  railway  engineer  1844-47;  studied  at  the 
Universities  of  Marburg  and  Berlin  (1848-51) ;  became 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution 
m  1853.  After  an  expedition  -to  Switzerland  with  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  in  1856  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  him,  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Structure  and  Motion  of  Glaciers," 
presided  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at 
Belfast,  in  1874.  Among  his  works  are  "  Heat  as  a  Mode 
of  Motion,"  and  "Fragments  of  Science."     Died,  1893. 

Untermyer,  Samuel,  lawyer;  born  in  Lynchburg, 
Va.,  March  2,  1858 ;  educated  in  New  York  public  schools, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  Columbia  University 
Law  School.  Admitted  to  bar,  1879,  and  since  prac- 
ticing in  New  York;  now  member  of  law  firm  of  Gug- 
genheimer,  Untermyer  &  Marshall;  organized  and  is 
counsel  for  many  tra<le  combinations.  Director  of  Amer- 
ican Lithographic  Co.,  International  Steam  Pump  Co., 
New  England  Bpewing  Co.,  New  York  Breweries  Co., 
United  States  Brewing  Co.,  Suffolk  Brewing  Co.,  United 
Fruit  Co.,  member  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
American  Fine  Arts  Society. 

Urban  II.  (Eudes),  elected  pope  in  1088,  when 
Bishop  of  Ostia;  continued  the  policy  of  Gregory  VII., 
and  opposed  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  who  set  up  an  anti- 
pope  against  him,  and  took  Rome;  convened  the  Council 
of  Clermont  in  1095,  at  which  the  first  crusade  was  pro- 
claimed, and  Philip  I.  of  France  was  excommunicated; 
in  1098  made  the  Norman  counts  of  Sicily  apostolic 
legates,  and  in  the  same  year  held  the  Council  of  Bari. 
Died,  1099. 

Ussher,  James,  born  in  1580;  Irish  divine;  be- 
came bishop  of  Meath  in  1620,  and  four  years  later 
archbishop  of  Armagh.  His  chief  work  was  "  Annales 
Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!,"  the  author,  by  Cromwell's 
order,  being  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.     Died,  1656. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  American  statesman,  and 
eighth  President  of  the  United  States;  was  born  of 
Knickerbocker  stock,  in  Columbia  County,  N.  Y.,  1782. 
After  studying  law  and  becoming  a  member  of  the  bar, 
he  was  elected  by  the  Democratic  party  to  the  State 
Senate  in  1812,  and  became  attorney-general  in  1815. 
In  1816,  he  largely  contributed  to  the  organization  of 
the  so-called  Albany  regency,  a  political  body  which 
maintained  a  political  ascendancy  for  many  years  in  the 
State.  In  1821,  Van  Buren  entered  the  National  Senate, 
and  was  reelected  in  1827.  As  a  senator  he  supported 
the  protective  tariff  of  1828,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
elected  governor  of  New  York.  In  1829,  he  became 
secretary  of  state  in  President  Jackson's  cabinet,  re- 
signing the  same  in  April,  1831.  After  the  rejection  by 
the  senate  of  his  nomination  as  minister  to  England,  he 
was  elected  in  the  Jackson  interest  vice-president  of  the 
republic,  and  in  1836,  became  the  successful  Democratic 
candidate  for  the  presidential  chair.  During  his  tenure 
of  office  occurred  the  financial  crisis  of  1837;  and  the 
suspension  of  specie  payments  by  the  banks;  a  state 
of  things  which  induced  the  president  to  recommend  to 
Congress  the  establishment  of  an  independent  treasury — 
a  measure  carried  into  effect  in  1840.  In  the  latter  year. 
Van  Buren's  renomination  for  the  presidency  was  de- 
feated by  General  Harrison,  and  in  1841,  he  temporarily 
retired  into  private  life.  His  third  candidature  for  the 
presidency,  in  1844,  was  frustrated  by  the  Southern  vote, 
and  he  subsequently  seceded  from  the  Democrats  to  be- 
come a  Free-soiler,  and  the  unsuccessful  nominee  of  the 
latter  party  in  the  presidential  election  in  1848.  Died, 
1862. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius,  American  capitalist;  born 
near  Stapleton,  Staten  Lsland,  N.  Y.,  May  27,  1794; 
early  engaged  in  steamboat  transportation  between 
Staten  Isu>nd  and  New  York  and  so  enlarged  his  business 
that  he  soon  gained  the  complete  control  of  the  New  York 


and  Staten  Island  lines.  Later,  he  started  steamboats 
in  various  waters  —  the  Hudson,  the  Delaware,  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  established  steamboats  and  other  con- 
nections between  New  York  and  California.  In  1864,  he 
withdrew  his  capital  from  shipping  and  invested  it  in 
railroads.  He  secured  the  management  of  one  railroad 
after  another  and,  in  1877,  controlled  stocks  representing 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $150,000,000,  of  which  he  owned 
fully  one-half.  In  1861,  he  presented  the  swift  $800,000 
steamship  "Vanderbilt"  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  be  used  for  the  capture  of  Confederate  privateers. 
Later  he  endowed  Vanderbilt  University,  founded  at 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1872,  with  $500,000,  afterward  in- 
creased to. $700, 000.  At  the  time  of  his  death  in  New 
York  City,  January  4,  1877,  his  fortune  was  estimated  at 
nearly  $100,000,000,  and  he  was  supposed  to  be  the 
richest  man  in  the  world. 

Vanderbilt,  ■William  Kissam,  capitalist;  born  in 
Staten  Island,  December  12,  1849;  academic  education; 
studied  several  years  in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  Was  in 
the  office  of  C.  C.  Clarke,  treasurer  of  Hudson  River 
Railroad;  learned  bookkeeping;  second  vice-president 
of  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad,  1877- 
83.  Chairman  of  board  of  directors  of  Lake  Shore  & 
Michigan  Southern  Railway,  from  1883.  Member  of 
Colonia  and  Defender  syndicates;  united  with  his  broth- 
ers in  founding  the  Vanderbilt  Clinic.  One  of  the  organ- 
izers of  Metropolitan  Club.  Member  of  Union  and 
other  leading  clubs  of  New  York;  has  traveled  exten- 
sively. Director  of  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 
Railroad,  New  York,  Chicago  &  St.  Louis  Railroad 
Company,^  Michigan  Central  Railroad  Company,  Lake 
Erie  &  Western  Railroad  Company,  Chicago  &  North- 
western Railway  Company,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneap- 
olis <fe  Omaha  Railway  Company,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  &  St.  Louis  Railway  Company,  Detroit  &  Chi- 
cago Railroad  Company,  New  York  &  Harlem  Railroad 
(president),  Pittsburgh  &  Lake  Erie  Railroad  Company, 
West  Shore  Railroad  Company,  The  Pullman  Company, 
Lincoln  National  Bank,  and  officer  or  director  in  numer- 
ous railway  and  financial  corporations. 

Van  Dycli,  or  Vandylte,  Sir  Anthony  {v&n-dlk),  a 
painter  of  the  Flemish  school,  distinguished  by  his  sur- 
passing excellence  in  portraiture;  was  born  in  Antwerp, 
1599,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  In  1632,  he  became 
court  painter  to  Charles  I.  of  England,  was  knighted 
by  that  monarch,  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Gowrie,  and  lived  in  great  magnificence.  His  "  Cruci- 
fixion "  (at  Antwerp),  is  his  greatest  historical  work,  and 
his  full-length  picture  of  "Charles  I.  on  Horseback" 
(now  at  Warwick  Castle),  his  "  chef  d'oeuvre  "  as  a  limner. 
Died  in  London,  1041. 

Van  Dylie,  Henry  Jaclcson,  an  American  educator; 
born  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1852;  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  University  in  1873,  at  the  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1877,  and  at  Berlin  University  in 
1878;  and  soon  afterward  assumed  the  pastorate  of  the 
United  Congregational  Church  in  Newport,  R.  I.  He 
was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Brick  Presbyterian  Church  in 
New  York  City  in  1882,  and  continued  in  that  charge  till 
1900,  when  he  resigned  to  become  professor  of  English 
Literature  in  Princeton  LTniversity.  His  publications 
include:  "The  Reality  of  Religion,"  "The  Poetry  of 
Tenny.son,"  "The  Ruling  Passion,"  "The  Blue  Flower," 
"The  School  of  Life,"  etc. 

Van  Dylse,  John  Charles,  author,  educator;  born 
in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  April  21,  1856;  privately 
educated;  studied  at  Columbia  (L.  H.  D.,  Rutgers, 
1899).  Admitted  to  New  York  bar,  1877,  but  turned 
attention  to  literature;  since  1878,  librarian  of  Sage 
Library,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.;  studied  art  many  years 
in  Europe;  traveled  much  on  both  continents  and  has 
written  extensively  on  both  art  and  nature;  professor 
of  history  of  art,  Rutgers  College;  lecturer  in  Columbia, 
Harvard,  Princeton,  etc.  Editor  "The  Studio,"  1883- 
84;  "Art  Review,"  1887-88;  "College  Histories  of  Art," 
"History  of  American  Art."  Author:  "Books  and 
How  to  Use  Them,"  "Principles  of  Art,"  "How  to 
Judge  of  a  Picture,"  "Notes  on  Sage  Library,"  "Serious 
Art  in  America,"  "Art  for  Art's  Sake,"  "History  of 
Painting,"  "Old  Dutch  and  Flemish  Masters,"  "Modern 
French  Masters,"  "Nature  for  Its  Own  Sake."  "The 
Desert,"  "Italian  Painting,"  "Old  Engfish  Masters," 
with  Cole's  engravings,  "The  Meaning  of  Pictures." 

Velas'quez,  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Sllva,  born  in 
Seville  in  1599;  a  distinguished  Spanish  painter.  He 
was  principal  painter  to  Philip  IV.,  to  whom  he  became 
also  chamberlain.  His  works  consist  chiefly  of  por- 
traits, and  of  historical  and  classical  subjects.  Died  in 
Madrid,  August  6,  1660. 

Vesallus,  Andreas,  anatomist;  born  in  Brussels  in 
1514;  accompanied  Charles  V.  in  his  campaigns  as 
physiciaOi  and  also  attended  Philip  II.     He  died  in  1564, 


BIOGRAPHY 


497 


in  Zante,  where  he  had  been  wrecked  on  his  return  from 
Jerusalem.  His  great  work  was  "  De  Corporis  Humani 
Fabrica." 

Vespasian,  Titus  Flavius  Sabinus  ivls-pa' zhe-tin) , 
was  Emperor  of  Rome  from  70  to  79  A.  D.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  many  military  commands  before  he 
became  emperor,  and  was  engaged  in  the  war  with  the 
Jews  when  he  was  raised  to  the  throne.  His  govern- 
ment was  highly  beneficial  to  the  state. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  first  King  of  Italy,  born  in 
1820;  became  King  of  Sardinia  on  the  abdication  of 
his  father  in  1849,  and  immediately  began  to  reorganize 
the  kingdom  and  to  enforce  toleration.  He  sent  a 
contingent  during  the  war  with  Russia  to  help  the  allies 
in  the  Crimea,  and,  in  1859,  he  secured  the  alliance  of 
France  in  his  struggle  with  Austria.  The  price  agreed 
on  was  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice,  but  the  result 
was  the  union  of  Italy  under  the  ruler  of  Sardinia. 
By  the  help  of  Prussia  the  liberation  of  Venice  was 
gained  in  1866,  and  Rome  was  evacuated  by  the  French 
in  1870.  Victor  Emmanuel  was  called  by  his  people 
"  R^  Galantuomo."     Died,  1878. 

Victoria  Alexandrina,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and 
Empress  of  India;  born  in  1819;  daughter  of  Edward, 
Duke  of  Kent,  fourth  son  of  George  III.;  was  crowned 
on  June  28,  1838.  She  married,  in  1840,  Prince  Albert 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  who  died  in  1861,  by  whom  she 
had  nine  children.  The  chief  events  of  the  reign  have 
been  the  establishment  of  the  penny  post,  the  repeal 
of  the  corn  laws,  the  annexation  of  the  Punjaub,  the 
great  exhibition,  the  Crimean  -War,  the  Indian  mutiny, 
followed  by  the  assumption  of  sovereignty  over  India, 
the  second  and  third  reform  bills,  wars  in  Afghanistan, 
China,  South  Africa,  and  Egypt,  and  the  Fenian  and 
home  rule  agitations  in  Ireland.  The  jubilee  of  the 
queen's  accession  was  celebrated  in  1887,  and  her  dia- 
mond jubilee  in  1897.  Five  attempts  were  made  on 
her  life,  in  1840,  1842  (three),  and  1882.  She  died  at 
Osborne  House,  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1901. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  St.,  a  French  philanthropist  and 
ecclesiastic  reformer;  was  born  in  Landes,  in  1576. 
Captured  by  Tunisian  pirates  in  1605,  he  remained  for 
two  years  in  slavery.  After  his  escape  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  curate  of  Clichy,  and  preceptor 
to  the  celebrated  Cardinal  de  Retz,  and  engaged  himself 
in  various  works  of  benevolence  and  Church  improve- 
ment. He  established  a  foundling  hospital  at  Paris  in 
1638;  organized  the  congregation  of  the  Missions,  and 
instituted  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Charity.  Died  in  1660, 
and  was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement  XII.  in  1737. 

Vincent,  Jolin  Heyl,  bishop  of  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  and  chancellor  of  Chautauqua  system;  born  in 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  in  1832;  educated  in  Lewisburg  and 
Milton,  Pa.;  began  to  preach  at  18;  studied  in  Wes- 
leyan  Institute,  Newark,  N.  J.  (S.  T.  D.,  Ohio  Wesleyan; 
LL.  D.,  Washington  and  Jefferson;  S.  T.  D.,  Harvard); 
joined  New  Jersey  Conference,  1853;  ordained  deacon, 
1855;  elder,  1857;  transferred  to  Rock  River  Confer- 
ence; pastor  at  Galena,  Chicago,  etc.,  1857-65;  estab- 
lished "Northwest  Sunday  School  Quarterly,"  1865; 
"Sunday  School  Teacher,"  1866;  corresponding  secre- 
tary of  Sunday  School  Union  and  editor  of  Sunday 
School  publications,  1868-84;  one  of  founders,  1874,  of 
Chautauqua  Assembly;  founder,  1878,  of  Chautauqua 
Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  and  its  chancellor  ever 
since.  Preacher  to  Harvard,  Yale,  Cornell,  Wellesley, 
and  other  colleges;  in  1900,  made  resident  bishop  in 
charge  of  European  work  of  Methodist  Episcopal  Church ; 
retired  from  active  episcopate  in  1904.  Author:  "The 
Modern  Sunday  School,"  "Studies  in  Young  Life," 
"Little  Footprints  in  Bible  Lands,"  "The  Church  School 
and  Sunday  School  Institutes,"  "Earthly  Footsteps  of 
the  Man  of  Galilee,"  "Better  Not,"  "The  Chautauqua 
Movement,"  "To  Old  Bethlehem,"  "Our  Own  Church," 
"Outline  History  of  England,"  "Outline  History  of 
Greece,"  "The  Church  at  Home,"  "Family  Worship 
for  Every  Day  in  the  Year,"  etc. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da  (vln'che),  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  Italian  painters,  was  born  in  Vinci,  near  Flor- 
ence, in  1452.  He  early  became  a  sort  of  universal 
genius,  exhibiting  a  talent  for  anatomy,  astronomy, 
botany,  mathematics,  music,  and  engineering,  and,  in 
1482,  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  Duke  of 
Milan,  who  made  him  director  of  an  academy  of  arts 
and  sciences.  In  1498,  he  painted  at  Milan  his  master- 
piece, the  picture  of  "The  Last  Supper,"  and,  in  1516, 
entered  the  service  of  Francis  I.,  accompanying  that 
monarch  to  France,  in  which  country  he  died  in  1519. 
Leonardo  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  as  a  master  of 
chiaroscuro,  and  was  the  author  of  "Trattato  della 
Pittura,"  an  excellent  treatise  on  painting,  which  has 
been  translated  into  English. 

Virchow,  Rudolf,  born  in   1821 ;    German  pathol- 


ogist; after  being  involved  in  trouble  on  account  of 
his  share  in  the  movement  of  1848,  obtained  chairs  of 
pathological  anatomy  at  Wiirzburg  and  Berlin  (1856), 
having  recently  pubhshed  his  "Cellular  Pathology." 
Three  years  later  he  returned  to  politics,  and  ultimately 
became  leader  of  the  Liberal  opposition  in  the  Prussian 
Assembly,  and  was  challenged  to  a  duel  in  1865  by 
Bismarck.  In  1878,  he  retired  from  public  life.  He 
was  much  consulted  during  the  illness  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick.     Died,  1902. 

Virgii,  Pubiius  Vlrgllius  Maro,  Roman  poet; 
born  near  Mantua  in  70  B.  C.  Found  patrons  in  Maece- 
nas and  Augustus,  who  restored  to  him  his  estate.  He 
died  in  Brundusium,  on  his  return  from  a  visit  to  Greece. 
His  chief  works  were  "The  Eclogues"  or  "Bucolics," 
"The  Georgics,"  and  the  " JEneid,"  the  latter  of  which 
has  been  translated  by,  among  others,  Dryden,  Coning- 
ton,  and  William  Morris.     Died,  19  B.  C. 

Vittoria  Colonna,  the  most  celebrated  poetess  of 
Italy,  was  born  at  Marino,  in  1490.  At  17  she  was 
married,  and  after  her  husband's  death,  in  the  battle  of 
Pavia,  found  her  chief  consolation  in  solitude  and  the 
cultivation  of  her  poetical  genius.  Her  poems  were 
chiefly  devoted  tothememoryof  herhusband.  Died,  1547. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  born  in  1745;  natural  philoso- 
pher; was  for  thirty  years  professor  at  Pavia,  and  be- 
came F.  R.  S.  Besides  making  other  discoveries,  he 
invented  the  voltaic  pile  or  electrical  column.  Died, 
1826. 

Voltaire,  whose  original  name  was  Francois  Marie 
Arouet;  was  born  in  Paris  in  1694;  educated  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  became  a  protdg^  of  Ninon  de  I'Enclos.  In 
1717,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  on  suspicion 
of  writing  a  libel  on  the  king,  and  "yEdipe"  was  pro- 
duced in  1718.  After  another  imprisonment,  he  went 
to  England,  where,  in  1728,  the  "Henriade"  was  pub- 
lished. He  escaped  prosecution  by  disavowing  his 
writings,  and,  in  1736,  began  to  correspond  with  Frederick 
the  Great.  After  the  rise  of  the  Pompadour  he  secured 
a  reception  at  court  and  at  the  Acad^mie.  In  1750,  he 
went  to  the  court  of  Berlin,  where  he  stayed  three  years, 
the  result  being  a  historical  quarrel.  Soon  after  this 
he  settled  at  Ferney,  where  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent, 
but  before  his  death  he  visited  Paris,  and  was  received 
as  a  popular  hero.  He  wrote  numerous  plays  and  ro- 
mances (Candide,  Zadig),  etc.,  "  Histoirede Charles  XII.," 
"Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV.,"  and  other  historical  works,  and 
"Essai  sur  les  Moeurs  et  I'Esprit  des  Nations."  Died, 
1778. 

Volterra,  Danielc  de,  "born  in  1509 ;  Italian  artist, 
pupil  of  Michel  Angelo.  His  masterpiece,  "The  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  was  torn  by  the  French,  who  attempted 
to  take  it  from  Trinita  de  Monti  at  Rome.     Died,  1566. 

W^agner,  Ricliard,  a  popular  German  composer; 
born  in  Leipzig  in  1813;  became  chapel  master  at  Dres- 
den in  1843,  and  later  took  up  his  residence  at  Munich, 
upon  the  invitation  of  his  admirer  and  patron,  the  King 
of  Bavaria.  His  well-known  operas,  "  Rienzi,"  "Tann- 
hauser,"  and  "Lohengrin,"  have  elicited  great,  but 
comparatively  undeserved,  praise.  Wagner  wrote  his 
own  librettos,  and  his  esthetic  theories  on  music  and 
dramatic  art  involved  him  in  much  critical  controversy. 
Died,  1883. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Kussel,  F.  K.  S.,  born  in  1823; 
scientific  writer;  visited  South  America  and  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  publishing  the  results  of  his  observations 
on  his  return,  among  his  other' works  being  "Contribu- 
tions to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,"  "On  Miracles 
and  Modern  Spiritualism,"  "Land  Nationalization," 
and  "Darwinism."  The  discovery  of  the  evolution 
hypothesis  was  arrived  at  by  him  at  the  same  time  as  by 
Darwin. 

Wallace,  Lewis,  born  in  1827;  American  general, 
diplomatist,  lawyer,  and  author.  He  served  as  first 
lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War;  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  law  in  Indiana  from  1848;  became  a  brigadier-general 
in  1861;  seryed  through  the  Civil  War.  From  1881  to 
1885,  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Turkey.  Author 
of  "The  Fair  God,"  "Ben  Hur,"  "The  Boyhood  of 
Christ,"   "The  Prince  of  India."     Died,   1905. 

Wallace,  Sir  William,  born  about  1274;  Scotch 
hero;  headed  the  rising  of  1297  against  the  English, 
and  won  a  victory  at  Cambus  Kenneth,  after  which  he 
crossed  the  border,  and  was  named  guardian  of  Scotland 
on  his  return.  Next  year,  however,  he  was  defeated 
by  Edward  I.  at  Falkirk,  after  which,  deserted  by  the 
nobles,  he  carried  on  a  guerilla  warfare  for  seven  years. 
After  being  imprisoned  in  France,  whose  aid  he  had 
sought,  he  was  declared  an  outlaw  in  1304,  and  having 
been  captured  next  year  was  sent  to  London  and  hanged. 
Died,  1305. 

Wallenstein.  Albrecht,  Graf  von  Waldstein, 
born  in  1583;    Duke  of  Friedland,  Imperialist  general, 


498 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  noble  Bohemian  family;  after  serving  against  the 
Turks,  the  Venetians,  and  Betlilen  Gabor,  raised  an 
army  at  his  own  expense,  in  1626,  for  the  emperor,  and 
defeated  Mansfeld  and  the  Danes.     In  1630,  he  was  de- 

E rived  of  his  command  by  the  jealousy  of  the  League, 
ut  was  soon  recalled  to  oppose  (Justavus  Adolphus. 
The  Swedish  king  was  victorious  at  Breitenfeld  (1631), 
and  Wallenstein  was  defeated  at  Liitzen,  where  Gustavus 
fell.  After  his  defeat  he  negotiated  with  France,  and 
ha\'ing  been  outlawed  by  the  emperor,  was  assassinated 
at  Eger,  1634. 

Walter,  Thomas  Ustick,  an  American  architect; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  September  4,  1804.  In  1833, 
he  made  the  designs  for  the  Girard  College  building, 
which  on  its  completion  in  1847,  was  pronounced  the 
finest  specimen  of  classic  architecture  in  the  United 
States.  His  next  great  work  was  the  breakwater  at 
La  Guayra  for  the  Venezuelan  Government.  In  1851, 
his  design  for  the  extension  of  the  National  Capitol  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  was  adopted.  Having  been  ap- 
pointed government  architect,  he  removed  to  Washing- 
ton, and  remained  there  till  the  completion  of  the  work 
in  1865.  While  in  Washington  he  also  designed  the  ex- 
tensions of  the  patent  office,  treasury,  and  post-office 
buildings,  the  dome  of  the  capitol,  and  the  government 
hospital  for  the  insane.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
October  30,  1887. 

Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps,  author;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  August  31,  1844;  daughter  of  Rev.  Austin 
and  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps;  married  October  20,  1888, 
Herbert  D.  Ward;  began  to  write  for  press  when  13 
years  old.  Author:  "The  Gipsy  Series"  (four  volumes), 
"The  Gates  Aiar,"  "Men,  Women,  and  Ghosts,"  "The 
Trotty  Book,''  "Hedged  In,"  "The  Silent  Partner," 
"What  to  Wear,"  "Trotty's  Wedding-Tour  and  Story 
Book,"  "Poetic  Studies,"  "The  Story  of  Avis,"  "Sealed 
Orders,"  "Friends,"  "  Doctor  Zay,"  "Beyond  the  Gates," 
"Songs  of  the  Silent  World,"  "Old  Maids,  and  Burglars 
in  Paradise,"  "The  Madonna  of  the  Tubs,"  "The  Gates 
Between,"  "Jack  the  Fisherman,"  "The  Struggle  for 
Immortality,"  "Come  Forth"  (with  Herbert  D.  Ward), 
"  The  Master  of  the  Magicians  "  (with  Herbert  D.  Ward), 
"  Fourteen  to  One,"  "  Donald  Marcy,"  "  A  Singular  Life," 
"The  Supply  at  St.  Agatha's,"  "Chapters  from  a  Life," 
"The  Story  of  Jesus  Christ,"  "Within  the  Gates,"  "Suc- 
cessors to  Mary  the  First,"  "Avery,"  "Trixy,"  "A  Lost 
Hero"  (with  Herbert  D.  Ward).     Died,  1911. 

Warren,  Samuel,  born  in  1807;  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  whose  chief  works  were  "  Passages  from  the  Diary 
of  a  Late  Physician,"  "Ten  Thousand  a  Year,"  and 
"The  Moral  and  Intellectual  Development  of  the  Age"; 
was  appointed  master  in  lunacy  in  1859.     Died,  1877. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of,  "the  king- 
maker"; born  about  1428;  was  created  earl  in  1449, 
and  joined  the  Yorkists,  getting  Edward  IV.  crowned 
by  his  influence,  and  defeating  his  enemies  at  Towton 
(1461) ;  Quarreled  with  Edward,  and  restored  Henry  VI. 
in  1470,  Dut  was  defeated  and  slain  (1471),  at  Barnet 
next  year. 

Washington,  Booker  Taliaferro,  principal  of 
Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  since  1881; 
born  near  Hale's  Ford,  Va.,  about  1859;  of  African 
descent;  graduated  from  Hampton  Institute,  Virginia, 
1875  (A.  M.,  Harvard,  1896;  LL.  D.,  Dartmouth,  1901); 
was  teacher  at  Hampton  Institute  until  elected  by  State 
authorities  as  head  of  Tuskegee  Institute,  which  he  organ- 
ized and  has  made  succe.ssful ;  is  writer  and  speaker  on 
racial  and  educational  subjects.  Author:  "Sowing  and 
Reaping,"  "  Up  From  Slavery,"  "  Future  of  the  American 
Negro,"  "Character  Building,"  "Story  of  My  Life  and 
Work,"  "Working  With  Hands,"  "Tuskegee  and  Its 
People." 

Washington,  George,  illustrious  American  patriot, 
general,  and  statesman,  and  first  President  of  the  United 
States;  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  February 
22,  1732.  He  descended  from  an  old  English  family, 
one  of  whose  younger  sons — his  great-grandfather 
John  —  emigrated  to  Virginia  in  1657.  Washington 
inherited  a  considerable  farm  on  the  banks  of  the  Rap- 
pahannock, and,  after  leaving  school  in  1747,  passed  much 
of  his  time  with  Lord  Fairfax,  and  the  latter's  cousin. 
Sir  William,  both  great  feudal  proprietors  in  the  colony. 
Between  1748-1751,  young  Washington  was  employed 
by  Lord  Fairfax  in  surveying  certain  outlying  properties 
of  his  beyond  the  Blue  Ridge,  and,  at  the  age  of  19,  was 
appointed  adjutant-general  (holding  the  rank  of  major) 
of  one  of  the  military  districts  formed  in  Virginia  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  France.  In  1754,  Washington, 
aa  lieutenant-colonel,  defeated  the  French  on  the  frontier, 
and  afterwards  accompanied  General  Braddock  as  aid- 
de-camp  in  his  untoward  expedition  against  Fort  Du- 
quesne.  In  the  following  year  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  ordered  to  be  raised  by  the  Assembly 


of  Virginia  for  the  defense  of  the  provinces,  and  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  force  which  took  Fort  Duciuesne 
in  1758.  Marrying  in  the  next  year,  Washington  re- 
signed his  commission,  and  settled  down  at  Mount  Vernon 
as  a  planter,  anti  occuiiied  himself  for  some  years  in  the 
cultivation  of  his  enlarged  estate.  Though  long  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  Washington  does  not  appear 
to  have  taken  any  prominent  part  in  its  deliberations; 
although,  in  1773,  he  became  one  of  the  delegates  to  the 
Williamsburg  Convention,  met  to  declare  the  right  of  the 
colonists  to  self-government,  and  in  1774,  one  of  the 
five  representatives  of  Virginia  at  the  General  Congress 
in  Philadelphia. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  armed  resistance  to  the  home 
country,  the  Continental  Congress  at  once  conferred  the 
chief  command  upon  Washington.  The  latter  found 
himself  entrusted  with  a  task  of  no  ordinary  weight  and 
responsibility.  In  the  face  of  well-appointed  and  suc- 
cessful British  armies  already  on  American  soil,  he  had  to 
oppose  to  them  undisciplined  and  raw  militia,  ill-found 
in  war  material,  and  with  a  government  to  fall  back  upon 
almost  destitute  of  both  money  and  credit.  He,  how- 
ever, proved  himself  equal  to  the  exigency  of  the  situa- 
tion, and  met  the  enemy  at  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
was  defeated  with  heavy  loss,  and  compelled  to  make  a 
disastrous  retreat  through  the  Jerseys  into  Pennsylvania. 
In  1776-77,  he  gained  advantage  at  Trenton  and  Prince- 
ton, only  to  be  badly  defeated  at  Brandy  wine,  on  Septem- 
ber 1 1th  of  the  latter  year,  thus  allowing  the  British  troops 
to  occupy  Philadelphia.  The  surrender  of  Burgoyne  at 
Saratoga,  in  the  following  month,  served  to  brighten  the 
American  cause,  since  it  procured  for  the  colonists  the 
support  of  France.  In  1778,  Washington  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  at  Monmouth  Court-house  with  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  after  which  he  was  compelled  to  remain 
in  defensive  inactivity,  in  consequence  of  the  destitute 
condition  of  his  army  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  public 
treasury,  until  July,  1780,  when  a  French  army  of  6,000 
men  arrived  to  the  assistance  of  tlie  insurgents.  In  that 
year,  too,  occurred  the  treason  of  General  Arnold,  and 
the  sad  episode  of  the  fate  of  Andr^.  In  1781,  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  between  the  States  were  ratified, 
and  the  war  was  transferred  to  the  South  with  varying 
success.  IThis  state  of  things  lasted  until  September  of 
that  year,  when,  reinforcements  having  arrived  from 
France,  the  combined  American  and  French  armies 
advanced  upon  Yorktown,  where  the  British  command- 
er-in-chief. Lord  Cornwallis,  was  forced  to  capitulate, 
surrendering  his  entire  force  of  7,000  men.  This  event 
closed  the  war;  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  being  signed 
at  Paris,  September  3,  1783,  in  which  the  English  Gov- 
ernment recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States. 

In  the  December  following,  General  Washington 
resigned  his  commission  and  retired  into  private  life, 
from  which  he  was  again  called  forth,  in  1787,  to  preside 
over  the  National  Convention  assembled  in  Philadelphia 
to  consolidate  the  National  Constitution  and  place  the 
federal  system  of  government  upon  a  firm  and  permanent 
basis.  This  accomplished,  on  February  4,  1789,  General 
Washington  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of  the  newly 
constituted  nation,  and  in  1792,  reelected  to  the  same 
high  office.  The  chief  events  which  signalized  his 
administration  were  the  rise  of  the  two  great  political 
parties,  the  Federalists  and  the  Democrats  (or  Republic- 
ans), to  the  former  of  which  Washington  naturally 
belonged,  both  by  principle  and  policy;  and  a  new 
treaty  entered  into  with  England,  in  1795,  which 
evoked  great  animosity  against  Washington  and  his 
government  on  the  part  of  the  Democratic  party 
headed  by  Jefferson,  on  account  of  his  hostile  attitude 
against  the  Jacobinism  of  revolutionary  France.  Wash- 
ington declined  a  third  nomination  to  the  presidency,  in 
1796,  and,  after  a  "  Farewell  Address  to  the  People  of  the 
United  States,"  the  "Father  of  his  Country"  sought  his 
well-won  repose,  passing  the  close  of  his  days  at  Mount 
Vernon,  where  he  died,  December  14,  1799. 

Watson,  John  ("Ian  Maclaren"),  born  in  1850;  till 
1893,  Dr.  Watson  was  known  as  a  popular  preacher  and 
able  minister,  and  in  that  year  he  acquired  additional 
distinction  and  wider  fame  by  writing  a  series  of  Scotch 
idyls  for  the  "British  Weekly";  under  the  title  of  "Be- 
side the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush  "  they  became  widely  popu- 
lar in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  "The  Days 
of  Auld  Lang  Syne,"  a  second  series  of  idyls,  published 
in  1895,  also  reached  a  large  circulation.  A  novel  from 
Dr.  Watson's  pen,  "  Kate  Carnegie  and  Those  Ministers," 
was  published  in  1896.  "The  Upper  Room"  and  "The 
Life  of  the  Master  "  are  perhaps  his  best  known  religious 
works.     Died,  1907. 

Watson,  Thomas  E.,  lawyer,  ex-congressman; 
born  in  Georgia,  in  1856;  studied  two  years  in  Mercer 
College;    taught  school;    admitted  to  bar,  1875;    prac- 


BIOGRAPHY 


499 


ticed  in  Thomson,  Ga.;  member  Georgia  Legislature, 
1882-83;  Democratic  elector-at-large,  1888;  member 
Congress,  1891-93,  as  Populist;  was  candidate  and 
claims  election  (on  honest  count),  at  elections  in  1892 
and  1894,  but  his  opponent  was  given  the  certificate; 
resumed  practice  of  law,  1895.  While  in  Congress  se- 
cured first  appropriation  for  free  delivery  of  mails  in 
rural  districts  that  Congress  ever  passed.  Nominated 
for  vice-president  of  United  States  at  St.  Louis  Populist 
Convention  which  endorsed  Bryan  for  president,  1896; 
for  some  time  conducted  Populist  paper  at  Atlanta. 
Nominated  for  president  by  People's  party,  1904,  and 
made  active  campaign  to  revive  the  party;  began  pub- 
lication of  "Tom  Watson's  Magazine,"  in  New  York, 
1905.  Author:  "The  Story  of  France,"  "Life  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  "Life  of  Napoleon,"  "Life  and  Times  of 
Thomas  .Jefferson,"  "  Bethany,  a  Study  and  Story  of  the 
Old  South.". 

Watt,  James,  an  eminent  British  engineer  and  me- 
chanical inventor;  was  born  at  Greenock  in  1736.  He 
early  developed  extraordinary  talents  in  practical  me- 
chanics, and,  in  1765,  perfected  his  grand  discovery  of 
the  condensation  of  steam  by  means  of  an  air-tight 
cylinder,  and  likewise  invented  an  apparatus  to  depress 
the  piston  of  an  engine  by  steam  instead  of  atmospheric 
pressure.  For  some  years  he  occupied  himself  in  the 
surveying  and  engineering  of  various  public  works  in 
Scotland,  and  in  1774,  entered  into  partnership  with 
the  Messrs.  Boulton  of  Soho,  Birmingham,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  steam  engines,  perfecting  numerous  and  great 
improvements  in  their  mechanism  —  among  others  the 
regulator  by  centrifugal  force,  the  throttle  valve,  the 
machinery  of  parallel  motion,  and  the  steam  barometer. 
In  1782,  he  invented  the  double-acting  engine,  and  re- 
tired from  business  in  1800.     Died,   1819. 

Watterson,  Henry,  American  journalist;  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  February  16,  1840.  His  first  work 
as  journalist  was  with  the  "Democratic  Review,"  and 
"The  States,"  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  edited  news- 
papers in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  before  and  after  the  Civil 
War,  in  the  interim  serving  with  distinction  in  the 
Confederate  Army.  He  edited,  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  the 
"Louisville  Journal"  during  1868;  and  the  Louis- 
ville "Courier-Journal"  since  then.  He  published 
"History  of  the  Spanish-American  War,"  "Abraham 
Lincoln,"  etc.,  and  continues  to  be  one  of  America's  rriost 
brilliant  journalists. 

Watts,  George  Frederick,  R.  A.,  born  in  1817; 
painter,  gained  a  reputation  by  his  "Caractacus  Led  in 
Triumph  through  the  Streets  of  Rome."  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "Fata  Morgana,"  "Love  and  Death," 
"Time,  Death,  and  Judgment,"  and  portraits  of 
Joachim,   Manning,  William  Morris,  etc.     Died,  1904. 

Watts,  Isaac,  an  English  dissenting  minister  and 
poet,  the  "verv  father  of  English  hymnology,"  was  born 
in  1674,  and  died,  1748. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolutionary  epoch;  was  born  in  Chester  County,  Pa., 
in  1745.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  colonel,  in  1775, 
and,  after  serving  with  distinction  in  the  Canadian  cam- 
paign, commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Brandy- 
wine,  and  the  right  wing  at  Germantown,  1777.  After 
distinguishing  himself  at  Monmouth  in  the  following 
year,  he  captured  by  assault  the  fortified  works  at 
Stony  Point  on  the  Hudson,  in  1779,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  Congress  therefor.  After  participating  in  the 
capture  of  Cornwallis'  army  at  Yorktown,  1780,  he  put 
down  the  Indians  in  Georgia,  and  in  1794,  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  Miami  Indians  in  Ohio.  Died, 
1796. 

Webster,  Daniel,  an  illustrious  American  statesman, 
jurist,  and  orator,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  in  1782, 
of  respectable  but  comparatively  humble  parentage. 
After  receiving  his  rudimentary  education  at  Exeter 
and  Boscawen  academies,  he  entered  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, in  1797,  as  a  freshman,  and,  after  graduating  in 
1801,  entered  upon  the  study  of  the  law  at  Salisbury  and 
Boston,  in  which  latter  city  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1805.  In  1807,  he  went  into  practice  at  Portsmouth, 
and,  after  earning  a  high  legal  reputation,  was  elected  by 
the  Federal  party  to  the  lower  house  of  Congress  in  1812, 
where  he  opposed  the  war  with  England,  and  at  once 
rose  into  prominence  as  an  able  debater.  Reelected  in 
1815,  he  shared  in  the  discussion  of  the  United  States 
Bank  Charter  and  specie  payment  questions.  Mean- 
while he  had  risen  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession 
as  a  constitutional  lawyer,  and  as  a  consummate  leader 
in  criminal  causes.  In  1820,  he  served  as  a  member  of 
the  Convention  met  to  revise  the  Constitution  of 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1822,  was  reelected  to  Congress, 
where,  as  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  he 
rendered  eminent  assistance  in  the  entire  revision  of 
the  United  States  criminal  code.     In  1827,  he  became 


senator,  and  in  1830,  in  opposing  the  Nullification 
doctrine  advanced  by  South  Carolina  statesmen,  delivered 
perhaps  the  most  splendid  outburst  of  patriotic  oratory 
ever  heard  within  the  Congress  of  the  American 
Union.  In  1834,  Webster  became  a  prominent  leader 
of  the  Whig  party,  and,  in  1841,  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  under  President  Harrison,  retaining  the  office 
during  Tyler's  chief  magistracy,  and  again  under  Fill- 
more, in  1850.  The  most  remarkable  event  of  his  official 
term  was  the  so-called  Ashburton  Treaty  with  England, 
in  the  settlement  of  the  northeastern  boundary  ques- 
tion. Reelected  to  the  senate  in  1844,  he  opposed  alike 
the  admission  of  Texas  into  the  Union  and  the  prosecution 
of  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  supported  Henry  Clay's 
"Compromise  Measures"  of  1850,  in  relation  to  the 
extension  of  slavery  to  new  territories.  He  was  unsuc- 
cessfully nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  National 
Whig  Convention  of  1852.  Died,  October  24,  in  the 
latter  year. 

Web'ster,  Noah,  author  and  philologist;  born  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1758,  and  educated  at  Yale  College. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1781,  but  engaged  in 
scholastic  and  literary  occupations.  Employed  in 
teaching  a  school  at  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  he  prepared  his 
"Grammatical  Institutes  of  the  English.  Language," 
published  in  three  parts,  and  edited  "Governor  Win- 
throp's  Journal."  In  1784,  he  wrote  "Sketches  of 
American  Policy,"  advocating  the  formation  of  a  new 
constitution,  and  gave  public  lectures  on  the  English 
language,  which  were  published  1789.  In  1807,  he 
published  "A  Philosophical  and  Practical  Grammar  of  the 
English  Language,"  and  commenced  his  American  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  English  Language,"  but  finding  difficulties 
in  etymology,  he  devoted  ten  years  to  its  study,  and  pre- 
pared a  "Synopsis  of  Words  in  Twenty  Languages," 
then  began  his  dictionary  anew,  and,  in  seven  years, 
completed  it.  His  "Elementary  Spelling-Book,"  found- 
ed on  his  "Institutes,"  up  to  1862,  had  been  sold  to 
the  extent  of  41,000,000  copies.  A  new  and  thoroughly 
revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  his  dictionary  was  fin- 
ished in  1890,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  most  complete 
dictionaries  of  the  English  language  published.  Web- 
ster also  published  a  popular  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  and  a  "Manual  of  Useful  Studies."  He  was  a 
judge  and  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  Amherst  College.  Died  in  New  Haven 
in  1843. 

Welch,  William  Henry,  professor  of  pathology  at 
Johns  Hopkins;  born  in  Norfolk,  Conn.,  April  8,  1860; 
graduate  of  Yale,  A.  B.,  1870;  M.  D.,  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  New  York,  1875  (LL.  D.,  Western 
Reserve,  1894;  Yale,  1896;  Harvard,  1900;  Toronto, 
1903;  Columbia,  1904).  Author:  "General  Pathology 
of  Fever";  also  numerous  papers  on  pathological  and 
bacteriological  subjects. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley  [Wesley],  Duke  of, 
was  born  1769,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  the  Military 
Academy  of  Angers,  and  entered  the  army  in  1787.  As 
lieutenant-colonel  he  served  in  Holland  (1794),  and  in 
1796  was  sent  to  India.  In  1799,  under  General  Harris, 
he  stormed  Seringapatam,  defeated  the  Mahrattas  at 
Assaye  in  1803,  and  returned  home  two  years  later. 
After  sitting  in  parliament  for  two  years  (being  Irish 
secretary  in  1807),  and  serving  at  Copenhagen,  he 
was  sent  to  Portugal  in  1808.  Having  won  the  victo- 
ries of  Rolica  and  Vimeiro,  he  was  superseded,  but  in 
1809  was  again  in  the  Peninsula.  He  was  made  a  peer 
for  the  victory  of  Talavera,  and  won  the  battle  of  Busaco 
in  1810,  after  which  he  constructed  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras.  This  was  followed  by  Fuentes  d'Oiioro  (1811), 
the  capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz  (1812),  and 
the  victory  of  Salamanca  in  the  same  year.  He  was  now 
created  marquis,  and  after  the  battle  of  Vitoria  drove 
the  French  across  the  Pyrenees.  After  being  made  field- 
marshal  and  duke,  he  attended  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
which  he  left  to  meet  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.  In  1827, 
he  became  commander-in-chief,  and  in  1828  was  for  the 
first  time  premier.  After  yielding  on  the  Catholic  ques- 
tion, he  resigned  in  1830  on  that  of  Reform,  incurring 
great  unpopularity.  In  1834,  he  again  held  office,  but 
resigned  next  year,  and  in  1841  joined  the  cabinet  of  Sir 
R.  Peel.  He  attended  the  House  of  Lords  to  the  last, 
and  received  a  state  funeral  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Died,  1852. 

Wenceslas,  or  Wenzel  {ven'-tsel),  a  German  emperor, 
of  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  born  in  Nuremberg  in  1361. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  lY.,  was  crowned  King 
of  Bohemia  in  his  third  year,  and  in  1378  succeeded  his 
father  as  emperor.  He  annulled  all  debts  due  to  Jews  on 
the  payment  to  himself  of  fifteen  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  the 
amount.  The  mob  of  Prague  having  slaughtered  3,000 
Jews,  he  appropriated  their  property.  In  1394,  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Prague  by  a  conspiracy  among  the  nobles, 


500 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


headed  by  Jodocus  of  Moravia,  but  the  German  princes 
secured  liis  release.  lie  joined  France  in  urging  tlie  abdi- 
cation of  Boniface  IX.  and  Kenetlict  XIII.,  in  order  that 
a  new  pope  might  take  their  place.  Hereupon  several 
German  princes  deposed  him  in  1400,  electing  Rupert  of 
the  Palatinate.  He  abdicated  his  claims  to  the  imperial 
crown  in  favor  of  his  brother  Sigismund  in  1410,  and 
indulged  in  excesses  till  he  died  of  apoplexy.     Died,  1419. 

Wesley.  John,  was  born  at  Epworth,  in  Lincolnshire, 
June  17,  1703;  an  eminent  evangelist  and  divine,  the 
founder  of  "the  people  called  Methodists."  He  was  the 
son  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England;  and  he 
himself  became  a  clergyman,  after  having  been  educated 
at  the  Charterhouse  School,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
The  year  after  he  took  orders  (1725)  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  and  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  Greek;  but  shortly  afterwards  he  became  curate  to 
hia  father,  and  labored  at  Epworth  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, where  his  father  was  vicar,  till  he  returned  to 
Oxford  in  1729.  It  was  during  his  residence  at  Oxford 
that  the  first  Methodist  Society  was  formed,  he  and  his 
brother  Charles  (born,  1708;  died,  1788),  being  accus- 
tomed to  meet  together,  with  a  few  others,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  mutual  edification.  Wesley  continued  to  act  as 
tutor  at  Oxford  till  173.5,  when  he  was  induced  to  visit 
Georgia,  in  North  America.  After  about  two  years  he 
returned  to  England,  and  soon  after  commenced  preach- 
ing in  association  with  his  friend  George  Whitefield,  from 
whom,  however,  he  separated  in  1740  on  account  of  a 
difference  in  theological  belief.  His  labors  were  inces- 
sant. During  fifty  years  he  traveled  all  over  the  country 
everywhere  preaching  the  gospel,  and  founding  societies; 
at  the  same  time  he  administered  the  affairs  of  an  organi- 
zation which  at  the  time  of  his  death  embraced  no  fewer 
than  80,000  members;  and  during  the  whole  period  he 
was  a  very  copious  writer  —  his  works,  when  first  col- 
lected, amounting  to  no  fewer  than  thirty-two  volumes. 
During  the  whole  of  his  career  he  continued  still,  pro- 
fessedly, a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England.  Wesley 
died  in  the  house  adjoining  his  chapel  in  the  City  Road, 
London,  and  in  the  adjoining  graveyard  he  was  buried. 
His  brother  Charles,  who  died  three  years  before  him,  is 
chiefly  celebrated  as  the  author  of  numerous  hymns, 
some  of  which  are  considered  among  the  best  in  the 
language.     Died,  1791. 

West,  Benjamin,  was  born  at  Springfield,  Pennsyl- 
vania, October  10,  1738;  an  eminent  painter,  who  settled 
in  England  in  1763,  and  in  1792  succeeded  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  as  President  of  the  Royal  Academy,  an  office 
which  he  held  until  his  death.  His  works  were  formerly 
very  highly  esteemed,  and  he  is  still  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  painters  whom  America  has  produced.  He  is 
buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.     Died  in  London,  1820. 

Westcott,  Brooke  Foss,  D.  D.,  was  born  near  Bir- 
mingham, England,  in  January,  1825,  and  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  obtained  the  Nor- 
risian  Prize  in  1850,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest 
in  the  following  year.  He  was  elected  Fellow  of  his  col- 
lege in  1849,  and  proceeded  M.  A.  in  1851,  B.  D.  in  1865, 
and  D.  D.  in  1870.  Doctor  Westcott  received  from 
Oxford  University  the  honorary  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  in  1881 
and  that  of  D.  D.  from  Edinburgh  University  at  its  ter- 
centenary commemoration  in  1883.  He  was  elected 
regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  November  7, 
1870,  on  the  retirement  of  Doctor  Jeremie.  Doctor 
Westcott  was  nominated  honorary  chaplain  to  the  queen 
in  1872,  and  a  chaplain  in  ordinary  in  1879.  In  May, 
1881,  was  published,  under  the  title  "The  New  Testa- 
ment in  Greek,"  the  result  of  the  twenty-eight  years' 
joint  labor  of  Doctors  Westcott  and  Hort  upon  the 
Greek  text.  In  October,  1883,  he  was  nominated  to  the 
canonry  of  Westminster,  and  in  1890  he  became 
bishop  of  Durham.  He  was  one  of  the  company  for 
the  revision  of  the  authorized  version  of  the  New  'Testa- 
ment.    Died,  1901. 

Westlnghouse,  George,  inventor  and  manufacturer; 
born  in  New  York  in  1846;  educated  in  public  and  high 
schools;  spent  much  time  in  his  father's  machine  shop, 
inventing,  at  15,  a  rotary  engine.  Served  in  Union 
army,  1863-64;  assistant  engineer  in  United  States  Navy, 
1864-65;  then  attended  Union  College  to  sophomore 
year  (Ph.  D.,  1890).  Invented,  1865,  a  device  for  re- 
placing railroad  cars  on  the  track;  invented  and  success- 
fully introduced,  1868,  the  Westinghouse  air  brake, 
which  he  has  since  greatly  improved;  has  also  made 
other  inventions  in  railway  signals,  steam  and  gas  en- 
gines, steam  turbines,  and  electric  machinery.  Was 
pioneer,  against  great  opposition,  in  introducing  alter- 
nating current  machinery  in  America,  which  has  rend- 
ered possible  the  great  development  of  water  powers 
for  long  distance,  electrical  transmission;  built  the  great 
generators  at  Niagara  Falls  and  those  for  elevated  rail- 
way and  rapid  transit  system  in  New  York;    has  estab- 


lished large  works  in  United  States,  England,  France, 
and  Germany  for  manufacturing  air  brakes,  electrical 
and  steam  machinery;  president  of  numerous  corpora- 
tions, employing  about  50.000  people  and  with  a  capital- 
ization of  about  $120,000,000.  His  inventions  of  the  air 
brake  and  of  automatic  railway  signals  have  been 
largely  instrumental  in  the  possibility  and  safety  of 
modern  high-speed  railroading. 

Whately,  Uichard,  was  born  in  London,  February  1, 
1787;  an  eminent  prelate,  theologian,  and  mental  and 
moral  philosopher;  from  1831  to  his  death  archbishop  of 
Dublin.  In  1822,  he  was  made  Hampton  lecturer,  and 
in  that  capacity  preached  his  sermons  on  "The  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Religion."  In  1825,  he  became 
principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford;  and  four  years 
later  was  appointed  professor  of  political  economy,  an 
office  which  lie  held  till  his  appointment  to  the  arch- 
bishopric. Whately's  intellectual  activity  was' remark- 
able. In  1820,  he  wrote  "Historic  Doubts  Relative  to 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,"  a  logical  satire  upon  historical 
scepticism;  in  1826  he  published  in  a  separate  form  his 
admirable  treatises  on  "Logic  and  Rhetoric,"  both  of 
which  had  already  appeared  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Met- 
ropolitana";  and  in  1856-59  he  published  his  annotated 
editions  of  Bacon's  "Essays"  and  Paley's  "Moral  Phi- 
losophy," both  admirable  specimens  of  criticism,  and  full 
of  interesting  original  discourse.     Died  in  Dublin,  1863. 

Wheatstone.  Sir  Charles,  was  born  at  Gloucester, 
1802;  an  eminent  electrician  and  physicist,  for  many 
years  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  King's  College, 
London.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  and  to  give  prac- 
tical application  to  the  electric  telegraph  in  England,  his 
experiments  having  been  made,  in  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Cooke,  when  he  was  quite  unaware  of  the  experiments 
being made  about  the  same  time  by  Professor  Morse  in 
America.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  stereoscope. 
He  received  his  knighthood  in  1868,  and  was  for  some 
years  a  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he 
had  been  elected  a  Fellow  in  1836.  He  twice  received 
the  Royal  Medal  at  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1868  won 
the  Copley  Medal.     Died,  1875. 

Wheeler,  Joseph,  an  American  military  officer;  born 
in  Augusta,  Ga.,  September  10,  1836;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1859;  served  in 
the  cavalry  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he 
entered  the  Confederate  army,  in  which  he  was  commis- 
sioned major-general  and  senior  commander  of  cavalry. 
He  won  great  distinction  during  the  Civil  War  as  a  raider. 
After  the  war  he  entered  the  law  profession;  held  a  seat 
in  Congress  in  1881-99;  and  was  made  major-general 
of  volunteers  in  May,  1898.  During  the  Santiago  cam- 
paign in  Cuba  he  commanded  the  cavalry  division; 
participated  in  tlie  battles  of  l^as  Guasimas  and  San  Juan 
Hill;  was  appointed  senior  member  of  the  commission 
to  make  arrangements  for  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish 
army;  served  in  the  Philippines  as  commander  of  the  1st 
brigade,  2d  division,  from  August,  1899,  to  January, 
1900;  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general,  U.  S.  A.,  June 
16,  1900,  antl  was  retired  on  September  10,  following. 
Died,  1906. 

Whewell,  William,  (hu'el),  was  born  at  Lancaster, 
1794;  an  eminent  writer  on  many  various  subjects; 
from  1841  to  his  death  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1833  he  published  his  Bridgewater  Treatise, 
on  "Astronomy  and  General  Physics  Considered  in  Ref- 
erence to  Natural  Theology";  and  this  was  followed  by 
a  "History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences"  (1837),  and  "The 
Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences"  (1840),  "Lectures 
on  Political  Economy"  (1861),  undoubtedly  his  three 
greatest  works,  displaying  equal  learning  and  inde- 
pendent power.  His  other  writings  are  too  numerous 
to  mention.  His  death  was  caused  by  injuries  which  he 
sustained  through  a  fall  while  riding.     Died,  1866. 

Whipple,  Edwin  Percy,  author,  born  in  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  March  8,  1819.  He  attended  the  public  schools 
at  Salem  in  1837,  and  later  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  the  newsroom  of  the  Merchant's  Exchange  in  Boston. 
Following  this  he  wrote  for  the  "  Boston  Miscellany  "  and 
other  magazines,  and  lectured  in  Boston  and  other  cities. 
In  1872,  he  became  literary  editor  of  the  "Boston  Globe," 
in  1877,  wrote  for  the  "5forth  American  Review,"  and 
at  the  same  time  did  considerable  bookseller's  jobwork. 
His  pubhcations  are  numerous  and  were  followed  by 
several  posthumous  publications.  Died,  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  1886. 

Whlstier,  James  Abbott  McNeill,  painter,  born  m 
Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1834;  was  educated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  studied  drawing  and  painting  in  Paris, 
France,  and'  in  1863  settled  in  London,  England.  He 
held  original  views  concerning  his  art,  and  made  inter- 
esting experiments  with  color,  in  quest  of  novel  effects. 
He  also  gained  celebrity  as  an  etcher,  and  is  the  author 
of  etchings  and  paintings  of  established  reputation  and 


BIOGRAPHY 


601 


worth.  His  paintings  include  many  portraits,  among 
which  are  "The  White  Girl,"  "  Portrait^of  my  Mother," 
"Nocturne  in  Blue  and  Gold,"  "Harmony  in  Gray  and 
Green,"  etc.  In  1890,  he  wrote  the  "Gentle  Art  of 
Making  Enemies."     Died  in  London,  1903. 

White,  Andrew  Dickson,  American  diplomatist  and 
educator;  born  in  Homer,  N.  Y.,  November  7,  1832.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1853;  traveled  in  Europe; 
attach^  to  legation  of  the  United  States,  St.  Petersburg, 
1854-1855;  studied  in  the  University  of  Berlin;  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  English  literature,  University  of 
Michigan,  1857-1863;  returned  to  Syracuse  and  elected 
State  Senator,  1863-1867;  was  first  president  of  Cornell 
University,  1867-85;  has  in  addition  to  the  presidency 
filled  the  chair  of  modern  history;  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant,  commissioner  to  Santo  Domingo  to 
study  and  report  on  question  of  annexation,  1871;  by 
President  Hayes,  minister  to  Berlin,  1879-1881 ;  by 
President  Harrison,  minister  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  con- 
tinued under  President  Cleveland,  1892-1894;  member 
of  the  Venezuelan  Commission  1896-97;  ambassador  to 
Berlin  under  President  McKinley,  1897,  resigned  August 
5,  1902 ;  president  of  the  American  delegation  to  •  the 
International  Peace  Congress  at  The  Hague  in  1899. 
His  best-known  works  are  "Warfare  of  Science  with 
Theology,"  "The  New  Germany,"  and  "Studies  in 
General  History." 

White,  Edward  Douglass,  an  American  jurist;  born 
in  the  parish  of  Lafourche,  La.,  November  3,  1845;  was 
educated  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Md.,  and  at  the 
Jesuit  College  in  New  Orleans.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  served  in  the  Confederate  army.  After  the  war  he 
practiced  law.  He  was  State  Senator  of  Louisiana  in 
1874;  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Louis- 
iana in  1878;  and  United  States  Senator  in  1891-94. 
While  still  in  the  senate  he  was  appointed  an  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  He  was 
appointed  chief-justice  by  President  Taft  in  1910. 

White,  Horace,  journalist;  born  in  Colebrook,  N.  H., 
August  10,  1834;  graduate  of  Beloit  College,  Wis.,  1853; 
for  many  years  with  "Chicago  Tribune"  and  was  its 
editor  and  one  of  its  chief  proprietors,  1864-74;  in  1883, 
became  connected  with  "New  York  Evening  Post"  as 
president  of  company,  editorial  writer,  and  editor-in- 
chief;  retired  January  1,  1903.  Edited  "Bastiat's 
Sophismes  ficonomiques,"  and  "Luigi  Cossa's  Scienza 
delle  Finanze."  Author:  "Money  and  Banking  Illus- 
trated by  American  History,"  "The  Roman  History  of 
Appian  of  Alexandria." 

White.  James  William,  physician,  surgeon;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  November  2,  1850;  graduate  of  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  M.  D.,  1871  (Ph.  D.,  University 
of  Pennsylvania).  On  staff  of  Professor  Louis  Agassiz, 
during  Hassler  expedition  to  West  Indies,  the  Straits 
of  Magellan,  both  coasts  of  South  America,  the  Gala- 
pagos Islands,  etc.,  1871-72;  resident  physician  of 
Philadelphia  Hospital,  1873;  surgeon  to  Eastern  State 
Penitentiary,  1874-76;  surgeon  to  first  troop  of  Phila- 
delphia city  cavalry,  1878-88;  has  been  teacher  and 
writer  in  surgery  during  whole  professional  life;  was 
first  professor  of  genito-urinary  surgery,  then  professor 
of  clinical  surgery;  now  John  Rhea  Barton  professor  of 
surgery  —  all  in  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Joint 
author:  "American  Text-book  of  Surgery"  (Keen  and 
White),  "Genito-Urinary  Surgery"  (White  and  Martin). 
Has  written  numerous  articles  on  medical  and  surgical 
subjects  in  medical  journals. 

White,  William  Allen,  owner  and  editor  "Emporia 
Daily  and  Weekly  Gazette";  born  in  Emporia,  Kan., 
in  1868;  educated  in  common  schools.  El  Dorado,  Kan., 
and  State  University,  Lawrence,  Kan.  Contributor  to 
magazines  and  newspapers.  Author:  "The  Real  Issue 
and  Other  Stories,"  "The  Court  of  Boyville,"  "Strata- 
gems and  Spoils." 

Whitney,  Ell,  inventor,  born  in  Westborough,  Mass., 
December  8,  1765.  In  1792  he  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
went  to  Georgia,  and  for  a  time  read  law,  while  living  on 
the  plantation  of  the  widow  of  General  Nathanael  Greene. 
Here  he  invented  the  cotton  gin,  but  owing  to  litigation 
growing  out  of  the  claims  of  fraudulent  imitators,  and 
despairing  of  obtaining  his  rights  in  the  South,  Whitney 
went  to  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1798,  where  he  became 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  firearms,  introducing  the 
extension  of  machinery  in  place  of  manual  labor.  Died 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1825. 

Whitney,  William  Dwight,  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can philologist,  born  in  1827  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
studied  at  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  and  at  Yale 
College,  giving  special  attention  to  Sanskrit.  He  also 
studied  Sanskrit  in  Germany  from  1850  to  1853,  returning 
in  the  latter  year  to  America.  The  first-fruits  of  his 
studies  in  Sanskrit  was  an  edition  of  the  Atharva-Veda 
in  conjunction  with  Roth  (1856).     He  had  previously 


(1854)  been  made  professor  of  Sanskrit  and  of  compara- 
tive philology  at  Yale  College.  Among  his  independent 
works  may  be  mentioned:  "Language  and  the  Study  of 
Language"  (1867),  "Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies" 
(1872-74),  "Life  and  Growth  of  Language"  (1876),  "San- 
skrit Grammar"  (a  highly  important  work),  "German 
Grammar,"  etc.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Century  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Language."     He  died  in  1894. 

Whittler,  John  Greenleaf,  American  poet,  was  born 
of  Quaker  parents  in  1807  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  academy  of  his  native  place.  In  his  younger 
days  he  worked  on  his  father's  farm  and  learned  the  shoe- 
making  trade,  but  early  began  to  write  for  the  press,  and 
in  1831  published  his  first  work,  "Legends  of  New  Eng- 
land "  in  prose  and  verse.  He  carried  on  the  farm  him- 
self for  five  years,  and  in  1835-36  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  of  Massachusetts.  After  having  edited  sev- 
eral other  papers  he  went  to  Philadelphia  to  edit  the 
"Pennsylvania  Freeman,"  an  anti-slavery  paper,  the 
office  of  which  was  burned  by  the  mob  in  1838.  In  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  his  native  State,  setthng  at 
Amesbury,  where  (or  at  Danvers,  Mass.)  he  chiefly  re- 
sided until  his  death.  Among  the  numerous  volumes  of 
poetry  which  he  from  time  to  time  gave  to  the  world  the 
following  may  be  mentioned:  "Moll  Pitcher,"  "Lays 
of  my  Home,"  "Miscellaneous  Poems,"  "The  Voices  of 
Freedom,"  "Songs  of  Labor,"  "The  Chapel  of  the  Her- 
mits," "Home  Ballads,"  and  poems  "Snow  Bound," 
"In  War-time,"  "National  Lyrics,"  "Ballads  of  New 
England,"  "Miriam,"  "Mabel  Martin,"  "Hazel  Blos- 
soms," "The  King's  Missive,"  "Poems  of  Nature,"  etc. 
Died,  1892. 

Wiggln,  Kate  Douglas,  author;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, September  28,  1857;  graduate  of  Abbott  Academy, 
Andoyer,  Mass.,  1878;  married,  March  30,  1895,  George 
C.  Riggs.  Organized  the  first  free  kindergartens  for 
poor  children  on  the  Pacific  coast;  has  been  interested 
in  that  work  ever  since.  Continues  her  name  of  "Kate 
Douglas  Wiggin"  in  her  literary  work.  Author:  "The 
Birds'  Christmas  Carol,"  "The  Story  of  Patsy,"  "A 
Summer  in  a  Canon,"  "Timothy's  Quest,"  "The  Story 
Hour"  (with  Nora  A.  Smith),  "Children's  Rights" 
(with  same),  "A  Cathedral  Courtship,"  "Penelope's 
English  Experiences,"  "Polly  Oliver's  Problem,"  "The 
Village  Watch  Tower,"  "  Froebel's  Gifts"  (with  Nora 
A.  Smith),  "Froebel's  Occupations"  (with  same), 
"Kindergarten  Principles  and  Practice"  (with  same), 
"Nine  Love  Songs  and  a  Carol,"  "Marm  Lisa,"  "Pene- 
lope's Progress,"  "Penelope's  Experiences  in  Ireland," 
"The  Diary  of  a  Goose  Girl,"  "Rebecca,"  "The  Affair 
at  the  Inn"  (collaboration),  "Rose  o'  the  River." 
Editor  (with  Nora  Archibald  Smith):  "Golden  Num- 
bers," "The  Posy  Ring." 

Wilberforce,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  was  born  in  1805,  was 
third  son  of  W.  Wilberforce,  and  an  active  High  Church 
leader,  who  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1845,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1869.  He  was  an  able  speaker  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  had  much  social  influence.  Died, 
1873. 

Wilberforce,  William,  was  born  1759;  philan- 
thropist, entered  parliament  in  1780,  and  seven  years 
later  entered  upon  the  movement  against  the  slave  trade, 
his  abolition  motion  in  1789  gaining  the  support  of  the 
leaders  of  every  party  in  the  House,  though  it  was  not 
carried  for  eighteen  years.  Just  before  his  death  slavery 
itself  was  abolished  in  the  British  dominions.  Died, 
1833, 

Wilcox,  Elia  Wheeler,  an  American  poet  and  writer, 
was  born  in  1855  near  Madison,  Wis.,  and  educated  at 
the  State  University  in  that  city.  She  was  for  many 
years  a  contributor  to  the  Milwaukee  and  Madison  papers, 
of  poems,  sketches,  etc.,  the  demand  for  her  productions 
steadily  increasing,  and  extending  to  the  leading  journals 
and  periodicals  of  the  country.  Author  of  "  An  Am- 
bitious Man,"  "  Sweet  Danger,"  "  Poems  of  Passion," 
"Poems  of  Pleasure,"  "Kingdom  of  Love,"  "Men, 
Women  and  Emotions,"  "  A  Woman  of  the  World,"  etc. 

Wiley,  Harvey  Washington,  chief  of  bureau  of 
chemistry.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1883- 
1910;  born  in  Kent,  Ind.,  in  1844;  graduate  of  Han- 
over College,  1867  (Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.);  Harvard,  1873; 
professor  of  chemistry,  Purdue  University,  1874-83. 
State  chemist  of  Indiana,  1881-83;  professor  of  agricul- 
tural chemistry  in  graduate  school,  Columbian  (now 
George  Washington)  University,  since  1899.  Author: 
"Principles  and  Practice  of  Agricultural  Chemistry," 
"Songs  of  Agricultural  Chemists";  also  60  government 
bulletins  and  225  scientific  papers,  etc. 

Wilhelmina,  Helene  Pauline  Marie  (Vil-hel- 
me'nah),  Queen  of  the  Netherlands,  only  child  of  William 
III.,  by  his  second  wife,  born  at  The  Hague,  August  31, 
1880.     Her  mother  was  Regent  until  August  31,  1898, 


602 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


the  queen's  majority;  crowned  September  6,  1898. 
Married  Duke  Henry  of  Mecklenberg-Schwerin,  1901. 

Wilkes,  Charles,  American  naval  officer,  was  born 
in  1798;  discovered  several  islands  in  Antarctic  region, 
and  in  1861  caused  a  dispute  with  Great  Britain  by  his 
seizure  of  Confederate  commissioners  on  the  "Trent,"  a 
British  vessel.     Died.  1877. 

Willard,  Frances  Elizabeth,  was  born  near  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y.,  September  28,  1839;  died  in  New  York, 
February  18,  1898.  After  some  years  spent  in  teaching 
she  became  professor  of  esthetics  in  the  Northwestern 
University,  and  was  made  dean  of  the  Woman's  College 
in  1871;  she  began  her  active  temperance  work  in  1874, 
as  secretary  of  the  National  Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union;  in  1879,  she  was  made  president  of  that 
organization  and  held  the  office  till  her  death;  she  was 
chosen  president  of  the  World's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  in  1888,  and,  in  1892,  visited  England  as  the  guest 
of  Lady  Henry  Somerset,  the  well-known  temperance 
worker;  she  was  an  orator  of  great  eloquence,  humor, 
and  power;  her  executive  ability  and  genius  for  organi- 
zation were  wonderful  and  by  her  work  for  temperance 
and  social  purity  she  left  an  impressive  mark  on  her 
country  as  one  of  its  greatest  social  reformers. 

WilHam  I.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  King  of  Eng- 
land, founder  of  the  Norman  Dynasty,  was  born,  1027. 
He  was  the  bastard  son  of  Robert  I.  or  II.,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  a  tanner's  daughter  of  Falaise  named  Arietta, 
and  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  when  eight  years  old. 
He  claimed  the  throne  of  England  through  Emma,  sister 
of  his  grandfather  and  mother  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
When  Harold,  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  visited  the  Norman 
court  about  1065,  he  was  compelled  to  swear  fealty  to  Wil- 
liam; but  on  Edward's  death,  in  1066,  Harold  procured 
his  own  elevation  to  the  throne.  William  then  prepared 
to  enforce  his  pretension  by  arms,  and  on  September  28, 
1066,  landed  at  Pevensey  with  60,000  men.  On  October 
14th  was  fought  the  battle  of  Senlac  or  Hastings,  in 
which  the  Saxons  were  defeated  and  their  king  was  slain. 
William  was  crowned  in  London,  December  2oth.  At 
first  his  rule  was  mild  and  just,  but  after  the  sanguinary 
suppression  of  a  league  of  the  Saxon  nobles  he  treated 
the  Saxons  as  a  conquered  nation,  distributed  their 
estates  among  his  Norman  followers,  and  deposed  the 
principal  Saxon  clergy.  He  was  long  at  war  for  his  con- 
tinental possessions  with  his  rebellious  son  Robert 
Courthose,  and  most  of  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  was 

gassed  in  Normandy.  His  last  dispute  was  with  the 
king  of  France,  some  of  whose  vassals  had  plundered 
Norman  territory.  In  retaliation  he  burned  Mantes. 
While  riding  over  the  ruins,  he  was  ruptured  by  the 
plunging  of  his  horse,  which  caused  his  death  several 
weeks  after.     Died,  1087. 

William  I.,  first  German  Emperor,  and  seventh  King 
of  Prussia,  second  son  of  Frederick  William  III.,  born 
March  22,  1797.  At  an  early  age  he  began  the  study  of 
military  affairs;  took  part  in  the  campaign  of  1814-15 
under  Bliicher;  married  in  1829  Princess  Augusta  of 
Saxe-Weimar;  became  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne 
of  Prussia  on  his  father's  death  in  1840;  was  commander 
of  the  forces  which  suppressed  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment (1849)  in  Baden;  created  regent  in  1858,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  king,  his  brother,  in  1861  he  succeeded  to 
the  throne  of  Prussia.  During  his  reign  Prussia  defeated 
Denmark  (1864),  annexing  the  ducnies  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein;  quarreled  with  Austria,  and  engaged  in  a 
campaign  which  ended  in  the  victory  of  Sadowa  (1866); 
and  went  with  the  rest  of  Germany  to  war  with  France  in 
1870.  In  this  war  the  operations  of  the  Prussian 
generals  were  under  the  personal  supervision  of  the 
king.  It  was  at  Versailles,  during  the  siege  of  Paris 
(January  18, 1871),  that  he  was  proclaimed  German  Em- 
peror.    Died,  1888. 

William  II.,  or  Friedrlch  Wilhelm  Victor  Al- 
brecht.  King  of  Prussia  and  German  Emperor,  eldest 
son  of  Frederick  III.  and  Victoria,  princess  royal  of 
England,  was  born  January  27,  1859;  educated  at 
Cassel  and  Bonn,  married  Augusta  Victoria  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein-Augustenburg  in  1881,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
June  15,  1888.  Since  his  accession  he  has  taken  con- 
siderable interest  in  social  questions,  and  the  strong 
initiative  which  he  had  adopted  in  political  affairs  brought 
about  the  dismissal  of  Prince  Bismarck  in  1890.  His 
independence,  ability,  and  aggressiveness  have  placed 
Germany  in  the  foremost  rank  of  the  enlightened  world 
powers.  In  1907,  he  spoke  of  the  German  nation  as 
the  block  of  granite  upon  which  the  Lord  our  God  can 
build  up  and  complete  His  work  of  civilizing  the  world." 
Early  in  1908,  he  established  a  winter  residence  on  the 
Island  of  Corfu. 

William  III.  of  England,  born  in  1650.  Having  mar- 
ried Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.,  was  regarded  as  a 
Protestant  reserve  against  the  latter,  and,  in  1688,  was 


called  in  to  replace  him.  He  defeated  James  at  the 
Boyne  in  1690,  obtained  the  acknowledgment  of  his 
title  from  Louis  XIV.  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  (1697), 
but  had  prepared  a  grand  alliance  to  renew  the  war 
with  him  just  before  he  died,  Louis  having  favored  the 
claim  of  James  Edward.     Died,  1702. 

Williams,  George  Fred,  lawyer;  born  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  July  10,  1852;  graduate  of  Dartmouth,  1872; 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin;  admitted  to  bar; 
practices  in  Boston.  Edited  "Williams'  Citations  of 
Massachusetts  Cases";  edited  volumes  10  to  17  "An- 
nual Digest  of  the  United  States";  member  of  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature,  1889.    Member  of  Congress,  1891  -93. 

Williams,  John  Sharp,  senator;  born  in  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  July  30,  1854;  educated  in  Kentucky 
Military  Institute,  University  of  the  South,  University 
of  Virginia,  and  University  of  Heidelberg,  Germany; 
studied  law  at  University  of  Virginia  and  in  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  admitted  to  Tennessee  bar,  1877;  removed  to 
Yazoo  City,  Miss.,  1878;  has  since  practiced  law;  is 
also  a  cotton  planter;  delegate  to  Democratic  National 
conventions,  1892,  1904;  temporary  chairman  of  St. 
Louis  Convention,  July  6-9,  1904;  member  of  Congress 
from  Mississippi  from  1893  to  1911;  elected  United 
States  senator  for  term  1911-17. 

Williams,  Roger,  founder  of  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island,  United  States,  was  born  in  Wales  in  1600.  Being 
a  Puritan,  he  fled  from  the  country  to  escape  persecution, 
and  settled  in  New  England,  where  he  hoped  to  enjoy 
the  religious  freedom  he  was  denied  at  home,  but  was 
received  with  disfavor  by  the  earlier  settlers  as,  from 
his  extreme  views,  a  "troubler  of  Israel,"  and  obliged 
to  separate  himself  and  establish  a  colony  of  his  own. 
This  he  did  at  Providence  by  favor  of  an  Indian  tribe 
he  had  made  friends  of,  and  under  a  charter  from  the 
Long  Parliament  of  England,  obtained  through  Sir  Henry 
Vane.  Here  he  extended  to  others  the  toleration  he 
desired  for  himself;  he  was  characterized  by  Milton, 
who  knew  him,  as  "that  noble  champion  of  religious 
liberty."     Died,  1683. 

Wilson,  Francis,  actor;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
February  7,  1854;  first  professional  appearance  in  a 
minstrel  company;  engaged  in  legitimate  comedy  at 
Chestnut  Street  Theater,  1877-78,  Philadelphia,  as 
Cool  in  "London  Assurance,"  1878-79;  with  Annie 
Pixley  in  "M'liss,"  1879;  with  "Mitchell's  Pleasure 
Party,"  1880-83;  started  in  comic  opera  as  Sir  Joseph 
Porter  in  "  Pinafore " ;  became  leading  comedian  of 
McCaull  Opera  Company  and  of  Casino,  New  York,  1885- 
89,  where  he  created  the  character  of  Cadeaux  in 
"Erminie."  Subsequently  organized  his  own  company 
in  which  he  has  since  taken  leading  comedy  roles  in  "The 
Oolah,"  "The  Merry  Monarch,"  "The  Lion  Tamer," 
"Erminie"  (a  revival),  "The  Chieftain,"  "Devil's  Dep- 
uty," "Half  a  King,"  and  more  recently  "The  Little 
Corporal,"  "Cyrano  de  Bergerac,"  "The  Monks  of  Mala- 
bar," ""The  Strollers,"  "The  Toreador,"  and  "Cousin 
Billy."  Author:  " The  Eugene  Field  I  Knew,"  "Recol- 
lections of  a  Player,"  "Going  on  the  Stage." 

Wilson,  Henry,  an  American  senator;  born  in 
Farmington,  N.  H.,  in  1812,  of  poor  parents;  received 
scanty  education,  and  was  taught  the  trade  of  shoe- 
maker. Elected  to  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives by  the  Whig  party,  in  1840,  he  there  became 
a  prominent  anti-slavery  advocate,  and  largely  contrib- 
uted to  the  formation  of  the  Free-soil  party  in  1848.  In 
1855,  he  succeeded  Edward  Everett  as  United  States 
senator,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Republican 
party.  In  1872,  he  was  nominated  by  the  Republican 
Convention  a  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  of  the 
United  States,  on  the  same  ticket  with  General  Grant, 
and  was  elected.     Died,  1875. 

Wilson,  James,  United  States  secretary  of  agricul- 
ture since  March  5,  1897;  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
1835;  came  to  United  States,  1852,  settling  in  Connecti- 
cut with  parents;  in  1855  went  to  'Tama  County,  la.  In 
1861,  engaged  in  farming;  member  12th,  13th,  and 
(speaker)  14th  assemblies  of  Iowa;  has  been  State  rail- 
way commissioner;  member  Congress,  1873-77,  and 
1883-85;  regent  State  University  of  Iowa,,  1870-74;  for 
six  years  director  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
and  professor  of  agriciilture,  Iowa  Agricultural  College, 
Ames,  la.;    LL.  D.,  University  of  Wisconsin,  1904. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  educator,  governor;  born  in 
Staunton,  Va.,  December 28, 1856;  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton, 1879;  studied  law.  University  of  Virginia,  1879-80; 
post-graduate  course,  Johns  Hopkins,  1883-85  (Ph.  D., 
Johns  Hopkins,  1886;  LL.  D.,  Wake  Forest  College, 
1887,  Tulane  University,  1898,  Johns  Hopkins,  1901, 
Rutgers,  1902,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1903,  Brown 
University,  1903;  Litt.  D.,  Yale,  1901);  practiced  law, 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  1882-83;  professor  of  history  and  political 
economy,  Bryn  Mawr  College,  1885-88,  Wesleyan  Uni- 


BIOGRAPHY 


503 


versity,  1888-90;  professor  of  jurisprudence  and  poli- 
tics, Princeton,  1890-1902;  president  of  Princeton  Uni- 
versity 1902-10;  contributes  to  leading  magazines; 
public  speaker,  lecturer.  Author:  " Congressional  Gov- 
ernment, a  Study  in  American  Politics,"  "The  State: 
Elements  of  Historical  and  Practical  Politics,"  "Division 
and  Reunion,"  "An  Old  Master  and  Other  Political 
Essays,"  "Mere  Literature  and  other  Essays,"  "George 
Washington,"  "A  History  of  the  American  People." 
Elected  governor  of  New  Jersey,  1910. 

Winslow,  Ervlng,  commission  merchant;  born  in 
Boston,  1839;  educated  at  English  High  School,  Boston, 
and  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Harvard;  was  assistant 
United  States  Coast  Survey;  assistant  in  Dudley  Ob- 
servatory, Albany,  N.  Y.;  since  1868,  merchant,  Boston. 
Translator:  "Maeterlinck's  'P^ll^as  et  M^lisande,' " 
founder,  and  joint  editor  two  years,  "Time  and  the 
Hour."  Wrote:  "Memoir  Benjamin  Apthorp  Gould," 
"Account  of  the  Anti-Imperialist  Movement,"  "The 
cause  of  the  Philippine  War  ■ —  An  Epitome  of  Historical 
Events,"  "  Neutralization,  Conditions  in  the  Philippines," 
various  literary  contributions  and  reviews,  weeklies, 
newspapers. 

Wlnthrop,  John,  governor  of  Massachusetts  colony, 
was  born  in  Suffolk,  England,  1588;  became  a  lawyer; 
in  1629  chosen  governor  by  Mas.sachusetts  Bay  Com- 
pany. Came  to  America  with  900  others,  1830;  served 
as  governoT  1630-34,  1637-40,  1642-44,  and  1646-49. 
His  influence  on  the  history  of  New  England  was  very 
great.     Died  at  Boston,  1649. 

Wirt,  William,  an  eminent  American  advocate  and 
author;  was  born  at  Bladensburg,  Md.,  1772.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  bar  of  Virginia,  was  a  leading 
counsel  in  the  prosecution  of  Aaron  Burr,  and  from  1817 
to  1829,  filled  the  position  of  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States.  In  1832,  he  was  the  unsuccessful  nomi- 
nee of  the  Anti-Masonic  party  for  the  presidency.  His 
"Life  of  Patrick  Henry"  is  held  in  much  favor.  Died, 
1834. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas,  Cardinal,  born  of  Irish  par- 
ents at  Seville,  1802.  He  was  educated  at  Waterford 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  College,  Ushaw,  near  Durham; 
joined  the  English  College  then  newly  formed  (1818)  at 
Rome;  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and 
(1828)  rector  of  the  English  College;  returned  to  Eng- 
land (1835),  and  was  appointed  successively  rector  of 
Ushaw,  vicar  apostolic  of  the  central  district  of  England, 
and  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  Westminster  (1850). 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  the  Connection  be- 
tween Science  and  Revealed  Religion,"  "Letters  on 
Catholic  Unity,"  "Papal  Supremacy,"  "Fabiola," 
"Four  Last  Popes,"  and  joint-editor  for  many  years  of 
the  Dublin  "Review."     Died,  1865. 

Wister,  Owen,  author;  born  in  Philadelphia,  July 
14,  1860;  graduated  from  Harvard,  1882,  A.  M.,  LL.  B., 
1888.  Admitted  to  Philadelphia  bar,  1889;  engaged 
in  literary  work,  1891.  Author:  " The  Dragon  of  Want- 
ley:  His  Tail,"  "Red  Men  and  White,"  "Lin  McLean," 
"The  Jimmy  John  Boss,"  "U.  S.  Grant,  a  Biography," 
"The  Virginian,"  "Philosophy  4,"  "Journey  in  Search 
of  Christmas";  also  much  prose  and  verse  in  magazines. 
Collaborator:  "Musk-ox,  Bison,  Sheep  and  Goat" 
(Whitney's  American  Sportsmen's  Library). 

Witte,  Count  Sergiej  Juliewitsh,  Russian  states- 
man; is  of  German  origin,  and  was  born  in  1849,  at 
Tiflis;  educated  at  Odessa  in  mathematics  and  physics; 
entered  the  railway  administration,  and  first  gained 
distinction  by  his  clever  organization  of  the  transport 
of  troops  in  the  war  of  1877-78 ;  was  called  to  St.  Peters- 
burg for  employment  there  in  1879,  and  appointed  in 
1886  director  of  Russian  southwest  railways.  In  1888  he 
became  head  of  the  railway  department  in  the  ministry 
of  finance,  chairman  of  commission  on  tariffs;  in  1892, 
minister  of  means  of  communications,  and  in  1893, 
minister  of  finance.  In  August,  1903,  he  was  removed 
from  the  ministry  of  finance  and  made  president  of  the 
committee  of  ministers.  He  was  one  of  the  Russian 
plenipotentiaries  in  the  negotiations  for  peace  with 
Japan  in  1905,  and  was  afterwards  made  a  count  and 
appointed  president  of  the  new  ministry,  although  in 
May,  1906,  he  was  superseded.  He  is  author  of  a  book 
on  "The  Principles  of  Railway  Rates,"  and  on  "Fried- 
rich  Liss,  the  Economist." 

Wolfe,  James,  a  distinguished  English  general;  was 
born  in  Kent,  1727.  After  serving  with  high  distinction 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  sent  against  the  French  in 
Canada,  1759,  and  fell,  mortally  wounded,  in  the  mo- 
ment of  victory,  on  the  Heights  of  Abraham  at  Quebec, 
his  opponent  in  command,  the  Marquis  de  Montcalm, 
also  carried  from  the  field  in  a  dying  condition.  This 
battle  terminated  the  French  possession  of  Canada. 


Wolseley,  Garnet  Joseph,  Viscount,  born  in  1833; 
served  in  Burmah,  in  the  Crimean  War,  the  Indian  Mu- 
tiny, and  the  Chinese  War  of  1860;  commanded  the  Red 
River  expedition  (1870) ;  commanded  on  the  Gold  Coast 
during  Ashant  War  (1873);  governor  of  Natal,  and, 
later,  Cyprus;  gave  up  latter  post  to  command  in  the 
South  African  War  of  1879-80.  Commanded  Egyptian 
expedition  (1882),  and  Gordon  Relief  expedition  (1884). 
While  commanding  in  Ireland  was  made  field-marshal, 
and  commander-in-chief  after  retirement  of  the  Duke 
of  Cambridge   (1895);    term  expired  November,    1900. 

Woisey,  Thomas,  born  in  1471 ;  ecclesiastical  states- 
man; was  employed  diplomatically  by  Henry  VII.,  and 
made  Dean  of  Lincoln,  becoming  in  the  next  reign  suc- 
cessively Dean  of  York,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  while  holding  at  the  same  time  the  sees 
of  Bath  and  Wells,  Durham  and  Winchester.  He  be- 
came also  chancellor  (1515),  cardinal,  and  papal  legate, 
and  aimed  at  being  pope.  His  overthrow,  in  1529,  was 
caused  by  the  jealousy  of  the  great  nobles  and  his  dis- 
agreement with  the  king  on  the  divorce  question.  He 
founded  Christ  Church  (Cardinal  College),  Oxford,  where 
there  is  a  portrait  of  him  by  Holbeip,  and  built  a  palace 
at  Hampton  Court.     Died,  1530. 

Wood,  Leonard,  army  officer;  born  in  Winchester, 
N.  H.,  October  9,  1860;  graduated  from  Harvard  Medical 
School,  1884;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1899,  Williams,  1902, 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  1903;  appointed  first  lieu- 
tenant and  assistant  surgeon.  United  States  Army,  1886; 
recruited  and  commanded  the  "Rough  Riders,"  1898; 
brigadier-general  volunteers,  1898,  for  gallant  service 
at  Las  Guasimas  and  San  Juan  Hill;  major-general  vol- 
unteers, 1898;  military  governor  Santiago,  1898-99; 
military  governor  of  Cuba,  1899  to  1902;  honorary  dis- 
charge as  major-general  United  States  Volunteers,  1899; 
appointed  brigadier-general  United  States  Army,  1901, 
major-general,  1903;  appointed  governor  of  Moro  Prov- 
ince, 1903;  of  Philippines,  1906;  of  department  of  East 
in  United  States,  1908;   chief  of  staff,  1910. 

Woolsey,  Theodore  Salisbury,  professor  of  inter- 
national law,  Yale,  since  1878;  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  October  22,  1852;  graduated  from  Yale,  1872 
(A.  M.,  1877),  Yale  Law  School,  1876  (LL.  D.,  Brown 
University,  1903) ;  instructor  of  public  law,  Yale,  1877. 
Editor:  "Woolsey's  International  Law,"  "Pomeroy's 
International  Law."  Author:  "America's  Foreign 
Policy,"  also  many  articles  in  magazines,  journals, 
etc. 

Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson,  born  in  1784;  Amer- 
ican lexicographer.  His  "  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language"  was  published  in  1860.     Died,  1865. 

Wordsworth,  William,  poet;  was  born  in  Cumber- 
land, 1770;  visited  France  in  the  early  years  of  the 
revolution  1790-91,  and  later  gained  the  friendship 
of  Coleridge  by  the  publication  of  his  first  poems,  and 
went  to  live  near  him  in  Somersetshire.  'The  friends 
went  on  a  walking  tour,  the  result  of  which  was  "  Lyrical 
Ballads,"  published  in  1798,  at  Bristol.  After  a  tour  in 
Germany,  Wordsworth  and  his  sister  lived  at  Grasmere 
till  1808,  the  poet  being  married  in  1802,  and  "The 
Prelude"  (begun  in  1799)  being  finished  in  1805.  In 
1813,  Wordsworth  was  named  distributor  of  stamps  for 
Westmoreland,  and  henceforth  lived  at  Rydal  Mount. 
"The  Excursion"  appeared  next  year,  and  in  1815  "The 
White  Doe  of  Rylstone"  was  published.  Other  poems 
followed,  but  the  whole  fragment  of  "The  Recluse"  was 
not  published  till  1888.  In  1843,  Wordsworth  became 
poet-laureate.     Died,  1850. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  born  in  East  Knoyle,  in 
Wiltshire,  October  20,  1632;  an  eminent  English  archi- 
tect, best  known  as  the  architect  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 
He  was,  however,  the  architect  of  numerous  other 
churches,  and  of  many  public  buildings.  He  received 
his  knighthood  in  1672.  He  is  buried  in  the  crypt  of  St. 
Paul's,  with  the  appropriate  inscription,  "  Si  monumen- 
tum  requiris,  circumspice  (If  you  seek  a  monument  look 
around).     Died  at  Hampton  Court,  February  25,  1723. 

Wright,  Carroll  David.son,  educator,  economist, 
statistician;  born  in  Dunbarton,  N.  H.,  July  25,  1840; 
academic  education  (A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  Tufts;  Ph.  D., 
Dartmouth;  LL.  D.,  Wesleyan,  and  Clark  universities); 
served  in  Civil  War,  private  to  colonel,  14th  New  Hamp- 
shire Volunteers;  member  of  Massachusetts  Senate, 
1872-73;  chief  of  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of 
Labor,  1873-88;  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
1885-1902;  also,  1893-97,  completed  eleventh  United 
States  Census.  Honorary  professor  of  social  economics, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  1895-1904;  professor  of 
statistics  and  social  economics,  school  of  comparative 
jurisprudence  and  diplomacy,  Columbian  University, 
1900;  university  lecturer  on  wage  statistics.  Harvard 
University,  1900-01;  president  of  Clark  College,  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  1902-1909.     Appointed  by  President  member 


504 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


and  recorder  of  United  States  anthracite  strike  commis- 
sion, 1902.  Trustee  of  Carnegie  Institute,  Washington. 
Author:  "The  Factory  System  of  the  United  States," 
"  Relation  of  Political  Economy  to  the  Labor  Question," 
"The  Social,  Commercial,  and  Manufacturing  Statistics 
of  the  City  of  Boston,"  "  History  of  Wages  and  Prices 
in  Massachusetts,  1752-1883,"  "The  Industrial  Evolu- 
tion of  the  United  States,"  "The  Public  Records 
of  Parishes,  Towns,  and  Counties  in  Ma.ssachusetts," 
"Outline  of  Practical  Sociology,"  "History  and  Growth 
of  the  United  States  Census."     Died,  1909. 

Wright,  Orvllle,  aeronaut;  born  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
August  19,  1871;  educated  at  public  schools.  Since 
1903,  he  has  been  engaged  with  his  brother  in  the  per- 
fection of  a  practical  aeroplane,  and,  especially  in  1909, 
has  met  with  remarkable  success.  His  first  successful 
flight  was  made  at  Kitty  Hawk,  N.  C,  in  1903.  Recently 
at  Fort  Meyer  he  has  broken  the  existing  air-ship  records 
repeatedly.  With  Wilbur  Wright,  his  brother,  he  is  now 
employed  by  the  United  States  government  in  per- 
fecting the  machine  and  instructing  army  officers  in  its 
construction  and  operation  for  purposes  of  war. 

Wright,  Wilbur,  aeronaut;  was  born  near  Millville, 
Ind.,  April  16,  1867;  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  educated 
in  high  schools  of  Richmond,  Ind.,  and  Dayton,  Ohio. 
Is  engaged  with  his  brother  Orvllle  in  a  scientific  and 
experimental  study  of  the  possibilities  of  the  heavier- 
than-air  flying  machine,  patented  by  Wright  Bros. 
The  brothers  have  achieved  remarkable  results,  and 
their  machines  are  now  used  by  the  leading  aeronauts 
of  the  world.  They  have  completely  demonstrated 
the  practicability  of  the  heavier-than-air  machine,  and 
are  now  engaged  in  perfecting  the  motor  and  other  parts 
of  the  aeroplane. 

Wycllflfe,  John,  born  in  1324;  divine;  actively  op- 
posed the  Mendicant  Friars,  and,  in  1361,  was  elected 
master  of  Balliol  College;  obtained  the  favor  of  John  of 
Gaunt  by  his  reply  to  the  pope's  claim  for  tribute,  and, 
in  1374,  obtained  the  living  of  Lutterworth.  In  1377, 
he  was  summoned  to  St.  Paul's  to  answer  a  charge  from 
the  pope  of  heretical  opinions,  but  was  protected  by  the 
court.  Next  year  he  was  again  accused  but  with  no 
effect,  and  after  this  he  was  occupied  with  his  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible  and  attacks  on  transubstantiation,  his 
opinions  on  which  he  was  forced  partially  to  withdraw, 
and  was  expelled  from  Oxford.     Died,  1384. 

Xavter,  St.  Francis  (z&v-e-a'),  a  Jesuit  missionary, 
styled  usually  the  "Apostle  of  the  Indies,"  was  born  in 
1506,  of  a  noble  family,  in  the  north  of  Spain.  He  was 
a  student  of  Sainte  Barbe  in  Paris,  took  to  philosophy, 
became  acquainted  with  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  formation  of  the  Jesuit  Society. 
He  was  sent,  in  1541,  under  sanction  of  the  pope,  by 
John  III.  of  Portugal,  to  Christianize  India,  and  arrived 
at  Goa  in  1542,  from  whence  he  extended  his  missionary 
labors  to  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  Ceylon,  and  Japan, 
in  which  enterprises  they  were  attended  with  signal 
success.  On  his  return  to  Goa,  in  1552,  he  proceeded 
to  organize  a  mission  to  China,  in  which  he  experienced 
such  opposition  and  so  many  difficulties  that  on  his  way 
to  carry  on  his  work  there  he  sickened  and  died,  and  was 
buried  at  Goa.  Xavier  was  beatified  by  Paul  V.  in  1619, 
and  canonized  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1622. 

Xenophon,  born  in  430  B.  C;  a  Greek  historian  and 
philosopher.  Xenophon  played  an  important  part  in  the 
adventurous  retreat  known  in  history  as  the  "  Retreat  of 
the  'Ten  Thousand,"  the  description  of  which  he  wrote  in 
"Anabasis."  His  other  works  are,  "Memorabilia,"  or 
"Recollections  of  Socrates";  "Hellenica,"  a  continua- 
tion of  Thucydides'  history  of  the  Peloponnesian  War; 
and  the  "Cyropsedia,"  or  Education  of  Cyrus.  Died, 
357  B.  C. 

Xerxes  I.,  King  of  Persia;  came  to  the  throne  in  485 
B.  C,  invaded  Greece  in  480,  but  was  defeated  at  Salamis. 
He  was  murdered  in  465  B.  C. 

Tonge,  Charlotte  M.,  born  in  1823;  novelist  and 
historical  writer;    author  of  "The  Heir  of  Redclyffe," 


'The  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest,"  and  other  stories, 
besides  "Landmarks  of  History,"  "Cameos  from  English 
History,"  etc.     Died,  1901. 

Young,  Brigham,  born  in  1801 ;  Mormon  "  prophet," 
son  of  a  New  England  farmer;  became  president  on  the 
death  of  Smith,  in  1844,  and  two  years  later  led  his  fol- 
lowers to  Salt  Lake  Valley,  Utah,  Salt  Lake  City  being 
built  soon  after.  In  1852,  he  proclaimed  polygamy, 
which  had  been  condemned  by  the  Mormon  Church,  and 
in  1857,  after  having  been  territorial  governor  of  Utah 
for  several  years,  he  was  removed  from  office  by 
President  Buchanan.     Died,  1877. 

Zangwill,  Israel,  born  in  1864;  once  elementary 
teacher  in  Spitalfields;  he  became  famous  by  his  stories 
of  the  Jews,  of  which  "Children  of  the  Ghetto"  is  best 
known.  English  art  and  polities  are  treated  in  "The 
Master"  and  "The  Mantle  of  Elijah."  President  of  the 
Jewish  Territorial  Organization.  His  play,  "Merely 
Mary  Ann,"  was  one  of  the  successes  of  1904.  "Ghetto 
Comedies,"  published  in  1907,  displayed  throughout  the 
hand  of  a  master  craftsman. 

Zeller,  Eduard,  born  in  1814;  German  philosopher; 
having  held  chairs  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Berlin,  in  1872.  His  chief  works  are 
"History  of  Greek  Philosophy"  (of  which  an  English 
version  appeared  in  1881),  "History  of  German  Philoso- 
phy since  Leibnitz,"  "The  Contents  and  Origin  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles."     Died,  1908. 

Ze'no,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of  Elea  (Velia),  in  Italy, 
who  lived  in  the  Fifth  Century  before  Christ.  He  was 
one  of  the  reputed  founders  of  the  Eleatic  school  of 
philosophy.  Only  fragments  of  his  writings  have  come 
down  to  us. 

Ze'no,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  flourished  in  the 
Third  Century  before  Christ.  He  was  a  native  of  Citium, 
in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  but  most  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
Athens.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Stoic  school  of 
philosophy,  a  name  derived  from  the  Painted  Porch 
(Stoa  Poikile),  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  meet  his 
disciples.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  98 
years. 

Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra  (Third  Century),  married 
Odenathus,  who  was  named  "Augustus"  by  Gailieniu 
in  264,  and  on  his  death,  three  years  later,  reigned  alone; 
but  in  272  Aurelian  invaded  her  territories,  defeated 
and  captured  her  and  took  her  to  Rome  in  274. 

Zinzcndorf,  Nicolaus  von,  Graf,  born  in  1700; 
founder  Moravian  settlement  at  Herrnhut;  traveled 
much  in  America  for  religious  purposes;  in  1737  went  to 
London  where  he  met  John  Wesley.     Died,  1760. 

Zola,  Kmlle,  born  in  1840;  French  novelist  of  the 
"naturalist"  school,  began  life  as  an  employ^  of  the 
Hachette  firm,  but  in  1864  published  "Contes  &.  Ninon." 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "Th^rfese  Raquin,"  "Les 
Rougon  Macquart,"  a  series  of  wliich  "L'Assommoir" 
and  "Nana,"  "Germinal,"  "La  Terre,"  "La  B6te  Hu- 
maine,"  "La  Debacle,"  etc.,  are  the  most  striking. 
Died,  1902. 

Zoroaster,,  an  ancient  philosopher,  of  whose  history 
little  or  nothing  that  is  authentic  is  known.  There  are 
supposed  to  have  been  several  of  the  name.  The  most 
celebrated,  however,  the  Zerdusht  -of  the  Persians,  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  reformer  of  the  Magian  system 
of  religion,  and  the  author  of  the  Zendavesta,  which 
contains  the  doctrines  that  he  taught.  Irreconcilable 
differences  exist  among  the  learned  as  to  the  time  in 
which  he  flourished.     Volney  fixes  his  birth  1250  B.  C. 

Zwingle,  or  Zwingli,  Ulrlch,  born  in  1484;  Swiss 
reformer;  served  in  Italy  as  a  soldier,  visited  Erasmus 
at  Basel,  in  1514.  and  two  years  later  at  the  monastery 
of  Einsiedeln  began  to  preach  freely.  In  1518,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  cathedral  at  Zurich,  having  previously 
opposed  the  sale  of  indulgences  by  Sansom.  Attempts 
were  made  to  prohibit  his  preaching,  but  the  reformation 
grew  at  Zurich.  In  1529,  Zwingle  met  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  at  Marburg,  but  two  years  later  he  fell  in 
the  battle  of  Kappel  iu  the  war  with  Berne.     Died,  1531. 


J 


< 
12; 


I 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


Africa  (af're-kah),  the  second  largest  of  the 
continents  of  the  Old  World  lies  nearly  due 
south  of  Europe  and  southwest  of  Asia.  It  is  of 
a  compact  form,  being  nearly  equal  at  its  ex- 
treme points  in  length  and  breadth.  The  north 
section  of  the  continent,  however,  has  an  average 
breadth  of  nearly  double  the  south.  This  great 
change  of  form  arises  mostly  from  the  greater 
projection  of  the  upper  part  toward  the  west,  and 
the  transition  on  this  side  from  the  broad  to  the 
narrow  section  is  effected  suddenly  by  an  inward 
turn  of  the  west  coast,  which  faces  south  for 
nearly  20°  of  longitude,  forming  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  the  greatest  indentation  of  the  coast. 
Africa  is  united  to  Asia  at  its  northeast  extremity 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  now  crossed  by  a  great 
ship  canal.  From  this  point  the  coast  runs  in  a 
westerly  and  somewhat  northerly  direction  to 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  the  point  of  greatest  prox- 
imity to  Europe.  This  north  coast  forms  the 
south  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  brings 
all  the  north  countries  of  Africa  into  close  prox- 
imity with  the  European  and  Asiatic  countries 
lying  contiguovis  to  that  great  ocean  highway, 
which  formed  the  chief  medium  of  communi- 
cation between  the  principal  divisions  of  the 
ancient  world. 

The  center  of  Africa  possesses  an  exuberant 
tropical  vegetation.  The  open  pastoral  belt  at 
the  extremities  of  the  tropics  is  distinguished  by 
a  rich  and  varied  flora.  A  special  characteristic 
of  the  vegetation  of  the  south  extremity  of  Africa 
is  the  remarkable  variety,  size,  and  beauty  of 
the  heaths,  some  of  which  grow  to  twelve  or  fif- 
teen feet  in  the  fertile  parts  of  Nubia. 

The  fauna  of  Africa  is  extensive  and  varied, 
and  numerous  species  of  mammals  are  peculiar 
to  the  continent.  According  to  a  common  view 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals,  the 
north  of  Africa  belongs  to  the  Mediterranean 
sub-region,  while  the  rest  of  the  continent  forms 
the  Ethiopian  region.  Africa  possesses  numer- 
ous species  of  the  order  quadrumana  (apes  and 
monkeys),  most  of  which  are  peculiar  to  it. 
They  abound  especially  in  the  tropics.  The 
most  remarkable  are  the  chimpanzee  and  the 
gorilla.  The  lion  is  the  typical  carnivore  of 
Africa.  Latterly  he  has  been  driven  from  the 
coast  settlements  to  the  interior,  where  he  still 
reigns  king  of  the  forest.  There  are  three  varie- 
ties, the  Barbary,  Senegal,  and  Cape  lions.  The 
leopard  and  panther  rank  next  to  the  lion  among 
carnivora.  Hyenas  of  more  than  one  species, 
and  jackals,  are  found  all  over  Africa.  Ele- 
phants in  large  herds  abound  in  the  forests 
of  the  tropical  regions,  and  their  tusks  form 
a  principal  article  of  commerce.  These  are 
larger  and  heavier  than  those  of  Asiatic  ele- 
phants. The  elephant  is  not  a  domestic  animal 
in  Africa  as  it  is  in  Asia.  The  rhinoceros 
is  found,  like  the  elephant,  in  Middle  and  South- 
ern Africa.  Hippopotami  *  abound  in  many  of 
the  large  rivers  and  the  lakes.  The  zebra  and 
quagga  used  to  abound  in  Central  and  Southern 


Africa,  but  the  latter  is  said  to  be  now  entirely 
extinct.  Of  antelopes,  the  most  numerous  and 
characteristic  of  the  ruminating  animals  of  Africa, 
at  least  fifty  species  are  considered  peculiar  to 
this  continent,  of  which  twenty-three  used  to 
occur  in  Cape  Colony.  The  giraffe  is  found  in 
the  interior,  and  is  exclusively  an  African  ani- 
mal. Several  species,  of  wild  buffaloes  have 
been  found  in  the  interior,  and  the  buffalo  has 
been  naturalized  in  the  north.  The  camel,  com- 
mon in  the  north  as  a  beast  of  burden,  has  no 
doubt  been  introduced  from  Asia.  The  horse 
and  the  ass  are  natives  of  Barbary.  The  cattle 
of  Abyssinia  and  Bornu  have  horns  of  immense 
size,  but  extremely  light.  In  Barbary  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  sheep  are  broad-tailed; 
in  Egypt  and  Nubia  they  are  long-legged  and 
short-tailed.  Goats  are  in  some  parts  more 
numerous  than  sheep.  The  ibex  breed  extends 
to  Abyssinia.  Dogs  are  numerous,  but  cats 
rare,  in  Egypt  and  Barbary. 

There  is  a  marked  distinction  between  the 
races  in  the  north  and  east  of  the  great  desert 
and  those  in  the  central  Soudan  and  the  rest  of 
Africa  and  the  south.  The  main  elements  of 
the  population  of  North  Africa,  including  Egypt 
and  Abyssinia,  are  Hamitic  and  Semitic,  but  in 
the  north  the  Hamite  Berbers  are  mingled  with 
peoples  of  the  same  race  as  those  of  prehistoric 
Southern  Europe,  and  other  types  of  various 
origins,  and  in  the  east  and  southeast  with  the 
peoples  of  the  negro  type.  The  Semitic  Arabs 
are  found  all  over  the  north  region,  and  even  in 
the  Western  Sahara  and  Central  Soudan,  and  far 
down  the  east  coast,  as  traders.  The  Somalis 
and  Gallas  are  mainly  Hamitic.  In  the  Central 
Soudan  and  the  whole  of  the  country  between  the 
desert  and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  the  population  is 
pure  negro — people  of  the  black,  flat^  or  broad- 
nosed,  thick-lipped  type,  with  narrow  heads, 
woolly  hair,  high  cheek-bones,  and  prognathous 
jaws.  Scattered  among  them  are  peoples  of  a 
probably  Hamitic  stock.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
the  narrow  south  section  of  Africa  is  inhabited 
by  what  are  known  as  the  Bantu  races,  of  which 
the  Zulu  or  Kaffir  may  be  taken  as  the  type. 
The  languages  of  the  Bantu  peoples  are  all  of 
the  same  structure,  even  though  the  physical 
type  vary,  some  resembling  the  true  negro,  and 
others  having  prominent  noses  and  comparatively 
thin  lips.  The  Bushmen  of  South  Africa  are  of 
a  different  type  from  the  Bantu,  probably  the 
remains  of  an  aboriginal  population,  while  the 
Hottentots  are  apparently  a  mixture  of  Bushmen 
and  Kaffirs.  Scattered  over  Central  Africa, 
mainly  in  the  forest  regions,  are  pigmy  tribes, 
who  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  remains 
of  an  aboriginal  population.  The  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Madagascar  are  of  Malay  affini- 
ties. The  total  population  is  estimated  at  about 
150,000,000. 

Political.  Divisions.  Only  two  independent 
governments  exist  in  Africa,  Abyssinia  and 
Liberia.     With  these  two  exceptions,  the  whole 


508 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


continent  is  subject  to  European  domination. 
By   recent   arrangements,    mainly    since    1884, 

freat  areas  in  Africa  have  been  allotted  to  Great 
Iritain,  France,  Germany,  Portugal,  Belgium, 
and  Italy,  as  coming  within  their  respective 
spheres  of  influence,  in  addition  to  colonial  pos- 
sessions proper.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  present  division  of  Africa  among  the  Euro- 
pean powers: 


British  Africa  :  Basutoland, 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate, 
Cape  Colony,  Central  Africa, 
East  Africa  Protectorate, 
Uganda  Protectorate,  Zan- 
zibar Protectorate,  Mauri- 
tius, Natal,  Niger  Coast  Pro- 
tectorate, Territory  of  the 
Royal  Niger  Co.,  South  Af- 
rica, West  Africa,  Zululand 
and  Islands,  and  the  Boer 
colonies,* 

French  Africa:  Algeria,  Sen- 
ejral,  French  Soudan  and  the 
Niger,  Gaboon  and  Guinea 
Coast,  Congo  Region,  So- 
mali Coast,  Madagascar  and 
Islands 

German  Africa:  Togoland, 
Cameroons,  South  West  Af- 
rica, East  Africa 

Italian  Africa:  Eritrea,  So- 
maliland 

Portuguese  Africa:  Angola, 
the  Congo,  Guinea,  East  Af- 
rica, and  Islands 

Spanish  Africa:  Rio  de  Oro, 
Adrar,  Fernando  Po,  and 
Islands 

Turkish  Africa:  Tripoli  and 
the  Mediterranean  Coast, 
Egypt,* 

Congo   Independent  State. 
(Under   the   sovereignty  of 
the  King  of  the  Belgians), 
Total 


Area        Population 


2,807,760 

43,495,754 

1,232,454 

18,073,890 

920,920 

10,200,000 

278,500 

850,000 

735,304 

4,431,970 

243,877 

136,000 

798,738 

8,117,265 

900.000 

30,000.000 

8,087,553 

117,104,871 

*  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  although  nomi- 
nally under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey,  are  really  con- 
trolled by  Great  Britain,  and  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time 
as  to  when  they  will  be  incorporated  into  the  British 
Empire.  Adding  Egypt  and  the  Soudan  to  the  Empire 
would  increase  the  figures  above  given  to  3,207,700 
square  miles  and  50,316,019  population. 

The  remaining  territory  of  Africa  unoccupied  is  a  part 
of  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara  and  the  Independent  States 
of  Abyssinia  and  Liberia.  Even  this  territory,  except 
the  last,  is  destined  to  pass  under  the  power  of  the 
Europeans. 

Over  a  great  part  of  the  continent  civilization 
is  at  a  low  ebb,  and  in  the  Congo  region  cannibal- 
ism is  extensively  prevalent.  Yet  in  various 
regions  the  natives  who  have  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  a  higher  civilization  show  considerable 
skill  in  agriculture  and  various  mechanical  arts, 
as  in  weaving  and  metal  working.  Among 
articles  exported  from  Africa  are  gold  and  dia- 
monds, palm  oil,  ivory,  wool,  ostrich  feathers, 
esparto,  cotton,  caoutchouc,  etc.  The  total 
annual  trade  has  been  estimated  at  $500,000,000. 

Alaska  is  now  an  organized  Territory  in 
the  Western  Division  of  tne  North  American 
Union,  comprising  the  extreme  northwestern 
part  of  the  American  continent;  bounded  by 
the  Arctic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  Bering  Sea,  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Can- 
ada; gross  area,  as  far  as  determined,  581,107 
square  miles;  purchased  from  Russia,  in  1867, 
for  $7,200,000;  given  a  territorial  district  gov- 
ernment in  1884  and  enlarged  political  powers  in 


1906.     The   population    by    latest    census    was 
64,356. 

Gold  production,  and  business  activities  con- 
nected therewith,  are  hastening  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  and  the  yield  of  the 
precious  metal  promises  to  be  a  large  factor 
for  many  years  to  come. 

The  waters  of  Alaska  contain  over  100  species 
of  food  fish,  but  the  principal  fisheries  are  those 
confined  to  salmon,  the  packing  of  which  is  the 
leading  industry,  cod,  and  herring.  In  con- 
nection with  the  Alaska  coast  there  are  at  least 
125,000  square  miles  of  cod  fishing  banks,  the 
greater  part  of  which  still  awaits  development. 
Whales  and  halibut  also  abound,  but  as  yet  they 
do  not  support  distinct  industries. 

When  the  United  States  acquired  this  region, 
and  till  gold  mining  set  in,  fur  sealing  was  the 
only  industry.  So  far  there  has  been  but  little 
done  in  the  line  of  systematic  farming.  Congress 
has  continued  its  appropriation  to  investigate 
agricultural  possibilities.  Oats,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  and  buckwheat,  among  cereals ;  potatoes, 
turnips,  peas,  onions,  and  many  minor  vegetables; 
a  variety  of  fruit  and  excellent  hay  are  grown  to 
advantage. 

Algiers  the  capital  of  Algeria,  founded  by 
the  Arabs  in  935,  called  the  "silver  city,"  from 
the  glistening  white  of  its  buildings  as  seen  slop- 
ing up  from  the  sea,  presenting  a  striking  appear- 
ance, was  for  centuries  under  its  Bey  tlie  head- 
quarters of  piracy  in  the  Mediterranean,  which 
only  began  to  cease  when  Lord  Exmouth  bom- 
barded the  town  and  destroyed  the  fleet  in  the 
harbor.  Since  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French 
the  city  has  been  greatly  improved,  the  fortifi- 
cations strengthened,  and  its  neighborhood  has 
become  a  frequent  resort  of  English  people  in 
winter.     Population,  145,000. 

AlpS)  the  greatest  European  mountain  sys- 
tem, forming  the  watershed  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Atlantic,  and  the  North  and 
Black  seas,  extending  through  14°  of  longitude 
and  5°  of  latitude,  with  spurs  to  the  Apennines, 
Pyrenees,  Vosges,  Hartz,  Sudetes,  Carpathians, 
and  the  Balkan.  They  are  of  crescent-like  form, 
and  average  in  height  about  7,700  feet;  over 
400  peaks  rise  to  the  perpetual  snow  line,  which 
averages  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet.  The  central 
point  of  all  the  Alpine  chains  is  the  St.  Gothard 
group,  which  is  in  a  direct  line  150  miles  from 
the  Jlediterranean,  500  miles  from  the  North 
Sea,  and  550  miles  from  the  Baltic.  The  prin- 
cipal Alpine  divisions  are:  I.  The  Maritime 
Alps,  consisting  of  two  portions,  the  first  (Ligu- 
rian  Alps)  extending  from  the  vicinity  of  Nice 
to  the  Col  de  Lauzania  in  Piedmont ;  the  second 
(upper  Maritime  Alps)  terminating  in  Monte 
Viso,  on  the  western  frontier  of  Piedmont.  II. 
The  Cottian  Alps,  extending  from  Monte  Viso 
to  Mont  Cenis,  with  Piedmontese  and  French 
territories  on  three  sides.  III.  The  Graian 
Alps,  extending  from  Mont  Cenis  (11,755  feet) 
to  the  Col  du  Bonhomme,  between  Savoy  on  the 
west  and  Piedmont  on  the  east.  IV.  The 
Pennine  Alps,  from  the  Col  du  Bonhomme  to 
Monte  Rosa,  between  Upper  Savoy  and  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais  on  one  side,  and  Piedmont  on 
the  other,  including  Mont  Blanc  (15,781  feet), 
Monte    Rosa    (15,217),    and    the    Matterhom 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


509 


(14,780).  V.  The  Lepontine  or  Helvetian  Alps, 
including  the  divergent  chain  known  as  the 
Bernese  Alps.  This  division  covers  West  Switz- 
erland, extending  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhone, 
dividing  Lombardy  from  Switzerland,  one 
branch  terminating  at  Monte  Bernardino,  the 
other  extending  to  and  uniting  with  the  Jura, 
north  of  the  lake  of  Geneva.  This  comprises  the 
finest  scenery,  and  includes  the  Finsteraarhorn 
(14,106  feet),  Furca  (14,037),  Jungfrau  (13,718), 
Monch  (13,498),  Schreckhorn  (13,386),  and 
Monte  Leon  on  the  Simplon  (11,541).  VL  The 
Rhsetian  Alps,  commencing  at  Monte  Bernardino 
extending  along  the  confines  of  Switzerland, 
Italy,  and  Germany,  and  terminating  at  the 
northeast  end  of  Tyrol.  VII.  The  Noric  Alps, 
extending  through  Salzburg,  North  Carinthia, 
Stvria,  and  Upper  and  Lower  Austria;  highest 
peak,  Gross-Glockner  (12,776  feet).  VIII.  The 
Carnic  Alps,  extending  on  the  confines  of  Venetia 
and  Carinthia,  from  Pellegrino  to  Terglou. 
IX.  From  the  last-named  place  this  chain  is 
prolonged  through  Gorz  and  Carniola,  to  Mt. 
Kleck,  under  the  name  of  the  Julian  or  Panno- 
nian  Alps.  X.  A  southern  continuation,  called 
Dinaric  Alps,  extends  from  Mt.  Kleck  through 
Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Herzegovina,  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  Balkan.  Among  the  most  cele- 
brated passes  are  those  of  the  Great  and  Little 
St.  Bernard,  St.  Gothard,  Simplon,  and  Spliigen. 
Over  the  Simplon  Pass  (6,628  feet  high),  Napo- 
leon constructed  a  road  extending  from  Brieg 
to  Domo  d'Ossola,  forty-six  and  one-half  miles, 
connecting  Geneva  with  Milan.  Railway  tun- 
nels have  been  cut  through  Mont  Cenis,  St.  Goth- 
ard, and  the  Simplon.  Ascents,  promoted  by 
Alpine  clubs,  have  greatly  increased  in  numbers 
and  daring,  despite  whirlwinds,  avalanches, 
and  glaciers.  The  vegetation  diminishes  in 
beauty,  if  not  in  abundance,  at  an  elevation  of 
1,600  to  1,700  feet,  and  almost  disappears  at 
6,500  feet,  though  pasturage,  and  peculiar  genera 
of  plants  distinctively  known  as  the  "Alpine 
flora,"  flourish  as  high  as  8,500  feet.  Agassiz 
distinguished  lichen  even  amid  the  eternal  snows. 
The  fauna  includes  the  chamois,  lammergeyer 
(now  largely  extinct),  eagle,  wolf,  fox,  lynx, 
wild  cat,  and  bear.  The  Alps  are  not  only 
remarkable  for  wonderful  mountain  masses 
and  freaks  of  nature,  but  also  for  their  miner- 
alogy, and  for  their  dairies  and  cattle  raising. 

Amazon,  Maranon,  or  Orellana, 
a  river  which  traverses  nearly  the  whole  extent 
of  the  equatorial  region  of  South  America,  run- 
ning chiefly  from  west  to  east,  and  entering  the 
Atlantic  almost  at  the  equator.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  rivers  in  the  world,  running  a  course, 
including  windings,  of  about  3,300  miles.  The 
force  of  its  current  is  so  great  that  it  overlays 
the  ocean  to  a  distance  of  more  than  200  miles 
from  the  shore.  With  its  enormous  tributaries 
—  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Madeira,  the  Japura,  and 
many  others  —  it  is  estimated  that  it  affords  an 
inland  navigation  of  50,000  miles.  The  area 
drained  by  its  waters  is  probably  not  less  than 
2,500,000  square  miles.  The  width  of  its  mouth, 
or  mouths,  is  nearly  200  miles. 

Amiens  (dm-e-at;'),  an  ancient  city  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Somme,  about 
eighty-one  miles  north  of  Paris.     Its  cathedral, 


commenced  in  1220  and  finished  in  1288,  is 
a  magnificent  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture, 
and  one  of  the  finest  cathedrals  in  Europe. 
Amiens  was  the  birthplace  of  Peter  the  Hermit. 
It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  Treaty  of  Peace, 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  Hol- 
land, which  was  signed  at  Amiens,  March  27, 
1802.  During  the  war  between  France  and 
Germany,  in  1870,  Amiens  was  taken  by  the 
Germans  under  General  Manteuffel,  an  event 
which  contributed  to  the  subsequent  fall  of 
Paris.  Amiens  has  many  important  manufac- 
tures, including  cotton-velvets,  kerseymeres,  etc. 
Population,  92,065. 

Amsterdam,  the  metropolis  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  province  of  North  Holland,  on 
the  river  Amstel,  is  divided  into  small  islands, 
connected  by  bridges,  and  is  almost  wholly  built 
upon  piles.  The  site  of  Amsterdam  was  origi- 
nally a  peat-bog.  About  A.  D.  1200  it  was  a 
small  fishing  village.  It  was  formerly  very 
strongly  fortified,  but  now  its  only  defense  con- 
sists in  its  sluices,  which  can  flood  in  a  few 
hours  the  surrounding  land.  The  approach  to 
the  city  from  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  intricate  and 
dangerous,  owing  to  the  numerous  shallows. 
In  the  Seventeenth  Century  Amsterdam  was  the 
center  of  the  banking  transactions  of  the  world. 
It  is  still  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  has  a  large  trade  with  both  the  East 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  diamond-cutters  of 
Amsterdam  are  greatly  celebrated.  Population, 
557,614. 

Andes,  the  great  mountain  system  of  South 
America,  extends  along  its  west  coast  from  Cape 
Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  with  a  breadth 
of  from  forty  to  four  hundred  miles,  and  covers 
with  its  offshoots,  plateaux,  and  declivities, 
nearly  a  sixth  part  of  that  continent.  The 
highest  summit  is  Aconcagua,  in  Chile,  23,083 
feet  high.  The  Andes  are  composed  partly  of 
granite,  gneiss,  mica,  and  clay  slate,  but  chiefly 
of  greenstone,  porphyry,  and  basalt,  with  lime- 
stone, red  sandstone,  and  conglomerate.  Vol- 
canoes are  numerous  in  the  Chilean  Andes,  where 
there  are  no  less  than  nineteen  in  a  state  of 
activity;  and  the  mountains  of  Ecuador  con- 
sist almost  altogether  of  volcanic  summits, 
either  now  or  formerly  in  active  ignition.  Of 
these,  the  most  dreaded  is  Cotopaxi.  The  Andes 
are  celebrated  for  their  mineral  riches  —  pro- 
ducing gold  and  silver  in  large  quantities,  with 
platina,  mercury,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  iron. 
The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the  Andes  reaches 
the  height  of  18,300  feet  in  the  West  Cordillera 
of  Chile ;  near  the  equator  it  is  15,000  feet.  The 
potato  is  cultivated  at  an  elevation  of  9,800  to 
13,000  feet;  wheat  grows  luxuriantly  at  10,000 
feet,  and  oats  ripen  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Titicaca  at  an  elevation  of  12,795  feet. 

Antartic  Ocean,  the  great  water  divis- 
ion of  the  globe  within  the  Antartic  regions, 
which  is  in  many  respects  the  antithesis  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic, 
Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.  Land  is  found  in 
both  hemispheres,  but  it  is  still  uncertain 
whether  one  vast  mass  extends  around  the 
pole.  The  greatest  of  the  explorers  have  been 
Ross,  1842,  Scott,  1902,  and  Shackleton,  1909. 
The  entire  region  lies  under  ice  and  snow,  with 


510 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


almost  no  vegetation  and  no  mammals.  There 
are  numerous  birds,  whales,  seals  and  fish. 

Antioch,  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  eyalet  of 
Aleppo,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Asi,  formerly 
the  Orontes.  It  derived  its  name  from  Antio- 
chus,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  service  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  and  was  one  of  the  sixteen 
cities  built  by  his  son,  Seleucus  Nicator.  Anti- 
och  was  a  city  of  great  magnificence.  It  was 
the  residence  of  the  Syrian  monarchs,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  then  one  of  the  largest  cities 
in  the  world.  In  Roman  times,  it  was  the  seat  of 
the  Syrian  governor,  and  the  center  of  a  widely- 
extended  commerce.  It  now  exhibits  scarcely 
any  traces  of  its  former  grandeur,  except  the 
niins  of  the  walls  built  by  Justinian,  and  of  a 
fortress  erected  by  the  Crusaders.  The  modem 
name  is  Antakieh.     Population,  about  28,000. 

Antwerp  (Dutch  and  German  Antwerpen, 
French  Anvers),  the  chief  port  of  Belgium,  and 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  Scheldt,  about  fifty  miles  from  the  open  sea. 
It  is  strongly  fortified,  being  completely  sur- 
rounded on  the  land  side  by  a  semicircular  inner 
line  of  fortifications,   the  defenses  being  com- 

?leted  by  an  outer  line  of  forts  and  outworks, 
'he  cathedral,  with  a  spire  400  feet  high,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  Belgium,  contains  Ru- 
bens's  celebrated  masterpieces,  the  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross,  and  The 
Assumption.  The  other  churches  of  note  are 
St.  James's,  St.  Andrew's,  and  St.  Paul's,  all 
enriched  with  paintings  by  Rubens,  Vandyck, 
and  other  masters.  Among  the  other  edifices  of 
note  are  the  exchange,  the  town-hall,  the  palace,, 
theater,  academy  of  the  fine  arts,  picture  and 
sculpture  galleries,  etc.  The  harbor  accom- 
modation is  extensive  and  excellent,  new  docks 
and  quays  having  been  built  in  the  past  few 
years.  The  shipping  trade  has  greatly  advanced 
in  recent  times,  and  is  now  very  large,  the  goods 
being  largely  in  transit.  There  are  numerous 
and  varied  industries.  Antwerp  is  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  Eighth  Century,  and  in  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  it  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity.  In  the  Sixteenth  Century  it  is  said 
to  have  had  a  population  of  200,000.  The  wars 
between  the  Netherlands  and  Spain  greatly 
injured  its  commerce,  which  was  almost  ruined 
by  the  closing  of  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt  in 
accordance  with  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648). 
It  was  only  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  that  its 
prosperity  had  revived,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the 
important  active  seaports  of  Western  Europe. 
Population,  304,951. 

Aqueduct  (Lat.  aqua,  water,  duco,  to  lead), 
an  artificial  channel  or  conduit  for  the  con- 
veyance of  water  from  one  place  to  another: 
more  particularly  applied  to  structures  for  con- 
veying water  from  distant  sources  for  the  supply 
of  large  cities.  Aqueducts  were  extensively  used 
by  the  Romans,  and  many  of  them  still  remain 
in  different  places  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Roman 
aqueducts,  chronologically  arranged: 

1.  The  Aqua  Appih,  begun  by  and  named  after 
the  censor  Appius  Claudius  about  313  B.  C.  It 
ran  a  course  of  between  six  and  seven  miles,  its 
source  being  in -the  neighborhood  of  Palestrina. 


With  the  exception  of  a  small  portion  near  the 
Porta  Capena,  it  was  subterranean.  No  remains 
of  it  exist. 

2.  Anio  Vetus,  constructed  about  273  B.  C. 
by  M.  Curius  Dentatus.  It  also  was  chiefly 
underground.  Remains  may  be  traced  both  at 
Tivoli  and  near  the  Porta  Maggiore.  From  the 
point  at  which  it  quitted  the  river  Anio,  about 
twenty  miles  above  Tivoli,  to  Rome,  is  about 
forty-three  miles. 

3.  Aqua  Marcia,  named  after  the  pra?tor  Quin- 
tus  Marcius  Rex,  145  B.  C,  had  its  source  be- 
tween Tivoli  and  Subiaco,  and  was  consequently 
about  sixty  miles  long.  Tlie  noble  arches  which 
stretch  across  the  Campagna  for  some  six  miles 
on  the  road  to  Frascati,  are  the  portion  of  this 
aqueduct  which  was  above  ground. 

4.  Aqua  Tepula  (125  B.  C.)  had  its  source  near 
Tusculum,  and  its  channel  was  carried  over  the 
arches  of  the  last-mentioned  aqueduct. 

5.  Aqua  Julia,  constructed  by  Agrippa,  and 
named  after  Augustus,  33  B.  C.  Like  the  Tepu- 
lan,  it  was  carried  along  the  Marcian  arches,  and 
its  source  was  also  near  Tusculum.  Remains  of 
the  three  last^mentioned  aqueducts  still  exist. 

6.  Aqua  Virgo,  also  constructed  by  Agrippa, 
and  said  to  have  been  named  in  consequence  of 
the  spring  which  supplied  it  having  been  pointed 
out  by  a  girl  to  some  of  Agrippa's  soldiers  when 
in  search  of  water.  The  Aqua  Vergine,  as  it  is 
now  called,  is  still  entire,  having  been  restored 
by  the  popes  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  IV.,  1568. 
The  source  of  the  Aqua  Virgo  is  near  the  Anio,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Torre  Salona,  on  the  Via 
CoUatina,  and  about  fourteen  miles  from  Rome. 
The  original  object  of  this  aqueduct  was  to  sup- 
ply the  baths  of  Agrippa;  its  water  now  flows 
in  the  Fontana  Trevi,  that  of  the  Piazza  Navona, 
the  Piazza  Famese,  and  the  Barcaccia  of  the 
Piazza  di  Spagna.  The  water  of  the  Aqua  Virgo 
is  the  best  in  Rome. 

.7.  Aqua  Alsietina,  constructed  by  Augustus, 
and  afterwards  restored  by  Trajan,  and  latterly 
by  the  popes.  This  aqueduct,  now  called  the 
Aqua  Paolo,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  and  supplies  the  fountains  in  front  of  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Fontana  Paola  on  the  Montorio. 
Its  original  object  was  to  supply  the  Naumachia 
of  Augustus  which  was  a  sheet  of  water  for  the 
representation  of  sea  fights. 

8.  Aqua  Claudia,  commenced  by  Caligula  and 
completed  by  Claudius,  51  A.  D.  A  line  of  mag- 
nificent arches  which  formerly  belonged  to  this 
aqueduct  still  stretches  across  the  Campagna, 
and  forms  one  of  the  grandest  of  Roman  ruins. 
It  was  used  as  a  quarry  by  Sextus  V.  for  the 
construction  of  the  Aqua  Felici,  which  now  sup- 
plies the  Fountain  of  Termini,  and  various  others 
in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

9.  Anio  Novus,  which  was  the  most  copious 
of  all  the  Roman  fountains,  though  inferior  to 
the  Marcia  in  the  solidity  of  its  structure ;  it  was 
also  the  longest  of  the  aqueducts,  pursuing  a 
course  of  no  less  than  sixty-two  miles.  By  the 
two  last-mentioned  aqueducts  the  former  supply 
of  water  was  doubled.  In  addition  to  the  aque- 
ducts already  mentioned,  there  was  the  Aqua 
Trajana,  which  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a 
branch  of  the  Anio  Novus  and  several  others  of 
later  construction,  such  as  the  Antoniana,  Alex- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


511 


andrina,  and  Jovia,  none  of  which  were  to  be 
compared  with  the  older  ones  in  extent  and 
magnificence. 

Other  great  aqueducts  were  built  in  other 
parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  One  of  the  most 
perfect  was  that  of  Nimes,  including  the  bridge 
spanning  the  valley  of  the  river  Gard,  and  now 
known  as  the  Pont  du  Gard.  In  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  a  magnificent  aqueduct  was  con- 
structed for  supplying  Versailles.  The  bridge  of 
Main  tenon  over  which  it  is  carried  is  seven-eighths 
of  a  mile  long,  upward  of  200  feet  high,  and  con- 
tains three  tiers  of  arches,  242  in  each  tier,  with 
fifty  feet  span. 

The  new  Croton  aqueduct  of  New  York  is  the 
finest  of  modern  times.  The  old  Croton  was 
completed  in  1842,  having  been  five  years  in 
building.  The  whole  expense,  including  $1,800,- 
000  for  distributing  pipes,  right  of  way,  and  other 
outlays,  was  $10,375,000;  including  commis- 
sions and  interest,  the  cost  was  $12,500,000.  Its 
length,  from  its  source  at  the  Croton  River  to  the 
distributing  reservoir  on  Fifth  Avenue  and  40th 
Street,  is  forty  and  a  half  miles.  It  is  carried 
through  sixteen  tunnels,  having  an  aggregate 
length  of  6,841  feet,  cut  mainly  through  gneiss 
rock.  A  large  part  of  the  open  cutting  is  also 
rock  work.  A  dam  across  the  Croton  River 
raised  the  water  forty  feet  and  formed  the  Croton 
Lake,  which  covers  about  400  acres.  From  the 
dam  to  the  Harlem  River,  nearly  thirty-three 
miles,  the  aqueduct  is  of  stone,  brick,  and  cement 
arched  over  and  under,  except  in  the  rock  tunnels 
where  the  roofing  arch  is  dispensed  with.  Its 
capacity  is  115,000,000  gallons  daily.  The  new 
Croton  aqueduct  was  completed  in  1890  at  a 
cost  of  $20,000,000,  and,  together  with  that  of 
Vienna,  is  the  most  important  of  modern  times. 

Architecture  (ar'-kf-tekt-yur),  the  art  of 
building,  embracing  every  kind  of  structure 
designed  for  purposes  of  civil  life.  Throughout 
the  globe  remains  of  edifices  proclaim  an  early 
possession  of  certain  degrees  of  architectural 
knowledge.  The  most  remarkable  vestiges  of 
these  primitive  structures,  save  the  Celtic  monu- 
ments, were  once  supposed  to  be  the  works  of 
giants  or  Cyclops  like  those  mentioned  in  the 
Odyssey.  By  whom  they  were  erected,  however, 
is  unknown,  though  they  have  been  attributed 
to  the  Pelasgians.  The  walls  of  the  cities  and  of 
the  sacred  enclosures  and  tombs  were  composed 
of  blocks  of  stone  of  a  polygonal  form  well 
adjusted.  No  cement  was  used,  the  interstices 
being  filled  with  small  stones.  At  times  they 
present  horizontal  layers  whose  upright  joints 
are  variously  inclined.  At  Mycense  and  Tiryns 
several  examples  are  to  be  found.  No  entire 
architectural  monument  has  come  down  to  us 
from  Babylon  or  Nineveh,  nor  from  the  Pheni- 
cians,  the  Hebrews,  the  Syrians,  the  Philistines, 
and  many  other  nations.  Of  the  very  ancient 
Chinese  monuments,  too,  we  have  no  trace. 
Japan,  Siam,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
abound  in  ancient  ruins  once  sacred  to  the 
divinities  of  the  Buddhist  faith.  The  Hindoo 
structures  are  remarkable  for  their  colossal 
size  and  their  severe  and  grotesque  appear- 
ance.—  The  architectural  types  of  all  other 
structures  of  antiquity  sink  into  insignificance 
when  compared  with  those  of  the   Egyptians. 


Their  earliest  works  are  the  hypogea  or  spea, 
wherein  their  dead  were  interred,  and  which 
served  also  as  subterranean  temples.  These 
were  the  prototypes  of  the  open-air  temples,  of 
which  the  most  ancient  example  is  perhaps  that 
at  Amada.  The  plan  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  hypogea,  or  caves.  The  walls,  ceilings,  and 
columns  were  decorated  with  figures  in  bas-relief 
and  hieroglyphics  richly  colored,  generally  with 
yellow,  red,  green,  and  blue.  The  palaces  were 
constructed  upon  a  plan  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  temples.  Besides  their  wonderful  cities  of 
the  dead,  the  Egyptians  reared  their  stupendous 
pyramids,  the  most  gigantic  monuments  existing. 
The  pyramidal  shape  pervades  most  of  their 
works,  the  walls  of  their  temples  inclining 
inward.  Columns  were  employed  to  form  porti- 
coes to  their  interior  courts,  and  also  to  support 
the  ceilings.  The  shafts,  of  different  forms, 
being  conical,  or  cylindrical,  or  bulging  out  at 
the  base,  sometimes  presented  a  smooth  surface ; 
they  were  rarely  fluted,  and  generally  covered 
with  hieroglyphics.  The  capitals  resemble  the 
lotus,  either  spreading  out  at  the  top  or  bound 
together,  assuming  the  bulbous  shape;  above 
is  a  square  tablet  forming  the  abacus. — The 
Grecian  monuments  belonged  to  the  states, 
and  upon  the  public  works  the  governments 
lavished  fabulous  sums.  Hence  the  Grecian 
cities  were  adorned  with  temples,  theaters, 
odeons,  gymnasiums,  choragic  monuments,  and 
the  like. 

The  earliest  architectural  remains  of  Greece 
are  of  unknown  antiquity,  and  consist  of  mas- 
sive walls  built  of  huge  blocks  of  stone.  In 
historic  times  the  Greeks  developed  an  archi- 
tecture of  noble  simplicity  and  dignity.  This 
style  is  of  modern  origin  compared  with  that  of 
Egypt,  and  the  earliest  remains  give  indications 
that  it  was  in  part  derived  from  the  Egyptians. 
It  is  considered  to  have  attained  its  greatest  per- 
fection in  the  age  of  Pericles,  or  about  460-430 
B.  C.  The  great  masters  of  this  period  were 
Phidias,  Ictinus,  Callicrates,  etc.  All  the  extant 
buildings  are  more  or  less  in  ruins.  The  style 
is  characterized  by  beauty,  harmony,  and  sim- 
plicity in  the  highest  degree.  Distinctive  of  it 
are  what  are  called  the  orders  of  architecture,  by 
which  term  are.  understood  certain  modes  of 
proportioning  and  decorating  the  column  and 
its  superimposed  entablature.  The  Greeks  had 
three  orders,  called  respectively  the  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian.  Greek  buildings  were  abun- 
dantly adorned  with  sculptures,  and  painting 
was  extensively  used,  the  details  of  the  structures 
being  enriched  by  different  colors  or  tints.  Low- 
ness  of  roofs  and  the  absence  of  arches  were  dis- 
tinctive features  of  Greek  architecture,  in  which, 
as  in  that  of  Egypt,  horizontality  of  line  is  an- 
other characteristic  mark.  The  most  remark- 
able public  edifices  of  the  Greeks  were  temples, 
of  which  the  most  famous  is  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens.  Others  exist  in  various  parts  of  Greece 
as  well  as  in  Sicily,  Southern  Italy,  Asia  Minor, 
etc.,  where  important  Greek  communities  were 
early  settled.  Their  theaters  were  semi-circular 
on  one  side  and  square  on  the  other,  the  semi- 
circular part  being  usually  excavated  in  the  side 
of  some  convenient  hill.  This  part,  the  audi- 
torium,  was  filled  with  concentric  seats,   and 


512 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


might  be  capable  of  containing  20,000  spectators. 
A  number  exist  in  Greece,  Sicuy,  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  elsewhere.  No  remains  of  private  houses 
are  known  to  exist.  By  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  (say  400  B.  C.)  the  best  period  of 
Greek  architecture  was  over;  a  noble  simplicity 
had  given  place  to  excess  of  ornament.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (323)  the  de- 
cline was  still  more  marked. 

Among  the  Romans  there  was  no  original 
development  of  architecture  as  among  the 
Greeks,  though  they  early  took  the  foremost 
place  in  the  construction  of  such  works  as  aque- 
ducts and  sewers,  the  arch  being  in  early  and 
extensive  use  among  this  people.  As  a  fine  art, 
however,  Roman  architecture  had  its  origin  in 
copies  of  the  Greek  models,  all  the  Grecian 
orders  being  introduced  into  Rome,  and  vari- 
ously modified.  Their  number,  moreover,  was 
augmented  by  the  addition  of  two  new  orders — 
the  Tuscan  and  the  Composite.  The  Romans 
became  acquainted  with  the  architecture  of  the 
Greeks  soon  after  200  B.  C,  but  it  was  not  till 
about  two  centuries  later  that  the  architecture 
of  Rome  attained  (under  Augustus)  its  great- 
est perfection.  Among  the  great  works  now 
erected  were  temples,  aqueducts,  amphitheaters, 
magnificent  villas,  triumphal  arches,  monumen- 
tal pillars,  etc.  The  amphitheater  differed  from 
the  theater  it  being  a  completely  circular  or 
rather  elliptical  building,  filled  on  all  sides  with 
ascending  seats  for  spectators  and  leaving  only 
the  central  space,  called  the  Arena^  for  the  com- 
batants and  public  shows.  The  Coliseum  is  a 
stupendous  structure  of  this  kind.  The  Thermae, 
or  baths,  were  vast  structures  in  which  multi- 
tudes of  people  could  bathe  at  once.  Magnifi- 
cent tombs  were  often  built  by  the  wealthy.  Re- 
mains of  private  residences  are  numerous,  and 
the  excavations  at  Pompeii  in  particular  have 
thrown  great  light  on  the  internal  arrangements 
of  the  Roman  dwelling-house.  Almost  all  the 
successors  of  Augustus  embellished  Rome  more 
or  less,  erected  splendid  palaces  and  temples, 
and  adorned,  like  Hadrian,  even  the  conquered 
countries  with  them.  But  after  the  period  of 
Hadrian  (117-138  A.  D.)  Roman  architecture  is 
considered  to  have  been  on  the  decline.  The 
refined  and  noble  style  of  the  Greeks  was  neg- 
lected, and  there  was  an  attempt  to  embellish 
the  beautiful  more  and  more.  This  decline  was 
all  the  more  rapid  latterly  from  the  disturbed 
state  of  the  empire  and  the  incursions  of  the  bar- 
barians. 

In  Constantinople,  after  its  virtual  separation 
from  the  Western  Empire,  arose  a  style  of  art 
and  architecture  which  was  practiced  by  the 
Greek  Church  during  the  whole  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  This  is  called  the  Byzantine  style.  Then 
appeared  the  dome,  the  glory  of  the  Byzantine 
school,  the  requirements  which  led  to  the  aban- 
donment in  the  ground  plan  of  churches  of  the 
Latin  cross  in  favor  of  the  Grecian  cross,  whose 
branches  are  of  equal  length.  The  dogmas  of 
the  iconoclasts  obliged  the  architects  to  seek 
some  other  means  than  sculpture  of  enriching 
their  temples;  hence  the  profusion  of  Mosaic 
work.  Their  ornaments  represented  foliage  in 
bass-relief  and  interlaced  lines.  Under  Belisa- 
rius  and  Narses  the  dome  was  introduced  into 


Italy.  The  Byzantine  style  also  became  the 
basis  of  the  new  Persian,  Russian,  and  Saracen 
schools.  We  find  its  peculiarities  existing  during 
the  Middle  Ages  in  Greece,  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain, 
Arabia,  and  India.  Among  the  chief  edifices  of 
this  school  are  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  St. 
Mark's  at  Venice,  and  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna. 
The  Saracens  and  Moors  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope certain  forms  of  architecture  founded  on  the 
remains  of  the  Grecian  school,  blended  with  the 
Oriental  elements  of  the  Byzantine.  Their  chief 
peculiarity  was  in  the  form  given  to  the  arch. 
The  Saracenic  arch  was  of  greater  depth  than 
width.  The  Moorish  style  was  distinguished  by 
arches  in  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe  or  a  crescent. 
Their  mural  ornamentations,  styled  arabesque, 
presented  more  varied  designs  of  graceful  and 
ingenious  combinations  of  geometrical  and  floral 
traceries  than  had  before  been  known.  The 
Lombards,  who  possessed  themselves  of  North 
Italy  after  the  middle  of  the  Sixth  Century,  origi- 
nated a  complete  and  systematized  style,  which 
the  people  of  each  country  where  it  was  intro- 
duced modified  to  suit  their  climate,  customs,  and 
wants.  Its  branches  are  variously  known  as 
the  Merovingian,  Carlovingian,  Saxon,  Norman, 
etc.,  which  together  were  styled  old  Gothic,  and 
out  of  which  grew  the  pointed  style,  after  the 
introduction  into  Europe  of  the  pointed  arch. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  study  of  the  arts, 
sciences,  and  literature  took  refuge  in  the  mon- 
asteries. The  influence  of  the  clergy  declined, 
however,  as  free  institutions  arose,  and  the 
pointed  Gothic  must  be  regarded  as  the  work 
rather  of  secular  than  of  clerical  architects. 
This  change  was  doubtless  made  more  complete 
by  the  increasing  importance  of  the  fraternity  of 
Freemasons,  who  became  in  time  sole  directors 
or  supervisors  of  all  the  religious  structures. 
Protected  by  the  Church,  architecture  in  their 
hands  passed  from  the  old  Gothic  through  vari- 
ous phases  of  the  pointed  style.  This  style  is 
customarily  divided  into  three  periods:  the  first, 
or  primary,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  Twelfth 
Century ;  the  second,  or  decorated,  or  rayonnant, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury; and  the  third,  or  perpendicular,  or  flam- 
boyant, from  the  end  of  the  Fourteenth  to  the 
Sixteenth  Century.  The  essential  element  of 
this  style  is  the  pointed  arch.  It  is  during 
the  first  period  that  the  spire  surmounting  the 
tower  becomes  of  so  great  importance.  But- 
tresses and  flying  buttresses  also  form  a  striking 
feature. 

The  windows  gradually  assume  a  less  pointed 
form;  the  clustered  columns  composing  the  col- 
umnar piers  are  more  elaborate ;  and  the  ribs, 
bosses,  and  carved  ornaments  throughout  have 
more  relief  and  are  more  elegant.  The  third 
period  is  remarkable  for  its  profuse  ornamenta- 
tion. The  panelled  walls,  with  their  niches, 
tabernacles,  canopies,  and  screens,  highly  deco- 
rated, the  flying  buttresses  enriched  with  pinna- 
cles and  tracery,  the  corbelled  battlements  and 
turrets,  and  the  balustrades  intricately  carved 
and  pierced,  are  characteristic  of  the  epoch. 

During  the  Fourteenth  Century,  or  the  trecento 
period,  we  discover  in  Italy,  in  the  secular  struc- 
tures more  especially,  numerous  examples  exhib- 
iting a  return  to  the  classic  styles.    At  length,  in 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


513 


the  Sixteenth  Century,  the  classic  taste  prevailed 
tliroughout  Europe,  and  hence  the  different 
names,  cinquecento,  renaissance,  revival,  given 
to  that  style  which  supplanted  everywhere  the 
so-called  Gothic  architecture.  Brunelleschi  of 
Florence  (died  1446)  was  among  the  first  to 
encourage  and  disseminate  this  taste  for  a  return 
to  the  classic  architecture.  He  had  numerous 
distinguished  followers,  among  whom  were 
Alberti,  Bramante,  Peruzzi,  Sangallo,  San  Mich- 
eli,  Palladio,  and  Scamozzi.  In  their  produc- 
tions the  difTerent  elements  of  the  classic  style 
are  happily  introduced.  The  application  of 
these  elements  to  ecclesiastical,  and  more  es- 
pecially to  secular,  structures,  accounts  for  the 
liberties  taken  with  them,  among  which  are  the 
following:  the  great  variety  given  to  the  inter- 
columniation  of  columns;  the  superposition  of 
different  orders,  with  and  without  broken  entab- 
latures; the  frequent  use  of  engaged  columns 
and  pilasters;  the  various  forms  given  to  the 
pediments ;  the  substitution  of  columns  for  piers 
supporting  arcades;  the  decoration  of  blank 
walls  with  medallions,  foliage,  and  scrolls  of 
various  sorts,  together  with  designs  of  animals 
arranged  in  imitation  of  ancient  arabesques. 
These  and  many  other  so-called  liberties  origin- 
ated a  style  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
modern  civilization.  Michael  Angelo  made 
many  innovations.  Instead  of  superimposing 
several  orders,  distinguishing  as  many  stories, 
he  employed  one,  comprising  the  whole  height 
of  the  edifice. 

The  spirit  of  scientific  inquiry  of  the  last  hun- 
dred years,  having  enlarged  our  knowledge  of 
architectural  forms  and  promoted  a  more  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  principles  of  the  art,  has 
given  rise  to  two  movements  directed  either  to 
improving  the  so-called  classical  style,  or  to  sup- 
planting it  altogether.  These  movements  are 
known  as  the  Greek  and  the  Gothic  revival.  Both 
took  their  origin  in  England.  The  Greek  revival 
dates  from  1762,  when  Messrs.  Stuart  and  Revett 
published  the  results  of  their  researches  among 
the  antiquities  of  Attica.  The  Gothic  revival 
may  be  said  to  date  from  Horace  Walpole's  works 
at  Strawberry  Hill  about  1768  to  1797,  but  its 
modern  development  did  not  begin  till  about 
1820.  In  England  and  the  United  States  the 
Greek  revival  was  merely  a  reproduction  of  the 
Greek  buildings  or  parts  of  buildings;  but  in 
France  it  showed  enough  vigor  to  throw  aside 
the  methods  of  the  ancients,  and  to  create  a 
new  style,  which  has  been  called  the  neo-grecque, 
or,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Romanesque, 
founded  upon  Roman  methods,  the  romantique. 
The  column  of  July  in  Paris,  parts  of  the  Palais 
de  Justice,  the  Biblioth^que  Ste.  Genevieve, 
and  the  Palais  des  Beaux-Arts,  by  MM.  Due, 
Labrouste,  and  Duban,  are  the  typical  monu- 
ments of  this  style.  Meanwhile,  in  England, 
the  Greek  movement  having  failed,  the  as- 
cendancy of  the  Gothic  style  was  finally  estab- 
lished, when  in  1840  it  was  decided  to  adopt  it 
for  the  new  houses  of  parliament.  This  great 
undertaking  gave  an  immense  impulse  to  the 
Gothic  movement.  Subsequent  works  show 
not  only  greater  knowledge  and  skill,  but  more 
freedom  of  mind,  both  in  secular  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal work;   and  the  "Victorian  Gothic,"  as  it  has 


been  called,  differs  as  much  from  the  various 
Gothic  styles  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  they  differ 
from  each  other.  A  similar  movement  has  mean- 
while been  going  on  in  France  and  Germany, 
but  less  successfully.  In  Germany  the  proper 
pointed  Gothic  has  been  taken  up,  stimulated 
by  the  great  works  for  the  completion  of  the 
Cologne  cathedral.  The  Votive  Church  at 
Vienna  is  perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  ex- 
ample of  this  movement.  The  adherents  of  the 
Gothic  revival  in  this  country  are  as  numerous 
and  devoted  as  those  of  the  Greek  revival;  but 
there  is  less  partisanship  here  than  abroad, 
and  it  is  more  common  for  architects  to  practice 
in  both  ways  at  once. 

America  can  hardly  claim  to  have  produced 
a  special  school  of  architecture,  but  there  are 
many  public  edifices  that  deserve  to  be  men- 
tioned as  specimens  of  architectural  beauty. 
Many  of  our  best  architects  are  now  designing 
in  what  is  termed  the  "colonial"  style,  which 
is  an  adaptation  of  the  Dutch  style  so  much  in 
vogue  in  this  country  during  the  last  two 
centuries.  Comparatively  little  attention  was 
paid  to  architecture  before  the  Civil  War,  but 
the  growing  taste  and  prosperity  of  the  country 
have  enabled  architects  to  erect  many  hand- 
some dwelling-houses,  which  will  in  no  way 
suffer  by  comparison  with  those  of  European 
cities.  Brick,  stone,  and  iron  are  now  much 
used  in  this  country,  and  the  Gothic  style  has 
been  widely  adopted  for  church  edifices.  Trinity 
Church  in  New  York,  completed  in  1846,  one 
of  the  first  great  Gothic  edifices  of  stone  in  the 
United  States,  Grace  Church,  and  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  in  the  same  city,  are  fine  specimens 
of  that  style.  The  Temple  Emmanuel  is  a  re- 
production of  Saracenic  forms.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  in  Philadelphia  is  modeled 
after  the  Italian  edifices  of  the  time  of  Michael 
Angelo.  Trinity  Church,  of  Boston,  is  the 
best  example  of  the  Romanesque,  influenced 
by  the  Byzantine,  copied  from  edifices  erected 
in  France  during  the  Twelfth  Century.  The 
new  "Old  South  Church"  in  Boston,  is  a  build- 
ing of  strong  form  and  decoration.  The  mus- 
eum of  art  in  the  same  city  inclines  to  the  Vene- 
tian Gothic,  and  among  the  more  prominent  of 
the  later  renaissance  buildings  are  the  Boston 
and  New  York  post-offices,  built  of  granite, 
brick, and  iron.  The  lofty  "Tribune"  building  is 
a  noticeable  feature  of  the  lower  part  of  New 
York.  The  War,  State,  and  Navy  building, 
of  Washington,  D.  C,  the  Grand  Central 
railroad  depot  of  New  York,  and  the  new  Lowell 
and  Providence  depots  in  Boston,  are  splendid 
and  well-appointed  structures.  The  capitol 
at  Washington,  the  corner  stone  of  which  was 
laid  in  1793,  is  in  the  style  of  renaissance.  Ex- 
tensive additions  have  been  made  to  both  wings 
since  1850.  The  material  used  is  a  handsome 
marble,  the  original  building  being  of  sandstone. 
The  treasury  building  and  the  patent  office  are 
in  the  Greek  style,  as  are  the  sub-treasury  and 
custom-house  at  New  York,  Girard  College, 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Alabama  State  capitol. 
Of  public  buildings  in  Gothic  form,  a  high  rank 
must  be  given  to  the  Connecticut  State  capitol 
at  Hartford,  the  new  capitol  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
and  the  Ohio  capitol  at  Columbus.      In  Florida 


514 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


and  California  many  examples  of  the  Spanish 
type  are  to  be  found.  Many  fine  buildings  have 
been  erected  for  commercial  puri)oses  in  various 
cities  of  the  United  States  whicli  justly  deserve 
the  title  of  "business  palaces,"  and  are  w.ell 
suited  to  accommodate  our  merchant  princes. 
Although  architects  are  somewhat  fettered  by 
the  small  lots  of  twenty-five  feet  in  width,  pre- 
vailing in  most  of  our  cities,  many  dwelling- 
houses  present  remarkably  handsome  exteriors 
and  interiors.  Fifth  Avenue,  in  New  York,  is 
in  this  respect  one  of  the  finest  thoroughfares 
in  the  world.  The  apartment  liouses,  which 
have  come  into  fashion  since  the  late  war,  cover- 
ing more  than  one  lot,  have  fared  better  in  an 
artistic  point  of  view,  of  which  the  Stevens 
house  of  New  York  is  one  of  the  notable  examples. 
Many  beautiful  country  residences  are  to  be 
found  at  Newport,  Long  Branch,  and  scattered 
throughout  the  country. 

Arctic  Exploration.  Frobisher,  Davis, 
Hudson,  Bylot,  and  Baffin  successively,  were  the 
first  to  engage  in  an  effort  to  reach  the  North 
Pole.  Then  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  two  cen- 
turies the  record  of  Arctic  research  was  taken 
up  by  such  men  as  Ross  and  Parry  (1818),  who 
were  followed  by  Sir  John  Franklin.  Franklin  set 
sail  in  command  of  the  " Erebus"  and  "  Terror," 
in  May,  1845,  and  by  the  month  of  July  reached 
Whalefish  Islands  in  Davis'  Strait.  On  the  26th 
of  that  month  the  ships  were  seen  in  latitude 
74°  48'  north;  longitude  66°  13'  west;  after 
which  no  further  intelligence  concerning  them 
was  received.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  be- 
ginning of  1847  that  serious  apprehensions  were 
entertained  regarding  the  expedition.  The 
most  strenuous  efforts  were  then  made  by  both 
the  English  and  the  Americans  to  obtain  tidings 
of  Franklin.  Among  the  numerous  expeditions 
sent  out  by  sea  and  land  in  search  of  the  missing 
navigator  and  his  company  were  those  of  Rich- 
ardson and  Rae  (by  land,  1847),  of  Moore  (1848- 
52),  of  Kellet  (1848-50),  of  Shedden  (1848-50), 
of  Sir  James  Ross  (1848-49),  of  Saunders 
(1849-50),  of  Austin  and  Ommaney  (1850-51), 
and  of  Penny  (1850-51).  In  1850,  MacClure  set 
out  by  Behring's  Strait  on  a  search  expedition, 
and  to  him  is  due  the  honor  of  having  ascertained 
the  existence  of  the  long-sought-for  northwest 
passage.  Other  expeditions  between  1850  and 
1855  were:    CoUinson's,  Rae's,  Kennedy's,  Ma- 

fuire's.  Belcher's,  MacClintock's,  and  Inglefield's. 
n  1853,  Rae,  proceeding  to  the  east  side  of  King 
William  Sound,  obtained  the  first  tidings  of  the 
destruction  of  Franklin's  ships.  In  1855,  Ander- 
son, proceeding  up  the  Great  Fish  River,  also 
discovered  relics  of  the  "Erebus"  and  "Terror." 
At  length  MacClintock  (1857-59)  set  all  doubts 
at  rest  regarding  the  fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
and  his  companions,  by  establishing  the  fact 
that  they  had  died  in  1847.  Dr.  Kane  made 
some  important  observations  during  the  prog- 
ress of  his  Arctic  explorations,  1853-55.  Then 
followed  the  expeditions  of  Dr.  Isaac  Hayes  in 
1860  and  1869,  and  those  of  Captain  Charles 
Hall  in  1860  and  1864.  Finally,  Lieutenant 
Schwatka  headed  an  overland  expedition  in 
1879-80  in  search  of  the  journals  of  the  Franklin 
expedition.  Of  later  expeditions  may  be  men- 
tioned  that  of  the  unfortunate  and  ill-advised 


"  Jcannette"  (1879),  sent  out  under  the  command 
of  Lieutenant  DeLong,  to  explore  the  Arctic  Sea 
through  Behring's  Strait;  those  of  Mr.  Leigh 
Smith  in  1880  and  1881,  in  the  latter  of  which 
he  lost  his  vessel;  and  that  of  Sir  C.  Young  for 
the  relief  of  the  former.  An  expedition  sent  out 
by  the  United  States  under  Greely  (1881-84), 
reached  83°  24'  north.  In  1888,  South  Green- 
land was   crossed  by   Nansen,   and   March    14, 

1895,  he  attahied  83°  59'.     In  1892,  Peary  traced . 
Greenland  to  82°  north. 

In  1896,  Dr.  Fridtjof  Nansen,  of  Norway,  re- 
turned from  an  Arctic  expedition,  after  an  ab- 
sence of  more  than  three  years.  The  most 
northerly  point  reached  by  him  was  86°  14' 
north  latitude,  or  200  miles  nearer  the  Pole 
than  ever  reached  before.  He  found  no  indi- 
cations of  land  north  of  82°  north  latitude,  and 
in  the  higher  latitudes  no  open  sea,  only  narrow 
cracks  in  the  ice. 

In  1906,  Lieutenant  Peary  attained  the  far- 
thest north  in  the  western  hemisphere,  latitude 
87°  6'.  In  1902,  he  had  pushed  the  advance 
on  the  American  side  beyond  his  own  best 
record  established  in  1901,  and  sixty  miles  be- 
yond the  point  reached  by  Lockwood  and 
Brainerd  of  the  Greely  expedition  in  1882, 
which  had  stood  as  the  American  record  for 
nineteen  years.  He  encountered  the  greatest 
dangers  in  his  efforts  to  reach  the  Pole,  and 
showed  ability  and  endurance  which  place  him 
high  in  the  rank  of  explorers. 

In  September,  1909,  Dr.  Frederick  A.  Cook 
startled  the  world  by  his  announcement  of  his 
discovery  of  the  Pole  on  April  21,  1908,  and 
five  days  later  Peary  announced  that  he  too,  a 
year  after  Cook,  had  reached  the  long  sought 
goal. 

The  best  records  of  Arctic  exploration  pre- 
vious to  the  announcements  of  Cook  and  Peary 
are  as  follows: 

Year  Explobers  North  Latitude 

1607.  Hudson 80° 

1773.  Phipps 80" 

1806.  Scoresby 81° 

1827.  Parry 82° 

1874.  Meyer  (on  land) 82° 

1875.  Markham  and  Parr  (Narea' 

expedition), 83° 

1876.  Payer 83° 

1882.     Lockwood  (Greely's  party),  83° 

1896.  Nansen 86° 

1900.     Abruzzi 86° 

1906.     Peary 87° 

Arctic  Ocean,  or  Northern  Icy  Sea,  is 
that  part  of  the  ocean  which  extends  from  the 
Arctic  circle,  latitude  66°  30'  north,  to  the  North 
Pole ;  it-  washes  the  whole  of  the  northern  coasts 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  and  communi- 
cates on  the  northwest  of  Europe  with  the  At- 
lantic; and  on  the  northeast  of  Asia  with  the 
Pacific  by  Behring  Strait.  It  forms  the  White 
Sea  in  Europe,  and  the  gulfs  of  Kara,  Obi,  and 
Yenesei,  in  Siberia;  in  North  America,  where 
it  takes  the  name  of  the  "Polar  Sea,"  it  forms 
Baffins'  Bay.  During  winter  ice  extends  in 
every  direction  round  the  Pole,  covering  a  space 
of  from  3,000  to  4,000  miles  in  diameter;  and 
even  during  the  four  months  of  summer  the 
surface  of  this  sea  is  at  the  freezing-point.  Ice- 
bergs and  fields  of  ice  are  continually  drifting 


23' 

0" 

48' 

0" 

12' 

42" 

.50' 

0" 

0' 

0" 

20' 

26" 

07' 

0" 

24' 

0" 

14' 

0" 

33' 

0" 

6' 

0" 

GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


515 


south  into  the  Atlantic, —  the  former  sometimes 
extending  to  100  miles  in  length,  and  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  in  diameter. 

Argentine  Republic,  formerly  called 
the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata,  is  a  vast  coun- 
try of  South  America;  extreme  length,  2,300 
miles;  average  breadth  a  little  over  500  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Bolivia;  on  the 
east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic"  on  the  south  by  the  Antarctic  Ocean; 
and  on  tne  west  by  the  Andes.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  northwest,  where  lateral  branches 
of  the  Andes  run  into  the  plain  for  150  or  200 
miles,  and  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  which  is 
hilly,  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  country 
is  the  great  monotonous  and  level  plains  called 
pampas.  In  the  north,  these  plains  are  partly 
forest-covered,  but  all  the  central  and  south 
parts  present  vast  treeless  tracts,  which  afford 
pasture  to  immense  herds  of  horses,  oxen,  and 
sheep,  and  are  varied  in  some  places  by  brackish 
swamps,  in  others  by  salt  steppes.  European 
grains  and  fruits,  including  the  vine,  have  been 
successfully  introduced,  and  are  cultivated  in 
most  parts  of  the  republic;  countless  herds  of 
cattle  and  horses  and  flocks  of  sheep  are  pas- 
tured on  the  pampas,  and  multiply  there  very 
rapidly.  Gold,  silver,  nickel,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
and  iron,  besides  marble,  jasper,  precious  stones, 
and  bitumen,  are  found  in  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  northwest,  while  petroleum 
wells  have  been  discovered  on  the  Rio  Vermejo; 
but  the  development  of  this  mineral  wealth  has 
hitherto  been  greatly  retarded  by  the  want  of 
proper  means  of.  transport.  As  a  whole,  there 
are  not  extensive  forests  in  the  country,  except 
in  the  region  of  the  Gran  Chaco  (which  extends 
also  into  Bolivia),  where  there  is  known  to  be 
60,000  square  miles  of  timber.  Thousands  of 
square  miles  are  covered  with  thistles,  which 
grow  to  a  great  height  in  their  season.  Cacti 
also  form  great  thickets.  Peach  and  apple 
trees  are  abundant  in  some  districts.  The 
native  fauna  includes  the  puma,  the  jaguar,  the 
tapir,  the  llama,  the  alpaca,  the  vicuna,  arma- 
dilos,  the  rhea  or  nandu,  a  species  of  ostrich, 
etc.  The  climate  is  agreeable  and  healthful, 
97°  being  about  the  highest  temperature  experi- 
enced. As  a  whole,  this  vast  country  is  very 
thinly  inhabited,  some  parts  of  it  as  yet  being 
very  little  known.  The  native  Indians  were 
never  very  numerous,  and  have  given  little 
trouble  to  the  European  settlers.  Tribes  of 
them  yet  in  the  savage  state  still  inhabit  the 
less-known  districts,  and  live  by  hunting  and 
fishing.  Some  of  the  Gran  Chaco  tribes  are  said 
to  be  very  fierce,  and  European  travelers  have 
been  killed  by  them.  The  European  element  is 
strong  in  the  republic,  more  than  half  of  the 
population  being  Europeans  or  of  pure  European 
descent.  Large  numbers  of  immigrants  arrive 
from  Southern  Europe,  the  Italians  having 
the  preponderance  among  those  of  foreign 
birth.  The  typical  inhabitants  of  the  pampas 
are  the  Gauchos,  a  race  of  half-breed  cattle- 
rearers  and  horse-breakers;  they  are  almost 
continually  on  horseback,  galloping  over  the 
plains,  collecting  their  herds  and  droves, 
taming  wild  horses,  or  catching  and  slaughter- 
ing cattle.     In  such  occupations  they  acquire  a 


marvelous  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  lasso  and 
bolas. 

Aries  {arl),  a  city  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  about  forty-six 
miles  northwest  of  Marseilles.  Aries  was  the 
Arelate  of  the  Romans.  It  was  an  important 
town  at  the  time  of  Csesar's  invasion,  about  59 
B.  C,  and  afterwards  received  a  Roman  colony, 
of  which  there  are  many  remains,  including  a 
magnificent  amphitheater,  and  a  palace  built 
by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  about  A.  D.  .306. 
Aries  was  the  seat  of  the  Merovingian  kings  in 
the  Sixth  Century.  It  now  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade,  and  has  manufactures  in  silk, 
etc.,  besides  furnishing  a  market  for  the  products 
of  the  surrounding  country.  The  population 
of  the  city  is  about  25,000. 

Armenia,  a  country  of  Western  Asia,  ex- 
tending from  the  Caucasus  on  the  north  to  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan  on  the  south,  and  from 
the  Euphrates  on  the  west,  to  near  the  Caspian 
on  the  east.  It  is  subdivided  among  the  Turk- 
ish pashalics  of  Erzeroum,  Kars,  and  Van,  and 
parts  of  the  Persian  province  of  Azerbijan,  and 
the  Russian  Government  of  Transcaucasia. 
The  native  Armenians,  estimated  at  one-seventh 
of  the  whole  population,  are  distinguished  for 
their  enterprise  in  commercial  and  banking 
transactions.  The  Armenian  Christians  mostly 
belong  to  an  ecclesiastical  establishment  of  their 
own,  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  Greek 
Church;  but  many  have  adhered  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  Chief  towns,  Kars  and  Erze- 
roum. Christian  population  about  1,000,000, 
with  an  equal  number  of  Kurds,  Turks,  Tartars, 
etc.  In  1878,  after  the  Russo-Turkish  War, 
Russia  acquired  the  districts  of  Kars  and  Arda- 
han.  The  Armenians  suffered  severely  in  life 
and  property  from  the  invasion  of  Kurds  iji  1882; 
and  in  1895,  such  frightful  massacres  took  place 
that  the  great  .powers  of  Europe  were  moved 
to  demand  thorough  measures  of  reform  from 
the  Sultan  in  the  government  of  Armenia. 
The  Sultan  temporized  and  delayed  until  the 
powers  sent  armed  ships  to  Constantinople. 

Atiiens,  the  capital  of  Greece,  situated  on 
a  peninsula  formed  by  the  rivers  Ilissus  and 
Cephissiis,  about  four  miles  from  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Egina.  It  is  built  at  the  base  of 
the  hill  on  which  stands  the  Acropolis,  and  has 
been  greatly  improved  architecturally  of  late 
years,  since  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece  was  es- 
tablished. The  royal  palace,  completed  in 
1843,  is  one  of  its  most  imposing  modern  struc- 
tures ;  the  city  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  of  the 
Greek  Church ;  and  it  has  a  university,  attended 
usually  by  upwards  of  2,500  students.  Athens 
is,  however,  chiefiy  interesting  on  account  of  its 
history,  and  through  its  possession  of  those  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  which  still  attest  its  former 
greatness.  All  these  are  on  or  close  around  the 
Acropolis.  Chief  of  these  are  the  remains  of 
Pelasgic  walls  and  dwellings ;  the  Propyloea,  or 
Gate;  the  Pinacotheka;  Temple  of  Wingless 
Victory,  and,  above  all,  the  Parthenon,  built  by 
Pericles,  much  destroyed  by  an  explosion  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  Athens  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  about  1550  B.  C.  In  the  time  of 
Pericles  (460-429  B.  C),  it  contained  10,000 
houses,  with  a   population  estimated  at   from 


516 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


120,000  to  180,000;  and  even  after  its  occupa- 
tion by  the  Romans  it  continued  to  be  a  great 
and  flourishing  city,  and  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  learning,  till  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Goths,  in 
the  Fourth  Century,  falling  ultimately,  after 
many  changes,  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  under 
whose  influence  it  remained  from  A.  D.  1456  to 
1832.  Of  the  ancient  city,  the  principal  remains 
are  the  Parthenon,  or  Temple  of  Athena,  and  a 
Temple  of  Theseus,  both  built  also  in  the  Fifth 
Century  before  Christ.  There  are  also  the  re- 
mains of  a  grand  temple  to  Zeus  (Jupiter),  to  the 
southeast  of  the  Acropolis,  and  a  short  distance  to 
the  west  is  the  Areopagus.  As  the  capital  of  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  the  trade  of  Athens 
has  considerably  revived,  and  a  railway  now 
connects  the  city  with  the  port  of  the  Pirseus, 
or  Porto  Leone.     Population,  128,735. 

Athos,  a  mountain  on  the  coast  of  Mace- 
donia, at  the  extremity  of  the  long  peninsula 
which  projects  into  the  ^Egean  Sea,  between 
the  Gulfs  of  Contessa  and  Monte  Santo.  The 
mountain  is  now  known  as  "Monte  Santo,"  or 
Holy  Moimtain,  from  the  large  number  of  mon- 
asteries, convents,  chapels,  and  other  sacred 
spots,  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church,  that  are 
scattered  over  its  sides.  These  foundations  are 
traced  to  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
The  name  "Athos"  was,  however,  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  mountainous  peninsula,  which 
is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  low  flat  isthmus, 
not  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  across,  and  only 
about  fifteen  feet  above  the  sea  level.  When 
Xerxes  invaded  Greece  (480  B.  C.)  he  cut  a 
channel  across  this  isthmus,  traces  of  which  are 
still  visible. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  one  of  the  five  great 
hydrographical  divisions  of  the  globe,  occupies 
an  immense  longitudinal  valley,  and  extends 
from  the  Arctic  Circle  on  the  north  to  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle  on  the  south ;  bounded  west  by  the 
coast  of  America  to  Cape  Horn,  and  thence  by  a 
line  continued  on  the  same  meridian  to  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle ;  and  east  by  the  shores  of  Europe 
and  Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thence 
prolonged  on  the  meridian  of  Cape  Agulhas  till 
it  meets  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Its  extreme 
breadth  is  about  5,000  miles,  and  its  area  nearly 
30,000,000  square  miles.  The  North  Sea,  or  Ger- 
man Ocean,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Irish 
Sea,  form  portions  of  the  Atlantic ;  but  the  Bal- 
tic and  Mediterranean,  which  communicate 
with  it  by  narrow  channels,  are  properly  con- 
sidered separate  seas.  The  chief  islands  are,  in 
Europe,  the  British  Isles  and  Iceland;  in  Africa, 
the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  Canary  Islands,  and 
the  archipelago  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea ;  in  Amer- 
ica, the  Antilles,  Newfoundland,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  chief  affluents 
are,  in  Europe,  the  Rhine,  Loire,  and  Tagus; 
in  Africa,  the  Senegal,  Niger,  and  Congo;  and 
in  America,  the  St.  Lawrence,  Mississippi,  Ori- 
noco, Amazons,  and  La  Plata.  The  bed  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  very  unequal  in  elevation,  in 
some  places  rising  in  immense  sand-banks  to 
within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  surface,  and  in  others 
sinking  to  unfathomable  depths.  The  trade- 
winds  blow  regularly  in  the  intertropical  portion 
of  the  Atlantic;  beyond  these  limits  the  winds 
are  variable.     From  the  prevalence  of  south- 


west winds  in  the  North  Atlantic,  the  voyage 
from  America  to  Europe,  on  an  average  of  six 
years'  sailing  between  New  York  and  Liverpool, 
is  performed  in  twenty-three  days,  while  the 
return  voyage  requires  forty  days.  Enormous 
numbers  of  fish  are  found  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  herring  and  cod  fishing  are  important 
branches  of  industry  in  Northern  Europe  and 
America.  In  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  North 
and  South  Atlantic,  navigation  is  impeded  by 
immense  icebergs,  which  are  floated  from  the 
polar  regions;  and  although  these  are  generally 
melted  before  reaching  the  frequented  parts  of 
the  ocean,  they  have  occasionally  been  met  with 
as  far  south  as  latitude  40°  45'  in  the  North  At- 
lantic, and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Australasia,  a  division  of  the  globe 
usually  regarded  as  comprehending  the  islands 
of  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  New 
Caledonia,  the  New  Hebrides,  the  Solomon 
Islands,  New  Ireland,  New  Britain,  the  Admir- 
alty Islands,  New  Guinea,  and  the  Arru  Islands, 
besides  numerous  other  islands  and  island 
groups;  area,  3,259,199  square  miles,  popu- 
lation about  five  millions.  It  forms  one  of 
three  portions  into  which  some  geographers 
have  divided  Oceania,  the  other  two  being 
Malaysia  and  Polynesia. 

Australia  (older  name,  New  Holland),  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  a  sea-girt  continent, 
lying  between  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans, 
southeast  of  Asia;  greatest  length,  from  west 
to  east,  2,400  miles;  greatest  breadth  from 
north  to  south,  1,700  to  1,900  miles.  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  New  Guinea  on  the  north  by  Torres 
Strait,  from  Tasmania  on  the  south  by  Bass 
Strait.  It  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  is  occupied  by 
what  are  known  as  the  original  states  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia. 

The  area  and  the  population  (exclusive  of 
aborigines)  of  the  different  states  composing 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  in  1905  were  as 
follows : 


Original  States 


New  South  Wales, 

Victoria 

Queensland, .    .    . 
South  Australia, 
Western  Australia, 
Tasmania,    .    .    . 


Total, 


Area 
Sq.  Mi. 


310,367 
87,884 
668,497 
903,690 
975,920 
26,215 


2,972,573 


Pop. 


1,496,050 
1,218,571 
528,048 
374,398 
254,705 
181,106 


4,052,878 


Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South  Wales, 
Melbourne,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  Adelaide, 
the  capital  of  South  Australia,  Perth,  the  capital 
of  Western  Australia,  and  Brisbane,  the  capital 
of  Queensland,  are  the  chief  towns.  Australia 
is  a  region  containing  a  vast  quantity  of  mineral 
wealth.  Foremost  come  its  rich  and  extensive 
deposits  of  gold,  which,  since  the  precious 
metal  was  first  discovered,  in  1851,  have  pro- 
duced a  total  of  more  than  $1,350,000,000. 
The  greatest  quantity  has  been  obtained  in 
Victoria,  but  New  South  Wales  and  Queens- 
land have  also  yielded  a  considerable  amount. 
Probably  there  are  rich  stores  of  gold  as  yet  un- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


517 


discovered.  Australia  also  possesses  silver,  cop- 
per, tin,  lead,  zinc,  antimony,  mercury,  plum- 
bago, etc.,  in  abundance,  besides  coal  (in  New 
South  Wales)  and  iron.  Various  precious  stones 
are  found,  as  the  garnet,  ruby,  topaz,  sapphire, 
and  even  the  diamond.  Of  building  stone  there 
are  granite,  limestone,  marble,  and  sandstone. 
The  Australian  flora  presents  peculiarities  which 
mark  it  off  by  itself  in  a  very  decided  manner. 
Many  of  its  most  striking  features  have  an 
unmistakable  relation  to  the  general  dryness  of 
the  climate.  The  trees  and  bushes  have,  for 
the  most  part,  a  scanty  foliage,  presenting  little 
surface  for  evaporation,  or  thick  leathery  leaves 
well  fitted  to  retain  moisture.  The  Australian 
fauna  is  almost  unique  in  its  character.  Its 
great  feature  is  the  nearly  total  absence  of  all 
the  forms  of  mammalia  which  abound  in  the 
rest  of  the  world. 

Austria,  or  Austria -Hungary,  is 
an  extensive  monarchy  in  Central  Europe, 
inhabited  by  several  distinct  nationalties,  and 
consisting  of  two  semi-independent  countries, 
each  with  its  own  parliament  and  government, 
but  with  one  common  sovereign,  army,  and 
system  of  diplomacy,  and  also  with  a  parlia- 
ment common  to  both.  Its  greatest  length 
from  east  to  west  is  about  860  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth  from  north  to  south,  with  the  exclusion 
of  Dalmatia  and  part  of  Croatia,  is  about  400 
miles;  bounded  south  by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy ;  west  by  Switzer- 
land, Bavaria,  and  Saxony;  north  by  Prussia 
and  Russian  Poland;  and  east  by  Russia  and 
Roumania.  On  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  along 
the  coasts  of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Istria,  etc.,  lies 
its  only  sea  frontage. 

None  of  the  European  states,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Russia,  exhibits  such  a  diversity  of  race 
and  language  among  their  population  as  does 
the  Austrian  Empire.  The  Slavs,  who  amount 
to  above  19,000,000  or  40  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population,  are  the  chief  of  the  component 
nationalities  of  the  monarchy  in  point  of  num- 
bers, forming  the  great  mass  of  the  population 
of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Carniola,  Galicia,  Dalma- 
tia, the  kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and 
Northern  Hungary,  and  half  the  population  of 
Silesia  and  Bukowina.  This  preponderance, 
however,  is  only  apparent,  as  none  of  the  other 
races  are  split  up  into  so  many  branches,  diiJer- 
ing  so  greatly  from  each  other  in  language,  relig- 
ion, civilization,  manners,  and  customs.  These 
branches  are  the  North  Slavic  Czechs,  Mora- 
vians, and  Slovaks,  the  Ruthenians  and  Poles, 
and  the  South  Slavic  Slovenians,  Croats,  Serbs, 
and  Bulgarians.  The  Germans,  about  10,570,- 
000  in  numlaer,  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
monarchy,  and  form  almost  the  sole  population 
of  the  archduchy  of  Austria,  Salzburg,  the 
greatest  portion  of  Styria  and  Carinthia,  almost 
the  whole  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  considerable 
portions  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  whole  of 
the  west  of  Silesia,  etc.;  and  they  are  also 
numerous  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  The 
Magyars  or  Hungarians  (7,440,000  in  number, 
or  about  16  per  cent,  of  the  total  population) 
form  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
kingdom  of  Hungary  and  of  the  east  portion  of 
Transylvania.     To   the   Italic   or  Western   Ro- 


manic stock  belong  the  inhabitants  of  South 
Tyrol  and  parts  of  the  coast  lands  and  Dalmatia, 
numbering  about  700,000  in  all.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  southeast  of  the  empire  is  occupied 
by  members  of  the  Roumanian  (or  Eastern 
Romanic)  stock,  who  number  altogether  about 
2,800,000,  and  form  more  than  half  the  popu- 
lation of  Transylvania,  besides  being  spread 
over  the  southeast  parts  of  Hungary,  Bukowina, 
and  part  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  The  num- 
ber of  Jews  is  also  very  considerable  (above 
1,000,000),  especially  in  Galicia,  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  There  are  also  several 
other  races  whose  numbers  are  small,  such  as 
the  Gypsies  (95,000),  who  are  most  numerous  in 
Hungary  and  Transylvania,  and  the  Albanians 
in  Dalmatia  and  neighboring  regions.  The 
population  is  thickest  in  Lower  Austria,  Bohe- 
mia, Silesia,  and  Moravia;  thinnest  in  Salzburg. 
Generally  speaking,  it  decreases  in  density  from 
west  to  east.  The  principal  cities  are:  Vienna, 
the  capital;  Budapest,  Prague,  Trieste,  Reich- 
enburg,  and  Fiume. 

Baltic  Sea  is  the  great  gulf  or  shut  sea 
bordered  by  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
Sweden,  communicating  with  the  Kattegat  and 
North  Sea  by  the  Sound  and  Great  and  Little 
Belts.  Its  length  is  from  850  to  900  miles,  width 
from  100  to  200,  and  area,  including  Gulfs  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland,  160,000  square  miles.  Its 
depth  is,  on  an  average,  fifteen  to  twenty  fath- 
oms, in  many  places  not  half  so  much,  seldom 
more  than  forty  or  fifty,  and  never  exceeding 
420. 

Baltimore,  the  seventh  city  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  Patapsco  Bay,  in  Maryland, 
thirty-seven  miles  northeast  of  Washington, 
and  100  miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia.  It 
was  founded  in  1729,  and  has  been  named  the 
"monumental  city,"  from  its  fine  public  monu- 
ments. Among  its  many  public  buildings  is 
the  Peabody  Institute,  endowed  by  the  late 
George  Peabody,  containing  a  library,  art-gal- 
lery, etc.,  with  a  dome  115  feet  high.  The  city  is 
the  seat  of  Johns  Hopkins  University.  It  has 
also  a  city  hall,  built  of  white  Maryland  marble, 
with  a  dome  227  feet  high.  The  manufactures 
and  commerce  of  Baltimore  are  very  various. 
In  its  vicinity  is  found  the  finest  brick-clay  in 
the  world;  more  than  100,000,000  bricks  are 
made  annually.  It  has  some  of  the  largest  iron- 
works in  the  United  States.  Oysters,  taken  in 
the  Chesapeake  Bay,  are  largely  exported.  The 
city  is  also  one  of  the  largest  flour-markets  in  the 
United  States,  and  tobacco  is  a  principal  export. 
The  harbor  is  very  extensive.  From  east  to 
west  the  city  is  nearly  five  miles  long,  and  four 
miles  broad  from  north  to  south.  It  was  visited 
by  a  destructive  fire  in  1904,  entailing  a  loss  of 
$90,000,000.     Population,  558,485. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  city  of  Siam,  situated 
on  both  banks  of  the  Menam,  about  twenty 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  population  is  about 
600,000,  nearly  half  of  whom  are  Chinese. 
The  foreign  trade  of  Siam  centers  in  Bangkok, 
and  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  Europeans  and 
Chinese.  The  approach  to  Bangkok  by  the 
Menam,  which  can  be  navigated  by  ships  of  350 
tons  burden  (large  sea-going  ships  anchor  at 
Paknam,   below  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 


518 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


river),  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  The  internal 
traffic  of  Bangkok  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means 
of  canals,  there  being  only  a  few  passable  streets 
in  the  whole  city,  tnougn  in  recent  years  steel 
bridges,  tramways  and  electric  lights  have  been 
introduced.  Horses  and  carriages  are  rarely 
seen,  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  palaces. 
The  native  houses  on  land  —  of  bamboo  or 
other  wood,  like  the  floating  houses  -^  are 
raised  upon  piles,  six  or  eight  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  are  reached  by  ladders.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  walls  of  Bangkok,  which  are 
fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high,  and  twelve  broad,  is 
about  six  miles. 

Barcelona  is  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing city  in  Spain.  The  streets  of  the  old 
town,  forming  the  northwest  division,  are 
crooked,  narrow,  and  ill-paved.  Those  of  the 
new  are  much  more  spacious  and  regular.  There 
is  a  large  suburb  east  of  the  town  where  the  sea- 
faring portion  of  the  population  chiefly  reside. 
It  possesses  the  finest  theater  in  Spain,  and 
numerous  ancient  and  elegant  churcnes,  with 
a  cathedral  which  was  begun  in  1298.  Barcelona 
manufactures  silk,  woolens,  cottons,  lace,  hats, 
fire-arms,  etc.,  which  form  its  principal  exports. 
It  imports  raw  cotton,  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  and 
other  colonial  produce;  also  Baltic  timber,  salt- 
fish,  hides,  iron,  wax,  etc.  The  University 
of  Barcelona  has  about  2,000  students.  Popu- 
lation, 533,090. 

Bastille,  formerly  a  general  name  for  a 
fortress,  or  prison,  in  France;  but  applied  more 
particularly  to  an  old  castle,  originally  the  castle 
of  Paris,  which  was  built  between  A.  D.  1369  and 
1383,  and  was  used  as  a  state  prison  in  the 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries.  It  was 
demolished  by  the  enraged  populace  at  the 
breaking-out  of  the  French  Revolution,  July  15, 
1789. 

Belfast,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Ireland, 
principal  town  of  Ulster,  and  county  town  of 
Antrim,  is  built  on  low,  alluvial  land  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Lagan,  at  the  head  of  Belfast  Lough. 
Previous  to  about  1830  the  cotton  manufacture 
was  the  leading  industry  of  Belfast,  but  nearly 
all  the  mills  have  been  converted  to  flax  spinning. 
The  iron  ship-building  trade  is  also  of  impor- 
tance, and  there  are  breweries,  distilleries,  flour 
mills,  oil  mills,  foundries,  print  works,  tan  yards, 
chemical  works,  rope  works,  etc.  The  commerce 
is  large.  An  extensive  direct  trade  is  carried  on 
with  British  North  America,  the  Mediterranean, 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  the  Baltic,  be- 
sides ports  of  the  British  Islands.  Belfast  is 
comparatively  a  modern  town.  Population, 
349,180. 

Belgrium,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  bounded 
north  by  Holland,  northwest  by  the  North  Sea, 
west  and  south  by  France,  and  east  by  the 
duchy  of  Luxemburg,  Rhenish  Prussia,  and 
Dutch  Limburg;  greatest  length,  165  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  120  miles.  For  administra- 
tive purposes  it  is  divided  into  nine  provinces 
—  Antwerp,  Brabant,  East  Flanders,  West 
Flanders,  Hainaut,  Liege,  Limburg,  Luxemburg, 
and  Namur.  The  greater  part  of  the  country 
is  only  fairly  adapted  for  agricultural  opera- 
tions, but  the  inhabitants  nave  so  happily 
availed  themselves  of  their  natural  advantages 


that  they  early  began,  and  in  some  respects  still 
deserve,  to  be  regarded  as  the  model  farmers  of 
Europe.  The  mineral  riches  of  Belgium  are 
great,  and,  after  agriculture,  form  the  most 
important  of  her  national  interests.  They  are 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  four  provinces  of 
Hainaut,  Liege,  Namur,  and  Luxemburg,  and 
consist  of  lead,  manganese,  calamine  or  zinc,  iron, 
and  coal.  All  these  minerals,  however,  are 
insignificant  compared  with  those  of  iron  and 
coal.  The  coal  field  has  an  area  of  above 
500  square  miles.  The  export  is  about  5,000,- 
000  tons,  forming  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  of  all  the  Belgium  exports.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  the  coal  thus  exported  is  taken  by 
France.  The  industrial  products  of  Belgium 
are  very  numerous,  and  the  superiority  of  many 
of  them  to  those  of  most  other  countries  is  con- 
fessed. The  fine  linens  of  Flanders,  and  lace  of 
Brabant  are  of  European  reputation.  Scarcely 
less  celebrated  are  the  carpets  and  porcelain 
of  Tournay,  the  cloth  of  Verviers,  the  exten- 
sive foundries,  machine  works,  and  other  iron 
and  steel  establishments  of  Liege,  Seraing, 
and  other  places.  The  cotton  and  woolen  man- 
ufactures, confined  chiefly  to  Flanders  and  the 
province  of  Antwerp,  have  advanced  greatly. 
Other  manufactures  include  silks,  beet  sugar, 
beer.  Principal  cities:  Brussels,  Antwerp, 
Liege,  Ghent,  and  Bruges. 

Bering^  Strait,  the  channel  which  sepa- 
rates Asia  and  America  at  their  nearest  approach 
to  each  other,  and  connects  the  Arctic  with  the 
Pacific  Ocean  (Bering  Sea).  It  is  thirty-six 
miles  across.  Shores  rocky,  bare,  and  greatly 
indented.  It  was  traversed  in  1728,  by  Vitus 
Bering,  a  Russian  navigator,  who  perished 
during  a  second  expedition,  1741,  on  Bering's 
Island,  for  whom  it  was  named. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  Prussia,  and  seat  of 
the  imperial  government  of  Germany,  one  of 
the  finest  and  most  important  cities  of  Europe, 
is  situated  on  the  Spree.  Notwithstanding  the 
natural  disadvantages  of  its  situation,  the  ad- 
vance of  the  city,  especially  in  late  years,  has 
been  extraordinary.  The  center  of  the  city  is 
now  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  commerce, 
and  round  this  part,  extending  considerably  be- 
yond the  city  boundaries,  are  congregated  the 
residences  of  the  citizens.  Berlin  possesses  a 
large  number  of  very  fine  buildings.  Of  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  royal  palace,  the  em- 
peror's palace,  and  that  of  the  crown  prince; 
the  royal  library,  which  contains  about  1,200,- 
000  volumes  and  15,000  MSS.;  the  museums, 
the  arsenal,  and  the  guard-house.  The  Berlin 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  is  rapidly  becoming  one 
of  great  importance.  Its  collection  of  casts 
from  the  antique  and  the  renaissance  is  not 
surpassed  by  any  in  Europe.  The  city  is  adorned 
throughout  with  numerous  statues  of  military 
heroes,  the  equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  by  Ranch,  being  the  most  remarkable. 
The  university  established  in  1810  possesses  a 
very  high  reputation.     Population,  2,101,933. 

Birmingham,  the  chief  town  in  Britain 
for  metallic  manufactures,  and  supplying  much 
of  the  world  with  hardwares,  stands  near  the 
center  of  England,  in  the  northwest  of  War- 
wickshire.    It  is  one  of  the  best  drained  towns 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


519 


in  England,  while  the  means  which  have  been 
adopted  for  the  prevention  of  smoke-contami- 
nation of  the  atmosphere  are  so  far  effectual 
that  the  air  is  unusually  clear  and  salubrious. 
The  older  part  of  Birmingham  is  crowded  with 
workshops  and  warehouses;  but  the  modern  is 
well  built  and  possesses  some  architectural 
beauty.  Its  commercial  importance  dates  from 
the  Seventeenth  Century,  when  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.  brought  from  France  a  rage  for 
metal  ornaments,  which  Birmingham  supplied. 
Population,  776,000. 

Bombay  City  occupies  the  entire  breadth 
of  the  southern  end  of  the  island  of  Bombay, 
bordering  at  once  on  the  harbor  inside  and  on 
Back  Bay  outside.  Parsees  or  Persians,  de- 
scendants of  fire-worshipers,  driven  from  their 
homes  by  Mohammedan  bigotry,  rank  next  to 
the  English  in  progressiveness  and  influence. 
Besides  the  dock-yard,  which  covers  200  acres, 
at  the  southeast  of  the  European  town,  the 
objects  most  worthy  of  note  are  the  townhall, 
the  library  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  the  mint, 
cathedral,  and  custom-house;  the  post-office 
and  public  works  office;  the  Rajabai  Tower, 
the  Elphinstone  College,  the  Grant  Medical 
College,  the  university,  the  Sassoon  High 
School,  the  Secretariat,  the  High  Court,  St. 
George's  Hospital  and  Victoria  Terminus. 
Population  in  1901,  776,006. 

Boston,  capital  of  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts; the  commercial  metropolis  of  New  Eng- 
land; and  the  fifth  city  in  population  in  the 
United  States,  durmg  the  last  two  decades, 
is  built  at  the  west  end  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
and  comprises  Boston  proper.  East  Boston, 
South  Boston,  Roxbury,  Dorchester,  Charles- 
town,  Brighton,  West  Roxbury,  and  adjoining 
territory,  giving  it  in  1900,  an  area  of  forty- 
three  square  miles.  Old  Boston,  or  Boston 
proper,  occupied  a  peninsula  of  about  700 
acres,  of  uneven  surface,  and  originally  contain- 
ing three  hills,  known  as  Beacon,  Copp,  and 
Fort.  These  hills  caused  the  early  settlers  to  call 
the  place  Trimountain,  since  changed  to  Tre- 
mont.  Boston,  East  Boston,  Charlestown,  and 
South  Boston  -contain  the  slips  of  the  ocean 
steamers.  Extending  about  two  miles  along 
the  harbor,  and  separated  from  Boston  proper 
by  an  arm  of  it,  is  South  Boston,  containing 
large  railroad  docks  and  warehouses.  Several 
bridges  across  Charles  River  connect  the  city 
with  Charlestown  and  Cambridge.  The  harbor 
is  an  indentation  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  em- 
bracing about  seventy-five  square  miles,  with 
numerous  arms,  and  containing  many  islands 
presenting  picturesque  views.  Boston  is  es- 
pecially noted  for  its  magnificent  park  system. 
Among  the  attractions  of  the  system  are  the 
Common,  a  park  of  eighty-four  acres  in  the 
heart  of  the  city;  the  Public  Garden,  separated 
from  it  by  Charles  Street,  and  comprising  twen- 
ty-two acres;  the  Back  Bay  Fens;  the  Jamaica 
Pond,  Bussey  Park,  the  Arnold  Arboretum; 
Marine  Park  at  City  Point;  and  the  Charles 
River  Embankment.  In  the  Common  is  a 
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument,  erected  near 
the  site  of  the  famous  Old  Elm,  which  was 
destroyed  in  a  gale  in  1876.  In  the  Public 
Garden  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 


a  bronze  statue  of  Edward  Everett,  a  statue 
of  Charles  Sumner,  one  representing  "Venus 
Rising  from  the  Sea,"  and  a  monument  com- 
memorating the  discovery  of  ether  as  an  anaes- 
thetic. The  State  House  stands  on  Beacon 
Hill,  and  is  a  structure  490  feet  long  and  211 
feet  wide,  with  a  colonnade  in  front  and  an 
imposing  gilded'  dome.  Statues  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster and  Horace  Mann  ornament  the  terrace  in 
front  of  the  building,  and  within  it  are  statues 
and  busts  of  a  number  of  the  eminent  men  of 
Boston  and  Massachusetts,  a  collection  of  battle 
flags,  and  a  variety  of  interesting  historical  arti- 
cles. The  new  building  of  the  Pubhc  Library, 
which  was  occupied  in  1895,  is,  next  to  the 
Library  of  Congress,  the  largest  one  in  the 
country.  The  Old  State-house,  erected  in  1748, 
at  the  head  of  State  Street,  contains  an  histori- 
cal museum  in  its  upper  floors,  and  business 
establishments  in  its  lower.  The  City  Hall, 
one  of  the  most  striking  buildings  of  the  city, 
on  School  Street,  is  built  of  white  Concord 
granite  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  dome  over  100  feet  high. 
What  is  considered  the  most  interesting  build- 
ing, historically,  in  the  United  States,  next  to 
Independence  Hall  in  Philadelphia,  is  Faneuil 
Hall,  known  as  "The  Cradle  of  Liberty,"  erected 
in  1742,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1761,  rebuilt  in 
1768,  and  remodeled  to  its  present  size  in  1805. 
The  basement  of  the  building  is  now  used  as  a 
market,  and  the  second  floor  for  large  public 
gatherings.  Occupying  the  site  o'f  the  Old  Re- 
doubt on  Breed's  Hill,  in  the  Charlestown  dis- 
trict, is  the  famous  Bunker  Hill  monument. 
In  the  Charlestown  district  also  is  located  the 
United  States  Navy  Yard,  which,  among  other 
objects  of  interest,  contains  the  largest  rope 
walk  in  the  country,  and  an  immense  dry  dock. 
Boston  is  widely  noted  for  the  number  and  high 
character  of  its  educational  institutions.  The 
institutions  for  higher  education  include  Boston 
College,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
Boston  Normal  School,  Massachusetts  Normal 
Art  School,  Kindergarten  Training  School,  and 
Training  Schools  for  Nurses.  Among  the  chief 
hospitals  are :  City  Hospital,  Children's  Hospital, 
Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  Massachusetts 
Homoeopathic  Hospital,  New  England  Bajptist 
Hospital,  New  England  Deaconesses 's  Home 
and  Hospital,  New  England  Hospital  for  Women 
and  Children,  St.  Elizabeth's  Hospital,  Somer- 
ville  Hospital,  and  Women's  Charity  Club  Hos- 
pital. Boston  was  settled  in  1630  by  a  party 
of  Puritans  from  Salem.  It  was  named  after  a 
town  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  from  which  most 
of  the  colonists  had  come.  In  1632  the  first 
meeting  house  was  erected,  and  in  1635,  a  public 
school  was  built.  In  the  same  year,  the  first 
grand  jury  in  the  country  met  here.  A  mem- 
orable massacre  occurred  here  in  1770,  and  in 
1773,  several  cargoes  of  English  tea  were  thrown 
overboard  in  the  harbor,  by  citizens  exasperated 
by  the  imposition  of  taxes.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  Revolution  the  British  were  quar- 
tered in  the  town.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill 
was  fought  on  Breed's  Hill,  within  the  present 
city  Umits,  June  17,  1775.  Washington  forced 
the  British  to  evacuate  in  1776.  The  city  char- 
ter was  granted  in  1822,  and,  in  1872,  a  great 


620 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


fire  broke  out  in  the  business  portion  of  the  city 
and  destroyed  about  sixty-five  acres  of  build- 
ings. This  part  of  the  city  was  soon  rebuilt, 
and,  since  then,  Boston  has  been  one  of  the  most 

f prosperous  cities  in  the  United  States.  Popu- 
ation,  670,585. 

Brazil  {brd-zlV),  republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica, lying  to  the  northeast  of  that  continent, 
and  bounded  north  and  east  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  constitutes  nearly  one-half  of  South 
America,  and  occupies  an  area  nearly  equal 
to  the  whole  of  Europe.  It  is  remarkable  for 
its  rivers  and  its  forests,  the  former  being  un- 
surpassed both  in  number  and  in  size  in  any 
other  part  of  the  globe,  and  the  latter  being  of 
vast  extent,  some  of  them  covering  many  thou- 
sands of  miles  of  surface.  Towards  the  coast- 
line, and  near  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  the  land 
is  low,  but  in  the  interior  it  rises,  by  gentle 
gradations,  to  the  height  of  from  two  to  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is 
crossed  by  hill  ranges,  which  rise  to  a  consider- 
ably greater  elevation.  In  these  regions,  Euro- 
pean fruits  and  grains  are  produced  in  large 
quantities,  while  the  intermediate  valleys  are 
found  extremely  favorable  for  the  raising  of 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  india  rubber,  and 
tropical  plants.  The  forests  abound  in  the 
greatest  variety  of  useful  and  beautiful  woods, 
as  mahogany,  logwood,  rosewood,  and  brazil 
wood.  Minerals  are  exceedingly  abundant, 
comprising  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  topazes,  and 
most  of  the  diamonds  of  commerce  come  from 
Brazil.  These,  with  hides,  agricultural  produce, 
and  the  other  products  above  mentioned,  are 
the  chief  exports.  The  population  of  Brazil  is 
about  18,000,000,  of  whom  about  2,000,000  are 
negroes,  1,250,000  native  Indians,  and  the 
remainder  descendants  of  the  Portuguese, 
or  of  mixed  races.  Slavery  formerly  prevailed 
largely  in  Brazil,  but  in  1871,  a  law  was  passed 
for  its  gradual  abolition.  Its  greatest  nver  is 
the  Amazon,  and  the  chief  cities  are  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Bahia,  and  Pernambuco. 

British  Museum,  the  great  national 
museum  in  London,  owes  its  foundation  to  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  who,  in  1753,  bequeathed  his 
various  collections,  including  50,000  books  and 
manuscripts,  to  the  nation,  on  the  condition  of 
$100,000  being  paid  to  his  heirs.  This  offer  was 
agreed  to  by  parliament.  The  British  Museum 
is  under  the  management  of  forty-eight  trustees, 
among  the  chief  being  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  lord-chancellor,  and  the  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  all,  the  staff  of  the 
institution  numbers  over  320  persons.  The  mu- 
seum is  open  daily,  free  of  charge.  Admission 
to  the  reading-room  as  a  regular  reader  is.  by 
ticket,  procurable  on  application  to  the  chief 
librarian,  there  being  certain  simple  conditions 
attached.  The  institution  contains  something 
like  2,000,000   volumes  in   the   department   of 

[)rinted  books.  A  copy  of  every  book,  pamph- 
et,  newspaper,  piece  of  music,  etc.,  registered 
at  Stationers'  Hall,  London,  must  be  conveyed, 
free  of  charge,  to  the  British  Museum. 

Brussels,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium,  and  of  the  province  of  Brabant  in 
that  kingdom.  It  is  a  lar^e  and  important 
city,  often  described  as  a  miniature  Paris.     It 


is  built  partly  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  and  partly 
on  the  plain  at  the  foot.  The  upper  town,  on 
the  hillside,  is  the  newer  and  the  more  fashion- 
able, and  there  the  royal  palace  and  the  man- 
sions of  the  foreign  ministers  are  situated.  The 
lower  town  is  less  healthful,  but  it  contains 
most  of  the  older  buildings,  and  many  churches 
and  public  edifices  of  architectural  and  historical 
interest.  The  town  has  extensive  suburbs,  and 
squares  and  promenades  of  great  beauty  and 
elegance.  Its  Church  of  St.  Gudule  dates  from 
the  Twelfth  Century;  and  the  Palace  of  Fine 
Arts,  which  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
governors  of  Brabant,  includes  a  picture  gallery 
which  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  the 
Flemish  school  of  painting,  and  a  library  with 
240,000  volumes,  and  upwards  of  20,000  manu- 
scripts. There  is  also  an  observatory,  one  of 
the  finest  in  Europe,  and  the  imposing  Palace 
of  Justice.  In  the  great  market-place  is  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  a  splendid  Gothic  edifice  of  the 
Fourteenth  Century,  with  a  lofty  turret,  sur- 
mounted by  a  huge  figure  of  St.  Michael,  in 
copper.  Brussels  is  remarkable  for  its  statues 
and  fountains.  Its  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  lace  and  carpets.  Ten  miles  to  the 
south  of  the  city  is  the  Field  of  Waterloo,  and 
a  few  miles  beyond  lie  Quatre  Bras  and  Ligny. 
Population,  including  suburbs,   612,401. 

Buda-Pest  (bod'-dd-pM),  a  city  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  the  capital  of  Hun- 
gary since  1873.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  River  Danube,  130  miles  southeast  of 
Vienna.  Buda,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Danube, 
is  built  at  the  extremity  of  a  spur  from  the 
Bakony  forest  range.  It  is  an  old-fashioned 
place,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade, 
chdefly  in  wines.  A  fine  suspension  bridge  con- 
nects it  with  Pest,  one  of  the  handsomest  cities 
in  Austria.  Pest  is  the  seat  of  a  university, 
and  has  manufactures  of  silk,  woolen,  leather, 
tobacco,  and  meerschaum  pipes.  Four  great 
fairs  are  held  in  the  city  annually.  The  Diet 
assembles  in  a  handsome  building,  and  new 
boulevards  and  squares  have  been  recently 
formed.  During  the  Hungarian  wars  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  Buda  played  a  distinguished 

Eart.  In  January,  1849,  the  fortress  was  seized 
y  the  Austrian  General  Windischgratz ;  but  in 
the  following  May  it  was  taken  by  storm  by  the 
Hungarians  under  Gorgey.  On  their  departure, 
the  Russians  took  possession,  but  shortly  after- 
wards handed  the  place  over  to  the  forces  of 
the  Austrians.     Population,  732,322. 

Buenos  Ay  res,  the  capital  of  Argentine 
Republic,  South  America,  stands  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  estuary  of  the  Plata,  about  150 
miles  from  the  open  sea.  It  is  compactly  and 
substantially  built,  having  been  greatly  im- 
proved since  its  independence.  It  has  a  large 
number  of  public  and  private  buildings  that 
would  honor  any  city,  notably  the  cathedral, 
the  provincial  bank,  the  post-office,  the  national 
penitentiary,  several  of  the  theaters,  etc.  Four 
lines  of  railroads  connect  it  with  the  interior. 
Telegraphic  cables  extend  to  Montevideo,  the 
Brazilian  ports,  and  Europe,  and  overland  wires 
cross  the  Andes  to  Chile,  and  so  connect  with 
the  northern  hemisphere  by  the  Pacific  coast 
lines.     Buenos  Ayres  has  a  university,  a  national 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


521 


college,  a  normal  school  for  ladies,  with  numer- 
ous other  literary  and  scientific  institutions,  a 
museum  of  natural  history,  a  public  library,  and 
a  score  of  newspapers.     Population,  1,034,781. 

Buffalo,  a  city  of  New  York,  capital  of 
Erie  County,  is  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie, 
and  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River,  and  410  miles 
by  shortest  railroad  line  northwest  of  New  York. 
It  has  a  capacious  harbor,  protected  by  an 
outer  breakwater,  besides  other  breakwaters, 
piers,  basins,  and  canals.  The  city  is  guarded 
by  Fort  Porter,  which  stands  on  a  bluff  over- 
looking the  river.  The  International  iron  rail- 
way bridge  spans  Niagara  River  at  Black  Rock. 
The  commercial  importance  of  Buffalo  dates 
from  the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal,  in  1825. 
The  chief  marine  business  is  the  receiving, 
storing,  and  transferring  of  grain.  The  live- 
stock trade  is  enormous,  and  the  lumber  trade 
(including  the  suburb  of  Tonawanda)  is  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Manufactories  are  numer- 
ous, embracing  extensive  machine-shops,  auto- 
mobile shops,  car  shops,  stove  foundries,  brew- 
eries, flour  mills,  printing  and  lithographic  es- 
tablishments, etc.  Sixteen  railroads  enter  the 
city,  with  over  660  miles  of  trackage  in  the 
city  limits  —  more  than  in  any  other  city  in 
the  world.  Buffalo  has  wide  streets,  well  paved 
and  lighted,  and  generally  lined  with  shade 
trees.  Natural  gas,  piped  from  Pennsylvania 
and  Canada,  is  much  used.-  It  has  excellent 
sewerage,  and  extensive  water-works,  the  sup- 
ply coming  from  Niagara  River.  Its  healthful- 
ness  is  attested  by  a  low  death-rate.  A  mag- 
nificent park  system  consists  of  three  sections 
connected  by  boulevards  which  encircle  the 
city.  There  are  churches  of  all  denominations, 
numerous  public  schools,  the  high-schools,  and 
a  State  Normal  School;  various  hospitals,  dis- 
pensaries, orphan  asylums,  and  the  State  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane.  Buffalo  was  founded  in 
1801,  by  the  Holland  Land  Company.  It  was 
burned  in  1813,  by  the  British  and  the  Indians. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1832.  Popu- 
lation in  1910,  423,715. 

Cairo,  the  modern  capital  of  Egypt,  and 
the  largest  town  in  Africa,  situated  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  twelve  miles  above 
the  apex  of  1>he  Delta.  On  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  river  is  the  small  town  of  Ghizeh,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  which  are  the  three  largest  of 
the  Egyptian  pyramids.  To  the  south  of  the 
city  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Memphis. 
It  is  the  official  residence  of  the  Khedive.  Its 
inhabitants  are  Turks,  Arabs,  Copts,  Jews, 
Armenians,  Syrians,  etc.,  the  ruling  class  being 
almost  all  Turks.     Population,  570,062. 

Calcutta,  the  capital  and  metropolis  of 
British  India,  was  founded  by  Governor  Char- 
nock  in  the  year  1686.  In  1707,  it  had  acquired 
some  importance  as  a  town,  and  was  made  the 
seat  of  a  presidency.  In  1756,  however,  a  great 
misfortune  befell  the  rising  town;  it  was  un- 
expectedly attacked  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  the 
Nawab  of  Bengal,  and,  being  abandoned  by  a 
number  of  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  defend 
the  place,  it  was  compelled  to  yield  after  under- 
going a  two  days'  siege.  Only  146  men,  how- 
ever, fell  into  the  enemy's  hands;  but  these 
were  treated  with  the  most  heartless  cruelty. 


Cast  at  night  into  a  confined  cell,  twenty  feet 
square  —  the  notorious  "Black  Hole" — they 
endured  the  most  unheard-of  sufferings,  and  in 
the  morning  it  was  found  tfiat  only  twenty-' 
three  out  of  146  had  survived  the  horrors  of 
that  night.  The  city  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy  until  eight  months  afterward, 
when  Clive  arrived  from  England.  In  con- 
junction with  Admiral  Watson,  Clive  succeeded 
in  recapturing  Calcutta,  and  afterward  concluded 
a  peace  with  the  nawab.  During  the  last  cen- 
tury the  city  has  grown  greatly  in  importance, 
and  in  its  public  institutions  and  architecture 
it  now  rivals  the  leading  capitals  of  Europe. 
Calcutta  is  the  headquarters  of  the  governor- 
general  of  India,  and  the  seat  of  the  government, 
the  supreme  courts  of  justice,  and  of  the  court 
of  appeal  for  the  province  of  Bengal.  Popula- 
tion, 1,321,664. 

Campanile  (kdm-pd-ne'le),  a  tower  for 
the  reception  of  bells,  principally  used  for  church 
purposes,  but  now  sometimes  for  domestic 
edifices.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  campaniles 
is  that  at  Pisa,  commonly  called  the  "Leaning 
Tower."  It  is  cylindrical  in  form,  and  surrounded 
by  eight  stories  of  columns,  placed  over  one  an- 
other, each  having  its  entablature.  The  height  is 
about  150  feet  to  the  platform,  whence  a  plumb- 
line  lowered  falls  on  the  leaning  side  nearly 
thirteen  feet  outside  the  base  of  the  building. 

The  campanile  of  St.-  Mark,  dominating  all 
the  surrounding  buildings  of  St.  Mark's  Square, 
Venice,  was  the  most  conspicuous  landmark  of 
the  city  for  over  1,000  years.  The  tower  was 
325  feet  high  and  forty-two  feet  square  at  the 
base.  On  the  morning  of  July  14,  1902,  it  fell 
with  a  great  crash  into  the  square.  The 
church  of  St.  Mark  and  the  palace  of  the  Doges 
were  not  hurt,  but  the  campanile  in  falling  car- 
ried away  the  Sansovino  Loggetta  and  the  library 
of  the  Royal  Palace.  It  has  since  been  splen- 
didly rebuilt. 

Canada,  Dominion  of.  The  Dominion 
of  Canada  includes  the  various  Provinces  of 
North  America  formerly  known  as  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  (now  Ontario  and  Quebec  re- 
spectively). New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  British  Columbia,  and 
the  territories  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
now  styled  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta, 
the  Northwest  Territories,  and  the  Yukon 
Territories;  in  fact,  the  whole  of  British  North 
America  except  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 
This  territory,  nearly  as  large  as  Europe,  stretches 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  is 
estimated  to  contain  a  total  area  of  3,745,574 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  6,504,000. 
From  a  physical  point  of  view  the  whole  region 
may  be  divided  mto  an  eastern  and  a  western 
division,  the  Red  River  Valley  forming  the 
separating  line.  The  eastern  division  com- 
prises three  areas,  presenting  radically  distinct 
aspects:  —  (1)  The  south-eastern  area,  bounded 
by  the  line  of  the  Gulf  and  River  St.  Lawrence, 
from  Belle  Isle  to  Quebec,  thence  by  a  line  run- 
ning directly  south  to  Lake  Champlain,  which 
is  generally  hilly,  and  sometimes  mountainous, 
with  many  fine  stretches  of  agricultural  and 
pastoral  lands.  (2)  The  southern  and  western 
area,  presenting,  in  the  main,  a  broad,  level, 


522 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


and  slightly  undulating  expanse  of  generally- 
fertile  country,  with  occasional  step-like  ridges 
or  rocky  escarpments.  The  main  hydrographi- 
cal  feature  is  tne  chain  of  lakes,  with  an  area  of 
150,000  square  miles,  contributing  to  the  great 
river  system  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  (3)  The 
northern  area,  embracing  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  Dominion,  with  an  average  elevation  of  1,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  preeminently  a 
region  of  waterways,  and  including  the  great 
Laurentian  mountain  range.  In  this  area  are 
found  the  other  great  river  systems,  the  Nelson 
and  the  Mackenzie.  From  the  western  edge  of 
the  Prairie  to  the  Pacific  coast  is  a  distance  of 
400  miles,  and  within  this  area  is  contained  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Gold  and  Cascade 
Ranges,  whose  summits  are  from  4,000  to  16,000 
feet  high,  the  country  being  on  the  whole  densely 
wooded.  The  climate  in  the  eastern  and  cen- 
tral portions  of  the  Dominion  presents  greater 
extremes  of  cold  and  heat  than  in  corresponding 
latitudes  in  Europe,  but  in  the  south-western 
portion  of  the  Prairie  Region  and  the  southern 
portions  of  the  Pacific  slope  the  climate  is  milder. 
Spring,  summer,  and  autumn  are  of  about  seven 
to  eight  months'  duration,  and  the  winter  four 
to  five  months.  The  country  possesses  great 
mineral  wealth,  and  coal,  gold,  silver,  copper, 
nickel,  lead,  petroleum,  and  asbestos  are  pro- 
duced, while"^  iron,  phosphates,  salt,  graphite, 
etc. ,  occur ;  the  total  value  of  the  minerals  pro- 
duced in  1906  was  about  $80,000,000.  The  soil 
is  generally  fertile ;  all  the  products  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  cultivated.  In  1881  there  were 
thirty-five  cities  and  towns  of  5,000  inhabitants 
and  upwards,  having  a  total  population  of 
660,040;  in  1901  there  were  sixty-two  of  such 
cities  and  towns,  and  their  total  population  was 
about  1,330,000.  Montreal  has  a  population  of 
267,730  (or  with  suburbs,  over  350,000),  and 
Toronto,  the  capital  of  Ontario,  has  over  272,600 
inhabitants.  Ottawa  had,  in  1907,  69,756  in- 
habitants; Winnipeg,  in  Manitoba,  90,234;  Que- 
bec, 68,840;  Vancouver,  in  British  Columbia, 
over  26,000;  and  the  city  of  Dawson,  the 
"business  center"  of  the  Klondike  gold  region, 
which  was  a  barren  waste  in  1897,  had,  in  1901, 
a  population  of  9,142.  In  facilities  for  com- 
munication, Canada  is  unrivaled.  The  St. 
Lawrence,  with  its  lakes,  puts  a  great  part  of  it 
in  connection  at  once  with  the  most  commercial 
portion  of  the  United  States  and  with  the  open 
ocean.  The  navigation  of  this  great  water- 
system  has  been  greatly  assisted  by  numerous 
and  extensive  canals,  of  which  the  Cornwall, 
Rideau,  and  the  Welland  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. There  is,  besides,  an  immense  and  steadily 
increasing  net-work  of  railroads  embracing 
several  trans-continental  lines.  The  Victoria 
Bridge,  by  which  the  Grand  Trunk  crosses  the 
St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal,  is  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  completion  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad,  in  1885,  gave  railroad  com- 
munication between  or  westward  from  Montreal, 
its  eastern  terminus,  to  Vancouver,  in  British 
Columbia,  a  distance  of  2,893  miles,  or  from 
Quebec,  a  distance  of  3,078  miles. 

Canossa  {M-nos'  sd),  a  town  northwest  of 
Bologna,  in  the  courtyard  of  the  castle  of  which 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  stood  three  days  in  the 


cold,  in  January  1077,  bareheaded  and  bare- 
footed, waiting  for  Pope  Gregory  VII.  to  remove 
from  him  the  sentence  of  excommunication. 

Canton,  a  large  commercial  city  and  port 
in  the  south  of  China,  and  capital  of  the  mari- 
time province  of  Kwang-tung,  forms  an  irregular 
square,  and  is  divided  by  a  wall  into  the  North 
and  South,  or  Old  and  New  City.  The  former 
is  inhabited  by  the  Tartar  population,  the  latter 
by  Chinese;  and  between  the  two  communica- 
tion is  maintained  by  four  gates  in  the  separating 
wall.  Many  of  the  streets  are  devoted  to  dis- 
tinct trades;  thus  there  is  "Carpenter"  Street, 
"Apothecary"  Street,  etc.  The  Joss-houses, 
Buddhist  Temples,  are  said  to  be  about  124  in 
number.  The  largest  of  these,  on  Honam  Is- 
land, covers  seven  acres,  and  has  175  priests 
attached.  It  is  called  "Hae  Chwang  Sze,"  or 
"The  Temple  of  the  Ocean  Banner."  Another 
famous  structure  is  "The  Temple  of  the  Five 
Hundred  Gods,"  situated  in  the  western  suburbs. 
Until  1843  all  the  legitimate  foreign  trade  of 
China  centered  at  Canton,  and  its  amount  at  one 
time  exceeded  $100,000,000  annually;  but 
since  other  ports  in  the  empire  have  been  opened 
to  foreigners  this  amount  has  decreased  by 
nearly  one  half.  Tea  and  silks  are  the  staple 
articles  of  export  to  Europe,  etc.,  after  which 
come  the  precious  metals,  cassia,  sugar,  and 
many  minor  articles;  population,  1,000,000. 

Cape  Colony,  a  British  colony  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  Africa,  washed  on  the  west, 
south,  and  east  by  the  ocean.  The  colony 
extends  about  450  miles  from  north  to  south  and 
600  from  east  to  west;  the  coast  line  is  about 
1,300  miles.  The  area  is  276,800  square  miles; 
the  population,  2,433,000. 

The  colony  is  better  adapted  for  pasturage 
than  for  agriculture.  All  kinds  of  vegetables 
and  pot  herbs,  and  all  the  fruits  of  temperate 
climates  thrive  excellently,  and  fruits,  dried  and 
preserved,  are  exported.  The  vine  is  cultivated, 
and  some  excellent  wines  are  made. 

Sheep-rearing  is  the  most  important  industry, 
and  wool  is  the  chief  export  (although  surpassed 
in  value  by  diamonds).  Cattle-breeding  is  car- 
ried on  to  some  extent,  especially  along  the  coasts 
and  in  the  east  and  north  districts.  There  are 
no  manufactures  of  any  importance. 

The  European  inhabitants  consist  in  part  of 
English,  Scottish,  and  Irish  settlers  and  their  de- 
scendants, but  the  majority  are  of  Dutch  origin, 
while  there  are  also  a  considerable  number  of 
German  origin.  The  colored  people  are  chiefly 
Hottentots,  Kaffirs,  Bechuanas,  Basutos,  Gri- 
quas,  Malays,  and  a  mixed  race,  the  offspring  of 
black  women  and  white  fathers. 

The  constitution  which  was  formed  under  the 
acts  passed  in  the  years  1853,  1865,  and  1872 
vests  the  executive  in  the  governor  and  an  execu- 
tive council  composed  of  office-holders  appointed 
by  the  crown.  The  legislative  power  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  legislative  council  of  twenty-three 
members,  elected  for  seven  years,  and  a  house  or 
assembly  of  ninety-five  members,  elected  for  a 
term  of  five  years. 

The  Dutch,  who  had  early  fixed  upon  the  Cape 
as  a  watering-place  for  their  ships,  first  colonized 
it  under  Van  Riebeek,  in  1652.  It  was  captured 
by  the  British  in  1795,  restored  at  the  peace  of 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


523 


Amiens  (1802),  and  again  taken  in  1806.  From 
this  time  it  has  remained  in  the  possession  of 
Great  Britain,  to  which  it  was  formally  assigned 
in  1815,  along  with  Dutch  Guiana.  Subse- 
quently the  area  of  the  colony  was  gradually 
enlarged  by  the  annexation  of  surrounding  dis- 
tricts. 

Capitol  (Lat.  Capitolium),  the  great  temple 
dedicated  to  Jupiter  on  the  Tarpeian  or  Capito- 
line  Hill  at  Rome.  It  is  said  to  have  been  called 
the  Capitolium,  because  a  human  head  (caput) 
was  found  in  digging  the  foundations.  It  was 
commenced  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  fin- 
ished by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  507  B.  C. ;  but 
it  was  three  times  burnt  down,  and,  after  its 
third  destruction  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  it  was 
again  rebuilt  by  Domitian.  The  capitol  in- 
cluded not  only  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  but  one  to 
each  of  his  attendant  deities,  Juno  and  Minerva. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  imposing  buildings  in 
Rome.  The  consuls,  on  entering  upon  their 
office,  offered  sacrifices  and  took  their  vows  in 
the  capitol ;  and  it  was  to  the  capitol  that  the  vic- 
torious general  on  his  return  to  the  city,  was  car- 
ried, in  his  triumphal  car,  to  return  thanks  for  his 
victories.  From  that  portion  of  the  hill  called  the 
Tarpeian  Rock,  state  criminals  were  thrown  down . 
The  modern  building  on  the  site,  and  partly  on 
the  foundations,  of  the  ancient  capitol,  was 
erected  from  the  designs  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Capri  (kd'-pre.)  (Anc.  Caprcee.)  A  beauti- 
ful island  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  near  the 
south  entrance  to  the  Neapolitan  Gulf,  about 
twenty  miles  from  the  city  of  Naples.  It  pro- 
duces a  good  light  wine.  The  island  is  covered 
with  remains  of  antiquity,  including  the  ruins 
of  the  villa  of  Tiberius,  the  Roman  Emperor. 

Caracas,  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of 
Venezuela,  in  South  America.  It  stands  a  few 
miles  from  the  northern  coast  of  Venezuela,  at  a 
elevation  of  nearly  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
climate  is  healthy,  but  earthquakes  are  frequent 
in  the  vicinity.  In  1812,  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and 
12,000  persons  are  said  to  have  perished.  The 
population  of  the  city  is  about  90,000. 

Carisbrooke,  a  village  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
about  one  mile  south  of  Newport,  and  celebrated 
for  its  castle,  which  dates  originally  from  the 
Sixth  Century.  In  this  castle  (now  in  ruins) 
Charles  I.  was  confined,  and,  after  his  execution, 
his  two  youngest  children  were  also  confined  in 
the  castle,  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  died  there. 
The  population  of  the  parish  is  about  8,000. 

Carlsbad  {karlz'bSd.)  [Ger.,  "Charles's 
Bath."]  A  town  and  fashionable  spa  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  province  Bohemia,  one  hundred 
sixteen  miles  west-northwest  of  Prague.  It  is 
finely  built  and  romantically  situated;  its 
principal  spring,  the  Sprudel,  is  the  hottest  in 
Europe,  having  a  temperature  of  165°  Fahren- 
heit.    Population,  16,000. 

Carmel,  Mount,  a  mountain  ridge  of 
Palestine,  which  runs  out  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean, to  the  south  of  the  Bay  of  Acre.  Its  name 
means,  "  The  Garden  of  God."  On  the  summit 
of  the  ridge  are  oaks  and  pines,  and,  lower  down 
laurels  and  olives.  Near  the  top  there  is  a 
monastery  called  Elias,  after  the  prophet  Elijah, 
the  monks  of  which  bear  the  name  of  Carmelites. 


The  order  was  probably  founded  in  the  Twelfth 
Century,  but  legend  ascribes  its  foundation  to 
Elijah,  and  the  Virgin  Mary  is  said  to  have  been 
a  Carmelite  nun.  One  of  the  distinctions  of  the 
order  is  that  they  walk  bare-footed.  They  exist 
at  the  present  day  in  many  Roman  Catholic 
countries. 

Caspian  Sea,  a  great  inland  sea  or  lake, 
the  largest  in  the  world,  forming  a  portion  of 
the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is 
730  miles  long  by  from  150  to  270  miles  broad. 
The  surface  of  the  Caspian  is  ninety-seven  feet 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  lies 
to  the  west,  while  the  Sea  of  Aral,  which  lies  to 
the  east,  is  about  forty  feet  above  sea-level. 
Hence  it  is  believed  that  at  no  distant  period 
the  Sea  of  Aral,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Black  Sea, 
formed  one  mass  of  water,  which  covered  the 
intervening  land.  The  water  of  the  Caspian  is 
salt,  though  less  so  than  that  of  the  ocean. 
The  depth  of  its  central  portion  is  nearly  3,000 
feet,  but  it  is  shallow  round  the  shores.  The 
Capsian  has  no  tides,  but  its  navigation  is  peril- 
ous because  of  violent  storms.  The  Volga,  the 
Ural,  and  many  other  rivers,  fall  into  the  Cas- 
pian; and  by  a  canal,  which  unites  the  head 
waters  of  the  Volga  with  the  rivers  Tvertza  and 
Schlina,  the  Caspian  is  connected  with  the  Baltic. 
The  shallow  northern  basin,  however,  is  frozen 
over  during  the  entire  winter.  The  sea  abounds 
in  fish,  and  seals  and  tortoises  are  found  on  its 
upper  coasts.  Its  area  is  170,000  square  miles, 
or  20,000  square  miles  more  than  that  of  the 
British  Isles.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  under  its  present  name  (Caspium  Mare), 
which  was  given  to  it  from  the  Caspii,  a  people 
who  inhabited  its  western  shores. 

Castile  (k&s-tel'),  a  central  district  of  Spain, 
divided  by  the  mountains  of  Castile  into  Old 
Castile  in  the  north,  and  New  Castile  in  the 
south:  the  former  consisting  of  a  high  bare 
plateau,  bounded  by  mountains  on  the  north, 
and  on  the  south,  with  a  variable  climate,  yields 
wheat  and  good  pasturage,  and  is  rich  in  min- 
erals; the  latter,  also  tableland,  has  a  richer 
soil,  and  yields  richer  produce,  breeds  horses 
and  cattle,  and  contains  besides  the  quicksilver 
mines  of  Almaden.  Both  were  at  one  time  oc- 
cupied by  the  Moors,  and  were  created  into  a 
kingdom  in  the  Eleventh  Century,  and  united 
to  the  crown  of  Spain  in  1469  by  the  marriage 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Caucasus  (The)  (kS'-kd-sus),  a  great 
mountain  range,  stretching  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Seas,  separating  the  two  Russian 
provinces  of  Ciscaucasia  and  Transcaucasia, 
and  forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  Eu- 
rope and  Asia.  It  has  a  continuous  extent  of 
about  700  miles,  throwing  off  spurs,  or  lateral 
ridges,  both  towards  Russia  and  Turkey  in  Asia. 
Its  highest  elevation  is  estimated  at  18,500  feet, 
and  its  snow-limit  at  11,000  feet.  The  Caucasus 
is  generally  remarkable  for  the  picturesqueness 
of  its  scenery,  and  the  wild  independence  of  the 
tribes  dwelling  among  its  gorges. 

Cenis  (se-ne'),  a  mountain  belonging  to  the 
Graian  Alps,  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont, 
11,755  feet  high.  It  is  famous  for  the  winding 
road  constructed  by  Napoleon  I.,  which  leads 
over  it  from  France  to  Italy,  and  for  an  immense 


524 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


railway  tunnel,  which,  after  nearly  fourteen 
years'  labor,  was  finished  in  1871.  The  Mount 
Cenis  Pass  is  6,765  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  whereas  the  elevation  of  the  entrance  to  the 
tunnel  on  the  side  of  Savoy  is  only  3,801  feet, 
and  that  on  the  side  of  Piedmont  4,246  feet. 
The  total  length  of  the  tunnel  is  nearly  eight 
miles.  The  total  cost  amounted  to  about  $15,- 
000,000. 

Cevennes  (s&-v^n'),  a  mountain  chain  in 
the  south  of  France,  running  northward  between 
the  basins  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire,  as  far  as 
the  Plateau  of  Langres,  in  the  department  of 
Haute  Mame.  The  height  of  the  Cevennes 
averages  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  but  Mont 
M^zenc,  near  the  source  of  the  Loire,  reaches  a 
height  of  5,753  feet.  The  mountains  are  rich  in 
minerals.  The  Cevennes  are  famous  as  the  re- 
treats of  the  Albigenses,  Waldienses,  and  Camis- 
ards,  during  the  religious  wars  of  France. 

Ceylon  (se-l6n'),  an  island  belonging  to 
Great  Britain  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  about  sixty 
miles  southeast  of  the  southern  extremity  of 
Hindustan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk's  Strait.  Length, 
about  270  miles,  north  to  south ;  average  breadth 
100  miles;  area,  25,332  square  miles. 

Where  the  jungle  has  been  cleared  away  and 
the  land  drained  and  cultivated,  the  country  is 
perfectly  healthy;  where  low  wooded  tracts, 
and  flat  marshy  lands  abound,  covered  with  a 
rank,  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  climate  is  emi- 
nently insalubrious. 

Most  of  the  animals  found  on  the  opposite 
continent  are  native  to  this  island,  excepting 
the  royal  tiger,  which  does  not  exist  here.  Ele- 
phants are  numerous  and  are  esteemed  for  their 
superior  strength  and  docility.  Bears,  buffaloes, 
leopards,  jackals,  monkeys,  and  wild  hogs  are 
numerous.  Crocodiles,  serpents,  and  reptiles 
of  all  sorts  abovmd.  Of  the  snake  tribe,  con- 
sisting of  about  twenty-six  different  species,  six 
only  are  venomous.  Among  the  insects  are  the 
leaf  and  stick  insects,  the  ant-lion,  the  white  ant, 
etc. 

In  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetable  productions, 
Ceylon  rivals  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, and  in  some  respects  bears  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  them;  its  most  valuable  products 
are  tea,  rice,  coffee,  cinnamon,  and  the  cocoanut. 
Tea  is  being  widely  cultivated.  Tobacco  is 
raised  principally  in  the  north  district,  and  is 
of  excellent  quality.  Indigo  grows  wild,  but  is 
not  sought  after. 

Ceylon  is  one  of  the  British  crown  colonies, 
its  government  being  conducted  by  a  governor 
and  two  councils,  executive  and  legislative,  of 
both  of  which  the  governor  is  president.  The 
first  is  composed  of  five  members,  the  other  of 
seventeen  members.  The  powers  of  the  councils 
are  limited,  being  wholly  subservient  to  the 
governor,  who  can  carry  into  effect  any  law 
without  their  concurrence.  All  laws  must  be 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 
nies before  ttiey  can  take  effect.  Any  individual 
properly  qualified  may  be  appointed  to  the  most 
responsible  situation,  without  reference  to  serv- 
ice, nation,  or  religion,  and  native  Singhalese 
have  occupied  some  of  the  highest  posts. 

Chartreuse,    La   Grande,    a    famous 


monastery  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Isere, 
fourteen  miles  north  of  Grenoble  among  lofty 
mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  3,281  feet.  The 
access  is  very  difficult.  It  was  built  in  1084, 
but  several  times  burnt  down;  the  present 
building  was  erected  after  1676.  The  monastery 
was  suppressed  in  1903  and  the  order  expelled. 

Cherbourg  {shair'boorg),  a  fortified  sea- 
port and  naval  arsenal  of  France,  department 
Manche,  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  same  name,  185 
miles  west-northwest  of  Paris.  The  fortifica- 
tions here  are  of  the  most  formidable  character, 
and  as  a  naval  stronghold  it  may  almost  be  con- 
sidered impregnable.  Cherbourg  possesses  a 
magnificent  harbor  for  ships  of  war,  constructed 
by  Napoleon  I.,  at  an  immense  cost,  besides 
dockyards,  dry-docks,  etc.  The  roads  afford 
secure  anchorage  to  400  sail  at  a  time,  and  are 
protected  by  a  magnificent  breakwater  began  in 
1784,  and  completed  by  Napoleon  III.,  in  1864. 
Population,  43,837. 

Chicago,  second  largest  city  of  the  United 
States,  embraces  all  Cook  County,  on  the  south- 
west shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  both  sides 
of  Chicago  River.  It  stands  on  a  level  plain, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
country.  The  Chicago  River  and  its  two 
branches  separate  the  city  into  three  unequal 
divisions,  known  as  the  North,  the  South,  and 
the  West,  connected  by  numerous  bridges  and 
two  tunnels  under  the  river.  The  streets  are 
wide  and  are  laid  out  at  right  angles,  many  of 
them  being  adorned  by  rows  of  fine  forest  trees. 
The  site  of  the  city  was  originally  unhealthy 
from  its  lowness,  but  a  large  portion  of  it  has 
been  artifically  heightened  (even  while  occupied 
by  buildings),  by  eight  or  ten  feet.  The  public 
parks  have  an  area  of  nearly  3,000  acres.  Among 
the  chief  buildhigs  are  the  new  city  hall,  and 
court-house,  the  custom-house  and  post-office, 
and  the  chamber  of  commerce.  There  is  a  uni- 
versity and  a  large  number  of  higher-class  col- 
leges and  seminaries.  To  supply  the  town  with 
water  two  tunnels  have  been  constructed  under 
Lake  Michigan,  and  convey  the  pure  water  of 
that  lake  into  the  town,  where  it  is  pumped  up  to 
a  height  of  160  feet  and  distributed.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  artesian  wells.  From  its  po- 
sition at  the  head  of  the  great  chain  of  the  Amer- 
ican lakes,  and  at  the  center  of  a  net-work  of 
railroads  communicating  with  all  parts  of  the 
Union,  Chicago  has  always  been  more  a  com- 
mercial than  a  manufacturing  city.  There  are 
extensive  docks,  basins,  and  other  accommoda- 
dation  for  shipping.  The  industries  embrace 
iron-founding,  brewing,  distilling,  leather,  hats, 
sugar,  tobacco,  agricultural  implements,  steam- 
engines,  boots  and  shoes.  In  commerce  Chicago 
is  only  second  to  New  York.  It  has  an  enormous 
trade  in  pork-packing,  and  is  the  greatest  market 
for  grain  and  timber  in  America.  Other  articles 
for  which  it  is  a  center  of  trade  are  flour,  pro- 
visions, wool,  hides,  soft  goods,  and  clothing.  Be- 
fore 1831  Chicago  was  a  mere  trading  station. 
Its  charter  is  dated  March  4,  1837,  its  population 
being  then  4,170,  but  since  then  it  has  advanced 
at  an  altogether  extraordinary  rate.  On  Octo- 
ber 9,  1871,  a  great  fire  occurred  which  burned 
down  a  vast  number  of  houses  and  rendered 
about  100,000  persons  homeless  and  destitute. 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


525 


But  the  energy  of  its  inhabitants  and  its  favor- 
able situation  enabled  it  to  recover  in  a  sur- 
prisingly short  time.  The  World's  Columbian 
Exhibition  was  held  in  Chicago  in  1893.  It 
celebrated  Columbus'  discovery  of  America. 
January  2,  1900,  a  ship  and  drainage  canal  was 
opened  between  this  city  and  the  Gulf ;  the  cost 
was  $35,000,000.     Population,  2,185,283. 

Chile  (chU'e)  [sometimes  written  Chili].  A 
southwestern  republic  of  South  America,  form- 
ing a  long,  narrow  strip  of  country  lying  between 
the  Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean;  mean  breadth, 
from  80  to  100  miles.  Chile  is  bounded  north 
by  Bolivia;  east  by  the  Argentine  Republic 
and  the  Andes;  southeast  and  south  by  Pata- 
gonia and  the  Gulf  of  Ancud,  separating  it  from 
Chiloer  and  west  by  the  Pacific.  The  backbone 
of  this'  country  is  found  in  the  Great  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes,  here  attaining  an  average  height 
of  14,000  feet,  many  of  whose  peaks  are  volcanic, 
notably  that  of  Aconcagua  (the  highest  Andean 
summit),  which  has  an  altitude  of  23,083  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  coast  line  presents  steep 
and  rocky  shores,  broken  into  by  some  excellent 
harbors.  The  rivers  and  lagoons  are  so  small 
as  to  be  undeserving  of  mention.  Climate  is 
healthful,  as  a  whole;  a  scarcity  of  rain  is,  how- 
ever, often  felt.  Earthquakes  are  of  common 
occurrence.  Chile  is  one  bed  of  metals;  silver, 
gold,  lead,  and  iron  are  found  largely  and  worked ; 
copper,  however,  is  the  principal  resource  of 
the  national  wealth,  and  is  mined  on  an  immense 
scale.  Sulphur,  antimony,  zinc,  manganese, 
alum,  nitre,  salt,  coal,  etc.,  are  other  mineral 
items  which  influence  a  large  exportation.  The 
soil  is  of  varying  fertility,  most  fertile  towards 
the  south  and  the  foothills  of  the  Andes,  where 
luxuriant  vegetation  flourishes.  Many  hard 
woods  are  made  useful,  instead  of  iron,  and  the 
fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  thrive  excellently. 
The  bulk  of  commercial  transactions  is  carried 
on  with  Great  Britain.  The  chief  cities  and 
towns  are:  Santiago,  the  capital;  Valparaiso, 
the  chief  port;   Concepcion,  Iquique,  ana  Talca. 

China,  or  The  Chinese  Empire.  A 
country  of  Asia,   occupying  the  vast  elevated 

glateau  known  as  Eastern  High  Asia.  The 
hinese  Empire  has  an  area  of  more  than  4,000,- 
000  square  miles,  one-fourth  of  the  whole  of  Asia. 
It  embraces  China  proper,  Manchuria,  Mongolia, 
and  Tibet.  China  proper  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Mongolia  and  Manchuria;  on  the  west 
by  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  Burmah;  on  the  south 
by  Burmah,  Anam,  and  the  China  Sea;  and  on 
the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  Yellow  Sea, 
and  Corea.  It  contains  several  mountain  ranges, 
from  which  proceed  the  Hoang-Ho,  the  Yangtse- 
kiang,  the  Peiho,  and  the  Canton  rivers.  The 
climate  of  China  is  very  varied,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  there  is  excessively  cold 
winter,  followed  by  excessively  hot  summer; 
but  the  soil  is  generally  productive,  the  moun- 
tains are  clothed  with  timber,  and  the  hillsides 
and  the  plains  are  laid  out  in  rice  fields  and  gar- 
dens. Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people,  and  it  is  conducted  by  them  with 
great  skill  and  assiduity.  Besides  rice,  which 
is  grown  most  extensively  in  the  south,  wheat 
and  barley  are  cultivated  in  the  north,  and 
the  tea  plant  in  the  maritime  provinces,  the  ex- 


ports of  tea  alone  amounting  in  value  to  $25,000,- 
000  a  year.  Cotton  is  also  grown  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Shanghai.  In  some  of  their  manu- 
factures, the  Chinese  have  never  been  surpassed. 
Their  silks  and  porcelains  have  always  been 
famous,  and  in  certain  arts  requiring  patience 
and  ingenuity,  such  as  the  making  of  cardcases, 
snuffboxes,  and  fans,  they  are  equaled  only  by 
the  Japanese.  There  is  a  great  caravan  trade 
carried  on  with  Russia  and  Farther  India,  and 
a  large  traffic  by  sea  with  British  India,  North 
and  South  America,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
other  countries  of  Europe.  From  India  opium 
is  imported,  and  its  effects  upon  the  people  is 
most  deleterious.  Internal  communication  is 
carried  on  chiefly  by  means  of  rivers,  and  of  a 
Grand  Canal  which,  commencing  at  the  city  of 
Hang-kow,  runs  northward  for  a  distance  of 
seven  hundred  miles.  Railways  and  telegraphs, 
however,  are  now  being  generally  introduced, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  1908,  more  than  thirty 
lines  of  railways  were  under  construction.  The 
provinces  of  China  are:  Chihli,  Shantung,  Kiang- 
su,  Chehkiang,  Fukien,  Kwangtung,  Shensi, 
Anhwei,  Honan,  Shansi,  Kansu,  Szechuen, 
Hupeh,  Kwang-si,  Hunan,  Kiangsi,  Kweichow, 
and  Yunnan.  The  capital  of  China  proper  and 
of  the  entire  empire  is  Peking.  Other  towns  of 
importance  are  Nanking,  Canton,  Shanghai, 
Ning-po,  Tientsin,  Fuchau,  Amoy,  Hang-kow, 
Kin-te-ching,  and  Chee-foo. 

Cincinnati,  the  "Queen  City  of  the  West," 
is  situated  in  the  southwest  part  of  Ohio,  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Ohio  River.  The  lo- 
cation is  fine,  and  the  suburbs  are  not  surpassed 
for  beauty.  This  great  emporium  of  the  Central 
States  is  an  aggregation  of  towns  that  have 
merged  into  one.  It  is  composite  also  as  to 
population,  which  is  derived  from  many  nations. 
The  German  element  is  very  large.  Here  are 
established  a  famous  college  of  music  and  a 
richly  endowed  art  school.  Five  bridges  connect 
Cincinnati  with  the  cities  of  Covington,  Newport, 
and  Ludlow  on  the  Kentucky  shore.  The  archi- 
tectural achievements  of  the  city  are  striking 
for  splendor  and  variety.  Among  its  other  lead- 
ing industries  are  pork-packing,  brewing,  dis- 
tilling, and  manufactures  of  iron,  stone,  wood, 
clothing,  food-products,  tobacco,  soap,  jewelry, 
and  drugs.  Among  its  interesting  institutions 
are  the  university,  public  library,  art  museum, 
historical  society,  society  of  natural  history, 
zoological  garden,  industrial  exposition,  May 
musical  festival,  city  armory,  medical  colleges, 
hospitals,  and  crematory.  Cincinnati  is  the 
site  of  one  of  the  earliest  astronomical  observa- 
tories in  the  United  States,  founded  about  the 
same  time  as  that  of  Harvard  College  and  the 
Naval  Observatory.     Population,  364,463. 

Circassia,  a  country  of  Asia,  comprehend- 
ing the  north-western  division  of  the  Caucasus, 
between  the  shores  of  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas.  The  whole  country  is  mountainous. 
For  nearly  forty  years  the  Circassians  main- 
tained a  brave  struggle  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Russians,  but  were  finally  defeated, 
with  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus, 
in  1864,  a  defeat  which  lead  practically  to  their 
extinction  as  a  nation.  After  the  close  of  the 
war,  large  numbers  of  them  emigrated  to  Asia 


526 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Minor  and  other  provinces  of  Turkey.  The 
women  of  Circassia  have  long  been  famous  for 
their  beauty. 

Cleveland,  the  first  city  in  Ohio  in  popula- 
tion, is  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  River.  Its  situa- 
tion is  central  to  great  deposits  of  coal,  iron  ore, 
petroleum,  and  limestone.  The  city  has  a  har- 
bor at  the  mouth  of  the  river  giving  safe  anchor- 
age for  a  large  number  of  ships.  Great  break- 
waters run  out  on  each  side  of  the  river,  forming 
commodious  eastern  and  western  harbors.  The 
abundance  of  trees  gives  it  the  name  of  "The 
Forest  City."  The  Cuyahoga  is  spanned  by 
several  bridges,  and  in  particular  by  the  Via- 
duct, an  elevated  street  and  bridge  erected  at 
great  expense.  Among  the  buildings  are  the 
United  States  building,  city  hall.  Case  Hall, 
medical  college,  railway  depot,  etc.  Cleveland 
is  an  important  railway  center,  has  an  extensive 
lake  traffic,  and  large  manufactures,  especially 
in  iron  and  steel;  petroleum-refining  and  pork- 
packing  being  also  important  industries.  There 
is  a  harbor  of  refuge  constructed  by  government. 
Population,  560,663. 

Cologne  {ko-lon')  [Ger.  K6ln\.  An  ancient 
city  of  Prussia,  formerly  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent electorate  of  same  name,  and  now 
of  the  Rhine  provinces.  It  connects  by  a  mag- 
nificent iron  bridge  with  Deutz  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
presents  architecturally  a  fine  coup  d'oeU  of 
mediaeval  quaintness.  Its  cathedral,  begun 
about  1248,  finished  in  1880,  at  a  cost  of  $10,- 
000,000,  is  the  most  imposing  structure  in  Ger- 
many and  the  most  imposing  Gothic  edifice  in 
the  world.  Cologne  has  an  extensive  commerce, 
and  is  the  chief  entrepot  between  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  cities  of  Germany.  Cologne 
was  founded  by  the  Romans,  and  reached  the 
height  of  its  prosperity  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  the  subsequent  zenith  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.     Population,  432,835. 

Colombia,  a  Republic  of  South  America; 
area  about  475,000  square  miles;  population 
(according  to  government  estimate),  4,000,000; 
capital,  Bogota. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  extremely  varied, 
with  lofty  mountains  in  the  west,  and  vast  plains 
in  the  east  scarcely  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Columbia  possesses  all  the  climates  of  the 
world;  perpetual  snows  cover  the  summits  of 
the  Cordilleras,  while  the  valleys  abound  in  the 
rich  vegetation  of  the  tropics.  In  the  north 
departments  and  in  the  immense  llanos  of  the 
east  great  herds  of  cattle,  descended  from  those 
imported  by  the  Spaniards,  are  reared;  in  the 
central  districts  shorthorns  and  other  English, 
Dutch,  and  Norman  cattle  and  horses  have  oeen 
introduced,  and  are  largely  raised  throughout 
the  temperate  zone.  Among  the  natural  min- 
eral products  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
coal,  sulphur,  zinc,  antimony,  arsenic,  cinnabar, 
rock-salt,  crystal,  granite,  marble,  lime,  gypsum, 
jet,  amethysts,  rubies,  porphyry,  and  jasper; 
while  much  of  the  world  s  platinum  is  obtained 
from  the  upper  San  Juan,  and  the  principal  source 
of  the  finest  emeralds  is  at  Muzo  in  Boyaca. 

Columbia,  or  Oregon,  one  of  the  largest 
of   the   North   American    rivers,    rising   in   the 


Rocky  Mountains  of  British  Columbia,  and 
emptying  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  flows 
first  northwest,  then,  doubling  on  itself,  turns 
south  through  Washington,  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  Spokane  and  Snake  rivers.  For  a  con- 
siderable part  of  its  course  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  Washington  and  Oregon,  being  joined 
by  the  Willamette  and  other  tributaries.  The 
total  length  is  about  1,400  miles.  It  is  broken 
by  rapids,  but  navigable  to  Vancouver,  and  up 
the  Willamette  to  Portland.  It  is  a  famous 
salmon  stream,  Columbia  River  salmon  giving 
rise  to  a  great  industry  on  the  coast.  It  was 
explored  by  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1804-5. 

Constantinople,  called  by  the  Turks 
Stamboul,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  Seventh 
Century  before  Christ,  and  it  retained  its  name  of 
Byzantium,  derived  from  its  founder,  till  its 
conquest  (A.  D.  330)  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
who  built  a  new  city  on  the  site,  and  gave  to  it 
its  present  name.  It  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks  in  1453.  Situated  on  an  arm  of  the 
sea  called  the  Golden  Horn,  on  the  European 
side  of  the  Bosphorus  or  Strait  of  Constanti- 
nople, the  city  nolds  a  splendid  position,  and 
its  appearance  from  the  sea  is  very  striking; 
but  the  streets  are  for  the  most  part  narrow 
and  dirty,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  low,  being 
built  of  wood  and  earth.  It  contains,  however, 
some  fine  public  buildings,  such  as  the  Seraglio, 
or  Imperial  Palace,  and  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Sophia,  now  converted  into  a  mosque.  Many 
of  the  mosques  are  very  beautiful,  and  are 
generally  surrounded  with  trees  and  gardens. 
The  Golden  Horn,  on  the  north  side  of  the  city, 
forms  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world. 
On  the  northeast  side  of  the  harbor  are  the 
suburbs  of  Galata  and  Pera,  where  the  English, 
the  French,  and  other  Europeans  reside.  Galata 
is  the  seat  of  the  commercial  establishments, 
Pera  that  of  the  diplomatic  bodies.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Stamboul  itself  are  Turks,  Armenians, 
Greeks,  and  Jews,  who  have  each  particular 
quarters  allotted  to  them.  The  objects  of 
greatest  attraction  in  Stamboul  are  the  bazaars, 
or  market-places,  the  fountains,  and  the  baths. 
The  Seraglio  stands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
city,  and  is  surrounded  by  public  offices  and 
government  buildings,  being  altogether  three 
miles  in  circumference.  The  principal  entrance 
to  the  palace  is  called  "the  Porte.  There  are 
upwards  of  350  mosques  in  Constantinople,  and 
about  thirty-six  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Protestant  churches.  There  are  more  than  130 
public  baths  in  the  city,  and  180  khans  or  lodging 
houses  of  great  size,  chiefly  occupied  by  for- 
eigners. Omnibuses  and  tramways  have  been 
introduced,  and  on  the  Pera  side  of  the  city  many 
of  the  streets  are  well  lighted.  The  old 
walls  of  the  city  are  thirteen  miles  in  circum- 
ference.    Population  about  1,125,000. 

Corinth,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  the 
capital  of  a  small,  but  wealthy  and  powerful 
district  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  lay  on  the 
southeast  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  which  stretches 
along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Peloponnesus; 
and  its  position  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth, 
which  connects  the  Peloponnesus  with  the 
more  northerly  part  of  Greece,  made  it  a  place 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


527 


of  great  importance,  and  the  emporium  of  the 
trade  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  city 
was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans, 
about  the  middle  of  the  Second  Century  before 
Christ.  It  was  afterwards,  in  the  First  Century 
of  our  era,  made  into  a  Roman  colony,  and  re- 
gained much  of  its  former  wealth,  which  led  to 
its  population  becoming  once  more  famed  for 
their  luxuriousness  and  licentiousness.  Little 
now  remains  of  the  city  except  the  ruins  of  a 
Doric  temple,  believed  to  be  one  of  the  earliest 
existing  specimens  of  that  style  of  architecture. 
The  modern  town  is  of  no  importance. 

Cossacks,  a  people  inhabiting  those  parts 
of  the  Russian  Empire  which  border  on  the 
northern  dominions  of  Turkey,  Poland,  and 
the  southern  confines  of  Siberia.  Both  the  name 
and  the  origin  of  this  people  are  involved  in 
great  uncertainty,  but  they  are  believed  to  be 
of  a  mixed  Caucasian  and  Tartar  race.  The 
country  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  or  Cossacks  of 
the  Don,  to  the  north  of  the  Sea  of  Azov  and 
Caucasia,  has  an  area  of  about  62,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  1,500,000. 
They  pay  no  taxes  to  the  government,  but,  in 
lieu  of  this,  every  Cossack  of  the  Don,  from 
15  to  60  years  of  age,  is  bound  to  render 
military  service.  Every  Cossack  is  obliged  to 
equip,  clothe,  and  arm  himself  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, and  to  keep  his  horse.  The  number  of 
Don  Cossacks  in  military  service  is  computed 
at  60,000;  and  there  are,  besides,  the  Cossacks 
on  the  Black  Sea,  the  Great  Russian  Cossacks 
on  the  Caucasian  Line,  the  Ural  Cossacks,  the 
Orenburg  Cossacks,  the  Siberian  Cossacks,  and 
the  Bashkir  Cossacks,  the  total  number  of  Cos- 
sacks in  military  service  being  estimated  at 
about  330,000,  all  of  whom  are  fully  organized, 
and  are  supposed  to  be  prepared  to  enter  the 
field,  on  being  summoned,  in  the  course  of  ten 
days.  They  are  thus  the  most  important  part 
of  the  irregular  troops  of  Russia,  but  otherwise 
they  maintain  considerable  independence. 

Cotopaxi  (kd-td-p&x'l),  the  most  remark- 
able volcanic  mountain  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecua- 
dor, about  sixty  miles  northeast  of  Chimborazo ; 
latitude  0°  43'  south;  longitude  78°  40'  west; 
altitude  19,613  feet.  It  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  colossal  summits  of  the  Andes,  being  & 
perfectly  symmetrical,  truncated  cone,  present- 
ing a  uniform,  almost  unfurrowed  field  of  snow 
of  resplendent  brightness.  Several  terrific  erup- 
tions of  it  occurred  in  the  course  of  the 
Eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century. 

Coventry  (kUv'-en-trl),  a  city  in  England, 
county  of  Warwick,  eighty-five  miles  north- 
west of  London.  It  was  formerly  surrounded 
with  lofty  walls  and  had  twelve  gates,  and  was 
the  see  of  a  bishop  early  conjoined  with  Lich- 
field. Parliaments  were  convened  here  by  the 
earlier  monarchs  of  England.  Pageants  and 
processions  were  celebrated  in  old  times,  and  a 
remnant  of  these  still  exists  in  the  processional 
show  in  honor  of  Lady  Godiva.  Population, 
69,877. 

Cracow  (kra'ko),  the  old  capital  of  Poland, 
in  1815-1846  capital  of  a  republic  of  the  same 
name  now  forming  part  of  Austrian  Galicia; 
is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  where  it  be- 


comes navigable,  and  consists  of  Cracow  proper 
or  the  old  city,  and  several  suburbs.  It  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop,  is  well  built  and  regularly  forti- 
fied. The  cathedral,  a  fine  old  Gothic  edifice, 
contains  monuments  of  many  Polish  kings,  of 
Kosciusko,  etc.  The  university  was  founded 
in  1364,  but  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  was 
reorganized  in  1817.  It  has  a  library  of  300,000 
volumes.  On  a  hill  near  the  town  stands  the 
monument  of  Kosciusko,  120  feet  high.  Popu- 
lation,^104,836. 

Crecy  (kres'-l),  or  Cressy,  a  small  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Somme,  about 
twelve  miles  northeast  of  Abbeville,  celebrated 
on  account  of  the  Battle  of  Crecy,  won  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  of  England,  over  the  French,  under 
the  Count  of  AleuQon,  August  26,  1346.  This 
battle  was  won  by  the  prowess  of  the  Black 
Prince  under  command  of  Edward  III.;  and 
the  crest  now  used  by  the  Princes  of  Wales 
(three  ostrich  feathers,  with  the  motto,  "Ich 
dien, "  I  serve)  is  commonly  said  to  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Black  Prince  after  this  victory, 
in  which  the  King  of  Bohemia,  to  whom  the  crest 
belonged,  was  slain.     Population  about  1,500. 

Cronstadt  ikron'stat),  a  maritime  fortress 
of  Russia,  about  twenty  miles  west  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land, opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  on  a 
long,  narrow,  rocky  island,  forming,  both  by  its 
position  and  the  strength  of  its  fortificatious, 
the  bulwark  of  the  capital,  and  being  the  most 
important  naval  station  of  the  Empire.  It  was 
founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1710,  and  used 
to  be  the  commercial  port  of  St.  Petersburg, 
but  since  the  construction  of  a  canal,  giving 
large  vessels  direct  access  to  the  capital,  it  has 
lost  this  position. 

Cuba,  the  largest  and  most  westerly  of  the 
West  Indies.  It  stretches  in  the  west,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  thirty  miles  to  100  miles, 
a  coast-line  of  1,976  miles,  and  an  area  of  about 
45,872  square  miles,  including  adjacent  islands 
(of  which  the  Isle  of  Pines  is  the  largest)  and 
bays.  Only  about  one-third  of  the  coastline  is 
accessible  to  vessels,  the  remainder  being  beset 
by  reefs  and  banks.  The  shores,  low  and  flat, 
are  liable  to  inundations,  but  there  are  numerous 
excellent  havens.  A  watershed  running  length- 
wise through  the  islands,  rises  into  mountainous 
heights  only  in  the  southeast,  where  are  the 
Sierra  de  Msestra,  shooting  up  in  the  Pico  de 
Tarquino  to  8,320  feet,  and  the  Sierra  del  Cobre 
(copper).  The  mountains,  composed  of  granite 
overlaid  with  calcareous  rocks,  and  containing 
minerals,  especially  copper  and  iron,  are  clothed 
in  almost  perennial  verdure,  wooded  to  the  sum- 
mits. The  limestone  rocks  abound  in  caverns, 
with  magnificent  stalactites.  Mineral  waters 
are  plentiful.  The  rivers,  running  north  and 
south,  are  navigable  for  only  a  few  miles  by 
small  boats,  but  are  very  serviceable  for  irriga- 
tion of  the  plantations,  and  supply  excellent 
drinking  water.  The  climate,  more  temperate 
than  in  the  other  West  Indian  Islands,  is  salubri- 
ous in  the  elevated  interior,  but  the  coasts  are 
the  haunt  of  fever  and  ague.  No  month  of  the 
year  is  free  from  rain,  the  greatest  rainfall  being 
in  May,  June,  and  July.  Earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent in  the  east.     Hurricanes,   less  frequent 


528 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


than  in  Jamaica,  sometimes  cause  widespread 
desolation. 

The  soil  of  Cuba  is  a  marvel  of  richness,  and  a 
large  part  is  still  covered  with  virgin  forest. 
The  vegetation  of  Cuba  also  includes  tamarinds, 
palms,  ferns,  lianas,  etc.  Among  the  cultivated 
products  are  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  cacao,  rice, 
maize,  cotton,  esculent  roots,  and  tropical  fruits. 
Among  the  animals  there  is  a  species  of  tailless 
rat  peculiar  to  Cuba,  and  an  abundance  of  birds. 
Of  noxious  animals  and  insects  there  are  the 
crocodile,  scorpion,  and  mosquitoes.  The  rivers 
and  seas  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  the  turtle 
abounding  in  the  shallows  and  sandy  places  of 
the  beach.  The  staple  production  of  the  island 
is  sugar.  In  a  single  year  Cuba  has  produced 
1,520,226  long  tons  of  this  article  for  export. 

Tobacco  ranks  next  to  sugar  as  a  staple. 
Cuba  produces  the  standard  quality  of  cigar 
leaf,  owing  to  the  exquisite  adaptation  of  the 
soil  and  climate  to  the  development  of  the  plant. 
The  normal  production  is  6,000,000  pounds  of 
leaf,  and  over  350,000,000  cigars.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  Cuba  is  largely  in  the  copper  mines. 
There  are  almost  inexhaustible  deposits  of  this 
metal,  part  of  which  are  found  in  the  mountains 
near  the  east  end,  known  as  the  Sierra  del  Cobre, 
or  Copper  Mountains.  Here  a  great  part  of  the 
ore  taken  out  yields  sixty  per  cent,  of  pure  metal. 
Cuba  has  asphalt  deposits  rivaling  those  of  Trini- 
dad, for  street  paving.  Iron  ores  abound.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Santiago  there  are  moun- 
tains oi  metal,  and  for  a  considerable  period 
the  Juragua  and  Daiquiri  companies  (American) 
shipped  from  30,000  to  50,000  tons  of  the  ore 
per  month  to  the  United  States.  Oranges  of  ex- 
quisite flavor  grow  spontaneously  in  all  parts  of 
tne  island,  though  no  attention  is  paid  to  their 
culture  or  exportation.  There  are  cocoanuts, 
six  kinds  of  bananas,  and  such  fruits  as  guavas, 
zapotes,  anonas,  guanabanas,  and  tamarinds. 
There  are  thirty-two  species  of  the  palm  tree, 
the  woods  and  the  leaves  of  the  majority  of 
which  could  be  transformed  into  a  profitable 
article  of  commerce,  but  so  far  only  two  have 
been  utilized,  the  "yarey"  palm,  whose  leaves 
are  used  in  the  United  States  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  hats  and  baskets,  and  the  "palma  real" 
(royal  palm),  from  which  durable  boards  are 
made,  which  last  much  longer  than  those  of  the 
yellow  pine  and  are  largely  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  houses. 

There  are  seventeen  railway  companies  in 
Cuba,  which  operate  upward  of  2,500  miles  of 
main  line,  ana  there  are  also  private  branch 
lines  to  all  the  important  sugar  estates. 

There  are  5,065  miles  of  telegraph  line  in 
operation,  all  the  property  of  the  government, 
which  also  owns  the  telephones,  leasing  both 
systems  to  private  corporations.  Population  in 
1907,  2,048,980. 

Czechs  (cheks),  the  extreme  western  branch 
of  the  great  Slavonic  family  of  races.  The 
Czechs  have  their  headquarters  in  Bohemia, 
where  they  arrived  in  the  Fifth  Century.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  unknown.  The  total  num- 
ber of  the  Czechs  is  about  6,000,000,  nearly  all 
of  whom  live  in  the  Austrian  Empire.  The 
Czechs  proper,  in  Bohemia,  number  about  2,- 
700,000.     They  speak  a  Slavonic  dialect  of  great 


antiquity  and  of  high  scientific  cultivation. 
The  Czech  language  is  distinguished  as  highly 
inflectional.  Like  the  Greek,  it  has  a  dual  num- 
ber, and  its  manifold  declensions,  tenses,  and 
participial  formations,  with  their  subtle  shapes 
of  distinction,  give  the  language  a  complex 
grammatical  structure.  The  alphabet  consists 
of  forty-two  letters.  In  musical  value  the  Czech 
comes  next  to  Italian. 

Danube,  a  celebrated  river  of  Europe, 
originates  in  two  small  streams  rising  in  the 
Schwarzwald,  or  Black  Forest,  in  Baden,  and 
uniting  at  Donaueschen.  The  direct  distance 
from  source  to  mouth  of  the  Danube  is  about 
1,000  miles,  and  its  total  length,  including  wind- 
ings, about  1,800  miles.  The  Danube  is  navi- 
gable for  steamers  up  the  Regensburg  (Ratis- 
bon)  nearly  1,500  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Dardanelles  (the  ancient  Hellespont),  the 
narrow  strait  between  Europe  and  Asia,  con- 
necting the  Grecian  Archipelago  with  the  Sea  of 
Marmora.  The  strait  is  about  forty  miles  in 
length.  Its  western  entrance  is  two  miles  wide, 
but  at  its  narrowest  part  it  is  only  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  wide;  and  here  stood  the  castles  of 
the  Dardanelles  (Dardanus),  from  which  the 
strait  derived  its  name. 

Date  Line,  an  arbitrary  line  drawn  on  a 
map  from  north  to  south,  on  the  one  side  of 
which  it  is  to-day  and  on  the  other  to-morrow, 
even  in  places  not  a  mile  apart.  When  ships 
cross  this  line  they  drop  or  repeat  a  day.  The 
international  date  line  describes  the  following 
course:  starting  at  the  North  Pole  it  passes 
through  Bering  Strait,  then  slants  to  the  west 
to  clear  the  long  horn  formed  by  the  Aleutian 
chain  of  islands  and  give  them  the  same  day  as 
the  United  States,  to  which  they  belong.  This 
accomplished,  it  returns  to  the  180th  meridian 
and  drops  south  into  the  tropics,  keeping  far  to 
the  east  of  the  Japanese  group  and  the  Philip- 

?ines  till  it  approaches  the  latitude  of  the  Fiji 
slands.  As  these  and  some  of  the  neighboring 
groups  belong  to  Great  Britain  and  do  business 
chiefly  with  her  Australian  colonies,  the  date 
line  here  makes  a  sudden  swerve  to  the  east,  so 
as  not  to  embarrass  the  local  commerce  with  a 
change  of  day. 

Dead  Sea,  The,  a  lake  of  Palestine,  about 
twenty  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  called 
by  the  Arabs  "Bahr  Loot,"  or  "Sea  of  Lot"; 
is  about  forty-seven  miles  long,  and  from  ten  to 
twelve  broad,  with  a  depth  of  220  fathoms,  and 
its  surface  1,312  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea 
are  intensely  salt,  of  great  specific  gravity,  and 
have  no  perceptible  outlet;  in  the  north  it  re- 
ceives the  waters  of  the  Jordan. 

Denmark,  a  kingdom  of  Northern  Europe, 
is  composed  of  a  peninsular  portion,  and  an 
extensive  archipelago,  lying  east  of  it,  with  a 
few  scattered  islands  on  its  west  side.  The 
peninsular  portion  is  composed  of  Jutland,  and 
measures,  north  to  south,  185  miles,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  forty  miles  to  108  miles. 
Besides  these  territories,  Denmark  possesses  the 
Faroe  Islands  and  Iceland,  in  the  North  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  and  Greenland  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
also  the  Danish  West  Indies.  Denmark  has  no 
large  rivers.     Intercourse  between  the  various 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


529 


islands  and  parts  of  the  kingdom  separated 
from  each  other  by  water  is  necessarily  kept  up 
by  means  of  water  communication,  regular 
ferries  being  established  at  numerous  points. 
Denmark  is  well  supplied  with  excellent  sea- 
ports, the  most  important  being  Copenhagen, 
Aalborg,  Aarhuus,  and  Randers.  Horses  and 
cattle  are  reared  in  great  numbers,  and  both 
are  excellent.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  are  kept; 
but  rather  for  the  flesh  than  the  wool,  which  is 
coarse  and  short.  Swine  are  also  reared  to  a 
great  extent.  Although  not  particularly  fav- 
ored by  nature,  Denmark  is  yet  preeminently 
an  agricultural  country.  The  land  is  greatly 
subdivided,  as  the  law  interdicts  the  union  of 
small  farms  into  larger,  and  encourages  the 
division  of  landed  property.  The  kinds  of 
grain  most  largely  cultivated  are  barley,  oats, 
rye,  and  wheat,  the  greatest  area  being  occupied 
by  oats,  the  second  by  barley.  The  fisheries 
were  formerly  a  more  important  branch  of 
national  industry  than  now. 

Denver,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of 
Colorado,  is  magnificently  situated  at  an  alti- 
tude of  5,275  feet,  within  fifteen  miles  of  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  railroad  centers  in  the  West, 
and  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  mining  district. 
Owing  to  the  remarkable  clearness  of  the  atmos- 
phere, a  stretch  of  200  miles  of  the  mountains 
is  discernible  almost  every  day  of  the  year. 
The  climate  is  peculiarly  mild  and  well  adapted 
to  sufferers  from  pulmonary  complaints.  Denver 
is  the  leading  industrial  city  of  the  western 
mountain  region.  It  possesses  a  number  of 
fine  buildings,  including  the  capitol,  the  United 
States  mint  and  the  University  of  Denver, 
besides  the  state  and  the  public  libraries.  Popu- 
lation, 213,381. 

Detroit,  metropolis  of  Michigan,  is  situated 
on  the  Detroit  River,  about  eighteen  miles  from 
Lake  Erie,  and  seven  miles  from  Lake  St.  Clair. 
It  has  a  water  front  of  nine  miles;  steamship 
communication  with  the  principal  ports  on  the 
Great  Lakes;  and  ferries  to  Windsor  on  the 
Canadian  side.  The  river  at  this  point  is  known 
as  the  "Dardanelles  of  the  New  World,"  leading 
from  one  great  lake  to  another  and  affording  an 
excellent  harbor.  Detroit  has  many  magnificent 
public  parks,  and  over  $500,000  is  expended 
annually  for  their  maintenance.  The  largest 
and  most  beautiful  is  Belle  Isle,  an  island  of 
700  acres  at  the  entrance  of  Lake  St.  Clair. 
This  park  is  an  immense  pleasure  ground  and 
offers  all  sorts  of  amusements.  No  city  of  its 
size  in  the  country  surpasses  Detroit  in  the 
number,  beauty,  and  substantial  quality  of  its 
public  and  business  buildings.  Among  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Ma- 
jestic, Union  Trust,  Hammond,  municipal  build- 
ings, county  court-house,  city  hall,  the  post- 
office,  built  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000,  Light  Guard 
Armory,  art  museum.  Central  High  School,  and 
Masonic  Temple.  Near  the  Campus  Martius  is 
the  public  library,  with  150,000  volumes.  In 
front  of  the  city  hall  stands  a  magnificent 
soldiers'  and  sailors'  monument.  Other  points 
of  interest  are  Fort  Wayne,  the  Bagley  Foun- 
tain, Evacuation  Day  Tablet,  the  old  home  of 
General  Grant,   and    relics    of    Perry's  victory 


on  Lake  Erie.  Detroit  is  an  extensive  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  city.  Population, 
465,766. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Elbe.  Among  the  chief 
edifices,  besides  several  of  the  churches,  are  the 
museum  (joined  on  to  an  older  range  of  build- 
ings called  the  Zwinger),  a  beautiful  building 
containing  a  famous  picture  gallery  and  other 
treasures;  and  the  Japanese  Palace  (Augusteum) 
containing  the  royal  library  of  from  300,000  to 
400,000  volumes.  The  city  is  distinguished  for 
its  excellent  educational,  literary,  and  artistic 
institutions,  among  which  are  the  Polytechnic 
School,  the  Conservatory  and  School  of  Music, 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  etc.  The  manufac- 
tures are  important  and  various  in  character; 
the  china,  however,  for  which  the  city  is  famed, 
is  made  chiefly  at  Meissen,  fourteen  miles  dis- 
tant. The  commerce  is  considerable,  and  has 
greatly  increased  since  the  development  of  the 
railway  system.  The  chief  glory  of  Dresden  is 
the  gallery  of  pictures,  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  pictures  number  about  25,000,  and 
in  particular  comprise  many  fine  specimens  of 
the  Italian,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  schools.  The 
city  suffered  severely  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  also  in  1813,  when  it  was  the  headquarters 
of  Napoleon's  army.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussians  in  1866,  but  was  evacuated  in  the 
following  spring.     Population,  516,996. 

Dublin  (Irish,  Dubh-linn,  "black  pool"), 
the  capital  of  Ireland,  stands  on  the  River 
Liffey,  where  it  disembogues  into  Dublin  Bay. 
Much  of  Dublin  is  built  on  land  reclaimed  from 
the  sea,  a  work  which  still  continues;  and  the 
ground  is  generally  flat,  with  a  very  few  undu- 
lations. The  river,  running  from  east  to  west, 
divides  the  city  into  two  almost  equal  portions. 
The  aristocratic  parts  are  the  southeast  and 
northeast,  containing  many  beautiful  squares, 
with  splendid  streets  and  terraces.  The  center 
and  the  northwest  quarter  are  the  great  em- 
poriums of  trade  and  the  residence  of  the  middle 
classes.  The  southwest  division,  part  of  which 
is  called  the  "Liberties,"  once  the  seat  of  the 
silk  trade,  is  the  most  filthy  and  degraded  por- 
tion of  the  city.  The  streets  in  this  quarter 
are  narrow,  crooked,  and  irregular,  while  in  the 
fashionable  quarter  they  possess  a  totally  oppo- 
site character.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
"Circular  Road,"  of  nearly  nine  miles  in  length, 
forming  a  favorite  drive  and  promenade.  Pop- 
ulation, 290,638. 

^Edinburgh,  capital  of  Scotland,  and  chief 
town  of  Mid-Lothian,  occupies  a  picturesque 
situation  on  a  cluster  of  eminences  at  a  distance 
of  about  one  and  one-half  miles  from  the  Firth 
of  Forth.  Its  admirable  position  has  induced 
the  comparison  with  Athens,  from  which,  as 
well  as  from  its  literary  fame,  it  takes  the  title 
"Modern  Athens."  The  Gaelic  name  of  the 
city  is  "Dunedin."  A  picturesque  castle  crowns 
the  highest  point  in  the  city.  Holyrood  Abbey 
and  palace  in  the  low  ground  east  of  the  city 
have  great  historic  interest.  Edinburgh  is  the 
residence  of  considerable  numbers  of  the  Scot- 
tish landed  gentry,  and  its  society  is  regarded 
as  unusually  polished,  from  the  predommance 


530 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  the  professional  and  literary  elements  in  its 
composition.     Its   medical    practitioners  —  sur- 

feons  and  physicians  —  have  a  high  reputation, 
ts  university  and  medical  schools,  its  high 
school,  and  its  various  other  educational  insti- 
tutes have  a  high  repute.  Population,  350,524. 
Egrypt  is  a  country  in  the  northeast  of 
Africa,  whose  territory  extends  up  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  as  far  as  the  Equator,  embracing 
Nubia,  Ethiopia,  Darfur,  etc.  Egypt  proper 
extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  first 
cataract  at  Assouan,  and  is  usually  distinguished 
into  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Egypt,  which 
last  comprehends  the  Delta.  The  Delta  begins 
just  below  Cairo,  about  ninety  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  about  eighty 
miles.  It  is  this  part  of  the  country  which  is 
chiefly  cultivated,  its  fertility  being  derived 
from  the  annual  inundations  caused  by  the 
overflow  of  the  Nile.  The  rest  of  the  country 
is  mainly  sandy  desert,  with  some  remarkable 
oases  on  the  west  of  the  Nile.  The  climate  of 
Egypt  is  hot  and  dry,  but  not  unhealthy.  The 
date-palm,  the  acacia,  and  the  sycamore,  are 
scattered  throughout  the  country;  large  plan- 
tations of  roses  are  found  in  the  province  of 
Feiyoom;  and  the  soil  and  climate  are  well 
suited  for  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  indigo,  cucumbers, 
melons,  and  onions,  as  well  as  for  maize,  wheat, 
and  millet.  There  are  no  metals  in  Egypt,  but 
salt,  nitre,  marble,  red  granite,  oriental  ala- 
baster, and  limestone,  are  found.  The  com- 
merce of  the  country  is  very  considerable,  and 
centers  chiefly  in  Alexandria,  w'hich  suffered 
severely,  however,  in  the  war  of  1882.  The  capi- 
tal is  Cairo,  which  is  the  largest  city  in  Africa. 

Eiffel  Tower,  a  structure  erected  on  the 
banks  of  the  Seine  in  Paris,  the  loftiest  in  the 
world,  being  984  feet  in  height,  and  visible  from 
all  parts  of  the  city.  It  consists  of  three  plat- 
forms, of  which  the  first  is  189  feet  above  the 
ground,  the  second  is  380  feet  and  the  third, 
906  feet  high,  far  above  the  Strasburg  Cathedral 
spire.  It  was  designed  by  Gustave  Eiffel, 
and  erected  in  1887-^9.  There  are  caf^s  and 
restaurants  on  the  first  landing,  and  the  ascent 
is  by  powerful  elevators. 

England,  the  most  southern  and  richest 
portion  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain,  is  bounded 
north  by  Scotland,  east  by  the  North  Sea,  south 
by  the  English  Channel,  and  west  by  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  the  principality  of  Wales,  and 
the  Irish  Sea.  Maximum  length,  425  miles; 
breadth,  fluctuating  between  sixty-two  and  280 
miles;  coast  line,  about  2,000  miles.  Area, 
50,222  square  miles.  The  principal  islands  be- 
longing to  it  are  those  of  Man,  Lundy,  Scilly, 
Walney,  Sheppey,  Wight,  Lindisfame,  and  the 
Channel  Islanas.  Chief  rivers :  Severn,  Thames, 
Trent,  Mersey,  Ouse,  Humber,  Medway,  Tyne, 
Dee,  Tees,  Wear,  Derwent,  and  Eden.  Lakes: 
Derwentwater,  Ulleswater,  Windermere,  and 
Keswick.  Estuaries:  those  of  the  Thames, 
Mersey,  Humber,  Severn,  Dee,  Southampton 
Water,  and  the  Wash.  It  has  numerous  capes 
and  headlands.  Mountains:  The  principal 
mountains  are  those  of  Cumberland,  Westmore- 
land, and  Yorkshire,  with  the  Cheviots  on  the 
Scottish  border,  the  Derbyshire  "Peak,"  and 
the   Cotswolds    in    Gloucestershire.     Nimierous 


forests  are  spread  over  the  country.  Soil :  The 
major  part  of  the  land  is  fertile  and  highly  pro- 
ductive, owing  to  an  admirable  system  of  tillage ; 
while  well-furnished  farm  houses  and  comfortable 
cottages  everywhere  meet  the  eye.  and  evince 
that  taste  for  neatness  and  rural  beauty  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  the  nation.  The  same  fea- 
tures, too,  on  a  larger  and  grander  scale,  are 
found  in  the  country-seats  of  the  nobility  and 
squirarchy.  The  climate  is  generally  moist,  but 
mild  and  healthful.  Chief  towns:  London 
(capital  of  the  British  Empire),  Liverpool,  Man- 
chester, Leeds,  Birmingham,  Hull,  Bristol,  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  Sheffield,  Bath,  Oxford,  Carlisle, 
etc. 

EngHsh  Channel,  the  arm  of  sea  which 
separates  England  from  France,  extending,  on 
the  English  side,  from  Dover  to  Land's  End; 
and  on  the  French,  from  Calais  to  the  island  of 
Ushant.  On  the  east  it  communicates  with  the 
German  Ocean  by  the  Strait  of  Dover,  twenty- 
one  miles  wide ;  and  on  the  west  it  opens  into  the 
Atlantic  by  an  entrance  about  100  miles  wide. 
At  its  greatest  breadth  it  is  about  150  miles. 

Erie  Canal,  the  largest  artificial  water- 
way in  the  United  States,  serving  to  connect  the 
Great  Lakes  with  the  sea.  It  begins  at  Buffalo 
on  Lake  Erie,  and  extends  to  the  Hudson  at 
Albany.  It  is  387  miles  long;  has  in  all 
seventy-two  locks;  a  surface  width  of  seventy 
feet,  bottom  width  of  forty-two  feet,  and  depth 
of  seven  feet.  It  is  carried  over  several  large 
streams  on  stone  aqueducts;  was  opened  m 
1825;  and  up  to  1901  had  cost  for  construction, 
enlargement,  and  maintenance  $52,540,800.  In 
November,  1903,  the  people  of  New  York  State 
voted  to  enlarge  the  canal  so  as  to  accommodate 
one-thousand-ton  barges. 

Erie,  Lake,  one  of  the  great  chain  of  North 
American  lakes,  between  Lakes  Huron  and  On- 
tario, about  240  miles  long,  58  miles  broad  at 
its  center,  from  200  to  210  feet  deep  at  the 
deepest  part;  area,  9,600  square  miles.  The 
whole  of  its  south  shore  is  within  the  territory 
of  the  United  States,  and  its  north  within  that 
of  Canada.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the  upper 
lakes  by  Detroit  River  at  its  northwest  extrem- 
ity, and  discharges  its  waters  into  Lake  Ontario 
by  the  Niagara  River  at  its  northeast  end. 
The  Welland  Canal  enables  vessels  to  pass  from 
it  to  Lake  Ontario. 

Etna,  or  .^tna,  Mount,  the  greatest 
volcano  in  Europe,  a  mountain  in  the  province 
of  Catania,  Sicily;  height,  10,738  feet.  It  rises 
immediately  from  the  sea,  has  a  circumference 
of  more  than  100  miles,  and  dominates  the  whole 
northeast  of  Sicily,  having  a  number  of  towns 
and  villages  on  its  lower  slopes.  The  top  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow;  midway  down  is 
the  woody  or  forest  region;  at  the  foot  is  a 
region  of  orchards,  vineyards,  olive  groves,  etc. 
The  eruptions  of  Etna  have  been  numerous, 
and  many  of  them  destructive.  That  of  1169 
overwhelmed  Catania  and  buried  15,000  persons 
in  the  ruins.  In  1669,  the  lava  spread  over  the 
country  for  forty  days,  and  20,000  persons  are 
estimated  to  have  perished.  In  1693,  there  was 
an  earthquake  during  the  eruption,  when  over 
100,000  lives  were  lost.  One  eruption  was  in 
1755,  the  year  of  the  Lisbon  earthquake.  Among 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


531 


more  recent  eruptions  are  those  of  1852,  1865, 
1874,  1879,  1886,  1892. 

Euphrates,  or  El  Frat,  a  celebrated 
river  of  Western  Asia,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  having 
a  double  source  in  two  streams  rising  in  the 
Anti-Taui-us  Range.  Its  total  length  is  about 
1,750  miles,  and  the  area  of  its  basin,  260,000 
square  miles.  It  flows  mainly  in  a  southeast 
course  through  the  great  alluvial  plains  of 
Babylonia  and  Chaldaea  till  it  falls  into  the 
Persian  Gulf  by  several  mouths,  of  which  only 
one  in  Persian  territory  is  navigable.  About 
100  miles  from  its  mouth  it  is  joined  by  the 
Tigris,  when  the  united  streams  take  the  nanle 
of  Shatt-el-Arab.  It  is  navigable  for  about 
1,200  miles,  but  navigation  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  rapids  and  shallows. 

'Faneuil  Hall,  a  pubhc  hall  in  Boston, 
presented  to  the  town  by  Peter  Faneuil,  in  1740, 
comprising  a  market-place  on  the  first  floor,  and 
a  town  hall  and  other  rooms  above.  In  1761, 
it  was  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1763,  it  was  re- 
built by  the  town;  and,  in  1775,  during  the 
British  occupation  of  Boston,  it  was  used  for  a 
theater.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  this 
building  was  often  used  as  a  meeting  place  by 
the  patriots. 

Florence  (Italian,  Firenze;  ancient,  Flor- 
entia  Tuscorum),  a  magnificent  city  of  Italy, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Firenze,  and  for- 
merly of  Tuscany.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful 
valley  on  the  banks  of  the  Arno,  125  miles 
north  of  Rome.  The  two  parts  of  the  city  are 
connected  by  six  bridges,  and  the  whole  city 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls,  upwards  of 
six  miles  in  extent.  In  architectural  preten- 
sions, Florence  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of 
Italy.  Its  cathedral,  which  dates  from  the 
close  of  the  Thirteenth  Century,  is  of  great 
extent  and  magnificence;  and  it  has  many 
other  churches  only  less  interesting  or  beautiful. 
For  its  collections  of  paintings  and  sculpture 
Florence  is  scarcely  excelled  by  any  city  of 
Europe.  It  has  produced,  perhaps,  a  greater 
number  of  celebrated  men  than  any  other  con- 
tinental city,  including  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boc- 
caccio, Michael  Angclo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and 
Galileo.  The  manvifactures  of  Florence  are  few 
and  of  small  importance.  Satins,  silks,  jewelry, 
and  mosaics,  are,  however,  manufactured  to 
some  extent,  and  straw-plaiting  occupies  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  lower  orders  of  the 
people.  As  the  capital  of  the  province,  Flor- 
ence is  still  a  place  of  some  political  importance. 
Population,  205,589. 

France  is  a  maritime  country  in  the  west 
of  Europe,  forming  one  of  its  most  extensive, 
most  populous,  and  most  influential  states.  It 
is  bounded  north  by  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Straits  of  Dover;  northwest  by  the  English 
Channel;  west  by  the  Atlantic,  more  especially 
that  part  of  it  called  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  south 
by  Spain  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  east  by 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  the  German  Territory 
of  Alsace;  northeast  by  German  Lorraine, 
Luxemburg,  and  Belgium.  On  taking  a  survey 
of  this  great  country  it  is  impossible  not  to  be 
struck  with  the  advantages  it  derives  from  its 
position.  It  not  only  forms  a  continuous  and 
compact  whole,  but,  while  protected  by  great 


natural  barriers  at  most  parts  where  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  continent,  a  long  line  of  coast 
on  the  west  and  northwest  gives  it  immediate 
access  to  the  great  ocean  thoroughfare,  while 
on  the  south  its  harbors  in  the  Mediterranean 
secure  to  it  a  large  share  in  the  traffic  of  that 
important  inland  sea.  The  chief  plains  are 
those  of  Burgundy  and  of  the  oceanic  district, 
embracing  the  lower  basins  of  the  Seine,  Loire, 
and  Garonne.  There  are  four  great  mountain- 
chains  —  the  Pyrenees,  separating  France  from 
Spain;  the  Cevenno-Vosgian  Range,  formed  of 
the  Cevennes,  running  east  and  west  between 
the  Rhone  and  Loire,  and  the  Vosges,  running 
north  and  south  between  the  Moselle  and  the 
new  boundary-line;  the  Alps,  which  -  separate 
the  Swiss  Territory  from  the  provinces  of  Savoy 
and  Nice ;  and  the  Sardo-Corsican  Range,  which 
belongs,  as  the  name  implies,  to  the  islands  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica.  The  French  portion  of 
the  Alps  now  includes  several  of  the  highest 
mountains  and  most  elevated  passes  of  the  range 
— as  Mont  Blanc,  Mont  Iseran,  Mont  Cenis,  and 
the  pass  of  Little  St.  Bernard,  etc.  In  Corsica, 
the  highest  peak  rises  to  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet. 
The  grand  watershed  of  France  is  the  Cevenno- 
Vosgian  chain,  which  determines  the  direction 
of  the  four  great  rivers,  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the 
Garonne,  and  the  Rhone ;  the  first  three  of  which 
flow  northwest  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  or  the 
English  Channel,  and  the  fourth  into  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons.  France  possesses  only  one  lake  of  any 
importance,  Le  Grand-Lieu,  a  little  to  the  south 
of  Nantes,  which  has  an  area  of  about  14,300 
acres;  but  the  country  abounds  in  salt  marshes 
or  ponds,  more  especially  in  the  districts  of 
Gascony,  Roussillon,  and  Languedoc.  France 
is  peculiarly  rich  in  mineral  springs,  of  which 
there  are  said  to  be  nearly  1,000  in  use.  It 
possesses  one  of  the  healthiest  climates  in  Europe, 
although,  owing  to  its  great  extent  of  area,  very 
considerable  diversities  of  temperature  are  to 
be  met  with.  Of  the  vegetable  products  of 
France,  which,  from  varied  climatic  and  geog- 
nostic  relations,  are  necessarily  characterized 
by  great  abundance  and  diversity,  the  most 
generally  cultivated  are  the  cereals;  the  vine, 
chestnuts,  olives,  culinary  fruits  and  vegetables, 
hops,  beetroot  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
tobacco,  madder,  chicory.  The  cultivation  of 
the  mulberry  tree  derives  importance  from  its 
bearing  on  the  production  of  silk.  The  vine  has, 
from  a  very  early  period,  constituted  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  the  agricultural  wealth  of 
France.  The  choicest  wines  are  grown  in  the 
Bordelais,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  but  some 
excellent  kinds  are  produced  on  the  banks  of 
the  Loire  and  in  some  of  the  southern  depart- 
ments. The  principal  forest  trees  are  the  chest- 
nut and  beech  on  the  central  mountains,  the 
oak  and  cork  trees  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  fir 
in  the  Landes.  The  destruction  of  the  national 
forests  has  been  enormous  within  the  last  two 
centuries.  The  French  government  expends 
between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000  francs  annually 
in  aiding  by  subsidies  those  engaged  in  the  great 
fisheries.  The  chief  mineral  products  of  France 
are  coal  and  iron,  in  the  excavation  of  which 
nearly  250,000  men  are  now  employed.  France 
presents  a  great  variety  of  geological  formations, 


532 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


but  although  we  meet  with  an  almost  complete 
succession  of  all  the  stratified  and  non-stratified 
formations  they  are  distributed  with  great  in- 
equality. The  best  carpets  are  made  in  Au- 
busson,  Abbeyville,  and  Amiens.  Paris  is  the 
seat  of  industry  for  some  of  the  most  costly 
fabrics,  as  Gobelins,  tapestry,  shawls  of  great 
value,  watches,  clocks,  articles  of  "vertu,"  car- 
riages, philosophical  instruments,  etc.  Sevres 
stands  unrivaled  for  its  china  and  glass.  St. 
Gobain  and  St.  Quirin  manufacture  looking- 
glasses  of  the  largest  size.  The  great  emporiums 
of  trade  are  Paris,  Lyons,  St.  Etienne,  Lille, 
Rheims,  Nimes,  Toulouse,  etc.;  and  the  most 
attractive  maritime  ports  are  Marseilles,  Cette, 
Havre,  Bordeaux,  etc. 

Ganges,  a  river  of  Hindustan,  one  of  the 
greatest  rivers  of  Asia,  rising  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  in  Garhwal  State,  and  formed  by 
the  junction  of  two  head  streams,  the  Bhagi- 
rathi  and  the  Alaknanda,  which  unite  at  Deo- 
prag,  ten  miles  below  Srinagar,  1,500  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  Ganges  is  navigable  for  boats 
of  a  large  size  nearly  1,500  miles  from  its  mouth. 
It  is  an  imperative  duty  of  the  Hindus  to  bathe 
in  the  Ganges,  or  at  least  to  wash  themselves 
with  its  water,  and  to  distribute  alms,  on  certain 
days.  The  Hindus  believe  that  whoever  dies  on 
its  banks  and  drinks  of  its  water  before  death  is 
exempted  from  the  necessity  of  returning  into 
this  world.  Its  water  is  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce  in  the  remoter  parts  of  India. 

Genoa,  a  city  of  Italy,  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  which  lies  to  the 
south  of  Piedmont,  and  it  stands  at  the  foot 
and  on  the  slope  of  the  Ligurian  Alps.  In  the 
old  part  of  the  city  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
steep,  but  in  the  newer  parts  there  are  several 
spacious  promenades;  though  generally  the  ir- 
regular rising  ground  on  which  the  city  is  built 
has  prevented  any  comprehensive  plan  of  im- 
provement, and  it  still  retains  much  of  that 
quaintness  of  architectural  character  for  which 
it  has  long  been  celebrated.  There  are  many 
•magnificent  churches  in  Genoa,   of  which  the 

Erincipal  is  the  Duomo,  or  Cathedral,  of  St. 
orenzo.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  there  are  local  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  silk,  jewelry,  etc.  Genoa  was 
the  birthplace  of  Christopher  Columbus,  and  of 
many  other  famous  men.  Population,  234,710. 
German  Elmpire,  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  Europe,  consisting  of  a  federation  of  semi- 
independent  and  other  states,  which  occupy 
the  greater  portion  of  North-Central  Europe. 
The  following  table  shows  the  elements  of  which 
the  German  Empire  as  now  constituted  is  made 
up: 


States  of  the  Empire 


Area 
English 
Sq.  Mi. 


Prussia 

Bavaria 

Wurttemberg,    .    . 

Baden, 

Saxony 

Mecklenburg-Schw. , 

Hesse 

Oldenburg,     .    .    .    , 
Brunswick 


134,616 
29,292 
•7.534 
5.823 
5,789 
5,068 
2,966 
2,482 
1,418 


Population 
(1905) 


37,293,324 

6.524,372 

2.302,179 

2,010,728 

4,508,601 

625,045 

1,200,175 

438.856 

485,958 


Pop. 

per  Sq. 

Mile 


277.3 
222.7 
305.5 
345.3 
778.8 
123.3 
407.6 
176.8 
342.5 


States  of  the  Empire 


Saxe-Weimar,  .  .  . 
Mecklenburg-Str.,.  . 
Saxe-Meiningen,    .    . 

Anhalt, 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, . 
Saxe-Altenburg,     .    . 

Lippe, 

Waldeck, 

Schwarzburg-Rud.,  . 
Schwarzburg-Sond.,  . 
Reuss  Junior  Branch, 
Schaumburg-Lippe,  . 
Reuss  Elder  Branch, 

Hamburg, 

Liibeck, 

Bremen 

Alsace-Lorraine,    .    . 

Total 


Area 
English 
Sq.  Mi. 


1,397 
1,131 
953 
888 
764 
511 
469 
433 
363 
333 
319 
131 
122 
160 
115 
99 
5,604 


208,780 


Population 
(1905) 


388,095 

103,451 

268,916 

328,029 

242,432 

206,508 

145,677 

59,127 

96,835 

85,152 

144,584 

44,992 

70,603 

874,878 

105,857 

263,440 

1,814,564 


60,641,278 


277.8 
91.5 
282.2 
369.4 
317.3 
404.1 
310.4 
136.5 
266.7 
255.7 
453.2 
343.4 
578.7 

5,467.9 
920.5 

2,661.0 
323.8 


290.4 


The  small  island  of  Heligoland,  now  forming 
part  of  Prussia,  was  added  to  the  empire  in 
1890. 

Among  the  Germans  themselves  their  country 
is  known  as  "  Deutschland  " ;  to  the  French  as 
''Allemagne";  while  its  Latin  denomination 
is  "Germania,"  whence  the  English  name. 
Germany  lies  between  the  Baltic  Sea,  Denmark, 
and  the  North  Sea  on  the  north,  and  Switzer- 
land and  a  part  of  Austria  on  the  south,  and  be- 
tween France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands 
on  the  west,  and  the  rest  of  Austria  and  Russia 
on  the  east.  The  northern  part  of  Germany 
forms  part  of  the  great  European  plain,  and  is 
for  the  most  part  flat.  Its  soil  is  not  very  fertile, 
and  extensive  forests  alternate  with  heaths, 
morasses,  and  small,  shallow  lakes.  Central 
Germany  may  be  described  as  hilly;  its  soil  is 
fertile,  and  its  scenery  is  often  very  picturesque. 
The  greater  part  of  Southern  Germany  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  plateau  of  Bavaria,  which  rises 
about  1,600  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  in- 
creases in  elevation  towards  the  west,  where  it 
forms  the  Schwarz  Wald,  or  Black  Forest  Range. 
Some  of  the  mountain  chains  of  Germany, 
especially  the  Harz  Mountains  and  the  Erzege- 
birge,  are  very  rich  in  minerals.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Rhine,  Elbe,  Oder,  Vistula,  and 
Upper  Danube;  others  of  less  note  are  the  Ems, 
Weser,  Pregel,  and  Niemen.  The  climate  of 
Germany  is,  on  the  whole,  temperate  and  sa- 
lubrious, though  the  winters  are  somewhat 
severe,  and  the  Rhine  is  occasionally  frozen 
as  far  south  as  Mannheim.  Germany  is  rich 
in  mineral  products;  cobalt,  arsenic,  sulphur, 
saltpeter,  alum,  gypsum,  bismuth,  pumice- 
stone,  slate,  ocher,  emery,  vitriol,  are  among 
the  exports.  Its  vegetable  products  comprise 
a  large  portion  of  the  European  flora.  All  the 
ordinary  cereals  are  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  north.  Its  best  wine-producing  districts 
are  the  valleys  of  the  Danube,  Rhine,  Main, 
Necker,  and  Moselle,  which  are  also  noted  for 
the  excellence  of  their  fruits  and  vegetables. 
The  principal  seaports  are  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
Lubeck,  Altona,  Cuxhaven,  Bremerhaven,  Stral- 
sund,  Stettin,  Dantzig,  Konigsberg,  and  Memel. 
Inland,  the  chief  commercial  cities  are  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Breslau,  Leipzig,  Cologne, 
Nuremberg,  Elberfeld,  Mulhausen,  Chemnitz, 
Mainz,  and  Augsburg. 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


533 


Giants'  Causeway  (deriving  its  name 
from  a  legend  that  it  was  the  commencement  of 
a  road  to  be  constructed  by  giants  across  the 
channel  to  Scotland)  is  a  natural  pier  or  mole 
of  columnar  basalt,  projecting  from  the  north 
coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North  Chan- 
nel, seven  miles  northeast  of  Portrush.  It  is 
part  of  an  overlying  mass  of  basalt  from  300  to 
500  feet  In  thickness,  which  covers  almost  the 
whole  county  of  Antrim,  and  the  east  part  of 
Londonderry. 

Gibraltar,  a  seaport  belonging  to  England, 
and  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe, 
is  situated  in  the  south  of  Spain  at  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  sixty-one  miles 
southeast  of  Cadiz.  The  number  and  strength 
of  the  military  works,  and  the  vast  galleries 
opened  in  the  calcareous  rock,  excite  admira- 
tion. The  fortress,  though  taken  by  surprise 
by  the  British,  in  1704,  is  considered  impreg- 
nable. The  sea-passage,  extending  from  Cape 
Spartel,  Spain,  to  Cape  Ceuta,  Africa,  connects 
the  Atlantic  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea; 
length  about  thirty-six  miles;  narrowest  width 
between  Europa  Point  and  Ceuta,  fifteen  miles; 
broadening  westward  to  twenty-four  miles.  A 
strong  current  sets  in  from  the  Atlantic  through 
these  straits,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a  counter 
current  passes  underneath. 

Glaciers  are  generally  masses  of  consoli- 
dated snow,  which  by  their  own  weight  move 
slowly  down  the  mountain  where  they  have 
been  accumulated.  Their  pace  is  seldom  more 
than  one  inch  per  hour.  Along  their  sides  or 
over  their  surface  are  scattered  accumulations 
of  stone  and  detritus,  which  are  called  moraines. 
The  Alpine  Glaciers  give  birth  to  the  five  great 
rivers  of  Central  Europe  —  the  Rhine,  Rhone, 
Po,  Inn,  and  Adige.  Glaciers  move  like  rivers, 
faster  in  the  middle  and  above  than  at  the  sides 
and  along  the  bottom.  The  torrent  of  icy  water 
that  issues  from  the  lower  end  of  them  is  simply 
the  result  of  melting.  The  largest  glacier  in  the 
world  is  the  Muir,  in  Alaska;  the  largest  in  Eu- 
rope is  the  Justeldals  Brae,  in  Norway. 

Glasgow,  the  industrial  metropolis  of 
Scotland,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant cities  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Clyde,  which  affords  great  fa- 
cilities for  steam-boat  traffic  and  shipping.  The 
wharfs  and  docks  afford  extensive  accommoda- 
tion for  vessels  of  every  description.  Glasgow 
is  celebrated  as  the  great  Scottish  emporium  of 
trade  and  manufactures.  The  annual  tonnage 
of  the  port  is  some  5,000,000  tons.  The  trade 
of  Glasgow  rose  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  American  and 
West  Indian  commerce.  Since  then  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods  has  risen  to  a  great  ex- 
tent; as  also  woolens,  silks,  glass,  iron,  stone- 
ware, and  chemicals.     Population,  859,715. 

Grand  Canyon,  a  gorge  through  which 
the  Colorado  River  flows  in  Arizona;  sixty- 
five  miles  from  Flagstaff.  It  is  one  of  the  natural 
wonders  with  which  that  country  abounds. 
The  canyon  is  a  gorge  217  miles  long,  or  with 
the  addition  of  Marble  Canyon,  connected  with 
it,  286  miles.  It  is  from  nine  to  thirteen  miles 
wide  and  6,300  feet  below  the  level  of  the  pla- 
teau.    This  depth  is  maintained  for  about  fifty 


miles  and  surpasses  that  of  any  other  canyon 
in  the  world. 

Great  Britain,  or  The  British  Em- 
pire.  Britain,  or  rather  Britannia,  was  the 
name  which  was  given  by  the  Romans  to  mod- 
ern England  and  Scotland.  The  name  Great 
Britain  was  applied  to  England  and  Scotland 
after  James  I.  ascended  the  English  throne  in 
1603.  These  with  Ireland,  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  the  Channel  Islands,  constitute  the  British 
Isles,  or  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland;  and  if  the  colonial  and  other  for- 
eign possessions  be  added,  they  form  the  Brit- 
ish Empire.  Of  this  empire  it  may  safely  be 
said  that  it  is  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever 
known.  It  covers  an  area  five  times  the  size 
of  the  Persian  Empire  under  Darius,  and  four 
times  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  under  Augustus. 

Great  Britain  proper  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  east  by  the  North  Sea,  on 
the  south  by  the  English  Channel,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  St.  George's 
Channel.  The  most  northerly  point  is  Dunnet 
Head  in  Caithness;  the  most  southerly  Lizard 
Point  in  Cornwall ;  the  most  easterly,  Lowestoft 
Ness  in  Suffolk;  and  the  most  westerly,  Ardna- 
murchan  Point  in  Argyleshire.  Its  greatest 
length  is  about  608  miles,  and  its  greatest  width 
—  from  Land's  End  to  the  east  coast  of  Kent  — 
about  320  miles;  while  its  surface  contains 
88,094  square  miles.  As  the  rocks  of  Great 
Britain  form  the  typical  series  of  the  earth's 
strata,  the  geology  of  that  country  becomes  of 
great  importance  as  a  key  to  the  universal  com- 
position of  the  crust  of  the  globe.  The  whole  of 
the  recognized  series  occur  in  Great  Britain, 
one  or  two  only  being  developed  more  fully  else- 
where. All  the  physical  features  of  the  country 
are  intimately  connected  with  its  geological 
structure.  The  older  Paleozoic  rocks  produce 
mountainous  regions  intersected  with  deep  and 
narrow  valleys.  The  newer  strata  seldom  rise 
to  a  great  height.  The  highlands  are  rounded 
undulations  of  the  strata,  except  where  igneous 
rocks  are  intruded;  and  the  valleys  are  broad 
and  shallow.  In  Scotland  there  are  consequently 
two  extensive  mountainous  districts  occupied 
chiefly  with  rocks  of  Silurian  age,  and  interven- 
ing valleys  filled  up  with  Old  Red  Sandstone 
and  Carboniferous  measures.  The  climate  of 
Great  Britain  derives  its  peculiar  character 
from  the  insular  situation  of  the  country,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  prevailing  direction  of 
the  winds.  It  is  mild  and  equable  in  a  remark- 
able degree,  the  winters  being  considerably 
warmer  and  the  summers  cooler  than  at  places 
within  the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  It  appears 
from  data  furnished  by  the  English  meteorologi- 
cal societies  that  the  mean  temperature  of  Eng- 
land is  49.5°,  and  of  Scotland  47.5°.  The  annual 
rain-fall  in  those  districts  where  hills  do  not  inter- 
fere is  in  England  about  twenty-five  inches,  and 
similar  parts  of  Scotland  about  twenty-eight. 
Very  few  species  of  plants  or  animals  are  peculiar 
to  Great  Britain,  its  natural  history  correspond- 
ing generally  with  that  of  continental  Europe. 
The  flora  of  the  greater  part  of  the  island  re- 
sembles that  of  Germany. 

The  British  colonies  and  foreign  possessions 
include : 


£34 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


THE   BRITISH 

THE   UNITED 


Countries 

Character  of 
Possession 

Form  of 
Government 

Executive 

ENGLAND 

WALES 

Constitute     the      United) 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  > 
and  Ireland.                         ) 

Constitutional  Mon-  I 
archy.                      ) 

SCOTLAND, 

The  King  through  the  Ministry 

IRELAND 

ISLANDS 

COLONIES   AND 


Countries 


EUROPE  — 

Gibraltar,      

Malta,  etc., 

ASIA  — 

India  (including  Burmah),     .    . 

Ceylon, 

Cyprus 

Aden  and  Socotra 

Straits  Settlements 

Hong  Kong, 

Labuan '  .    . 

British  North  Borneo,     .... 
AFRICA  — 

Cape  Colony, 

Natal  and  Zululand 

St.  Helena, 

Ascension 

Sierra  Leone, 

British  Guinea,  Gold  Coast,  etc. 

Mauritius,  etc 

British  South  and  East  Africa, . 

Transvaal 

Orange  River  Colony 

AMERICA  — 

Dominion  of  Canada,      .    .    .    . 

Ontario, 

Quebec, 

New  Brunswick, 

Nova  Scotia 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia, 

Alberta, 

Saskatchewan 

4Territories, 

Prince  Edward  Island,    .    .    . 

Newfoundland, 

British  Guiana, 

British  Honduras 

Jamaica, 

Trinidad  and  Tobago,     .... 

Barbados 

Bahamas 

Bermuda,      

Other  Islands ,    . 

AUSTRALASIA  — 

Commonwealth  of  Australia,     . 

Tasmania, 

Dominion  of  New  Zealand,    .    . 

Fiji 

Papua  (British  New  Guinea),    . 


Character  of 
Possession 


Colony, 
Colony, 


Vice-Royalty, 

Colony,  .  .  . 
Protectorate, 
Protectorate, 
Colony,  .  .  . 
Colony,  .  .  . 
Colony,  .    .    . 


Colony, 


Colony,  .    .    . 
Naval  Station, 


Colony, 


Colony, 
Colony, 


Dependency, 
Province,  . 
Province,  . 
Province,  . 
Province,  . 
Province,  . 
Province,  . 
Province,  , 
Province,  . 
Territory,  . 
Province,  . 
Colony,  .    . 


Colony, 
Colony, 
Colony, 
(Dolony, 
Colony, 
Colony, 


Dependency, 
Dependency, 
Dependency, 
Colony,  .    . 
Colony.  .    . 


Form  of 
Government 


Representative, 


Responsible, 


Representative, 


Commonwealth, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Military,  .  .  . 
Representative, 
Responsible, 


Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 


Commonwealth, 

Responsible, 

Responsible, 


Executive 


Governor, 
Governor, 


Governor-General,    . 

Governor 

High  Commissioner, 
Political  Resident,   . 

Governor 

Governor 

Governor 


Governor, 


Governor 

British  Admiralty, 


Governor, 


Governor, 
Governor, 


Governor-General,    . 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Commissioner,  .    .    . 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Governor 


Lieutenant-Governor, 

Governor, 

Governor, 

Governor, 

Governor,  ..... 
Governor, 


Governor-General, 
Governor,  .... 

Governor 

Governor,  .... 
Administrator,  .    . 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


EMPIRE 

KINGDOM 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

How    ACQUIBED    BY    ENGLAND 

Date 

Population 

50,222 

7,470 

29,785 

Conquest 

1282                ( 

1603 

1172 

32,527,843 
4,472.103 

32,605 
302 

Conquest 

4,458,775 
150,599 

DEPENDENCIES 


Area  in  Square  Miles 


2 
117 

1,766,642 

25,332 

3,584 

3,070 

1,616 

30i 

30  i 

31,106 

276,995 

35,371 

47 

35 

4,000 

339,900 

705 

1,989,247 

119,139 

50,392 

3,745,674 

260,862 

351,873 

27,985 

21,428 

73,732 

312,630 

253,540 

250,650 

2,130,690 

2,184 

42,734 

104,000 

7,562 

4,193 

1,868 

166 

5,450 

19 

8,742 

2,972,573 

26,215 

104,751 

7,435 

90,540 


How  Acquired  by  England 


Conquest, 

Treaty  cession 

i  Conquest,      
Transfer  from  East  India  Co. 

Treaty  cession, 

Convention  with  Turkey,     .    . 

(Aden)  Conquest 

Treaty  cession 

Treaty  cession 

Treaty  cession 

Cession  to  Company,     .    .    .    . 

Treaty  cession 

Annexation 

Conquest 

Annexation 

Settlement 

Treaty  cession -*  •    • 

Conquest  and  cession,  .    .    ?*  . 

Conquest  and  cession 

Conquest 

Conquest .    . 

Conquest  and  settlement,     .    . 

Conquest, 

Conquest, 

Treaty  cession, 

Conquest .    . 

Settlement 

Transfer  to  Crown 

Settlement 

Settlement, 

Charter, :    . 

Conquest 

Treaty  cession, 

Conquest  and  cession,  .    .    .    , 

Conquest 

Conquest, 

Settlement, 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement, , 

Settlement, 

Purchase, 

Cession  from  the  natives. 
Annexation 


Date 


Population 


1704 
1814 

Begun  1757 

1858 

1801 

1878 

1839 
1785-1824 

1841 

1846 

1877 

1588,  1814 

1843 

1673 

1815 

1787 

1872 
1810,  1814 
1870-1890 

1900 

1900 

1670-1858 
1759-1760 
1759-1760 

1763 

1627 

1813 

1858 


1670 
1745 
1713 
1803-1814 
1798 
1655 

1605 
1629 
1612 


1803 
1845 
1874 
1884 


23,651 
209,974 

294,360,356 

3,578,333 
237,022 
44,000 
572,249 
418,357 
8,411 
160,000 

2,507,500 

1,164,285 

3,746 

400 

76,655 

23,455,000 

375,385 

14,911,000 

1,091,156 

447,000 

6,504,000 

2.182,947 

1,648,898 

331,120 

459,574 

365,688 

178.657 

185.412 

257,763 

158,940 

103,259 

217,037 

294,000 

37,479 

835,800 

325,000 

194,518 

59.713 

17,536 

255,000 

4,052,878 
181,106 

1,029,417 
128,404 
500,000 


536 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Greece  is  a  maritime  kingdom  in  the  south- 
east of  Europe.  It  consists  of  three  portions  — 
the  mainland,  the  Archipelago,  and  the  Ionian 
Islands;  the  mainland  being  almost  separated 
into  two  parts  by  the  gulfs  of  Patras  and  Le- 
panto  on  the  west  and  the  Gulf  of  Jilgina  on  the 
east,  but  united  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  nearly  all  moun- 
tainous, and  its  shores  are  bold  and  rocky. 
Although  only  about  one-half  of  the  country 
is  capable  of  cultivation,  the  soil  of  the  rest  is 
naturally  fertile,  and  vegetation  is  singularly 
rich  and  varied,  though  agriculture  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  The  olive  is  cultivated  every- 
where; the  currant-grape  is  found  on  the  west 
coast  and  in  the  Ionian  Islands;  and  the  mul- 
berry, the  vine,  the  orange,  the  lemon,  etc.,  with 
cotton  and  tobacco,  are  also  cultivated.  Cur- 
rants, olive  oil,  and  lead,  are  the  principal  ex- 
ports, the  larger  portion  of  which  go  to  Great 
Britain.  In  1881,  Greece  acquired  from  Tur- 
key a  large  portion  of  Albania,  so  that  it  now 
has  an  area  of  about  25,014  square  miles.  Its 
total  population  in  1906  was  2,631,952. 

Gulf  Stream,  a  well-defined  current  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  due  to  the  reflux  of  the 
equatorial  current.  The  condensation  and  su- 
perheating of  the  last-named  current  takes  place 
mainly  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  whence  arises  the  name  Gulf  Stream. 
Its  temperature  there  is  about  50°.  It  emerges 
as  a  defined  hot  current  through  the  Straits  of 
Florida,  and  courses  northeast  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  so 
affecting  the  Bermudas  as  to  make  their  climate 
semi-tropical.  Between  these  islands  and  Hali- 
fax the  stream  is  about  sixty  miles  broad,  2,000 
feet  deep,  and  moves  at  the  rate  of  three  knots 
an  hour.  It  is  of  a  deep  blue  color,  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  dull  green  of  the  Arctic  reflux. 
The  Gulf  Stream  moves  in  a  northeast  direction 
toward  Europe.  The  mild  climate  of  western 
Europe,  as  compared  with  the  same  latitudes 
in  thfi  United  States,  formerly  erroneously 
attribwed  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  now  known  to 
be  due  to  the  warm  southeast  winds. 

Hague,  The  (hag).  (French  La  Haye; 
Dutch  's  Gravenhage,  "the  count's  mead.")  The 
capital  city  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
province  South  Holland,  ten  miles  southwest 
of  Leyden.  It  is  a  finely-built  and  commo- 
dious place,  after  the  characteristic  Dutch 
fashion,  and  contains  the  royal  palace,  and 
numerous  fine  public  edifices.  It  is  the  seat  of 
government  and  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice 
of  the  Netherlands.  Iron-founding  and  copper 
and  lead-smelting  are  among  the  principal 
industries  of  the  city.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  William  III.  of  England,  and  Charles  II. 
embarked  from  this  port  prior  to  the  Restora- 
tion.    Population,  242,054. 

Halifax,  the  capital  of  Nova  Scotia,  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  and  the  principal  naval 
station  of  the  dominion,  is  situated  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  the  peninsula,  on  a  declivity  over- 
looking the  harbor,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world.  Its  pure  air  and  beautiful  surround- 
ing scenery  have  brought  it  into  high  repute  as 
a  watering-place;  but  it  has  also  a  thriving 
trade;    and  its  exports,  especially  of  dried  fish, 


timber,  cattle,  and  whale  and  seal  oil,  are  very 
considerable.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  an  Angli- 
can bishopric  and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishopric. It  was  founded  by  Governor  Corn- 
wallis  in  1749.     Population,  40,832. 

Hamburg,  one  of  the  free  cities  of  Ger- 
many, a  member  of  the  German  Empire,  is  the 
greatest  commercial  port  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  It  is  situated  about  eighty  miles  from 
the  North  Sea,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Elbe. 
The  town  of  Altona  adjoins  it  on  the  west. 
From,  the  Elbe  proceed  canals  which  intersect 
the  east  and  lower  part  of  the  city  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  it  is  also  intersected  by  the  Alster, 
which  here  forms  two  streams,  the  Binnenalster 
and  Aussenalster.  The  quays  and  harbor 
accommodation  are  very  extensive.  After  the 
destructive  fire  of  1842  whole  streets  were 
rebuilt  in  a  magnificent  and  expensive  style. 
Hamburg  is  of  most  importance  on  account 
of  its  great  shipping  trade  and  the  business  of 
banking,  exchange,  marine  assurance,  etc., 
carried  on  in  connection  with  it.  Its  manu- 
factures, including  shipbuilding,  tobacco  and 
cigar  making,  iron-founding,  brewing,  etc., 
though  large  are  less  important.  The  city  owes 
its  foundation  to  the  Emperor  Charlemagne. 
Population,  802,793. 

Havana,  or,  in  EngUsh,  "The  Harbor,"  by 
far  the  most  important  city  in  the  West  Indies, 
is  the  capital  of  Cuba,  and  stands  on  the  west 
side  of  the  entrance  to  a  magnificent  harbor 
capable  of  holding  1,000  vessels.  This  entrance 
is  defended  by  the  Moro  and  Punta  castles. 
The  principal  buildings,  which  are  built  entirely 
of  stone,  are  the  cathedral,  the  government 
house,  the  admiralty,  general  post-office,  the 
royal  tobacco  factory,  etc.,  and  a  university  and 
law  school.  There  are  also  theaters,  daily  news- 
papers, a  fine  dockyard,  a  botanic  garden,  and 
some  fine  promenades.  The  principal  manu- 
facture is  cigars,  which  have  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation. The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Spain,  the 
United  States,  and  Great  Britain.  Population, 
275,000. 

Hell  Gate,  New  York,  is  a  narrow  chan- 
nel of  the  East  River,  about  seven  miles  north- 
northeast  of  New  York  City,  being  the  nearest 
passage  into  the  Sound.  Its  navigation  was 
formerly  dangerous  on  account  of  the  eddies 
produced  under  certain  conditions  of  the  tides 
—  whence  its  old  Dutch  name  of  Horll-gatt,  or 
"whirlpool  pass,"  whereof  the  present  term  is 
a  corruption.  The  rocks  facing  its  entrance 
into  the  East  River  were  removed  by  submarine 
blasting  in  1876  and  1885. 

Himalayas,  The  {hi-md'-ld-yds),  or 
Himalaya  Mountains.  The  loftiest  system  of 
mountains  in  the  world,  lying  between  the 
Indian  peninsula  and  the  Thibetan  table-land 
in  South  Central  Asia,  Its  length  is  estimated 
at  1,900  miles;  its  mean  breadth  at  150  mUes; 
and  its  surface  covers  an  area  of  160,000  square 
miles,  or  thereabouts.  Its  chief  summits  are 
those  of  Mount  Everest,  29,141  feet  (the  highest 
point  of  land  known);  Godwin-Austen  (K'), 
28,278  feet;  Kanchanjanga,  28,156;  and 
Dhawalaghiri,  26,826  feet.  On  the  southern 
slope,  vegetation  exists  at  an  altitude  of  13,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  highest  himian  habi- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


537 


tation  is  found  at  9,000  feet;  on  the  northern, 
vegetation  is  met  with  at  17,500  feet;  and.  vil- 
lages at  13,000  feet.  It  is  rich  in  minerals,  and 
possesses  its  own  distinctive  flora  and  fauna. 

Hong-Kong,  or  Hiang  Kiang  (The 
Fragrant  or  Flowing  Streams),  a  small  island 
off  the  southeast  coast  of  China,  in  the  province 
of  Quang-Tong,  now  belonging  to  the  British. 
It  is  situated  at  the  moiJth  of  the  estuary 
that  leads  to  Canton,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
tant southeast  seventy-five  miles.  It  is  about 
ten  miles  in  length  and  seven  and  one-half  miles 
in  breadth.  A  strip  of  the  mainland  was 
recently  added.  On  the  north  side  of  the 
island,  and  situated  on  a  magnificent  bay  is  the 
thriving  town  of  Victoria,  where  the  bulk  of  the 
population  is  centered.  The  town  stretches  for 
about  four  miles  along  the  shore  and  also  ascends 
the  hillside  and  the  faces  of  the  ravines  above. 
It  is  generally  well-built,  with  wide  streets  and 
handsome  terraces,  and  there  is  a  massive  sea 
wall  along  the  sea  front.  Hong-Kong  is  a  free 
port,  and  there  are  no  returns  of  its  total  trade, 
the  chief  articles  of  which  consist  of  cottons  and 
opium  as  imports,  tea  and  silk  as  exports.  The 
foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  the 
United  States,  Singapore,  Japan,  Great  Britain, 
Australia,  and  Germany.     Population,    418,357. 

Honolulu,  a  city  and  capital  of  Hawaii, 
on  the  island  of  Oahu,  on  Oahu  Bay.  It  is  the 
most  important  city  in  the  Pacific  islands  and  is 
an  important  entrepot  for  vessels,  between  the 
United  States  and  Asiatic  countries.  The  city 
is  situated  amid  beautiful  tropical  surroundings 
and  has  an  equable  and  healthful  climate. 
Among  the  chief  points  of  interest  are  the  palace, 
the  government  buildings,  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  post-office,  and  the  Bishop  Museum. 
There  are  numerous  churches,  public  schools, 
public  library,  theater,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, telephone  and  telegraph,  banks,  electric 
lights  and  street  railways,  and  many  commercial 
establishments.     Population,  52,183. 

Hoosac  Mountain,  a  part  of  the  Green 
Mountain  range  in  western  Massachusetts, 
through  which  is  pierced  the  most  notable  rail- 
way tunnel  in  America.  The  Hoosac  tunnel, 
which  has  a  length  of  nearly  five  miles,  was 
commenced  in  1855,  for  the  line  between  Boston 
and  Albany,  was  twice  abandoned,  and  was 
finally  opened  in  1875,  having  cost  the  State 
of  Massachusetts  about  $18,000,000. 

Hudson  River,  or  North  River.  A 
river  of  New  York,  which  rises  in  the  hills  to 
the  west  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  after  a  south- 
erly course  of  upwards  of  300  miles,  falls  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  below  the  city  of  New  York. 
It  is  navigable  as  far  as  Troy,  166  miles  above 
New  York,  and  is  connected  by  canals  with 
Lakes  Champlain  and  Erie. 

Hungary,  Kingdom  of  (Magyar,  Ors- 
zdg ;  German,  Ungarn).  A  large  country  of 
Central  Europe,  formerly  having  an  independent 
autonomy,  but  now  forming  the  major  portion 
of  the  Austrian  Empire;  It  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  a  large  and  fertile,  and  generally  well- 
wooded  plain,  watered  by  the  Danube  and  its 
numerous  affluents.  To  the  north  and  east 
this  plain  is  bounded  by  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains, while  on  the  west  it  impinges  upon  the 


provinces  of  Moravia,  Styria,  and  Lower  Austria. 
To  the  south,  the  course  of  the  Danube,  and  its 
tributary  the  Save,  mark  the  line  of  the  Turkish 
frontier.  It  is  rich  in  mines  of  the  precious 
metals,  iron,  copper,  and  coal.  It,  besides, 
has  large  agricultural  wealth,  cereals,  hemp, 
tobacco,  etc.  Its  wines,  especially  that  of  To- 
kay, are  of  excellent  quality.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  cotton,  woolen,  coarse  linen  fabrics, 
glass  and  earthenware.  Chief  towns:  Buda- 
pest (the  twin  capital),  Maria  Theresiopel, 
Temesvar,  Szegedin,  Grosswardein,  Debreczin, 
Presburg,  Komorn,  Gran,  and  Arad.  The 
inhabitants  consist  of  seven  distinct  races,  viz : 
the  Magyars  (Hungarians  proper),  Slovaks, 
Croats,  Rusniaks,  Jews,  Germans,  and  Wallachs. 
The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  chief  form  of  religion. 

Huron.  One"  of  the  five  great  lakes  of 
North  America,  about  800  miles  in  circuit, 
bounded  west  and  southwest  by  the  State  of 
Michigan;  on  other  sides  by  Upper  Canada. 
Its  surface  is  581  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea; 
its  depth  is  about  700  feet.  Its  waters  are 
remarkable  for  their  clearness  and  purity.  This 
vast  body  of  water  is  said  to  contain  3,000 
islands,  one  of  them,  the  Great  Manitoulin,  or 
Sacred  Island,  running  parallel  to  almost  the 
whole  of  the  northern  coast,  which  is  one  con- 
tinuous mass  of  comparatively  barren  rocks. 

India,  or  Hindustan.  The  greatest  of 
the  three  great  peninsulas  which  constitute  the 
south  of  Asia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  on  the  east  by  Burmah 
and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Sulieman  and  Hala  Mountains  and  the  Arabian 
Sea.  The  surface  of  the  peninsula  is  highly 
diversified,  but  consists  mainly  of  three  parts 

—  namely,  first,  the  table-land  of  the  Deccan, 
in  the  south,  between  the  Vindhya  Hills  and 
Cape  Comorin,  and  flanked  on  either  side  by  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Ghauts;  second,  a 
vast  lowland  plain  in  the  center,  embracing  the 
entire  basin  of  the  Ganges  and  the  lower  basins 
of  the  Indus  and  the  Brahmaputra;  third,  a 
lofty  plateau,  in  the  north,  forming  the  southern 
margin  of  eastern  high  Asia,  and  traversed  by 
the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  loftiest  mountains 
on  the  earth's  surface.  In  the  plains  of  India 
generally  the  heat  is  very  great,  but  the  ele- 
vated regions  in  the  north  enjoy  a  temperate 
climate.     The  year  is  divided  into  three  seasons 

—  the  hot,  the  rainy,  and  the  temperate.  The  hot 
season  commences  in  March,  the  rainy  in  June, 
and  the  temperate  in  Octdber.  As  almost  the 
whole  of  India  lies  within  the  tropics,  the  vege- 
tation, wherever  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of 
moisture,  is  abundant  and  luxuriant.  Rice 
and  grain  are  grown  in  immense  quantities;  all 
the  fruits  of  the  tropics  are  found  in  the  utmost 
perfection;  pepper,  spices,  and  almost  every 
kind  of  garden  vegetable,  are  produced ;  and  the 
forests  are  of  vast  extent,  producing  immense 
quantities  of  valuable  timber.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  large  and  extensive  tracts  of 
sandy  desert,  many  parts  of  the  surface  are 
jungle,  and  the  Himalayas  are  the  abode  of  snow. 
Many  parts  of  India  are  still  infested  with  wild 
animals.  The  principal  cities  are:  Calcutta, 
Bombay,  Madras,  Lucknow,  Rangoon,  Benares, 
Delhi,  Lahore,  and  Cawnpore. 


538 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Indian  Ocean,  one  of  the  five  grand 
divisions  of  the  universal  ocean,  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  the  most  southern  extremity  of  Tas- 
mania or  Van  Dieman's  Land.  Its  other  limits, 
reckoned  from  the  last-mentioned  point,  are 
Van  Dieman's  Land,  Australia,  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, Farther  India,  Hindustan,  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  Africa.  Gradually  narrowing  from  south  to 
north,  the  Indian  Ocean  forks  at  Cape  Comorin 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east  and  the 
Arabian  Sea  on  the  west,  the  latter  again 
branching  off  into  two  arms,  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Red  Sea,  which  reach  respectively  the 
mouth  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Mediterranean.  These  details  exclude 
the  waters  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  belong- 
ing rather  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  contains 
thousands  of  islands  or  rather  tens  of  thousands. 
Of  these,  Madagascar  is  the  largest,  and,  at 
about  the  same  distance  from  it  to  the  east  as 
the  continent  of  Africa  is  to  the  west,  lie  Bourbon 
or  Reunion  toward  the  south,  and  Mauritius 
toward  the  north.  Next  in  size  to  Madagascar, 
and,  in  fact,  the  only  other  island  of  any  con- 
siderable magnitude,  is  Ceylon. 

Indianapolis,  capital  of  the  State  of  Indi- 
ana, is  the  geographical  center  of  the  State,  and 
on  the  edge  of  a  great  natural  gas  region.  The 
most  prominent  public  building  is  the  State 
House,  completed  in  1887,  occupying  two 
squares,  and  costing  $2,000,000.  The  court- 
house, erected  in  1876  at  a  cost  of  $1,200,000,  is 
another  imposing  structure.  The  principal 
manufactures  include  steam  engines,  machinery, 
foundry  supplies,  and  products,  steel,  glass, 
flour,  tin  plate,  tile,  bicycles,  chain,  paper,  and 
pumps.  There  are  eight  grain  elevators  with  a 
capacity  of  1,000,000  bushels.  The  stockyard 
interests  are  important,  and  the  city  ranks  high 
as  a  railroad  and  distributing  center.  Popula- 
tion, 233,650. 

Ireland,  a  large  island  to  the  west  of  Great 
Britain,  and  forming  with  it  the  United  King- 
dom of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  Great  Britain  by  St.  George's  Channel, 
the  Irish  Sea,  and  the  North  Channel,  the  last 
being  only  about  fourteen  miles  broad  at  its 
narrowest  part,  which  is  between  the  north  coast 
of  the  county  of  Antrim,  in  Ireland,  and  the 
Mull  of  Cantire,  in  Scotland.  The  extreme 
length  of  the  island,  from  Fair  Head,  in  Antrim, 
to  Mizen  Head,  in  Cork,  is  about  300  miles;  and 
its  greatest  breadth,  from  Howth  Head,  near 
Dublin,  to  Slyne  Head,  in  Galway,  is  about  180 
miles.  The  country  is  for  the  most  part  flat, 
but  it  has  mountains  of  considerable  elevation 
in  the  north,  west,  and  south.  A  great  portion 
of  the  central  plain  is  covered  with  bog-land, 
which  occupies  no  less  than  two-fifths  of  the 
whole  surface  of  Ireland;  but  much  of  the  re- 
maining soil  is  fertile,  and  the  humidity  of  the 
climate,  and  the  equability  of  the  temperature  — 
much  greater  than  those  of  England  —  have 
given  to  the  island  its  verdant  appearance, 
which  has  earned  for  it  the  name  of  the  "  Emerald 
Island."  Agriculture  is,  however,  in  a  back- 
ward condition;  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
absence  of  coal,  there  are  few  manufactures, 
except  that  of  linen,  which  is  carried  on  chiefly 


in  the  districts  of  Belfast,  Armagh,  and  Drog- 
hed^. 

Italy  (Italian,  Italia),  a  kingdom  of  South- 
ern Europe,  embracing  the  entire  peninsula, 
boot-like  m  shape,  extending  between  the  Ad- 
riatic Sea  on  the  east  and  the  Ligurian  and 
Tyrrhenian  Seas  on  the  west,  together  with  the 
rich  and  considerable  region  which  is  bounded 
north  by  Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol,  east  by 
Carniola  and  the  Austrian  Littorale,  and  west 
by  France.  Length,  northwest  to  southeast 
(or  from  Mont  Blanc  to  Cape  Portio  di  Palo, 
Sicily),  780  miles;  average  width,  100  miles. 
This  kingdom  has  a  coast  line  of  about  3,350 
miles,  one-third  of  which  is  insulated,  the  prin- 
cipal indentations  of  the  sea  being  the  gulfs  of 
Venice,  Manfredonia,  Taranto,  Squillace,  Poli- 
castro,  Gaeta,  Spezzia,  and  Genoa;  besides 
those  of  Asinora  and  Cagliari,  in  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  and  Castellamare  in  that  of  Sicily. 
The  latter  island  is  divided  from  the  continent 
by  the  Strait  of  Messina.  Besides  the  islands 
just  named,  there  are  those  of  the  Lipari  group, 
Elba,  Monte  Cristo,  Stromboli,  Ischia,  Capri, 
Giglia,  and  the  cluster  upon  which  stands  the 
city  of  Venice.  Throughout  its  entire  length, 
or  rather  from  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  to  the  extrem- 
ity of  Calabria,  Italy  is  intersected  by  the  chain 
of  the  Apennines.  Its  western  and  northern 
frontiers  are  guarded  by  the  Alps,  ramifications 
of  which  mountain  system  extend  over  a  great 
part  of  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  and  Venetia; 
Sicily  is  also  generally  mountainous  in  regard 
to  surface.  Mount  Etna  forming  the  culminat- 
ing point  of  altitude.  The  plains  of  Italy  are 
extensive,  and  proverbial  for  their  fertility  and 
productiveness;  notably  so  that  of  Lombardy, 
which  has  been  termed  the  "Garden  of  Italy." 
The  Tuscan  Maremma,  the  Pontine  Marshes, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  Roman  Campagna, 
are  also  level  tracts,  highly  prolific  and  generally 
well  cultivated.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Po,  with  its  numerous  feeders ;  the  Adige,  Brenta, 
Piave,  Tiber,  Arno,  Tagliamento,  and  Volturno; 
the  lakes  comprise  those  of  Como,  Maggiore, 
Guarda,  Bolseno,  and  Bracciano;  salt  lagoons, 
too,  fringe  the  coasts  of  Venetia  and  Tuscany. 
A  great  part  of  the  lower  peninsula  is  almost 
exclusively  of  volcanic  formation,  Mount  Ve- 
suvius, for  example,  manifesting  periodical 
instances  of  subterranean  activity.  Iron  is 
largely  found  in  Elba,  borax  in  Tuscany,  and 
fine  varieties  of  marble,  with  salt,  nitre,  alum, 
alabaster,  gypsum,  etc.,  in  other  parts.  Mineral 
and  thermal  springs  are  almost  innumerable. 
In  point  of  climate,  Italy  may  be  said  to  possess 
four  distinct  zones  —  ranging  from  the  almost 
arctic  cold  of  her  mountain  belts  to  an  almost 
tropical  degree  of  heat  in  the  southern  lowlands 
and  valleys.  On  the  whole,  it  is  a  healthful 
country.  The  staple  products  of  the  soil  are: 
wines,  fruits,  olive  oil,  silk,  and  cotton;  which, 
with  fish,  marble,  sulphur,  and  various  manu- 
factures, constitute  the  bulk  of  its  exports 
abroad.  The  principal  articles  fabricated  in 
the  industrial  centers  are  textile  fabrics,  lace, 
straw  hats,  leather  goods,  glass,  pottery,  per- 
fumes, chemicals,  and  paper.  The  chief  cities 
are  Naples,  Rome,  Milan,  Genoa,  Turin,  Flor- 
ence, Palermo,  etc. 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


539 


Japan,  an  ancient  empire  of  Eastern  Asia, 
to  the  northeast  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  consists 
of  four  principal  islands,  and  of  a  large  number 
of  smaller  ones;  Niphon,  or  Nipon  (the  country 
of  the  rising  sun),  is  the  name  given  by  the 
Japanese  to  the  whole  empire;  the  four  prin- 
cipal islands  are  Hondo,  or  Honshiu,  Kiushiu, 
Shikoku,  and  Yezo.  The  largest  island,  Niphpn, 
or  Hondo,  is  upward  of  700  miles  long  northeast 
and  southwest,  breadth  varying  from  fifty  to 
100  miles.  The  coasts  of  the  larger  islands  are 
extremely  irregular,  being  deeply  indented  with 
gulfs,  bays,  and  inlets,  which  form  magnificent 
harbors.  The  surface  also  is  generally  uneven, 
and  in  many  instances  rises  into  mountains  of 
great  elevation.  Volcanic  vents  are  numerous, 
and  earthquakes,  often  causing  great  devasta- 
tion, are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  it  is  calcu- 
lated that  every  seven  years  a  Japanese  city  is 
destroyed  by  their  agency.  In  Yezo  some 
dreadful  eruptions  have  occurred.  The  metallic 
wealth  of  the  empire  is  known  to  be  very  great, 
comprising  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and 
iron.  The  island  of  Sado  is  particularly  rich 
in  gold.  Both  the  tin  and  copper  of  Japan  are 
considered  to  be  of  very  superior  quality.  Coal 
is  found  in  various  parts,  and  the  output  is 
rapidly  increasing.  Petroleum  is  becoming  a 
product  of  some  consequence.  Sulphur  abounds; 
thermal  and  mineral  springs  are  of  frequent 
occurrence;  and  ambergris  is  met  with  on  some 
of  the  shores.  Streams  are  numerous  in  Japan, 
but  have  very  short  courses  and  are  for  the 
most  part  rather  torrents  than  rivers.  The 
climate  of  Japan,  though  extremely  varied  — 
being  intensely  cold  in  the  north,  and  about  as 
warm  as  the  South  of  France  in  the  south  —  is 
on  the  whole  much  milder  than  its  latitude 
would  indicate;  owing  chiefly  to  the  influence 
of  the  surrounding  ocean.  Vegetation  of  the 
Japanese  Islands  is  exceedingly  varied,  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  tropics  being  mtermingled  with 
those  of  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones.  The 
palm,  banana,  bamboo,  bignonia,  and  myrtle 
flourish  in  the  south,  while  in  the  north,  more 
especially  in  the  island  of  Yezo,  oaks  and  pines 
abound.  Sweet  oranges,  pomegranates,  pears, 
apricots,  peaches,  and  over  500  of  the  principal 
ornamental  and  useful  plants  are  of  foreign 
origin,  having  probably  been  introduced  from 
Corea  and  China.  The  camphor  and  varnish 
trees  are  indigenous.  The  kadsi,  or  paper  tree, 
a  species  of  mulberry,  grows  naturally  in  the 
fields,  and  furnishes  textile  fibers  from  which 
paper  is,  produced;  paper  is  also  made  from 
various  other  plants.  The  chrysanthemum  is  a 
common  and  favorite  plant  and  has  become  an 
emblem  of  Japan.  The  flora  as  a  whole  re- 
sembles that  of  a  great  part  of  North  America. 
The  soil  of  Japan  is  naturally  indifferent;  but 
the  patient  industry  of  the  agriculturists  favored 
by  the  genial  climate  has  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion every  spot  capable  of  bearing  anything. 
In  the  south  the  sugar  cane  is  cultivated  with 
success;  and  rice  yields  two  harvests  and  con- 
stitutes the  chief  article  of  food.  Wheat  and 
barley,  maize  and  millet  are  grown  to  an  im- 
portant extent,  and  buckwheat,  potatoes,  melons 
pumpkins,  and  cucuinbers  in  great  abundance. 
Ginger,  pepper,  cotton,  hemp,  and  tobacco  are 


cultivated  in  considerable  quantities;  and 
there  are  extensive  plantations  of  the  tea  plant  — 
yielding,  however,  a  produce  inferior  to  that  of 
China.  Silk  is  also  a  Japanese  product.  The 
principal  cities  are  Tokio,  Osaka,  Kioto,  Yoko- 
hama, Nagoya,  Kobe,  and  Nagasaki. 

Jerusalem  (Greek,  Hierousalem),  a  fa- 
mous city  of  Western  Asia,  and  anciently  the 
capital  of  Judea,  even  as  it  was  later  of  Christen- 
dom. It  is  situated  in  the  modern  district  of 
El  Kuds,  Syria,  thirty-seven  miles  east  of  the 
Mediterranean,  twenty-four  west  of  the  River 
Jordan,  and  126  southeast  of  Damascus,  and 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  some  2,500  feet  above 
sea  level.  Its  most  imposing  modern  structures 
are  the  mosque  of  the  Sultan  Omar,  occupying 
the  site  of  the  Holy  Temple  of  the  Jews;  and 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  containing 
the  tombs  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  of  Bald- 
win, King  of  Jerusalem.  Generally  speaking, 
the  aspect  of  the  modern  city  is  mean,  poor, 
and  dirty,  and  merits  little  notice. 


Lakes, 

Name  of  Lake 

Aral  Sea,  .    .    . 
Caspian  Sea,     . 
Dead  Sea,     .    . 
Great  Salt  Lake, 
Lake  Baikal,    . 
Lake  Chapala, 
Lake  Erie,    .    . 
Lake  Huron,    . 
Lake  Ladoga,  . 
Lake  Michigan, 
Lake  Nicaragua, 
Lake  Ontario, 
Lake  Superior, 
Lake  Titicaca, 
Lake  Victoria, 


Largest  in 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
26,000 
170,000 
320 
2,600 
12,500 
1,300 
9,600 
22,822 
7,000 
22,450 
3,650 
7,250 
31,500 
4,000 
40.000 


the  World 

Elevation 

IN  Feet 

48 

—97 

—1,312 

4,200 

1,600 

7,000 

573 

581 

55 

581 

130 

247 

602 

12,874 

3,775 


Depth 
IN  Feet 

3,000 

700 

60 

4,500 

"216 
700 
730 
870 
240 
738 

1,008 
700 
240 


Latitude.  The  latitude  of  a  place  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  its  distance  north  or  south 
from  the  equator,  and  is  equal  to  the  angle 
which  a  plumb  line  at  that  place  makes  with  the 
plane  of  the  earth's  equator,  or  to  the  angle 
which  the  horizon  plane  of  the  place  makes  with 
the  earth's  axis.  Hence  it  may  be  measured  by 
measuring  the  altitude  of  the  pole  of  the  heavens 
above  the  horizon,  or  by  measuring  the  distance 
on  the  meridian  of  the  equator  from  the  zenith. 
The  latitude  of  a  heavenly  body  is  its  distance 
from  the  ecliptic,  and  is  measured  by  the  arc  of 
a  great  circle  perpendicular  to  the  latter,  inter- 
cepted between  the  ecliptic  and  the  body. 

Liberty  Enlightening  the  World. 
This  colossal  statue,  on  Liberty  Island,  New 
York  harbor,  was  presented  by  the  French 
nation  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  in 
commemoration  of  the  centennial  of  their  na- 
tional independence.  It  was  designed  by  and 
constructed  under  the  supervision  of  the  artist, 
Bartholdi,  and  the  height  of  the  statue  proper 
from  base  to  top  of  torch,  is  151  feet.  The  height 
of  the  pedestal  is  ninety-five  feet,  and  the  total 
height  of  the  whole  work  above  the  waters  of 
the  bay  is  305  feet,  eleven  inches,  the  tallest 
statue  in  the  world.  The  pedestal  was  built  by 
popular  subscription  throughout  the  United 
States,  but  the  statue  was  the  free  gift  of  the 
French  people.  In  June,  1885,  the  colossal 
figure,  taken  apart  and  securely  packed  in  boxes, 
arrived  at  New  York  on  the  transport  Isere,  and 
was  accorded  a  fitting  public  reception.    The 


540 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


work  of  placing  the  figure  on  its  base  was  com- 
pleted in  1886,  and  on  October  28th  the  statue 
was  unveiled,  amid  imposing  ceremonies,  by 
President  Cleveland  in  the  presence  of  the  artist 
Bartholdi  and  other  guests.  The  statue  weighs 
450,000  pounds,  or  225  tons.  The  bronze  alone 
weighs  200,000  pounds.  Forty  persons  can 
stand  comfortably  in  the  head,  and  the  torch 
will  hold  twelve  people.  The  number  of  steps 
in  the  statue,  from  the  pedestal  to  the  head, 
is  154,  and  the  ladder  leading  up  through  the 
extended  right  arm  to  the  torch  has  fifty-four 
rounds. 

Lisbon  (Portuguese,  Lisboa),  the  capital  of 
Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Estramadura,  on 
the  right*  bank  of  the  Tagus,  about  ten  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river.  It  stretches 
for  about  five  miles  along  the  river  sidei,  and  is 
built  on  several  hills  rising  to  a  considerable 
elevation.  The  new  royal  palace,  which  was 
completed  in  1864,  is  a  magnificent  edifice. 
Opposite  the  city  the  river  is  about  six  miles 
wide,  and  its  harbor,  or  roadstead,  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world.  Lisbon  owes  its  beauty  as 
a  modern  city  to  the  great  earthquake  of  No- 
vember 1,  1755,  when  it  is  said  that  50,000  lives 
were  lost,  and  when  a  great  part  of  the  old  city 
was  destroyed.  Since  then,  the  whole  of  the 
modern  city,  or  new  town,  has  grown  up.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Patriarch,  who  is  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Portugal;  and 
it  has  many  museums,  libraries,  and  other  edu- 
cational institutions.  The  export  trade  of  Lis- 
bon consists  chiefly  of  wine,  oil,  fruits,  and  salt; 
and  it  has  numerous  and  important  manufac- 
tures.    Population,  356,009. 

Liverpool  is  an  important  fortified  sea- 
port, borough,  and  commercial  emporium  of 
England,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey.  This 
city  is  the  chief  port  of  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  England,  and  possesses 
shipping  interests  on  a  gigantic  scale.  The  fa- 
mous docks  here,  nine  miles  in  length,  and  un- 
surpassed with  regard  to  massiveness  of  con- 
struction and  extent  of  accommodation,  were 
constructed  at  a  cost  of  $65,000,000.  Popula- 
tion, 730,143. 

London,  on  the  Thames,  fifty  miles  from 
the  sea,  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire,  is  the 
most  populous  and  wealthiest  citj^  in  the  world. 
The  city  of  London  proper  occupies  one  square 
mile  in  the  center,  is  wholly  a  commercial  port, 
and  is  governed  by  an  annually  elected  mayor 
and  aldermen;  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  with 
St.  Paul's  for  cathedral.  The  city  of  Westmin- 
ster is  also  a  bishopric  under  a  high  steward  and 
high  bailiff,  chosen  by  the  dean  and  chapter. 
These  two  cities,  with  twenty-six  boroughs 
under  local  officers,  constitute  the  metropolis, 
and  since  1888  the  county  of  the  city  of  London, 
and  send  fifty-nine  members  to  parliament. 
Streets  in  the  older  parts  are  narrow,  but  newer 
districts  are  well  built;  the  level  ground  and 
density  of  building  detracts  from  the  effect  of 
innumerable  magnificent  edifices.  Bucking- 
ham, Kensington,  and  St.  James's  are  royal 
residences;  the  houses  of  parliament  are  the 
biggest  Gothic  building  in  the  world ;  St.  Paul's, 
built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  contains  the  re- 
mains   of    Nelson    and    Wellington,    Reynolds, 


Turner,  and  Wren  himself.  Westminster,  con- 
secrated 1269,  is  the  burial  place  of  England's 
greatest  poets  and  statesmen,  and  of  many 
kings;  the  royal  courts  of  justice  in  the  Strand 
were  opened  in  1882.  There  are  many  edu- 
cational institutions,  medical  hospitals,  and 
charitable  institutions  of  all  kinds.  London  is 
the  center  of  the  English  literary  and  artistic 
world,  and  of  scientific  interest  and  research; 
here  are  the  largest  publishing  houses,  the  chief 
libraries  and  art  galleries,  and  museums;  the 
British  Museum  and  library,  the  national  gal- 
leries, etc.,  and  magnificent  botanical  and  zoo- 
logical gardens.  London  is  also  a  grand  em- 
porium of  commerce,  and  the  banking  center 
of  the  world.  It  has  nine  principal  docks;  its 
shipping  trade  is  unrivaled,  55,000  vessels  enter 
and  clear  annually;  it  pays  more  than  half  the 
custom  duties  of  the  kingdom,  and  handles  more 
than  a  quarter  of  the  total  exports;  its  ware- 
house trade  is  second  only  to  that  of  Manchester ; 
it  manufactures  almost  everything,  chiefly 
watches,  jewelry,  leather  goods,  cycles,  pianos, 
and  glass.  The  control  of  traffic,  the  lighting, 
and  water-supply  of  so  large  a  city  are  yearly 
causing  more  serious  problems.     Pop.,  7,429,740. 

Longitude  is  the  angle  at  the  pole  between 
two  great  circles  drawn  on  the  earth's  surface, 
passing  through  the  poles,  and  touching  re- 
spectively the  place  whose  longitude  is  in  ques- 
tion and  the  place  selected  as  the  origin  of 
longitudes.  Accordingly,  the  difference  in  longi- 
tude of  two  places  is  equivalent  to  the  differ- 
ence of  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  be- 
tween their  meridians.  As  nature  has  not, 
as  in  the  case  of  latitude,  supplied  us  with  a 
fixed  meridian,  each  nation  has  chosen  its 
own  prime  meridian.  Thus,  in  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  Ger- 
many, Holland  and  other  states,  longitude 
is  reckoned  from  the  meridian  passing  through 
Greenwich.  France  uses  the  meridian  passing 
through  Paris.  Longitude,  is  reckoned  east 
and  west  from  0°  to  180°,  though  astronomers 
reckon  west  from  0°  to  360°,  never  using  east 
longitude.  Longitude  is  employed  to  reckon 
time,  a  difference  of  fifteen  degrees  representing 
one  hour.  By  ascertaining  the  difference  in 
hours  between  local  and  meridian  time  and 
multiplying  by  fifteen,  longitude  is  readily 
founci. 

Los  Angeles,  on  Los  Angeles  River,  480 
miles  southeast  of  San  Francisco,  is  the  com- 
mercial center  of  Southern  California.  Its 
seaport  on  the  Pacific  is  San  Pedro,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  It  is  the  center  of  a  region 
rich  in  gold,  silver,  and  lead  mines,  and  petro- 
leum wells,  and  yielding  the  principal  grains, 
wines,  and  citrus  and  deciduous  fruits.  Los 
Angeles  is  a  beautiful  residence  city,  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Southern  California.  Its 
fine  climate  has  attracted  many  people  of 
wealth  and  culture  to  its  environs,  and  has 
stimulated  its  marvelous  growth  as  well.  Until 
1847  it  alternated  with  Monterey  as  the  capital 
of  the  Mexican  province  of  California.  Popu- 
lation, 319,198. 

Lyons,  third  city  of  France  in  population, 
is  situated  chiefly  on  the  peninsula  between 
the  Rivers  Rhone  and  Saone,  245  miles  south- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


541 


east  of  Paris.  It  is  the  great  warehouse  of  the 
south  of  France  and  of  Switzerland;  principal 
manufacture,  silk  stuffs,  giving  employment 
directly  or  indirectly  to  200,000  hands.  The 
cathedral  and  Church  of  St.  Nizier,  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  (town  hall),  the  finest  edifice  of  the  kind 
in  the  country,  the  hospital,  the  public  library, 
and  the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts,  are  the  most 
notable  among  numerous  institutions.  There 
are  also  a  university-academy,  an  imperial  vet- 
erinary school  —  the  first  founded  in  the  coun- 
try, and  still  the  best  —  schools  for  agriculture, 
medicine,  etc.  The  two  rivers  are  crossed  by 
nineteen  bridges;  twelve  over  the  Saone,  and 
seven  over  the  Rhone.  The  quays,  twenty- 
eight  in  number,  are  said  to  be  the  most  remark- 
able in  Europe.  There  are  several  large  and 
important  suburbs;  several  fine  squares,  of 
which  the  Place  Bellecour  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe.     Population,  472,114. 

Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain  and  of  the 
province  of  Madrid,  a  part  of  New  Castile,  situ- 
ated near  the  heart  of  the  country,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Manzanares,  a  sub-affluent  of  the 
Tagus,  and  on  a  hilly,  sandy  plateau,  2,200  feet 
above  the  sea.  One  of  the  handsomest  of  Eu- 
ropean cities,  it  has  a  very  modern  aspect,  and  is 
partly  sunounded  by  a  brick  wall  twenty  feet 
high,  and  pierced  by  sixteen  gates,  the  most 
notable  being  the  Puerta  de  Alcala,  a  triumphal 
arch  seventy-two  feet  high  at  the  foot  of  the 
Calle  de  Alcala,  a  magnificent  street  that 
traverses  the  city  from  northeast  to  southwest. 
The  city  is  girt  with  fine  promenades  and 
stately  suburban  villas  embowered  in  beautiful 
gardens. 

The  great  building  in  Madrid  is  the  Real 
Palacio,  on  the  west  side,  between  the  city  and 
the  river.  It  is  a  square,  470  feet  on  each  side, 
and  100  feet  high,  built  (1737-1750)  of  granite 
and  white  marble,  inclosing  a  court  240  feet 
square,  and  containing  a  library  of  100,000 
volumes,  an  armory  of  2,533  specimens,  and  a 
numismatic  collection  of  150,000  pieces.  Ma- 
drid has  also  about  sixty  churches,  forty-four 
monasteries,  used  since  1836  for  secular  pur- 
poses, twenty-four  nunneries,  twenty-four  hos- 
pitals (one  with  1,526  beds),  fourteen  barracks, 
100  elementary  schools,  several  colleges  or  higher 
schools,  a  university,  a  medical  school,  a  con- 
servatory of  music,  eight  theaters,  four  public 
libraries,  eight  museums,  a  botanical  garden,  an 
observatory,  an  academy  modeled  on  that  of 
Paris,  etc.  The  royal  museum  in  the  Prado 
contains  a  gallery  of  1,833  pictures,  one  of  the 
richest  collections  in  the  world. 

The  industries  of  Madrid  are  slight.  The 
commerce,  however,  is  important,  as  Madrid  is 
the  entrepot  for  all  the  interior  provinces.  Pop- 
ulation, 539,835. 

Maggiore  (Lake)  {mM-jo'ra),  or  Locarna, 
a  considerable  expanse  of  water  in  Northern  Italy, 
lying  partly  within  the  latter,  and  partly  in- 
cluded in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino.  Length, 
thirty-nine  miles,  breadth  from  one-half  mile 
to  five  and  one-half  miles;  636  feet  above  sea- 
level,  with  a  maximum  depth  of  1,221  feet. 
It  receives  the  rivers  Tresa  and  Ticino,  and  its 
surface  is  dotted  with  several  islands,  chief 
among  them  being  the  Borromean  group  —  one 


of  which,  "  Isola  Bella,"  is  renowned  for  its  ex- 
quisite beauty  of  location  and  surroimdings. 

Malays,  a  people  inhabiting  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  the  Eastern  or  Malay  Archipelago, 
or  collectively  Malaysia.  They  are  of  Mongolian 
affinity.  This  enterprising  race  has  made  its 
way  widely  over  the  Pacific  islands,  reaching  as 
far  south  as  Madagascar,  where  they  exist  as  the 
dominant  Hova  element  of  the  population. 
This  widespread  dominion  is  due  to  their  bold, 
enterprising,  and  roving  disposition,  their  place 
of  residence  on  the  peninsula  and  the  larger  is- 
lands being  the  coast  region,  whence  they  have 
driven  the  natives  into  the  interior  and  where 
they  long  pursued  a  piratical  career,  darting 
from  hidden  streams  in  their  well-manned  proas 
on  any  vessel  that  approached  too  near  the  coast, 
or  more  boldly  lying  in  wait  in  fleets  in  the  open 
sea,  for  any  expected  rich  prize.  Physically  con- 
.sidered,  the  Malays  are  of  low  stature.  In  vari- 
ous respects  they  bear  a  close  resemblance  to 
the  Mongolians  of  Eastern  Asia,  but  differ  from 
them  radically  in  language.  Of  late  years  the 
lessons  taught  them  by  European  naval  vessels 
have  forced  the  Malays  to  desist  from  piracy. 
Intellectually  they  seem  at  a  low  level,  and  have 
never  developed  a  pative  literature,  such  civiliza- 
tion as  they  possess  being  due  to  Arab  and  Hindu 
influence. 

Mammoth  Cave,  a  cavern  near  Green 
River,  Edmonson  County,  Kentucky,  about 
85  miles  south-southwest  of  Louisville.  The 
cave  is  about  10  miles  long,  but  it  requires  up- 
ward of  150  miles  of  traveling  to  explore  its 
multitudinous  avenues,  chambers,  grottoes, 
rivers,  and  cataracts.  The  main  cave  is  4  miles 
long,  from  40  to  300  feet  wide,  and  rises  in 
height  to  125  feet.  The  most  interesting  fea- 
tures of  the  cave  are :  The  Chief  City  or  Temple, 
covering  an  area  of  about  four  acres  and  having 
a  dome  of  solid  rock  120  feet  high;  the  Star 
Chamber,  about  500  feet  long  by  70  feet  wide, 
with  a  ceiling  70  feet  high,  consisting  of  black 
gypsum  dotted  with  many  white  points,  which 
when  the  chamber  is  lighted,  have  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  stars;  Silliman's  avenue,  1^  miles 
long,  20  to  200  feet  wide,  and  20  to  40  feet  high; 
Cleveland's  Cabinet,  an  arch  50  feet  wide,  10  feet 
high  and  2  miles  long,  covered  with  a  variety 
of  formations;  the  Maelstrom  Abyss  and  Bot- 
tomless Pit,  each  of  which  is  20  feet  wide  and 
about  175  feet  deep;  and  the  river  Styx,  450 
feet  long,  and  crossed  by  a  natural  bridge  about 
30  feet  high.  The  cave  contains  various  kinds 
of  animals,  and  there  are  also  found  lizards, 
crickets,  frogs,  bats,  and  different  sorts  of  fish. 
The  latter  include  the  famous  eyeless  fish,  which 
are  white  in  color.  The  atmosphere  is  pure 
and  healthful  and  there  is  a  temperature  through- 
out the  year  of  from  52°  to  59°. 

Manchester,  a  city  in  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Irwell,  an  affluent  of  the  Mersey, 
thirty-one  miles  east  of  Liverpool.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  cotton  trade  of  Great  Britain,  and 
one  of  the  principal  manufacturing  cities  in  the 
world.  The  manufacture  of  silk  goods,  which 
was  introduced  in  1816,  has  generally  flourished 
since  1826,  producing  every  description  of  fabrics 
from  the  rich  brocade  to  the  flimsy  Persian.  In 
some  cotton  factories  the  process  of  spinning 


642 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


only  is  carried  on;  in  many  of  them  upward  of 
600  power  looms  are  in  action,  each  producing 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  pieces  of  fabric,  of  twenty- 
four  yards  each  per  week.  There  are  over  60,000 
persons  employed  in  the  cotton  mills,  besides 
7,000  skilled  mechanics  engaged  in  the  produc- 
tion of  steam  engines,  looms,  and  other  machin- 
ery. The  climate  of  Manchester  is  very  healthy, 
despite  the  disadvantage  of  the  prevalence  of 
smoke  arising  from  the  number  of  factories,  etc. 
Population,  631,185. 

Manchuria  (Chinese,  Shing-King),  a  Chi- 
nese territory  occupying  the  northeast  comer 
of  the  ernpire ;  it  is  divided  into  three  provinces, 
Shing-King,  Feng-Tien,  or  Leaotong  in  the 
south  (of  which  Mukden  is  the  capital),  Kirin 
in  the  center  (with  a  capital  of  the  same  name), 
and  Hei-Lung-Kiang  in  the  north  (with  capital 
Tsitsihar);  total  area,  362,310  square  miles; 
population  is  estimated  at  15,000,000.  The 
country  is  mountainous,  but  on  the  whole  fertile. 
The  climate  is  good;  though  the  winters  are 
severe,  they  are  healthy  and  bracing.  The 
vast  forests  of  the  north  are  rich  in  useful  timber 
of  all  kinds.  The  administration  is  military, 
the  governors  of  the  two  northern  provinces  be- 
ing subordinate  to  the  governor  of  Mukden. 
The  Manchus  are  a  hardy  race,  and  their  country 
has  long  been  the  great  recruiting  ground  for 
the  Chinese  army;  but  of  late  years  vast  num- 
bers of  Chinese  proper  have  flocked  into  it,  so 
that  now  they  by  far  outnumber  the  native  race. 
In  the  Seventeenth  Century  the  Manchus  invaded 
China  and  placed  their  leader's  son  on  the  throne. 
Since  that  time  the  Manchu  Dynasty  has  con- 
tinued to  reign  in  China,  and  the  Manchu 
language  has  become  the  court  and  official  lan- 
guage. 

For  a  considerable  time  prior  to  1891,  when  the 
first  sod  was  turned  for  the  construction  of  the 
great  Siberian  railroad,  the  Russian  Government 
was  anxious  to  secure  control  of  this  territory. 
On  November  9,  1901,  the  Russian  minister  of 
finance,  in  announcing  the  completion  of  this 
railroad  from  Transbaikal  territory  to  Vladi- 
vistok  and  Port  Arthur,  used  the  phrase  "Our 
enterprise  in  Manchuria  is  practically,  though 
not  entirely,  concluded."  A  number  of  times  it 
was  declared  that  the  Chinese  Government,  under 
pressure  from  Li  Hung  Chang,  had  signed  a 
secret  treaty  with  Russia  for  the  cession  of  this 
territory.  In  1900,  while  the  allied  army  was 
hastening  to  the  relief  of  the  legations  in  Peking 
a  Russian  military  force  occupied  the  right  bank 
of  the  Amur  River,  and  declared  it  to  be  Rus- 
sian territory,  and  a  provisional  Russian  ad- 
ministration was  established.  Official  declara- 
tions were  sent  out  from  Petersburg  to  the  efTect 
that  the  current  -rumors  of  an  incorporation 
of  Manchuria  with  the  Russian  Empire  were 
groundless. 

In  October,  1903,  Russia  having  failed  to 
evacuate  Manchuria  on  the  8th  of  that  month, 
as  promised,  Japan  made  military  and  naval 
preparations  of  a  warlike  character,  while  Russia 
also  strengthened  her  forces  in  the  distant 
Orient,  which  eventuated  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
War.  While,  by  the  treaty  of  Portsmouth, 
Manchuria  was  restored  to  China,  it  is  still  a 
bone  of  contention  between  Russia  and  Japan. 


Manila,  or  Manilla,  a  seaport  of  the  island 
of  Luzon,  capital  of  the  Philippines,  situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Passig,  at  the  head 
of  a  bay  of  same  name.  It  possesses  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  and  carries  on  a  large  and  important 
commerce  with  Europe,  the  United  States,  and 
China.  The  climate  is  healthful  on  the  whole, 
but  the  place  is  subject  to  earthquakes,  the  last 
of  which,  in  1863,  was  the  cause  of  serious  loss 
of  life.  In  Manila  Bay,  on  May  1,  1898,  Ad- 
miral Dewey  with  six  warships,  destroyed  Spain's 
Asiatic  Squadron,  thirteen  vessels,  under  Ad- 
miral Montejo.     Population  in  1907,  223,542. 

Marseilles  (mar-salz),  French  Marseille 
(mar-say' -e),  a  city,  principal  commercial  seaport 
of  France,  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  capital 
of  the  department  of  Bouchesdu-^hone.  It  lies 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater  round  a  natural 
harbor  of  moderate  size,  now  known  as  the  Old 
Harbor.  Though  a  handsome  city  as  a  whole, 
Marseilles  is  not  rich  in  public  edifices.  The 
harbor  is  strongly  defended  by  various  works. 
What  is  called  the  New  Harbor  consists  of 
a  series  of  extensive  docks  along  the  shore  to  the 
west,  with  a  protecting  breakwater  in  front. 

In  recent  times  Marseilles  has  made  great 
progress  in  its  extent,  street  improvements, 
population,  and  commerce,  largely  owing  to 
the  conquest  of  Algeria,  and  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal.  Marseilles  was  founded  by  a  colony 
of  Greeks  from  Asia  Minor,  about  600  years  be- 
fore Christ,  the  original  name  being  Massalia. 
It  attained  great  prosperity  as  a  Greek  colonial 
center,  and  the  Greek  language  is  said  to  have 
been  spoken  there  till  several  centuries  after 
Christ.  It  was  taken  by  Ca;sar  in  49  B.  C.  On 
the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  it  became  a 
prey  to  the  Goths,  Burgundians,  and  Franks. 
In  735  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  and 
in  the  Tenth  Century  it  came  under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  counts  of  Provence,  and  for  some 
centuries  after  followed  the  fortunes  of  that 
house.     Population,  525,250. 

Matterhorn,  a  peak  of  the  Alps,  between 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Valais  and  Piedmont,  rising 
to  the  altitude  of  14,780  feet.  The  actual  peak 
was  first  scaled  by  Lord  Francis  Douglas,  the 
Rev.  C.  Hudson,  Hadow,  and  Whymper,  with 
three  guides,  July  14,  1865,  when  the  three  first- 
named  and  one  of  the  guides  fell  over  a  precipice 
and  were  killed. 

Mecca,  a  city  of  Arabia,  about  sixty  miles 
from  the  Red  Sea,  the  chief  town  of  the  Hedjaz, 
and  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed. 
It  is  the  sacred  city  of  the  Mohammedans,  and, 
in  itself  uninteresting,  is  important  on  account 
of  the  pilgrimages  which  are  made  annually  to 
the  Great  Mosque,  in  which  is  contained  the 
Kaaba.  From  100,000  to  150,000  persons  are 
said  to  take  part  in  these  pilgrimages  annually. 
The  city,  like  the  whole  province  of  the  Hedjaz, 
now  belongs  to  Turkey.  Population,  about 
50,000. 

Medina,  a  city  of  Arabia,  about  230  miles 
north  of  Mecca.  It  is  the  second  capital  of  the 
Hedjaz,  and  is  celebrated  as  the  seat  of  Moham- 
med's empire,  as  the  place  to  which  he  fled  from 
Mecca,  and  likewise  as  his  burial-place.  To  the 
Mohammedans  Medina  is  only  less  sacred  than 
Mecca,  but  it  is  now  chiefly  important  as  one 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


543 


of  the  stations  on  the  pilgrim-route  to  Mecca. 
The  city,  like  the  whole  province  of  the  Hedjaz, 
belongs  to  Turkey.  Stationary  population,  about 
40,000. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  The  (med-e-ter- 
ra'ne-&n),  a  great  inland  sea,  separating  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  from  that  of  Africa  and  part 
of  Western  Asia;  connecting  by  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  at  its  western  extremity,  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  northeast  with  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  by  the  channel  of  the  Darda- 
nelles, and  thence  by  the  Bosphorus  with  the 
Euxine.  Extreme  length,  2,300  miles;  maxi- 
mum breadth,  1,200  miles.  Estimated  area, 
690,000  square  miles.  Various  portions  of  its 
surface  take  other  names,  as  the  "Ligurian." 
"Tyrrhenian,"  "Ionian,"  "^gean,"  and  "Adri- 
atic" seas.  Its  coast-line,  too,  embraces  the 
extensive  gulfs  of  Taranto,  Patras,  ^gina, 
Salonika,  Smyrna,  Adalia,  Iskanderoon,  Gaeta, 
Genoa,  Lyon,  Cabes,  and  Sidra.  It  receives 
the  waters  of  the  Nile,  Ebro,  Rhone,  Po,  and 
many  others;  contains  the  considerable  is- 
lands of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  the  Balearic 
group,  Malta,  Candia,  Cyprus,  and  the  clusters 
of  the  Greek  Archipelago ;   and  possesses  a  tem- 

Eerature  averaging  from  72°  to  76°,  or  ^°  Fahr. 
igher  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  has 
a  tide  rising  from  five  to  seven  feet,  and  a  con- 
stant upper  current  sets  in  from  the  Atlantic, 
through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  Its  depth  varies 
according  to  situation;  and  it  is  at  times  subject 
to  destructive  winds,  such  as  the  "sirocco"  and 
the  "white  squall."  The  surrounding  territories 
are  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  the  greatest 
movements  in  civilization  and  art  have  taken 
place  around  it  in  Africa,  Phenicia,  Carthage, 
Greece,  and  Rome. 

Melbourne,  the  largest  city  of  Australia; 
capital  of  Victoria;  is  situated  on  the  Yarra 
Yarra  River,  a  stream  of  no  great  size,  Melbourne 
proper  being  several  miles  from  its  mouth,  while 
suburban  extensions  reach  the  shores  of  Port 
Phillip  Bay,  into  which  the  river  flows.  The 
shipping  trade  is  large,  both  in  exports  and  im- 
ports, the  chief  of  the  former  being  wool,  of  the 
latter  manufactured  goods.  Most  imports  are 
subject  to  a  heavy  duty. 

By  its  railway  system  the  city  is  connected 
with  some  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Austra- 
lian continent.  The  first  settlements  on  the  site 
of  Melbourne  were  made  in  1835,  and  a  year  or 
two  after  it  received  its  present  name,  being  so 
called  after  Lord  Melbourne,  who  was  then 
British  prime  minister.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1842.  In  1851  it  became  the  capital  of  Victoria 
(then  established  as  a  separate  colony),  and 
received  an  immense  impetus  from  the  discov- 
ery of  gold  fields.  A  centennial  exhibition  was 
held  in  1888  in  celebration  of  the  founding  (in 
1788)  of  the  Australian  colonies.  The  first  Par- 
liament of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  was 
opened  in  the  Exhibition  Building  on  May  9, 
1901,  by  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Population, 
538,000. 

Melrose,  a  village  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Roxburgh;  on  the  Tweed,  thirty-one  miles 
southeast  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  celebrated  for 
possessing  the  finest  monastic  ruin  in  Scotland. 
Melrose  Abbey,  originally  founded  by  David  I., 


in  1136,  was  destroyed  by  Edward  II.,  of  Eng- 
land, in  1322.  In  1336  it  was  rebuilt  by  Robert 
Bruce,  and  completed  in  the  reign  of  James  IV., 
about  1488-1513.  It  was  again  destroyed  by 
the  English  in  1545.  It  was  of  Gothic  style,  and 
the  ruins  still  attest  its  grandeur  and  magnifi- 
cence. 

Mexico  (Spanish,  Mejico;  Mexican,  Ana- 
huac),  an  extensive  republic  and  quondam  em- 
pire of  North  America,  bounded  north  by  the 
United  States,  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
Caribbean  Sea,  southeast  by  Central  America, 
and  south  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
extreme  length,  northwest  to  southeast,  may 
be  taken  at  2,000  miles;  and  its  maximum 
breadth  at  about  800  miles.  Its  chief  centers 
of  trade  and  population  are  Mexico,  the  capital; 
Vera  Cruz,  Tampico,  La  Puebla,  Jalapa,  Mata- 
moras,  Acapulco,  San  Bias,  Mazatlan,  Durango, 
and  Chihuahua;  of  which  Vera  Cruz  and  Tam- 
pico are  considerable  seaports.  Mexico  is  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  varied  zones  in  the 
world,  and  consists  of  three  grand  natural  divi- 
sions, viz:  the  tierras  calientes,  or  "hot  regions," 
along  its  coasts;  the  tierras  templadas,  or  "tem- 
perate tracts,"  occupying  what  is  called  the 
"table-land  of  Anahuac,"  and  the  tierras  frias, 
or  "cold  climes,"  found  high  up  among  the 
Cordilleras  and  the  Sierra  Madre,  two  mountain 
systems  that  intersect  the  republic  in  almost 
parallel  lines.  Connected  with,  or  outlying 
from,  these  chains,  are  some  of  the  loftiest  vol- 
canic peaks  on  the  North  American  continent, 
the  highest  of  which  is  Popocatepetl.  The 
frontier  line  separating  Mexico  from  Texas  is 
the  great  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  besides  which 
river  there  are  the  Bravo  del  Norte,  Colorado, 
Grande  de  Santiago,  and  Conchas  —  all  streams 
of  magnitude.  The  chief  lakes  are  those  of 
Chapula,  Mexico,  and  Parras.  The  soil  of  Mex- 
ico is  among  the  richest  in  the  world,  producing 
the  finest  of  tropical  fruits  and  flowers,  valuable 
timber  and  dyewoods,  the  cereals,  and  impor- 
tant medicinal  drugs  and  spices.  The  products 
of  the  Mexican  mines  include  silver  —  long  the 
great  staple  of  export,  the  annual  average  pro- 
duce being  valued  at  $15,000,000  —  iron,  copper, 
lead,  tin,  quicksilver,  alum,  and  precious  stones. 
The  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  is  carried 
on  chiefly  with  the  United  States,  England, 
and  France. 

Michigan,  Lake,  the  second  largest  of 
the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America.  It  is 
wholly  within  the  United  States,  having  the 
State  of  Michigan  on  the  east  and  northwest, 
Wisconsin  and  Illinois  on  the  west,  and  Indiana 
on  the  south.  On  the  northeast  it  communi- 
cates with  Lake  Huron  by  the  narrow  Strait  of 
Mackinaw.  It  is  350  miles  long,  and  about 
seventy-five  miles  broad;  area,  estimated  at 
22,450  square  miles.  The  lake  is  581  feet  above 
sea  level ;  the  greatest  ascertained  depth  is  about 
1,000  feet. 

Milan,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Milan,  which  is  a  part  of  the  old  province  of 
Lombardy.  It  is  situated  on  a  plain,  between 
the  rivers  Ticino  and  Adda,  and  is  the  largest 
city  of  Italy  after  Naples.  Under  the  name 
of  Mediolanum  it  was  an  important  town  of 
the  Romans,  and,  from  the  time  of  Diocletian 


544 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


till  its  capture  by  Attila,  it  was  the  usual  resi-  ' 
dence  of  the  emperors  of  the  West.  The 
modem  city  is  about  eight  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  is  encompassed  on  three  sides  by 
walls  and  low  ramparts.  It  has  a  cathedral, 
the  "  Duomo,"  which  dates  from  the  Fourteenth 
Century,  and  which  is  the  finest  Gothic  edifice 
in  Italy,  being  constructed  entirely  of  white 
marble.  In  the  Duomo,  in  1805,  Napoleon  I. 
was  crowned  King  of  Italy.  The  city  possesses 
many  other  splendid  buildings,  and  numerous 
educational  and  other  institutions.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  silk  trade  of  Lombardy,  and  is  the 
largest  book-mart  in  Italy.  In  1872  an  Arts  Ex- 
position was  held  in  the  city,  in  1881,  a  National 
Exposition,  and  in  1907,  an  International  Ex- 
position of  Industrial  Arts.  Population,  541,- 
981. 

Minneapolis,  a  city  of  the  United  States, 
county  seat  of  Hennepin  County,  Minnesota, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi,  at  the  Falls  of 
St.  Anthony,  and  now  contiguous  to  St.  Paul. 
It  is  regularly  laid  out  with  avenues  eighty  feet 
wide,  running  east  and  west,  having  double 
rows  of  trees  on  each  side.  The  public  build- 
ings include  the  court  house,  the  LFniversity  of 
Minnesota  (chartered  in  1851),  the  Augsburg 
Theological  Seminaiy,  Lutheran  (opened  in 
1869);  a  handsome  Free  Public  Library,  the 
building  alone  costing  S350,000,  and  containing 
60,000  volumes.  There  are  numerous  fine 
schools,  churches,  colleges,  banks,  theaters,  and 
parks.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  flour,  lumber,  engines,  boilers,  agri- 
cultural implements,  carriages,  wagons,  bicycles, 
machinery,  foundries,  and  pork-packing.  It 
leads  all  other  centers  in  the  manufacture  of 
flour.  It  is  also  an  important  lumber  and  wheat 
mart.  The  city  possesses  a  territory  of  about 
sixty  square  miles,  and  is  built  on  a  fine  espla- 
nade that  commands  a  very  fine  view  of 
the  justly-celebrated  Falls  of  Minnehaha,  and 
several  fine  lakes.  It  is  a  great  railroad  cen- 
ter, being  on  the  Burlington  route;  Chicago 
&  Northwestern;  Chicago  Great  Western; 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul;  Chicago, 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota  &  Omaha;  Great  North- 
ern; Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  &  Sault  Ste.  Marie; 
the  North  Pacific;  St.  Paul  &  Duluth;  and 
Wisconsin  Central  R.  R's.  The  city  and 
county  building  stands  a  monument  of  the 
enterprise  of  the  city;  it  is  a  most  beautiful 
structure  and  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $4,000,000. 
The  Masonic  Temple  and  other  buildings  add  to 
the  architectural  beauties.  There  are  six  daily 
journals,  and  a  large  number  of  weekly,  monthly, 
and  other  periodicals.     Population,  301,408. 

Mirage,  a  phenomenon  extremely  common 
in  certain  localities,  and  as  simple  in  its  origin 
as  astonishing  in  its  effects.  Under  it  are  classed 
the  appearance  of  distant  objects  as  double,  or 
as  if  suspended  in  the  air,  erect  or  inverted,  etc. 
One  cause  of  mirage  is  a  diminution  of  the  density 
of  the  air  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  produced 
by  the  transmission  of  heat  from  the  earth,  or 
in  some  other  way;  the  denser  stratum  being 
thus  placed  above,  instead  of,  as  is  usually  the 
case,  below  the  rarer.  Now,  rays  of  light  from  a 
distant  object,  situated  in  the  denser  medium 
(i.  e.,  a  little  above  the  earth's  level),  coming  in 


a  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the  earth's  surface, 
meet  the  rarer  medium  at  a  very  obtuse  angle, 
and  instead  of  passing  into  it,  are  reflected  back 
to  the  dense  medium;  the  common  surface  of 
the  two  media  acting  as  a  mirror.  Suppose,  then 
a  spectator  to  be  situated  on  an  eminence,  and 
looking  at  an  object  situated  like  himself  in  the 
denser  stratum  of  air,  he  will  see  the  object  by 
means  of  directly  transmitted  rays;  but  besides 
this,  rays  from  the  object  will  be  reflected  from 
the  upper  surface  of  the  rarer  stratum  of  air  be- 
neath to  his  eye.  The  image  produced  by  the 
reflected  rays  will  appear  inverted,  and  below 
the  real  object,  just  as  an  image  reflected  in 
water  appears  when  observed  from  a  distance. 
If  the  object  is  a  cloud  or  portion  of  sky,  it  will 
appear  by  the  reflected  rays  as  lying  on  the  sur- 
face of  tne  earth,  and  bearing  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  a  sheet  of  water;  also,  as  the  reflecting 
surface  is  irregular,  and  constantly  varies  its 
position,  owing  to  the  constant  communication 
of  heat  to  the  upper  stratum,  the  reflected  image 
will  be  constantly  varying,  and  will  present  the 
appearance  of  a  water  surface  ruffled  by  the 
wind.  This  form  of  mirage,  which  even  experi- 
enced travelers  have  found  to  be  completely 
deceptive,  is  of  common  occurrence  in  the  arid 
deserts  of  Lower  Egypt,  Persia,-  Tartary,  etc. 
In  particular  states  of  the  atmosphere,  reflection 
of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes  place  at  the 
surface  of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus  double 
images  are  formed,  one  by  reflection,  and  the 
other  by  refraction  —  the  first  inverted,  and  the 
second  erect. 

Mlseno,  a  promontory  of  the  province  of 
Naples,  nine  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of 
Naples.  On  the  outskirts  of  the  promontory  are 
the  extensive  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Mise- 
num,  including  a  vast  church  and  theater. 
Mlseno  is  much  visited  on  account  of  its  won- 
derful grotto  Draconara,  and  a  curious  subter- 
ranean building  or  labyrinth,  called  the  Hundred 
Chambers,  supposed  to  have  been  anciently 
ernployed  as  dungeons. 

Mississippi,  a  river  rising  in  northern 
Minnesota  in  Lakes  Elk  and  Itasca,  and  flowing 
southward  through  a  drainage  area  of  about 
two-fifths  of  the  United  States  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  main  stem  is  about  2,500  miles 
long,  and  is  overtopped  by  its  chief  tributary, 
the  Missouri.  The  total  length  from  the 
sources  of  the  latter  to  the  Gulf  is  about  4,250 
miles,  making  the  longest  river  in  the  world. 
The  Mississippi  proper  is  navigable  to  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony  at  Minneapolis,  2,161  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  other  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Arkansas,  the  Red,  and  the  Ohio  rivers. 
The  southern  half  of  the  river  flows  through  a 
broad,  flat  region,  lower  at  times  than  the 
river  level,  and  the  surrounding  -  country  has 
been  protected  against  floods  by  levees,  sup- 
plementing the  natural  embankments.  The 
river  reaches  the  Gulf  through  several  openings, 
forming  an  immense  delta,  12,000  square  miles. 
Annually  the  river  carries  145  cubic  miles  of 
sediment  to  the  Gulf,  the  deposit  being  esti- 
mated at  400,000,000  tons. 

Missouri,  a  river  of  the  United  States; 
formed  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  Montana, 
winds  circuitously  along  the  base  of  the  moun- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


545 


tains,  then  east  till  it  reaches  the  west  boundary 
of  North  Dakota  and  receives  the  Yellowstone. 
Here  it  begins  to  flow  southeast  through  North 
and  South  Dakota,  then  forms  the  east  bound- 
ary of  Nebraska,  separates  for  a  short  distance 
Kansas  from  Missouri,  then  strikes  east  across 
the  latter  State,  and  joins  the  Mississippi  after 
a  course  of  2,908  miles.  It  is  navigable  2,500 
miles  from  the  Mississippi,  giving  a  water-route 
for  commerce  into  the  remote  Northwestern 
States. 

Mitylene  (the  ancient  Lesbos),  an  island  in 
the  Grecian  Archipelago,  one  of  the  largest  of 
the  Sporades,  about  ten  miles  from  the  Asiatic 
coast.  Its  chief- town,  Mitylene,  or  Castro,  is 
situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  island.  Lesbos 
was  important  in  the  early  history  of  Greece  as 
the  native  region  of  the  J^olian  school  of  lyric 
poetry.  Both  Alcseus  and  Sappho  were  natives 
of  the  island.  It  attained  great  importance 
likewise,  as  a  naval  power,  and  planted  colonies 
in  Mysia  and  Thrace.  The  island  is  mountain- 
ous and  is  covered  with  pine  forests.  Its  area  is 
about  600  square  miles,  and  its  population  is 
about  125,000. 

Monaco,  a  small  principality  in  the  south 
of  France,  within  the  department  of  Alpes  Mari- 
times.  The  capital,  Monaco,  is  situated  on 
a  lofty  promontory  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  nine  miles  northeast  of  Nice,  and 
about  one  mile  from  Monte  Carlo.  It  has  a 
fine  climate,  being  sheltered  toward  the  north 
by  the  lofty  range  of  the  Alps;  and  its  soil  is 
singularly  fertile,  producing  oranges,  lemons, 
and  o"ther  fruits  in  abundance.  It  is  notorious, 
however,  for  its  great  gaming  establishments  of 
Monte  Carlo,  from  which  the  prince  derives  nearly 
the  whole  of  his  revenue.  Monaco  was  held  by 
the  Genoese  family  of  the  Grimaldi  from  about  the 
close  of  the  Tenth  to  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  In  1848,  the  communes  of  Roccabruna 
and  Mentone,  which  up  to  that  time  had  belonged 
to  the  principality,  were  annexed  to  Sardinia, 
and  in  1861  they  were  ceded  to  France,  the  prince 
receiving  for  his  remaining  interest  in  them  the 
sum  of  four  million  francs.  The  area  of  the  still 
existing  principality  is  about  eight  square  miles, 
and  its  population  is  16,180. 

Mongols  {mdng'gtdz).  A  division  of  the 
human  race,  ranking  second  in  the  classification 
of  Blumenbach,  and,  viewed  collectively,  the  one 
great  nomadic  people  of  the  earth.  They  include 
besides  the  Mongols  Proper,  the  Tartars,  Chi- 
nese and  Indo-Chinese,  the  Burmese,  Siamese, 
Japanese,  Esquimaux,  Samoyedes,  Finns,  Lapps, 
Turks,  and  Magyars.  The  physical  character- 
istics of  the  true  Mongol  is  thus  depicted  by  Dr. 
Latham:  "The  face  of  the  Mongolian  is  broad 
and  flat.  This  is  because  the  cheek-bones  stand 
out  laterally,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  depressed. 
The  cheek-bones,  we  say,  stand  out  laterally, 
since  they  are  not  merely  projecting,  for  this 
they  might  be  without  giving  much  breadth 
to  the  face,  inasmuch  as  they  might  stand 
forward.  *  *  *  xhe  distance  between 
the  eyes  is  great,  the  eyes  themselves  being 
oblique,  and  their  carunculae  concealed.  The 
eyebrows  form  a  low  and  imperfect  arch, 
black  and  scanty.  The  iris  is  dark,  the  cornea 
yellow.     The  complexion  is  tawny,  the  stature 


low.  The  ears  are  large,  standing  out  from 
the  head;  the  lips  thick  and  fleshy  rather 
than  thin;  the  teeth  somewhat  oblique  in 
their  insertion,  the  forehead  low  and  flat,  and 
the  hair  lank  and  thin."  Under  the  various  des- 
ignations of  Scythians,  Huns,  Tartars,  Turks, 
the  Mongols  during  centuries  were  the  terror  of 
Eastern  Europe,  and  under  Genghis  Khan  and 
Tamerlane  carried  their  victorious  arms  over 
China,  Persia,  Siberia,  and  India.  The  Mongo- 
lian family  is  estimated  to  number  825,000,000, 
or  about  one-half  of  the  human  race. 

Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  mountain  in  the 
Alps,  generally  spoken  of  as  the  highest  mountain 
in  Europe,  though  Elburz,  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Caucasus,  is  3,000  feet  higher.  It  is  situated 
in  the  French  department  of  Haute  Savoie,  on 
the  Italian  border,  and  about  thirty-eight  miles 
south  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  It  has  an  ele- 
vation above  the  sea  of  15,781  feet.  The  mount- 
ain is  generally  ascended  from  the  village  of 
Chamouni.  The  summit  was  first  reached  by 
Balmat,  a  guide,  in  1786;  the  next  year  by 
him  and  Saussure. 

Monte  Carlo,  in  the  principaUty  of  Mon- 
aco, is  beautifully  situated  on  a  sheltered  bay 
and  enjoys  a  delightful  climate;  while  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  is  full  of  charm  and  variety. 
The  Casino  is  on  a  promontory  on  the  east  side 
of  the  town;  besides  a  fully-supplied  reading 
room,  there  is  an  elaborately  decorated  salle  de 
fetes  and  widely  known  salles  de  jeu  (gaming 
rooms).  High-class  music  twice  daily.  There 
is  a  splendid  view  from  the  terrace  behind  the 
casino.  The  salles  de  jeu  are  open  from  11.30 
A.  M.  until  11.30  P.  M.,  tickets  gratis  obtained 
in  the  vestibule;  inhabitants  of  principality  are 
not  admitted.  Trente-et-quarante  and  roulette 
are  the  games  played,  at  the  former  the  minimum 
stake  is  twenty  francs,  the  maximum  12,000 
francs;  at  roulette  the  minimum  is  five  francs, 
the  maximum  6,000  francs.  The  gardens  of 
the  casino  are  famous  for  their  beauty. 

Adjoining  the  casino  terrace  is  the  tir  aux 
pigeons,  attended  by  the  most  expert  trap  shots 
from  all  parts;  the  grand  prix,  competed  for  in 
January,  is  20,000  francs. 

Montenegro,  an  independent  principality 
in  Europe,  in  the  northwest  of  Turkey,  bounded 
by  Herzegovina,  Albania,  the  Adriatic,  and  Dal- 
matia.  Area,  about  3,630  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  everywhere  mountainous,  being  cov- 
ered by  an  extension  of  the  Dinaric  Alps, 
rising  to  the  height  of  8,850  feet.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  beautiful  and  verdant  plains 
and  valleys,  in  which  the  soil  is  tolerably 
fertile.  The  principal  river  is  the  Moratcha. 
About  half  of  the  Lake  of  Scutari,  besides 
several  smaller  lakes,  lies  within  the  Mon- 
tenegrin boundary.  The  climate  is  healthy. 
Forests  of  beech,  pine,  chestnuts,  and  other  valu- 
able timber  cover  many  of  the  mountain  sides. 
Fruit-trees  of  all  kinds  abound,  especially  in  the 
sheltered  valleys,  where  even  almonds,  vines, 
and  pomegranates  ripen.  Agriculture  is  in  a 
very  rude  and  inefficient  state,  though  every 
cultivable  piece  of  land  is  planted  \vith  In- 
dian corn,  potatoes,  tobacco,  rye,  wheat,  cab- 
bages, or  some  other  useful  plant.  Sheep, 
cattle,   and    goats   are   reared   in   great   num- 


546 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


bers.  Manufactures,  with  the  exception  of  a 
coarse  woolen  stuff,  are  unknown.  The  chief 
occupations  of  the  Montenegrins  are  agriculture 
and  fishing,  trade  being  altogether  left  to  for- 
eigners. The  exports  are  sheep  and  cattle, 
mutton-hams,  sumach,  honey,  hides,  cheese, 
butter,  and  other  agricultural  produce.  The 
chief  towns  (in  reality  little  more  than  vil- 
lages) are  Cettinje  (4,500  inhabitants),  the 
capital;  Podgoritza  (10,000  inhabitants);  Nik- 
sich;  and  the  seaports  Dulcigno  and  Ajitivari. 
The  Montenegrins  are  pure  Serbs  and  speak  a 
Serbian  dialect.  They  are  generally  of  tall  stat- 
ure and  well  proportioned.  The  men  go  at  all 
times  fully  armed,  whatever  be  the  occupation 
in  which  they  are  engaged,  and  all  be- 
tween 14  and  50  years  of  age  (estimated  at 
29,000)  are  liable  to  military  service.  In 
religion  they  are  of  the  Greek  Church.  Edu- 
cation, once  neglected,  is  now  free  and  com- 
pulsory. Montenegro  is  nominally  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  with  a  state  council  of  eight 
members,  but  the  prince  is  practically  absolute. 
The  revenue  is  estimated  at  about  $300,000. 
The  population  is  given  as  245,380. 

Montreal  {m6nt-re-6l'),  the  metropolitan 
city  of  Canada;  on  an  island  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  province  of  Quebec,  at  the  head  of  ocean 
navigation  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The 
city,  which  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  in 
Canada,  contains  many  handsome  public  build- 
ings, and  is  divided  into  distinctly  marked 
English  and  French  quarters.  The  chief  public 
buildings  are  the  court-house,  the  barracks, 
Bonsecours  Market,  custom-house,  city  hall,  etc. ; 
and  the  principal  churches  are  St.  Peter's  Cathe- 
dral, constructed  on  the  model  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  (large  enough 
to  accommodate  10,000  persons),  St.  Patrick's, 
Christ  Church  Cathedral,  St.  Andrew's,  St. 
Paul's,  etc.  M'Gill  University,  Presbyterian 
College,  Wesleyan  Theological  College,  Congre- 
gational College,  Anglican  Diocesan  College, 
Bishop's  College  and  University,  the  Montreal 
School  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  are  the  leading 
Protestant  educational  institutions ;  those  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  comprise  Laval  University, 
St.  Mary's  College,  Montreal  College,  Hochelaga 
Convent,  etc.  There  are  several  libraries  besides 
those  of  the  above  institutions,  a  natural  history 
society  with  museum,  an  art  association,  musi- 
cal societies,  etc.  The  exports  are  chiefly  the 
products  of  the  country,  such  as  grain,  flour, 
cheese,  lumber,  etc.,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in 
furs.  The  prineipal  imports  are  cottons, 
woolens,  and  silks,  iron  and  hardware,  and  tea 
and  sugar.  Among  the  industrial  establish- 
ments of  Montreal  are  iron  foundries,  distilleries, 
breweries,  sugar  refineries,  soap  and  candle 
works;  and  there  are  manufactures  of  cotton, 
silk,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  carpets,  tobacco, 
hardware,  edge  tools,  floor-cloth,  carriages,  etc. 
The  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  which  connects  the 
railways  of  Canada  with  those  of  the  United 
States,  crosses  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal  by 
the  stupendous  (tubular)  Victoria  Bridge,  9,437 
feet  in  length,  constructed  in  1854-59. 

Montreal  was  foimded  by  Maisonneuve,  May 
18,  1642,  during  the  French  regime  in  Canada. 
On  September  8,  1760,  Montreal  capitulated  to 


General  Amherst  and  the  surrender  of  the  city 
completed  the  conquest  of  New  France  by  the 
English.  In  1775,  Montreal  was  captured  by  the 
Americans,  who  sent  expeditions  under  Mont- 
gomery and  Arnold  to  capture  Quebec  and  Mont- 
real; and  General  Carleton  in  command  of  the 
British  forces  at  Montreal  had  to  retreat  to  Que- 
bec, where  the  Americans  were  ultimately  de- 
feated. In  1775,  the  American  General  Wooster 
made  his  headquarters  in  the  Chateau  de  Ramer- 
gay,  which  still  stands  opposite  the  city  hall,  and 
which  was  the  official  residence  of  the  British 
governors  after  the  conquest.  In  this  same 
chateau,  the  Commissioners  of  Congress,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Samuel  Chase,  and  Charles 
Carroll,  in  1776,  met  and  held  council  under 
General  Benedict  Arnold.  In  1776  the  Ameri- 
can forces  retreated.  Montreal  obtained  its 
first  city  charter  in  1833,  the  first  mayor  being 
Jacques  Viger.  The  recent  history  of  the  city 
has  been  an  almost  unbroken  record  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  progress.  Great  impetus 
was  given  to  its  growth  by  the  opening  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway;  the  first  train  on 
which  left  Montreal  for  Vancouver  on  June  28, 
1886.-    Population  in  1901,  267,730. 

Morocco,  or  Marocco,  known  to  the 
natives  as  Maghreb-el-Aksa,  "the  farthest  west," 
is  an  empire  or  sultanate  which  is  confined  to 
that  part  of  Northwest  Africa,  bounded  on  the 
east  (at  the  Wad  Kiss)  by  Algeria  and  on  the 
south  by  Cape  Nun  and  the  Wad  Draa,  though 
both  here  and  on  the  Sahara  side  of  the  Atlas 
the  limits  of  the  empire  are  rather  indetermi- 
nate. Area,  about  219,000  square  miles;  popu- 
lation estimated  at  5,000,000. 

Morocco  produces  crops  of  the  temperate  and 
tropical  zones.  Wheat  and  barley  are  grown 
largely.  Various  gums,  oranges,  figs,  almonds, 
lemons,  and  dates  are  among  the  other  vegetable 
products.  Cotton  and  hemp  are  grown  for  home 
consumption.  Most  European  fruits  grow  well, 
and  among  other  products  sugar  has  been  raised. 
Cattle  are  exported;  but  no  animals  can  be  sent 
out  of  the  country  without  an  imperial  permit. 

The  inhabitants  consist  of  six  principal  groups. 
(1)  The  Berbers  or  Kabyles,  of  whom  the  Ama- 
zigh,  Shelluh,  and  Tuareg  are  only  branches,  are 
the  aborigines.  They  inhabit  for  the  most  part 
the  movmtain  regions,  and  are  still  only  half  sub- 
dued. (2)  The  Arabs  are  descendants  of  the 
invaders  who  came  in  the  Seventh  Century. 
(3)  The  Jews  were  very  early  settlers,  semi-inde- 
pendent colonies  still  subsisting  in  the  Atlas 
and  the  Sus  country,  though  most  of  them  in 
the  towns  are  refugees  driven  out  of  Spain  and 
Portugal.  (4)  A  few  thousands  of  Europeans, 
chiefly  Spaniards,  are  almost  entirely  confined 
to  the  coast  towns.  (5)  The  "Moors,"  a  term 
vaguely  applied  to  all  the  Mohammedan  inhabit- 
ants, are  really  Arabs  with  a  large  admixture 
of  Spanish  and  other  European  bloods.  (6)  The 
Negroes,  of  whom  there  are  large  numbers,  were 
brought  from  the  Soudan  as  slaves. 

The  Sultan  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  speci- 
mens of  an  absolute  monarch  existing.  He 
receives  and  disposes  of  the  entire  revenue.  All 
justice  is  bought  and  sold.  Yet,  owing  to  the 
religious  fanaticism  of  the  people,  and  the  mutual 
jealousies  of  the  European  powers,  whose  repre- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


647 


sentatives  reside  at  Tangier,  the  political  equilib- 
rium is  preserved.  The  only  European  nation 
which  at  present  has  any  territory  in  Morocco 
is  Spain,  which  maintains  a  fortress  at  Ceuta, 
and  four  convict  settlements,  and  a  fishing  sta- 
tion at  Ifni. 

Much  of  the  interior  of  Morocco  is  unknown 
to  Europeans,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Algeciras,  in 
1906,  commercial  ingress  and  egress  are  now 
guaranteed  to  European  nations.  Fez,  the  capi- 
tal, has  a  population  of  about  140,000,  and  Tan- 
gier about  35,000.  Morocco  City  is  the  southern 
capital.  The  Sultan  and  his  subjects  are  of  the 
Malekite  sect  of  Sunnite  Mohammedans.  The 
differences  between  sects  are  chiefly  in  the  atti- 
tudes assumed  during  the  recital  of  prayers. 

Moscow  (mds'ko)  [Russian,  Moskwa],  the 
second  capital  of  the  Russian  Empire.  It  is 
the  chief  town  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  and  is  situated  in  a  highly-cultivated  dis- 
trict on  the  Moskwa  River,  400  miles  southeast 
of  St.  Petersburg,  with  which  it  is  in  direct  com- 
munication by  rail.  The  quarter  known  as  the 
Kreml  or  Kremlin,  on  a  height  about  100  feet 
above  the  river,  forms  the  center  of  the  town, 
and  contains  the  principal  buildings.  It  is  in- 
closed by  a  high  stone  wall,  and  contains  the 
old  palace  of  the  czars  and  several  other  palaces ; 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  founded  in 
1326,  rebuilt  in  1472 ;  the  Church  of  the  Annun- 
ciation, in  which  the  emperors  are  recrowned; 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Michael;  the  Palace  of 
Arms,  an  immense  building  occupied  by  the 
senate,  the  treasury  and  the  arsenal;  and  the 
Tower  of  Ivan  Veliki  (209  feet),  surmounted  by 
a  gilded  dome,  and  having  at  its  foot  the  great 
Czar  Kolokol,  or  king  of  bells,  sixty  feet  round 
the  rim,  nineteen  feet  high,  and  weighing  up- 
ward of  200  tons,  the  largest  in  the  world.  Out- 
side the  Kreml  the  chief  building  is  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Vassili,  with  no  less  than  twenty  gilded 
and  painted  domes  and  towers,  all  of  different 
shapes  and  sizes.  Among  the  principal  educa- 
tional establishments  is  the  Imperial  University, 
founded  in  1755  by  the  Empress  Catherine.  It 
has  a  rich  museum  and  a  library  of  200,000  vol- 
umes, and  is  the  most  important  of  the  Russian 
universities.  Moscow  is  the  first  manufacturing 
city  in  the  empire,  and  of  late  years  its  indus- 
trial and  commercial  activity  has  greatly  in- 
creased. The  principal  manufactures  are  textile 
fabrics,  chiefly  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk,  besides 
hats,  hardware,  leather,  chemical  products,  beer, 
and  spirits.  From  its  central  position,  Moscow 
is  the  great  entrepot  for  the  internal  commerce 
of  the  empire.  The  foundation  of  the  city  dates 
from  1147.  It  became  the  capital  of  Muscovy, 
and  afterwards  of  the  whole  Russian  Empire; 
but  was  deprived  of  this  honor  in  1712,  when 
St.  Petersburg  received  it.  The  principal 
event  in  the  history  of  Moscow  is  the  burning 
of  it  in  1812  for  the  purpose  of  dislodging  the 
French  from  their  winter  quarters.  Population', 
1,359,254. 

Mountains,  Grreatest  In  the  World 

Name  Location  Height  (feet) 

Aconcagua Chile, 23,083 

Ben-Nevis Scotland, 4,406 

Blackburn, Alaska 16,140 

Blanc,  Mt France 15,781 


Name  Location              Height  (feet) 

Brown.  Mt Canada, 9,055 

Cenis,  Mt France, 11,755 

Chinati  Peak,     ....  Texas 7,730 

Cllingman  Dome,    .    .    .  Tennessee 6,619 

Condor, Argentine 21,128 

Crillon, Alaska 15,900 

Dapsang Tibet 28,278 

Dhawalaghiri,    ....  Asia 26,826 

Dickerman, Washington 15,766 

Douglass.  Mt Montana 11,300 

Everest,  Mt.,      ....  India 29,141 

Fisherman, California 14,'448 

Fremont's  Peak,    .    .    .  Wyoming, 13,790 

Gilbert  Peak Utah 13,687 

Godwin-Austen  (K^),  .  India 28,278 

Harney  Peak South  Dakota 7,216 

Hermon,  Mt Palestine, 9,166 

Hogback,  Mt Nebraska 6,084 

Hooker,  Mt Canada 15,700 

Hyndman  Peak,    .    .    .  Idaho,      ........  12,078 

Itacolumi, Brazil 5,740 

Itambe Brazil, 4,300 

Kanchanjanga India, 28,156 

Katahdin Maine 5,200 

Korintje, Sumatra 12,480 

Kosciusko,  Mt Australia, 7,336 

Lebanon,  Mt Syria 11,000 

Logan,  Mt Canada 19,500 

Long's  Peak, Colorado 14,271 

McKinley Alaska 20,464 

Mansfield,  Mt.,  ....  Vermont, 4,364 

Marcy,  Mt New  York 5,344 

Massive Colorado, 14,424 

Matterhorn Switzerland, 14,780 

Mercedario, Argentine 22,312 

Mercedario Mexico 22,397 

Miltsin,  Mt., Morocco 11,400 

Mitchell,  Mt North  Carolina 6,711 

Monte  Rosa Italy 15,217 

Olympus, Greece, 6,600 

Olympus, Turkey 9,745 

Parnassus,      Greece, 8,070 

Perdu,  Mont France 11,300 

Peaks  of  Otter,      .    .    .  Virginia 4,250 

Pike's  Peak Colorado, 14,108 

Redslate  Peak,       .    .    .  CaUfornia 13,400 

Roa,  Mt Hawaii, 17,500 

Rogers,  Mt (Grayson  Co.)  Virginia, .  6,719 

Roraima, Venezuela, 8,740 

Santa  Clara  Mountain, .  New  Mexico 11,507 

Santa  Fd  Baldy  Peak,  .  New  Mexico, 12,661 

Simplon Alps,  Switzerland, .    .    .  11,541 

Sinai,  Mt Turkey 8,593 

Sitting  Bull  Mountain,  Georgia 6,046 

Snehaetten Norway, 7,566 

Snowdon, Wales 3,571 

Sorata Bolivia 21,490 

Spruce  Mountain,      .    .  (Pendleton  Co.)  W.  Vir.,  4,860 

St.  Bernard Switzerland 8,110 

St.  Gothard Switzerland 10,600 

Truchas  Peak New  Mexico 13,276 

Vancouver Alaska, 15,666 

Washaku  Needle,  .    .    .  Arizona 12,000 

Washington,  Mt.,  .i  .    .  New  Hampshire,    .    .    .  6,293 

Wheeler  Peak Nevada 13,058 

Whitney California, 14,502 

Ymesfield,       Norway 8,543 

Mount  McKinley,  a  mountain  of  the 
McKinley  Range,  in  Alaska.  It  is  situated  about 
125  miles  north  of  Cook  Inlet,  and  stands  close 
to  the  intersection  of  the  sixty-third  parallel  of 
north  latitude  with  the  151st  meridian  of  west 
longitude.  Recent  measurements  made  by  the 
United  States  (Geological  Survey  show  this  to 
be  the  tallest  peak  in  the  United  States, 
overtopping  Mount  St.  Elias  and  Mount  Logan 
by  about  1,000  feet,  its  height  being  20,464  feet. 
The  great  height  of  Mount  McKinley  has  been 
known  to  the  Indians  and  the  scattering  whites 
of  that  region,  for  many  years,  as  its  towering 
summit  is  plainly  visible  on  clear  days  for  a 
distance  of  125  miles  or  more. 

Munich  (mu'-nik),  the  capital  city  of  Ba- 
varia, on  an  extensive  plateau,  about  1,700  feet 
above  sea-level,  chiefly  on  the  left  bank  of  the 


548 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Isar.  The  old  town  has  a  quaint  and  irregular 
character,  but  the  new  town,  which  has  sprung 
up  chiefly  to  the  north  and  west,  has  a  regular 
and  imposing  appearance,  and  altogether  Mu- 
nich is  one  of  the  finest  towns  in  Germany.  The 
royal  palace  forms  a  very  extensive  series  of 
buildings  chiefly  in  the  Italian  style,  and  con- 
tains many  magnificent  apartments  and  rich 
artistic  and  other  treasures.  The  royal  library 
has  upward  of  1,000,000  volumes  and  30,000 
manuscripts,  being  thus  one  of  the  largest  in 
Europe.  The  university  had  in  1902,  200  pro- 
fessors and  teachers,  and  4,766  students  in 
theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  phi- 
losophy, together  with  a  library  of  over  500,000 
volumes.  The  industries  are  numerous;  brew- 
ing ranks  first,  about  76,000,000  gallons  (half  of 
which  are  exported)  being  produced  annually. 
Among  others  may  be  mentioned  painted  glass 
and  other  artistic  productions,  mathematical, 
optical,  and  surgical  instruments,  gold  and 
silver  lace,  jewelry,  glass,  carriages,  bells,  musi- 
cal instruments,  etc.  Munich  is  the  seat  of  the 
high  courts  of  legislature  and  of  law,  and  of  all 
the  more  important  offices  of  the  state.  It  was 
founded  by  Henry  the  Lion,  about  1142,  was 
taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  by  the 
French  under  Moreau  in  1800,  and  by  Napoleon 
in  1805.     Population,  595,053. 

Naples  (Italian,  Napoli),  a  magnificent  city 
of  Southern  Italy,  capital  of  a  province  of  same 
name,  and  of  the  former  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  on  the  north  side  of  the  far-famed  Bay 
of  Naples,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Vesuvius, 
118  miles  southeast  of  Rome.  Built  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheater,  Naples,  as  viewed 
from  the  sea,  presents  a  panorama  of  almost 
unrivaled  beauty.  Architecturally  speaking,  its 
public  edifices  are  more  remarkable  for  their 
size  than  for  their  elegance  of  design.  It  has 
some  manufactures  and  a  large  commerce. 
This  city,  the  supposed  Parthenope  of  the  an- 
cients, has,  at  various  times,  been  devastated 
by  the  effects  of  war,  earthquakes,  and  the 
volcanic  eruptions  of  its  neighbor,  Vesuvius. 
The  environs  of  Naples  —  Capri,  Pompeii,  etc. 
—  are  renowned  for  their  picturesqueness  and 
archaeological  interest.     Population,  563,540. 

Netherlands,  The,  or  Holland  (Dutch 
Nederland,  or  Koninkrijk  der  Nederlanden),  is 
a  kingdom  of  Europe  on  the  North  Sea,  north 
of  Belgium  and  west  of  part  of  Northern  Ger- 
many. In  addition  to  its  European  territories, 
Holland  possesses  extensive  colonies  and  de- 
pendencies in  the  Asiatic  archipelago  and  Amer- 
ica; including  Java,  Sumatra,  a  great  part  of 
Borneo,  Celebes,  part  of  New  Guinea,  Surinam 
or  Dutch  Guiana,  the  West  Indian  islands  of 
Curacao,  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  etc.  Some  por- 
tions of  the  Netherlands  proper  are  sixteen  to 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and 
nearly  all  parts  too  low  for  natural  drainage. 
The  coast  line  is  very  irregular,  being  marked 
by  the  great  inlet  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  as  well  as 
by  various  others,  and  fringed  by  numerous 
islands.  In  great  part  the  coast  is  so  low  that 
were  it  not  for  massive  sea-dykes,  large  areas 
would  be  inundated  and  lost  to  the  inhabitants. 
In  the  interior  also  dykes  are  a  common  feature, 
being  built  to  protect  portions  of  land  from  the 


lakes  or  rivers,  or  to  enable  swampy  pieces  of 
land  to  be  reclaimed  by  draining,  the  water 
being  commonly  pumped  up  by  windmills. 
These  inclosed  lands  are  called  "polders,"  and 
by  the  formation  of  the  polders  the  available 
area  of  the  country  is  being  constantly  increased, 
lakes  and  marshes  being  converted  into  fertile 
fields,  and  considerable  areas  being  even  rescued 
from  the  sea.  One  of  these  reclamations  was 
the  Lake  of  Haarlem,  the  drainage  of  which, 
yielding  more  than  40,000  acres  of  good  land 
now  inhabited  by  about  12,000  persons,  begun 
in  1839,  was  finished  in  1852.  Almost  the  only 
heights  are  the  sand  hills,  about  100  to  180  feet 
high,  along  the  coast,  and  a  similar  chain  of 
low  hills,  southeast  of  the  Zuider  Zee.  In  the 
same  line  with  the  sand  hills,  extending  past 
the  mouth  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  runs  a  chain  of 
islands,  namely,  Texel,  Vlieland,  Terschelling, 
Ameland,  etc.,  which  seem  to  indicate  the  origi- 
nal line  of  the  coast  before  the  ocean  broke  in  on 
the  low  lands.  The  coast  of  Friesland,  opposite 
these  islands,  depends  for  its  security  altogether 
on  artificial  embankments.  The  highest  eleva- 
tion, 656  feet,  is  in  the  extreme  southeast.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  country  is  flat,  tame,  and 
uninteresting,  and  about  a  fifth  of  the  whole 
surface  consists  of  marsh,  sand,  heath,  or  other 
unproductive  land.  Wheat,  of  excellent  qual- 
ity, is  grown  only  in  favored  portions  of  the 
south  provinces.  Rye,  oats,  and  buckwheat, 
with  horse-beans,  beet,  madder,  and  chicory, 
are  more  common  crops;  and  tobacco  is  culti- 
vated in  the  provinces  of  Gelderland,  South 
Holland,  and  Utrecht;  flax  in  North  Brabant, 
South  and  North  Holland,  Friesland,  and  Zee- 
land;  and  hemp,  sugar-beet,  oilseeds,  and  hops 
in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  Culinary 
vegetables  are  cultivated  on  a  large  scale,  not 
merely  for  the  sake  of  supplying  the  internal 
demand,  but  also  for  the  exportation  of  the 
seeds,  which  form  an  important  article  of  Dutch 
commerce.  But  it  is  in  stock  (cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  swine,  goats),  and  dairy  products  in  par- 
ticular, that  the  rural  industry  of  the  Nether- 
lands shows  its  strength.  The  commerce  of  the 
country  was,  at  one  time,  the  most  important 
in  the  world,  and  is  ev6n  yet  of  great  importance 
and  activity.  The  foreign  trade  centers  chiefly 
in  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  The  industrial 
occupations  are  varied.  Shipbuilding  and  sub- 
sidiary trades  are  among  the  chief.  Of  textile  ' 
manufactures,  that  of  linen  is  the  most  impor- 
tant; but  silks  and  velvets,  as  well  as  woolens 
and  cottons,  are  produced  in  considerable  quan- 
tity. Pigments,  brandy,  gin,  paper,  glass, 
earthernware,  etc.,  are  among  the  more  im- 
portant products.  Large  numbers  of  the  sea- 
board population  are  employed  in  the  deep-sea 
fisheries. 

New  Orleans,  the  largest  city  in  Louisiana 
and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States, 
is  located  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
107  miles  from  its  mouth.  Built  originally 
in  the  bend  on  the  left  side  of  the  river,  it  was 
called  the  "Crescent  City,"  but  it  has  grown 
so  rapidly  as  to  lose  its  former  shape.  It  is 
protected  by  great  levees  from  the  overflow 
of  the  river.  It  is  divided  into  the  American 
and   the   French   quarters;     in   the   latter   the 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


549 


French  language,  manners,  and  customs  still 
rule.  Here  dwell  the  old  Creole  families.  The 
annual  Mardi-Gras  festival  is  as  unique  as  it 
is  magnificent.  New  Orleans  is  the  seat  of  the 
United  States  mint  and  of  Tulane  University. 
Population,  339,075. 

New  York  City,  the  commercial  metrop- 
olis of  the  New  World,  occupies  the  whole  of 
the  island  of  Manhattan  lying  between  Hudson 
and  East  rivers,  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  large  contiguous  areas, 
the  total  area  being  327  square  miles.  The 
Greater  City  comprises  the  boroughs  of  Man- 
hattan, Bronx,  Brooklyn,  Queens,  and  Rich- 
mond. Manhattan,  or  the  city  proper,  is  eight- 
een miles  from  the  Atlantic,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  New  York  Bay.  The  harbor  of 
New  York,  forming  the  inner  portion  of  its  bay, 
is  one  of  the  safest  and  finest  commercial  natural 
basins  known,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has 
lighthouses  at  its  respective  entrances.  Man- 
hattan Island  is  separated  from  the  mainland 
of  the  State  by  the  Harlem  River  and  Spuyten 
Duyvel  Creek.  Built  on  a  long,  narrow,  and 
gently  undulating  spit  of  land.  New  York, 
viewed  from  seaward,  presents  little  that  is 
striking  or  picturesque  to  the  eye  of  the  spec- 
tator. The  city,  as  seen  internally,  is  char- 
acterized by  all  those  salient  features  of  space, 
development,  and  architectural  attraction,  which 
unite  in  giving  it  its  metropolitan  rank.  Broad- 
way, its  chief  street,  and  one  of  the  finest 
thoroughfares  in  the  world,  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  city  for  a  distance  of  six  miles, 
and  is  lined  throughout,  on  either  side,  by  hand- 
some stores  and  houses.  The  principal  of  the 
nineteen  public  squares  and  parks  of  New  York 
is  Central  Park,  a  magnificently  and  pictur- 
esquely laid-out  demesne  of  843  acres.  Among 
the  most  noticeable  buildings  are  the  city  hall, 
court-house,  stock  exchange,  custom-house,  post- 
office.  United  States  sub-treasury  building,  the 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick,  and 
Trinity  and  other  churches,  without  particular- 
izing the  numerous  splendid  theaters,  hotels, 
hospitals,  colleges,  etc.,  which  serve  to  com- 
plete the  requirements  of  a  large  and  wealthy 
urban  center.  As  a  manufacturing  place.  New 
York  carries  on  various  and  important  indus- 
tries, embracing  the  chief  articles  of  fabrication, 
and  use  required  by  civilized  life.  Commer- 
cially, its  trade  is  only  surpassed  by  that  of 
London  and  Liverpool;  it  constitutes  the  main 
American  emporium  and  is  the  entrepot  of  a 
vast  and  yearly  increasing  export  and  import 
traffic.  New  York,  too,  besides  being  the  finan- 
cial focus  of  the  Union,  is  the  port  at  which  the 
bulk  of  immigrants  into  the  United  States 
arrive.  After  the  discovery  of  the  island  of 
Manhattan  by  Hudson  in  1609,  the  Dutch  per- 
manently settled  upon  it  in  1623,  and  gave  it 
the  name  of  New  Amsterdam.  In  1664,  it  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  English,  who  re- 
christened  it  by  its  present  name.  In  1673, 
the  Dutch  retook  the  city,  and,  naming  it  New 
Orange,  held  it  for  a  year,  when  it  reverted  to 
their  immediate  predecessors.  In  1776,  during 
the  War  of  the  Revolution,  New  York  was  occu- 
pied by  British  troops  from  August  26th  till 
November  25,   1783.     Since  that  period  it  has 


progressed  in  size,  wealth,  and  population,  till 
it  has  become  the  second  city  in  the  world. 
Population,  4,766,883. 

Niagara  Falls.  The  Niagara  River, 
which  flows  from  Lake  Erie  north  into  Lake 
Ontario,  is  about  thirty-six  miles  in  length; 
its  descent  from  the  level  of  one  lake  to  that 
of  the  other  is  about  334  feet..  At  the  foot  of 
Grand  Island,  which  reaches  within  one  and 
one-half  miles  of  the  falls,  the  river  is  contracted 
to  a  width  of  two  and  one-half  miles,  and  grows 
narrower  as  it  proceeds.  By  this,  and  by  the 
descent  in  the  channel,  which  is  about  sixty 
feet  in  the  mile,  are  produced  the  swift  currents 
known  as  the  rapids,  in  which  the  river,  not- 
withstanding its  great  depth,  is  perpetually 
white  with  foam.  At  the  falls,  which  are  twen- 
ty-two miles  from  Lake  Erie,  the  river  is  divided 
by  an  island  called  Goat  Island ;  but  the  largest 
portion  of  the  water  is  sent  down  by  the  Cana- 
dian side.  On  this  side  is  the  grander  cataract, 
which  has  been  named  the  Horseshoe  Fall,  and 
which  is  about  600  yards  in  width  and  154  feet 
high.  The  water  rushes  over  with  such  force 
that  it  is  thrown  about  fifty  feet  from  the  foot 
of  the  cliff.  The  separation  caused  by  Goat 
Island  leaves  a  large  wall  of  rock  between  the 
Canadian  and  American  falls,  the  latter  being 
again  divided  by  an  islet  at  a  short  distance 
from  Goat  Island.  This  fall  is  from  eight  to 
ten  feet  higher  than  the  Horseshoe,  but  only 
about  220  yards  wide.  The  river  is  crossed  by 
a  suspension  bridge,  and  by  a  ferry  about  200 
or  300  yards  below  the  falls,  where  it  is  1,200 
yards  wide.  A  stratum  of  rock  runs  across  the 
direct  course  of  the  river,  three  or  four  miles 
below,  which,  after  forming  a  vast  circular 
basin,  with  an  almost  impassable  whirlpool,  is 
forced  away  at  right  angles  to  its  old  channel. 
The  total  energy  of  the  falls  is  calculated  at 
16,000,000  horsepower,  and  the  work  of  utiliz- 
ing this  power  is  the  beginning  of  the  most 
stupendous  engineering  feat  ever  undertaken. 
On  April  15,  1895,  the  first  large  dynamo  was 
run  at  full  speed,  250  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  proved  quite  satisfactory.  On  July  1st, 
the  first  electric  power  transmitted  for  commer- 
cial purposes,  4,000  horsepower,  was  sent  to 
an  aluminum  factory  a  mile  distant.  Various 
other  developments  were  afterward  reported 
in  rapid  succession.  On  January  17,  1896, 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  accepted  a 
grant  for  the  transmission  of  electric  power  for 
lighting  and  power  purposes  to  Buffalo.  Elec- 
tric power  is  now  carried  by  great  trans- 
mission lines  to  various  cities  of  New  York 
and  Canada  for  the  operation  of  interurban 
and  street  railways,  factories,  street  lighting, 
etc. 

Nile  (Latin,  Nilus),  a  large  and  celebrated 
river  of  Africa,  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
two  branches,  the  Bahr-el-Azrek,  or  "Blue 
River"  (often  called  the  "Blue  Nile"),  and  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  "White  River"  ("White 
Nile").  The  first-mentioned  arm  rises  in  Abys- 
sinia, and  taking  a  northerly  course  through 
the  Lake  of  Dembea,  joins  the  Bahr-el-Abiad 
at  Khartoum,  after  being  in  some  places 
broken  by  cataracts.  The  real  sources  of  the 
Nile    were,   imtil    recently,   supposed   to   lie   in 


650 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Lakes  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Albert  Nyanza,  dis- 
covered by  the  English  explorers  Grant  and  Speke. 
After  the  union  of  the  two  branches  at  Khar- 
toum, the  Nile  forms  one  grand  main  river, 
taking  a  generally  winding  course  north,  as  far 
as  Edab,  in  Dongola,  where  it  forms  what  is 
called  the  Great  Bend.  Thence  flowing  through 
a  country  rich  in  architectural  trophies  of  the 
past,  and  rendered  highly  fertile  by  its  annual 
mundations,  the  Nile  empties  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  a  delta  of  seven  mouths,  of  which 
that  of  Rosetta,  the  principal  one,  has  a  width 
of  1,800  feet,  with  a  depth  of  five  feet  in  the 
dry  season.  Total  length,  3,500  miles  from 
Victoria  Nyanza. 

Norway  is  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  occupy- 
ing the  western  portion  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  The  coast  line  is  extensive,  of  bold 
outline,  and  deeply  indented  by  fiords  and 
fringed  with  almost  innumerable  islands,  chief 
among  which  are  the  Loffoden  group.  The 
surface  of  the  country  is  rugged  and  somewhat 
bleak,  comprising  a  succession  of  mountains  and 
valleys.  The  Kjolen,  or  Great  Scandinavian 
chain,  running  south  from  Finland  for  several 
hundred  miles,  forms  an  Alpine  barrier  between 
this  country  and  Sweden;  in  the  province  of 
Trondhjem  it  lapses  into  the  Dovrefjeld,  which, 
with  its  spurs,  extends  nearly  as  far  south 
as  the  Naze.  Highest  points,  Snehaetten  and 
Skagtols-tind,  each  about  8,000  feet.  Chief 
rivers,  the  Glommen  and  Tana;  lakes,  those 
of  Mjosen,  Foemund,  and  Sperdillen.  A  large 
extent  of  the  mountain  districts  produces  only 
lichens,  mosses,  and  hardy  berry-yielding 
plants;  the  Scotch  fir,  spruce  and  birch  cover 
extensive  tracts,  and  constitute  nearly  a  moietjy^ 
of  the  country.  The  hardier  fruits  flourish  well. 
Agriculture,  though  pursued  with  some  vigor 
of  late  years,  is  still  unable  to  furnish  sufficient 

Eroduce    for    home    consumption.     Flax    and 
emp    are    raised    in    some    parts;     in    others, 
barley  and  oats.     Next,  or  about  equal,  in  im- 

Eortance  to  the  timber  trade  are  the  cod  and 
erring  fisheries,  which  employ  a  very  large 
fart  of  the  population  during  the  entire  year, 
n  Finmark,  the  fisheries  and  reindeer  form 
the  onljr  wealth  and  source  of  subsistence  of  the 
population.  The  mineral  products  are  similar, 
but  less  considerable  than  those  of  Sweden. 
Shipbuilding  is  largely  carried  on,  and  the  chief 
exports  include  timber,  fish,  fish  oil,  minerals, 
furs,  feathers,  and  ice.  Chief  cities  and  towns 
are  Christiania,  Bergen,  and  Trondhjem. 

Nyassa,  a  lake  in  the  heart  of  Africa,  which 
Dr.  Livingstone  discovered  in  1859,  by  ascend- 
ing the  River  Shir6.  The  lake  is  340  miles  long, 
about  twenty-six  miles  wide,  and  is  1,300  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  is  in  many  places  over  100 
fathoms  in  depth.  The  scenery  of  Nyassa  is 
described  as  grand  in  the  extreme,  though  much 
of  the  land  surrounding  it  is  low  and  marshy. 

Oakland)  the  county  seat  of  Alameda 
county,  California,  is  situated  directly  across 
the  bay  from  San  Francisco,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  ferries.  It  has  large  industrial 
and  manufacturing  interests,  a  splendid  harbor, 
and  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Southern 
Pacific,  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F6,  and 
the  Western  Pacific  railroads.     It  is  a  beautiful 


residential  city.  Berkeley,  a  city  immediately 
adjoining,  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia.    Population,  150,174. 

Obelisk,  a  column  of  a  rectangular  form, 
diminishing  towards  the  top,  generally  terminat- 
ing in  a  low  pyramid.  The  proportion  of  the 
thickness  to  the  height  is  nearly  the  same  in  all 
obelisks,  that  is,  between  one-ninth  and  one- 
tenth  ;  and  the  thickness  at  the  top  is  never  less 
than  half,  nor  greater  than  three-fourths  of  the 
thickness  at  the  bottom.  Egypt  abounded  with 
obelisks,  which  were  always  of  a  single  block  of 
hard  stone ;  and  many  have  been  removed  thence 
to  Rome  and  other  places.  They  seem  to  have 
been  erected  to  record  the  honors  or  triumphs 
of  the  monarchs.  The  two  largest  obelisks  were 
erected  by  Sesostris  in  Heliopolis;  the  height  of 
these  was  180  feet.  They  were  removed  to  Rome 
by  Augustus.  A  fine  obelisk  from  Luxor  was 
erected  in  Paris  in  1833,  and  the  two  known  as 
Cleopatra's  Needles  are  now  in  London  and  New 
York,  ornaments  of  public  places.  The  obelisks 
which  were  common  to  Rome,  Florence,  etc., 
had  all  been  removed  from  Egypt  during  its 
domination  by  the  Roman  emperors. 

Oberammergau,  a  village  in  Upper 
Bavaria,  celebrated  because  in  1633,  in  gratitude 
for  the  cessation  of  a  plague,  the  inhabitants 
took  a  vow  pledging  the  performance,  every 
ten  years,  of  the  passion-play  of  Christ's  cruci- 
fixion and  ascension.  The  performance  takes 
f)lace  every  Sunday  during  the  summer,  on  a 
arge  wooden  stage  open  to  the  sky,  and  it  usually 
lasts  eight  hours.  Primarily  regarded  by  these 
Bavarian  villagers  as  a  religious  exercise,  it  has 
become  in  their  performances  a  mystery  play  of 
impressive  beauty.  Latterly,  however,  it  has 
taken  the  character  of  a  European  amusement 
and  a  source  of  profit. 

Ohio,  a  river  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Allegheny  from 
the  north  and  the  Monongahela  from  the  south 
at  Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  a  navi- 
gable stream  600  yards  broad.  It  flows  west- 
southwest,  separating  the  States  of  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  on  the  south  from  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois  on  the  north,  and  enters  the  Mississippi 
at  Cairo.  Its  length  from  Pittsburg  to  its  jimc- 
tion  with  the  Mississippi  is  975  miles;  area  of 
basin,  214,000  square  miles.  The  width  of  the 
river  varies  from  400  to  1,400  yards;  average 
width,  about  800  yards,  at  its  mouth  900 
yards.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Miami, 
Kentucky,  Wabash,  Green,  Cumberland,  and 
Tennessee. 

Ontario,  Lake,  the  most  easterly  of  the 
great  lakes  of  North  America,  lying  along  the 
northeast  side  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada;  greatest  length, 
190  miles;  greatest  breadth,  about  fifty-five 
miles;  area,  7,250  square  miles.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  Lake  Erie  by  the  Niagara,  and  dis- 
charges its  waters  by  the  St.  Lawrence  into  the 
Atlantic,  1,000  miles  distant.  The  Hudson,  and 
the  Oswego  and  Erie  Canals,  form  a  connection 
through  the  United  States,  between  it  and  the 
Atlantic.  It  is  navigable  throughout  its  whole 
extent  and  at  all  seasons.  The  most  important 
places   on   its   shores  are   Toronto,    Hamilton, 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


551 


Kingston,  and  Coburg  in  Canada,  and  Oswego 
in  the  United  States. 

Oporto,  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom 
of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Minho,  about 
two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Douro.  The 
city  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  declivity 
above  the  river,  and  has  several  well-built  sub- 
urbs, with  one  of  which,  Villanova  de  Gaya,  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  it  is  connected 
by  an  elegant  wire  suspension  bridge,  about  750 
feet  in  length.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and 
has  a  cathedral.  The  city  has  some  manufac- 
tures of  hats,  silks,  linen,  and  pottery;  but  it 
chiefly  depends  on  its  trade  in  wine,  of  which 
large  quantities  are  annually  exported,  chiefly 
by  British  merchants.  Oporto  is  the  ancient 
Portus  calensis.     Population,  180,215. 

Orinoco,  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  South 
America,  has  its  origin  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Parima,  in  the  extreme  southeast  of  Venezuela; 
its  exact  sources  were  only  discovered  in  1886, 
by  Chaffanjon.  It  flows  at  first  west  by  north, 
a  mountain-stream.  A  little  below  Esmeralda 
it  divides  and  sends  off  to  the  south  an  arm, 
the  Cassiquiare,  which,  after  a  course  of  180 
miles,  enters  the  Rio  Negro,  a  tributary  of  the 
Amazon.  The  other  branch  on  reaching  San 
Fernando,  is  met  by  the  strong  current  of  the 
Guaviare;  the  united  stream  then  turns  due 
north,  and,  after  passing  over  the  magnificent 
cataracts  of  Maypures  and  Atures,  and  picking 
up  the  Meta  on  the  left,  meets  the  Apure,  which 
likewise  strikes  it  from  the  left.  Below  the  con- 
fluence with  the  Apure,  the  Orinoco  turns  east 
and  traverses  the  llanos  of  Venezuela,  its  waters, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  four  miles,  being 
augmented  from  the  right  by  the  Caura  and  the 
Caroni.  About  120  miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
into  which  it  rolls  its  milk-white  flood,  its  delta 
(8,500  square  miles)  begins.  Of  the  numerous 
mouths  which  reach  the  ocean  over  165  miles 
of  coast-line  only  seven  are  navigable. 

Orleans  {or-la-on').  English  (or'le-anz),  a 
city  of  France,  the  capital  of  the  department 
of  Loiret,  about  seventy-six  miles  southwest  of 
Paris.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Loire,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  Forest  of  Orleans, 
which  is  146  square  miles  in  extent.  The  city  is 
well  and  regularly  built,  and  has  a  large  trade, 
and  several  manufactures.  Its  cathedral,  which 
dates  only  from  the  Seventeenth  Century,  is  one 
of  the  finest  Gothic  edifices  in  France.  The 
city  was  besieged  by  the  English  in  1 128,  and  was 
saved  by  the  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc,  whose  house 
is  still  preserved,  and  of  whom  the  city  contains 
three  statues.  It  gives  its  name  to  the  Royal 
House  of  Orleans,  of  which  the  Bourbons  consti- 
tute the  principal  branch.     Population,  70,104. 

Osaka  or  Ozaka,  an  important  city  of 
Central  Japan,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yodo  River, 
which  issues  from  Lake  Biwa.  The  city  covers 
an  area  of  about  eight  square  miles,  and  is  inter- 
sected with  canals.  Its  fine  castle,  the  stones  of 
whose  walls  are  of  astonishing  size,  was  con- 
structed in  1583,  and  the  palace,  built  afterward 
in  its  precincts  and  destroyed  in  1868,  was  per- 
haps the  most  magnificent  structure  in  Japan. 
Population,  995,945. 

Ottawa,  a  city  in  the  province  of  Ontario, 


capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ottawa,  about  ninety  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  St.  Lawrence,  100  miles  west 
of  Montreal,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way. The  city,  divided  into  the  Upper  and 
Lower  town  by  the  Rideau  Canal,  has  wide 
streets  crossing  at  right  angles,  and  some  of  the 
finest  buildings  in  the  Dominion.  The  chief  are 
the  government  buildings,  constructed  of  light- 
colored  sandstone,  in  the  Italian-Gothic  style. 
They  stand  on  elevated  ground,  commanding  a 
fine  view,  and  form  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle, 
the  south  front  being  formed  by  the  houses  of 
parliament  building,  which  is  500  feet  long,  and 
containing  the  halls  for  the  meetings  of  the  Do- 
minion Senate  and  House  of  Commons.  There 
is  a  library  forming  a  detached  circular  building, 
with  a  dome  ninety  feet  high.  The  buildings 
cover  about  four  acres,  and  are  said  to  have  cost 
$4,000,000.  The  educational  institutions  in- 
clude a  Roman  Catholic  College,  the  Canadian 
Institute,  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  and  Athenae- 
um, etc.  Ottawa  has  important  and  increasing 
manufactures,  and  is  the  great  center  of  the 
lumber  trade.  It  is  connected  with  Hull,  on  the 
Quebec  side  of  the  Ottawa,  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  Ottawa  was  founded  in  1827  by  Colonel 
By,  and  until  1854  was  known  as  Bytown.  On 
April  26,  1900,  it,  with  Hull,  suffered  severely 
from  fire.     Population,  59,928. 

Ottawa,  a  river  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
forming  for  a  considerable  part  of  its  length  the 
boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Quebec  and 
Ontario.  It  rises  in  the  high  land  which  sepa- 
rates the  basin  of  Hudson's  Bay  from  that  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  after  a  course  of  some  750 
miles  discharges  into  the  St.  Lawrence  by  two 
mouths  forming  the  island  of  Montreal.  Six 
miles  above  the  city  of  Ottawa,  rapids  begin 
which  terminate  in  the  Chaudiere  Falls,  where 
the  river,  here  200  feet  wide,  takes  a  leap  of 
forty  feet.  Its  banks,  mostly  elevated,  offer 
magnificent  scenery.  Immense  quantities  of 
valuable  timber,  floated  down  the  Ottawa  from 
the  wooded  regions  of  the  interior  to  Ottawa 
city,  are  manufactured  into  lumber. 

Oxford,  a  city  and  county  borough  in 
England;  capital  of  Oxfordshire,  and  seat  of 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  universities  in  the 
world ;  about  fifty  miles  west-northwest  of  Lon- 
don, on  a  gentle  acclivity  between  the  Cherwell 
and  the  Thames,  here  called  the  Isis.  Of  the 
university  buildings,  the  most  remarkable  are 
Christ's  Church,  the  largest  and  grandest  of  all 
the  colleges,  with  a  fine  quadrangle  and  other 
buildings,  a  noble  avenue  of  trees  (the  Broad 
Walk),  the  cathedral  serving  as  its  chapel;  Mag- 
dalen College,  considered  to  be  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  complete  of  all;  Balliol  College,  with  a 
modern  front  (1867-1869),  and  a  modem  Gothic 
chapel;  Brasenose  College;  and  New  College 
(more  than  500  yeans  old),  largely  consisting  of 
the  odginal  buildings,  and  especially  noted  for 
its  gardens  and  cloisters ;  besides  the  Sheldonian 
Theater,  a  public  hall  of  the  university;  the 
new  examination  schools,  new  museum,  Bodleian 
Library,  Radcliffe  Library,  and  other  buildings 
belonging  to  the  university.  Oxford  depends 
mostly  on  the  university,  and  on  its  attractions 
as  a  place  of  residence.     Population,  49,413. 


552 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Pacific  Ocean,  the  largest  of  the  five 
great  oceans,  lying  between  America  on  the  east, 
and  Asia,  Malaysia,  and  Australasia  on  the  west. 
The  name  "Pacific,"  given  to  it  by  Magellan, 
the  first  European  navigator  who  traversed  its 
wide  expanse,  is  doubtless  very  appropriate  to 
certain  portions  of  this  ocean;  but,  as  a  whole 
its  special  claims  to  the  epithet  are,  at  the  least, 
doubtful,  though  the  name  has  by  long  usage 
become  too  well  established  to  be  easily  sup- 
planted by  any  other.  The  greatest  length  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  the  Arctic  (at  Behring 
Strait)  to  the  Antarctic  Circles  is  9,200  miles, 
and  its  greatest  width,  about  10,300  miles; 
while  its  area  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  about 
two-fifths  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  Its 
surface  is  studded  with  numerous  islands,  either 
scattered  or  in  groups.  The  deepest  sounding 
yet  found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  31,614  feet, 
or  about  six  miles  —  more  than  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  highest  mountain  on  the  globe. 
The  coasts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  present  a  general 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
similarity  in  the  outline  of  the  western  coasts  of 
each  is  'even  striking,  especially  north  of  the 
equator.  The  shore  on  the  American  side  is 
bold  and  rocky,  while  that  of  Asia  varies  much 
in  character.  Though  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  by 
far  the  largest  of  the  five  great  oceans,  the  pro- 
portion of  land  drained  into  it  is  comparatively 
insignificant.  Its  basin  includes  only  the  narrow 
strip  of  the  American  continent  to  the  west  of 
the  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains;  Melanesia; 
which  contains  few  rivers,  and  none  of  them  of 
large  size;  the  Indo-Chinese  states,  China 
proper,  with  the  eastern  part  of  Mongolia,  and 
Manchuria  in  the  Asiatic  continent. 

The  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  less 
marked  in  character  than  those  of  the  Atlantic. 
In  the  northern  trade  wind  belt  a  great  equa- 
torial current  sweeps  westward  until  at  the 
western  side  it  is  largely  deflected  northward 
to  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  where  it  flows 
north-eastward  as  the  Kuro  Shiwo,  or  Japan 
Current,  toward  North  America.  A  part  of  it 
subsequently  turns  southward  along  the  Ameri- 
can coast  until  it  joins  the  equatorial  current 
again;  thus  the  surface  drift  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Ocean  constitutes  a  great  eddy  revolving 
slowly  in  the  N.  E.  S.  W.  direction.  In  the 
Southern  Pacific  a  similiar  surface  drift  in  the 
opposite  direction,  namely,  N.  W.  S.  E.,  is  main- 
tained, though  not  as  well  defined,  because  of 
the  absence  of  the  circumscribing  continents. 
The  existence  of  this  ocean  first  became 
known  to  Europeans  through  Columbus,  who 
liad  received  accounts  of  it  from  some  of  the 
natives  of  America,  though  it  was  first  seen 
by  Balboa,  September  29,  1513,  and  first  trav- 
ersed by  Magellan  seven  years  afterward. 
Captain  Cook  deserves  the  first  place  among 
the  investigators  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Padua  ipdd'-u-d),  a  walled  city  of  Venetia, 
twenty-three  miles  by  rail  west  of  Venice,  has 
some  manufactures  of  leather  and  musical-in- 
strument strings,  but  is  chiefly  interesting  for 
its  artistic  treasures ;  these  include  the  municipal 
buildings,  cathedral,  and  nearly  fifty  churches, 
innumerable  pictures  and  frescoes,  and  Dona- 
tello's  famous  equestrian  statue  of  Gattamelata ; 


there  is  also  a  renowned  imiversity,  library, 
museum,  and  the  oldest  botanical  garden  in 
Europe;  it  was  held  by  Venice,  1405-1797, 
then  by  France  and  by  Austria  till  its  incor- 
poration in  Italy,  1866.  Livy  was  a  native, 
as  also  Andrea  Mantegna.     Population,  82,281. 

Palermo  (pd-lur'-mo),  a  handsome  city  of 
Sicily,  of  which  island  it  is  the  capital,  at  its 
northwest  extremity.  It  is  built  in  amphithe- 
atrical  form,  surrounded  by  mountains  on  three . 
sides,  and  contains  many  fine  churches,  and 
other  edifices.  Palermo  has  some  textile  and 
other  manufactures,  carries  on  an  active  foreign 
commerce,  and  is  largely  interested  in  the  tunny 
fishery.  The  Carthaginians  made  of  Palermo  a 
naval  station,  480  B.  C. ;  as  later  also  did  the 
Romans  after  taking  it  in  254  B.  C.  It  subse- 
quently passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  the 
Saracens,  and  the  Normans,  and  in  1282  it  was 
the  spot  where  occurred  the  massacre  known 
in  history  as  "The  Sicilian  vespers."  Between 
1806  and  1814,  it  was  the  seat  of  the  court,  owing 
to  the  occupation  of  Naples  by  the  French,  and 
in  May,  1860,  surrendered  to  the  liberating  army 
of  Garibaldi.     Population,  340,104. 

Palestine,  a  country  of  Southwestern 
Asia,  forming  the  southern  portion  of  Syria,  jn 
which  most  of  the  events  recorded  in  Scripture 
took  place.  It  stretches  from  Mount  Hermon 
to  the  Desert  of  Arabia,  and  is  bounded  by  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  west,  and  by  the  Syrian 
Desert  on  the  east.  The  deep  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan divides  the  country  from  north  to  south, 
the  surface  on  either  side  rising  into  elevated 
plains  with  alternate  hills  and  valleys.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  warm,  though  in  the  hilly 
districts  the  winters  are  often  severe,  and  snow 
sometimes  falls.  The  soil  may,  with  care,  be 
rendered  exceedingly  productive,  but  agriculture 
is  in  a  backward  condition.  In  the  time  of  the 
Romans  it  was  divided  into  four  tetrarchies  or 
presidencies,  viz:  Judaea,  Samaria,  Galilee,  and 
Peraea.  The  first  three  were  included  in  what 
was  considered  Palestine  proper;  the  last  em- 
braced the  territory  beyond  the  Jordan.  There 
was  also  a  fifth  division,  Idumsea,  part  of  which 
lay,  however,  out  of  the  borders  of  Palestine. 
In  the  Seventh  Century  this  country  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  afterwards  of 
the  Turks,  which  led  to  the  wars  called  the  Cru- 
sades. In  1099  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  taken, 
and  was,  under  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  made  the 
capital  of  a  Latin  kingdom,  which  lasted  for 
above  eighty  years.  In  1187  the  country  was 
reconquered  by  Saladin,  and  in  1291  the  Cru- 
saders were  finally  expelled.  From  this  time  it 
continued  subject  to  the  sovereigns  of  Egypt, 
until  the  conquest  of  both  Syria  and  Egypt  by 
Selim  I.,  in  1517,  when  they  were  brought  under 
the  Turkish  sway.  The  country  is  now  a  portion 
of  the  Turkish  Empire.  It  is  divided  into  va- 
rious pashalics,  the  greater  part  being  compre- 
hended within  the  pashalic  of  Damascus.  Of 
late  years  the  country  has  been  carefully  sur- 
veyed, many  hitherto  doubtful  sites  have  been 
settled,  several  geographical  problems  have 
been  solved,  and  much  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  history  of  the  country,  especially 
as  it  is  contained  in  the  Bible  records.  The 
area    of    the    country   is    about    9,000  square 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


553 


miles ;  its  population  is  about  650,000,  and 
comprises  Syrians,  Turks,  Arabs,  and  about  10,- 
000  Jews,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  found  in  the 
sacred  cities  of  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Tiberias,  and 
Safed. 

Panama,  capital  of  the  republic  of  Panama, 
capital  of  the  department  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Panama  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  city  lies  on  a 
tongue  of  land,  across  which  its  streets  stretch 
from  sea  to  sea.  The  harbor  is  shallow,  but  af- 
fords secure  anchorage.  Panama  is  chiefly  im- 
portant as  the  terminus  of  the  interoceanic  rail- 
way, and  also  of  the  proposed  Panama  Canal. 
The  railway,  which  has  been  in  operation  since 
1855,  runs  across  the  isthmus  from  Panama  to 
Colon  or  Aspinwall  on  the  Atlantic,  and  accom- 
modates a  large  traffic.     Population,  30,000. 

Panama,  Republic  of.  Was  formerly 
a  department  of  the  Republic  of  Columbia,  and 
asserted  its  independence  on  November  4,  1903, 
and  the  government  was  established  on  Novem- 
ber 13th.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  480  miles, 
and  its  breadth  varies  between  thirty-seven 
and  110  miles.  The  total  area  is  33,800  square 
miles,  and  the  population  about  400,000.  The 
inhabitants  are  of  a  mixed  race,  comprising 
Spanish,  Indian,  and  Negro  elements,  with  a 
small  number  of  temporary  immigrants  from 
the  United  States  and  Germany,  and  other 
European  countries.  Chinese  laborers  are  esti- 
mated at  2,000.  The  Indian  element  prepon- 
derates in  the  Cordillera  region  and  towards  the 
west,  while  there  are  about  40,000  negroes  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  inland,  especially  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  railway.  Agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding  are  the  leading  industries,  but 
the  climate  is  generally  unhealthy.  The  soil  of 
Panama  is  of  great  fertility,  and  the  climate 
induces  luxuriant  growth  of  tropical  vegetation. 
But  of  the  whole  area  about  five-eighths  are  un- 
occupied, and  of  the  remainder  only  a  small 
part  is  properly  cultivated.     The  most  important 

f)roduct  is  the  banana,  which  grows  freely  on  the 
ands  adjacent  to  the  Chiriqui  Lagoon.  In  this 
neighborhood  the  United  Fruit  Company  (a 
United  States  company)  has  large  plantations 
and  exports  annually  from  Bocas  del  Toro  about 
two  and  one-half  million  bunches  of  bananas, 
worth  about  $700,000.  Caoutchouc  is  collected 
by  the  Indians  of  the  Cordillera,  or  is  obtained 
from  trees  planted  by  Europeans  near  the  coast. 
Coffee  is  grown  in  the  province  of  Chiriqui,  near 
the  Costa  Rican  frontier.  In  the  province  of 
Cocl6  (Atlantic  coast)  there  is  one  large  agri- 
cultural undertaking,  begun  in  1894,  with  Ger- 
man capital.  Here  about  75,000  cocoa  trees, 
50,000  coffee  bushes,  and  25,000  caoutchouc 
trees  have  been  planted,  and  are  now  beginning 
to  yield  returns.  Other  products  of  the  soil  of 
Panama  are  cocoanuts,  mahogany,  and  other 
woods,  copaiba,  sarsaparilla,  and  ipecacuanha. 
Cattle  rearing  is  carried  on  successfully  in  the 
provinces  of  Chiriqui,  Los  Santos,  Code,  and 
Veraguas,  and  hides  form  an  important  article 
of  export.  Pearl  fishing  is  carried  on  at  the 
Pearl  Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  and  at  Coiba 
Island  to  the  west.  Turtle-shell  is  also  exported 
to  a  considerable  amount.  For  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mineral  resources  of  Panama  little 


has  been  done,  but  there  are  two  mining  com- 
panies now  at  work,  on  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
coasts. 

On  November  18,  1903,  a  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Panama  was  signed,  provid- 
ing for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the 
Inter-Oceanic  Canal.  In  this  treaty,  Panama 
granted  in  perpetuity  the  use  of  a  zone  five  miles 
wide  on  each  side  of  the  canal  route,  and  within 
this  zone  the  exclusive  control  for  police,  judicial, 
sanitary,  and  other  purposes.  For  sub-city  area 
canals  other  territory  was  conceded,  and  for  the 
defense  of  the  canal,  the  coast  line  of  the  zone 
and  the  islands  in  Panama  Bay  were  also  con- 
ceded. The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  remain 
under  the  authority  of  the  new  State,  but  com- 
plete jurisdiction  was  granted  to  the  United 
States  in  both  the  cities,  and  in  their  harbors  in 
all  that  relates  to  sanitation  and  quarantine. 
In  return  for  these  grants  the  United  States 
paid  $10,000,000  on  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty,  and  will  pay  $250,000  yearly,  beginning 
after  nine  years.  This  treaty  was  ratified  on  Feb- 
ruary 23,  1904,  and  in  July,  1904,  the  provisional 
delimitation  of  the  boundaries  of  the  United 
States  territory  on  the  isthmus  was  signed. 

Panama  Canal.  Under  the  superin- 
tendence of  M.  de  Lesseps,  a  company  was 
formed  in  1881  for  the  construction  of  a  ship 
canal,  forty-six  miles  in  length,  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  mainly  following  the  line  of  the 
railway.  The  capital  received  up  to  June  30, 
1886,  amounted  to  772,545,412  francs;  and  it 
was  expected  that  before  the  undertaking  was 
completed  this  would  have  to  be  nearly  doubled. 
The  company,  being  unable  to  proceed,  was 
compelled  to  go  into  liquidation,  and  suspend 
payment  and  all  operations  on  the  canal  (from 
March  15,  1889).  in  March,  1893,  a  further  ex- 
tension was  granted  for  the  organization  of  a 
new  company  to  take  over  the  business;  in  1894 
a  new  company  was  formed,  which  obtained  a 
concession  for  ten  years,  extended  in  1900  by 
six  years,  so  as  to  terminate  in  April,  1910.  By 
that  time  the  canal,  according  to  the  annual 
report  of  1899,  might  be  completed  at  a  cost  of 
512,000,000  francs  ($100,000,000).  On  January 
4,  1902,  the  board  of  the  company  offered  to  sell 
to  the  United  States  all  their  rights  and  property. 
In  view  of  this  offer  the  United  States  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  recommended  the  Panama 
route,  and  on  January  22,  1903,  a  treaty  was 
signed  whereby  the  United  States  would  have 
obtained  a  lease  of  the  necessary  strip  of  land 
for  100  years,  renewable  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
United  States,  but  this  treaty  was  in  August, 
1903,  rejected  by  the  Colombian  Congress.  A 
canal  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Panama  was  signed  on  November  18,  1903. 
This  treaty  is  closely  associated  with  the  separate 
existence  of  the  Panama  Republic,  and  its  gen- 
eral terms  are  given  above,  under  the  head  of 
Republic  of  Panama.  The  treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  signed 
November  18th,  and  ratified  by  the  United  States 
Senate  December  16,  1901,  provides  for  the 
neutralization  of  the  inter-oceanic  canal  by 
whatever  route  it  may  be  constructed,  and  for 
its  use  on  equal  terms  by  vessels  of  all  nations. 
In  June,   1906,  it  was  decided  that  the  canal 


664 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


should  be  of  the  lock  type.  Seven  years  is  the 
period  estimated  for  the  completion  of  the 
Culebra  section  of  the  canal,  and  eight  years  for 
the  construction  of  the  dam  and  locks  at  Gatun. 

Pantheon,  The  (pan'-ihe-on),  Rome,  mid- 
way between  the  Corso  and  Piazza  Navona. 
The  Pantheon  was  erected  by  Agrippa,  son-in- 
law  of  Augustus,  B.  C.  27.  There  has  been  much 
discussion  as  to  the  original  purpose  of  the  build- 
ing, but  the  name  Pantheon  was  in  use  as  early 
as  A.  D.  59.  In  399  it  was  closed  as  a  temple 
by  decree  of  Honorius,  and  in  608  it  was  conse- 
crated as  a  Christian  Church,  to  which  latter 
fact  its  preservation  is  doubtless  due.  The 
Pantheon  is  the  only  building  of  Ancient  Rome 
not  now  in  ruins;  excavations  and  removals 
are  in  progress  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  its  con- 
nection with  the  other  ancient  structures. 

In  645,  Emperor  Constans  II.  carried  away 
the  gilt  bronze  tiling  of  its  roof;  and  Urban  VIII. 
plundered  it  of  450,000  pounds  of  bronze  for  the 
baldacchino  of  St.  Peter's,  and  for  cannons  for 
St.  Angelo;  adding,  by  way  of  compensation, 
the  two  impertinent  campaniles,  appreciatively 
called  "ass's  ears";  and  finally,  Benedict  XIV. 
pillaged  it  of  the  marbles  lining  the  attic.  Not- 
withstanding all  of  which  it  is  to-day  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  structures  of  Rome.  Within  the 
wall,  directly  opposite  the  entrance,  is  the  tomb 
of  Victor  Emmanuel.  Around  the  sides  are  seven 
recesses,  which  formerly  contained  statues  of 
the  gods,  Jupiter  being  in  the  center;  between 
these  are  eight  aediculse,  in  which  are  modern 
altars.  Among  the  artists  entombed  in  the 
Pantheon  are  Raphael,  An.  Carracci,  Taddeo 
Zuccaro,  and  Peruzzi.  Raphael's  tomb  is  be- 
hind the  third  chapel  to  the  left.  On  either  side 
of  Raphael  are  buried  Carracci  and  Zuccaro. 

Papal  States,  the  name  given  to  that 
portion  of  Central  Italy  of  which  the  pope  was 
sovereign  by  virtue  of  his  position.  The  ter- 
ritory extended  irregularly  from  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  latterly  comprised 
an  area  of  15,289  square  miles,  with  3,126,000 
inhabitants.  Rome  was  the  capital.  The 
foundation  of  the  Papal  States  was  laid  in  754, 
when  Pepin  le  Bref  presented  the  exarchate  of 
Ravenna  to  Stephen  II.,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Be- 
nevento  was  added  in  1053,  and  in  1102  Matilda 
of  Tuscany  left  Parma,  Modena,  and  Tuscany 
to  the  pope.  In  1201  the  Papal  States  were 
formally  constituted  an  independent  monarchy. 
Subsequently  various  territories  were  added  to 
or  subtracted  from  the  pope's  possessions,  which 
were  incorporated  with  France  by  Napoleon  in 
1809,  but  restored  to  the  pope  in  1814.  A  revo- 
lution broke  out  in  Rome  in  1848,  and  the  pope 
fled  to  Gaeta,  but  he  was  reinstated  by  French 
troops,  and  Rome  was  garrisoned  by  French 
soldiers  until  1870.  In  the  meantime  one  state 
after  another  threw  off  its  allegiance  to  the  pope 
and  joined  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  when  the 
French  left  Rome  in  August,  1870,  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  took  possession  of  the  city,  declared 
it  the  capital  of  Italy,  and  thus  abolished  the 
temporal  power  of  the  pope. 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France  and  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Seine.  The  city  lies  in  the  Seine 
valley,  surrounded  by  height's,  those  on  the 
north  being  Charonne  La  Villette,  the  Buttes- 


Chaumout,  and  Montmartre,  those  on  the  south, 
St.  Genevieve,  Montrouge,  and  the  Butte-aux- 
Cailles.  Through  the  valleys  between  these 
heights  the  river  runs  from  east  to  west,  inclos- 
ing two  islands,  upon  which  part  of  the  city  is 
built.  It  is  navigable  by  small  steamers.  The 
quays  or  embankments,  which  extend  along  the 
Seine  on  both  sides,  being  built  of  solid  masonry, 
protect  the  city  from  inundation,  and  form  ex- 
cellent promenades.  The  river,  which  within 
the  city  is  fully  530  feet  in  width,  is  crossed  by 
numerous  bridges,  the  more  important  being 
Pont  Neuf,  Pont  des  Arts,  Pont  du  Carrousel, 
Pont  Royal,  Pont  de  I'Alma,  etc.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  a  line  of  fortifications,  which 
measures  twenty-two  miles;  outside  of  this  is 
the  enceinte,  while  beyond  that  again  are  the 
detached  forts.  These  now  form  two  main  lines 
of  defense.  The  inner  line  consists  of  sixteen 
forts,  the  outer  line  of  eighteen  forts,  besides 
redoubts.  In  the  older  parts  of  the  city  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  but  in  the 
newer  districts  the  avenues  are  straight,  wide, 
and  well-paved.  What  are  known  as  "  the  boule- 
vards" include  the  interior,  exterior,  and  mili- 
tary. That  which  is  specifically  called  "The 
Boulevard  "  extends,  in  an  irregular  arc  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Seine,  from  the  Place  de  la 
Bastille  in  the  east  to  the  Place  de  la  Madeleine 
in  the  west.  It  includes  the  Boulevards  du 
Temple,  St.  Martin,  St.  Denis,  des  Italiens, 
Capuchins,  Madeleine,  etc.,  and  its  length  of 
nearly  three  miles  forms  the  most  stirring  part 
of  the  city.  Here  may  be  noted  also  the  mag- 
nificent triumphal  arches  of  Porte  St.  Denis  and 
Porte  St.  Martin,  the  former  of  which  is  seventy- 
two  feet  in  height.  On  the  south  side  of  the 
Seine  the  boulevards  are  neither  so  numerous 
nor  so  extensive.  Among  the  many  public 
squares  or  places,  is  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  elegant  squares  in 
Europe,  surrounded  by  fine  buildings,  and 
adorned  by  an  Egyptian  obelisk,  fountains,  and 
statues.  But  the  most  extensive  parks  are  out- 
side the  city.  Of  these  the  Bois  de  Boulogne, 
on  the  west,  covers  an  area  of  2,150  acres,  gives 
an  extensive  view  toward  St.  Cloud  and  Mount 
Valerien,  comprises  the  race  courses  of  Long- 
champs  and  Auteuil,  and  in  it  are  situated  lakes, 
an  aquarium,  conservatories,  etc.  The  Bois  de 
Vincennes,  on  the  east,  even  larger,  is  similarly 
adorned  with  artificial  lakes  and  streams,  and 
its  high  plateau  offers  a  fine  view  over  the  sur- 
rounding country.  Of  the  churches  of  Paris  the 
most  celebrated  is  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
situated  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Seine,  called 
the  lie  de  la  Cit6.  It  is  a  vast  cruciform  struc- 
ture, with  a  lofty  west  front,  flanked  by  two 
square  towers,  the  walls  sustained  by  many  fly- 
ing buttresses,  and  the  east  end  octagonal.  The 
whole  length  of  the  church  is  426  feet,  its  breadth 
164  feet.  The  foundation  of  Notre  Dame  be- 
longs to  the  Sixth  Century;  the  present  edifice 
dates  from  1163;  but  was  restored  in  1845. 
The  interior  decorations  are  all  modern.  Saint 
Chapelle  is  said  to  be  the  finest  Gothic  master- 
piece extant.  The  Pantheon,  originally  meant 
for  a  church,  is  the  burial-place  of  the  great  rnen 
of  the  country,  where  lie  the  remains  of  Voltaire, 
Rousseau,  and  Camot.     Notable  among  the  pub- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


555 


lie  buildings  of  Paris  are  its  palaces.  The 
Louvre,  a  great  series  of  buildings  within  which 
are  two  large  courts,  is  now  devoted  to  a  museum 
which  comprises  splendid  collections  of  sculpture, 
paintings,  engravings,  bronzes,  pottery,  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  antiquities,  etc. ;  the  palace 
of  the  Tuileries,  the  Palais  du  Luxembourg,  the 
Palais  Royal,  the  Palais  de  I'Elysfee,  and  many 
others.  A  notable  and  unique  structure  is  the 
Eiffel  Tower,  built  in  connection  with  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1900,  and  which  is  to  have  a 
permanent  existence.  It  is  a  structure  of  iron 
lattice-work,  984  feet  high,  and  having  three 
stages  or  platforms.  It  is  as  yet  the  highest 
building  in  the  world.  The  University  Schools 
in  the  Quartier  Latin  attract  the  youth  of  all 
France;  the  chief  are  the  Schools  of  Medicine 
and  Law,  the  Scotch  College,  the  College  of 
France,  and  the  Sorbonne,  the  seat  of  the  faculties 
of  letters,  science,  and  Protestant  theology. 

The  first  appearance  of  Paris  in  history  is  on 
the  occasion  of  Csesar's  conquest  of  Gaul,  when 
the  small  tribe  of  the  Parish  were  found  inhabit- 
ing the  banks  of  the  Seine,  and  occupying  the 
island  now  called  He  de  la  Cite.  It  was  a  fortified 
town  in  360  A.  D.,  when  the  soldiers  of  Julian 
here  summoned  him  to  fill  the  imperial  throne. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  Fifth  Century  it  suffered 
much  from  the  northern  hordes,  and  ultimately 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  headed  by 
Clovis,  who  made  it  his  capital  in  508.  In  987  a 
new  dynasty  was  established  in  the  person  of 
Hugh  Capet,  from  whose  reign  downward  Paris 
has  continued  to  be  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
France.  In  1437  and  1438,  under  Charles  VII., 
Paris  was  ravaged  by  pestilence  and  famine. 
Under  Louis  XI.  a  course  of  prosperity  again 
commenced.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the 
Paris  walls  were  levelled  to  the  ground  after 
having  stood  for  about  300  years,  and  what  are 
now  the  principal  boulevards  were  formed  on 
their  site  (1670).  Only  the  Bastille  was  left  (till 
1789),  and  in  place  of  the  four  principal  gates  of 
the  old  walls,  four  triumphal  arches  were  erected, 
two  of  which,  the  Porte  St.  Denis  and  Porte  St. 
Martin,  still  stand.  Many  of  the  finest  edifices 
of  Paris  were  destroyed  during  the  Revolution, 
but  the  work  of  embellishment  was  resumed  by 
the  Directory,  and  continued  by  all  subsequent 
governments.  The  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  is 
specially  noteworthy  in  this  respect;  during  it 
Paris  was  opened  up  by  spacious  streets  and 
beautified  to  an  extent  surpassing  all  that  had 
hitherto  been  effected  by  any  of  his  predecessors. 
The  most  recent  events  in  the  history  of  Paris 
are  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Germans  in  the 
war  of  1870-1871,  and  the  subsequent  siege  car- 
ried on  by  the  French  national  government  in 
order  to  wrest  the  city  from  the  hands  of  the 
Commune.  Paris  has  been  the  scene  of  inter- 
national exhibitions  in  the  years  1855,  1867, 
1878,  1889,  and  1900.  Population,  2,763,393. 
•  Parthenon,  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Athena  (Minerva)  at  Athens,  erected  under 
the  superintendence  of  Phidias,  during  the  ad- 
ministration of  Pericles,  about  440  B.  C.  The 
Parthenon  was  227  feet  long  by  101  feet  broad, 
and  sixty-five  feet  high ;  and  it  was  built  entirely 
of  Pentelic  marble,  in  the  purest  style  of  Doric 
architecture.     In  1687,  during  a  siege  of  Athens 


by  the  Venetians,  a  bomb  exploded  in  the  verv 
center  of  the  building,  and  threw  down  much 
of  both  the  side  walls.  The  ruins  are  still,  how- 
ever, in  sufficient  preservation  to  give  a  good 
idea  of  the  ancient  structure.  A  large  number 
of  fragments  of  the  Parthenon  were  taken  to 
England  by  Lord  Elgin  in  1812,  and  are  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum.  A  model  of  the 
Parthenon,  still  unfinished,  stands  on  the  Calton 
Hill,  in  the  city  of  Edinburgh.  It  was  founded 
in  1822  as  a  national  monument,  intended  to 
commemorate  the  Scotchmen  who  had  fallen 
in  the  wars  consequent  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion; but  after  £13,000  had  been  expended, 
the  design  was  not  prosecuted  further. 

Patagonia,  the  name  applied  to  that  ex- 
treme portion  of  South  America  which  is  bounded 
east  by  the  Atlantic,  west  by  the  Pacific,  south 
by  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  north  by  the  Rio 
Negro.  Since  1881  this  large  territory  has  been, 
by  treaty,  divided  between  Chile  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  so  that  the  portion  west  of  the 
Andes  (63,000  square  miles)  belongs  now  to  the 
former,  and  the  portion  east  of  the  Andes  (360,- 
000)  belongs  to  the  latter.  The  Straits  of  Ma- 
gellan form  a  southern  boundary  of  360  miles, 
and  separate  the  mainland  from  the  numerous 
islands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Here  the  Chilean 
Government  has  established  the  settlement  of 
Punta  Arenas,  with  stations  along  the  coast. 
Patagonia,  east  of  the  Andes,  consists  mainly  of 
vast  undulating  plains,  frequently  covered  with 
shingle  and  broken  up  by  ridges  of  volcanic  rock. 
The  vegetation  is  scanty,  except  in  the  region 
adjoining  the  Andes,  and  in  many  places  there 
are  shallow  salt  lakes  and  lagoons.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Chupat,  the  Rio 
Desire,  and  the  Rio  Chico,  all  of  which  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes,  and  run  east.  There  are 
few,  if  any,  good  seaports.  The  Pantagonians 
are  a  tall,  muscular  race,  averaging  fully  six  feet 
in  height,  with  black  hair,  thick  lips,  and  skin  of 
a  dark  brown  color.  They  are  a  nomad  race, 
divided  into  numerous  tribes,  whose  chief  occu- 
pation is  in  hunting  and  cattle  breeding.  This 
native  population  is  rapidly  disappearing.  Col- 
onization is  encouraged  by  the  Argentine  Gov- 
ernment, and  there  are  many  tracts  suitable  for 
European  settlement.  The  country  was  first 
discovered  by  Magellan  in  1520. 

Peking,  or  Pelcin,  the  capital  of  the 
Chinese  Empire,  Province  of  Chihle,  or  Pechili, 
in  a  vast  sandy  plain,  between  the  Pei-ho  and 
its  important  affluent,  the  Hoang-ho,  562  miles 
northwest  of  Nankin,  and  100  miles  west-north- 
west of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  the  Yellow  Sea. 
It  consists  of  two  contiguous  cities,  each  sepa- 
rately surrounded  by  walls,  and  together  entered 
by  sixteen  gates.  The  entire  circumference  is 
twenty-five  miles.  The  northern  city,  which  is 
nearly  a  perfect  square,  consists  of  three  enclo- 
sures. The  outer  one  is  used  by  Chinese  traders. 
The  second  enclosure  contains  the  residences  of 
the  dignitaries  of  the  empire  and  foreign  lega- 
tions, the  national  literary  institutions,  and  the 
temples  of  Ancestors  and  Peace,  and  is  inhabited 
mostly  by  the  Manchus.  The  inner  enclosure, 
or  "forbidden  city,"  surrounded  by  walls  of 
yellow  tiles,  two  miles  in  circumference,  hence 
called  the  "Yellow  Wall,"  contains  the  palaces 


556 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


of  the  emperor  and  empress.  The  southern 
city,  called  the  Wai-ching,  or  "outer  city,"  is 
also  square,  and  occupied  by  the  Chinese,  and  is 
both  the  seat  of  business  an;i  the  residence  of 
most  of  the  population.  The  wall  is  thirty  feet 
high,  twenty-five  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and 
twelve  feet  at  the  top.  That  of  the  imperial 
city  is  forty  feet  high.  *  The  principal  streets 
are  very  wide  and  regular,  running  between  op- 
posite gates.  The  houses  are  generally  one  story 
high,  and  built  of  brick.  Of  the  ornamental 
buildings,  the  most  conspicuous  are  those  com- 
monly called  triumphal  arches.  They  consist 
of  a  large  central  gateway,  with  small  ones  on 
each  side,  all  covered  with  narrow  roofs,  and, 
like  the  houses,  are  splendidly  gilded,  varnished, 
and  painted.  Peking  is  indebted  for  its  impor- 
tance to  its  being  the  residence  of  the  emperor 
and  the  seat  of  government.  The  country  round 
the  city  being  sandy  and  poor,  a  large  portion 
of  its  supplies  are  brought  from  a  distance  — 
partly  from  sea  by  the  Pei-ho,  but  principally 
by  the  Grand  Canal  and  the  Eu-ho,  which  con- 
nect it  with  Nankin,  and  m«st  of  the  eastern 
provinces.  The  early  history  of  Peking  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity.  Kublai  Khan  rebuilt  it, 
and  made  it  his  capital  in  1260.  The  Mongol 
dynasty,  founded  by  Kublai  Khan,  continued 
to  occupy  this  city  till  it  was  expelled  from 
China,  in  1367.  In  1421,  the  third  emperor  of 
the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Ming  transferred  his  resi- 
dence thither  from  Nankin,  since  which  it  has 
been  the  capital  of  the  empire.  During  the 
"Boxer"  uprising  of  1900  the  various  foreigners 
in  Peking  were  beseiged  in  the  English  legation. 
For  weeks  they  were  given  up  as  lost,  but  they 
managed  to  hold  out  till  the  arrival  of  the  for- 
eign troops.     Population  (about),  700,000. 

Pelee,  Mont,  an  active  volcano  situated 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  island  of  Mar- 
tinique in  the  West  Indies.  Previous  to  the 
terrible  eruption  of  1902,  the  elevation  of  the 
mountain  was  about  4,300  feet.  The  only 
eruptions  of  Mont  Pel^e  previously  recorded 
are  those  of  1762  and  1851.  Prior  to  the  erup- 
tion of  1902,  a  small  lake  occupied  the  flattened 
summit  of  the  volcano,  and  was  surrounded 
by  beautiful  and  rank  vegetation.  The  crater 
opened  on  April  25th,  and  for  the  several  days 
ensuing  the  volcano  gave  warning  of  the  im- 
pending outbreak.  On  May  8th  the  volcano 
threw  up  a  tremendous  column  of  explosive 
and  exploded  superheated  steam,  ashes,  and 
glowing  blocks,  fully  1,500  feet  in  diameter, 
the  initial  velocity  of  which  was  computed 
at  100  miles  an  hour.  The  city  of  St.  Pierre 
and  its  thirty  thousand  people  were  wiped  out 
instantly.  Only  two  inhabitants  of  the  city 
proper  seem  to  have  survived.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  was  the  great  mass  of  rock, 
300  feet  wide,  a  veritable  obelisk,  pushed  up- 
ward 800  feet  from  the  new  crater.  This  has 
since  been  greatly  reduced  by  disruption. 
Another  eruption  on  August  30,  1902,  destroyed 
about  2,500  people.  The  great  eruption  was 
extraordinary  in  its  wide  disturbance  of  the 
magnetic  field,  which  was  transmitted  to  the 
antipodal  region  of  the  earth  in  two  minutes' 
time.  The  noise  was  heard  at  a  distance  of 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 


Peloponnesus,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
peninsula  which  forms  the  southern  part  of 
Greece,  now  called  the  "Morea."  It  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  Pelops,  a  son  of 
Tantalus,  King  of  Phrygia,  and  grandson  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter),  who  was  celebrated  in  Greek 
fable,  and  by  whom  the  country  was  said  to 
have  been  settled  about  1280  B.  C.  The  "Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,"  between  the  Athenians  and  the 
people  of  the  Peloponnesus  (431-404  B.  C.)  is 
the  most  famous  of  the  wars  of  Greece.  The 
area  of  the  peninsula  is  8,263  square  miles,  and 
its  population  about  1,500,000,  divided  among 
the  five  provinces,  or  nomarchies,  of  Argolis 
and  Corinth,  Achaia  and  Elis,  Arcadia,  Mes- 
senia,  and  Laconia. 

Persia  (native  name  Iran),  the  most  exten-  ■ 
sive,  opulent,  and  powerful  kingdom  of  Western 
Asia,  is  bounded  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea, 
Asi9,tic  Russia  and  Turkestan,  east  by  Afghan- 
istan and  Beloochistan,  south  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  west  by  the  Turkish  territories. 
Length  from  north  to  south,  about  700  miles; 
breadth,  900  miles.  The  surface  of  Persia  is  for 
the  greater  part  a  vast  plateau,  broken  in  upon 
in  the  north  by  the  Elburz  Mountains,  and  in  the 
west  and  south  by  various  isolated  ranges.  In 
the  more  east  and  northeast  parts  are  found  the 
Great  Salt  Desert,  and  that  of  Luth.  Persia  is 
drained  by  the  Aras,  Kerkhas,  etc.,  but  has 
scarcely  a  river  that  can  be  termed  navigable, 
though  some  of  them  extend  several  hundred 
miles  in  length,  and  possess  great  volumes  of 
water.  Some  of  its  immense  valleys  abound 
with  vegetable  productions;  among  them  are 
wheat  of  the  very  best  quality,  barley,  and  other 
cereals;  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and  tobacco.  The 
vine  flourishes  in  many  of  the  provinces,  and  the 
wines  of  Shiraz  are  celebrated.  The  mulberry 
tree  is  largely  cultivated,  silk  being  one  of  the 
most  important  staples  of  the  country.  The 
chief  manufacture  is  that  of  silk  stuffs,  of  the 
richest  kinds,  textile  goods,  arms,  carpets,  shawls 
etc.  Persian  commerce  is  very  extensive,  and 
chiefly  carried  on  with  Russia  via  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  with  British  India  by  way  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf. 

Philadelphia,  is  coextensive  with  Phila- 
delphia County,  Pa.,  and  is  situated  on  the 
Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers,  eighty-five  miles 
southwest  of  New  York.  It  is  the  largest  city 
of  Pennsylvania  and  the  third  largest  in  the 
United  States.  The  city  is  built  chiefly  on  a 
low  peninsula  between  the  two  rivers.  There 
is  a  water  frontage  on  the  Delaware  River  of 
over  sixteen  miles,  of  which  more  than  five  miles 
have  docks.  The  harbor  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved by  the  removal  of  the  islands  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  river,  and  in  front  of  the  wharves 
there  is  an  average  depth  of  fifty  feet.  Among 
the  attractions  of  the  city  is  Fairmount  Park, 
one  of  the  largest  public  parks  in  the  world, 
extending  more  than  seven  miles  on  both  bank» 
of  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  more  than  six  miles 
on  both  banks  of  Wissahickon  Creek,  giving  it 
an  area  of  over  3,000  acres.  In  1876,  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  was  held  here.  Memorial 
Hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000,  which  was 
used  for  the  art  gallery  of  the  Exposition,  now 
contains  a  permanent  industrial  and  art  coUec- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


557 


tion.  Here  also  is  the  Horticultural  Building 
filled  with  tropical  and  other  plants  and  sur- 
rounded by  thirty-five  acres  of  ground  devoted 
to  horticulture.  In  the  heart  of  the  city,  at 
Market  and  Broad  streets,  stands  the  City  Hall, 
on  a  piece  of  ground  which  was  formerly  Penn 
Square.  This  great  structure,  usually^  called 
the  Public  Building,  is  said  to  be  th^  largest 
building  in  the  United  States.  It  is  ouilt  of 
white  marble  and  granite.  The  central  towj 
rises  to  a  height  of  547  feet,  eleven  and  tHree 
quarters  inches,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cdlossaljn 
statue  of  William  Penn,  thirty-seven  f^et  high.T/ti 


■h.^^tivatg^  lowlands,   2,500,000  being  con 
The  total  cost  of  the  building  was  over  $20,000,-  ^RtJffian  Catholicism,  and  a  considerable  number, 
000.     In  addition  to  these,  its  chief  public  build^  especially  of  the  Bisayers,  Mohammedan.     The 


ings  comprise  Girard  College,  United  States  Mint, 
customhouse,  exchange,  chamber  of  commerce, 
post-ofhce,  etc.  The  State  house  contains  the 
so-called  Independence  Hall,  a  chamber  in 
which  sat  the  Congress  which  issued  the  Ameri- 
can Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776.  The 
Academy  of  Music,  union  league  clubhouse, 
newspaper  buildings  and  Masonic  Temple,  are 
imposing  structures.  In  "manufactures,  Phila- 
delphia ranks  third  in  the  United  States.  The 
chief  products  are  locomotives,  sugar,  molasses, 
men's  clothing,  foundry  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, carpets  and  rugs,  hosiery  and  knit  goods, 
woolen  and  cotton  goods,  malt  liquors,  morocco, 
chemicals,  packed  meat,  refined  petroleum,  silk, 
and  silk  goods.  The  great  Cramp  shipbuilding 
yards  are  on  the  Delaware,  just  west  of  the  heart 
of  the  city.  The  institutions  for  higher  educa- 
tion include  the  William  Penn  Charter  School, 
founded  in  1689;  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, several  well-known  medical  colleges,  and 
many  others.     Population,  1,549,008. 

Philippine  Islands  lie  north  of  Borneo 
and  Celebes.  They  are  3,141  in  number, 
with  an  area  of  about  127,800  square  miles. 
Luzon,  which  is  the  largest,  in  the  north,  has 
an  area  of  51,300  square  miles,  and  Mindanao, 
or  Magindanao,  in  the  south,  fully  25,000.  To 
the  southwest  of  the  Bissayas  lies  the  long, 
narrow  island  of  Paragoa,  or  Palawan,  formed 
of  a  mountain-chain  with  low  coast-lines,  cut 
with  numerous  streams,  and  exceedingly  fertile. 
The  forests  abound  in  ebony,  logwood,  gum- 
trees,  and  bamboos.  To  the  north  of  Luzon 
lie  the  Batanen,  Bashee,  and  Babuyan  Islands, 
the  first  two  groups  having  about  8,000  inhabi- 
tants, the  last  unpeopled.  The  Sulu  Islands 
form  a  long  chain  from  Mindanao  to  Borneo, 
having  the  same  mountainous  and  volcanic 
structure  as  the  Philippine  Islands,  and"  all 
are  probably  fragments  of  a  submerged  con- 
tinent. Immense  forests  spread  over  the  Phi- 
lippine Islands,  clothing  the  mountains  to 
their  summits;  ebony,  iron- wood,  cedar,  sapan- 
wood,  gum-trees,  etc.,  being  laced  together  and 
garlanded  by  the  bush-rope  or  palasan,  which 
attains  a  length  of  several  hundred  feet.  The 
variety  of  fruit-trees  is  great,  including  the 
orange,  citron,  bread-fruit,  mango,  cocoa-nut, 
guava,  tamarind,  rose-apple,  etc. ;  other  im- 
portant products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  being 
the  banana,  plantain,  pineapple,  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  coffee,  cocoa,  cinnamon, 
vanilla,   cassia,  the   areca    nut,  ginger,    pepper 


cereals.  Gold  is  found  in  riverbeds  and  detrital 
deposits,  being  used,  in  form  of  dust,  as  the 
medium  of  exchange  in  Mindanao.  Iron  is 
plentiful,  and  fine  coal  beds,  from  one  to  four 
feet  thick,  have  been  found.  Copper  has  long 
been  worked  in  Luzon.  There  are  also  limestone, 
a  fine  variegated  marble,  sulphur  in  unlimited 
quantity,  quicksilver,  vermilion,  and  saltpeter 
Iphur  being  found  both  native  and  in 
combination  with  copper,  arsenic,  and  iron. 
The  Tagals  and  Bisayers  are  the  most  numerous 
ative  races.     They  dwell  in  the  cities  and  cul- 

converts   to 


mountain  districts  are  inhabited  by  a  negro  race, 
who,  in  features,  stature,  and  savage  mode  of 
living,  closely  resemble  the  Alfoors  of  the  inte- 
rior of  Papua,  and  are  probably  the  aborigines 
driven  before  the  inroads  of  the  Malays.  A  few 
of  the  negroes  are  Christians,  but  they  are 
chiefly  idolaters,  or  without  any  manifest  form 
of  religion,  and  roaming  about  in  families  with- 
out fixed  dwelling.  The  Mestizos  form  an  influ- 
ential part  of  the  population ;  by  their  activity 
engrossing  the  greatest  share  of  the  trade.  These 
are  mostly  of  Chinese  fathers  and  native  mothers. 
Few  Spaniards  reside  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  Sulu  Islands  have  a  population  of  150,000, 
and  are  governed  by  a  sultan,  whose  capital  is 
Sung. 

Phoenicia  ife-nish'yd),  the  name  given  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  fertile  province  of 
Syria,  on  the  western  declivity  of  Lebanon,  and 
bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean.  Its  limits 
varied  at  different  times;  generally  it  was  in- 
cluded within  two  degrees  of  latitude,  and  was 
of  narrow  breadth.  Its  inhabitants  were  enter- 
prising navigators,  and  the  country  has  been 
called  "the  birthplace  of  commerce."  Phoeni- 
cian pilots  and  sailors  navigated  the  vessels  of 
Solomon;  and,  before  other  ships  had  ventured 
to  lose  sight  of  their  own  shores,  colonies  of  this 
people  were  established  in  some  of  the  most  dis- 
tant parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  They 
were  also  distinguished  for  their  knowledge  of 
the  arts  and  sciences.  Phoenician  workmen  were 
employed  at  the  building  of  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon, and  by  Phoenicians  the  knowledge  and  use 
of  letters  were  introduced  into  Greece,  The 
climate  of  the  country  is  mild ;  the  land  is  abun- 
dantly watered ;  and  it  yields  large  crops  of  fruit, 
corn,  cotton,  and  sugar.  But  its  once  populous 
and  opulent  cities  are  reduced,  under  the  rule 
of  a  despotic  government,  to  impoverished  vil- 
lages or  masses  of  ruins.  Under  the  Romans, 
Phoenicia  formed  a  part  of  the  Province  of  Syria. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  it 
has  formed  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 

Pike's  Peak,  a  fa,mous  peak  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  in  El  Paso  county,  Colorado,  near 
Colorado  Springs.  It  is  named  after  General 
Zebulon  M.  Pike,  United  States  Army,  by  whom 
it  was  discovered  in  1806.  It  rises  14,108  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  commands  a  magnificent 
view  of  the  great  plains  and  of  a  rugged,  moun- 
tainous country  with  many  lakes  and  rivers. 
Pine  forests  cover  the  slopes  to  a  height  of 
11,700  feet,  above  which  is  bare  granite  rock. 


etc.,  with  rice,  wheat,  maize,  and  various  other   A  meteorological  station  was  maintained  here 


558 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


for  years,  and  was  reoccupied  by  the  weather 
bureau  in  1892.  A  railroad  reaches  to  the 
summit. 

Pisa  (pe'zd),  a  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  which  was  formerly 
a  part  of  Tuscany.  The  city,  which  is  situated 
on  the  banks  of  the  Arno,  about  eight  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river,  is  surrounded  by 
old  walls  and  moats,  within  which  are  numerous 
gardens  and  cultivated  fields,  studded  with  the 
ruins  of  convents.  Among  its  old  buildings  the 
most  noteworthy  is  its  cathedral,  in  the  Tuscan 
style  of  the  Eleventh  Century;  to  the  east  of 
which  is  the  famous  Campanile,  or  leaning  Tower 
of  Pisa,  a  round,  marble  belfry,  179  feet  in 
height,  erected  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Twelfth 
Century.  Pisa  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  which 
was  founded  in  1338.  At  the  Coimcil  of  Pisa, 
in  1409,  the  rival  popes,  Benedict  XIII.  and 
Gregory  XII.,  were  deposed,  and  Alexander  V. 
elected  in  their  room.  Pisa  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  six  centuries  before  Christ.  It  was  a 
flourishing  city  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  At 
the  time  of  the  Crusades  its  population  was  not 
less  than  150,000,  and  at  one  time  it  disputed 
the  dominion  of  the  sea  with  Genoa.  Popula- 
tion, 61,321. 

Pittsburg  (according  to  its  city  charter, 
Pittsburgh),  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  county- 
seat  of  Allegheny  County,  Pennsylvania;  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Monongahela  and  Allegheny 
rivers,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio  River,  353  miles 
west  of  Philadelphia.  The  city  owns  a  water- 
works system,  costing  over  $7,000,000.  The 
reservoirs  have  a  storage  capacity  of  68,000,000 
gallons,  and  the  water  is  distributed  through 
300  miles  of  mains.  There  are  in  all  230  miles 
of  streets,  of  which  200  miles  are  paved.  The 
sewer  system  covers  220  miles.  The  city  is 
lighted  by  electricity.  The  annual  death  rate 
averages  nineteen  per  1,000.  The  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  Allegheny  court-house,  the 
Carnegie  Library  and  Institute,  with  museum, 
music  hall,  and  art  gallery,  and  having  an  en- 
dowment of  $2,000,000;  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment building,  the  West  Pennsylvania  Ex- 
position Society's  buildings;  Municipal  Hall; 
United  States  Arsenal,  and  the  Western  State 
Penitentiary.  The  two  chief  industries  are  the 
production  of  iron  and  steel;  but  there  are 
many  other  flourishing  manufactures.  The  city 
is  well  known  as  the  Iron  City,  for  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  iron  industry  which  is  not  here  manu- 
factured. The  capacity  of  the  iron  mills  is  over 
800,000  tons  annually,  and  that  of  the  Bessemer 
steel  mills  upward  of  400,000  tons.  There  are, 
besides  blast  furnaces  and  iron  and  steel  works, 
over  1,500  manufacturing  establishments  em- 
ploying more  than  60,000  persons.  The  schools 
are  flourishing  and  their  accommodations  keep 
pace  with  increasing  population.  There  are, 
over  200  churches  in  Pittsburg.  In  1754,  at 
the  suggestion  of  George  Washington,  the 
English  began  to  erect  a  block-house  on  the 
present  site  of  the  city.  They  were  driven 
away  by  the  French,  who  built  a  fort  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers  and  named  it  Du 
Quesne.  In  1758,  after  two  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  retake  the  place,  the  English,  under 
General  Forbes,  made  a  third  attempt,  and  the 


French  burned  and  evacuated  the  fort.  In  the 
following  year  another  fort  was  erected  here, 
named  in  honor  of  William  Pitt.  The  British 
withdrew  from  the  post  in  1772,  and  it  was  held 
by  Virginia  in  1775-1779.  The  place  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  March  18,  1816.  In  1877 
a  railroad  strike  and  riot  occurred  in  which 
much  damage  was  done  to  railroad  property 
and  for  whicn  Allegheny  County  had  to  settle  at 
a  cost  of  $4,000,000.  In  1907,  after  a  long 
discussion,  the  city  absorbed  Allegheny  and 
other  surrounding  boroughs,  which  are  now 
under  the  municipal  government.  Popula- 
tion, 533,905. 

Plymoutli,  the  largest  town  in  Devon- 
shire, stands  on  the  north  shore  of  Plymouth 
Sound,  227  miles  west  of  London  by  rail;  ad- 
jacent to  it  are  the  towns  of  Saltash  and  Devon- 
port.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are  a  Gothic 
town-hall,  a  Fifteenth-Century  church,  and 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  The  chief  indus- 
try is  chemical  manufactures.  There  is  a  large 
coasting  trade,  and  important  fisheries.  Many 
sea-going  steamship  companies  make  it  a  place 
of  call.  The  Sound  is  an  important  naval 
station,  and  historically  famous  as  the  sailing 
port  of  the  fleet  that  vanquished  the  Armada, 
and  of  the  Pilgrims.     Population,  107,109. 

Po,  the  largest  river  of  Italy,  rises  on  Monte 
Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  at  an  altitude  of 
6,405  feet,  close  to  the  French  frontier.  It  has 
an  entire  length  of  390  miles,  and  drains  an  area 
of  nearly  28,900  square  miles.  Below  Piacenza 
its  stream  has  from  ante- Roman  days  been  arti- 
ficially embanked  along  great  stretches  with 
double  lines  of  embankments  on  each  side. 

Pompeii,  a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Samus,  on  the  Neapolitan  Riviera,  founded 
about  600  B.  C.  by  the  Oscans,  and  after  them 
occupied  by  the  Tyrrheno-Pelasgians,  and  by 
the  Samnites,  till  these,  about  80  B.  C,  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Romans.  From  that  time 
down  to  its  destruction,  A.  D.  79,  it  became  a 
sort  of  Rome-super-Mare,  frequented  by  the 
aristocracy.  On  February  5,  A.  D.  63,  by  an 
earthquake  in  the  vicinity,  these  buildings  were 
all  but  leveled  with  the  ground,  and  some  years 
elapsed  ere  the  fugitive  citizens  recovered  con- 
fidence enough  to  reoccupy  and  rebuild  what 
was  once  Pompeii.  Revolutionized  as  it  was 
for  the  worse,  the  city,  however,  retained  much 
of  Greek  character  and  coloring,  and  had  re- 
lapsed into  more  than  its  former  gaiety  and 
licentiousness,  when,  on  August  23  (or,  more 
probably,  on  November  23),  79,  with  a  return 
of  the  shocks  of  eartliquake,  Vesuvius  was  seen 
to  throw  up  a  column  of  black  smoke  expanding 
like  some  umbrella  pine  of  the  neighborhood, 
till  it  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  great  swarthy 
cloud,  dense  with  ashes,  pumice,  and  red-hot 
stones,  settling  down  with  a  force  increased  by 
the  rain-torrents  that  intermittently  fell.  For 
three  days  the  flight  of  the  inhabitants  contin- 
ued till  Pompeii  was  abandoned  by  all  who 
could  effect  their  escape.  By  the  fourth  day 
the  sun  had  partially  reappeared,  and  the  more 
courageous  of  the  citizens  began  to  return  for 
such  of  their  pro])erty  as  they  could  disinter. 
The  reigning  emperor,  Titus,  organized  relief  on 
an  imperial  scale,  and  even  undertook  the  clear- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


559 


ing  and  rebuilding  of  the  city.  This  attempt 
was  soon  abandoned,  and  Pompeii  remained  a 
heap  of  hardened  mud  and  ashes,  gradually 
overgrown  with  grass  —  the  wall  of  the  great 
theater  and  the  outline  of  the  amphitheater 
alone  marking  its  site  —  till  1592,  when  the 
architect  Fontana,  in  cutting  an  aqueduct,  came 
on  some  ancient  buildings.  Unsystematic,  un- 
scientific excavations  proceeded  fitfully  till  1860, 
when  the  Italian  kingdom  took  in  hand  the  un- 
earthing of  the  city.  This  was  carried  out  with 
admirable  ingenuity,  care,  and  success,  and  it 
now  attracts  the  pilgrim  from  every  clime  for 
the  object  lessons  it  is  unique  in  affording  as  to 
the  public  and  private  life  of  antiquity.  House 
construction  consists  mainly  of  concrete  or 
'brick,  and  sometimes  of  stone  blocks,  especially 
at  the  corners.  Two-storied,  sometimes  three- 
storied,  houses  are  numerous,  though  the  upper 
floors,  built  of  wood,  have  been  consumed  by 
the  eruption.  Stores  usually  occupied  the 
ground  floors  of  dwelling  houses,  on  their  street 
aspect,  let  out  to  merchants  or  dealers  as  at  the 
present  day,  but  not  connected  with  the  back 
part  of  the  house.  They  could  be  separated 
from  the  street  by  large  wooden  doors,  while 
inside  they  had  tables  covered  with  marble,  in 
which  earthern  vessels  for  wine  or  oil  were  in- 
serted. The  storekeeper  had  sometimes  a  sec- 
ond room  at  the  back,  when  he  did  not  live  on 
an  upper  floor  or  in  another  part  of  the  town. 
Retail  traffic  must  have  been  considerable  at 
Pompeii,  to  judge  from  the  number  of  those 
stores  along  the  streets.  Only  a  personal  visit 
can  convey  an  idea  of  the  indoor  life  of  the  Pom- 
peiians,  with  whom  the  absence  of  glass,  the 
fewness  of  the  openings  in  the  street  aspect  of 
the  house  wall,  and  the  protection  of  these  with 
iron  gratings  are  among  the  points  noted  by  the 
most  casual  visitor.  As  rebuilt  after  63,  Pom- 
peii shows  little  marble,  the  columns  being  of 
tufa  or  brick  cemented  by  mortar.  A  coating 
of  stucco  was  laid  over  wall  or  column  and  pre- 
sented an  ample  field  for  ornamental  painting. 
This  must  have  given  to  Pompeii  its  bright,  gay 
coloring,  which,  with  its  reds,  blues,  and  yellows, 
on  column  and  capital,  on  wall  and  partition, 
harmonize  so  well  with  the  glowing  sunlight  of 
the  south. 

Port  Arthur,  a  strongly-fortified  port  com- 
manding the  northern  promontory  enclosing  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  China.  It  was  taken  by  storm 
by  the  Japanese  in  the  war  of  1894,  but  Japan 
was  compelled  to  restore  it,  in  return  for  an 
increased  indemnity,  by  Russia,  Germany,  and 
France.  China,  however,  gained  nothing  by  in- 
voking this  European  intervention.  Port  Arthur 
being  occupied  by  Russia  in  December,  1897, 
immediately  after  the  seizure  of  Kiao-Chau  by 
Germany.  In  the  spring  following,  Russia  se- 
cured by  "lease"  both  Port  Arthur  and  Talien- 
wan,  with  other  advantages,  which  gave  her  the 
command  of  Manchuria  and  a  sort  of  tacit  ac- 
knowledgment that  this  portion  of  China  be- 
longed to  her  exclusive  sphere  of  influence.  The 
Russians,  under  Gen.  Stossel,  were  successfully 
besieged  here  by  the  Japanese  under  Gen.  Nogi, 
July,  1904,  to  January  1,  1905.  At  the  close  of 
the  war,  the  lease  was  transferred  to  Japan  by 
the  treaty  of  Portsmouth,  in  1905.     As  the  ter- 


minus of  a  branch  of  the  Siberian  Railway,  Port 
Arthur  is  an  important  strategic  point. 

Portland,  the  county  seat  of  Multnomah 
County,  is  the  largest  city  and  the  commercial 
center  of  Oregon.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Willamette  River,  twelve  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  the  Columbia,  and  about 
120  miles  from  the  Pacific.  The  law  and  medi- 
cal departments  of  the  state  university  are 
here.  A  large  Pacific  commerce,  about  $15,000,- 
000  annually,  is  carried  on,  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain  and  its  possessions,  and  the  city  is  an 
important  distributing  and  industrial  center. 
A  large  government  dry  dock  was  built  here 
in  190.3,  and  the  city  possesses  a  splendid  har- 
bor open  to  the  largest  ships.  Portland  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  with  the  Cascade  mountains 
in  the  background,  and  is  noted  as  a  beautiful 
residence  city.  The  Lewis  and  Clark  Exposition 
was  held  here  in  1905.     Population,  207,214. 

Porto  Rico,  a  West  Indian  island;  sev- 
enty miles  east  of  Haiti;  till  1898  a  colony  of 
Spain;  area,  3,600  square  miles;  population, 
1,118,012;  capital,  San  Juan,  metropolis.  Ponce. 
Under  the  provisions  of  the  Spanish- American 
peace  protocol  the  American  flag  was  officially 
raised  and  the  island  formally  transferred  to  the 
United  States  on  October  18,  1898.  The  Span- 
ish form  of  the  name  of  the  island  is  Puerto 
Rico;  but  an  act  of  the  United  States  Congress, 
approved  April  12,  1900,  established  the  official 
form  as  Porto  Rico.  The  people  are  most  loyal 
in  their  devotion  to  their  new  country  and  are 
solicitous  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  United 
States.  While  there  is  a  great  amount  of  wealth 
in  the  island,  and  in  many  places  evidences  of 
great  prosperity,  rich  plantations,  and  promise 
of  a  great  future  for  Porto  Rico,  throughout  the 
interior  of  the  island  the  people  are  poor  and 
their  homes  are  of  the  poorest  character,  con- 
sisting almost  altogether  of  "shacks"  con- 
structed of  the  palm  and  covered  with  a  straw 
thatch  or  palm  leaves.  Into  the  dties  and  these 
homes  is  crowded  a  large  population  that  is 
typically  Spanish-American  in  character.  They 
are  generally  a  peaceful  and  law-abiding  people, 
and  while  there  is  unquestionably  some  lawless- 
ness, and  some  small  offences  are  being  com- 
mitted, they  do  not  exceed,  if  they  equal,  the 
number  being  committed  in  the  States  of  a  like 
population.  It  has  been  estimated  that  from  10 
to  20  per  cent,  only  of  the  people  can  read  and 
write.  The  people  are  anxious  to  have  their 
children  educated,  and  are  exceedingly  solicitous 
for  the  establishment  of  public  schools.  There 
is  no  starvation  upon  the  island,  and  while  there 
is  great  poverty  in  many  places,  there  cannot 
be  any  real  starvation  in  Porto  Rico,  for  the 
reason  that  the  people  live  frugally  and  are  con- 
tent with  little,  while  the  soil  and  the  climate 
are  so  productive  of  many  of  the  simple  neces- 
saries of  life  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
to  starve  a  people  who  live  upon  tropical  fruits 
and  tropical  vegetable  productions.  Vegetables 
of  all  kinds  known  to  our  climate  grow  in  abun- 
dance. Irish  potatoes  are  not  a  success.  There 
are  no  plums,  cherries,  or  grapes.  It  would 
seem  that  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  grow- 
ing grapes,  but  so  far  they  have  not  been  tried. 
Indian  corn  is  raised  with  some  success,  and' 


660 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


while  the  ears  are  small,  that  is  made  up  by  the 
fact  that  two  and  even  three  crops  can  be  grown 
yearly  on  the  same  ground.  Coffee  and  sugar 
are  the  chief  products  and  exports.  No  wheat 
is  grown  on  the  island.  At  present  all  flour 
is  imported.  The  native  grasses  grow  lux- 
uriantly wherever  an  opportunity  offers,  from 
the  lowest  valley  to  the  highest  mountain  top, 
and  afford  excellent  pasture  for  stock  every- 
where all  the  months  of  the  year.  They  make 
no 'hay,  but  cut  it  with  sickles  or  the  machete 
and  tie  it  in  small  bundles,  pack  it  on  ponies  to 
the  cities,  and  sell  it  while  it  is  still  green.  The 
cattle  grazing  in  large  numbers  on  the  pastures 
are  found  all  over  the  island,  and  are  mostly  in 
very  good  condition,  making  excellent  beef. 
Hogs  are  raised  to  a  limited  extent,  but  are  of 
poor  breeds,  being  of  the  old  "razor-back"  vari- 
ety. They  are  fed  mainly  from  the  nuts  grown 
on  the  royal  palm  trees.  Horses  are  plentiful. 
They  are  small,  and  used  only  to  ride  and  as 
pack  ponies  and  in  carriages.  The  hard  work 
of  hauling  loads  and  plowing  the  land  is  done 
with  oxen,  yoked  in  the  Spanish  fashion  by  ty- 
ing the  yoke  to  the  horns,  and  they  are  guided 
with  a  whip  or  "gad."  The  wagons  are  mostly 
two-wheeled  carts  with  large  wooden  axles. 
There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  deposit  of  iron 
and  copper  on  the  island.  In  some  places  these 
are  being  developed  with  good  prospects  of  prov- 
ing paying  investments.  Traces  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver are  also  found  in  the  mountains,  but  up  to 
date  prospecting  has  not  developed  any  con- 
siderable quantities  of  these  more  precious  met- 
als. Soon  after  the  surrender  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  to  the  American  forces  under  General 
Shafter,  July  17,  1898,  an  army  numbering 
16,973  men  was  sent  from  Guantanamo  to  Porto 
Rico  to  take  possession  of  that  island.  They 
landed  July  25th  at  Quanica,  fifteen  miles  west 
of  Ponce.  Lieutenant  Haines,  commanding  the 
marines,  went  ashore  and  raised  the  American 
flag  over  the  custom-house,  amid  the  cheers  of 
the  people.  General  Wilson  was  the  first  army 
officer  to  land,  and  was  welcomed  with  cheers 
and  a  serenade.  A  portion  of  the  army  marched 
toward  the  capital,  San  Juan,  but  were  stopped 
when  abotit  half  way  by  the  suspension  of  hos- 
tilities between  the  belligerent  powers.  On  Oc- 
tober 18th  the  island  was  formally  surrendered  to 
the  United  States  in  the  city  of  San  Juan.  Im- 
mediately the  United  States  authorities  began 
the  work  of  sanitary  and  educational  improve- 
ment. Public  works  were  instituted,  schools 
established,  and  industries  fostered.  The  Porto 
Ricans  responded  eagerly  and  have  given  their 
best  efforts  to  assisting  the  government.  They 
have  exhibited  excellent  capacity  for  citizenship. 
The  island  has  prospered  greatly  under  Ameri- 
can rule,  and  is  fast  becoming  Americanized. 

Portug^al.  The  most  western  kingdom  of 
Europe,  occupying  the  greater  portion  of  western 
seaboard  of  the  Iberian  peninsula.  North  and 
east  it  is  bounded  by  Spain,  and  on  all  other 
sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Length,  from  north 
to  south,  about  350  miles;  mean  breadth,  about 
100  miles.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  gen- 
erally of  a  hilly  character,  receiving  the  tenninal 
continuation  of  several  Spanish  mountain 
chains  —  one    of    which,    under    the    name    of 


Serra  da  Estrella,  pierces  the  center  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  and  rises  in  its  highest  part 
to  an  altitude  of  7,524  feet  above  the  sea. 
Further  south  is  the  Serra  de  Monchique,  ter- 
minating at  the  Atlantic  in  the  headland  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tagus, 
Douro,  Minho,  Guadiana,  and  Mondego.  The 
soil  is,  generally  speaking,  quite  rich,  but  agri- 
culture is  much  neglected.  Wine  is  the  chief 
industrial  product  of  the  country,  the  best 
growths  of  which,  known  as  jport,  are  shipped  to 
England,  the  United  States,  and  other  countries. 
The  exports  consist  almost  entirely  of  wine, 
fruits,  oil,  cork,  and  salt.  Portuguese  manu- 
facturing interests  include  those  of  the  fabrica- 
tion of  textile  goods,  gloves,  metallic,  and  cera- 
mic wares,  tobacco,  cigars,  etc.  The  chief  cities 
and  towns  are  Lisbon,  the  capital;  Oporto, 
Braga,  Coimbra,  Setubal,  Evora;  in  Madeira 
Funchal;    in  the  Azores,  Ponta  Delgada. 

Potomac,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
formed  by  two  branches  which  rise  in  the  Alle- 
gheny Mountains  in  West  Virginia,  and  unite 
fifteen  miles  southeast  of  Cumberland,  Md.,  from 
which  point  the  river  flows  in  a  generally  south- 
east course  400  miles,  and  falls  iijto  Chesapeake 
Bay,  after  forming  an  estuarv  nearly  100  miles 
long,  and  from  two  and  one-half  to  seven  miles 
wide.  The  largest  ships  can  ascend  to  Washing- 
ton. The  Potomac  forms  the  greater  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Virginia  and  Maryland. 

Potsdam,  eighteen  miles  southwest  of 
Berlin,  stands  on  an  island  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Nuthe  and  Havel,  and  is  the  capital  of  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Brandenburg ;  a  handsome 
town,  with  broad  streets,  many  parks  and 
squares,  numberless  statues  and  fine  public 
buildings;  it  is  a  favorite  residence  of  Prussian 
royalty,  and  has  several  royal  palaces;  was  the 
birthplace  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt;  has 
sugar  and  chemical  works,  and  a  large  violet- 
growing  industry.     Population,  61,414. 

Prague  (prag),  a  city  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Empire,  the  capital  of  the  province  (for- 
merly the  kingdom)  of  Bohemia.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Moldau,  about  160  miles  northwest  of 
Vienna;  and  is,  with  the  exception  of  Vienna 
and  Buda-Pest,  the  largest  city  in  the  empire. 
Both  the  old  and  the  new  town  stand  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river;  on  the  left  bank  are 
the  quarters  known  respectively  as  the  Kleinsite 
and  the  Hradshin,  the  scene  of  the  famous 
"defenestration"  of  1618,  when  the  throwing 
of  two  imperial  officers  out  of  a  window  began 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  In  it  dwell  the  nobility 
and  the  higher  officers  of  state.  This  portion  of 
the  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall.  In  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  is  the  White  Mountain, 
1,300  feet  high,  where  the  Protestants  of  Bo- 
hemia suffered  a  decisive  defeat  early  in  the 
same  war  (November  8,  1620).  The  Cathedral 
belongs  to  the  Fourteenth  Century,  as  does 
also  the  university,  foimded  in  1348  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.  A  large  trade  is  carried 
on  in  the  city,  and  several  large  fairs  are  held 
in  it  annually.  It  has,  however,  suffered 
greatly  from  war,  and  so  recently  as  1848  was 
bombarded  by  the  Austrians  for  two  days, 
in  consequence  of  an  insvirrectionary  move- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.     The  "  Bat- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


561 


tie  of  Prague,"  so  celebrated  in  history,  in  which 
the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  Prince  Henry  of 
Prussia,  and  their  whole  camp  taken,  was  fought 
May  6,  1747.     Population,  245,750. 

Providence,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Rhode  Island,  and  county-seat  of  Providence 
County;  on  the  Providence  River,  ar;  arm  of 
Narrangansett  Bay,  and  forty-four  miles  south- 
west of  Boston.  It  is  the  second  city  of  New 
England  in  population  and  wealth,  and  is  built 
on  a  rolling  plateau.  Providence  has  upward 
of  2,000  manufacturing  establishments,  with  a 
combined  capital  of  about  $90,000,000,  and  em- 
ploying about  40,000  persons.  It  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
jewelry,  and  stoves,  and  is  the  largest  seat  of 
fine  jewelry  manufacture  in  the  United  States. 
The  other  industries  include  silverware,  tools, 
engines,  locomotives,  boilers,  sewing  machines, 
screws,  files,  general  hardware,  yarn,  calico, 
laces,  braids,  worsteds,  broadcloth,  chemicals, 
etc.  There  is  an  extensive  coastwise  commerce 
and  shipping  industry,  especially  in  the  coal, 
cotton,  and  wool  trade.  There  is  also  an  impor- 
tant shell-fish  industry.  In  1636,  Roger  Williams, 
a  Baptist  clergyman,  was  exiled  from  Massa- 
chusetts because  he  opposed  its  theocratic  laws. 
He  first  settled  at  What  ('heer  Rock,  on  the  See- 
konk  River,  and  later  at  the  head  of  the  Provi- 
dence River,  where  the  Indian  Chief,  Canonicus, 
granted  him  a  piece  of  land.  In  1643-1644  local 
government  was  formed  under  a  royal  charter. 
Providence  received  its  city  charter  in  1832, 
and  has  been  enlarged  by  annexation  of  territory 
from  adjoining  towns.     Population,  224,326. 

Prussia  {■prush'ah).  A  kingdom  of  Europe, 
and  the  principal  state  of  the  German  Empire, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Baltic  Sea  and 
Denmark,  east  by  Russia  and  Poland,  south 
by  the  Austrian  dominions  and  the  states  of 
Southern  Germany,  southwest  by  France  and 
west  by  Belgium  and  Holland.  The  geograph- 
ical form  of  this  kingdom  is  very  irregular. 
Prussia  has  an  extensive  seaboard  extending 
along  the  Baltic  from  Russia  on  the  east  to  Den- 
mark on  the  west.  It  has,  besides,  a  tract  of 
coast  line  washed  by  the  North  Sea,  formed  by 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  and  Hanoverian  prov- 
inces. The  length  of  the  kingdom,  taken  from 
east-northeast  to  west-southwest,  is  about  775 
miles;  maximum  breadth,  404  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  for  the  most  part  flat.  The  principal 
mountains  are  those  of  the  Hartz,  Brocken,  and 
Riesengebirge.  The  Baltic  seaboard  is  low  and 
sandy,  and  forms  a  number  of  bays  and  inlets 
such  as  the  Gulf  of  Dantzig,  the  bays  of  Swine- 
munde,  Liibeck,  and  Kiel,  the  Frisches  Haff  and 
the  Curisches  Haff.  Prussia  possesses  a  large 
number  of  navigable  rivers  in  close  proximity 
with  each  other,  viz:  the  Niemen,  Pregel,  Vis- 
tula, Oder,  Elbe,  Weser,  and  the  Rhine  with  its 
numerous  tributaries,  such  as  the  Moselle,  Lahn, 
etc.  The  forests  are  extensive,  occupying  an  area 
of  nearly  10,000  square  miles,  chiefly  consisting 
of  fir.  Its  minerals  consist  of  iron,  copper,  lead, 
alum,  nitre,  zinc,  cobalt,  sulphur,  nickel,  arsenic, 
baryta,  amber,  several  varieties  of  precious 
stones,  and,  to  a  small  extent,  silver.  Salt  from 
the  brine  springs  of  Prussian  Saxony  is  plentiful, 
as  is  also  coal.     All  metals,  salt,  amber,  and 


precious  stones  are  crown  property.  Agricul- 
ture and  cattle-rearing  constitute  the  chief 
sources  of  employment  and  wealth  of  the  rural 
population.  The  western  division  of  Prussia  is 
noted  for  its  excellent  fruits  and  vegetables,  and 
the  Rhenish  provinces  stand  preeminent  for 
their  wines.  In  the  kingdom  there  are  upwards 
of  100  mineral  springs,  as  those  of  Wiesbaden, 
Ems,  Spa,  Pyrmont,  etc.  The  chief  cities  and 
towns  are  Berlin  (the  capital),  Breslau,  Cologne, 
Konigsber"g,  Dantzig,  Strasburg,  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  Magdeburg,  Hanover,  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Mulhausen,  Mainz,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  The 
seaports  (besides  Dantzig  and  Konigsberg) 
include  Memel,  Swinemunde,  Stettin,  Liibeck, 
Altona,  and  Cuxhaven.  That  of  Kiel  is  the 
principal  naval  station  and  arsenal  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  Prussian  manufactures  consist 
mainly  of  silk,  woolen,  cotton,  and  linen  fabrics; 
arms,  shawls,  carpets,  leather,  pottery,  glass, 
tobacco,  and  metallic  wares.  The  brewing  of 
beer  is  a  business  carried  on  extensively.  The 
leading  exports  comprise  linens,  woolens,  hard- 
ware, grain,  raw  wool,  timber,  pitch,  linseed, 
tobacco,  mineral  waters ;  to  these  may  be  added 
horses,  horned  cattle,  salted  and  dried  meats,  etc., 
and  from  the  Rhenish  provinces,  wine.  Edu- 
cation is  compulsory,  and  its  higher  branches  are 
provided  for  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Bonn, 
Breslau,  Konigsberg,  Halle,  and  Greifswalde. 

Pyramids,  The,  a  name  given  in  pre- 
eminence to  three  rock-built  tombs  (said  by 
recent  authorities  to  have  been  used  also  for 
astronomical  observations  and  for  religious  pur- 
poses) found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ghizeh, 
near  Cairo,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile.  They 
are  all  solid  masses  of  stone  or  brick,  with 
sepulchral  chambers  in  the  center  or  near  the 
base;  and  these  chambers  are  reached  by  a 
gallery,  or  passage,  which  opens  from  the  out- 
side. The  first  of  the  Pyramids  is  said  to  have 
been  erected  by  Cheops,  an  Egyptian  King,  who 
lived  about  3,000  B.  C.  It  was  intended  by 
him,  and  was  used,  as  his  tomb.  According  to 
Herodotus,  one  hundred  thousand  men  were 
employed  for  twenty  years  in  building  this 
Pyramid;  and  ten  years  were  occupied  in  con- 
structing a  causeway  by  which  to  convey  the 
stones  to  the  place,  and  in  conveying  them 
there.  This  Pyramid,  called  "the  Great  Pyra- 
mid," was  originally  480  feet  in  height,  with  a 
base  of  764  feet  square.  At  present,  it  is  ex- 
ternally a  huge  mass,  rudely  built  of  rough  lime- 
stone blocks  in  steps,  and  with  a  platform  of 
considerable  area  at  the  top;  but  it  is  believed 
to  have  been  originally  covered  with  a  splid 
marble  casing,  the  stones  of  which  began  to  be 
removed  about  A.  D.  1000  for  the  building  or 
the  adornment  of  Cairo.  The  second  Pyramid 
is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Chephron,  the 
brother  and  successor  of  Cheops.  Although 
slightly  inferior  to  the  first  Pyramid  in  size, 
and  probably  far  inferior  in  quality  of  masonry, 
it  is  still  a  structure  of  enormous  dimensions, 
which  must  have  required  many  years  of  labor 
from  tens  of  thousands  of  workmen.  After 
Chephron,  Mycerinus,  son  of  Cheops,  ascended 
the  throne.  He,  too,  left  a  Pyramid,  but  much 
inferior  in  size  to  his  father's,  the  height  of  this 
third  Pyramid  being  only  218  feet,  with  a  base 


562 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


about  354  feet  square.  Besides  these  three 
principal  Pyramids,  there  are  nearly  forty  others 
included  under  the  general  designation  of  the 
Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  or  Jeezeh.  There  are  others 
in  other  parts  of  Egypt  and  in  Nubia;  and 
similar  structures  are  to  be  found  in  Mexico, 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Pyrenees  {'pir'e-nez),  a  broad  chain  of  lofty 
mountains  running  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  276 
miles  eastward,  to  the  Mediterranean,  form  the 
boundary  between  France  and  Spain.  They  are 
highest  in  the  center,  Mount  Maladetta  reaching 
11,168  feet.  The  snowline  is  about  8,000  or 
9,000  feet,  and  tliere  are  glaciers  on  the  French 
side.  Valleys  nm  up  either  side,  ending  in  pre- 
cipitous "pot-holes,"  with  great  regularity.  The 
passes  are  very  dangerous  from  wind  and  snow 
storms.  The  streams  to  the  north  feed  the 
Adour  and  Garonne;  those  to  the  south,  the 
Ebro  and  Douro.  Vegetation  in  the  west  is 
European,  in  the  east  sub-tropical.  Minerals 
are  few,  though  both  iron  and  coal  are  worked. 
The  basis  of  the  system  is  granite  with  limestone, 
strata  superimposed. 

Quebec,  tne  oldest  city  in  Canada  and  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  is  situated 
on  Cape  Diamond,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  at  the  confluence  of  the  St.  Charles. 
The  cape  is  a  proniontory  rising  to  a  height 
of  330  feet,  and  the  city  lies  on  and  below  the 
rocky  bluff,  its  impregnable  position  giving 
it  the  name,  "Gibraltar  of  America."  The 
upper  town  contains  the  principal  residences, 
buildings,  parks  and  shops.  The  lower  town 
is  the  commercial  section.  The  picturesque 
position  of  the  city  and  the  fact  that  its  his- 
toric sites  are  unaltered  give  it  a  peculiar  ro- 
mantic interest.  Nearby  are  the  plains  of 
Abraham,  the  scene  of  Wolfe's  victory  in  1759. 
The  upper  town  lies  about  the  citadel,  which 
covers  forty  acres  and  is  garrisoned  by  Canadian 
militia.  Outside  the  walls  which  enclose  the 
upper  town  are  the  houses  of  Parliament. 
Laval  University,  chartered  by  Queen  Victoria 
and  Pope  Pius  IX,  is  the  largest  and  most 
influential  Catholic  institution  of  higher  educa- 
tion in  Canada.  Quebec  was  founded  in  1608 
by  Champlain,  who  established  a  small  trading 
post  here.  It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
French,  until  captured  in  1629,  and  held  by 
the  English  for  three  years,  when  it  was  restored 
to  France.  England  failed  several  times  to 
take  it  until  1759,  since  when  it  has  been  in 
English  possession.     Population  in  1901,  68,834. 

Rain  is  the  return  to  the  earth,  in  con- 
densed drops,  of  the  aqueous  vapors  which  are 
continually  rising  into  the  atmosphere  by 
evaporation;  the  condensation  being  occasioned 
by  a  change  in  the  general  temperature,  by  a 
collision  produced  by  contrary  currents,  or  by  a 
cloud  passing  into  a  cold  stratum  of  air.  The 
power  of  the  air  to  hold  water  in  solution  in- 
creases in  a  much  higher  ratio  than  the  tem- 
perature. Hence,  when  two  masses  of  air,  satu- 
rated with  moisture  and  of  different  tempera- 
tures, are  mixed,  the  resulting  compound  is  not 
capable  of  holding  the  whole  water  in  solution, 
and  a  part  is,  in  consequence,  precipitated  as 
rain.  As  the  whole  atmosphere,  when  satu- 
rated, is  calculated  not  to  hold  in  solution  more 


water  than  would  form  a  sheet  five  inches  in 
depth,  while  the  mean  annual  deposit  of  rain 
and  dew  is  probably  from  thirty-five  to  forty 
inches,  it  is  obvious  that  the  supply  of  atmos- 
pheric moisture  must  be  renewed  many  times 
in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  quantity  of  rain 
precipitated  from  the  atmosphere  depends  upon 
a  variety  of  circumstances  —  on  the  previous 
hygrometric  state  of  the  unmixed  portions  of 
air,  their  difference  of  heat,  the  elevation  of  their 
mean  temperature,  and  the  extent  of  the  com- 
bination which  takes  place.  When  the  deposi- 
tion is  slow,  and  the  electricity  set  free  by  change 
of  state  is  not  suddenly  removed,  the  very  minute 
aqueous  globules  remain  suspended  and  form 
clouds;  but  if  the  deposition  be  rapid  and  copi- 
ous, and  the  electricity  is  more  or  less  suddenly 
carried  off,  those  particles  conglomerate,  and 
produce,  according  to  the  temperature  of  the 
medium  through  which  they  descend,  rain,  mist, 
snow,  or  hail. 

Rainbow,  the  well-knowTi  polored  arch  so 
frequently  seen  when  the  sun  is  shining  during 
a  shower  of  rain.  Sometimes  only  one  bow  is 
seen,  sometimes  there  are  two ;  the  second  being 
broader  and  fainter,  and  situated  above  or  out- 
side the  first.  In  both  bows  alike  the  colors  are 
the  same  as  those  in  the  spectrum,  and  they  are 
arranged  in  the  same  order.  In  the  lower  or 
primary  bow  the  red  is  uppermost;  in  the  sec- 
ondary bow  their  relative  positions  are  reversed, 
the  violet  being  uppermost  and  the  red  lowest. 
The  formation  of  the  rainbow  is  due  to  the  re- 
fraction and  reflection  of  the  sun's  light  by  the 
rain  drops.  The  rays  which  make  the  primary 
bow  have  undergone  two  refractions  and  one 
reflection,  whilst  those  that  make  up  the  second- 
ary bow  have  undergone  two  refractions  and 
two  reflections.  Rainbows  are  only  seen  when 
the  observer  has  his  back  to  the  sun,  and  looks 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  rain  is  falling. 

Rangoon,  the  capital  of  Lower  Burmah, 
and  the  chief  seaport  of  Burmah,  is  situated  on 
the  Rangoon  River,  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Irrawadi,  about  twenty-one  miles  from  the 
sea.  Since  its  occupancy  by  the  British,  in 
1852,  Rangoon  has  undergone  such  changes 
that  it  is  practically  a  new  town,  and  its  popu- 
lation has  increased  fivefold.  The  principal 
streets  are  broad,  and  contain  many  large  and 
not  a  few  handsome  buildings.  There  are  the 
law-courts,  post-offices.  Bank  of  Bengal,  custom- 
house, Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
St.  John's  College,  the  Shwe  Dagon  pagoda,  etc. 
A  large  and  increasing  commerce  is  carried  on 
with  British,  Indian,  and  Chinese  ports;  and  an 
extensive  trade  is  conducted  with  inland  towns 
as  far  as  Mandalay.  The  chief  exports  are  rice, 
timber,  cotton,  hides,  gums,  and  resins,  mineral 
oil,  ivory,  precious  stones;  the  imports  being 
mainlv  manufactured  goods.  A  number  of  rice- 
mills  have  been  erected;  there  is  a  government 
dockyard,  and  steam  tram-cars  have  been  intro- 
duced.    Population,  234,881. 

Rastadt,  a  fortified  town  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden,  about  fifteen  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Carlsruhe.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for 
two  congresses,  the  one  in  1714,  which  put  an 
end  to  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and 
the  other  in  1797-99,  to  negotiate  a  peace  be- 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


563 


tweeii  France  and  the  German  Empire.  After 
the  close  of  the  latter,  the  French  plenipotentia- 
ries were  treacherously  murdered  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  town.  A  monument  marks  the 
spot  where  they  fell.     Population,   16,822. 

Ratisbon  (German,  Regensburg),  a  city  of 
Bavaria,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  about 
sixty-five  miles  northeast  of  Munich.  It  was 
formerly  a  place  of  great  importance,  having 
been,  in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  the  most  popu- 
lous and  flourishing  city  of  Southern  Germany. 
It  was  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  Diet  from  1663 
to  1806.  Its  most  remarkable  building  is  its 
cathedral,  which  dates  from  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury, and  which  was  restored  in  1830-38.  The 
city  has  some  manufactures,  and  ship-building 
is  carried  on.  The  astronomer  Kepler,  to  whom 
a  monument  is  erected  in  the  city,  died  at  Ratis- 
bon,  and  is  buried  there.     Population,  48,801. 

Ravenna,  a  city  of  Italy,  and  the  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Montone,  about  six 
miles  from  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  has  a  cathedral 
which  dates  from  the  Fourth  Century,  but  which 
was  rebuilt  early  in  the  Eighteenth  Century ;  it 
also  contains  many  interesting  remains  of  an- 
tiquity, the  city  having  been,  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  one  of  the  most  important  places  in 
Northern  Italy,  and  at  that  time  a  seaport. 
After  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire, 
Ravenna  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Theodoric,  whose  mausoleum  is  still  in  existence, 
about  a  mile  outside  the  city.  It  also  contains 
the  grave  of  the  poet  Dante,  who  died  at  Ra- 
venna in  1321.  The  place  is  now  of  little  im- 
portance, except  for  its  antiquities.  It  has  some 
manufactures  in  silk,  and  is  connected  with  the 
Adriatic  by  a  canal.     Population,  64,031. 

Red  Sea,  an  extensive  inland  sea,  which 
lies  between  Arabia,  on  the  east,  and  Egypt, 
Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  on  the  west;  and  which 
communicates  with  the  Arabian  Sea  by  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden, 
and  with  the  Mediterranean  at  Port  Said  by  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  Red  Sea  (also  called  the  Arabi- 
an Gulf),  is  about  1,400  miles  long,  and  230  miles 
broad  at  its  broadest  part.  Towards  its  north- 
ern extremity  it  is  divided  into  two  gulfs,  the 
Gulf  of  Suez  (about  180  miles  long),  and  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah,  or  the  Elanitic  Gulf  (about  100 
miles  long),  between  which  is  the  Peninsula  of 
Sinai.  The  sea  is  remarkable"  for  its  coral  reefs, 
which  extend  generally  in  long  strips  parallel 
with  the  shore.  It  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
numerous  islands,  which  cause  the  navigation 
to  be  difficult,  and  occasionally  dangerous,  but 
tliere  are  good  harbors  on  either  side.  Originally 
the  sea  was  called  the  Sea  of  Edom,  which  the 
Romans  translated  into  "Mare  Rubrum,"  or 
Red  Sea.  The  name  "Edom"  signifies  "red," 
and  this  is  doubtless  the  origin  of  the  name;  but 
the  waters  are  said  to  be  in  some  parts  tinged 
with  red,  which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  certain 
marine  plants.  The  average  depth  of  the  sea  is 
aboiit  100  fathoms;  its  greatest  depth  (between 
Jeddah,  in  Arabia,  and  the  opposite  coast)  is 
over  1,000  fathoms. 

Rheims,  or  Reims  (Rems),  a  city  in  the 
French  department  of  Marne;  on  the  Vesle, 
100  miles  east-northeast   of   Paris.     It   is  well 


built,  and  from  the  prevalence  of  the  older  style 
of  domestic  architecture,  has  a  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. Under  the  Frank  rule  it  was  a  place 
of  much  importance,  and  it  acquired  a  deeply 
religious  interest  from  its  having  been  the  scene 
in  496  of  the  baptism  of  Clovis  and  his  chief 
officers  by  the  bishop,  St.  Remy  (438-533).  In 
the  Eighth  Century  it  became  an  archbishopric, 
and  from  1179,  when  Philip  Augustus  was 
solemnly  crowned  here,  it  became  the  place  for 
the  coronation  of  the  kings  of  France.  Joan  of 
Arc  brought  the  dauphin  hither,  and  the  only 
sovereigns  in  the  long  series,  down  to  1825,  not 
crowned  at  Rheims  were  Henry  IV.,  Napoleon 
I.,  and  Louis  XVIII.  In  1830  the  ceremony  of 
coronation  at  Rheims  was  abolished.  The 
cathedral,  though  the  towers  of  the  original  de- 
sign are  still  unfinished,  is  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
tant specimens  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  was 
built  between  1212  and  1430.  The  Roman- 
esque Church  of  St.  Remy  (mainly  1160-1180), 
with  the  saint's  shrine,  is  nearly  of  equal  size,  but 
of  less  architectural  pretension.  Rheims  is  one 
of  the  principal  entrepots  for  the  wines  of  Cham- 
pagne, and  the  hills  which  surround  the  town  are 
planted  with  vineyards.     Population,  109,859. 

Rhine  (German,  Rhein),  the  finest  river  of 
Germany,  and  one  of  the  most  important  rivers 
of  Europe,  its  direct  course  being  460  miles, 
and  its  indirect  course  800  miles  (about  250  miles 
of  its  course  being  in  Switzerland,  450  in  Ger- 
many, and  100  in  Holland);  while  the  area  of 
its  basin  is  75,000  square  miles.  It  is  formed  in 
the  Swiss  canton  Orisons  by  two  main  streams 
called  the  Vorder  and  Hinter  Rhein.  The 
Vorder  Rhein  rises  in  the  Lake  of  Toma,  on  the 
southeast  slope  of  the  St.  Gothard,  at  a  height 
of  7,690  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the  source  of  the 
Rhone,  and  at  Reichenau  unites  with  the  Hinter 
Rhein,  which  issues  from  the  Rheinwald  Glacier, 
7,270  feet  above  sea-level.  Beyond  Reichenau 
the  united  streams  take  the  common  name  of 
Rhine.  Generally  speaking,  it  pursues  a  north- 
ern course  till  it  enters  Holland,  below  Emmer- 
ich, when  it  divides  into  a  number  of  separate 
branches,  forming  a  great  delta,  and  falling  into 
the  sea  by  many  mouths.  That  which  retains 
the  name  of  Rhine,  a  small  stream,  passes  Ley- 
den  and  enters  the  North  Sea.  In  the  German 
part  of  its  course  the  chief  tributaries  are  the  111, 
Nahe,  Moselle,  Ahr,  and  Erft,  Neckar,  Main, 
Lahn,  Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe.  In  Switzerland 
its  tributaries  are  short  and  unimportant,  and 
this  part  of  its  course  is  marked  by  the  Falls  of 
the  Rhine  at  Schaffhausen,  where  the  river  is 
precipitated  in  three  leaps  over  a  ledge  of  rocks 
forty-eight  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  by  the 
cataracts  of  Lauterberg  and  the  rapids  of  Rhein- 
felden.  It  is  navigable  without  interruption 
from  Basel  to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  550  miles, 
liarge  sums  are  spent  every  year  in  keeping  the 
channel  in  order,  and  in  the  erection  or  repair 
of  river  harbors,  both  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
The  Rhine  is  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery,  which  attracts  many  tourists. 

Riiodesia,  the  name  given  to  that  part  of 
South  Africa  which  was  ceded  in  1888  by  the 
King  of  Matabele  to  the  great  imperialist,  Cecil 
John  Rhodes.  Area,  750,000  square  miles; 
population,     1,075,000.     The     whole     territory 


564 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


is  administered  by  the  British  South  African 
Company,  which  was  given  a  royal  charter  in 
October,  1889.  The  River  Zambesi  flows 
through  it,  cutting  the  region  into  two  portions 
—  Southern  and  Northern  Rhodesia. 

Southern  Rhodesia  consists  of  the  two  prov- 
inces of  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland.  The 
capital  and  the  seat  of  government  of  Rhodesia 
is  Salisbury,  with  a  population  of  2,500.  The 
other  principal  townships  are  New  Umtali,  Mel- 
setter,  and  Enkeldoom.  A  railway  has  been 
built,  running  inland  from  Beira,  placing  Salis- 
bury in  direct  communication  with  the  sea  over 
a  line  382  miles  in  length.  Matabeland  lies 
between  the  Limpopo  and  middle  Zambesi 
rivers.  The  principal  town,  and  the  chief 
commercial  center  in  Rhodesia,  is  Bulawayo, 
with  a  population  of  over  5,000.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  Cape  government  west  railway  sys- 
tem through  Kimberley  and  Vryburg  to  Bula- 
wayo was  completed  in  October,  1897.  The 
distance  from  Cape  Town  to  Bulawayo  is  1,360 
miles.  Northern  Rhodesia  consists  of  the  whole 
of  the  British  sphere  north  of  the  Zambesi,  lying 
between  Portuguese  East  Africa,  German  East 
Africa,  the  KoBgo  Free  State,  and  Angola,  with 
the  exception  of  the  strip  of  territory  fonning 
the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate,  which  is 
under  direct  imperial  administration.  North  of 
the  Zambesi  the  country  has  as  yet  been  little 
prospected.  Coal  has  been  found  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Nyassa.  There  are  5,250  square  miles 
of  gold  fields  in  Rhodesia. 

Richmond,  a  city  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  Virginia,  is  finely  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  James  River,  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water, 100  miles  southwest  of  Washington.  The 
streets  are  generally  wide  and  well-built,  and 
mostly  intersect  each  other  at  right  angles. 
There  are  many  fine  buildings,  including  the 
capitol,  governor's  house,  city  hall,  federal  build- 
ings, buildings  of  Richmond  College,  churches, 
schools,  asylums,  etc.  The  State  House  or  cap- 
itol contains  Houdon's  celebrated  marble  statue 
of  Washington,  and  in  the  capitol  grounds  are 
Foley's  bronze  statue  of  General  T.  J.  ("  Stone- 
wall") Jackson  and  Crawford's  bronze  statue  of 
Washington,  twenty-five  feet  high,  on  a  pedestal 
forty-two  feet  high,  surrounded  by  other  bronze 
statues.  Water-power  is  almost  unlimited,  and 
the  various  mills  and  factories  give  employment 
to  numerous  workmen.  The  trade  staples  are 
tobacco,  iron,  grain,  and  flour.  The  first  occu- 
pation of  any  part  of  its  site  was  by  English 
settlers  in  1609;  the  city  was  formally  founded 
in  1742,  and  became  the  seat  of  government  in 
1779.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  the  seat  of 
the  Confederate  Government.  It  was  invested 
by  the  federal  armies,  and  surrendered  on  April 
3,  1865.     Population,  127,628. 

Riga,  a  city  and  capital  of  Livonia,  and 
after  St.  Petersburg  and  Odessa,  the  third  sea- 
port of  Russia,  on  the  Dwina  River,  seven  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  350  miles  south- 
west of  St.  Petersburg,  via  Pskoff.  The  old 
town  has  narrow  streets  and  mediaeval  houses 
and  stores;  but  the  suburbs -are  laid  out  in 
broad  streets  with  handsome  buildings.  The 
chief  edifices  are  the  cathedral  built  in  1204, 
burned  down  in  1547,  but  rebuilt;    St.  Peter's 


Church  (1406),  with  a  steeple  440  feet  high; 
the  castle  of  the  old  Knights  of  the  Sword, 
built  1494-1515,  the  former  residence  of  the 
grandmaster  of  the  order;  and  several  old 
guild  houses  and  Hanseatic  halls.  Riga  was 
founded  in  1201  by  Albert,  Bishop  of  Livonia, 
and  soon  became  a  first-rate  commercial  town, 
and  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1710 
was  annexed  to  Russia.     Population,  282,230. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  or  simply  Rio,  a  city 
and  seaport,  capital  of  Brazil  and  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  the  largest  and  most 
important  city  of  South  America;  on  the  west 
side  of  one  of  the  finest  bays  in  the  world, 
eighty  miles  west  of  Cape  Frio.  The  city  stands 
on  a  tongue  of  land  close  to  the  shore,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  bay,  at  the  foot  of  several  high 
mountains  which  rise  behind  it.  The  houses  are 
generally  built  of  stone  or  brick.  Tlie  streets 
are  straight,  well  paved,  and  have  excellent 
footpaths.  The  convents  and  churches  are  nu- 
merous, but  none  of  them  can  be  called  fine 
buildings.  Parallel  with  the  beach  runs  the  main 
street,  called  Rua  de  Direita,  from  which  the 
minor  streets  branch  off  at  right  angles  and  are 
intersected  by  others  at  regular  distances.  The 
imperial  palace  skirts  the  beach,  and  is  seen  to 
great  advantage  from  the  landing  place,  which 
is  within  sixty  yards  of  its  entrance.  The  other 
public  buildings  are  the  naval  and  military  ar- 
senal, a  public  hospital,  a  national  library  con- 
taining about  286,000  volumes.  The  entrance 
into  it  from  the  sea  does  not  exceed  a  mile  from 
point  to  point;  it  afterward  widens  to  about 
three  or  four  miles.  This  city  is  the  chief  mart 
of  Brazil.     Population,  858,000. 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  a  river,  or  rather  an 
estuary,  on  the  South  American  coast,  between 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay.  The  es- 
tuary itself  is  about  185  miles  long,  and  130 
miles  broad,  at  its  entrance.  It  is  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay,  the  Pilcomayo, 
the  Parana,  the  Uruguay,  and  several  other 
rivers;  the  total  length  of  the  stream,  measured 
from  the  source  of  the  Parana,  being  esti- 
mated at  upwards  of  2,950  miles.  The  estuary 
of  the  La  Plata  is  not  deep ;  and  it  has  a  number 
of  submarine  banks  all  around  its  coasts,  which, 
along  with  its  strong  irregular  currents,  render 
navigation  difficult.  The  waters  of  the  estuary 
are  so  turbid  that  they  tinge  the  sea  visibly  for 
a  distance  of  200  miles  from  its  mouth.  About 
150  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  estuary,  on  its 
southern  side,  is  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres;  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  estuary,  but  nearer  the 
Atlantic,  is  the  city  of  Monte  Video.  The  area 
of  the  basin  of  the  La  Plata,  from  its  source  to 
its  mouth,  is  estimated  at  1,250,000  square 
miles. 

Rivers,  Longest  of  tlie  World 

Name  of  River  Length 

Amazon 3,300 

Amur 2,700 

Arkansas 2,000 

Brahmaputra 1,800 

Camboia i    .    .    .  2,600 

Colorado 2,000 

Columbia, 1,400 

Congo 2,500 

Danube 1,800 

Dnieper 1,400 

Don 1,104 

Dwina 700 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


565 


Name  op  Riveb  Length 

Elbe 700 

Euphrates 1,750 

Ganges 1,500 

Hoang-Ho, .- 2,600 

Hudson 300 

Indus, 2,000 

Irawadi 1,500 

Lena 2,750 

Loire 620 

Mackenzie 2,400 

Martaban, 2,152 

Missouri  and  Mississippi, 4,200 

Murray 1,500 

Nelson 400 

Niger 2,600 

Nile :    .    .    .  3,700 

Obi 2,500 

Ohio  and  Allegheny, 1,265 

Orange 1,152 

Orinoco,      1,500 

Parana, 2,750 

Potomac, 400 

Red  River ; 1,200 

Rhine, 800 

Rhone 550 

Rio  de  la  Plata 2,950 

Rio  Grande 1.800 

Rio  Madeira,      2,300 

Rio  Negro 1,400 

Sao  Francisco 1,800 

Saskatchewan 1,200 

Seine 497 

St.  Lawrence, 700 

Thames 250 

Tiber, 260 

Ural 1,400 

Vistula, 598 

Volga, 2,300 

Yang-tse, 3,000 

Yenesei 3,322 

Yukon 2,000 

Zambezi 1,800 

Riviera  (re-ve-a'rd),  an  Italian  term  for 
coast-land  flanked  by  mountains,  especially  ap- 
plied to  the  strip  of  land  lying  around  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa  from  Nice  to  Leghorn,  which  is  divided 
by  Genoa  into  the  Western  and  Eastern  Riviera, 
the  former  the  more  popular  as  a  health  resort; 
but  the  whole  coast  enjoys  an  exceptionally  mild 
climate,  and  is  replete  with  beautiful  scenery. 

Rocliester,  a  city  and  county-seat  of  Mon- 
roe County,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  Genesee  River,  229 
miles  west  of  Albany.  In  the  center  of  the  city 
are  the  Upper  Falls  of  the  Genesee,  a  perpen- 
dicular cataract  of  ninety-six  feet.  Rochester 
is  built  on  a  plateau  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
263  feet  above  Lake  Ontario.  The  city  is  the 
trade  center  of  a  large  and  rich  agricultural 
region.  In  the  Genesee  River  there  are  three 
falls,  ninety-six,  twenty-six,  and  eighty-three 
feet  respectively,  giving  abundant  water-power 
for  manufacturing.  There  are  over  1,900  in- 
dustrial establishments,  employing  upward  of 
40,000  persons,  with  a  combined  capital  of  about 
$70,000,000,  and  an  output  of  about  $80,000,- 
000.  The  most  important  of  these  are  flour 
mills,  india-rubber  goods,  photographic  materi- 
als, cigarettes,  shoes.,  etc.  In  the  suburbs  is  an 
extensive  nursery,  including  two  great  plants  for 
the  packing  and  shipment  of  garden  and  farm 
seeds.  Rochester  is  the  seat  of  the  University 
of  Rochester,  and  the  Rochester  Theological 
Seminary.  The  most  remarkable  structure  in 
the  city  and  county  is  the  aqueduct  which  car- 
ries the  Erie  Canal  across  the  Genesee  River. 
It  is  of  cut  stone,  848  feet  long,  with  a  channel 
forty-five  feet  wide,  and  is  supported  by  nine 
arches.     Population,  218,149. 

Rocky  Mountains,  a  name  indefinitely 


given  to  the  whole  of  the  extensive  system  of 
mountains  which  covers  a  great  portion  of  the 
western  half  of  North  America,  but  more  proper- 
ly applied  to  the  eastern  border  of  this  mountain 
region,  commencing  in  New  Mexico  in  about 
32°  30'  north  latitude,  and  extending  throughout 
the  continent  to  the  Polar  Sea;  terminating 
west  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  in  latitude  69° 
north,  longitude  135°  west.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  the  United  States  are  divided  into  two 
parts  in  Southern  Wyoming  by  a  tract  of  elevat- 
ed plateaus.  The  chief  group  of  the  southern 
half  are  the  Front  or  Colorado  Range,  which  in 
Wyoming  has  a  mean  elevation  of  9,000  feet 
(at  Evan's  Pass,  where  it  is  crossed  by  the  Union 
Pacific  Railway,  8,269  feet).  In  Colorado  it 
increases  to  a  mean  height  of  13,000  feet,  its 
highest  points  being  Gray's  Peak  (14,341  feet), 
Long's  Peak  (14,271  feet),  and  Pike's  Peak 
(14,108  feet).  The  Sawatch  Range,  south  of  the 
Arkansas  River,  has  its  highest  peak  in  Mount 
Harvard  (14,375  feet),  with  passes  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  12,000  to  13,000  feet.  "Parks"  of 
Colorado  are  high  mountain  valleys,  known  as 
North,  Middle,  South,  and  San  Luis  parks,  with 
an  elevation  of  from  6,000  to  10,000  feet,  sur- 
rounded by  ranges  3,000  to  4,000  feet  higher. 
The  west  border  of  the  San  Luis  Park  is  formed 
by  the  San  Juan  Range  with  at  least  a  dozen 
peaks  over  14,000  feet,  and  between  one  and 
two  hundred  above  13,000  feet.  On  the  north- 
eastern side  this  park  is  bounded  by  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Range,  in  which  is  Blanca  Peak  (14,390 
feet).  The  Uintah  Range,  directly  west  of 
North  Park,  has  several  points  above  13,000 
feet ;  and  the  Wahsatch  Range,  which  forms  the 
western  limit  of  the  southern  division  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  rises  to  a  height  of  12,000  feet 
just  east  of  Salt  Lake  City.  The  northern 
division  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Wind  River  Range  and  the  Yellow- 
stone region,  is  lower  and  has  less  impressive 
scenery  than  the  southern.  In  Idaho  and  Mon- 
tana the  groups  are  more  irregular  in  outline 
than  in  the  south,  and  the  division  into  ranges 
more  uncertain.  Of  these  the  Bitter  Root  Moun- 
tains in  part  of  their  course  form  the  divide 
between  the  Missouri  and  the  Columbia.  There 
two  ranges  reach  altitudes  of  upwards  of  9,000 
feet,  and  are  crossed  by  a  number  of  passes  at 
elevations  of  from  5,500  to  6,500  feet.  The 
Northern  Pacific  Railway  crosses  at  MuUan's 
Pass  (5,548  feet)  through  a  tunnel  3,850  feet 
long.  The  Crazy  Mountains,  north  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, reach  a  height  of  1 1,000  feet ;  other  groups 
are  the  Big  Horn  Moimtains  and  the  Black  Hills, 
whose  highest  point  is  Mount  Harvey  (9,700 
feet).  In  Canada  the  highest  known  peaks  are 
Mount  Logan  (19,500  feet),  and  Mount  Hooker 
(15,700  feet),  lying  about  53°  north  latitude; 
the  general  altitude  of  this  part  of  the  range 
varying  from  10,000  to  14,000  feet.  The  pass 
leading  between  Mount  Brown  and  Mount 
Hooker,  called  the  Athabasca  Portage,  has  a 
height  of  7,300  feet.  The  Rocky  Mountains  con- 
tain some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  world,  and 
are  specially  rich  in  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  iron, 
copper,  etc.,  which  are  worked  extensively. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy,  as  formerly  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  republic,  and  kingdom,  and 


566 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


long  the  religious  center  of  Western  Christendom, 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  interesting  cities 
of  the  world.  It  stands  on  both  sides  of  the 
Tiber,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
city  is  tolerably  healthy  during  most  of  the  year, 
but  in  late  summer  and  early  autumn  malaria 
prevails  to  some  extent.  It  has  been  greatly 
improved  in  cleanliness  and  healthfulness  since 
it  became  the  capital  of  modern  Italy. 

The  streets  of  ancient  Rome  were  crooked 
and  narrow,  till  after  the  fire  that  took  place  in 
Nero's  reign,  when  the  new  streets  were  made 
both  wide  and  straight.  In  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus the  population  is  believed  to  have  amounted 
to  about  1,300,000  and  in  that  of  Trajan  was 
not  far  short  of  2,000,000. 

Ancient  Rome  was  adorned  with  a  vast  num- 
ber of  splendid  buildings,  including  temples, 
palaces,  public  halls,  theaters,  amphitheaters, 
baths,  porticoes,  monuments,  etc.,  of  many  of 
which  we  can  now  form  only  a  very  imperfect 
idea.  The  oldest  and  most  sacred  temple 
was  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  on  the  Capi- 
toline  Hill.  The  Pantheon,  a  temple  of  various 
gods  (now  Church  of  S.  Maria  Rotonda),  is 
still  in  excellent  preservation.  It  is  a  great 
circular  building  with  a  dome  roof  of  stone  140 
feet  wide  and  140  feet  high,  a  marvel  of  construc- 
tion, being  two  feet  wider  than  the  great  dome 
of  St.  Peter's.  The  interior  is  lighted  by  a  single 
aperture  in  the  center  of  the  dome.  Other  tem- 
ples were  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  which  Augustus 
built  of  white  marble,  on  the  Palatine,  containing 
a  splendid  library,  which  served  as  a  place  of 
resort  to  the  poets;  the  Temple  of  Minerva, 
which  Pompey  built  in  the  Campus  Martius,  and 
which  Augustus  covered  with  bronze ;  the  Tem- 
ple of  peace,  once  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
temple  in  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian,  in  the  Via 
Sacra,  which  contained  the  treasures  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  a  splendid  library,  and  other 
curiosities,  but  was  burned  during  the  reign  of 
Commodus;  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  which  Au- 
relian  erected  to  the  east  of  the  Quirinal ;  and  the 
magnificent  temple  of  Venus,  which  Caesar  caused 
to  be  built  to  her  as  the  origin  of  his  family.  The 
principal  palace  of  ancient  Rome  was  the  Pala- 
tium  or  imperial  palace,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  a 
private  dwelling  house  enlarged  and  adopted  as 
the  imperial  residence  by  Augustus.  Succeeding 
emperors  extended  and  beautified  it.  Among 
the  theaters,  those  of  Pompey,  Cornelius  Balbus, 
and  Marcellus  were  the  most  celebrated.  That 
of  Pompey,  in  the  Campus  Martius,  was  capable 
of  containing  40,000  persons.  The  most  magnifi- 
cent of  the  amphitheaters  was  that  of  Titus, 
completed  A.  D.  80,  now  known  as  the  Coliseum 
or  Colosseum.  Though  only  one-third  of  the 
gigantic  structure  remains,  the  ruins  are  still 
stupendous.  The  principal  of  the  circuses  was 
the  Circus  Maximus,  between  the  Palatine  and 
Avei^tine,  which  was  capable  of  containing 
260,000  spectators.  With  slight  exception  its 
walls  have  entirely  disappeared,  but  its  form  is 
still  distinctly  traceable.  The  public  baths  or 
thermae  in  Rome  were  also  very  numerous.  The 
largest  were  the  Thermae  of  Titus,  part  of  the 
substructure  of  which  may  still  be  seen  on  the 
Esquiline  Hill;  the  Thermae  of  Caracalla,  even 
larger,  extensive  remains  of  which  still  exist  in 


the  southeast  of  the  city;  and  the  Thermae  of 
Diocletian,  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of 
all,  part  of  which  is  converted  into  a  church.  Of 
the  triumphal  arches  the  most  celebrated  are 
those  of  Titus  (A.  D.  81),  Severus  (A.  D.  203), 
and  that  of  Constantine  (A.  D.  311),  all  in  or  near 
the  Forum  and  all  well  preserved  structures.  It 
was  not  till  the  Seventeenth  Century  that  the 
modern  city  was  extended  to  its  present  limits 
on  the  right  bank,  by  a  wall  built  under  the 
pontificates  of  Urban  VIII.  (1623-1644)  and 
Iimocent  X.  (1644-1655),  and  inclosing  both  the 
Janiculum  artd  the  Vatican  hills.  The  boundary 
wall  on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  river  follows 
the  same  line  as  that  traced  by  Aurelian  in  the 
Third  Century,  and  must  in  many  parts  be  iden- 
tical with  the  original  structure.  The  walls  on 
both  banks  are  built  of  brick,  with  occasional 
portions  of  stone  work,  and  on  the  outside  are 
about  fifty-five  feet  high.  The  greater  part 
dates  from  A.  D.  271  to  276.  The  city  is  entered 
by  twelve  gates  (several  of  those  of  earlier  date 
being  now  walled  up)  and  several  railway  acces- 
ses. Since  Rome  became  the  capital  of  United 
Italy  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
appearance  of  the  city,  many  miles  of  new  streets 
being  built,  and  much  done  in  the  way  of  paving, 
drainage,  and  other  improvements.  It  has  thus 
lost  much  of  its  ancient  picturesque  appearance, 
and  is  rapidly  acquiring  the  look  of  a  great  mod- 
ern city  witn  wide  straight  streets  of  uniform- 
looking  tenements  having  little  distinctive  char- 
acter. The  three  finest  streets,  the  Corso  and 
the  strade  del  Babbuino  and  di  Ripetta,  diverge 
from  the  piazza  del  Popolo  near  the  north  gate. 
The  city  is  divided  into  14  rioni  or  quarters, 
twelve  of  which  are  on  the  left  bank  and  two 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  The  latter  two 
are  the  rione  Trastevere,  the  ancient  Janiculum, 
and  the  rione  di  Borgo,  containing  the  castle  of 
Sant'  Angelo,  the  citadel,  now  chiefly  used  as  a 
state  prison,  and  the  Vatican.  Besides  the 
great  collection  of  the  Vatican,  there  are  ten  or 
eleven  public  libraries.  There  are  in  the  city 
about  360  churches.  Preeminent  among  the 
Christian  temples  of  the  world  is  St.  Peter's 
church.  The  chief  church  in  point  of  antiquity 
and  ecclesiastical  dignity  is  the  church  of  St. 
John  Lateran.  Among  the  principal  palaces  are 
the  palazzi  Doria,  Ruspoli,  Corsini,  Orsini,  Gius- 
tiniani,  Altieri,  Cicciaporci,  Famese,  Barberini, 
and  Colonna.  The  Quirinal,  formerly  the  pope's 
ordinary  residence,  is  now  the  royal  palace,  the 
pope  residing  in  the  Vatican.  On  the  Capitoline 
hill  are  three  palaces  appropriated  for  the  as- 
semblies of  the  magistrates,  the  observatory, 
and  the  fine  art  collections.  There  are  several 
palaces  which,  from  being  surrounded  by  ex- 
tensive gardens,  are  called  villas.  Of  these  the 
principal  is  the  villa  Borghese,  the  gardens  of 
which  form  the  most  fashionable  promenade  in 
Rome.  There  are  many  squares  and  fountains 
in  the  city.  Among  the  most  curious  remains 
of  ancient  Rome  are  the  catacombs.  The 
Ghetto,  the  quarter  in  which  the  Jewish  inhabit- 
ants were  formerly  confined,  is  a  relic  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Till  the  establishment  of  the  Italian  kingdom, 
Rome  was  the  capital  of  the  states  of  the  Church ; 
and  it  was,  at  a  much  earlier  period,  the  capital 


GEOGRAPHY,.  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


567 


of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  was  founded  by 
Romulus  about  753  B.  C.  At  first  only  a  small 
castle  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Palatinus,  it 
had  grown  by  the  time  of  Servius  TuUius,  the 
sixth  of  its  kings,  who  died  534  B.  C,  large 
enough-  to  occupy  the  "seven  hills  of  Rome" 
("Palatinus,"  " Capitohnus,"  "Quirinalis,"  "Cae- 
lius,"  "  Aventinus,"  "  Viminalis,"  "  Esquilinus  "), 
and  was  hence  called  "the  city  of  the  seven 
hills."  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
the  first  of  the  emperors,  who  died  A.  D.  14, 
the  population  of  the  city  is  estimated  to  have 
been  at  least  1,300,000;  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperors  Vespasian  and  Trajan  (A.  D.  70-117), 
it  is  believed  to  have  contained  nearly  2,000,000. 
About  728  the  city  of  Rome  became  independ- 
ent under  the  popes,  and  it  remained  (with  the 
exception  of  vicissitudes)  the  seat  of  the  Papal 
Court  till  the  abolition  of  the  temporal  power  of 
the  popes  in  1870.  Since  then,  Rome  has  been 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  only  the 
Vatican  being  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  pope. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  founded  in 
1244.     Population,  462,783. 

Rotterdam,  the  chief  port  and  second  city 
of  Holland,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Rotte 
with  the  Maas,  nineteen  miles  from  the  North 
Sea  and  forty-five  miles  southwest  of  Amster- 
dam; the  town  is  cut  in  many  parts  by  hand- 
some canals,  which  communicate  with  the  river 
and  serve  to  facilitate  the  enormous  foreign 
commerce;  the  quaint  old  houses,  the  stately 
public  buildings,  broad  tree-lined  streets,  canals 
alive  with  fleets  of  trim  barges,  combine  to  give 
the  town  a  picturesque  and  animated  appear- 
ance. Boymans'  Museum  has  a  fine  collection 
of  Dutch  and  modern  paintings,  and  the  Groote 
Kerk  is  a  Gothic  church  of  imposing  appearance ; 
there  is  also  a  large  zoological  garden;  ship- 
building, distilling,  sugar-refining,  machine  and 
tobacco  factories  are  the  chief  industries.  Pop- 
ulation, 403,356. 

Roumania,  a  European  kingdom,  bounded 
by  Austria-Hungary,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  the 
Black  Sea,  and  Russia;  area,  50,700  square 
miles.  It  includes  the  former  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities of  Walachia  and  Moldavia  and  the 
province  of  the  Dobrudsha  on  the  Black  Sea. 
Population,  5,956,690.  The  capital  is  Bukarest; 
other  chief  towns  are  Jassy,  Galatz,  Braila,  and 
Giurgevo.  The  surface  is  mainly  occupied  by 
undulating  and  well-watered  plains  of  great  fer- 
tility, gradually  sloping  upwards  to  the  Car- 
pathians on  the  north  and  west  borders,  where 
the  summits  range  from  2,650  to  8,800  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  entire  kingdom  is  in  the 
basin  of  the  Danube,  which  has  a  course  of  595 
miles  in  Roumania,  forming  the  boundary  with 
Bulgaria  nearly  the  whole  way.  Its  chief  Rou- 
manian tributaries  are  the  Olta  or  Aluta,  Ardjis, 
Jalomitza,  Sereth,  and  Pruth  (on  northwest 
border).  The  Danube  forms  a  number  of  marshy 
lakes  as  it  approaches  the  alluvial  region  of  the 
Dobrudsha,  through  which  it  discharges  itself 
into  the  Black  Sea  by  the  St.  George,  Sulina, 
and  Kilia  Channels.  The  climate  is  much  more 
extreme  than  at  the  same  latitude  in  other 
parts  of  Europe;  the  summer  is  hot  and  rain- 
less, the  winter  sudden  and  very  intense;  there 
is  almost  no  spring,  but  the  autumn  is  long  and 


pleasant.  Roumania  is  an  essentially  agricul- 
tural and  pastoral  state,  fully  70  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants  being  directly  engaged  in  hus- 
bandry. The  chief  cereal  crops  are  maize, 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats;  tobacco,  hemp, 
and  flax  are  also  grown ;  and  wine  is  produced 
on  the  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians. 
Cattle,  she^,  and  horses  are  reared  in  large 
numbers.  The  country  is  rich  in  minerals  of 
nearly  every  description,  but  salt,  petroleum, 
and  lignite  are  the  only  minerals  worked. 
Manufactures  are  still  in  a  rudimentary  state. 
Trade  is  fairly  active,  but  almost  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  foreigners;  the  internal  trade  is 
chiefly  carried  on  by  Jews.  The  chief  exports  are 
grain  (especially  maize),  cattle,  timber,  and  fruit ; 
the  chief  imports,  manufactured  goods,  coal,  etc. 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Austria-Hungary 
appropriate  by  far  the  greatest  share  of  the 
foreign  trade,  the  bulk  of  which  passes  through 
the  Black  Sea  ports.  The  Roumanians,  who  call 
themselves  Romani,  claim  to  be  descendants  of 
Roman  colonists  introduced  by  Trajan;  but  the 
traces  of  Latin  descent  are  in  great  part  due  to 
a  later  immigration,  about  the  Twelfth  Centuiy, 
from  the  Alpine  districts.  Their  language  and 
history  both  indicate  that  they  are  a  mixed 
race  with  many  constituents.  Their  language, 
however,  must  be  classed  as  one  of  the  Romance 
tongues,  though  it  contains  a  large  admixture  of 
foreign  elements.  In  Roumania  there  are  about 
4,500,000  Roumanians,  300,000  Jews,  200,000 
gypsies,  50,000  Bulgars,  1,500  Magyars,  20,000 
Germans,  20,000  Greeks,  and  15,000  Armenians. 
Three-fourths  of  the  population  are  peasants, 
who,  till  1864,  were  kept  in  virtual  serfdom  by 
the  boiars  or  nobles.  In  that  year  upward  of 
400,000  peasant  families  were  made  proprietors 
of  small  holdings  averaging  ten  acres,  at  a  price 
to  be  paid  back  to  the  state  in  fifteen  years. 
About  4,500,000  of  the  people  belong  to  the 
Greek  Church.  Energetic  efforts  are  being  made 
to  raise  education  from  its  present  low  level. 
Roumania  has  two  universities  (at  Bucharest  and 
Jassy),  several  gymnasia,  and  a  system  of  free 
primary  schools. 

Russia,  one  of  the  most  powerful  empires 
of  the  world,  second  only  in  extent  to  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  and  third  as  regards  population, 
the  British  Empire  ranking  first,  the  Chinese 
Empire  second.  It  comprehends  most  of  East- 
ern Europe  and  all  Northern  Asia,  and  is  bounded 
north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  west  by  Sweden, 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic,  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Roumania;  south  by  the  Black  Sea, 
Turkey  in  Asia,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  the  Chinese 
Empire ;  east  by  the  Pacific  and  Behring  Strait. 
The  total  area  has  been  officially  estimated  at 
8,647,657  square  miles,  while  the  population  is 
as  follows: 
Russia  in  Europe  (including  Poland), 

122,418,200 

Finland, 2,925,300 

Caucasian  Provinces, 10,653,900 

Siberia,  ....    r  ......    .         6,893,900 

Central  Asia, 9,118,000 

152,009,300 
The  largest  towns  are  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
Warsaw,  Odessa,  Lodz,  Kiev,  Riga,  Kharkoff, 


568 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


and  Tiflis.  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  are  the 
capitals  of  the  empire.  European  Russia  con- 
sists almost  wholly  of  immense  plains,  the  Val- 
dai Hills,  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow, 
averaging  500  feet  and  never  exceeding  1,200 
feet  above  sea-level,  forming  the  only  elevated 
region  of  the  interior  and  an  important  water- 
shed. The  mountains  include:  the  Caucasus, 
running  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian, 
reach  to  the  height  of  18,500  feet;  the  Urals, 
stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  separating  European  from  Asiatic  Russia, 
have  their  greatest  height  below  7,000  feet. 
Beyond  the  Urals  are  the  vast  Siberian  plains. 
The  whole  of  the  vast  empire  is  watered  by 
numerous  rivers,  some  running  a  course  of  thou- 
sands of  miles.  Altogether  Russia  and  Poland 
have  49,000  miles  of  navigable  rivers.  Asiatic 
Russia  has  also  a  number  of  very  large  rivers, 
as  the  Obi,  Yenisei,  and  Lena  in  Siberia,  and 
the  Amur  toward  the  Chinese  frontier.  This 
complete  river  system  is  of  incalculable  value 
to  Russia,  as  by  its  means  internal  communica- 
tion is  carried  on.  Canals  connect  the  navi- 
gable rivers,  so  as  to  form  continuous  water- 
ways; there  being  500  miles  of  canals  and  717 
of  canalized  rivers.  As  may  be  expected  from 
its  vastness,  this  empire  offers  soils  and  climates 
oT  almost  every  variety.  Extreme  cold  in  win- 
ter and  extreme  heat  in  summer,  are,  however, 
a  general  characteristic  of  Russian  climates.  As 
regards  soil,  large  sections  of  Russia  are  sandy, 
barren  wastes  and  vast  morasses.  The  most 
productive  portion  is  that  between  the  Bal 
and  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  Volga,  on  the 
north  and  east;  Prussia,  Austria,  etc.,  on  the 
west;  and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  south.  It  has, 
generally  speaking,  a  soft,  black  mold  of  great 
depth,  mostly  on  a  sandy  bottom,  easily  wrought, 
and  very  fertile.  The  more  southern  portion  of 
Siberia,  as  far  east  as  the  river  Lena,  has,  for 
the  most  part,  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces,  not- 
withstanding the  severity  of  the  climate,  nearly 
all  kinds  of  grain.  Boundless  forests  exist,  the 
area  of  the  forest  land  in  Europe  being  42  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area.  The  fir,  larch,  alder, 
and  birch  predominate.  Most  of  the  forest  land 
is  now  under  government  control,  and  waste  is 
prevented.  Agriculture  remains  the  chief  pur- 
suit of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  For  some 
years  it  has,  however,  remained  stationary, 
while  manufacturing  industries  are  steadily  go- 
ing ahead.  The  chief  crops  are  rye,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco.  Vine  and 
beet  culture  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  the  breed- 
ing of  horses  and  cattle  is  also  extensively 
carried  on.  Russia  is  rich  in  minerals.  The 
precious  metals  are  chiefly  obtained  in  the  Ural 
and  Altai  regions.  The  output  for  1905  was, 
gold,  l,078,375ounces;  platinum, 204,988 ounces; 
silver,  165,831  ounces.  In  the  Ural,  iron  beds 
are  also  rich  and  numerous,  exceeding  all  others 
in  productiveness.  Copper  is  most  abundant  in 
the  government  of  Perm;  lead  in  the  Ural  and 
some  parts  of  Poland;  saltpeter  in  Astrakhan. 
Of  the  coal  mines  those  of  the  Don  basin  are 
the  principal  at  present,  those  of  Kielce  ranking 
second;  the  mines  around  Moscow  come  next. 
About  60,000  tons  of  manganese  ore  are  annu- 
ally extracted  in  the  Ural  and  the  Caucasus. 


The  petroleum  wells  of  Baku  on  the  Caspian 
now  send  their  products  all  over  Europe.  Prior 
to  the  accession  of  Peter  the  Gr^at,  Russia  had 
no  manufactures;  he  started  them,  and  under 
the  more  or  less  fostering  care  of  his  successors 
and  Russia's  protective  policy  they  have  stead- 
ily grown.  The  latest  statistics  give  a  total  of 
about  1,400,000  persons  as  being  employed  in 
the  various  manufacturing  industries.  Two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  production  comes  from  the 
two  capitals,  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  The 
various  manufactures  rank  approximately  as 
follows:  spirits,  sugar,  cottons,  yarns,  flour, 
tobacco,  foundry  products,  flax,  Unen,  leather, 
woolen  cloth,  iron,  machinery,  beer,  soap, 
timber,  paper,  oil,  glass,  chemicals,  and  agri- 
cultural implements.  The  bulk  of  Russia's  ex- 
ternal trade  is  carried  on  through  the  European 
frontier  and  the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  ports. 
The  chief  exports  are:  grain  (about  one-half  of 
entire  exports),  flax,  linseed,  and  other  oleagi- 
nous seeds,  timber,  hemp,  wool,  butter  and  eggs, 
spirits,  bristles,  and  furs,  in  the  order  indicated. 
The  chief  imports  are  cotton,  wool,  tea,  machin- 
ery, coal  and  coke,  cotton  yarn,  metal  goods, 
wine,  olive  oil,  raw  silk,  herrings,  textile  goods, 
fruit,  coffee,  tobacco.  The  import  trade  is 
heaviest  with  Germany,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Belgium,  in  the  order 
named.  In  the  export  trade  Great  Britain  takes 
the  lead,  Holland,  France,  and  Germany  following. 

San  Francisco,  the  most  important  city 
of  California,  and  the  principal  emporium  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  of  America,  is  situated  on  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.  The  bay,  which  is  fifty  miles  long 
by  five  miles  wide,  makes  one  of  the  grandest 
harbors  in  the  world,  and  the  principal  one  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  mean  altitude  is  130  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  city  is  served  by  an  exten- 
sive waterworks  system.  The  reservoirs  have 
a  storage  capacity  of  100,000,000  gallons,  and 
the  consumption  averages  30,000,000  gallons  per 
day.  There  are  in  all  750  miles  of  streets,  of 
which  192  miles  are  paved.  The  sewer  system 
covers  308  miles,  and  the  annual  cost  of  main- 
taining the  city  government  exceeds  $7,000,000. 
The  Golden  Gate  Park,  named  after  the  popular 
name  of  the  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Bay,  is 
the  most  important  park  in  the  city,  comprising 
1,043  acres.  It  extends  from  the  city  to  the 
ocean.  About  half  of  it  is  beautifuUy  laid  out 
in  promenades,  drives,  lawns,  etc.  It  was  here 
that  the  Midwinter  Exposition  was  held  in  1894. 
The  park  contains  a  magnificent  conservatory, 
and  monuments  of  Francis  Scott  Key,  author  of 
"The  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  President  Gar- 
field, General  Halleck,  and  Thomas  Starr  King. 
Hill  Park,  lying  a  half  mile  east  of  Golden  Gate 
Park,  affords  a  fine  view  from  its  highest  point, 
which  is  570  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Presidio,  or 
Government  Military  Reservation,  extends  along 
the  Golden  Gate  for  about  four  miles,  and  has  an 
area  of  1,500  acres.  The  city  proper  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  earthquake  and  fire,  April 
18,  1906,  and  following.  The  loss  amounted  to 
nearly  $250,000,000 ;  but  with  marvelous 
energy  the  city  was  rapidly  rebuilt,  on  a  mag- 
nificent scale.     Population,  416,912. 

Scotland,  the  northern  division  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britain.     The  greatest  length, 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


569 


from  north-northeast  to  south-southwest,  be- 
tween Dunnet  Head  and  the  Mull  of  Galloway, 
is  287  miles.  The  breadth  varies  from  140  miles 
to  less  than  thirty,  the  latter  in  the  north,  be- 
tween Dornoch  Firth  and  Loch  Broom.  Few 
points  in  the  mainland  are  more  than  forty 
miles  from  the  sea,  the  country  being  so  much 
penetrated  by  inlets.  The  chief  cities  are: 
Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen. 

The  islands  of  Scotland  number  altogether 
nearly  800.  On  the  east  coast  they  are  few 
and  small;  but  on  the  northeast  coast  are  the 
two  large  groups  of  the  Orkneys"  and  Shet- 
lands;  while  on  the  west  coast  the  islands 
are  large  and  numerous.  The  west  coast  of  the 
mainland  is  generally  a  wild,  deeply  indented 
mountain  wall,  presenting  a  series  of  inlets  or 
sea  lochs,  while  toward  the  middle  the  coast  is 
cleft  by  two  great  inlets  opening  to  the  south- 
west, the  Firth  of  Lorn  and  its  continuation 
Loch  Linnhe,  and  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  The  east 
coast  is  sometimes  low  and  sandy,  but  is  often 
formed  of  steep,  rocky  cliffs  of  considerable  ele- 
vation, the  chief  inlets  being  the  Firth  of  Forth 
and  Tay,  the  Moray  Firth,  Cromarty  Firth, 
etc.  I 

Both  from  the  configuration  of  the  surface 
and  the  geological  structure,  the  country  na- 
turally divides  into  the  Highlands  in  the  north, 
Central  Lowlands,  and  Southern  Uplands.  The 
Highland  division  is  remarkable  for  its  moun- 
tain-masses, many  of  the  summits  being  over 
4,000  feet  high.  The  best  known  are  the ; 
Grampians,  which  form  a  system  covering  a 
large  area,  and  culminating  on  the  west  coast 
in  Ben  Nevis,  4,406  feet  high;  while  fifty-five 
miles  to  the  northeast  rises  a  remarkable  cluster 
of  summits  reaching  in  Ben  Macdhui  the  height 
of  4,296  feet.  The  Grampians  and  their  con- 
nections are  separated  from  the  mountains  far- 
ther to  the  north  by  Glenmore  or  the  Great  Glen 
of  Scotland,  a  remarkable  depression  stretching 
from  sea  to  sea,  and  forming,  by  the  series  of 
lakes  occupying  it  and  the  Caledonian  Canal 
connecting  them,  a  waterway  from  the  west 
coast  to  the  east.  The  Southern  Uplands  are 
also  essentially  a  mountainous  region,  sum-  j 
mits  of  over  2,000  feet  being  frequent,  though 
none  exceed  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
Central  region,  though  much  less  elevated 
than  the  other  two  divisions,  has  none  of  the 
monotony  usual  in  flat  countries.  Though 
occupying  not  more  than  a  sixth  of  the  whole 
surface  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  its  mineral 
treasures  make  this  part  by  far  the  wealthiest 
and  most  populous. 

The  chief  rivers  flow  (roughly  speaking)  to 
the  east,  and  enter  the  German  Ocean,  the  largest 
being  the  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  South  Esk,  North 
Esk,  Dee,  Don,  Deveron,  Spey,  Findhorn,  etc. ; 
those  entering  the  sea  on  the  west  are  the  Clyde, 
Ayr,  Doon,  Dee,  Nith,  Annan,  and  Esk.  The 
Tay  carries  to  the  sea  a  larger  quantity  of  water 
than  any  river  in  Britain,  but  neither  it  nor 
most  of  the  others,  except  when  they  form  estu- 
aries, are  of  much  use  for  navigation.  The 
Clyde,  however,  in  its  lower  course  carries  a  vast 
traffic,  this  being  rendered  possible  chiefly  by 
dredging.  Many  of  the  rivers  are  valuable  from 
the  numbers  of  salmon  they  produce.     A  strik- 


ing feature  of  the  country  is  the  great  multitude 
of  lakes,  varying  in  size  from  Loch  Lomond 
(twenty-eight  square  miles)  to  the  pool-like 
mountain  tarns.  In  the  Northern  Highlands  al- 
most every  glen  has  its  lake  and  every  mountain 
hollow  is  filled  by  a  stream  or  spring.  Among 
the  more  noted  are  Lochs  Lomond,  Katrine,  Tay, 
Earn,  Rannoch  Awe,  Shiel,  Laggan,  Lochy, 
Ness,  Maree,  Shin,  in  the  Western  and  Northern 
Highlands;  Loch  Leven,  in  the  Central  High- 
lands; and  St.  Mary's  Loch,  Lochs  Ken,  Dee, 
and  Doon  in  the  Southern  Uplands. 

Seasons,  the  four  divisions  or  portions  of 
the  year:  namely,  spring,  when  the  sun  enters 
Aries;  summer,  when  he  enters  Cancer;  au- 
tumn, when  he  enters  Libra;  and  winter,  when 
he  enters  Capricorn.  Hence  spring  is  supposed 
to  commence  about  the  21st  of  March;  sum- 
mer, about  the  22d  of  June;  autumn,  about 
the  22d  of  September;  and  winter,  about  the 
21st  «f  December.  The  diversity  of  the  seasons 
depends  upon  the  oblique  position  of  the  sun's 
path  through  the  heavens;  in  consequence  of 
which  this  luminary  rises  to  different  heights 
above  the  horizon,  making  the  day  sometimes 
longer,  and  sometimes  shorter,  than  the  nights. 
When  the  sun  rises  highest  at  noon,  its  rays 
fall  most  nearly  in  the  direction  of  a  perpen- 
dicular, and  consequently  a  greater  number  is 
received  upon  a  given  spot;  their  action  also, 
at  the  same  time,  continues  the  longest.  These 
circumstances  make  the  difference  between 
summer  and  winter. 

Seattle,  the  largest  city  of.  Washington, 
is  magnificently  situated  in  King  County,  on 
Puget  Sound,  midway  between  the  Coast  and 
Cascade  ranges.  The  city  has  a  splendid  har- 
bor, and  is  the  terminus  of  several  transcon- 
tinental railroads.  Commercially  and  indus- 
trially Seattle  is  one  of  the  foremost  cities  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  opening  of  the  Alaskan 
territory,  and  the  increased  trade  with  the 
Orient  have  contributed  to  the  growth  of  the 
city  in  recent  years.  Manufacturing  interests 
are  large,  electric  power  being  derived  from 
Snoqualmie  Falls,  19  miles  distant  and  270 
feet  high.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of 
Washington,  a  state  institution.  The  Alaska- 
Yukon-Pacific  Exposition  was  held  here  in 
1909.     Population,  237,194. 

Shanghai,  a  city  and  seaport  of  China,  in 
the  province  of  Kiangsu;  near  the  junction  of 
the  Hwang-pu  and  the  Wu-sung  rivers.  The 
Chinese  city  proper  is  inclosed  within  walls 
twenty-four  feet  high,  the  streets  being  narrow 
and  dirty,  and  the  buildings  low,  crowded,  and 
for  the  most  part  unimportant.  In  1843 
Shanghai  was  opened  as  one  of  the  five  treaty 
ports,  and  an  important  foreign  settlement  is 
now  established  (with  a  separate  government) 
outside  the  city  walls.  Shanghai  has  water  com- 
munication with  about  a  third  of  China,  and  its 
trade  since  the  opening  of  the  port  has  become 
very  extensive.  The  chief  imports  are  cottons, 
yarns,  woolens,  and  opium;  and  the  exports, 
silk,  tea,  rice,  and  raw  cotton.  The  largest  part 
of  the  foreign  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  British  and 
American  merchants.  Population,  about  651,000. 

Snow,  water  deposited  from  the  atmosphere 
in  a  frozen  condition,  the  ice  being  in  the  form 


570 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


of  distinct  crystals  which  have  become  inter- 
laced one  with  another,  producing  bulky  light 
feathery  flakes.  The  atmosphere  offers  con- 
siderable resistance  to  the  passage  of  these 
flakes,  and  consequently  the  fall  of  each  snow- 
flake  is  comparatively  slow.  It  appears  highly 
probable  that  snow  is  formed  when  aqueous 
vapor  is  condensed  in  an  upper  layer  of  the 
atmosphere  which  has  previously  been  cooled 
down  considerably  below  the  freezing-point. 
Under  these  conditions  the  minute  particles  of 
ice  are  deposited  one  upon  another,  and  arrange 
themselves  in  definite  crystals.  It  is  found 
that  all  these  snow  crystals  have  a  form  derived 
from  the  hexagon. 

Sophia,  Church  of  St.,  in  Constanti- 
nople, the  most  celebrated  ecclesiastical  edifice 
of  the  Greek  Church,  now  used  as  a  mosque; 
was  built  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  and  dedi- 
cated in  558.  It  is  in  the  Byzantine  style  of 
architecture,  has  a  fine  dome  rising  to  the  height 
of  180  feet,  and  is  richly  decorated  in  the  in- 
terior. The  mass  of  the  edifice  is  of  brick,  but 
is  overlaid  with  marble;  the  floor  is  of  mosaic 
work,  composed  of  porphyry  and  verd  antique. 
The  great  piers  which  support  the  dome  consist 
of  square  blocks  of  stone  bound  with  hoops  of 
iron.  The  numerous  pillars  supporting  the  in- 
ternal galleries,  etc.,  are  of  white  and  colored 
marbles,  porphyry,  granite,  etc.,  and  have  cap- 
itals of  various  peculiar  forms.  The  interior  of 
the  church  is  243  feet  in  width  from  north 
to  south,  and  269  feet  in  length  from  east  to 
west. 

Spain,  a  kingdom  in  the  southwest  of  Eu- 
rope, forming  with  Portugal  the  great  southwest 
peninsula  of  Europe.  It  is  separated  from 
France  on  the  northeast  by  the  chain  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  is  otherwise  bounded  by  Portugal 
and  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  In  great- 
est breadth  north  and  south  it  measures  540 
miles;  greatest  length  east  and  west,  620  miles. 
Spain  retains  practically  none  of  her  once  mag- 
nificent colonies.  The  war  with  the  United 
States  deprived  her  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  the 
Philippine  and  Sulu  Islands,  and  Guam;  and 
a  treatjr  with  Germany,  February  8,  1899,  of 
the  Marianne  (or  Ladrone),  Caroline,  and  Pelew 
Islands.  On  November  8,  1900,  Spain  sold  the 
islands  of  Cagayan  and  Sibutu  to  the  United 
States  for  $100,000.  Her  last  remaining  colo- 
nies are  in  Africa.  The  coast  line  is  not  much 
broken,  but  sweeps  round  in  gentle  curves. 
The  interior  is  considerably  diversified,  but 
its  characteristic  feature  is  its  cen-tral  table- 
land, which  has  an  elevation  of  from  2,200  to 
2,800  feet,  and  a  superficial  extent  of  not  less 
than  90,000  square  miles.  It  descends  grad- 
ually on  the  west  toward  Portugal ;  but  on  the 
east,  toward  the  provinces  of  Catalonia  and 
on  the  north  by  the  Asturian  and  Cantabrian 
Mountains,  reaching  an  elevation  of  about  8,500 
feet,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Sierra  Morena. 
Besides  these  ranges,  there  is  the  chain  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which,  though  partly  belonging  to 
France,  presents  its  boldest  front  to  Spain  and 
has  its  loftiest  summits  within  it.  The  whole 
country  teems  with  mineral  wealth,  including 
gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  lead,  copper,  iron,  zinc, 
calamine,    antimony,    tin,    coal,    etc.     The    ex- 


ploitation of  the  minerals  has,  however,  in  recent 
times  been  mostly  accomplished  by  foreign 
capital,  while  most  of  the  ore  is  exported  to 
foreign  countries  in  its  raw  state.  About  one- 
sixth  of  the  acreage  is  under  wood;  the  more 
remarkable  trees  being  the  Spanish  chestnut 
and  several  varieties  of  oak,  and  in  particular 
the  cork  oak.  Fruits  are  extremely  abundant, 
and  include,  in  addition  to  apples,  pears,  cherries 
plums,  peaches,  and  apricots,  the  almond,  date, 
fig,  orange,  citron,  olive,  and  pomegranate; 
and  in  the  lower  districts,  the  pineapple  and 
banana.  The  culture  of  the  vine  is  general,  and 
great  quantities  of  wine  are  made,  both  for 
home  consumption  and  exportation.  The  more 
important  farm  crops  are  wheat,  rice,  maize, 
barley,  and  legumes.  In  the  south,  cotton  and 
sugar  cane  are  grown.  Hemp,  flax,  esparto, 
the  mulberry  for  rearing  silk  worms,  saffron, 
licorice,  are  also  to  be  mentioned. 

St.  Lawrence,  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
in  the  world,  which  rises  under  the  name  of  the 
St.  Louis,  and  drains  the  great  chain  of  North 
American  lakes.  In  different  parts  of  its  course 
it  is  known  by  different  names.  From  the  sea 
to  Lake  Ontario  it  is  called  St.  Lawrence;  be- 
tween Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  it  is  called 
Niagara  River;  between  Lakes  Erie  and  St. 
Clair,  Detroit  River;  between  Lakes  St.  Clair 
and  Huron,  St.  Clair  River;  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior,  St.  Mary's  River  or  the 
Narrows,  forming  thus  an  uninterrupted  water- 
way of  upwards  of  1,030  miles.  It  receives  the 
Ottawa,  its  principal  auxiliary,  at  Montreal,  as 
also  the  St.  Maurice,  the  Saguenay,  and  numer- 
ous other  large  rivers  from  the  north.  The 
river  is  navigable  for  Atlantic  steamers  to  the 
city  of  Montreal,  600  miles  up,  and  from  Mon- 
treal upwards  by  river  and  lake  steamers.  The 
rapids  between  Montreal  and  Lake  Ontario  are 

Eassed  by  means  of  canals,  and  Niagara  Falls 
y  the  Welland  Canal.  The  river's  breadth 
between  Montreal  and  Quebec  is  from  one-half 
mile  to  four  miles;  the  average  breadth,  about 
two  miles.  Below  Quebec  it  gradually  widens 
till  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  From 
the  beginning  of  December  to  the  middle  of 
April  the  navigation  is  totally  suspended  by  ice. 
In  part  of  its  course  it  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada. 

St.  Louis,  chief  city  of  Missouri,  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  twenty  miles 
south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  is  the  fourth 
city  in  the  United  States  in  population,  and  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
The  city  is  built  on  rising  ground,  comprising 
three  terraces,  the  highest  of  which  is  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  river.  The  city  owns  an 
extensive  water-works  system,  costing  $20,000,- 
000.  St.  Louis  has  a  park  system  which  con- 
stitutes one  of  its  most  attractive  features. 
The  total  area  is  2,268  acres.  Forest  Park, 
which  comprises  1,370  acres,  is  the  largest,  and 
probably  the  most  beautiful  of  the  parks.  Tower 
Grove  Park,  covering  276  acres  was  the  donation 
of  Henry  Shaw,  who  also  gave  the  city  the 
Missouri  Botanical  Garden.  The  fair  grounds, 
with  137  acres,  contain  a  one-mile  race  track, 
an  amphitheater  seating  40,000  people,  many 
halls,    etc.     Carondelet    and    Lafayette    Parks 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


571 


are  small  but  fine  specimens  of  landscape  gar- 
dening. The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  massive  post-oflfice  and  custom-house, 
costing  more  than  $6,500,000;  the  city  hall, 
built  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000;  the  court-house; 
the  union  railroad  station  with  a  train  house 
covering  thirty  tracks,  and  used  by  twenty- 
one  railroad  companies,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$6,500,000;  and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
building,  costing  $2,000,000.  The  St.  Louis 
bridge,  a  massive  structure,  was  completed  in 
1874  at  a  cost  of  over  $10,000,000.  It  consists 
of  three  spans,  the  center  one  being  520  feet 
long,  and  the  other  two  500  feet  each.  The 
piers  upon  which  these  spans  rest  are  built  of 
limestone  carried  down  to  bed  rock.  The  main 
passage  for  pedestrians  is  fifty-four  feet  wide, 
and  below  this  are  two  lines  of  rails.  The  mer- 
chant's bridge,  three  miles  north,  was  completed 
in  1890  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000.  It  is  used  ex- 
clusively for  railroad  traffic.  The  favorable 
location  of  St.  Louis  in  the  heart  of  the  vast  and 
fertile  Mississippi  Valley  makes  it  one  of  the 
greatest  commercial  cities  in  the  United  States. 
There  is  an  immense  trade  in  breadstuffs,  grain, 
provisions,  lumber,  hides,  fur,  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, manufactured  articles,  etc.  There  are 
about  7,000  manufacturing  establishments,  with 
a  combined  capital  of  about  $150,000,000,  and 
employing  upward  of  100,000  persons.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  tobacco  manufacturing  cities  in 
the  world.  The  city  has  direct  communication 
with  more  than  6,000  miles  of  rivers.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  its  foreign  trade  is  entered  and 
cleared  at  New  Orleans.  St.  Louis  is  the  seat  of 
Washington  University.     Population,  687,029. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden;  on 
several  islands  and  the  adjacent  mainland, 
between  a  bay  of  the  Baltic  and  Lake  Malar; 
in  a  situation  that  is  accounted  one  of  the  most 

Eicturesque  in  Europe.  The  nucleus  of  Stock- 
olm  is  an  island  in  mid-channel  called  "The 
Town " ;  on  it  stand  the  imposing  royal  pal- 
ace (1697-1754);  the  principal  church  (St. 
Nicholas),  in  which  the  kings  are  crowned;  the 
House  of  the  Nobles  (1648-1670),  in  which  that 
class  hold  their  periodical  meetings;  the  town 
house;  the  ministries  of  the  kingdom;  and  the 
principal  wharf,  a  magnificent  granite  quay, 
fronting  east.  Immediately  west  of  the  central 
island  lies  the  Knights'  Island;  it  is  almost  en- 
tirely occupied  with  public  buildings,  as  the 
houses  of  parliament;  the  old  Franciscan 
Church,  in  which  all  the  later  sovereigns  of 
Sweden  have  been  buried;  the  royal  archives; 
and  the  chief  law  courts  of  the  kingdom.  There 
is  considerable  industry  in  the  making  of  sugar, 
tobacco,  silks  and  ribbons,  candles,  linen,  cotton, 
and  leather,  and  there  are  large  iron  foundries 
and  machine  shops.  The  water  approaches  to 
the  city  are  in  general  rendered  inaccessible  by 
ice  during  three  or  four  months  every  winter; 
but  to  remedy  this  defect  it  is  proposed  to  build 
a  new  harbor  at  Nynas  on  the  Baltic  shore, 
thirty  miles  to  the  south,  Stockholm  is  the 
seat  of  a  large  trade  every  year,  principally 
grain  (wheat  and  rye),  rice,  flour,  herrings,  oils 
and  oilcake,  cork,  groceries,  metals,  and  wine 
and  spirits  (imports).  Exports  consist  chiefly 
of  iron  and  steel,  oats  and  tar.     Though  Stock- 


holm was  founded  by  Birger  Jarl  in  1255,  it  was 
not  made  the  capital  of  Sweden  till  compara- 
tively modern  times.  Since  then,  however, 
it  has  grown  rapidly.  Population,  about  337,460. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Londori,  is  situ- 
ated on  Ludgate  Hill,  an  elevation  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Thames.  The  site  of  the  present 
building  was  originally  occupied  by  a  church 
erected  by  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  in  610. 
This  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1087,  and  another 
edifice.  Old  St.  Paul  s,  was  shortly  afterwards 
commenced.  The  structure  was  in  the  Gothic 
style,  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  690  feet  long, 
130  feet  broad,  with  a  lead-covered  wooden  spire 
rising  to  the  height  of  520  feet.  The  middle  aisle 
was  termed  Paul's  Walk,  from  its  being  frequent- 
ed by  idlers,  as  well  as  money-lenders  and  gen- 
eral dealers.  Old  St.  Paul's  was  much  dam- 
aged by  a  fire  in  1137,  by  lightning  in  1444,  again 
by  fire  in  1561,  and  was  utterly  destroyed  by 
the  great  fire  in  1666.  The  ruins  remained  for 
about  eight  years,  when  the  rebuilding  was  taken 
in  hand  by  the  government  of  Charles  II.  (1675- 
1710).  The  whole  building  was  completed  at 
a  total  cost  of  $7,500,000,  under  one  architect 
(Sir  Christopher  Wren),  one  master-mason 
(Thomas  Strong),  and  one  Bishop  of  London 
(Dr,  Henry  Compton).  The  building  is  of  Port- 
land stone,  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Its  length  is 
500  feet;  the  width  from  north  to  south  portico 
282  feet;  the  general  height  is  100  feet.  The 
whole  is  surmounted  by  a  great  dome  raised  on 
eight  arches.  Above  the  dome  is  a  lantern  or 
gallery  terminated  above  by  a  ball  and  gilded 
cross,  404  feet  from  the  pavement  beneath.  The 
elevated  portico,  forming  the  grand  entrance, 
consists  of  twelve  Corinthian  columns,  with  an 
upper  series  of  eight  pillars  of  the  composite 
order,  supporting  a  pediment;  the  front  being 
fianked  by  two  bell-towers,  120  feet  in  height. 
The  entablature  represents  in  relief  the  conver- 
sion of  St.  Paul,  a  work  of  Francis  Bird.  Upon 
the  south  front,  which  corresponds  with  the 
north,  is  a  phoenix  rising  from  the  flames,  with 
the  motto,  "Resurgam"  (I  shall  rise  again). 
The  pavement  of  the  interior  is  composed  of  slabs 
of  black  and  white  marble.  The  crypt  under 
the  nave  contains  the  burying-places  of  many 
illustrious  personages,  and  some  interesting  relics 
of  old  St.  Paul's.  Among  the  numerous  monu- 
ments and  statues  to  the  illustrious  dead  may  be 
noted  those  of  John  Howard  and  Dr.  Johnson, 
by  Bacon;  statues  of  Nelson,  Earl  Howe,  and 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  by  Flaxman;  Bishop 
Heber,  by  Chantrey;  and  monuments  to  Lord 
Rodney,  Lord  Heathfield,  Admiral  CoUingwood, 
General  Abercrombie,  etc.,  by  Rossi,  Westma- 
cott,  and  others.  The  monument  to  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  by  Alfred  Stevens,  is  accounted 
the  finest  work  of  its  kind  in  England.  It  con- 
sists of  a  rich  marble  sarcophagus  and  canopy, 
elaborately  ornamented  with  bronze  sculptures. 
It  is  thirty  feet  in  height  and  cost  upwards  of 
$150,000.  Various  decorative,  structural,  and 
other  improvements  have  recently  been  made 
on  the  interior  of  the  cathedral. 

St.  Peter's,  the  Cathedral  of  Rome,  the 
largest  and  one  of  the  most  magnificent  churches 
in  Christendom.  It  is  a  cruciform  building  in 
the  Italian  style,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  dome, 


572 


THE    STANDARD    DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


built  on  the  legendary  site  of  St.  Peter's  martyr- 
dom; the  foundation  stone  was  laid  on  the  18th 
of  April,  1506.  Michael  Angelo  was  appointed 
architect  in  1546.  He  nearly  completed  the 
dome  and  a  large  portion  of  the  building  before 
his  decease  (1564).  The  nave  was  finished  in 
1612,  the  facade  and  portico  in  1614,  and  the 
church  was  dedicated  by  Urban  VIII.,  November 
18,  1626.  The  interior  diameter  of  thp  dome  is 
139  feet,  the  exterior  diameter  195^  feet;  its 
height  from  the  pavement  to  the  base  of  the 
lantern,  405  feet;  to  the  top  of  the  cross  out- 
side, 448  feet.  The  length  of  the  cathedral 
within  the  walls  is  613^  feet;  the  height  of  the 
nave  near  the  door,  152^  feet;  the  width,  87 Jf 
feet.  The  width  of  the  side  aisles  is  33i  feet; 
the  entire  width  of  the  nave  and  side  aisles,  in- 
cluding the  piers  that  separate  them,  197f  feet. 
The  circumference  of  the  piers  which  support 
the  dome  is  253  feet.  The  floor  of  the  cathedral 
covers  nearly  five  acres.  Its  cost  is  estimated 
to  have  exceeded  $50,000,000. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  When  a  strong  wind  is 
blowing  from  the  sea  its  level  rises  by  several 
feet,  and  the  poorer  parts  of  St.  Petersburg  are 
inundated  every  year;  but  when  the  overflow 
exceeds  ten  feet  nearly  the  whole  of  the  city  is 
inundated.  Peter  I.  laid  the  foundations  of  his 
capital  in  1702  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  delta, 
and  dreamed  to  make  of  it  a  new  Amsterdam. 
The  actual  connection  between  Russia  and  its 
capital  was  established  through  the  Neva,  which 
since  it  was  connected  by  canals  with  the  upper 
Volga,  became  the  real  mouth  of  the  immense 
basin  of  the  chief  river  of  Russia  and  its  num- 
berless tributaries.  Foreign  trade  and  the  cen- 
tralization of  all  administration  in  the  residence 
of  the  emperor  have  made  of  St.  Petersburg  a 
populous  city  covering  forty-two  square  miles. 
The  Great  Neva,  the  chief  branch  of  the  river, 
which  has  within  the  city  itself  a  width  of  from 
400  to  700  yards,  is  so  deep  that  large  ships  can 
lie  alongside  its  granite  embankments.  Cron- 
stadt,  built  on  an  island  sixteen  miles  to  the 
west  of  St.  Petersburg,  is  both  the  fortress  and 
the  port  of  the  capital.  Two-thirds  of  the  for- 
eign vessels  unload  within  the  city  itself.  The 
main  body  of  the  city,  containing  more  than 
one-half  of  its  inhabitants  as  well  as  all  the  chief 
streets,  stands  on  the  mainland,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Neva ;  and  a  beautiful  granite  quay,  with 
a  long  series  of  palaces  and  mansions,  stretches 
for  two  and  one-half  miles.  Only  two  perma- 
nent bridges  cross  the  Neva;  the  other  two, 
built  on  boats,  are  removed  in  autumn  and 
spring.  The  island  Vasilievsky,  between  the 
Great  and  Little  Nevas,  has  at  its  head  the 
Stock  Exchange,  surroimded  by  spacious  store- 
houses, and  a  row  of  scientific  institutions,  all 
facing  the  Neva.  On  the  Peterburgsky  Island, 
between  the  Little  Neva  and  the  Great  Neva, 
stands  the  old  fortress  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
facing  the  Winter  Palace,  and  containing  the 
mint  and  the  cathedral.  It  has  behind  it  the 
arsenal,  and  a  series  of  wide  streets  bordered  by 
small,  mostly  wooden  houses,  chiefly  occupied 
by  the  poorer  civil  service  functionaries.  Farther 
up  the  mainland  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Neva 


is  covered  by  the  poorer  parts  of  the  city,  but 
contains  some  public  buildings  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  factories.  Numerous  islands,  separated 
from  each  other  by  small  branches  into  which 
both  Nevas  subdivide,  and  connected  together 
by  a  great  number  of  wooden  bridges,  are  cov- 
ered with  beautiful  parks  and  summer  houses, 
to  which  most  of  the  wealthier  and  middle-class 
population  repair  in  the  summer.  The  main 
part  of  St.  Petersburg  has  for  its  center  the  Old 
Admiralty.  Near  the  Admiralty  are  the  chief 
public  buildings  of  the  city.  The  principal 
churches  (which  are  generally  distinguished  by 
prominent  cupolas)  are  St.  Isaac's  Cathedral, 
the  most  costly  of  all,  and  one  of  the  largest 
churches  of  Europe,  modeled  on  St.  Peter's, 
Rome,  built  of  granite  and  Finland  marble,  and 
with  a  profusely  decorated  interior;  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  the  resting-place 
of  the  emperors,  with  a  conspicuous  pyramidal 
spire  (302  feet);  the  cathedral  of  Our  Lady  of 
Kazan,  with  an  image  of  the  Virgin  enriched 
with  precious  stones  and  pearls;  the  Smolni 
Cathedral,  a  white  marble  edifice;  and  the 
Memorial  Church,  built  on  the  spot  where  the 
Czar,  Alexander  II.,  was  assassinated,  one  of  the 
most  splendid  of  the  many  sacred  edifices  in  the 
city.  Among  the  many  palaces  are  the  Winter 
Palace,  now  used  only  for  ceremonial  purposes, 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  luxurious  in  Europe ; 
the  Marble  Palace,  so-called;  the  Michael  Pal- 
ace, now  used  as  the  School  of  Military  Engi- 
neers; and  the  Hermitage  Palace,  containing  a 
fine  library  and  one  of  the  richest  collections  of 
French,  Flemish,  Dutch.  Italian,  Spanish,  Rus- 
sian, and  other  paintings,  the  private  property 
of  the  czars,  besides  engravings,  coins,  gems, 
antiquities,  etc.  The  cottage  in  which  Peter  the 
Great  lived  while  superintending  the  construc- 
tion of  St.  Petersburg  is  still  preserved.  Other 
buildings  of  importance  are:  the  Admiralty,  a 
vast  parallelogram  of  brick,  with  a  naval  and 
natural  history  museum  and  library;  the  arse- 
nal, containing  a  museum  of  artillery;  the  pal- 
aces of  the  general  staff  and  of  the  senate;  the 
custom-house,  the  exchange,  and  imperial  bank ; 
the  fortress  of  Petropavlovsk  (the  Russian  bas- 
tile);  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  with  extensive 
museum  and  library;  arid  the  imperial  library, 
with  over  a  million  volumes  and  large  collections 
of  manuscripts  and  engravings.  There  are  nu- 
merous hospitals  and  charitable  institutions,  a 
university,  founded  in  1819,  many  special  acad- 
emies, and  four  theaters  maintained  by  the 
state.  Of  the  monuments,  the  colossal  eques- 
trian statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  erected  by 
Catherine  II.  (1782),  and  the  monolithic  Doric 
column  of  granite,  one  hundred  and  fifty-five 
feet  high,  erected  by  Nicholas  to  the  memory 
of  Alexander  I.,  take  first  rank. 

St.  Petersburg  was  founded  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1703,  when  he  had  just  wrested  its 
site  from  the  Swedes.  The  forced  construction 
of  a  city  in  a  site  apparently  forbidden  by  nature, 
cost  the  lives,  according  to  various  accounts,  of 
from  100,000  to  200,000  peasants,_collected  from 
all  parts  of  the  Russian  Empire.  It  was  at  first 
built  entirely  of  wood,  and  without  a  proper 
street  system,  but  the  extensive  fires  of  1736 
and   1737  facilitated  the  reconstruction  on  an 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


573 


improved  plan.  The  Empress  Elizabeth  did 
much  to  improve  the  city ;  it  is,  however,  chiefly 
indebted  to  Catherine  II.  for  its  regularity  and 
architectural  splendor;  and  the  improvements 
under  Nicholas  and  Alexander  II.  have  made  it 
one  of  the  finest  of  European  capitals.  Popula- 
tion, 1,678,000. 

Suez  Canal,  a  great  artificial  channel  cut- 
ting the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and  thus  forming  a 
waterw^ay  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Red  Sea;  was  planned  and  undertaken  by  the 
French  engineer  Lesseps,  through  whose  untir- 
ing efforts  a  company  was  formed  and  the  neces- 
sary capital  raised;  occupied  ten  years  in  the 
construction  (1859-69),  and  cost  some  twenty 
million  pounds;  from  Port  Said  on  the  Medi- 
terranean to  Suez  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea 
the  length  is  about  100  miles,  a  portion  of  which 
lies  through  Lakes  Menzaleh,  Ballah,  Timsah, 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes ;  as  widened  and  deepened 
in  1886  it  has  a  minimum  depth  of  twenty-eight 
feet,  and  varies  from  150  to  300  feet  in  width; 
traffic  is  facilitated  by  electric  light  during  the 
night,  and  the  passage  occupies  little  more  than 
twenty-four  hours;  has  been  neutralized  and 
exempted  from  blockade,  vessels  of  all  nations 
in  peace  or  war  being  free  to  pass  through; 
now  the  highway  to  India  and  the  East,  shorten- 
ing the  voyage  to  India  by  7,600  miles;  three- 
fourths  of  the  ships  passing  through  are  Eng- 
lish; an  annual  toll  is  drawn  of  over  four 
million  pounds,  the  net  profit  of  which  falls  to 
be  divided  amongst  the  shareholders,  of  whom, 
since  1875,  the  British  Government  has  been  one 
of  the  largest. 

Superior,  Lake,  the  extreme  west  and 
most  extensive  of  the  Great  Lakes  of  North 
America,  being  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water 
in  the  entire  world.  Its  length,  east  to  west, 
is  about  400  miles,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  about 
eighty  miles,  so  that  its  area  may  be  taken 
at  about  31,500  square  miles.  The  maximum 
depth  thus  far  reached  is  1,008  feet  and  the 
height  of  its  surface  is  about  602  feet  above 
the  Atlantic.  It  receives  upward  of  fifty  rivers, 
but  none  is  of  much  importance  except  the  St. 
Louis  which  enters  at  its  southwest  extremity, 
and  the  Riviere  au  Grand  Portage.  During  the 
melting  of  the  snow,  these  and  the  other  rivers 
sweep  into  the  lake  vast  quantities  of  sand, 
boulder  stones,  and  drift  timber.  It  discharges 
itself  at  its  eastern  extremity  into  Lakes  Huron 
and  Michigan,  by  the  river  and  falls  of  St.  Mary. 
This  lake  embosoms  many  large  and  well-wooded 
islands,  the  chief  of  which  is  Isle  Royal.  Toward 
each  extremity  the  lake  contracts  in  width,  and 
at  the  lower  end  terminates  in  a  bay  which  falls 
into  the  outlet,  the  St.  Mary's  River,  at  the  two 
opposite  headlands  of  Gros  Cape  on  the  north 
and  Point  Iroquois  oh  the  south.  Thence  to 
tbe  mouth  of  the  St.  Mgiry's  at  Lake  Huron  is 
about  sixty  miles.  The  navigation  of  this  river 
is  interrupted  twenty  miles  below  its  source  at 
the  Falls  of  St.  Mary,  or,  as  the  place  is  com- 
monly called,  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  Here  the  river 
descends  in  a  succession  of  rapids  extending 
three-fourths  of  a  mile,  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
one  feet,  the  fall  varying  with  the  stage  of  the 
water  in  Lake  Superior. 

A  ship  canal  has  been  constructed  past  the 


falls  by  the  United  States  Government,  so  that 
now  the  lake  is  accessible  to  vessels  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  water  of  Lake  Superior, 
remarkable  for  its  coldness,  purity,  and  trans- 
parency, is  inhabited  by  many  kinds  of  fish, 
among  which  are  the  delicious  white  fish  and 
the  gray  trout. 

Sweden  (Swedish,  Sverige),  a  kingdom  of 
Northern  Europe,  comprising,  with  Norway  and 
Lapland,  the  whole  of  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula, of  which  it  forms  the  east,  south,  and  most 
important  portion;  having  northeast,  Russian 
Finland;  east  and  south,  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
and  the  Baltic;  southwest,  the  Sound,  Catte- 
gat,  and  Skagerrack;  and  west  and  north,  Nor- 
way, from  which  it  is,  for  the  most  part,  divided 
by  the  great  mountain  chain  of  Scandinavia. 
Length,  north  to  south,  950  miles;  average 
breadth  about  190  miles;  area,  172,876  square 
miles;  population,  estimated  at  5,199,000. 
Capital,  -Stockholm. 

Sweden  is  divided  into  three  principal  regions: 
GcBthland  (Gothia)  in  the  south ;  Sweden  proper, 
occupying  the  center;  and  Norland  (by  far  the 
largest  part),  comprising  the  remainder.  These 
three  regions  are  again  subdivided  into  twenty- 
four  lans,  or  districts.  Sweden  is  mountainous 
in  the  west,  but,  in  general,  flat;  and  it  is  re- 
markable that  along  the  whole  road,  from  Got- 
tenburg  in  the  west  to  Stockholm  in  the  east, 
there  is  not  a  single  acclivity  of  consequence  till 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  latter. 

The  climate  is  less  severe  than  might  be  ex- 
pected in  so  high  a  latitude.  The  summers  are 
hot,  and  spring  is  almost  unknown.  In  the 
north  snow  covers  the  ground  for  five  or  six 
months  in  the  year;  and  the  west  coasts  are 
milder  and  more  humid  than  the  east. 

The  domestic  animals  are  the  same  as  those 
of  North  America.  The  others  are  hares  and 
foxes,  beavers,  wolves,  and,  in  the  cold  prov- 
inces of  the  north,  bears,  the  leming,  and  the 
reindeer.  Water  fowl  are  abundant  and  the 
mosquitoes  are  as  troublesome  as  they  are  in 
tropical  countries. 

Only  about  a  fiftieth  part  of  the  country  is 
cultivated.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward 
state,  but  has .  been  recently  much  improved. 
Apple,  pear,  and  cherry  trees  grow  but  lan- 
guidly; while  berries  of  many  different  kinds 
are  produced  spontaneously  and  spread  lux- 
uriantly. Wheat  succeeds  only  in  the  southern 
provinces;  barley  is  raised  more  generally, 
and  in  larger  quantities ;  but  rye  and  oats  are  the 
kinds  of  grain  most  frequently  met  with.  The 
manufacturing  industries  include  those  connected 
with  iron,  steel,  wooden  goods,  woolens,  cottons, 
silks,  refined  sugar,  leather,  paper,  spirits,  etc. 
The  greater  part  of  the  trade  is  with  Great 
Britain  and  Germany. 

Switzerland,  a  west-central  republic  of 
Europe,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Baden,  Wiirt- 
temberg,  and  Bavaria,  east  by  the  Tyrol,  south 
by  Italy,  and  west  and  northwest  by  France. 
Maximum  length  from  east  to  west,  210  miles; 
breadth,  140  miles.  This,  the  most  mountain- 
ous country  in  Europe,  has  the  Alps  forming 
the  whole  of  its  southern  and  eastern  frontiers, 
besides  extending  its  ramified  chains  over  the 
greater   part   of   its   interior.     The   most   level 


574 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


tracts  of  surface  are  found  in  the  northwestern 
cantons  of  Berne,  Basle,  and  Zurich,  where  they 
form  a  series  of  mountain-locked  vales,  backed 
by  the  Jura  Range  on  the  French  border.  The 
chief  valley  is  that  of  the  Rhone  in  the  south 
embracing  the  canton  of  Valais,  with  rich 
tillable  tracts  and  fertile  pastures  extending  on 
either  hand  towards  the  bases  of  the  Bernese 
and  Pennine  Alps.  The  principal  rivers,  all 
rapid  and  unnavigable,  are  the  Rhone,  Rhine, 
Ticino,  Reuss,  Aar,  etc.,  with  their  affluents. 
The  Swiss  lakes,  notably  numerous  and  pic- 
turesquely located,  as  well  as  of  great  depth, 
comprise  those  of  Geneva,  Constance,  Lucerne, 
Neufchatel,  Zurich,  Thun,  Bienne,  Wallen- 
stadt,  and  Brienz.  Forests  cover  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  entire  surface  of  Switzerland.  Agri- 
culture is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  valleys,  where 
the  cereals,  along  with  flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco, 
are  raised.  The  mountain  slopes,  occupying 
fully  two-fifths  of  the  territorial  area,  afford 
excellent  pasturage,  and  furnish  dairy  produce, 
tallow,  hides,  etc.,  in  quantities  enough  for 
exportation.  Fruits  of  the  hardier  varieties 
grow  well  and  profitably.  In  the  western  can- 
tons, the  vine  flourishes;  while  the  orchards  of 
the  Thurgau  and  other  northern  districts  supply 
ample  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cider, 
and  of  Kirschenwasser  and  other  liquors.  The 
national  industry  (other  than  rural)  is  largely 
developed  in  important  manufactures,  of  which 
those  of  textile  fabrics,  leather  goods,  pottery, 
sugar,  watches,  jewelry,  etc.,  constitute  the 
staple  items.  The  chief  cities  and  towns  are: 
Geneva,  Zurich,  Berne,  the  capital,  Basle, 
Lausanne,  La  Chaux  de  Fonds,  St.  Gall,  Lucerne, 
Neufchatel,  and  Freiburg. 

Taj  Mahal,  or  Mehal  ("Gem  of  Build- 
ings"), a  famous  mausoleum,  erected  at  Agra, 
India,  by  Shah  Jehan  for  his  favorite  wife.  It 
is  186  feet  square  with  the  corners  cut  off,  the 
whole  surmounted  by  a  dome  fifty-eight  feet  in 
diameter  and  about  210  feet  in  height,  flanked 
hy  four  octagonal  kiosks.  The  interior  is  di- 
vided into  four  domed  chambers  in  the  comers, 
and  a  large  central  arcaded  octagon,  all  con- 
nected by  corridors.  The  central  octagon  con- 
tains two  cenotaphs  surrounded  by  a  very 
noticeable  openwork  marble  rail.  The  only 
light  admitted  enters  through  the  delicately 
pierced  marble  screens  of  the  Avindows.  The 
decoration  is  especially  noticeable  for  the  stone 
mosaics  of  flower  themes  and  arabesques,  much 
of  them  in  agate,  jasper,  and  bloodstone.  The 
entire  structure  stands  on  a  white  marble  plat- 
form eighteen  feet  high  and  313  feet  square, 
with  tapering  cylindrical  minarets  133  feet  high 
at  the  corners.  The  whole  Koran  is  said  to  be 
written  in  mosaics  of  precious  stones  on  the 
interior  walls.  In  the  construction  of  this 
magnificent  building,  which,  as  Bayard  Taylor 
says  alone  repays  a  visit  to  India,  20,000  men 
were  employed  twenty  years.  Although  the 
labor  cost  nothing,  over  $20,000,000  were  ex- 
pended in  its  construction.  Ihe  doors  are  of 
solid  silver,  and  an  enormous  diamond  was 
placed  upon  the  tomb  itself. 

Thames,  the  most  important  river  of  Great 
Britain;  usually  said  to  rise  about  three  miles 
southwest    of    Cirencester    in    Gloucestershire, 


near  a  bridge  over  the  Thames  and  Severn  Canal, 
called  Thameshead  Bridge,  but  is  more  properly 
formed  by  the  Isis,  Churn,  Colne,  and  Leach, 
which  have  their  sources  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Cotswold  Hills,  and  unite  near  Lechlade.  Its 
total  course  is  estimated  at  250  miles.  Its  tribu- 
taries include  the  Windrush,  Cherwell,  Thame, 
Colne,  Brent,  Lea,  and  Roding,  on  the  left; 
the  Kennet,  Loddon,  Wey,  and  Mole,  on  the 
right.  Thameshead  Bridge  is  376  feet  above 
sea  level;  the  junction  of  the  Colne  above 
Lechlade  is  243  feet.  At  London  Bridge  the 
width  of  the  river  is  266  yards,  at  Woolwich, 
490  yards,  at  Gravesend,  800  yards,  and  three 
miles  below,  1,290  yards.  The  depth  of  the 
river  in  the  fair  way  above  Greenwich  to  Lon- 
don Bridge  is  twelve  to  thirteen  feet,  while  its 
tides  have  a  mean  range  of  seventeen  feet  and 
an  extreme  rise  of  twenty-two  feet.  By  means 
of  numerous  Canals  immediate  access  is  given 
from  its  basin  to  those  of  all  the  great  rivers  of 
England. 

Thunder.  The  dazzling  light  emitted  by 
the  electric  spark  when  it  snoots  from  clouds 
charged  with  electricity  is  called  lightning.  In 
the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere  the  light 
is  white,  but  in  the  higher  regions,  where  the 
air  is  more  rarefied,  it  takes  a  violet  tint;  as 
does  the  spark  of  the  electrical  machine  in  a 
rarefied  medium.  The  flashes  of  lightning  are 
sometimes  several  leagues  in  length;  they 
generally  pass  through  the  atmosphere  in  a  zig- 
zag direction  —  a  phenomenon  ascribed  to  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  air  condensed  by  the 
passage  of  a  strong  discharge.  The  spark  then 
diverges  from  a  right  line,  and  takes,  the  direc- 
tion of  least  resistance.  In  vacuo  electricity 
passes  in  a  straight  line.  The  sound  which 
accompanies  lightning  is  called  thunder.  It  is 
due  to  the  sudden  disturbance  of  the  air  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  line  in  which  the  spark  passes. 
It  is  generally  a  long  rolling  sound  rising  and 
falling  in  intensity.  The  duration  of  the  thunder 
peal  is  generally  attributed  to  the  re-echoing  of 
the  sound  produced  at  various  places. 

Tiber,  a  river  of  Italy  celebrated  in  ancient 
Roman  history,  rises  in  the  Apennines,  in  the 
province  of  Arezzo,  Tuscany;  rapid  and  turbid 
in  its  upper  course,  but  navigable  100  miles  up- 
wards from  its  mouth;  flows  generally  in  a 
southern  direction,  and  after  a  course  of  about 
260  miles  enters  the  Mediterranean  about  fifteen 
miles  below  Rome. 

Tides,  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  water 
of  the  sea,  which  occurs  periodically,  as  ob- 
served at  places  on  the  coasts.  The  tide  ap- 
pears as  a  general  wave  of  water,  which  grad- 
ually elevates  itself  to  a  certain  height,  then  as 
gradually  sinks  till  its  surface  is  about  as  much 
below  the  medium  level  as  it  was  before  above 
it.  From  that  time  tfee  wave  again  begins  to 
rise ;  and  this  reciprocating  motion  of  the  waters 
continues  constantly,  with  certain  variations 
in  the  height  and  in  the  times  of  attaining  the 
greatest  degree  of  height  and  of  depression. 
The  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  the  tide- 
wave  are  observed  to  take  place  generally  twice 
in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  of  twenty-four 
hours,  forty-nine  minutes  of  mean  solar  time, 
on  most  of  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and  in  the 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


575 


greater  part  of  the  bays,  firths,  and  rivers  which 
communicate  freely  with  it.  The  tides  form 
what  are  called  a  flood  and  an  ebb,  a  high  and 
low  water.  The  whole  interval  between  high 
and  low  water  is  often  called  a  tide;  the  water 
is  said  to  flow  and  to  ebb ;  and  the  rising  is  called 
the  flood-tide  and  the  falling  the  ebb-tide.  The 
rise  or  fall  of  the  waters,  in  regard  to  elevation 
or  depression,  is  exceedingly  different  at  differ- 
ent places,  and  is  also  variable  everywhere. 
The  interval  between  two  succeeding  high- 
waters  is  also  variable.  It  is  shortest  about 
new  and  full  moon,  being  then  about  twelve 
hours,  nineteen  minutes;  and  about  the  time 
of  the  moon's  quadratures  it  is  twelve  hours, 
thirty  minutes.  But  these  intervals  are  some- 
what different  at  different  places.  Tides  are 
caused  by  the  attraction  which  the  sun  and 
moon  exert  over  the  water  of  the  earth.  The 
moon  is  the  nearest  of  the  heavenly  bodies  to 
the  earth,  and  the  mobile  nature  of  water  leads 
it  to  yield  readily  to  the  attractive  influence. 
Those  parts  of  the  waters  directly  under  the 
moon's  vertical  path  in  the  heavens  are  drawn 
out  towards  the  moon.  At  the  same  time  the 
moon  attracts  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  and,  as  it 
were,  pulls  the  earth  away  from  the  water  on 
the  surface  farthest  from  it,  so  that  here  also 
the  water  is  raised,  although  not  quite  so  much 
as  on  the  nearer  side.  The  waters  being  thus 
heaped  up  at  the  same  time  on  these  two  op- 
posite parts  of  the  earth,  and  the  waters  situated 
half-way  between  them  being  thus  necessarily 
depressed,  two  high  and  two  low  tides  occur  in 
the  period  of  a  little  more  than  one  revolution 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The  sun's  influence 
upon  the  tides  is  evidenced  in  its  either  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  the  lunar  tide,  according  as 
the  sun's  place  in  the  heavens  coincides  with 
the  line  of  the  moon's  attraction,  or  the  reverse. 
It  is  this  difference  which  produces  what  are 
known  as  spring  tides  and  neap  tides.  Spring 
tides  occur  at  new  and  full  moon,  and  are  the 
result  of  the  gravitating  influence  of  both  sun 
and  moon;  neap  tides  occur  when  the  moon  is 
in  her  quarters,  and  are  not  so  high  as  the 
spring  tides,  the  lunar  influence  being  lessened 
by  the  sun's  force  acting  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  it.  The  interference  of  coasts  and 
irregularities  in  the  ocean  beds  cause  the  great 
variations  as  to  time  and  range  in  the  actual 
tides  observed  at  different  places.  In  some 
"places,  as  in  the  German  Ocean  at  a  point  north 
of  the  Straits  of  Dover,  a  high  tide  meets  low 
water,  and  thus  maintains  perpetual  mean  tide. 
In  the  case  cited,  high  water  transmitted  through 
the  Straits  of  Dover  encounters  low  water  trans- 
mitted round  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  vice 
versa.  The  interval  of  time  at  any  place  be- 
tween noon  and  the  time  of  high  water  on  the 
day  of  full  or  new  moon  is  called  the  establish- 
ment of  the  port. 

Tokyo,  formerly  called  Yeddo,  the  capital 
of  Japan,  and  chief  residence  of  the  Mikado; 
on  a  bay  of  the  same  name;  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  Hondo,  the  largest  of  the  Japanese 
Islands,  and  connected  by  rail  with  Yokohama 
and  Kanagawa.  The  bulk  of  the  houses  are  of 
wood,  but  there  are  many  new  buildings  of  brick 
and   stone,   and   an   imperial   palace   has  been 


erected  near  the  center,  as  also  public  offices, 
etc.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  is  flat,  and 
intersected  by  numerous  canals  crossed  by 
bridges.  The  streets  are  generally  narrow  and 
irregular.  Gas  and  electricity  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  the  sanitary  arrangements  have 
been  improved.  Education  is  well  organized, 
and  there  are  nearly  700  private  and  elementary 
schools.  Tokyo  contains  the  imperial  univer- 
sity, and  it  may  be  considered  the  center  of  the 
political,  commercial,  and  literary  activity  of 
Japan.     Population,  2,186,079. 

Toronto,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  Lake  Ontario.  Its  site  is  low,  but 
rises  gently  from  the  water's  edge  to  a  height 
of  about  100  feet.  The  Bay  of  Toronto,  an  arm 
of  Lake  Ontario,  on  the  south  of  the  city,  affords 
a  commodious  and  excellent  harbor,  capable 
of  receiving  the  largest  lake  vessels.  Toronto ' 
has  various  manufacturing  interests,  including 
several  engineering  plants  and  iron  foundries, 
soap  works,  an  immense  distillery,  a  number 
of  breweries,  rolling  mills,  car  shops,  tanneries, 
carriage  factories,  machine  shops,  cabinet  fac- 
tories, spice  mills,  car  wheel  works,  pork  packing 
plants,  boot  and  shoe  establishments,  sash  and 
door,  and  sewing  machine  factories,  etc.  The 
city  has  large  facilities  for  an  extensive  lake 
traffic.  There  is  regular  steamboat  connection 
with  all  lake  ports  as  well  as  with  those  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  making  the  city  one  of  great 
commercial  importance.  Toronto  was  founded 
in  1794  by  Governor  Simcoe.  The  town  was 
captured  in  1813  by  the  Americans  under  Gen- 
eral Pike,  who  was  killed  during  the  attack. 
Since  that  period  it  has  made  steady  progress  as  a 
commercial,  educational,  and  residential  center. 
Population,  262,149. 

Turkey.  In  Europe  it  occupies  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  in 
this  portion  is  situated  the  capital,  Constanti- 
nople, but  the  larger  part  of  Turkey  is  in  Asia. 
The  immediate  possessions  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
extend  from  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  Servia,  and 
Eastern  Rumelia  on  the  north  to  the  iEgean  and 
Greece  on  the  south,  and  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Adriatic,  the  Straits  of  Otranto,  and  the 
Ionic  Sea.  In  1878  the  area  under  Turkish  rule 
was  reduced,  and  the  independence  and  the 
limits  of  several  of  the  formerly  tributary  states 
extended.  There  are  still  nominally  under  Tur- 
key the  autonomous  province  of  Eastern 
Rumelia;  the  island  of  Crete;  the  tributary 
principality  of  Bulgaria;  the  semi-detached 
provinces  of  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Novi- 
bazar,  administered  by  Austria-Hungary.  A 
number  of  islands  in  the  ^Egean  belong  to  Tur- 
key. Egypt  also  is  nominally  part  of  the 
Turkish  dominions.  European  Turkey  is  trav- 
ersed in  different  directions  by  numerous 
mountain  chains,  but  the  main  systems  are  the 
Balkan  range,  stretching  from  west  to  east 
between  Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Rumelia  to  Cape 
Emineh  on  the  Black  Sea;  Rhodope,  south  of 
the  Balkans;  the  Shardagh  and  Grammos  on  the 
west,  continued  northwest  under  various  names 
into  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  most  im- 
portant river  basin  is  that  which  drains  into 
the  Archipelago  or  iEgean  Sea,  which  receives 
the  Vardar,  the  Struma,  the  Mista  or  Karasu, 


576 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


and  the  Maritza.  There  are  several  plains 
remarkable  for  their  fertility  and  beauty.  The 
climate  is  not  so  mild  as  its  latitude  might  seem 
to  indicate,  the  winter  being  severe;  but  the 
summer  heat  is  excessive.  For  the  production 
of  the  ordinary  cereals  no  part  of  the  world  is 
more  admirably  adapted.  The  principal  grains 
are  maize,  wheat,  and  barley,  while  rice,  millet, 
and  buckwheat,  are  produced,  as  also  flax,  hemp, 
sesame,  and  madder.  The  cultivation  of  to- 
bacco and  cotton  is  very  general.  Among  fruits 
the  figs  are  highly  esteemed;  the  cultivation  of 
the  olive  is  carried  on  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Archipelago  and  the  Adriatic ;  wine  is  an  impor- 
tant product  in  many  districts;  and  much  atten- 
tion is  paid  in  some  parts  to  the  growing  of  roses. 
There  are  few  manufactures  except  in  Constan- 
tinople, Adrianople,  and  Salonica,  and  these  are 
of  little  importance. 

Turkey  m  Asia  includes  Anatolia,  otherwise 
known  as  Asia  Minor,  the  country  intersected  by 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  the  mountainous 
region  of  Armenia  between  their  upper  courses 
and  the  Black  Sea,  the  ancient  lands  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  the  coast  strips  of  Arabia 
along  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf.  Omitting 
Arabia,  the  country  consists  mainly  of:  (1)  a 
high  plateau  traversed  by  the  mountains  of 
Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus,  and  stretching  from 
the  Archipelago  to  the  borders  of  Persia.  (2) 
A  plateau  of  less  elevation  and  extent  (Syria 
and  Palestine)  traversed  by  the  double  range  of 
Lebanon.  (3)  The  extensive  plain  of  Mesopo- 
tamia on  the  lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The 
islands  Chios,  Lesbos,  Rhodes,  etc.,  belong  to 
Turkey  in  Asia,  while  the  island  of  Samos  is  a 
tributary  principality,  and  Cyprus  is  held  by 
Great  Britain.  The  chief  towns  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  are  Smyrna,  Damascus,  Bagdad,  Aleppo, 
and  Beyrout.  The  chief  exports  are  raisins, 
figs,  and  dates,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  mohair, 
opium,  coffee,  wheat,  wine,  valonia,  olive  oil, 
and  tobacco;  while  the  imports  are  cotton, 
woolen,  and  silk  goods,  metals,  iron,  steel,  glass 
wares,  etc.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  are  of  very  diverse  races.  First  in 
order  are  the  Osmanli  Turks,  who,  as  the  domi- 
nant race,  are  diffused  over  the  country.  The 
Greeks  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  over  great 
part  of  the  .^gean  coasts  and  islands.  Aronauts,  or 
Albanians,  are  found  in  the  west  throughout 
Albania ;  the  northwest  is  occupied  by  Servians ; 
and  Bulgarians  inhabit  the  district  south  of  the 
Danube  and  east  of  Servia  and  Albania.  In 
Asiatic  Turkey  the  Turks  are  an  important  ele- 
ment, but  there  are  also  numbers  of  Armenians, 
Arabs,  Kurds,  Jews,  Greeks,  Circassians,  etc. 

Ural  Mountains.  Form  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  sepa- 
rate European  Russia  on  the  west  from  Siberia 
on  the  east.  The  chain  extends  south  from  the 
Kara  Sea,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  to  the 
middle  course  of  the  Ural  River,  and  is  1,333 
miles  long,  with  a  width  varying  from  sixteen 
to  sixty-six  miles.  Although  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains form  really  a  single  uninterrupted  chain, 
geographers  have  agreed  to  consider  them  as 
divided  into  three  sections  —  the  North,  Middle, 
and  South  Ural.  The  Middle  Ural,  commonly 
called    Roudnoi    (metalliferous),    the    principal 


seat  of  the  mineral  riches  of  the  whole  chain, 
comprises  the  highest  peaks,  as  the  Kanjakovski 
Kamen,  rising  to  5,000  feet.  The  chain  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  crystalline  and  metamorphic 
rocks,  granite,  gneiss,  porphyry,  chloritic  and 
micaceous  schists.  The  Ural  Mountains,  espec- 
ially the  middle  and  the  north  part  of  the 
South  Ural  (the  governments  of  Perm  and 
Orenburg),  abound  in  mines  of  gold,  platinum, 
copper,  and  iron.  Among  the  precious  stones 
the  most  notable  are  the  emerald,  amethyst,  and 
diamond. 

Vatican,  Tiie,  the  palace  of  the  pope  in 
Rome  and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world;  con- 
tains a  valuable  collection  of  works  of  art,  and 
is  one  of  the  chief  attractions  in  the  city;  it  is 
a  storehouse  of  literary  treasures  as  well  and 
documents  of  interest  bearing  on  the  hisfory 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Venice  (Italian,  Venezia),  a  city  of  Italy,  the 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the_ 
Gulf  of  Venice,  about  155  miles  east  of  Milan 
The  city  is  built  on  a  number  of  low  islands, 
chiefly  upon  the  island  of  Rialto,  and  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  canals.  Many  of  the  pal- 
aces and  other  public  buildings  of  the  city  are 
very  fine,  especially  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Mark, 
datmg  from  the  Eleventh  Century,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  five  cupolas,  its  five  hundred 
marble  columns,  and  its  rich  mosaics;  and  the 
palace  of  the  Doges,  built  in  the  Fourteenth 
Century,  and  now  used  for  ceremonies  of  state. 
From  the  palace  of  the  Doges  to  the  prisons  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  canal  called  the  Rio 
Palazzo  stretches  the  famous  Bridge  of  Sighs; 
and  at  some  distance  in  front  of  the  cathedral 
stands  the  also  famous  campanile,  or  bell  tower, 
of  St.  Mark,  which  was  first  completed  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century,  and  again  rebuilt  in  1904-09, 
after  its  collapse  in  1902,  due  to  the  giving 
way  of  the  artificial  foundation.  Population, 
151,840. 

Vesuvius,  Mount  (ve-sa'-vl-us).  A  fa- 
mous volcano  of  South  Italy,  six  miles  east  of 
Naples.  Its  base  commands  a  circuit  of  thirty 
miles;  its  height  is  4,260  feet  above  sea  level; 
and  its  crater,  350  feet  in  depth,  has  a  circum- 
ference of  two  miles  at  its  outer  place,  with  a 
level  plain  at  the  bottom  a  half  mile  in  diameter. 
It  towers  above  a  smiling  pastoral  country 
dotted  with  towns  and  vineyards,  and  which 
has  time  after  time  been  the  scene  of  its  devas- 
tating eruptions.  The  earliest  known  of  the  latter 
occurred  in  79  A.  D.,  when  the  cities  of  Pompeii, 
Herculaneum,  and  Stabiae  were  overwhelmed 
beneath  the  mass  of  mud  and  ashes  it  disgorged. 
The  most  remarkable  of  later  eruptions  have 
been  those  of  1036,  1779,  1822,  1839,  1855,  and 
1872.  On  the  last-named  occasion  the  volcano 
continued  for  some  days  in  a  state  of  ebullition, 
and  during  its  continuance  made  considerable 
ravages  upon  immediately  surrounding  life  and 
property. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  a  lake  in  East  Central 
Africa,  on  the  equator,  almost  equally  divided 
between  British  East  Africa  and  German  East 
Africa,  at  an  elevation  of  3,775  feet  above  the 
sea  level ;  discovered  by  Captain  Speke  in  1858, 
and  circumnavigated  by  Stanley  in  1875;  is  re- 
garded as  the  head-source  of  the  Nile,  the  waters 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


677 


of  it  flowing  through  Albert  Nyanza  eighty  miles 
to  the  north,  between  which  two  lakes  lies  the 
territory  of  Uganda. 

Vienna  (German,  Wien),  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  Empire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  at  the  foot  of  the  Wiener  Wald.  It 
is  divided  into  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the 
former  being  still,  notwithstanding  that  its 
streets  are  narrow  and  often  crooked,  the  seat 
of-  the  court  and  the  center  of  fashionable  life. 
Round  this  portion  of  the  city  (which  contains, 
besides  the  Imperial  palace,  the  magnificent 
Gothic  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  and  the  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1635)  is  a  zone  1,300  feet  in 
breadth,  knowTi  as.  the  Ring.  This  space  was 
formerly  occupied  by  fortifications,  but  it  is 
now  laid  out  in  boulevards,  with  palaces  and 
other  noble  buildings.  It  is  separated  from  the 
old  town  by  the  Ringstrasse,  which  is  more  than 
two  miles  long,  nearly  two  hundred  feet  wide, 
and  bordered  on  both  sides  by  trees.  The 
new  part  of  the  city  contains  many  handsome 
edifices.  Altogether,  the  city  has  a  circum- 
ference of  sixteen  miles.  It  has  large  manu- 
factures of  silk-stuffs,  meerschaum  pipes,  and 
fancy  articles,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  grain. 
In  fact,  Vienna  is  the  great  emporium  of  the 
western  province  of  Austria.  It  is  an  ancient 
town,  and  was  a  place  of  importance  even  in 
Roman  times,  when  it  bore  the  name  of  Vindo- 
bona.  In  modem  history  it  is  celebrated  as 
the  scene  of  numerous  congresses,  notably  of 
that  generally  known  as  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1814-15),  for  the  rearrangement  of  the  affairs  of 
Europe  after  the  abdication  of  tlie  Emperor 
Napoleon.  During  the  revolution  of  1848  the 
city  was  held  for  a  short  time  by  the  insurgents, 
and  was  bombarded.     Population,  2,085,888. 

Volcanoes,  Greatest  of  the  World 

Name  of  Volcano  Location            Height  (feet) 

Aconcagua Chile 23,083 

Altar, Ecuador,      .....  17,710 

Antisana Ecuador, 19,335 

Ararat, Turkey 16,950 

Arequipa Peru 20,320 

Cayambi Ecuador 19,255 

Chimborazo, Ecuador 20,498 

Cotopaxi Ecuador, 19,613 

Demavend, ' Persia 18,500 

Elbruz, : Caucasus 18,470 

Etna Sicily, 10,738 

Fujiyama Japan,      12,390 

Hecla, Iceland 5,110 

Hood Oregon,    ..;...  11,225 

Huascaran •.    .  Peru,    . 22,812 

Ixtaccihuati Mexico, 16,960 

Jorulla Mexico, •  4,265 

Kenia Africa 19,000 

Kilauea Hawaii 4,400 

Kilima-Njaro Africa 19,700 

Llullaillac Chile, 21,000 

Mauna  Kea Hawaii, 13,953 

Mauna  Loa, Hawaii, 13,600 

Misti Peru 20,015 

Orizaba, Mexico 18,250 

Pel^e Martinique,  W.  I., .    .  4,300 

Pico,  Peak  of Azores 7,500 

Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,520 

Rainier Washington 14,526 

Bahama Bolivia 21,000 

San  Francisco,     ....  Arizona, 12,794 

Sangai,      Ecuador 17,400 

San  Jose Chile 20,020 

Shasta, California 14,380 

St.  Elias,  Mt Alaska 18,024 

St.  Helen's,  Mt United  States,     .    .    .  10,000 

Stromboli, Lipari  Islands,    .    .    .  3,090 

Tahiti,  Peak  of Friendly  Islands,    .    .  7,400 


Name  of  Volcano  Location  Height  (feet) 

Teneriffe, Canary  Islands,      .    .       12,190 

Tolima Colombia 18,400 

Toluca Mexico 14,950 

Vesuvius Italy, 4,260 

Wrangell Alaska 17,500 

Volga,  the  most  important  river  of  Russia, 
and  the  longest  in  Europe,  has  its  origin  in  a 
marshy  plain  among  the  Valdai  Hills,  in  the 
government  of  Tver.  Its  squrce  is  550  feet 
above  ordinary  sea  level  and  646  above  the 
Caspian ;  its  length,  2,300  miles. 

Wales,  a  principality  in  the  southwest  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain,  which,  since  Edward 
I.,  gives  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales  to  the  heir- 
apparent  of  the  British  Crown;  area,  7,470 
square  miles;  population  included  in  that  of 
England.  It  is  very  mountainous,  particularly 
in  the  north,  where  Snowdon,  the  eliminating 
point  of  South  Britain,  rises  3,571  feet;  and  it 
is  intersected  by  beautiful  valleys,  traversed  by 
numerous  streams,  including,  among  others, 
the  large  River  Severn.  It  is  rich  in  minerals, 
particularly  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  even  gold, 
and  to  these  Wales  owes  its  chief  wealth.  The 
coal  trade  is  most  extensive,  and  Cardiff  is  the 
largest  coal  port  in  the  world.  In  1898  about 
24,000,000  tons  of  coal  were  produced  in  Wales. 
Iron,  steel,  and  copper  works  are  also  on  a  large 
scale.  Besides  the  mineral  industries,  there 
are  considerable  woolen  manufactures,  especially 
of  flannel,  coarse  cloth,  and  hosiery.  The 
Welsh  have  many  strange  customs  and  peculiar 
superstitions.  They  are  remarkably  fond  of 
poetry  and  music,  and  their  language  is  said 
to  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  poetical  effusions. 
Their  ancient  language  is,  however,  falling  fast 
into  disuse  throughout  the  principality,  more 
especially  the  southern  part.  Family  dis- 
tinction is  held  in  great  estimation.  The  ab- 
original Celtic  race  still  inhabits  some  parts 
of  the  country.  Llewellyn  ap  Gryffydd  was 
the  last  prince  who  exerted  himself  for  the 
independence  of  Wales.  In  1282  he  was  sub- 
dued by  Edward  I.  From  that  time  Wales 
has  been  annexed  to  the  English  Crown;  but 
the  union  was  not  complete  till  Henry  VIII., 
when  the  government  and  laws  were  assimilated 
with  those  of  England. 

Warsaw,  the  chief  city  of  Russian  Poland, 
and  the  capital  of  Poland  from  the  close  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century  to  the  final  partition  in  1795. 
It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula, 
about  320  miles  east  of  Berlin.  It  possesses  a 
cathedral  which  dates  from  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  and  a  large  number  of  palaces  and 
other  imposing  buildings,  situated  in  broad 
and  handsome  squares;  but  the  chief  modern 
buildings  are  in  the  suburbs,  with  one  of  which, 
Praga,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Vistula,  the 
city  is  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  The 
whole  city  is  overawed  by  a  vast  citadel,  erected 
by  the  Russians,  under  the  Emperor  Nicholas. 
Warsaw  is  the  residence  of  an  archbishop,  who 
is  primate  of  Poland.  Its  university,  founded 
in  1816,  was  suppressed  after  the  insurrection 
of  1830,  but  was  reopened  in  1869.  The  city  is 
the  principal  seat  of  both  the  manufactures  and 
the  trade  of  Poland.  Its  annual  fairs  are  much 
frequented,  and  it  carries  on  a  large  commercial 
intercourse,  not  only  with  Cracow  and  Dantzic 


578 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


by  the  Vistula,  but  with  St.  Petersburg  and 
Vienna  by  rail.     Population,  756,426. 

Washington,  capital  of  the  United 
States;  population,  331,069;  co-extensive  with 
the  District  of  Columbia;  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Potomac  and  the  Anacostia,  or  East  Branch, 
rivers,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio,  the  Southern,  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio, 
and  the  Richmond,  Fredericksburg  &  Potomac 
railroads;  136  miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia; 
226  miles  southwest  of  New  York;  forty  miles 
southwest  of  Baltimore,  and  185  miles  west  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  site  of  the  city  is  an  ad- 
mirable one,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  hills  and 
comprising  a  rolling  plain,  with  here  and  there 
irregular  eminences  which  provide  beautiful  and 
advantageous  positions  for  the  various  public 
buildings.  The  city  was  laid  out  expressly  for 
the  National  Capital  and  on  a  scale  indicating 
that  it  was  expected  to  grow  into  a  vast  metropo- 
lis. The  United  States  and  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia own  an  extensive  waterworks  system, 
costing  $10,000,000.  The  reservoirs  have  a 
storage  capacity  of  76,000,000  gallons,  and  the 
water  is  distributed  through  381  miles  of  mains. 
The  consumption  averages  55,000,000  gallons  a 
day.  There  are  in  all  320  miles  of  streets,  of 
which  266  miles  are  paved.  The  streets  of  Wash- 
ington are  irregularly  laid  out,  being  from  seventy 
to  160  feet  wide.  Pennsylvania  Avenue  is  the 
principal  street  of  the  city,  having  on  or  near  it 
many  of  the  leading  hotels,  theaters,  stores,  etc. 
F  street  is  the  next  business  street  in  importance. 
The  sewer  system  covers  418  miles.  The  streets 
are  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity  at  an  annual 
cost  of  about  $250,000.  The  average  cost  of  the 
police  department  exceeds  $743,500  per  annum, 
and  that  of  the  fire  department  $185,000.  The 
annual  cost  for  the  maintenance  of  the  city  gov- 
ernment is  over  $9,052,000.  The  annual  death 
rate  averages  21.82  per  1,000. 

The  city  contains  many  magnificent  structures. 
The  Capitol,  crowning  Capitol  Hill,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  public  edifices  in  the  world.  It 
is  built  in  pure  classic  style,  with  two  immense 
wings  of  white  marble,  extending  from  a  central 
structure  constructed  of  light  yellow  freestone, 
painted  white.  The  main  front  facing  east  is 
beautified  with  three  splendid  porticoes  adorned 
by  Corinthian  pillars.  The  central  portico  con- 
tains noted  groups  of  statuary,  and  on  the  espla- 
nade immediately  in  front  stands  Greenough's 
famous  colossal  statue  of  Washington.  The 
entrance  to  the  rotunda  is  by  the  celebrated 
bronze  door,  designed  by  Randolph  Rogers  and 
made  by  Von  Muller  in  Munich.  It  is  seventeen 
feet  high  by  nine  feet  wide,  and  cost  $28,000. 
The  relief  work  on  the  door  commemorates  the 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  The  walls 
of  the  interior  of  the  rotunda,  which  is  180  feet 
high  and  ninety-six  feet  in  diameter,  are  orna- 
mented with  eight  panels  containing  paintings 
of  scenes  in  American  history.  America  is  de- 
picted with  Indian  and  eagle,  standing  with 
History,  who  records  on  her  tablet  the  progress 
of  events.  The  canopy  overhanging  the  eye  of 
the  dome,  at  a  height  of  180  feet  above  the  ro- 
tunda floor,  is  65  feet  in  diameter,  and  gives  a 
field  of  4,640  square  feet  for  Brumidi's  allegori- 
cal fresco.     The  lofty  central  dome  of  iron  is 


surmounted  by  a  statue  of  liberty,  giving  a  total 
height  to  the  capitol  of  307^  feet.  The  structure 
covers  three  and  one-half  acres,  and  cost  over 
$13,000,000.  It  accommodates  the  two  Houses 
of  Congress,  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and 
until  recently  also  held  the  Library  of  Congress. 

The  new  Congressional  Library  is  built  just 
east  of  the  capitol,  in  a  square  comprising  about 
ten  acres.  It  is  three  stories  high,  470  feet  long 
by  340  wide,  is  constructed  of  white  New  Hamp- 
shire granite  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style, 
and  cost  $6,347,000.  The  building  contains  an 
octagonal  reading  room,  100  feet  in  diameter. 
There  are  many  magnificently  carved  marble 
arches.  The  library  is  constructed  around  four 
spacious  inner  courts  and  in  all  has  over  2,000 
windows,  which  make  it  the  best-lighted  build- 
ing of  its  kind  in  the  world.  Besides  the  reading 
room,  there  are  a  lecture  hall,  copyright  record 
rooms,  a  large  art  gallery, .  a  map  room,  etc. 
The  whole  library  could  be  made  to  accommo- 
date 6,000,000  volumes.  It  is  now  the  third 
library  in  point  of  size  in  the  world,  and,  in  the 
beginning  of  1908,  contained  1,434,000  books 
and  pamphlets,  and  some  900,000  other  articles. 

The  United  States  Treasury  building  is  one 
and  one-fourth  miles  west  of  the  capitol.  It  is 
constructed  of  granite  in  the  Ionic  style,  and 
cost  $6,000,000.  It  is  three  stories  high  and  468 
feel  long  by  264  wide.  An  Ionic  colonnade, 
modeled  after  the  Temple  of  Minerva  in  Athens, 
is  built  on  the  east  front.  On  the  west  front  is 
a  magnificent  central  entrance  with  eight  colossal 
monolithic  columns.  There  are  in  all  about  200 
rooms,  including  the  cash  room,  which  is  finished 
with  rich  marble  and  occupies  two  stories;  the 
gold  room,  containing  millions  of  dollars  in  gold 
coin;  the  Redemption  Division;  counterfeit 
room,  etc.  All  of  the  United  States  notes,  bonds, 
etc.,  are  made  here. 

The  building  of  the  State,  War,  and  Navy 
Departments  is  one  of  the  largest  public  edifices 
in  Washington.  It  is  built  of  granite  in  the 
Roman  Doric  style,  is  four  stories  high,  567  feet 
long  by  342  feet  wide,  covers  four  and  one-half 
acres,  and  cost  $11,000,000.  In  the  north  and 
east  wings  are  the  War  and  Navy  Departments ; 
in  the  south  portion  is  the  State  Department. 
The  building  contains  in  all  566  rooms,  including 
the  Hall  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Ambassa- 
dor's Room,  and  the  library  with  60,000  volumes. 
In  the  latter  apartment  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence is  preserved. 

The  building  of  the  Patent  Office,  also  known 
as  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  is  located  in 
the  central  part  of  the  city.  It  is  453  feet  long 
by  351  feet  wide,  and  is  constructed  of  granite, 
marble,  and  freestone,  in  the  Doric  style.  The 
main  entrance  faces  F  Street,  and  is  reached  by 
a  broad  stairway  of  granite  steps.  The  portico 
has  sixteen  enormous  Doric  columns  supporting  a 
classic  pediment.  The  building  contains  besides 
offices  and  other  rooms,  the  model  room,  in 
which  there  are  great  numbers  of  models,  repre- 
senting every  department  of  mechanical  art. 
The  length  of  the  floor  in  the  latter  room  is  1,350 
feet,  or  over  one-fourth  of  a  mile.  The  offices 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents,  and  of  the  Indian  Bureau  are 
on  the  second  floor. 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


579 


The  building  of  the  Land  Office,  formerly 
occupied  by  the  Post-office  Department,  and 
costing  $1,700,000,  is  of  white  marble,  in  the 
Italian  or  modified  Corinthian  style,  and  is  300 
feet  long  by  204  feet  wide.  It  is  three  stories 
high,  and  on  the  Eighth  Street  side  has  sculp- 
tures illustrating  the  telegraph  and  railroad. 

The  Pension  building  is  constructed  in  the 
Renaissance  style.  It  borders  on  Judiciary 
Square,  covers  80,000  square  feet,  is  seventy-five 
feet  high,  and  400  feet  long  by  200  feet  wide. 
On  the  exterior  and  on  a  level  with  the  second 
floor  is  a  notable  band  of  sculpture  in  terra- 
cotta, three  feet  in  height,  and  1,200  feet  in 
length.  It  represents  an  army  in  campaign, 
supported  by  sailors  and  boats  of  the  navy. 

The  Smithsonian-  Institution  is  a  magnificent 
structure,  erected  of  red  sandstone  in  the  Ro- 
manesque style.  It  is  477  feet  long  by  150  feet 
wide,  and  has  nine  towers  from  seventy-five  to 
150  feet  in  height.  It  was  established  by  James 
Smithson.  The  remaining  noteworthy  build- 
ings include  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Army  Medical  Museum 
and  Library,  building  of  the  Commission  of  Fish 
and  Fisheries,  the  United  States  Naval  Observa- 
tory, Executive  Mansion  or  "White  House," 
a  National  Soldiers'  Home,  etc.  The  buildings 
of  note  not  belonging  to  the  government  include 
the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  the  Masonic  Tem- 
ple, Odd  Fellows'  Hall,  "Evening  Star"  build- 
ing, the  '.'Baltimore  Sun"  building,  Washing- 
ton Market,  the  court-house,  New  Willard, 
Raleigh,  Shoreham,  Arlington,  and  Gordon  ho- 
tels, and  the  Cosmos,  Army  and  Navy,  Wash- 
ington, and  Metropolitan  clubs. 

Monuments. —  These  include  the  Washington 
Monument,  the  Naval  Monument,  in  honor  of 
the  officers,  sailors  and  marines  who  were  killed 
in  the  Civil  War,  the  Lafayette  Monument,  with 
statues  of  Lafayette,  Rochambeau,  D'Estaing,  De 
Grasse,  and  Duportail,  statues  of  Washington, 
Franklin,  Webster,  two  of  Lincoln,  General 
Rawlins,  Admiral  Farragut,  Martin  Luther, 
Admiral  Dupont,  President  Garfield,  and  Chief- 
Justice  Marshal,  and  equestrian  statues  of  Gen- 
eral Winfield  Scott,  Nathaniel  Greene,  George 
H.  Thomas,  W.  S.  Hancock,  John  B.  McPherson, 
and  Andrew  Jackson, 

Education. —  The  city  has  125  buildings  used 
for  school  purposes.  The  white  and  negro  pupils 
are  provided  with  separate  schools.  The  insti- 
tutions for  higher  education  are  the  George  Wash- 
ington University,  Howard  University,  Gal- 
laudet  College,  Georgetown  University,  the  Cath- 
olic University  of  America,  Gonzaga  College, 
American  University,  National  University  Law 
and  Medical  Schools.  The  centennial  of  Wash- 
ington was  fitly  celebrated  December  12,  1900. 

Washington  Monument,  a  magnifi- 
cent monument  erected  by  the  American  people, 
in  honor  of  George  Washington.  It  stands  in 
the  Mall,  a  public  park  on  the  banks  of  the  Poto- 
mac and  Tiber  Creek,  Washington,  D.  C.  The 
corner  stone  was  laid  by  President  Polk,  July  4, 
1848,  and  December  6,  1884,  the  cap  stone  was 
set  in  position.  The  foundations  are  126^  feet 
square  and  36  feet  8  inches  deep.  The  base  of 
the  monument  is  55  feet  1^  inches  square,  and 
the  walls   15  feet  \  inch  thick.     At  505  feet 


5J  inches,  where  the  pyramidal  top  begins,  the 
shaft  is  34  feet  5^  inches  square  and  the  walls 
are  18  inches  thick.  The  monument  is  made 
of  blocks  of  marble  two  feet  thick,  and  it  is  said 
there  are  over  18,000  of  them.  The  height 
above  the  ground  is  555  feet  5^  inches.  The 
pyramidal  top  terminates  in  an  aluminum  tip, 
which  is  9  inches  high  and  weighs  100  ounces. 
The  mean  pressure  of  the  monument  is  five  tons 
per  square  foot,  and  the  total  weight,  foundation 
and  all,  is  nearly  81,000  tons.  The  door  at  the 
base,  facing  the  capitol,  is  8  feet  wide  and  16 
feet  high,  and  enters  a  room  25  feet  square. 
An  immense  iron  framework  supports  the 
machinery  of  the  elevator,  which  is  hoisted 
with  steel  wire  ropes  2  inches  thick.  At  one 
side  begins  the  stairs,  of  which  there  are  50 
flights,  containing  18  steps  each.  Five  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  from  the  base  there  are 
8  windows,  18  x  24  inches,  two  on  each  face. 
The  area  at  the  base  of  the  pyramidal  top  is 
1,187^  feet,  space  enough  for  a  six-room  house, 
each  room  to  be  12  x  16  feet.  The  Washington 
Monument  is  the  highest  monument  in  the 
world;  total  cost,  $1,500,000. 

Wellington,  a  city  and  capital  of  New 
Zealand;  on  Port  Nicholson,  an  islet  of  Cook's 
Strait;  on  the  southwest  extremity  of  the 
provincial  district  of  Wellington,  North  Island. 
Its  harbor  is  six  miles  long  and  five  wide.  The 
provincial  district  of  Wellington  has  an  area  of 
11,003  square  miles.  It  has  an  equable  and 
healthy  climate,  but  is  subject  to  earthquake 
shocks.  It  is  intersected  by  several  mountain 
ranges,  but  there  are  many  fine  agricultural  and 
pastoral  districts.  Gold  was  found  in  1881. 
Population,  63,807. 

W^estmlnster  Abbey,  the  coronation 
church  of  the  sovereigns  of  England,  and  one  of 
the  chief  ornaments  of  London.  It  is  a  magnifi- 
cent Gothic  pile,  situated  near  the  Thames,  and 
adjoining  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  In  1065 
a  church  was  built  here  in  the  Norman  style  by 
Edward  the  Confessor.  Part  of  this  structure 
still  remains  in  the  pyx  house  and  the  south 
side  of  the  cloisters;  but  the  main  building,  as 
it  now  stands,  was  begun  in  1220  by  Henry  III., 
and  was  practically  completed  by  Edward  I. 
Various  additions,  however,  were  made,  down 
to  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  who  built  the  chapel 
which  bears  his  name. 

The  extreme  length  of  the  church,  including 
Henry  VII. 's  chapel,  is  531  feet;  breadth  of 
transepts,  203  feet;  height  of  roof,  102  feet; 
height  of  tower,  225  feet.  The  coronation  cere- 
mony takes  place  in  the  choir,  where  the  coro- 
nation stone  brought  by  Edward  I.  from  Scot- 
land is  situated  beside  the  coronation  chairs  of 
the  English  sovereigns.  Westminster  Abbey 
is  distinguished  as  the  burial  place  of  a  large 
number  of  English  kings  from  Edward  the 
Confessor  to  George  II.;  the  north  transept  is 
occupied  chiefly  by  monuments  to  warriors  and 
statesmen ;  while  in  the  south  transept  is  situ- 
ated the  "Poet's  Corner,"  the  burial  and  memo- 
rial place  of  most  of  England's  great  writers 
from  Chaucer  to  John  Ruskin. 

Westminster  Hall,  the  hall  of  the  old 
palace  of  Westminster,  was  erected  by  Richard 
II.  (1397-99)  on  the  foundations  of  a  structure 


580 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS' 


built  by  William  Rufus.  It  has  a  fine  porch, 
and  its  hammer-beam  roof  of  carved  timber  is 
considered  the  most  notable  of  its  kind ;  length 
of  the  building,  290  feet,  breadth  68  feet,  and 
height  110  feet.  This  building  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  many  stirring  events  in  English 
history;  but  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  the 
place  where  were  held  such  great  state  trials  as 
those  of  the  Chancellor  More,  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
the  Earl  of  Strafford,  King  Charles  I.,  and  War- 
ren Hastings,  and  as  the  center  of  the  highest 
English  courts  of  law  till  these  were  removed  to 
the  new  buildings  recently  erected  for  their 
accommodation.  The  hall  now  serves  as  a  fine 
vestibule  to  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Westphalia,  the  name  given  at  difTerent 
periods  to  (1)  one  of  the  circles  of  the  old  German 
Empire,  (2)  one  of  Napoleon's  kingdoms  (1807- 
13),  conferred  upon  his  brother  Jerome;  and 
(3)  now  to  a  province  of  Prussia.  The  latter  is 
bounded  by  Rhenish  Prussia,  Holland,  Hanover, 
Brunswick,  Hesse,  and  Nassau.  Its  area  is  7771 
square  miles.  The  surface  in  the  south  and 
northeast  is  generally  mountainous;  the  north- 
west spreads  out  into  extensive  and  often  marshy 
plains,  and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Ems; 
the  northeast  and  a  small  part  of  the  east  to  the 
basin  of  the  Weser;  the  remainder,  constituting 
the  far  larger  portion  of  the  whole,  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  whose  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Ruhr  and  Lippe.  Besides  iron  and  coal 
in  abundance  the  minerals  include  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  and  salt;  and  the  manufactures  are  Varied 
and  important.  The  province  is  divided  into 
the  three  governments  of  Miinster,  Minden,  and 
Arnsberg.     Miinster  is  the  capital. 

Wind.  The  movement  of  the  air  in  cur- 
rents from  one  place  to  another.  Speaking  gen- 
erally, all  winds  are  caused  by  the  variations 
taking  place  continually  in  the  condition  of  the 
air  as  respects  heat  and  moisture,  and,  therefore, 
as  respects  rarity.  When  the  air  over  a  given 
place  becomes  rarefied,  that  is,  when  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  there  becomes  relatively  small, 
that  region  at  once  becomes  a  center  towards 
which  inflowing  air-currents  direct  themselves. 
According  to  the  nature,  extent,  and  continu- 
ance of  this  diminution  of  pressure,  the  nature 
of  the  resulting  air-currents  varies  within  very 
wide  limits.  The  causes  which  produce  storms, 
tempests,  hurricanes,  etc.,  are  very  obscure.  It 
is  difficult  to  arrive  at  general  laws  regarding 
them,  since  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  an  exact 
knowledge  of  the  various  circumstances  which 
accompany  them.  Storms  are  violent  and  de- 
structive in  the  torrid  zone;  they  are  compara- 
tively insignificant  in  temperate,  and  are  scarcely 
known  in  polar  regions.  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed that  a  storm  was  merely  a  wind  blowing 
m  a  certain  direction  at  the  rate  of  100  or  120 
miles  an  hour ;  but  it  has  been  recently  found  to 
be  far  more  complicated  in  its  nature.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that,  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, the  great  body  of  the  storm  whirls  in  an 
horizontal  circuit  round  a  vertical  or  somewhat 
inclined  axis  of  rotation  which  is  carried  forward 
with  it;  and  that  to  a  spectator  placed  in  the 
center  the  rotation  is  always  from  right  to  left. 
Storms  travel  in  a  direction  differing  from  the 
actual  movement  of  the  wind  at  the  time.     When 


the  storm  progresses  westward  the  wind,  at  the 
commencement,  is  from  a  northern  quarter,  and 
towards  the  end  from  a  southern.  When  the 
progressive  motion  is  eastward,  the  phenomena 
are  reversed;  southern  storms  are  subject  to  the 
same  modification  as  northern,  but  in  a  reversed 
order.  In  all  latitudes,  the  barometer  sinks 
during  the  first  half  of  the  storm  in  every  part 
of  its  track;   and  rises  during  the  second. 

Yang-tse-liiang  {ydng'-tse-ke-ang'),  one 
of  the  two  great  rivers  of  China,  is  formed  by  two 
streams  rising  in  Eastern  Tibet,  and  after  flowing 
east  and  then  south  enters  the  Chinese  province 
of  Yunnan.  Pursuing  a  very  tortuous  course, 
much  of  it  through  most  fertile  and  densely-pop- 
ulated regions,  it  reaches  the  great  city  of  Nan- 
king, 200  miles  from  the  sea,  where  it  widens 
gradually  into  the  vast  estuary  which  connects 
it  with  the  Yellow  Sea.  Its  whole  course,  under 
various  names,  is  3,000  miles,  and  the  area  of  its 
basin  is  computed  to  be  680,000  square  miles. 
It  is  connected  by  the  Grand  Canal  with  the 
Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  River,  and  is  navigable  for 
vessels  of  considerable  draught  for  1,200  miles 
from  its  mouth.  By  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  the 
Lower  Yang-tse  was  opened  to  European  trade ; 
and  700  miles  from  its  mouth  is  the  treaty-port 
of  Hankow,  the  great  commercial  port  of  Mid- 
China.  The  highest  port  on  the  river  at  present 
open  to  foreign  trade  is  Ichang,  1,000  miles  from 
its  mouth. 

Yarmouth,  or,  as  it  is  more  strictly  called. 
Great  Yarmouth,  an  English  seaport,  important 
fishing-station,  watering-place,  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  in  the  county  of  Nor- 
folk, twenty  miles  east  of  Norwich.  It  is  situated 
on  a  large  and  narrow  tongue  of  land  running 
from  north  to  southward  between  the  German 
Ocean  and  the  estuary  of  the  Yare.  The  town 
is  connected  by  a  britlge  with  Little  Yarmouth, 
or  South  Town,  in  Suffolk.  Along  the  sea  front- 
age stretches  a  promenade  and  carriage-drive 
for  three  miles,  with  two  piers.  Parallel  with 
the  north  and  south  quays,  extending  for  nearly 
a  mile  and  a  quarter,  are  the  principal  streets, 
crossed  by  numerous  narrow  lanes  called  "rows." 
The  parish  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  founded  in 
1101,  and  of  late  years  completely  restored,  is  one 
of  the  largest  in  the  kingdom.  Yarmouth  has  a 
naval  lunatic  asylum,  the  only  one  in  the  kingdom. 
It  is  the  great  seat  of  the  English  herring  and 
mackerel  fishery,  and  also  furnishes  large  quan- 
tities of  wliite-fish.  The  curing  of  herring  as 
"  Yarmouth  bloaters  "  is  an  important  industry. 
The  coast  is  dangerous,  but  Yarmouth  Roads, 
between  the  shore  and  a  range  of  sandbanks, 
offers  a  safe  anchorage.     Population,  51,316. 

Yellow  Sea  (Chinese,  Whang-hai),  an  arm 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
China;  length, about  620  miles;  greatest  breadth, 
about  400  miles.  It  is  very  shallow,  and  obtains 
its  name  from  the  lemon  yellow  color  of  its 
water  near  the  land,  caused  by  mud  suspended 
in  the  water  from  the  inflow  of  the  Rivers  Hoang- 
ho  and  Yang-tse-kiang. 

Yellowstone  National  Park,  a  region 
mainly  in  Wyoming,  United  States,  which  in 
1872  was  withdrawn  from  settlement  by  the 
United  States  Government  to  become  a  park  or 
tract  for  the  recreation  of  the  people.     Its  area, 


GEOGRAPHY,  TRAVEL,  ARCHITECTURE 


581 


as  fixed  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1892,  is  about  5,000 
square  miles.  It  is  readily  accessible  by  a  branch 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway.  Its  surface 
is  mainly  an  undulating  plain,  diversified,  how- 
ever, by  great  mountain  ranges,  one  of  which, 
the  Absaraka,  a  range  separating  the  waters 
of  the  Yellowstone  River  from  those  of  the 
Big  Horn,  contains  some  of  the  grandest  scen- 
ery in  the  United  States.  The  whole  region 
exhibits  an  endless  variety  of  wild  volcanic 
scenery  —  hot  springs,  mud  volcanoes,  geysers, 
canons,  waterfalls,  etc.  The  geysers  are  more 
remarkable  than  those  of  Iceland,  and  the 
Grand  Geyser  in  Firehole  Basin  is  the  most 
magnificent  natural  fountain  in  the  world.  The 
Yellowstone  Lake,  one  of  many,  is  a  magnificent 
sheet  of  water,  with  an  area  of  150  square  miles. 
A  large  part  of  the  park  is  covered  with  forest. 
Stringent  legislation  protects  the  game,  with  the 
result  that  elk,  deer,  antelope,  bear,  and  bison 
have  taken  refuge  in  it. 

Yokohama,  the  chief  port  of  entry  in 
Japan,  and  the  headquarters  of  foreign  shipping 
companies,  banks,  consulates,  and  commerce 
generally.  Yokohama  is  a  poorly-laid-out  town 
with  narrow,  winding  streets.  The  Bluff,  how- 
ever, conceded  for  residence  in  1867,  is  a  beauti- 
ful spot,  commanding  fine  views  of  Fuji-san  and 
of  Yokohama  Bay.  The  bay  is  beautiful.  Work 
on  a  large  harbor  was  carried  out  in  1889-1896; 
it  is  enclosed  by  two  breakwaters  one  and  one- 
fourth  miles  long,  and  an  iron  pier,  1,900  feet 
long.  The  foreign  community  here  is  the  largest 
in  the  country.  Silk  represents  three-fifths  of 
the  exports,  the  rest  being  other  tissues,  tea,  rice, 
copper,  curios,  etc.;  the  imports  are  cottons 
and  woolens,  raw  sugar,  oils,  metals,  chemicals, 
arms,  and  ammunition,  watches,  etc.  The  an- 
nual exports  from  Yokohama  are  valued  at 
$73,000,000.  the  imports  at  $94,000,000.  Popu- 
lation, 326,000. 

York  (British,  Caer  Effroc,  or  Ehroc ;  Latin, 
Ebordcum),  a  cathedral  city  and  archbishop's 
see,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough, 
and  capital  of  Yorkshire,  188  miles  north  of 
London  by  rail,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Foss  and  the  Ouse.  The  city  proper,  em- 
bracing a  circuit  of  nearly  three  miles,  was 
inclosed  by  walls,  restored  by  Edward  I.,  the 
portions  of  which  still  remaining  have  been  con- 
verted into  promenades,  commanding  a  pros- 
pect of  the  surrounding  country.  There  are 
many  quaint,  old-fashioned  houses  in  the  narrow 
streets  of  its  older  portion.  The  great  object 
of  attraction,  however,  is  the  minster  or  cathe- 
dral, the  finest  in  England.  York  was  the 
capital  of  Roman  Britain.  It  was  made  an 
archiepiscopal  see  by  Edwin  of  Northumbria  in 
624.  It  still  ranks  second  among  English  cities, 
its  archbishop  having  the  title  of  Primate  of 
England,  and  its  chief  magistrate  takes  the  title 
of  Lord-mayor.  It  was  incorporated  by  Hen^y 
I.,  and  the  city  boundaries  were  extended  in 
1884.  The  trade  is  local,  and  the  industries 
unimportant.     Population,  85,861. 

York  Minster,  one  of  the  chief  English 
cathedrals,  was  erected  at  different  periods,  and 
on  the  site  of  former  buildings.  The  first  Chris- 
tian church  erected  here,  which  appears  to  have 
been  preceded  by  a  Roman  temple,  was  built 


by  Edwin,  King  of  Northumbria,  of  wood,  in 
625,  and  of  stone  about  635.  It  was  damaged 
by  fire  in  741,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Archbishop 
Albert  about  780.  It  was  again  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  year  1069,  and  rebuilt  by  Archbishop 
Thomas.  It  was  once  more  burnt  down  in 
1137,  with  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  and  thirty-nine 
parish  churches  in  York.  Archbishop  Roger  be- 
gan to  build  the  choir  in  1171;  Walter  Gray 
added  the  south  transept  in  1227;  John  de 
Romayne,  the  treasurer  of  the  cathedral,  built 
the  north  transept  in  1260.  His  son,  the  arch- 
bishop, laid  the  foundation  of  the  nave  in  1291. 
In  1330,  William  de  Melton  built  the  two  west- 
ern towers,  which  were  finished  by  John  de 
Birmingham  in  1342.  Archbishop  Thoresby,  in 
1361,  began  to  rebuild  the  choir,  in  accordance 
with  the  magnificence  of  the  nave,  and  he  also 
rebuilt  the  lantern  tower.  Thus,  by  many 
hands,  and  many  contributions  of  multitudes 
on  the  promise  of  indulgences,  this  magnificent 
fabric  was  completed.  It  was  first  set  on  fire 
by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic,  and  the  roof  of 
the  choir  and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed, 
February  2,  1829;  the  damage,  estimated  at 
$300,000,  was  repaired  in  1832.  An  accidental 
fire  broke  out,  which  in  one  hour  reduced  the 
belfry  to  a  shell,  destroyed  the  roof  of  the  nave, 
and  much  damaged  the  edifice.  May  20,  1840. 

Yosemlte  iyo-sem'-l-te)  Valley,  one  of  the 
greatest  natural  wonders  of  North  America,  is 
in  Mariposa  County,  California,  about  140  miles 
southeast  of  San  Francisco  and  midway  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  bases  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  a  narrow  valley  at  an  ele- 
vation of  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  itself 
nearly  level,  about  six  miles  in  length,  and  vary- 
ing in  width  from  one-half  mile  to  a  mile.  On 
each  side  rise  enormous  domes  and  almost  verti- 
cal cliffs  of  granite,  one  of  them  called  the  Half 
Dome,  being  4,737  feet  higher  than  the  River 
Merced  at  its  base,  while  the  more  important 
waterfalls  are  the  Yosemite  and  the  Bridal  Veil. 
This  valley  has  been  added  by  Congress  to  the 
State  of  California,  on  condition  that  it  shall  be 
kept  as  a  public  park  or  free  domain  "inalien- 
able for  all  time." 

Yukon,  a  great  river  of  Alaska,  rises  in 
British  territory,  and,  after  a  course  of  2,000 
miles,  falls,  by  a  number  of  mouths  forming  a 
delta,  into  the  Bering  Sea;  it  is  navigable 
nearly  throughout,  and  its  ^yaters  swarm  with 
salmon  three  months  in  the  year,  some  of  them 
from  eighty  to  120  pounds  in  weight,  and  from 
five  to  six  feet  long. 

Zambezi,  one  of  the  four  great  African 
rivers,  and  the  fourth  largest  as  regards  both 
the  volume  of  its  waters  and  the  area  it  drains, 
the  other  three  being  the  Nile,  the  Congo,  and  the 
Niger.  It  waters  a  rich  pastoral  region,  and 
it  falls  into  the  Indian  Ocean  after  a  course 
of  nearly  1 ,800  miles,  in  which  it  drains  600,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  or  an  area  three  times 
larger  than  that  of  France.  Owing  to  cata- 
racts and  rapids  it  is  only  navigable  in  different 
stretches.  At  900  miles  from  its  mouth  it 
plunges  in  a  cataract  known  as  the  Victoria 
Falls,  1,860  yards  across  and  having  a  height 
of  400  feet,  which  rivals  in  grandeur  those  even 
of  Niagara. 


582 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


CITIES  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES  OVER  25,000  POPULATION 


City 


Akron,  Ohio,    .    . 
Albany,  N.  Y.,     . 
Allentown,  Pa.,    . 
Altoona,  Pa.,    .    . 
Amsterdam,  N.  Y., 
Atlanta,  Ga.,    .    . 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 
Auburn,  N.  Y.,    . 
Augusta,  Ga.,  .    . 
Aurora,  111.,      .    . 
Austin,  Tex.,    .    . 
Baltimore,  Md.,   . 
Battle  Creek,  Mich. 
Bay  City,  Mich., 
Bayonne,  N.  J.,  . 
Berkeley,  Cal., 
Bingham  ton,  N.  Y. 
Birmingham,  Ala., 
Bloominpton,  111., 
Boston,  Mass., 
Bridgeport,  Conn., 
Brockton,  Mass., 
Brookline,  Mass., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,     . 
Butte,  Mont.,  .    . 
Cambridge,  Mass., 
Camden,  N.  J.,     . 
Canton,  Ohio,  .    . 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 
Charleston,  S.  C, 
Charlotte,  N.-C, 
Chattanooga,  Tenn 
Chelsea,  Mass.,     . 
Chester,  Pa.,    .    . 
Chicago,  111.,     .    . 
Chicopee,  Mass., . 
Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Clinton,  Iowa, 
Colorado  Springs,  Colo., 
Columbia,  S.  C, 
Columbus,  Ohio, 
Council  Bluffs,  Iowa, 
Covington,  Ky.,  . 
Dallas,  Tex.,    .    . 
Danville,  III.,   .    . 
Davenport,  Iowa, 
Dayton,  Ohio, 
Decatur,  III.,    . 
Denver,  Colo., 
Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
Detroit,  Mich.,     . 
Dubuque,  Iowa,  . 
Duluth,  Minn.,     . 
Easton,  Pa.,     .    . 
East  Orange,  N.  J., 
East  St.  Louis,  111., 
El  Paso,  Tex.,      . 

Elgin,  III 

Elizabeth,  N.  J.; 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,     . 

Erie,  Pa 

Evansville,  Ind., 
Everett,  Mass.,    . 
Fall  River,  Mass., 
Fitchburg,  Mass., 
Flint,  Mich.,     .    . 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 
Fort  Worth,  Tex., 
Galveston,  Tex., 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
Green  Bay,  Wis. 
Hamilton,  Ohio, 
Harrisburg,  Pa., 
Hartford,  Conn., 
Haverhill,  Mass. 


Pop. 
1910 


So 


69,067 

100,253 
51,913 
52,127 
31,267 

154,839 
46,150 
34,668 
41,040 
29,807 
29,860 

558,485 
25,267 
45,166 
55,545 
40,434 
48,443 

132,685 
25,768 

670,585 

102,054 
56,878 
27,792 

423,715 
39,165 

104,839 
94,538 
50,217 
32,811 
68,833 
34,014 
44,604 
32,452 
38,537 
2,185,283 
25,401 

364,463 

560,663 
25,577 
29,078 
26,319 

181,548 
29,292 
63,270 
62,104 
27,871 
43,038 

116,577 
31,140 

213.381 
86,368 

465,766 
38.494 
78,466 
28,523 
34,371 
58,547 
39,279 
25  976 
73,409 
37,176 
66,525 
69,647 
33  484 

119295 
37  826 
38,5.50 
63  933 
73,312 
36,981 

112,571 
2.5,236 
35  279 
64,186 
98,915 
44,116 


CiTT 


61.6  Hazleton,  Pa 

6.5Hoboken,  N.  J.,  .    . 

46.6  Holyoke,  Mass.,  .  . 
33.8  Houston,  Tex.,  .  . 
49.4  Huntington,  W.  Va., 

72.3  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  . 

65.8  Jackson,  Mich.,  .  . 
14.2  Jacksonville,  Ha.,   . 

4. 1  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 

23. 4  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  . 
34.2  Johnstown,  Pa.,  .    . 

9.7  Joliet,  III 

36.1  Jpplin,  Mo.,.    .    .    . 

63.5  Kalamazoo,  Mich., 

69. 7  Kansas  City,  Kans., 
206. 0  Kansas  City,  Mo.,    . 

22.2  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  . 
245.4  Knoxville,  Tenn.,    . 

10.7  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  .    . 

19.6  Lancaster,  Pa.,    .    . 

43.7  Lansing,  Mkh.,    .    . 

42.0  Lawrence,  Mass.,     . 

39.4  Lewiston,  Me.,  .  . 
20. 2  Lexington,  Ky.,  .    . 

28.5  Lima,  Ohio,      .    .    . 

14. 1  Lincoln,  Nebr.,     .    . 

24.5  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  . 
63. 7  Lorain,  Ohio,   .    .    . 

27. 9  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  . 
5. 4  Louisville,  Ky.,    .    . 

88.0  Lowell,  Mass.,      .    . 
47.9  Lynchburg,  Va., 
-4.8  Lynn,. Mass 

13. 4  Macon,  Ga 

28.7  McKeesport,  Pa.,  . 
32. 5 Madison,  Wis.,     .    . 

11.8  Maiden,  Mass.,     .    . 

46.9  Manchester,  N.  H., 
12.7  Memphis,  Tenn., .  . 
37.9  Meriden,  Conn.,  .    . 

24.7  Milwaukee,  Wis.,     . 

44.6  Minneapolis,  Minn., 

13.5  Mobile,  Ala 

24. 1  Montgomery,  Ala., 
116.0  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y 

70. 4  Muskogee,  Okla., 
22.1  Nashua,  N.  H., 

36.6  Nashville,  Tenn., 
50.0  Newark,  N.  J., 
59.4  Newark,  Ohio, 
39.0  New  Bedford,  Mass 

63.0  New  Britain,  Conn. 

6.1  Newburg,  N.  Y., 

48. 1  Newcastle,  Pa., 
13.0  New  Haven,  Conn., 

i  59.8  New  Orleans,  La. 

97.4  Newport,  Ky., 
il46.9  Newport,  R.  I.,    . 
I  15.8  New  Rochelle,  N. 

40.8  Newton,  Mass.,    . 

4.2  New  York,  N.  Y. 

26.2  Niagara  Falls,  N. 
18.0  Norfolk,  Va.,    .    . 

37.6  Norristown,  Pa., 

13.8  Oakland,  Cal.,      . 
20.0Ogden,  Utah,   .    . 

194.2  Oklahoma  City,  Okla 

41.7  Omaha,  Nebr., 
174.7  Orange,  N.  J.,       . 

-2.1  Oshkosh,  Wis.,     . 

28. 6  Pasadena,  Cal.,    . 
35.  r  Passaic,  N.  J., 

47.5  Paterson,  N.  J.,   . 

27.9  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
23.9  Peoria,  III 

18. 7  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J 


Pop. 
1910 


25,452 
50,324 
57,730 
78,800 
31,161 

233,650 
31,433 
57,699 
31,297 

267,779 
55,482 
34,670 
32,073 
39,437 
82,331 

248,381 
25,908 
36,346 
30,417 
47,227 
31,229 
85,892 
26,247 
35,099 
30,508 
43,973 
45,941 
28,883 

319,198 

223,928 

103,294 
29,494 
89,336 
40,665 
42,694 
25,531 
44,404 
70,063 

131,105 
27,265 

373.857 

301,408 
51,521 
38,136 
30,919 
25,278 
26,005 

110,364 

347,469 
25,404 
96,652 
43,916 
27,805 
30,280 

133,605 

339,075 
30,309 
27,149 
28,867 
39,806 
4,766,883 
30,445 
67,452 
27,875 

150,174 
25,580 
64,205 

124,096 
29,630 
33,062 
30,291 
54,773 

125,600 
51,622 
66,950 
32,121 


City 


9  Philadelphia,  Pa.,    . 

5  Pittsburg,  Pa.,     .    . 

3  Pittsfield,  Mass.,      . 

6  Portland,  Me., .    .    . 

4  Portland,  Oreg.,  .  . 
1  Portsmouth,  Va.,     . 

8  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 

0  Providence,  R.  I.,   . 

7  Pueblo,  Colo.,  .    .    . 

7;;Quincy,  III 

4||Quincy,  Mass.,  .  . 
IJRacine,  Wis.,  .  .  . 
2[Reading,  Pa.,  .  .  . 
6:'Richmond,  Va.,  .  . 
li'Roanoke,  Va.,  .  . 
7''Rochester,  N.  Y.,  . 
6  Rockford,  111.,  .  . 
4  Sacramento,  Cal.,    . 

3  Saginaw,  Mich.,   .    . 

9  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  .    . 

4  St.  Louis,  Mo.,     .    . 

3  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  .    . 

5  Salem,  Mass.,  .    .    . 

1  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

4  San  Antonio,  Tex., . 

5  San  Diego,  Cal.,  .  . 
9  San  Francisco,  Cal., 

2  San  Jose,  Cal.,  .  . 
5  Savannah,  Ga.,  .  . 
,4  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
, 9  Scranton,  Pa.,      .    . 

,  1  Seattle,  Wash.,    .    . 
,4  Sheboygan,  Wis.,     . 
,7  Shenandoah,  Pa., 
.7  Shreveport,  La.,  .    . 
.2  Sioux  City,  Iowa,     . 
,9  Somerville,  Mass.,    . 
,9  South  Bend,  Ind.,   . 
.1  South  Omaha,  Nebr. 
,2  Spokane,  Wash., .    . 
.0  Springfield,  111.,    .    . 
.7  Springfield,  Mass.,  . 
.9  Springfield,  Mo., 
.7  Springfield,  Ohio,     . 
.7  Stamford,  Conn., 
.  2  Superior,  W  is.",     .    . 
.8  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
,  5  Tacoma,  Wash.,  .    . 

,2  Tampa,  Fla 

.9  Taimton,  Mass.,  .  . 
,8Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  . 
.9  Toledo,  Ohio,  .  .  . 
,  5  Topeka,  Kans.,  .  . 
.0  Trenton,  N.  J.,     .    . 

,7Troy,  N.  Y 

,  1  Utica,  N.  Y 

.  1  Waco,  Tex 

,0  Waltham,  Mass., 
.1  Warwick,  R.  I.,  .  . 
,5  Washington,  D.  C, 
,  7  Waterbury,  Conn., 
,5  Waterloo,  Iowa,  .  . 
,7  Watertown,  N.  Y.,. 
,2  West  Hobokcn,  N.J. 
,3  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  . 
.  8  WMchita,  Kans.,  .  . 
,7  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  . 
.OWilliamsport,  Pa.,  . 
.7  Wilmington,  Del.,  . 
.9;Wilmington,  N.  C, 
. 2,Woonsocket,  R.  I.,. 
,2  Worcester,  Mass.,  . 
.4  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
.5  York,  Pa.,  ..... 
.3  Youngstown,  Ohio, 
.5,  Zanesville,  Ohio, .    . 


Pop. 
1910 


TEN   LARGEST   CITIES  IN  THE   WORLD 

CiTT 

Census 

Pop. 

City 

Census 

Pop. 

:::::::::: 

1909 
1910 
1906 
1908 
1910 

7,429,740 
4,766,883 
2,763,393 
2,186,079 
2,185,283 

1908 
1909 
1905 
1910 
1907 

2,101,933 

2      New  York 

2.085,888. 

3.     Paris 

8.     St.  Petersburg 

S.     Philadelphia 

10.     Moscow 

1,678.000 
1,549,008 

5.     Chicago, 

1,359,254 

H 

t-H 


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o 

H 

O 
O 

H   o 

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W 
H 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 


Abyssinia.  The  system  of  government 
is  monarchical,  and  each  large  province  is  under 
a  Ras  or  feudal  chief,  the  more  important  of 
whom  form  a  Council  of  State,  while  under  them 
are  the  governors  of  districts  and  the  chiefs  of 
villages.  In  October,  1907,  a  decree  was  issued 
announcing  the  formation  of  a  cabinet  on  Euro- 
pean lines,  and  ministers  of  j  ustice,  finance,  com- 
merce, war,  and  foreign  affairs  were  appointed. 
Each  Ras  has  a  standing  force  as  garrison  and  at 
call  in  case  of  war,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
retainers  not  embodied.  The  forces  united  are 
estimated  at  100,000  men. 

Afghanistan.  The  government  of  Af- 
ghanistan is  monarchical  under  one  hereditary 
prince,  called  the  Ameer,  whose  power  varies 
with  his  own  character  and  fortune.  The  domin- 
ions are  politically  divided  into  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Kabul,  Turkistan,  Herat,  and  Kandahar, 
Badakhshan  being  now  under  Turkistan.  Each 
province  is  under  a  hakim  or  governor  (called 
Ndib),  under  whom  nobles  dispense  justice  after 
a  feudal  fashion.  Spoliation,  exaction,  and 
embezzlement  are  almost  universal.  The  Ameer 
has  a  subsidy  of  eighteen  lakhs  (£120,000)  per 
annum  from  the  Indian  Government.  By  the 
treaty  of  1893,  confirmed  in  1905,  the  Ameer 
accepts  the  advice  of  the  British  Government  in 
regard  to  his  relations  with  foreign  powers,  and 
is  guaranteed  against  unprovoked  aggression 
on  his  dominions.  A  standing  army  is  main- 
tained, and  service  is  obligatory,  but  rests 
lightly  upon  the  population,  about  one  man  in 
eight  being  called  upon  to  serve.  The  army 
comprises  about  27,000  infantry,  7,000  cavalry, 
and  a  strong  force  of  artillery,  apart  from  the 
irregulars,  who  number  some  25,000  mounted 
men  and  a  smaller  force  of  infantry,  capable  of 
being  increased  on  a  war  footing  to  80,000 
horse  and  60,000  foot. 

Alabama  was  organized  as  a  Territory  in 
1817,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  in 
1819.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of 
thirty-five  members  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  seventy  members;  Senators  are 
elected  for  four  years;  Representatives  for  two. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the  gov- 
ernor, elected  for  four  years.  He  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  militia,  has  a  limited  veto  in  legis- 
lation, and  exercises  the  powers  usually  entrusted 
to  State  governors.  Other  elective  officers  are 
the  lieutenant-governor,  auditor,  attorney-gen- 
eral, treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  education. 

Argentine  Republic.  The  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Argentine  Republic  bears  date  May 
15,  1853,  with  modifications  in  1862.  By  its 
provisions,  the  executive  power  is  left  to  a  presi- 
dent, elected  for  six  years  by  representatives  of 
the  fourteen  provinces,  equal  to  double  the  num- 
ber of  senators  and  deputies  combined;  while 
the  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  national 
congress,  consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of 
deputies,  the  former  numbering  thirty,  two 
from  the  capital  and  from  each  province,  elected 


by  a  special  body  of  electors  in  the  capital,  and 
by  the  legislatures  in  the  provinces;  and  the 
latter,  120  members  elected  by  the  people.  By 
the  constitution  there  should  be  one  deputy  for 
every  33,000  inhabitants.  A  deputy  must  be 
25  years  of  age,  and  have  been  a  citizen  for  four 
years.  The  deputies  are  elected  for  four  years, 
but  one-half  of  the  house  must  retire  every  two 
years.  Senators  must  be  30  years  of  age,  have 
been  citizens  for  six  years.  One-third  of  the 
senate  is  renewed  every  three  years.  The  two 
chambers  meet  annually  from  May  1st  to  Sep- 
tember 30th.  The  members  of  both  the  senate 
and  the  house  of  deputies  are  paid  for  their 
services,  each  receiving  12,000  pesos  per  annum 
(about  1,060  lire).  A  vice-president,  elected  in 
the  same  manner  and  at  the  same  time  as  the 
president,  fills  the  office  of  chairman  of  the 
senate,  but  has  otherwise  no  political  power. 
The  president  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
troops,  and  appoints  to  all  civil,  military,  and 
judicial  offices,  and  has  the  right  of  presentation 
to  bishoprics ;  he  is  responsible  with  the  ministry 
for  the  acts  of  the  executive;  both  president 
and  vice-president  must  be  Roman  Catholics, 
Argentine  by  birth,  and  cannot  be  re-elected. 

Arizona  was  organized  as  a  Territory  in 
1863.  Legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  Leg- 
islative Assembly  consisting  of  a  council  of 
twelve  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  twenty- 
four  members  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years. 
Acts  passed  are  subject  to  limitations  by  Con- 
gress. The  Territory  is  represented  in  the  Fed- 
eral House  of  Representatives  by  a  delegate  who 
is  elected  every  two  years  by  the  people,  and  ex- 
ercises all  functions  of  a  representative  except 
that  of  voting.  The  executive  authority  is  vested 
in  a  governor  appointed  for  four  years,  with  the 
consent  of  the  United  States  Senate,  by  the 
President.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
militia.  He  has  a  veto  in  legislation  but  its 
exercise  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  both  houses.  He  has  the  power  to  summon 
extra  sessions  of  the  Legislature,  but  his  reasons 
for  doing  so  must  first  have  been  approved  by 
the  President.  The  President  appoints  the  sec- 
retary of  state  who,  in  case  of  the  governor's  ab- 
sence or  disqualification,  takes  the  place  of  acting 
governor.  Other  officials  are  auditor,  treasurer, 
attorney-general,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  An  "enabling  act,"  providing  for 
admission  to  statehood,  was  passed  in  1910. 

Arkansas.  The  Constitution  of  1836  was 
followed  by  those  of  1864,  1868,  and  1874;  the 
last-named,  amended  five  times  from  1885  to 
1902,  is  still  in  force.  Amendments  proposed 
in  either  house  of  the  Legislature,  approved  by  a 
majority  of  the  members  of  each  house  and  by 
a  "majority  voting  at  the  said  election"  in  the 
prescribed  manner,  became  part  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. Legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  General 
Assembly,  consisting  of  a  Senate  of  thirty-five 
members,  elected  for  four  years,  partially  re- 
newed every  two  years,  and  a  House  of  Repre- 


586 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


sentatives  of  100  members  elected  for  two  years. 
Any  bill  may  originate  in  either  house.  The 
House  of  Representatives  has  the  right  to 
•impeach;  the  Senate  tries  cases  of  impeach- 
ment. Senators  and  Representatives  must  be 
citizens,  the  former  25  years  of  age  and  the 
latter  21,  and  both  must  have  resided  in  the 
State  two  years,  and  in  the  county  or  district 
one  year  next  before  election.  The  chief  execu- 
tive officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor,  elected 
for  two  years.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
militia ;  he  can  appoint  to  executive  offices 
which  have  become  vacant,  has  unlimited  par- 
doning power  (but  not  in  cases  of  impeachment), 
and  may  call  special  sessions  of  the  Legislature. 
He  has  a  veto  which  may  be  overridden  by  a 
two-thirds  majority  of  the  members  of  each 
house.  Other  officials  elected  for  two  years  are 
the  treasurer,  auditor,  attorney-general,  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  and  commis- 
sioner of  mines,  manufactures  and  agriculture. 

Articles  of  Confederation.  While 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  under 
consideration  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and 
before  it  was  finally  agreed  upon,  measures 
were  taken  for  the  establishment  of  a  consti- 
tutional form  of  government;  and  on  the  11th 
of  June,  1776,  it  was  "Resolved,  That  a  com- 
mittee be  appointed  to  prepare  and  digest  the 
form  of  a  confederation  to  be  entered  into  be- 
tween these  Colonies";  which  committee  was 
appointed  the  next  day,  June  12,  and  con- 
sisted of  a  member  from  each  Colony,  namely: 
Mr.  Bartlett,  Mr.  S.  Adams,  Mr.  Hopkins,  Mr. 
Sherman,  Mr.  R.  R.  Livingston,  Mr.  Dickinson, 
Mr.  McKean,  Mr.  Stone,  Mr.  Nelson,' Mr.  Hewes, 
Mr.  E.  Rutledge,  and  Mr.  Gwinnett.  On  the 
12th  of  July,  1776,  the  committee  reported  a 
draught  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  which 
was  printed  for  the  use  of  the  members  under 
the  strictest  injunctions  of  secrecy. 

This  report  underwent  a  thorough  discussion 
in  Congress,  from  time  to  time,  until  the  15th 
of  November,  1777;  on  which  day,  "Articles 
of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union"  were 
finally  agreed  to  in  form,  and  they  were  directed 
to  be  proposed  to  the  legislatures  of  all  the 
United  States,  and  if  approved  by  them,  they 
were  advised  to  authorize  their  delegates  to 
ratify  the  same  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States;  and  in  that  event  they  were  to  become 
conclusive.  On  the  17th  of  November,  1777, 
the  Congress  agreed  upon  the  form  of  a  circular 
letter  to  accompany  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, which  concluded  with  a  recommendation 
to  each  of  the  several  legislatures  "  to  invest  its 
delegates  with  competent  powers,  ultimately, 
and  in  the  name  and  behalf  of  the  State,  to  sub- 
scribe articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual 
union  of  the  United  States,  and  to  attend  Con- 
gress for  that  purpose  on  or  before  the  10th  day 
of  March  next."  This  letter  was  signed  by  the 
President  of  Congress  and  sent,  with  a  copy  of 
the  articles,  to  each  State  legislature. 

On  the  26th  of  June,  1778,  Congress  agreed 
upon  the  form  of  a  ratification  of  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  and  directed  a  copy  of  the 
articles  and  the  ratification  to  be  engrossed  on 

Earchment;    which,  on  the  9th  of  July,   1778, 
aving  been  examined  and  the  blanks  filled. 


was  signed  by  the  delegates  of  New  Hampshire, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Rhode  Island  and  Prov- 
idence Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  South  Carolina. 
Congress,  then  directed  that  a  circular  letter  be 
addressed  to  the  States  whose  delegates  were 
not  present,  or  being  present,  conceived  they 
were  not  authorized  to  sign  the  ratification, 
informing  them  how  many  and  what  States  had 
ratified  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  de- 
siring them,  with  all  convenient  dispatch,  to 
authorize  their  delegates  to  ratify  the  same. 
Of  these  States,  North  Carolina  ratified  on  the 
21st  and  Georgia  on  the  24th  of  July,  1778; 
New  Jersey  on  the  26th  of  November  following ; 
Delaware  on  the  5th  of  May,  1779;  Maryland 
on  the  1st  of  March,  1781;  and  on  the  2d  of 
March,  1781,  Congress  assembled  under  the  new 
form  of  government. 

ACT    OF    CONFEDERATION     OF    THE     UNITED 
STATES    OF   AMERICA 

TO  ALL  TO  WHOM  THESE  PRESENTS  SHALL  COME,  WE  THE 
UNDERSIGNED  DELEGATES  OF  THE  STATES  AFFIXED  TO 
OUR   NAMES,    SEND    GREETING. 

Whereas  the  Delegates  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica in  Congress  assembled  did  on  the  15th  day  of  No- 
vember in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  One  Thousand  Seven 
Hundred  and  Seventy  seven,  and  in  the  Second  Year 
of  the  Independence  of  America  agree  to  certain  articles 
of  Confederation  and  perpetual  Union  between  the  states 
of  Newhampshire,  Massachusetts-bay,  Rhodeisland  and 
Providence  Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  in  the 
Words  following,  viz. 

"articles  of  CONFEDERATION  AND  PERPETUAL  UNION 
BETWEEN  THE  STATES  OF  NEWHAMPSHIRE,  MASSACHU- 
SETTS-BAY, RHODEISLAND  AND  PROVIDENCE  PLANTA- 
TIONS, CONNECTICUT,  NEW  YORK,  NEW  JERSEY,  PENN- 
SYLVANIA, DELAWARE,  MARYLAND,  VIRGINIA,  NORTH 
CAROLINA,  SOUTH  CAROLINA  AND  GEORGIA. 

Article  i.  The  Stile  of  this  confederacy  shall  be 
"The  United  States  of  America," 

Article  ii.  Each  State  retains  its  Sovereignty,  free- 
dom and  independence,  and  every  Power,  Jurisdiction 
and  right,  which  is  not  by  this  confederation  expressly 
delegated  to  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled. 

Article  hi.  The  said  states  hereby  severally  enter 
into  a  firm  league  of  friendship  with  each  other,  for 
their  common  defence,  the  security  of  their  Liberties, 
and  their  mutual  and  general  welfare,  binding  them- 
selves to  assist  each  other,  against  all  force  offered  to, 
or  attacks  made  upon  them,  or  any  of  them,  on  account 
of  religion,  sovereignty,  trade,  or  any  other  pretence 
whatever. 

Article  iv.  The  better  to  secure  and  perpetuate 
mutual  friendship  and  intercourse  among  the  people 
of  the  different  states  in  this  union,  the  free  inhabitants 
of  each  of  these  states,  paupers,  vagabonds  and  fugi- 
tives from  Justice  excepted,  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  free  citizens  in  the  several 
states;  and  the  people  of  each  state  shall  have  free  in- 
gress and  regress  to  and  from  any  other  state,  and  shall 
enjoy  therein  all  the  privileges  of  trade  and  commerce, 
subject  to  the  same  duties,  impositions  and  restrictions 
as  the  inhabitants  thereof  respectively,  provided  that 
such  restrictions  shall  not  extend  so  far  as  to  prevent 
the  removal  of  property  imported  into  any  state,  to 
any  other  state  of  which  the  Owner  is  an  inhabitant; 
provided  also  that  no  imposition,  duties  or  restriction 
shall  be  laid  by  any  state,  on  the  property  of  the  united 
states,  or  either  of  them. 

If  any  Person  guilty  of,  or  charged  with  treason, 
felony,  or  other  high  misdemeanor  in  any  state,  shall 
flee  from  Justice,  and  be  found  in  any  of  the  united 
states,  he  shall  upon  demand  of  the  Governor  or  execu- 
tive power,  of  the  state  from  which  he  fled,  be  dehvered 
up  and  removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdiction  of  his 
offence. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  of  these 
states  to  the  records,  acts  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
the  courts  and  magistrates  of  every  other  state. 

Article  v.  For  the  more  convenient  management 
of  the  general  interest  of  the  united  states,  delegates 
shall  be  annually  appointed  in  such  manner  as  the  legis- 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


587 


lature  of  each  state  shall  direct,  to  meet  in  Congress  on 
the  first  Monday  in  November,  in  every  year,  with  a 
power  reserved  to  each  state,  to  recal  its  delegates,  or 
any  of  them,  at  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  send 
others  in  their  stead,  for  the  remainder  of  the  Year. 

No  state  shall  be  represented  in  Congress  by  less  than 
two,  nor  by  more  than  seven  Members;  and  no  person 
shall  be  capable  of  being  a  delegate  for  more  than  three 
years  in  any  term  of  six  years;  nor  shall  any  person,  be- 
ing a  delegate,  be  capable  of  holding  any  office  under 
the  united  states,  for  which  he,  or  another  for  his  benefit 
receives  any  salary,  fees  or  emolument  of  any  kind. 

Each  state  shall  maintain  its  own  delegates  in  a  meet- 
ing of  the  states,  and  while  they  act  as  members  of  the 
committee  of  the  states. 

In  determining  questions  in  the  united  states,  in  Con- 
gress assembled,  each  state  shall  have  one  vote. 

Freedom  of  speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall  not 
be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any  Court,  or  place  out 
of  Congress,  and  the  members  of  congress  shall  be  pro- 
tected in  their  persons  from  arrests  and  imprisonments, 
during  the  time  of  their  going  to  and  from,  and  attend- 
ance on  congress,  except  for  treason,  felony,  or  breach 
of  the  peace. 

Article  vi.  No  state  without  the  Consent  of  the 
united  states  in  congress  assembled,  shall  send  any  em- 
bassy to,  or  receive  any  embassy  from,  or  enter  into 
any  conference,  agreement,  alliance  or  treaty  with  any 
King  prince  or  state;  nor  shall  any  person  holding  any 
office  of  profit  or  trust  under  the  united  states,  or  any 
of  them,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office  or 
title  of  any  kind  whatever  from  any  king,  prince  or 
foreign  state;  nor  shall  the  united  states  in  congress 
assembled,  or  any  of  them,  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  two  or  more  states  shall  enter  into  any  treaty, 
confederation  or  alliance  whatever  between  them,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  united  states  in  congress  assem- 
bled, specifying  accurately  the  purposes  for  which  the 
same  is  to  be  entered  into,  and  how  long  it  shall 
continue. 

No  state  shall  lay  any  imposts  or  duties,  which  may 
interfere  with  any  stipulations  in  treaties,  entered  into 
by  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled  with  any 
king,  prince  or  state,  in  pursuance  of  any  treaties  al- 
ready proposed  by  congress  to  the  courts  of  France  and 
Spain. 

No  vessels  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  by 
any  state,  except  such  number  only,  as  shall  be  deemed 
necessary  by  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled, 
for  the  defence  of  such  state,  or  its  trade;  nor  shall  any 
body  of  forces  be  kept  up  by  any  state,  in  time  of  peace, 
except  such  number  only,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the 
united  states,  in  congress  assembled,  shall  be  deemed 
requisite  to  garrison  the  forts  necessary  for  the  defence 
of  such  state;  but  every  state  shall  always  keep  up  a 
well  regulated  and  disciplined  militia,  sufficiently  armed 
and  accoutred,  and  shall  provide  and  constantly  have 
ready  for  use,  in  public  stores,  a  due  number  of  field- 
pieces  and  tents,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  arms,  ammu- 
nition and  camp  equipage. 

No  state  shall  engage  in  any  war  without  the  consent 
of  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled,  unless  such 
state  be  actually  invaded  by  enemies,  or  shall  have 
received  certain  advice  of  a  resolution  being  formed  by 
some  nation  of  Indians  to  invade  such  state,  and  the 
danger  is  so  imminent  as  not  to  admit  of  a  delay,  till 
the  united  states  in  congress  assembled  can  be  consulted : 
nor  shall  any  state  grant  commissions  to  any  ships  or 
vessels  of  war;  nor  letters  of  marque  or  reprisal,  except 
it  be  after  a  declaration  of  war  by  the  united  states  in 
congress  assembled,  and  then  only  against  the  kingdom 
or  state  and  the  subjects  thereof,  against  which  war 
has  been  so  declared,  and  under  such  regulations  as 
shall  be  established  by  the  united  states  in  congress 
assembled,  unless  such  state  be  infested  by  pirates,  in 
which  case  vessels  of  war  may  be  fitted  out  for  that 
occasion,  and  kept  so  long  as  the  danger  shall  continue, 
or  until  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall 
determine  otherwise. 

Article  vii.  When  land-forces  are  raised  by  any 
state  for  the  common  defence,  all  officers  of  or  under  the 
rank  of  colonel,  shall  be  appointed  by  the  legislature  of 
each  state  respectively  by  whom  such  forces  shall  be 
raised,  or  in  such  manner  as  such  s;tate  shall  direct, 
and  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled  up  by  the  state  which 
first  made  the  appointment. 

Article  viii.  All  charges  of  war,  and  all  other  ex- 
pences.that  shall  be  incurred  for  the  common  defence  or 
general  welfare,  and  allowed  by  the  united  states  in 
congress  assembled,  shall  be  defrayed  out  of  a  common 
treasury,  which  shall  be  supplied  by  the  several  states, 
in  proportion  to  the  value  of  all  land  within  each  state, 
granted  to  or  surveyed  for  any  Person,  as  such  land 


and  the  buildings  and  improvements  thereon  shall  be 
estimated  according  to  such  mode  as  the  united  states 
in  congress  assembled,  shall  from  time  to  time  direct 
and  appoint. 

The  taxes  for  paying  that  proportion  shall  be  laid 
and  levied  by  the  authority  and  direction  of  the  legis- 
latures of  the  several  states  within  the  time  agreed 
upon  by  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled. 

Article  ix.  The  united  states  in  congress  assem- 
bled, shall  have  the  gole  and  exclusive  right  and  power 
of  determining  on  peace  and  war,  except  in  the  cases 
mentioned  in  the  sixth  article  —  of  sending  and  receiv- 
ing embassadors  —  entering  into  treaties  and  alliances, 
provided  that  no  treaty  of  commerce  shall  be  made 
whereby  the  legislative  power  of  the  respective  states 
shall  be  restrained  from  imposing  such  imposts  and 
duties  on  foreigners,  as  their  own  people  are  subjected 
to,  or  from  prohibiting  the  exportation  or  importa- 
tion of  any  species  of  goods  or  commodities  whatsoever 

—  of  establishing  rules  for  deciding  in  all  cases,  what 
captures  on  land  or  water  shall  be  legal,  and  in  what 
manner  prizes  taken  by  land  or  naval  forces  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  united  states  shall  be  divided  or  appropriated 

—  of  granting  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  times 
of  peace  —  appointing  courts  for  the  trial  of  piracies 
and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas  and  establish- 
ing courts  for  receiving  and  determining  finally  appeals 
in  all  cases  of  captures,  provided  that  no  member  of 
congress  shall  be  appointed  a  judge  of  any  of  the  said 
courts. 

The  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall  also  be 
the  last  resort  on  appeal  in  all  disputes  and  differences 
now  subsisting  or  that  hereafter  may  arise  between  two 
or  more  states  concerning  boundary,  jurisdiction  or  any 
other  cause  whatever;  which  authority  shall  always  be 
exercised  in  the  manner  following:  Whenever  the  legis- 
lative or  executive  authority  or  lawful  agent  of  any 
state  in  controversy  with  another  shall  present  a  peti- 
tion to  congress  stating  the  matter  in  question  and 
praying  for  a  hearing,  notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by 
order  of  congress  to  the  legislative  or  executive  author- 
ity of  the  other  state  in  controversy,  and  a  day  assigned 
for  the  appearance  of  the  parties  by  their  lawful  agents, 
who  shall  then  be  directed  to  appoint  by  joint  consent, 
commissioners  or  judges  to  constitute  a  court  for  hearing 
and  determining  the  matter  in  question:  but  if  they 
cannot  agree,  congress  shall  name  three  persons  out  of 
each  of  the  united  states,  and  from  the  list  of  such  per- 
sons each  party  shall  alternately  strike  out  one,  the 
petitioners  beginning,  until  the  number  shall  be  reduced 
to  thirteen;  and  from  that  number  not  less  than  seven, 
nor  more  than  nine  names  as  congress  shall  direct, 
shall  in  the  presence  of  congress  be  drawn  out  by  lot, 
and  the  persons  whose  names  shall  be  so  drawn  or  any 
five  of  them,  shall  be  commissioners  or  judges,  to  hear 
and  finally  determine  the  controversy,  so  always  as  a 
major  part  of  the  judges  who  shall  hear  the  cause  shall 
agree  in  the  determination:  and  if  either  party  shall 
neglect  to  attend  at  the  day  appointed,  without  show- 
ing reasons,  which  congress  shall  judge  sufficient,  or 
being  present  shall  refuse  to  strike,  the  congress  shall 
proceed  to  nominate  three  persons  out  of  each  State, 
and  the  secretary  of  congress  shall  strike  in  behalf  of 
such  party  absent  or  refusing;  and  the  judgment  and 
sentence  of  the  court  to  be  appointed,  in  the  manner 
before  prescribed,  shall  be  final  and  conclusive;  and  if 
any  of  the  parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the  authority 
of  such  court,  or  to  appear  or  defend  their  claim  or 
cause,  the  court  shall  nevertheless  proceed  to  pronounce 
sentence,  or  judgment,  which  shall  in  like  manner  be 
final  and  decisive,  the  judgment  or  sentence  and  other 
proceedings  being  in  either  case  transmitted  to  congress, 
and  lodged  among  the  acts  of  congress  for  the  security 
of  the  parties  concerned:  provided  that  every  commis- 
sioner, before  he  sits  in  judgment,  shall  take  an  oath  to 
be  administered  by  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  or 
superior  court  of  the  state,  where  the  cause  shall  be 
tried,  "well  and  truly  to  hear  and  determine  the  matter 
in  question,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  with- 
out favour,  affection  or  hope  of  reward:  "  provided  also 
that  no  state  shall  be  deprived  of  territory  for  the  benefit 
of  the  united  states. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  private  right  of  soil 
claimed  under  different  grants  of  two  or  more  states, 
whose  jurisdictions  as  they  may  respect  such  lands,  and 
the  states  which  passed  such  grants  are  adjusted,  the 
said  grants  or  either  of  them  being  at  the  same  time 
claimed  to  have  originated  antecedfent  to  such  settle- 
ment of  jurisdiction,  shall  on  the  petition  of  either 
party  to  the  congress  of  the  united  states,  be  finally 
determined  as  near  as  may  be  in  the  same  manner  as  is 
before  prescribed  for  deciding  disputes  respecting  terri- 
torial jurisdiction  between  different  states. 


588 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


The  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall  also 
have  the  sole  and  exclusive  right  and  power  of  regulat- 
ing the  alloy  and  value  of  coin  struck  by  their  own 
authority,  or  by  that  of  the  respective  states  —  fixing 
the  standard  of  weights  and  measures  throughout  the 
united  states  —  regulating  the  trade  and  managing  all 
aflfairs  with  the  Indians,  not  members  of  any  of  the 
states,  provided  that  the  legislative  right  of  any  state 
within  its  own  limits  be  not  infringed  or  violated  — 
establishing  and  regulating  post-pffices  from  one  state 
to  another,  throughout  all  the  united  states,  and  exact- 
ing such  postage  on  the  papers  passing  thro'  the  sarne 
as  may  be  requisite  to  defray  the  expences  of  the  said 
office  —  appointing  all  officers  of  the  land  forces,  in  the 
service  of  the  united  states,  excepting  regimental  offi- 
cers —  appointing  all  the  officers  of  the  naval  forces, 
and  commissioning  all  officers  whatever  in  the  service 
of  the  united  states  —  making  rules  for  the  government 
and  regulation  of  the  said  land  and  naval  forces,  and 
directing  their  operations. 

The  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall  have 
authority  to  appoint  a  committee,  to  sit  in  the  recess  of 
congress,  to  be  denominated  "A  Committee  of  the 
States,"  and  to  consist  of  one  delegate  from  each  state; 
and  to  appoint  such  other  committees  and  civil  officers 
as  may  be  necessary  for  managing  the  general  aflairs  of 
the  united  states  under  their  direction  —  to  appoint  one 
of  their  number  to  preside,  provided  that  no  person  be 
allowed  to  serve  in  the  office  of  president  more  than 
one  year  in  any  term  of  three  years;  to  ascertain  the 
necessary  sums  of  Money  to  be  raised  for  the  service  of 
the  united  states,  and  to  appropriate  and  apply  the 
same  for  defraying  the  public  expences  —  to  borrow 
money,  or  emit  bills  on  the  credit  of  the  united  states, 
transmitting  every  half  year  to  the  respective  states  an 
account  of  the  sums  of  money  so  borrowed  or  emitted, 
—  to  build  and  equip  a  navy  —  to  agree  upon  the  num- 
ber of  land  forces,  and  to  make  requisitions  from  each 
state  for  its  quota,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
white  inhabitants  in  such  state;  which  requisitions 
shall  be  binding,  and  thereupon  the  legislature  of  each 
state  shall  appoint  the  regimental  officers,  raise  the 
men  and  cloath,  arm  and  equip  them  in  a  soldier  like 
manner,  at  the  expence  of  the  united  states;  and  the 
officers  and  men  so  cloathed,  armed  and  equipped  shall 
march  to  the  place  appointed,  and  within  the  time 
agreed  on  by  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled: 
But  if  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall,  on 
consideration  of  circumstances  judge  proper  that  any 
state  should  not  raise  men,  or  should  raise  a  smaller 
number  than  its  quota,  and  that  any  other  state  should 
raise  a  greater  number  of  men  than  the  quota  thereof, 
such  extra  number  shall  be  raised,  officered,  cloathed, 
armed  and  equipped  in  the  same  manner  as  the  quota 
of  such  state,  unless  the  legislature  of  such  state  shall 
judge  that  such  extra  number  cannot  be  safely  spared 
out  of  the  same,  in  which  case  they  shall  raise  officer, 
cloath,  arm  and  equip  as  many  of  such  extra  number 
as  they  judge  can  be  safelv  spared.  And  the  officers 
and  men  so  cloathed,  armed  and  equipped,  shall  march 
to  the  place  appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed  on 
by  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled. 

The  united  states  in  congress  assembled  shall  never 
engage  in  a  war,  nor  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal 
in  time  of  peace,  nor  enter  into  any  treaties  or  alliances, 
nor  coin  money,  nor  regulate  the  value  thereof,  nor 
ascertain  the  sums  and  expences  necessary  for  the  de- 
fence and  welfare  of  the  united  states,  or  any  of  them, 
nor  emit  bills,  nor  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
united  states,  nor  appropriate  money,  nor  agree  upon 
the  number  of  vessels  of  war,  to  be  built  or  purchased, 
or  the  number  of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be  raised,  nor 
appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  or  navy, 
unless  nine  states  assent  to  the  same:  nor  shall  a  ques- 
tion on  any  other  point,  except  for  adjourning  from 
day  to  day  be  determined,  unless  by  the  votes  of  a 
majority  of  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  united  states  shall  have  power  to 
adjourn  to  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  any  place 
within  the  united  states,  so  that  no  period  of  adjourn- 
ment be  for  a  longer  duration  than  the  space  of  six 
Months,  and  shall  publish  the  Journal  of  their  proceed- 
ings monthly,  except  such  parts  thereof  relating  to 
treaties,  alliances  or  military  operations,  as  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of 
the  delegates  of  each  state  on  any  question  shall  be 
entered  on  the  Journal,  when  it  is  desired  by  any  dele- 
gate; and  the  delegates  of  a  state,  or  any  of  them,  at 
his  or  their  request  shall  be  furnished  with  a  transcript 
of  the  said  Journal,  except  such  parts  as  are  above 
excepted,  to  lay  before  the  legislatures  of  the  several 
states. 

Aeticle  X.     The   committee   of   the   states,    or   any 


nine  of  them,  shall  be  authorized  to  execute,  in  the 
recess  of  congress,  such  of  the  powers  of  congress  as  the 
united  states  in  congress  assembled,  by  the  consent  of 
nine  states,  shall  from  time  to  time  think  expedient  to 
vest  thern  with;  provided  that  no  power  be  delegated 
to  the  said  committee,  for  the  exercise  of  which,  by  the 
articles  of  confederation,  the  voice  of  nine  states  in  the 
congress  of  the  united  states  assembled  is  requisite. 

Article  xi.  Canada  acceding  to  this  confederation, 
and  joining  in  the  measures  of  the  united  states,  shall 
be  admitted  into,  and  entitled  to  all  the  advantages  of 
this  union:  but  no  other  colony  shall  be  admitted  into 
the  same,  unless  such  admission  be  agreed  to  by  nine 
states. 

Article  xii.  All  bills  of  credit  emitted,  monies  bor- 
rowed and  debts  contracted  by,  or  under  the  authority 
of  congress,  before  the  assembling  of  the  united  states, 
in  pursuance  of  the  present  confederation,  shall  be 
deemed  and  considered  as  a  charge  against  the  united 
states,  for  payment  and  satisfaction  whereof  the  said 
united  states,  and  the  public  faith  are  hereby  solemnly 
pledged. 

Article  xiii.  Every  state  shall  abide  by  the  deter- 
minations of  the  united  states  in  congress  assembled, 
on  all  questions  which  by  this  confederation  are  sub- 
mitted to  them.  And  the  Articles  of  this  confederation 
shall  be  inviolably  observed  by  every  state,  and  the 
union  shall  be  perpetual;  nor  shall  any  alteration  at 
any  time  hereafter  be  made  in  any  of  them;  unless 
such  alteration  be  agreed  to  in  a  congress  of  the  united 
states,  and  be  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  legislatures 
of  every  state. 

AND  WHEREAS  it  hath  pleased  the  Great  Governor 
of  the  World  to  incline  the  hearts  of  the  legislatures  we 
respectively  represent  in  congress,  to  approve  of,  and 
to  authorize  us  to  ratify  the  said  articles  of  confedera- 
tion and  perpetual  union.  KNOW  YE  that  we  the 
undersigned  delegates,  by  virtue  of  the  power  and 
authority  to  us  given  for  that  purpose,  do  by  these 
presents,  in  the  name  and  in  behalf  of  our  respective 
constituents,  fully  and  entirely  ratify  and  confirm  each 
and  every  of  the  said  articles  of  confederation  and  per- 
petual union,  and  all  and  singular  the  matters  and 
things  therein  contained:  And  we  do  further  solemnly 
plight  and  engage  the  faith  of  our  respective  constitu- 
ents, that  they  shall  abide  by  the  determinations  of  the 
united  states  in  congress  assembled,  on  all  questions, 
which  by  the  said  confederation  are  submitted  to  them. 
And  that  the  articles  thereof  shall  be  inviolably  observed 
by  the  states  we  respectively  represent,  and  that  the 
union  shall  be  perpetual. 

IN  WITNESS  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our 
hands  in  Congress.  DONE  at  Philadelphia  in  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania  the  ninth  Day  of  July  in  the  Year  of 
our  Lord  one  Thousand  seven  Hundred  and  Seventy- 
eight,  and  in  the  third  year  of  the  independence  of 
America. 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  Slate  of  New  Hampshire. 
JosiAH  Babtlett,  John  Wentworth,  junK. 

August  8,  1778. 
On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
John  Hancock,  Francis  Dana, 

Samuel  Adams,  James  Lovell, 

Elbridge  Gerry,  Samuel  Holten. 

On  the  part  and  in  behalf  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island  and 

Providence  Plantations. 
William  Ellery,  John  Collins. 

Henry  Marchant, 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  ConnectictU. 
Roger  Sherman,  Titus  Hosmer, 

Samuel  Huntington,  Andrew  Adams. 

Oliver  Wolcott, 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Jas  Duane,  William  Duer, 

Fras  Lewis,  Gouvr  Morris. 

On  the  part  and  in  behalf  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey. 
Jno   Witherspoon,  Nathl  Scudder,  Nov.  26, 

1778. 
On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 
Robt.  Morris,  William  Clingan, 

Daniel  Roberdeau,  Joseph  Reed,  July  22nd, 

Jona  Bayard  Smith,  1778. 

071  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Delaware. 
John  Dickinson,  May  5,        Tho.  M'Kean,  Feb.  12, 

1779,  1779. 

Nicholas  Van  Dyke, 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Maryland. 
John  Hanson,  March  1,  1781, 
Daniel  Carroll      Do 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


589 


On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Virginia. 
Richard  Henry  Lee,  Jno  Harvie, 

John  Banister,  Francis  Lightfoot  Lee. 

Thomas  Adams, 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina. 
John  Pbnn,  July  21,  1778,     Jno.  Williams. 
Corns.  Harnett. 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  South  Carolina. 
Henry  Laurens,  Richard  Hutson, 

William  Henry  Drayton,    Thos.  Heywakd,  JunR 
Jno  Mathews, 

On  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  State  of  Georgia. 
Jno  Walton,  24th  July,         Edwd.  Langworthy. 

1778, 
EdwD  Telfair, 

Austria-Hungary  is  a  monarchy  com- 
posed of  a  Cisleithan  portion,  officially  known  as 
Austria,  and  a  Transleithan  portion  known  as 
Hungary.  The  reigning  dynasty  is  the  Habs- 
burg-Lorraine  dynasty,  and  the  law  of  succes- 
sion is  that  the  Crown  passes  by  right  of  primo- 
geniture and  lineal  succes^on  to  males,  or,  in 
default  of  males,  to  females.  Each  country  has 
according  to  the  compromise  made  in  1867,  its 
own  constitution,  a  limited  monarchy,  and  each 
possesses  a  separate  parliament,  but  they  have 
united  under  a  common  sovereign  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  common  army  and  navy,  and  in 
the  conduct  of  foreign  affairs.  The  control  in 
regard  to  common  affairs  and  the  voting  of 
money  for  common  purposes  are  entrusted  to  a 
supreme  body  known  as  the  delegations.  Of 
these  there  are  two,  each  composed  of  sixty 
members,  representing  the  legislative  bodies  of 
Austria  and  Hungary,  the  upper  houses  returning 
twenty  and  the  lower  houses  forty  delegates. 
The  members  of  the  delegations  are  appointed 
for  one  year,  and  are  summoned  annually  by  the 
emperor  alternately  at  Vienna  and  at  Budapest. 
Subject  to  the  delegations  are  the  three  execu- 
tive departments  for  foreign  affairs,  war,  and 
common  finance,  and  the  common  court  of 
public  accounts.  The  compromise  is  expressly 
subject  to  periodical  revision,  only  so  far  as  it 
affects  the  regulation  of  the  fiscal  and  commer- 
cial affairs  of  the  two  countries,  the  quota  paid 
by  them  to  the  common  expenses  of  the  empire, 
and  the  privileges  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Bank. 
After  prolonged  negotiations  a  new  customs 
and  commercial  treaty  was  signed,  October  8, 
1907,  which  recognized  the  equality  and  free- 
dom of  action  of  each  contracting  party,  and  a 
separate  (but  identical)  customs  tariff  for  each 
country. 

Belgium  is  a  kingdom  under  Leopold  II., 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  by  the  constitution  of  1831, 
following  on  the  secession  from  the  Netherlands 
in  1830,  declared  to  be  a  constitutional  represen- 
tative, and  hereditary  monarchy.-  Belgium  is  a 
neutral  power,  her  neutrality  being  guaranteed 
under  the  Treaty  of  London,  1831,  by  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  The 
executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king  and  his 
ministers,  the  legislative  power  jointly  in  king, 
senate,  and  chamber  of  deputies.  All  citizens 
over  25,  who  have  lived  at  least  a  year  in  the 
same  commune,  have  a  vote.  An  additional 
vote  is  accorded  them  if  they  are  (1)  either  35 
years  of  age,  married,' with  legitimate  offspring, 
and  pay  a  tax  of  at  least  five  francs  to  the  state ; 
or  (2)  are  25  vears  old  and  own  immovable 


property  to  the  value  of  at  least  2,000  francs,  or 
have  a  corresponding  income  from  such  property, 
or  for  two  years  have  received  at  least  100  francs 
a  year  from  Belgium  funds.  Two  additional 
votes  are  given  to  citizens  of  25  years  of  age  who 
possess  a  diploma  of  higher  education  or  have 
filled  a  public  or  private  position  implying  the 
possession  of  such  education.  No  citizen  can 
have  more  than  three  votes.  From  this  electo- 
rate both  houses  of  the  legislature  are  chosen, 
save  for  those  senators  who  are  elected  indirectly. 
The  senate  of  110  members  is  elected  for  eight 
years.  The  number  of  members  elected  directly, 
eighty-three,  is  equal  to  half  the  number  of 
deputies.  The  indirectly  elected  senators  are 
chosen  by  the  provincial  councils,  two  for  each 
province  with  less  than  500,000  inhabitants; 
three  for  each  with  more  than  500,000  and  less 
1,000,000;  and  four  for  each  with  over  1,000,000. 
The  deputies  are  elected  for  four  years,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  every  40,000  inhabitants, 
and  number  166.  One-half  retire  every  two 
years.  Senators  must  be  40,  and  deputies  25 
years  of  age.  Each  deputy  receives  4,000  francs 
yearly,  and  travels  free. 

Bolivia.  The  constitution  of  the  Republic 
of  Bolivia  bears  date  October  28,  1880.  By  its 
provisions  the  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
president,  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  by 
direct  popular  vote,  and  not  eligible  for  reelec- 
tion at  the  termination  of  his  period  of  office; 
while  the  legislative  authority  rests  with  a  con- 
gress of  two  chambers,  called  the  senate,  and  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  suffrage  is  possessed 
by  all  who  can  read  and  write.  There  are  six- 
teen senators  (two  for  each  department)  elected 
for  six  years,  and  sixty-nine  deputies  elected  for 
four  years.  Both  senators  and  deputies  are 
elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people.  Of  the 
senators  one-third  retire  every  two  years;  of  the 
deputies  one-half  retire  every  two  years.  Sena- 
tors and  deputies  receive  a  salary  of  500  bolivi- 
anos (40  litre)  per  month  during  the  sittings, 
which,  as  a  rule,  last  for  sixty  days,  but  may  be 
extended  to  ninety  days.  Extraordinary  ses- 
sions may  be  held  for  special  purposes.  There 
are  a  president,  two  vice-presidents  and  a  min- 
istry, divided  into  six  departments  —  of  foreign 
relations  and  worsliip;  finance  and  industry; 
government  and  fomento;  justice  and  educa- 
tion;  war;   colonization  and  agriculture. 

Brazil.  A  republic  on  the  east  coast  of 
Central  South  America,  which,  until  1889,  was 
an  empire,  under  Emperor  Pedro  II.,  of  the  house 
of  Braganza.  A  revolution  then,  however, 
broke  out,  and  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
in  February  1891.  The  chief  feature  of  this  was 
the  establishment  of  the  old  provinces  as  twenty- 
one  separate  states,  self-governed  except  for 
federal  purposes,  but  with  all  fiscal  matters,  the 
maintenance  of  order,  the  defense  of  the  country, 
the  currency,  reserved  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment. The  executive  authority  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  president,  elected  for  four  years  only  by 
the  people  directly.  Legislative  authority  is 
exercised  by  the  national  congress,  composed  of 
a  senate  of  sixty-three  members,  directly  elected 
by  the  states  for  nine  years,  one-third  retiring 
every  three  years,  and  a  chamber  of  deputies  of 
212  members.     Deputies  and  senators  are  paid. 


.•SQO 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


The  former  must  have  been  citizens  for  four  and 
the  latter  for  six  years.  Deputies  are  elected 
directly,  with  provision  for  minority  representa- 
tion, for  three  years,  one  member  being  chosen 
for  every  70,000  of  the  population. 

British  Empire.  The  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  nucleus  around 
which  the  British  Empire  has  been  built,  was 
perfected  in  1603,  when  the  crowns  of  England 
and  Scotland  were  united.  The  executive  power 
of  the  empire  vests  in  the  sovereign,  through  his 
ministers.  The  real  power  of  the  empire,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  found  in  Parliament,  a  body  which 
not  only  has  complete  legislative  power,  but 
which  exercises,  through  the  Lower  House, 
much  authority  in  executive  matters.  Parlia- 
ment consists  of  an  Upper  House  of  Lords  and 
a  Lower  House  of  Commons.  It  lasts  seven 
years  or  until  dissolved  by  the  sovereign,  and 
it  usually  meets  annually  for  a  term  of  about 
six  months.  The  members  of  the  House  of 
Lords  are  peers,  who  hold  either  by  hereditary 
right  or  by  crown  appointment  to  the  peerage. 
In  1908  there  were  616  peers.  The  House  of 
Commons  consists  of  members  elected  from 
counties,  boroughs,  and  universities  —  670  in 
all  in  1908. 

The  Colonies  proper  form  three  classes:  —  (1) 
The  Crown  Colonies,  which  are  entirely  controlled 
by  the  home  government;  (2)  those  possessing 
Representative  Institutions,  in  which  the  Crown 
has  no  more  than  a  veto  on  legislation,  but  the 
home  government  retains  the  control  of  public 
officers;  and  (3)  those  possessing  Responsible 
Government,  in  which  the  home  government  has 
no  control  over  any  public  officer,  though  the 
Crown  appoints  the  governor  and  still  retains  a 
veto  on  legislation. 

The  established  Church  of  England  is  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  of  which  the  king 
is  the  supreme  head;  but  all  religions  are  tol- 
erated and  are  equal  at  law.  Public  instruction 
is  not  compulsory,  but  the  national  board  of 
education  maintains  control  of  the  school 
boards  and  requires  that  accommodations  be 
provided  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of 
five  and  fourteen  years.  Secondary  education 
is  not  controlled  by  the  government,  but 
the  university  system  is,  "perhaps,  more  per- 
fectly developed  in  England  than  in  any  other 
country.  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and 
Wales  each  has  its  graded  systems  of  courts  of 
justice. 

The  Parliament. —  The  present  form  of  Parlia- 
ment, divided  into  two  houses,  the  Lords  and 
the  Commons,  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
Fourteenth  Century.  The  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  are  elected  by  popular  votej 
about  one-sixth  of  the  population  being  electors, 
and  the  election  must  be  by  secret  vote  by  ballot. 
The  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  peers,  who 
hold  their  seats  by  hereditary  right,  by  creation 
of  the  sovereign,  by  virtue  of  office  (the  bishops), 
by  election  for  life  (the  Irish  peers),  and  by  elec- 
tion for  the  term  of  Parliament  (the  Scottish 
peers). 

No  one  under  21  years  of  age  can  be  a 
member  of  Parliament.  All  clergymen  of  the 
Church  of  England,  ministers  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  Roman  Catholic  clergymen,  and 


all  government  contractors  and  sheriffs  or  re- 
turning officers  are  disqualified.  No  English  or 
Scottish  peer  can  be  elected  to  the  House  of 
Commons;  but  non-representative  Irish  peers 
are  eligible  for  membership. 

The  present  Cabinet  consists  of  the  following 
■offices: 

1.  Prime  Minister  and  (usually)  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury. 

2.  Lord  High  Chancellor. 

3.  Lord  Privy  Seal. 

4.  Lord  President  of  the  Council  and  President 
of  the  Board  of  Ediication. 

5.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

6.  Secretary  of  State  for  Home  Affairs. 

7.  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

8.  Secretary  of  State  for  The  Colonies. 

9.  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

10.  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

11.  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

12.  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland. 

13.  President  of  Local  Government  Board. 

14.  President  of  Board  of  Trade. 

15.  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland. 

16.  Secretary  for  Scotland. 

17.  President  of  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
Fisheries. 

18.  Postmaster  General. 

19.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

The  right  of  George  V.  to  the  throne  of 
England  rests  upon  the  statute  by  which  the 
succession  to  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  was  vested  upon  Princess  Sophia  of 
Hanover  and  "the  heirs  of  her  body,  being 
Protestants." 

The  present  ruler  is  "George  V.,  by  the 
Grace  of  God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  of  the  British  Domin- 
ions Beyond  the  Seas,  King,  Defender  of  the 
Faith,  Emperor  of  India."  Upon  the  death  of 
his  father,  Edward  VII.,  he  was  proclaimed 
king.  May  7,  1910. 

The  Heir  Apparent.— The  heir  apparent  to 
the  throne  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  King,  Edward 
Albert,  Prince  of  Wales,  Duke  of  Cornwall  and 
York,  and  Duke  of  Rothsay,  in  Scotland. 

Bulgaria.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  1878, 
Bulgaria  was  constituted  an  autonomous  and 
tributary '  principality  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Porte.  In  1885,  Eastern  Roumelia  was 
united  to  Bulgaria.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  the  prince,  assisted  by  a  council  of 
ministers,  and  the  legislative  power  in  a  single 
chamber,  the  Sobranje,  or  national  assembly, 
elected  for  five  years  by  manhood  suffrage  in  the 
proportion  of  one  member  to  every  20,000  of  the 
population.  There  is  also  a  Great  Sobranje, 
consisting  of  delegates  selected  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  10,000  of  the  population,  to  which 
constitutional  and  other  questions,  such  as  a 
vacancy  on  the  throne  or  the  acquisition  of  ter- 
ritory, must  be  referred. 

California.  A  Constitution  was  framed 
by  a  convention  of  delegates  assembled  in  the 
pueblo  of  Monterey  in  the  year  1849,  but  it  did 
not  become  effective  until  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  passed  the  act  of  admission. 
September  9,  1850.  In  1862  the  Constitution 
received  important  amendments,  and  in   1879 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 


591 


a  new  Constitution  was  adopted.  Since  that 
year  numerous  amendments  have  been  made, 
but  all  of  minor  importance.  '^To  amend  the  Cali- 
fornia Constitution  it  is  necessary  only  to  secure 
a  two-thirds  majority  in  each  branch  of  the 
Legislature,  and  a  simple  majority  vote  for  the 
amendments  at  the  next  popular  election. 
The  State  Legislature  is  composed  of  the 
Senate,  a  body  of  forty  members,  elected  for 
terms  of  four  years  —  half  the  number  being 
elected  each  two  years  —  and  the  Assembly, 
eighty  members,  elected  for  two  years.  The 
qualifications  for  eligibility  to  the  Senate  or 
Assembly  are  citizenship  of  the  State  for  three 
years  and  residence  in  the  district  for  one  year. 
Neither  house  of  the  Legislature  possesses  any 
advantage  over  the  other  in  originating  legisla- 
tion. Certain  of  the  governor's  appointments 
must  be  submitted  to  the  Senate  for  approval. 
In  impeachment  cases  the  Assembly  brings  the 
impeachment,  and  it  is  tried  by  the  Senate. 
The  present  Constitution  contains  numerous 
specific  prohibitions  of  local  and  special  laws, 
besides  forbidding  them  in  all  cases  where  a 
general  law  can  be  made  applicable.  In  1870 
there  was  adopted  a  complete  set  of  codes  — 
political,  civil,  civil  procedure,  and  penal  — 
and  these  have  been  subject  to  amendment  at 
each  session  of  the  Legislature.  At  the  session 
of  1905  the  penal  code  and  code  of  civil  pro- 
cedure were  revised.  The  term  of  office  of 
the  governor  is  four  years.  He  possesses 
supreme  executive  authority,  issues  all  com- 
missions, is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  navy,  and  is  charged  with  responsibility  to 
see  that  all  laws  are  faithfully  executed.  All 
State  boards  and  commissions,  with  two  or 
three  exceptions,  are  filled  by  his  appointment, 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  being  required 
in  certain  instances,  and  in  others  not.  He  is 
empowered  to  grant  pardons,  but  where  a 
persori  has  been  more  than  once  convicted 
there  is  required  the  assent  of  a  majority 
of  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
governor  is  vested  with  authority  to  call  the 
Legislature  together  in  extraordinary  session. 
During  sessions  of  the  Legislature  the  governor 
may  veto  any  bill  which  has  passed,  and  it  does 
not  become  law  unless  it  again  passes,  and  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  in  each  house.  Besides  the 
governor  and  secretary  of  state  the  other 
officials  are  the  lieutenant-governor,  who  is 
presiding  officer  of  the  Senate,  the  State  con- 
troller, the  attorney-general,  the  State  treas- 
urer, the  State  surveyor-general,  who  is  also 
registrar  of  the  land  office,  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  the  State  printer. 
The  most  important  State  boards  and  com- 
missions are:  The  board  of  education;  the 
board  of  regents  of  the  university,  appointed 
by  the  governor  for  terms  of  sixteen  years;  the 
State  board  of  prison  directors,  appointed  by 
the  governor  for  terms  of  ten  years,  and  having 
entire  control  of  the  penitentiaries;  the  State 
board  of  equalization,  elected  at  general  elec- 
tions, and  dealing  with  the  assessment  of  prop- 
erty for  revenue  purposes;  the  railroad  com- 
mission, elected  and  vested  with  authority  to 
regulate  railroad  charges;  the  bank  commis- 
sion, the  State  board  of  health,  the  insurance 


commission,  and  the  commission  of  public 
works,  the  State  board  of  charities  and  cor- 
rections, board  of  agriculture,  and  the  com- 
mission in  lunacy.  The  last-named,  which  is 
an  ex-officio  commission  made  up  of  State 
officers,  controls  the  hospitals  for  the  insane. 
California  is  divided  into  fifty-seven  counties, 
one  of  which  —  San  Francisco  —  has  a  com- 
bined county  and  city  government;  the  other 
fifty-six  have  county  governments  distinct  from 
the  government  of  the  cities  and  towns  which 
they  contain.  County  governments  are  created 
by  the  Legislature  by  general  act.  In  each 
county  government  the  legislative  authority  is 
vested  in  a  board  of  supervisors  of  five  mem- 
bers elected  from  districts.  The  other  county 
officers,  with  few  exceptions,  are  also  elective. 

City  charters  are  framed  by  boards  of  free- 
holders elected  for  that  purpose;  are  submitted 
to  the  voters  of  the  cities  for  which  they  are 
framed,  and  must  afterwards  be  ratified  by  the 
Legislature.  Towns  are  incorporated  by  vote 
of  their  inhabitants  under  a  general  municipal 
corporations  act,  providing  for  six  different 
classes  of  corporations,  according  to  population. 

Canada.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  origi- 
nally consisted  of  the  two  provinces  of  Canada  — 
Upper  and  Lower  —  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  but  the  "British  North  American 
Act,"  which  was  passed  in  1867,  not  only  pro- 
vided for  the  consolidation  of  these  provinces, 
but  made  provision  for  the  admission  of  British 
Columbia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  the  Northwest 
Territories  and  Newfoundland,  a  privilege  of 
which  Newfoundland  alone  has  not  availed  her- 
self. In  accordance  with  this  act  of  consolidation 
the  Constitution  of  the  Dominion  is  "similar  in 
principle  to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,"  and, 
while  the  executive  authority  is  vested  in  the 
British  Sovereign,  the  legislative  power  of  the 
Dominion  is  exercised  by  a  Parliament  of  two 
Houses  —  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Each  province  forming  the  Dominion 
has  a  separate  Parliament  and  administration, 
a  lieutenant-governor  being  at  the  head  of  all 
provincial  bodies.  The  Senate  of  the  Dominion 
is  composed  of  eighty-one  members,  who  have 
been  nominated  for  life.  Each  must  be  at  least 
30  years  of  age,  a  born  or  naturalized  sub- 
ject and  possessed  of  $4,000  worth  of  property 
in  the  province  from  which  he  was  appointed. 
The  213  members  of  the  House  are  elected  by 
the  vote  of  their  constituencies,  the  electors  of 
which  are  qualified  by  the  act  of  each  provincial 
assembly.  The  Speaker  of  the  Senate  and 
House  each  receives  a  salary  of  $4,000,  while 
each  member  of  the  two  houses  is  granted  a 
session  allowance  of  $1,500,  with  ten  cents  per 
mile  for  traveling  expenses.  In  cases  of  absence, 
except  for  sickness,  the  sum  of  $8  per  diem  is 
deducted.  The  Governor-General,  who  receives 
a  salary  of  $50,000  per  annum,  is  appointed 
by  the  Federal  Government  for  a  term  of  five 
years,  and  he  is  assisted  in  his  functions  by  a 
council  composed  of  fourteen  heads  of  depart- 
ments, each  of  whom  receives  a  salary  of  $7,000 
per  annum,  except  the  Premier,  who  has  a  salary 
of  $8,000  per  annum.  The  heads  of  departments 
are  as  follows: 

1.  Premier  and  President  of  the  Council. 


592 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


2.  Secretary  of  State. 

3.  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce. 

4.  Minister  of  Justice  and  Attorney-General. 

5.  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries. 

6.  Minister  of  Railways  and  Canals. 

7.  Minister  of  Militia  and  Defence. 

8.  Minister  of  Finance. 

9.  Postmaster-General  and  Minister  of  Labor. 

10.  Minister  of  Agriculture. 

11.  Minister  of  Public  Works. 

12.  Minister  of  Interior. 

13.  Minister  of  Customs. 

14.  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue. 

The  representation  from  the  several  provinces 
is  as  follows:  Ontario,  twenty-four  Senators, 
ninety-two  Commons;  Quebec,  twenty-four 
Senators,  sixty-five  Commons;  Nova  Scotia, 
ten  Senators,  twenty  Commons;  New  Bruns- 
wick, ten  Senators,  fourteen  Commons ;  Manitoba, 
four  Senators,  seven  Commons ;  British  Columbia, 
three  Senators,  six  Commons;  Prince  Edward 
Island,  four  Senators,  five  Commons;  Northwest 
Territories,  two  Senators,  four  Commons. 

Provincial  Government.  By  the  provisions  of 
the  Consolidation  Act  each  province  has  full 
power  to  regulate  its  own  local  affairs  and 
dispose  of  its  own  revenue,  provided  it  does 
not  interfere  with  the  policy  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment. The  lieutenant-governor  of  each 
province  is  appointed  by  the  Governor-Gfeneral, 
while  the  other  officials  are  elected  by  the  people. 
There  is  a  very  perfect  system  of  municipal 
government  throughout  the  Dominion,  the  coun- 
ties and  townships  having  local  governments 
or  councils  which  regulate  their  local  taxation. 
The  administration  of  justice  is  based  on  the 
English  model,  except  in  Quebec  Province,  where 
the  old  French  law  prevails.  The  only  court 
that  has  jurisdiction  throughout  the  Dominion 
(except  the  Exchequer  and  the  Maritime  Court) 
is  the  Supreme  Court,  the  ultimate  court  of  ap- 
peal in  civil  and  criminal  cases.  In  certain  cases 
an  appeal  may  be  had  to  her  Majesty's  Privy 
Council. 

Chile.  Chile  is  a  Republic,  with  laws  ad- 
ministered under  a  Constitution  formed  in  1833 
and  subsequently  amended.  The  President  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  five  years  by  indirect  vote, 
much  as  the  like  officer  is  chosen  in  the  United 
States.     He  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  as  follows : 

Secretary  of  Premier  and  Secretary  of  the 
Interior. 

Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Secretary  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction. 

Secretary  of  Finance. 

Secretary  of  War  and  Marine 

Secretary  of  Industry  and  Public  Works. 

He  is  not  eligible  for  reelection  for  a  succeed- 
ing term.  The  day  of  election  is  June  25th  of 
the  last  year  of  the  President's  term  of  office, 
and  the  inaugural  date  is  September  18th  of  the 
same  year.  Congress  consists  of  two  Houses  — 
a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Mem- 
•  bers  of  the  Senate  are  elected  by  popular  vote 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  and  Deputies  are  chosen 
in  the  same  way  for  a  term  of  three  years.  The 
proportion  is  one  Senator  for  three  Deputies. 
Electors  must  be  21  years  of  age  and 
able  to  read  and  write.  The  republic  is  divided 
into  provinces,  which   are  subdivided    into  de- 


partments. Local  government  is  exercised  in 
the  former  by  Intendents  and  in  the  latter  by 
Gobemadores.  The  police  of  Santiago  and  the 
capitals  of  the  provinces  are  organized  and 
regulated  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

China.  The  tenth  Emperor  of  China,  the 
present .  sovereign  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  of 
Tsing,  which  destroyed  the  native  dynasty  of 
Ming  in  1644,  reigns  under  the  style  of  Hsuantung. 
In  this  country  there  is  no  law  relative  to  heredi- 
tary succession  to  the  throne,  the  right  being 
given  each  sovereign  to  appoint  as  his  successor 
a  member  of  the  family  of  a  younger  generation. 
In  the  case  of  the  late  Emperor  Tung-Chi,  who 
died  in  his  80th  year,  no  successor  was 
named,  but,  as  a  result  of  arrangements  con- 
ducted by  the  Empress  Dowager  Tszu-Hszi 
(bom  November  17,  1834),  widow  of  the  Em- 
peror Hien-Feng,  predecessor  and  father  of  Tung- 
Chi,  in  conjunction  with  Prince  Chun,  the  infant 
son  of  the  latter  was  designated  as  the  nominal 
occupant  of  the  throne.  The  young  Emperor, 
having  become  of  age,  assumed  the  government 
in  March,  1887.  Two  years  later,  in  February, 
he  assumed  full  control.  An  imperial  edict 
stating  that  the  Emperor  had  resigned  power  to 
the  Empress  Dowager  was  issued  September  22, 
1898,  and  as  a  result  the  direction  of  affairs  re- 
mained in  her  hands  until  her  death,  November 
15,  1908.  Pu-yi,  an  infant  (whose  official  name 
is  Hsuantung),  was,  on  the  death  of  Kuang-su, 
November  8,  1908,  decreed  the  royal  successor  of 
the  latter. 

The  Ministry. —  Civil  Administration  (Lipou), 
Soun  Chia-Nai;  Finance  (Houpou),  Young  Lou; 
Religion  and  Ceremonies  (Lipou),  Shihhsu;  War 
(Pingpou),  Koun-Kang;  Justice  (Hsingpou), 
Kouei-heng;  Foreign  Office  (Li-fan-yuan),  Ching- 
hsin  and  A-Ko-tan;  Censors  (Tou-tcha-youen), 
Pouliang  and  Lu-jun-hsiang;  Imperal  Academy 
(Han-lin-youan),  K'oun-kang;  Railroads  and 
Mines,  Wang-wen-shao ;    Counselors  of  the  Em- 

Sire  (Cheng-wou-chou),  Ch'ing,  Young-lou, 
['oun-Kang,  Wang-wen-shao,  Lou-ch'ouan-lin, 
Ch'u-houng-chi,  Chan-chih-fung,  Liou-k'oun-yi. 
The  Nation. —  The  laws  of  the  empire  are  laid 
down  in  the  Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien,  or  "Collected 
Regulations"  of  the  "Ts'ing  dynasty,"  and  are 
founded  on  the  idea  that  the  government  of  the 
state  be  based  upon  the  government  of  its  fam- 
ily. To  the  Chun  Chi  Chu,  or  the  Privy  Council, 
or  Grand  Council,  is  intrusted  the  supreme  direc- 
tion of  the  empire.  The  supreme  direction  of 
the  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Nei-Ko, 
or  Cabinet,  which  is  composed  of  four  members, 
two  of  Manchu  and  two  of  Chinese  origin.  In 
addition  to  the  above  are  two  assistants  from  the 
Han-Lin,  or  Great  College,  whose  duties  are  to 
see  that  nothing  contrary  to  both  the  civil  and 
religious  laws  of  the  empire  contained  in  the  Ta- 
ts'ing-hwei-tien  and  sacred  books  of  Confucius 
is  done.  The  members  of  this  Cabinet  are  de- 
nominated Ta-hsio-shih,  or  Ministers  of  State; 
and  under  their  orders  are  the  Chu-pu,  or  seven 
boards  of  government.  Each  of  these  boards  is 
presided  over  by  a  Manchu  and  a  Chinese.  These 
boards  are  as  follows:  (1)  The  Board  of  Civil 
Appointments,  looking  to  the  conduct  and  ad- 
ministration of  all  civil  affairs;  (2)  The  Board 
of  Revenues,  in  charge  of  all  financial  affairs; 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


593 


(3)  The  Board  of  Rites  and  Ceremonies,  whose 
duty  is  to  enforce  the  laws  and  customs  to  be 
observed  by  the  people ;  (4)  The  Military  Board  ; 
(5)  The  Board  of  Public  Works;  (6)  The  High 
Tribunal  of  Criminal  Jurisdiction,  and  (7)  The 
Admiralty  Board  at  Tientsin,  established  in  1885. 
A  body  that  is  independent  of  the  Government 
and  theoretically  is  above  the  central  adminis- 
tration Is  the  Tu-ch'a-yuen,  or  Board  of  Public 
Censors.  The  membership  numbers  between 
forty  and  fifty,  who  are  under  two  presidents, 
one  of  Manchu  and  the  other  of  Chinese  birth. 
By  an  ancient  custom  of  the  empire  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  board  are  permitted  to  present  any 
remonstrance  to  the  sovereign.  It  is  necessary 
that  one  censor  be  present  at  the  meetings  of 
each  of  the  Government  Boards.  On  January 
19,  1861,  the  Tsungh  Yamen,  or  Foreign  Office, 
was  created  by  a  decree,  and  in  July,  1902,  it 
was  superseded  by  the  formation  of  a  new  For- 
eign Office  designated  as  the  Wai-wu-pu.  Prince 
Ching  was  appointed  .president,  and  this  office, 
with  its  four  secretaries,  took  precedence  over  all 
other  boards.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Japan  in  1905,  a  treaty  and  an 
additional  agreement  relating  to  Manchuria  were 
entered  into  between  Japan  and  China.  By  the 
former  the  Chinese  Government  consented  to  all 
the  transfers  and  assignments  made  by  Russia 
to  Japan  in  Manchuria ;  and  the  latter  provides, 
inter  alia,  for  the  speedy  opening  by  China  of 
a  number  of  cities  and  towns  in  Manchuria  as 
places  of  international  residence  and  trade. 
The  growth  of  democratic  ideas  has  been  very 
marked  in  recent  years,  with  the  result  that  a 
representative  Senate  has  been  instituted,  and 
in  September,  1910,  the  emperor  through  this 
body  announced  that  in  1913  a  full  representa- 
tive government  would  be  granted. 

Colombia.  The  Republic  of  Colombia 
gained  its  independence  of  Spain  in  1819,  and 
was  officially  constituted  December  27,  1819. 
It  split  up  into  Venezuela,  Ecuador;  and  the 
Republic  of  New  Granada,  February  29,  1832. 
The  Constitution  of  April  1,  1858,  changed  the 
Republic  into  a  confederation  of  eight  States, 
under  the  name  of  Confederation  Granadina. 
On  September  20,  1861,  the  convention  of  Bogota 
brought  out  the  confederation  under  the  new 
name  of  United  States  of  New  Granada,  with 
nine  States.  On  May  8,  1863,  an  improved 
Constitution  was  formed,  and  the  States  reverted 
to  the  old  name  Colombia  —  United  States  of 
Colombia.  The  revolution  of  1885  brought 
about  another  change,  and  the  national  council 
of  Bogota,  composed  of  three  delegates  from 
each  State,  promulgated  the  Constitution  of 
August  4,  1886.  The  sovereignty  of  the  States 
was  abolished,  and  they  became  simple  depart- 
ments, with  governors  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic,  though  they  have  retained  some 
of  their  old  rights,  such  as  the  management  of 
their  own  finances.  The  legislative  power  rests 
with  a  Congress) of  two  Houses,  called  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate 
contains  forty-eight  Senators  of  whom  three 
are  chosen  for  the  Federal  District  by  the  Presi- 
dent and  two  Cabinet  Ministers,  and  three  for 
each  department  by  the  governor,  his  secreta- 
ries and  the  president  or  judge  of  the  Court  of 


Accounts  of  each  department.  The  House  of 
Representatives  consists  of  sixty-seven  members 
elected  by  the  people  in  twenty-four  electoral 
circumscriptions  (one  for  every  50,000  of  popu- 
lation), but  in  each  of  the  four  intendencies 
appointed  by  the  Intendente,  his  secretary  and 
three  inhabitants  are  chosen  by  the  municipal 
council  of  the  capital  of  the  intendency.  Sena- 
tors and  Representatives  are  elected  for  four 
years.  The  President  is  chosen  by  Congress  in 
public  session  and  by  an  absolute  majority  of 
votes.  His  term  of  office  is  four  years,  but  the 
present  President  is  appointed  exceptionally  for 
ten  years  from  January  1,  1905.  Congress 
elects,  for  a  term  of  two  years,  a  substitute,  who, 
should  the  President  and  Vice-President  during 
a  Presidential  term  vacate  the  office  of  President, 
fills  the  vacancy.  The  Ministries  are  those  of  the 
Interior,  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance  and  the  Treas- 
ury, War,  Public  Instruction,  and  Public  Works. 

Colorado.  The  original  Constitution  of 
1876  is  still  in  force  in  Colorado,  though  up  to 
1904  it  has  been  ten  times  amended.  The  Legis- 
lature, known  as  the  General  Assembly,  consists 
of  a  Senate  of  thirty-five  members  elected  for 
four  years,  one-half  retiring  every  two  years, 
and  of  a  House  of  Representatives  of  sixty-five 
members  elected  for  two  years.  Sessions  are  bi- 
ennial and  are  limited  to  ninety  days.  All  bills 
for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  It  is  the  right  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  to  impeach ;  of  the  Senators, 
to  try  and  determine  impeachments.  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  may  be  proposed  in 
either  House,  but  to  become  part  of  the  Con- 
stitution they  must  have  received  the  sanction 
of  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of  each 
House  and  of  a  majority  ratification  by  popular 
vote.  Eligible  to  either  House  are  all  citizens 
of  the  United  States  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
and  twelve  months  resident  in  the  district-  for 
which  they  seek  election.  The  executive  power 
is  vested  in  a  governor  elected  for  two  years.  He 
is  commander-in-chief  of  the  State  militia.  It 
rests  with  him  to  nominate  and,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoint  offi- 
cers not  otherwise  provided  for  by  law  or  the 
Constitution.  He  may  summon  special  sessions 
of  the  Legislature,  and  has  a  limited  power  to 
grant  reprieves,  commutations,  and  pardons.  In 
legislation  he  has  the  power  of  veto,  which  may  be 
overridden  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House. 
The  State  officials  are  the  governor,  secretary 
of  state,  a  Heutenant-governor,  an  auditor, 
a  treasurer,  an  attorney-general,  and  a  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  all  of  whom, 
with  the  governor,  are  elected  on  a  two-year 
tenure. 

Connecticut.  The  present  Constitution 
of  Connecticut  was  adopted  in  1818  and  there 
have  been  thirty-one  amendments  to  it  at  differ- 
ent times.  The  Legislative  power  is  vested  in 
the  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and 
a  House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate  at  pres- 
ent consists  of  thirty-five  members,  one  from 
each  of  the  senatorial  districts  into  which  the 
State  is  divided.  The  House  of  Representatives 
consists  of  255  members,  who  must  be  electors 
of  the  towns  for  which  they  are  elected,  each 
town  of  over  5,000  inhabitants  being  entitled  to 


594 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


send  two  representatives.  Members  of  each 
House  are  elected  for  the  term  of  two  years. 
The  supreme  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor  elected  for  two  years  by  the  legal 
voters.  He  must  be  an  elector  of  the  State  and 
be  over  30  years  of  age.  His  duties  include 
the  command  of  the  military  forces,  the  ad- 
journment of  the  Legislature  when  necessary, 
the  recommendation  of  legislation,  the  granting 
of  reprieves  until  the  end  of  the  next  session  of 
the  General  Assembly,  and  the  supervision  of 
the  execution  of  the  laws.  Every  bill  passed 
by  both  Houses  requires  the  assent  of  the  gov- 
ernor, who  may  within  three  days  remit  it  for 
reconsideration  to  the  House  in  which  it  origi- 
nated; if  then  the  bill  be  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority in  each  House  it  becomes  law.  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  agreed  to  by  a 
majority  in  each  House,  approved  by  a  two- 
thirds  majority  in  each  House  of  the  Legis- 
lature next  elected,  and  approved  by  the  people 
at  special  meetings  held  for  the  purpose  in  each 
town,  become  part  of  the  Constitution.  The 
State  officials  are:  the  governor,  secretary  of 
state,  treasurer,  and  the  comptroller  of  public 
accounts.  For  local  administration  the  State 
is  divided  into  eight  counties,  which  are  sub- 
divided into  cities,  boroughs,  and  townships. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America.  In  May,  1785,  a  committee  of 
Congress  made  a  report  recommending  an 
alteration  in  the  Article  of  Confederation,  but 
no  action  was  taken  on  it,  and  it  was  left  to 
the  State  Legislatures  to  proceed  in  the  matter. 
In  January,  1786,  the  Legislature  of  Virginia 
passed  a  resolution  providing  for  the  appointment 
of  five  commissioners,  who,  or  any  three  of  them, 
should  meet  such  commissioners  as  might  be 
appointed  in  the  other  States  of  the  Union,  at 
a  time  and  place  to  be  agreed  upon,  to  take  into 
consideration  the  trade  of  the  United  States; 
to  consider  how  far  a  uniform  system  in  their 
commercial  regulations  may  be  necessary  to 
their  common  interest  and  their  permanent 
harmony;  and  to  report  to  the  several  States 
such  an  act,  relative  to  this  great  object,  as, 
when  ratified  by  them,  will  enable  the  United 
States  in  Congress  effectually  to  provide  for 
the  same.  The  Virginia  commissioners,  after 
some  correspondence,  fixed  the  first  Monday  in 
September  as  the  time,  and  the  city  of  Annapolis 
as  the  place  for  the  meeting,  but  only  four  other 
States  were  represented,  viz:  Delaware,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania;  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  North  Carolina,  and  Rhode  Island 
failed  to  attend.  Under  the  circumstances  of 
so  partial  a  representation,  the  commissioners 
present  agreed  upon  a  report  (drawn  by  Mr. 
Hamilton,  of  New  York),  expressing  their  unani- 
mous conviction  that  it  might  essentially  tend  to 
advance  the  interests  of  the  Union  if  the  States 
by  which  they  were  respectively  delegated  would 
concur,  and  use  their  endeavors  to  procure  the 
concurrence  of  the  other  States,  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  commissioners  to  meet  at  Philadelphia 
on  the  second  Monday  of  May  following,  to  take 
into  consideration  the  situation  of  the  United 
States;  to  devise  such  further  provisions  as 
should  appear  to  them  necessary  to  render  the 


Constitution  of  the  Federal  Government  ade- 
quate to  the  exigencies  of  the  Union;  and  to 
report  such  an  act  for  that  purpose  to  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled  as,  when 
agreed  to  by  them  and  afterwards  confirmed 
by  the  Legislatures  of  every  State,  would 
effectually  provide  for  the  same.  Congress, 
on  the  21st  of  February,  1787,  adopted  a 
resolution  in  favor  of  a  convention,  and  the 
Legislatures  of  those  States  which  had  not 
already  done  so  (with  the  exception  of  Rhode 
Island),  promptly  appointed  delegates.  On  the 
25th  of  May,  seven  States  having  convened, 
George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  was  unani- 
mously elected  President,  and  the  consideration 
of  the  proposed  constitution  was  commenced. 
On  the  17th  of  September,  1787,  the  Constitu- 
tion as  engrossed  and  agreed  upon  was  signed 
by  all  the  members  present,  except  Mr.  Gerry, 
of  Massachusetts,  and  Messrs.  Mason  and  Ran- 
dolph, of  Virginia.  The  president  of  the  con- 
vention transmitted  it  to  Congress,  with  a  reso- 
lution, stating  how  the  proposed  Federal  Gov- 
ernment should  be  put  in  operation,  and  an 
explanatory  letter.  Congress,  on  the  28th  of 
September,  1787,  directed  the  Constitution  so 
framed,  with  the  resolutions  and  letter  concern- 
ing the  same,  to  "be  transmitted  to  the  several 
Legislatures  in  order  to  be  submitted  to  a  con- 
vention of  delegates  chosen  in  each  State  by 
the  people  thereof,  in  conformity  to  the  resolves 
of  the  convention."  On  the  4th  of  March,  1789, 
the  day  which  had  been  fixed  for  commencing 
the  operations  of  Government  under  the  new 
Constitution,  it  had  been  ratified  by  the  con- 
ventions chosen  in  each  State  to  consider  it,  as 
follows:  Delaware,  December  7,  1787;  Pennsyl- 
vania, December  12,  1787 ;  New  Jersey,  Decem- 
ber 18,  1787 ;  Georgia,  January  2,  1788 ;  Connec- 
ticut, January  9,  1788;  Massachusetts,  February 
6,  1788;  Maryland,  April  28,  1788;  South  Caro- 
lina, May  23,  1788;  New  Hampshire,  June  21, 
1788;  Virginia,  June  26,  1788;  and  New  York, 
July  26,  1788.  The  President  informed  Con- 
gress, on  the  28th  of  January,  1790,  that  North 
Carolina  had  ratified  the  Constitution  Novem- 
ber 21,  1789;  and  he  informed  Congress  on  the 
1st  of  June,  1790,  that  Rhode  Island  had  rati- 
fied the  Constitution  May  29,  1789.  Vermont, 
in  convention,  ratified  the  Constitution  Janu- 
ary 10,  1791,  and  was,  by  an  act  of  Congress 
approved  February  18,  1791,  "received  and 
admitted  into  this  Union  as  a  new  and  entire 
member  of  the  United  States." 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Preamble. —  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  to  form  a  more  perfect  Union,  estabUsh  justice, 
insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common 
defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  estabUsh  this  Constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall 
be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Section  II.  1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall 
be  composed  of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by 
the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each 
State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


595 


seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall 
not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  appor- 
tioned among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included 
within  this  Union  according  to  their  respective  numbers, 
which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  num- 
ber of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for 
a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three- 
fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration 
shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every 
subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they 
shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives 
shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative;  and  until 
such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hamp- 
shire shall  be  entitled  to  choose  3;  Massachusetts,  8; 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  1;  Connecti- 
cut, 5;  New  York,  6;  New  Jersey,  4;  Pennsylvania,  8; 
Delaware,  1;  Maryland,  6;  Virginia,  10;  North  Caro- 
lina, 5;    South  Carolina,  5;   and  Georgia,  3.* 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from 
any  State,  the  Executive  Authority  thereof  shall  issue 
writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their 
Speaker  and  other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power 
of  impeachment. 

Section  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen 
by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  con- 
sequence of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as 
equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the 
Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expi- 
ration of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the 
expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may 
be  chosen  every  second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen 
by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the 
Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may 
make  temporary  appointment  until  the  next  meeting  of 
the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote  unless 
they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  oflBcers,  and 
also  a  President  pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the 
Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  im- 
peachments. When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall 
be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside; 
and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not.  ex- 
tend further  than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disquali- 
fication to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or 
profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the  party  convicted 
shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment, 
trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.  1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of 
holding  elections  for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall 
be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  rnake  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  .assemble  at  least  once  in  every 
year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in 
December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different 
day. 

Section  V.  1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of 
the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own 
members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to 
compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members  in  such  man- 
ner and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior, 
and  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings, 
and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such 
parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy;  and 
the  yeas  and[  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on 

*  See  Article  XIV.,  Amendments. 


any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress, 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for 
more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that 
in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.  1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives 
shall  receive  a  compensation  for  their  services,  to  be 
ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged 
from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of 
their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning 
from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
House  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the 
time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any 
civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States 
which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall 
originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  the 
Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on 
other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become 
a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States; 
if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return 
it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall 
have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objecti9ns  at  large 
on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after 
such  reconsideration  two-thirds  of  that  House  shall 
agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the 
objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  like- 
wise be  reconsidered;  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds 
of  that  House  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such 
cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by 
yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for 
and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of 
each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  re- 
turned by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment 
prevent  its  return;  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a 
law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  con- 
currence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjourn- 
ment) shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall 
be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limita- 
tions prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.  1.  The  Congress  shall  have  power: 
To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises, 
to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence 
and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the 
United  States.  .     , 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and 
among  the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes. 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization  and 
uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout 
the  United  States. 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of 
foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures. . 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting 
the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the  United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts 
by  securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors 
the  exclusive  rights  to  their  respective  writings  and 
discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme 
Court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  com- 
mitted on  the  high  seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of 
nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land 
and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropria- 
tion of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term 
than  two  years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 


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THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation 
of  the  land  and  naval  forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute 
the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel 
invasions. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplin- 
ing the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as 
may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of 
the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  what- 
soever over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square) 
as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States  and  the  accept- 
ance of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  Government  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all 
places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of 
the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of 
forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dry-docks  and  other  needful 
buildings. 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and 
proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers, 
and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the 
Government;  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department 
or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of 
such  persons  as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall 
think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such 
importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not 
be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  in- 
vasion the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  e.x  post  facto  law  shall  be 
passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid, 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  here- 
inbefore directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported 
from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of 
commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over 
those  of  another,  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from 
one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another. 

-  7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but 
in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a 
regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from 
time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United 
States.  And  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  nor 
trust  under  them  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Con- 
gress, accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title 
of  any  kind  whatever  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign 
state. 

Section  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty, 
alliance,  or  confederation,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  coin  money,  emit  bills  of  credit,  make  any- 
thing but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts,  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or 
law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any 
title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Con- 
gress, lay  any  impost  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports, 
except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
Its  inspection  laws,  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties 
and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States; 
and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and 
control  of  the  Congress. 

3.'  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress, 
lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war 
in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact 
with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage 
in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 
Section  I.  1.  The  Executive  power  shall  be  vested 
in  a  President  of  the  United  States  of  America.  He 
shall  hold  his  oflBce  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and, 
together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the 
Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors, 
equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress; 
but  no  Senator  or  Representative  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States  shall  be 
appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States 


and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at 
least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  per- 
sons voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit, 
sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The 
President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  cer- 
tificates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be 
the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  there  be 
more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them 
for  President;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in 
like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  vote  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  repre- 
sentation from  each  State  having  one  vote.  A  quorum, 
for  this  purpose,  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case, 
after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the 
Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or 
more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]  * 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing 
the  electors  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their 
votes,  which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
United  States. 

6.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of 
this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent; neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five 
years  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office, 
or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall 
devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may 
by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-jPresi- 
dent,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President, 
and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly  until  the  disability 
be  removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  sliall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for 
his  services  a  compensation  which  shall  neither  be  in- 
creased nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he 
shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within 
that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he 
shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States, 
and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect, 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

Section  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  when  called  into 
the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require 
the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each 
of  the  executive  departments  upon  any  subject  relating 
to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall 
have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences 
against  the  United  States  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two- 
thirds  of  the  Senators  present  concur;  and  he  shall 
nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose  appoint- 
ments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which 
shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as 
they  think  proper  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts 
of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacan- 
cies that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate 
by  granting  commissions,  which  shall  expire  at  the  end 
of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the 
Congress  information  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and 
recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;    he  may,  on  extra- 


*  This  clause  is  superseded  by  Article  XII.,  Amend- 
ments. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 


597 


ordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of 
them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn 
them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall 
receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he 
shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed, 
and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 
Section  IV.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all 
civil  officers  of  the  United  States  shall  be  removed  from 
office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction  of  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

.  ARTICLE  III. 

Section  I.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  infe- 
rior courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain 
and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  be- 
havior, and  shall  at  stated  times  receive  for  their  serv- 
ices a  compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during -their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to 
all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising  under  this  Constitu- 
tion, the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris- 
diction; to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State, 
between  citizens  of  different  States,  between  citizens  of 
the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  States,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers,  and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall 
be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  juris- 
diction. In  all  the  other  cases  before-mentioned  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction  both 
as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeach- 
ment, shall  be  by  jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in 
the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted; but  when  not  committed  within  any  State  the 
trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in 
adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on 
confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  pun- 
ishment of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall 
work  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attained. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Section  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in 
each  State  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may 
by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
effect  thereof. 

Section  II.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in 
the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony, 
or  other  crime,  who  shall  fiee  from  justice,  and  be  found 
in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  Executive 
authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered 
up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of 
the  crime. 

-.3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State, 
under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another  shall,  in 
consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  dis- 
charged from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  deliv- 
ered up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

Section  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Congress  into  this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be 
formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State,  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent 
of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of 
the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and 
make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the 
territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so 
construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United' 
States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 


Section  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to 
every  State  in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion, 
and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Execu- 
tive (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against 
domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 
The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses 
shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to 
this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legis- 
latures of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a 
convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either 
case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part 
of  tliis  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures 
of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions 
in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode 
of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  pro- 
vided that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior 
to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall 
in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the 
Ninth  Section  of  the  First  Article;  and  that  no  State, 
without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suf- 
frage in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into 
before  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as  valid 
against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution  as 
under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution  and  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof  and  all 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of 
the  land,  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound 
thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any 
State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  men- 
tioned, and  the  members  of  the  several  State  Legisla- 
tures, and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be 
bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitu- 
tion; but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a 
qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States 
shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Consti- 
tution between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

AMENDMENTS    TO    THE    CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE  I. 

■  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish- 
ment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof; 
or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press;  or 
the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 
A  well-regulated   militia   being   necessary  to  the  se- 
curity of  a  free  State,  the  right  of   the  people  to  keep 
and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 
No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any 
house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of 
war  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 
The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons, 
houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall 
issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be 
searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V. 
No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  other 
infamous  crime  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment 
of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or 
naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service, 
in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeop- 
ardy of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any 
criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  pro- 
cess of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for 
public  use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy 


598 


THE    STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial 
jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall 
have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been 
previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of 
the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  con- 
fronted with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have  com- 
pulsory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and 
to  have  tlie  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

ARTICLE  VII. 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  contro- 
versy shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by 
jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall 
be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,   nor  excessive 
fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  in- 
flicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 
The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights 
shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  re- 
tained by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 
The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the 
Constitution,   nor  prohibited  by  it  to   the  States,   are 
reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XL 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be 
construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  com- 
menced or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States, 
by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 
The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and 
vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of 
whom  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President, 
and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign 
and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate;  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted;  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  num- 
ber be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed; and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then 
from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  ex- 
ceeding three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President, 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately, 
by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from 
two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of 
Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the 
fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice- 
President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 
The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as 
Vice-President  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  num- 
ber be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed, and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose 
shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Sen- 
ators, and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally 
ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to 
that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except 
as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have 
been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United 
States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 
1.  All    persons    born    or    naturalized    in    the    United 


States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they 
reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States;  nor  shall  ^^y  State  deprive  any 
person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  process 
of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction 
the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  according  to  their  respective  numbers, 
counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State, 
excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Repre- 
sentatives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers 
of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof, 
is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  members  of  such  State, 
being  of  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  par- 
ticipation in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  repre- 
sentation therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion 
which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to 
the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of 
age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in 
Congress,  or  elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or 
holding  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United 
States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously 
taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer 
of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State 
Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any 
State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  same,  or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
each  House,  remove  such  disability. ' 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for 
payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  sup- 
pressing insurrection  and  rebellion,  shall  not  be  ques- 
tioned. But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in 
aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States, 
or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave; 
but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  appro- 
priate legislation  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United 
States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color,  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  the  pro- 
visions of  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

RATIFICATION    OF   THE   CONSTITUTION 

The  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  thirteen  original 
States  in  the  following  order: 

Delaware,  December  7,  1787,  unanimously. 
Pennsylvania,  December  12,  1787,  vote  46  to  23. 
New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787,  unanimously. 
Georgia,  January  2,  1788,  unanimously. 
Connecticut,  January  9,  1788,  vote  128  to  40. 
Massachusetts,  February  6,  1788,  vote  187  to  168. 
Maryland,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63  to  12. 
South  Carolina,  May  23,  1788,  vote  149  to  73. 
New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  vote  57  to  46. 
Virginia,  June  25,  1788,  vote  89  to  79. 
New  York,  July  26,  1788,  vote  30  to  28. 
North  Carolina,  November  21,  1789,  vote  193  to  75. 
Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790,  vote  34  to  32. 

RATIFICATION    OF   THE    AMENDMENTS 
I  to  X,  inclusive,  were  declared  in  force  December  15, 
1791. 

XI  was  declared  in  force  January  8,  1798. 

XII.  regulating  elections,  was  ratified  by  all  the  States 
except  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Massachusetts,  and  New 
Hampshire,  which  rejected  it.  It  was  declared  in  force 
September  28,  1804. 

XIII.  The  emancipation  amendment  was  ratified  by 
31  of  the  36  States;  rejected  by  Delaware  and  Ken- 
tucky; not  acted  on  by  Texas;  conditionally  ratified  by 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Proclaimed  December  18, 
1865.  ^  ^  ,       ,^ 

XIV.  Reconstruction  amendment  was  ratified  by  23 
Northern  States;  rejected  by  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Maryland,  and  10  Southern  States,  and  not  acted  on  by 
California.  The  10  Southern  States  subsequently  rati- 
fied under  pressure.     Proclaimed  July  28,  1868. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 


599 


XV.  Negro  citizenship  amendment  was  not  acted  on 
by  Tennessee;  rejected  by  California,  Delaware,  Ken- 
tucky, Maryland,  New  Jersey,  and  Oregon;  ratified  by 
the  remaining  30  States.  New  York  rescinded  its  rati- 
fication January  5,  1870.     Proclaimed  March  30,  1870. 

Corea  or  Korea.  A  country  embracing 
the  peninsula  lying  between  the  Yellow  Sea  and 
the  Sea  of  Japan.  Yi  Heui,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1864,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor  in  1897,  abdicated  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  in  1907.  Until  1894,  China  was  the 
suzerain  of  Corea,  but  on  the  conclusion  of 
the  war  in  1895,  China  relinquished  her 
suzerainty,  and  the  independence  of  Corea  was 
acknowledged.  Then  a  struggle  began  with. 
Russia,  which  culminated  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  and  by  the  Peace  Treaty  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  1905,  the  paramount  interest  of  the 
latter  country  in  Corea  was  acknowledged. 
A  treaty  between  Corea  and  Japan,  signed  at 
Seoul,  November  17,  1905,  provided  that  Japan, 
through  the  department  of  foreign  affairs  in 
Tokio,  should  control  and  direct  the  external 
relations  and  affairs  of  Corea ;  that  Japan  should 
be  represented  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  of 
Corea  by  a  resident-general  residing  at  Seoul, 
and  have  the  right  to  station  residents  at 
the  several  open  ports  and  such  other  places 
in  Corea  as  it  might  deem  necessary.  The 
attitude  of  the  emperor,  culminating  in  his 
action  in  sending  a  delegation  to  The  Hague 
Conference,  led  to  his  abdication  in  favor  of  the 
crown  prince,  July  19,  1907,  on  the  unanimous 
advice  of  the  ministry,  who  were  nearly  mur- 
dered for  their  pains.  The  Japanese  troops  had 
to  put  down  some  serious  rioting  in  Seoul,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  ex-emperor,  who  at  once 
began  to  conspire  against  the  Japanese,  led  to  a 
new  convention  being  promulgated  (July  25th), 
according  to  the  terms  of  which  the  administra- 
tion of  Corea,  as  well  as  all  laws,  state  transac- 
tions and  important  appointments  were  placed 
under  the  Japanese  resident-general  and  made 
subject  to  his  approval ;  though  foreigners  could 
be  employed  only  with  his  consent,  Japanese 
recommended  by  him  might  become  eligible  to 
government  office;  administrative  and  judicial 
affairs  were  separated,  and  the  financial  adviser 
provided  for  in  the  convention  of  1904  was  dis- 
pensed with.  On  August  1st,  the  Corean  native 
army  was  disbanded,  not  without  some  trouble 
and  loss  of  life.  The  succeeding  years  were 
filled  with  political  unrest  of  which  the  assassi- 
nation of  Marquis  Ito  was  both  an  indication 
and  a  result.  In  1910  Corea  voluntarily  became 
annexed  to  Japan.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
suitable  maintenance  of  the  Corean  Emperor  in 
private  life. 

Cuba,  after  having  been  continuously  in  the 
possession  of  Spain  from  its  discovery,  was,  by 
the  peace  preliminaries  and  by  the  definitive 
treaty  signed  by  the  Peace  Commissioners  at 
Paris,  December  10,  1898,  rehnquished  by  Spain, 
and  thus  has  the  position  of  an  independent 
state.  The  direct  armed  interposition  of  the 
United  States  in  the  struggle  against  Spanish 
domination  has,  however,  brought  the  island 
into  close  association  with  the  United  States 
Government.  On  November  5,  1900,  a  conven- 
tion met  to  decide  on  a  Constitution,  and  on 


February  21,  1901,  a  Constitution  was  adopted, 
under  which  the  island  has  a  republican  form  of 
government,  with  a  President,  a  Vice-President, 
a  Senate,  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
United  States  Legislature  passed  a  law  author- 
izing the  President  of  the  United  States  to  make 
over  the  government  of  the  island  to  the  Cuban 
people  as  soon  as  Cuba  should  undertake  to 
make  no  treaty  with  any  foreign  power  endan- 
gering its  independence,  to  contract  no  debt  for 
which  the  current  revenue  would  not  suffice,  to 
concede  to  the  United  States  Government  a 
right  of  intervention,  and  also  to  grant  to  it 
the  use  of  naval  stations.  On  June  12,  1901, 
these  conditions  were  accepted  by  Cuba,  on 
February  24,  1902,  the  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Republic  were  elected,  and  on 
May  20th,  the -control  of  the  island  was  formally 
transferred  to  the  new  Cuban  Government. 
Under  treaties  signed  July  2,  1903,  and  ratified 
within  seven  months  of  that  date,  the  United 
States  has  had  coaling  stations  in  the  Bay  of 
Guantdnamo  and  Bahia  Honda,  for  which  they 
pay  $2,000  annually.  The  connection  between 
Cuba  and  the  United  States  was  rendered 
still  closer  by  the  reciprocal  commercial  con- 
vention which  came  into  operation  on  December 
27,  1903.  In  August,  1906,  an  insurrection  broke 
out  and,  after  futile  attempts  at  the  restoration 
of  order,  and  serious  warning  from  the  United 
States  Peace  Commission,  which  had  arrived. 
President  Palma,  on  September  28th,  resigned 
office.  No  successor  was  elected  and,  as  Cuba 
was  without  a  government,  Mr.  Taft,  the 
United  States  Secretary  for  War,  and  Peace 
Commissioner  to  Cuba,  undertook  the  provisional 
government.  He  was  succeeded  on  October  13th 
by  Mr.  C.  E.  Magoon.  In  1908,  Cuba  again 
resumed  the  reins  of  government  under  Presi- 
dent Gomez  and  a  native  Cabinet.  The  Cabi- 
net consists  of  the  Secretary  of  State  and  of 
Justice,  and  the  Secretaries  of  the  Interior,  of 
Finance,  of  Agriculture,  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  of  Public  Works. 

Declaration  of  Independence 

THE   UN.\NIMOU8  DECLARATION   OF  THE  THIRTEEN   UNITED 
STATES    OF    AMERICA,  IN    CONGRESS,  JULY    4,   1776. 

When  in  the  Course  of  human  events,  it  becomes 
necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands 
which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  as- 
sume among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and 
equal  station  to  which  the  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Na- 
ture's God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions 
of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes 
which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men 
are  created  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their 
Creator  with  certain  unalienable  Rights,  that  among 
these  are  Life,  Liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  Happiness. 
That  to  secure  these  rights,  Governments  are  instituted 
among  Men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed.  That  whenever  any  Form  of 
Government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the 
Right  of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to 
institute  new  Government,  laying  its  foundation  on 
such  principles  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form, 
as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  Safety 
and  Happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that 
Governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed 
for  light  and  transient  causes;  and  accordingly  all  ex- 
perience hath  shewn,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed 
to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  them- 
selves by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accus- 
tomed. But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpa- 
tions, pursuing  invariably  the  same  Object  evinces  a 
design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  Despotism,  it 
is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  Gov- 


600 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


ernment,  and  to  provide  new  Guards  for  their  future 
security.  Such  kas  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these 
Colonies;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains 
them  to  alter  their  former  Systems  of  Government. 
The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a 
history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having 
in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  Ty- 
ranny over  these  States.  To  prove  this,  let  Facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  whole- 
some and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of 
immediate  and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended 
in  their  operation  till  his  Assent  should  be  obtained; 
and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to 
attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  large  districts  of  people,  unless  those  people 
would  relinquish  the  right  of  Representation  in  the 
Legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to  them  and  formidable 
to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places 
unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository 
of  their  public  Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing 
them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly, 
for  opposing  with  manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the 
rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolu- 
tions, to  cause  others  to  be  elected;  whereby  the  Legis- 
lative powers,  incapable  of  Annihilation,  have  returned 
to  the  People  at  large  for  their  exercise;  the  State 
remaining  in  the  meantime  exposed  to  all  the  dangers 
of  invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of 
these  States;  for  that  purpose  obstructmg  the  Laws 
for  Naturalization  of  Foreigners;  refusing  to  pass  others 
to  encourage  their  migrations  hither,  and  raising  the 
conditions  of  new  Appropriations  of  Lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  of  Justice,  by 
refusing  his  Assent  to  Laws  for  establishing  Judiciary 
powers. 

He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his  Will  alone, 
for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  pay- 
ment of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent 
hither  swarms  of  Officers  to  harrass  our  people,  and  eat 
out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  Standing 
Armies  without  the  Consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military  independent  of 
and  superior  to  the  Civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  juris- 
diction foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged 
by  our  laws;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  pretended 
Legislation : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among 
us: 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  from  punish- 
ment for  any  Murders  which  they  should  commit  on 
the  Inhabitants  of  these  States: 

For  cutting  off  our  Trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world; 

For  imposing  Taxes  on  us  without  our  Consent: 

For  depriving  us  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of 
Trial  by  jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for  pre- 
tended offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws  in  a 
neighboring  Province,  establishing  therein  an  Arbitrary 
government,  and  enlarging  its  Boundaries  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  intro- 
ducing the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  Colonies: 

For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolishing  our  most 
valuable  Laws,  and  altering  fundamentally  the  Forms 
of  our  Governments: 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring 
themselves  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in 
all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by  declaring  us 
out  of  his  Protection  and  waging  War  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt 
our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  Armies  of  foreign 
Mercenaries  to  compleat  the  works  of  death,  desolation, 
and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of 
Cruelty  &  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  bar- 
barous ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  Head  of  a  civil- 
ized nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-Citizens  taken  Captive 
on  the  high  Seas  to  bear  Arms  against  their  Country, 
to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  Brethren, 
or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  Hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us, 


and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our 
frontiers,  the  merciless  Indian  Savages,  whose  known 
rule  of  warfare,  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all 
ages,  sexes  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  Oppressions  We  have  Peti- 
tioned for  Redress  in  the  most  humble  terms:  Our 
repeated  Petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated 
injury.  A  Prince,  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by 
every  act  which  may  define  a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the 
ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  attentions  to  our 
British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them  from  time  to 
time  of  atternpts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  un- 
warrantable jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded 
them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settle- 
ment here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the 
ties  of  our  common  kindred  to  disavow  these  usurpa- 
tions, which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections 
and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the 
voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We  must,  there- 
fore, acquiesce  in  the  necessity,  which  denounces  our 
Separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man- 
kind. Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends. 

WE,  THEREFORE,  the  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  op-  America,  in  General  Congress, 
Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the 
world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the 
Name,  and  by  authority  of  the  good  People  of  these 
Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare.  That  these 
L^nited  Colonies  are,  and  of  Right  ought  to  be  free 
and  independent  States;  that  they  are  Absolved  from 
all  Allegiance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  poUtical 
connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great  Britain, 
is  and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved;  and  that  as  free 
and  independent  States,  they  have  full  Power  to  levy 
War,  conclude  Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Com- 
merce, and  to  do  all  other  Acts  and  Things  which  inde- 
pendent States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support 
of  this  Declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection 
of  Divine  Providence,  We  mutually  pledge  to  each  other 
our  Lives,  our  Fortunes  and  our  sacred  Honor. 

(The  foregoing  declaration  was,  by  order  of  Congress, 
engrossed,  and  signed  by  the  following  members:) 

JOHN  HANCOCK. 

New  Hampshire. 
Josiah  Bartlett,  Matthew  Thornton. 

Wm.  Whipple, 

Massachusetts  Bay. 
Saml.  Adams,  Robt.  Treat  Paine, 

John  Adams,  Elbridge  Gerry. 

Rhode  Island,  etc. 
Step.  Hopkins,  William  Ellery. 

Connecticut. 
Roger  Sherman,  Wm.  Williams, 

Sam'el  Huntington,  Oliver  Wolcott. 

New  York. 
Wm.  Floyd,  Frans.  Lewis, 

Phil.  Livingston,  Lewis  Morris. 

New  Jersey. 
Richd.  Stockton,  John  Hart, 

Jno.  Witherspoon,  Abra.  Clark. 

Fras.  Hopkinson, 

Pennsylvania. 
Robt.  Morris,  Jas.  Smith, 

Benjamin  Rush,  Geo.  Taylor, 

Benja.  Franklin,  James  Wilson, 

John  Morton,  Geo.  Ross. 

Geo.  Clymer, 

Delaware. 
Cesar  Rodney,  Tho.  M'Kean. 

Geo.  Read, 

Maryland. 
Samuel  Chase,  Thos.  Stone, 

Wm.  Paca,  Charles  Carroll  of 

Carrollton. 
Virginia. 
George  Wythe,  Thos.  Nelson,  jr., 

Richard  Henry  Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 

Th.  Jefferson,  Carter  Braxton. 

Benja.  Harrison, 

North  CaroUna. 
Wm.  Hooper,  John  Penn. 

Joseph  Hewes, 

South  Carolina. 
Edward  Rdtledge,  Thomas  Lynch,  jr., 

Thos.  Heyward,  jr.,  Arthur  Middleton. 

Georgia. 
Button  Gwinnett,  Geo.  Walton.  • 

Lyman  Hall, 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


601 


Delaware.  The  first  Constitution,  adopt- 
ed in  1776,  was  followed  by  those  of  1792,  1831, 
and  1897,  the  last  named  being  still  in  force. 
Constitutional  amendments,  proposed  in  either 
House  of  the  Legislature,  agreed  to  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  Houses,  and  by  a  similar  vote 
of  the  next  Legislature,  become  law.  The  Legis- 
lature consists  of  a  Senate  of  seventeen  members, 
elected  for  four  years  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  thirty-five  members,  elected  for  two 
years,  the  two  Houses  being  known  as  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  Senators  must  be  27  years  of 
age,  and  Representatives  24;  both  must  be 
citizens  who  have  resided  tliree  years  in  the 
State,  and  one  year  in  the  electoral  district  im- 
mediately preceding  the  election.  Money  bills 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment  brought 
by  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  principal 
executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor, 
who  is  elected  for  four  years  and  is  not  eligible 
for  a  third  term.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  State,  and, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoints  to 
various  offices  of  State.  He  may  call  special  ses- 
sions of  the  legislature,  and  has  power  to  pardon, 
limited  by  the  authority  of  the  board  of  pardons, 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  He  has  a  veto  on  legis- 
lation, which  may  be  overridden  by  a  three- 
fifths  vote  of  each  house.  The  secretary  of  state 
is  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  consent 
of  the  Senate.  Other  State  officials  are  the 
lieutenant-governor,  the  treasurer,  and  the 
auditor. 

Denmark.  Under  the  Constitution  of 
1849  (modified  in  1855,  186,3,  1865,  and  1866), 
the  executive  power  is  vested  in  king  and  minis- 
ters, the  legislative  in  the  Rigsdag  or  Diet  acting 
jointly  with  the  sovereign.  The  Rigsdag  is  com- 
posed of  the  Landsthing  (or  upper  house  of  sixty- 
six  members  —  twelve  Crown  nominees  ap- 
Cointed  for  life,  and  fifty-four  indirectly  elected 
y  electoral  bodies,  in  which  large  taxpayers  are 
well  represented,  for  eight  years),  and  the  Folke- 
thing  (or  house  of  commons  of  114  members 
directly  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  three 
years).  Members  of  both  houses  are  paid  about 
three  dollars  a  day  while  the  Rigsdag  is  sitting 
and  their  traveling  expenses.  The  Rigsdag 
must  meet  every  October,  and  all  money  bills 
be  submitted  first  to  the  Folkething.  For  local 
government  the  country  is  divided  into  eighteen 
counties,  each  under  a  governor,  and  these  are 
subdivided  into  hundreds  and  parishes.  The 
towns  are  administered  by  mayors. 

District  of  Columbia.  The  municipal 
government  of  the  District  of  Columbia  is  vested 
by  act  of  Congress  approved  June  11,  1878,  in 
three  commissioners,  two  of  whom  are  appointed 
by  the  president  from  citizens  of  the  District 
having  had  three  years'  residence  therein  imme- 
diately preceding  that  appointment,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate.  The  other  commissioner 
is  detailed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
from  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  United 
States  Army,  and  must  have  lineal  rank  senior 
to  captain,  or  be  a  captain  who  has  served  at 
least  fifteen  years  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of 
the  Army.  The  commissioners  appoint  the 
subordinate  official  service  of  said  government, 


except  the  board  of  education  which  is  appointed 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Congress  makes  all  laws  for  the  District,  but  has 
intrusted  to  the  commissioners  authority  to 
make  police,  building,  and  plumbing  regulations, 
and  others  of  a  municipal  nature. 

Dominican  Republic,  or  San  Do- 
mingo, is  the  Republic  which  occupies  the 
eastern  end  of  the  island  of  Hayti,  and  was 
founded  in  1844,  after  a  revolution  which  over- 
threw the  Spanish  rule.  It  is  divided  into  six 
states  or  provinces,  and  six  maritime  districts, 
and  is  governed  by  a  President,  chosen  by  an 
electoral  college  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  a 
National  Congress  of  twenty-four  members 
elected  for  four  years.  A  convention  was  drawn 
up  on  February  8,  1907,  and  approved  February 
25th,  by  the  American  Senate,  and  by  the  San 
Domingo  Congress  on  May  3d.  The  chief 
creditors  of  the  Republic  had  agreed  to  accept 
50  to  55%  for  cash  payment  of  their  claims.  It 
was  estimated  that  $17,000,000  were  required 
for  the  purpose,  and  a  New  York  bank  agreed  to 
find  the  sum  of  $20,000,000  (the  balance  being 
for  the  extinction  of  certain  concessions  and  har- 
bor monopolies,  and  for  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways and  other  public  improvements)  on  the 
basis  of  an  issue  of  5%  bonds  payable  in  fifty 
years,  and  redeemable  after  seventy  years  at 
102J.  The  bank  thus  became  the  sole  creditor 
of  the  government.  The  receiver-general  of 
customs  was  appointed  by  the  United  States 
Government  under  the  new  convention,  and  the 
customs  duties  are  applied  in  the  first  instance 
to  the  payment  of  the  annual  sums  for  amortiza- 
tion of  the  bonds,  the  balance  going  to  the 
Dominican  Government.  The  Dominican  Re- 
public further  pledged  itself  not  to  increase  its 
public  debt  till  the  whole  of  the  bonds  had  been 
paid  off,  nor  to  modify  its  import  duties  without 
the  consent  of  the  United  States. 

EiCuador  is  a  Republic  of  equatorial  South 
America,  constituted  in  1830,  by  separation 
from  the  original  Republic  of  Colombia.  Under 
the  Constitution  of  1884,  modified  in  1887,  and 
1897,  it  is  governed  by  a  President  elected  for 
four  years,  with  the  assistance  of  a  Congress  com- 
posed of  a  Senate  of  thirty-two  members,  elected 
for  two  years,  representing  the  sixteen  provinces, 
and  a  Chamber  of  forty-two  Deputies,  represent- 
ing the  people,  which  is  elected  every  two  years. 
The  electors  to  both  chambers  must  be  adults 
able  to  read  and  write. 

Florida.  The  original  Constitution,  framed 
in  1838,  was  succeeded  by  others  in  1865,  1868, 
and  1885.  That  of  1885,  amended  in  1894,  1896, 
and  1904,  is  now  in  force.  Amendments  may 
be  proposed  in  either  House  of  the  Legislature ;  if 
approved  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  each  House,  they  are  submitted  to  the 
people  and,  if  accepted  by  a  majority  of  those 
voting  on  theih,  they  become  part  of  the  Consti- 
tution. The  State  Legislature  consists  of  a  Sen- 
ate of  thirty-two  members,  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives with  sixty-eight  members.  Senators 
are  elected  for  four  years,  Representatives 
for  two,  the  Senate  being  renewed  by  one-half 
every  two  years.  Any  bill  may  originate  in 
either  House.  The  House  of  Representatives  has 
the   sole   power  of    impeachment,   but  a  two- 


602 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


thirds  vote  of  all  members  present  is  necessary 
to  impeach.  Impeachment  cases  are  tried  by 
the  Senate.  Legislators  must  be  qualified  elec- 
tors in  the  counties  they  represent.  The  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor, 
who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  not  eligible 
for  the  next  term  of  office.  He  has  the  usual 
powers  of  State  governors,  including  a  veto  on 
legislation  which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  in  each 
House.  Other  State  officers  elected  for  four 
years  are  the  attorney-general,  the  comptroller, 
the  treasurer,  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  the  commissioner  of  agriculture. 

France  is  a  Repubhc,  governed  by  the  Con- 
stitution of  1875,  modified  in  1879,  1884,  1885, 
and  1899.  The  Legislature  consists  of  the  Assem- 
bly, sitting  in  two  Houses,  viz:  the  Senate  of 
300  members,  indirectly  elected  for  nine  years 
(one-third  retiring  every  three  years)  by  dele- 
gates chosen  by  the  municipal  councils  and  the 
senators,  deputies,  councilors-general,  and 
district  councilor  of  the  departments  (there 
are  a  number  of  Senators  originally  elected  for 
life  by  the  two  chambers,  but  as  these  die  the 
vacancies  are  filled  by  the  election  of  Senators 
for  a  period  of  nine  years  only) ;  and  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  of  594  members,  elected  for  four 
years  by  universal  suffrage.  Voters  are  required 
to  be  over  21  and  to  have  a  six  months'  residen- 
tial qualification.  Both  Houses  can  initiate  and 
frame  laws,  except  in  the  case  of  financial  laws, 
which  must  first  be  presented  to  and  voted  by 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Deputies  and  Senators 
are  both  paid  at  the  rate  of  15,000  francs  a  year. 
The  presidents  of  the  two  chambers  each  receive 
in  addition  72,000  francs  a  year  for  the  expense 
of  entertainment.  Members  of  both  chambers 
travel  free  on  all  railways  on  making  a  small 
annual  payment.  The  executive  power  is  con- 
fided to  the  President,  who  is  elected  for  seven 
years ,  by  the  two  Houses  united  in  National 
Assembly,  and  receives  600,000  francs  a  year, 
and  a  further  allowance  of  600,000  francs  for 
expenses.  He  appoints  the  ministers  and  makes 
all  civil  and  military  appointments.  War  can 
be  declared  by  the  President  only  with  consent 
of  the  two  Houses,  and  his  every  act  must  be 
countersigned  by  a  minister.  The  colonies  are 
looked  upon  as  being  politically  part  of  France, 
and  are  represented  in  the  Senate  by  four  Sena- 
tors and  in  the  Chamber  by  ten  Deputies. 

Georgia.  Georgia  entered  the  Union  as 
one  of  the  original  States  and  its  first  Constitu- 
tion, adopted  in  1777,  was  succeeded  by  those 
of  1789,  1798,  1865,  and  1877.  The  last  has 
been  amended  seven  times,  most  recently  in 
1904.  Amendments  proposed  in  either  House 
and  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  mem- 
bers of  each  House,  must  be  submitted  to  the 
people;  if  ratified  by  a  majority  of  those  who 
vote,  they  become  part  of  the  Constitution. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty- 
four  members  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  175  members,  known  collectively  as  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  Both  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives are  elected  for  two  years.  Senators  must 
be  citizens  of  the  United  States,  25  years 
old,  resident  in  the  State  four  years  pre- 
ceding election  and  one  year  in  the  district  for 


which  elected.  Representatives  must  be 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  21  years  old, 
resident  in  the  State  two  years  and  in  the  county 
one  year  next  preceding  election.  The  seat  of  a 
member  of  either  House  is  vacated  on  his  re- 
moval from  the  district  or  county  from  which 
he  was  elected.  The  House  of  Representatives 
has  sole  power  of  impeachment,  and  the  Senate 
tries  impeachment  cases.  All  bills  to  raise  money 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the 
governor,  who  is  elected  for  two  years.  He  has 
the  usual  limited  powers  of  pardon  and  veto. 
He  has  power  to  fill  vacancies  not  otherwise 
provided  for  by  law,  and  is  required  to  see  that 
the  laws  of  the  State  are  faithfully  executed. 
He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  State  militia. 
Other  elective  officials  are  the  secretary  of  state, 
the  comptroller,  the  treasurer,  the  attorney- 
general,  and  the  superintendent  of  education. 
Georgia  is  divided  into  137  counties. 

German  ^Empire.  The  Constitution  of 
the  German  Empire  is  based  upon  the  decree  of 
the  16th  of  April,  1871,  which  took  effect  on  the 
4th  of  May  following.  The  presidency  of  the 
empire  belongs  to  the  Crown  of  Prussia,  to 
which  is  attached  the  hereditary  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Germany.  The  prerogatives  of  the 
emperor  are  to  represent  the  empire  in  its  rela- 
tion to  other  states,  to  declare  war  if  defensive, 
and  conclude  peace  in  name  of  the  empire,  to 
contract  alliances,  etc.  The  emperor  has  also 
the  supreme  command  of  the  army  and  the 
navy,  appoints  and  dismisses  officials  of  the 
empire,  appoints  consuls,  and  superintends  the 
entire  consulate  of  the  empire.  The  legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  the  Bundesrath  (Federal 
Council)  and  the  Reichstag  (Imperial  Diet),  the 
former  consisting  of  fifty-eight  representatives 
of  the  different  states  of  the  empire,  seventeen 
from  Prussia,  six  from  Bavaria,  four  each  from 
Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg,  three  each  from  Baden 
and  Hesse,  one  from  Saxe-Weimar,  etc.  The 
Reichstag  consists  of  397  deputies  elected  by 
secret  voting  in  all  the  states  of  the  empire. 
As  a  rule,  one  member  is  returned  to  the  Reichs- 
tag for  every  131,604  of  the  inhabitants  of 
each  state.  The  election  of  Wilhelm  I.,  King  of 
Prussia,  as  German  Emperor  in  1871,  was  by  the 
vote  of  the  Reichstag  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federacy, and  upon  his  acceptance  of  the  dignity 
the  imperial  office  became  hereditary  in  the 
House  of  Hohenzollem.  Wilhelm, "  Der  Grosse," 
reigned  until  1888,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Frederick,  who  lived  but  a  few  weeks.  Fred- 
erick's eldest  son,  the  present  emperor,  Wilhelm 
II.,  was  bom  January  27,  1859.  On  February 
27,  1881,  he  married  Princess  Victoria  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg  (born 
October  22,  1858),  daughter  of  the  late  Duke 
Frederick. 

The  Heir  Apparent. —  The  heir  apparent  to 
the  German  throne  is  Prince  Frederick  William, 
born  May  6,  1882,  the  eldest  son  of  the  present 
Emperor-King. 

The  Ministry. —  The  Imperial  Secretaries  of 
State  of  Germany  do  not  form  a  ministry  or 
cabinet,  but  act  independently  of  each  other 
under  the  general  direction  of  the  Chancellor  of 
the  Empire.     They  are  as  follows: 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


603 


1.  Chancellor  of  the  Empire. 

2.  Ministry  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

3.  Imperial  Home  Office  and    "  Representative 
of  the  Chancellor." 

4.  Imperial  Admiralty. 

5.  Imperial  Ministry  of  Justice. 

6.  Imperial  Treasury. 

7.  Imperial  Post-office. 

8.  Secretary  for  the  Colonies. 

And,  in  addition,  the  following  presidents  of  im- 
perial bureaus: 

9.  Railways. 

10.  Imperial  Exchequer. 

1 1 .  Imperial  Invalid  Fund. 

12.  Imperial  Bank. 

13.  Imperial  Debt  Commission. 

14.  Administration  of  Imperial  Railways. 

15.  Imperial  Court  Martial. 

Greece.  The  Kingdom  of  Hellas,  as  it  is 
correctly  styled,  includes  the  three  provinces  of 
Northern  Greece,  the  five  of  Peloponnesus,  the 
three  of  Thessaly,  and  five  islands.  According 
to  the  present  Constitution  the  throne  is  heredi- 
tary in  the  family  of  King  George  (second  son 
of  the  King  of  Denmark).  The  legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  a  single  Chamber,  called 
the  Boule,  the  members  of  which  (proportioned 
in  number  to  the  amount  of  the  population)  are 
elected  for  four  years  by  ballot  by  manhood 
suffrage.  The  executive  power  rests  with  the 
king  and  ministry.  The  Greek  Church  alone  is 
established,  but  all  forms  of  religion  enjoy  toler- 
ation. Justice  is  administered,  on  the  basis  of 
the  French  civil  code,  by  a  supreme  court  (Areios 
Pagos),  at  Athens;  four  royal  courts  (Ephiteia), 
at  Athens,  Nauplia,  Patras,  and  Corfu;  sixteen 
courts  of  primary  resort  (Protodokeia),  one  in 
each  principal  town. 

The  regulations  provide  for  an  army  of  from 
120,000  to  130,000  men  on  a  war  footing,  but 
there  are  officers  only  for  about  75,000.  The 
armament  is  to  be  changed,  the  guns  being 
replaced  by  quick-firers,  and  the  present  Gras 
rifle  by  a  magazine  rifle.  A  contract  for  the 
supply  of  60,000  Mannlicher-Schonauer  rifles  by 
1908,  and  40,000  subsequently,  was  signed  in 
November  1905.  The  navy  consists  of  three  small 
battleships,  of  about  4,800  tons  displacement,  and 
a  few  gunboats  and  torpedo  craft  of  no  large 
fighting  value. 

The  Ministry. —  The  Ministry  is  constituted 
as  follows:  President  of  the  Council  and  Minis- 
ter of  Finance;  Minister  of  Interior;  Minister 
of  Worship  and  Public  Instruction;  Minister  of 
Marine;  Minister  of  War;  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  Minister  of  Justice.  The  present 
ruler,  George  I.,  is  the  second  son  of  the 
present  King  of  Denmark.  He  was  bom 
December  24,  1845.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
late  ruler,  the  Greeks,  meeting  in  National  As- 
sembly, elected  him  King  of  the  Hellenes,  on 
March  18,  1863,  and  on  June  4th  of  the  same 
year  he  accepted  the  crown,  his  father  acting  as 
nis  guardian,  as  he  was  not  then  of  age.  On 
October  27,  1867,  he  was  married  to  Grand 
Duchess  Olga,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Grand 
Duke  Constantine  of  Russia,  brother  of  the  late 
emperor.     She  was  bom  August  22,  1851. 


The  Heir  Apparent. —  Prince  Constantine, 
Duke  of  Sparta,  is  heir  apparent  to  the  throne. 
He  was  born  August  2,  1868,  and  was  married 
to  Princess  Sophie  of  Prussia,  the  sister  of  Em- 
peror WiUiam  II.,  on  October  27,  1889.  They 
have  had  four  children. 

Hay  ti.  The  Republic  of  Hayti  was  originally 
a  French  colony,  but  was  proclaimed  independ- 
ent in  1804,  and  is  governed  under  a  Constitution 
drawn  up  in  1889.  The  executive  power  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  President,  elected  for  seven  years 
by  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Representatives, 
who  receives  a  salary  of  $24,000.  The  Chamber 
of  ninety-five  members  is  elected  directly  for 
three  years  by  all  male  citizens,  and  the  Senate 
of  thirty-nine  members  indirectly  for  six  years. 
The  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  and  elementary 
education  is  free.  There  is  an  army  of  18,916 
men,  and  a  navy  of  six  small  vessels. 

Idaho.  The  original  Constitution,  adopted 
in  1889,  is  still  in  force.  Amendments  may  be 
proposed  in  either  House  of  the  Legislature,  and, 
if  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  each  House,  are  submitted  to  the  popular 
vote  for  ratification.  The  Legislature  consists  of 
a  Senate  of  twenty-one  members,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  of  fifty-one  members,  all  the 
Legislators  being  elected  for  two  years.  The 
chief  executive  officer  is  the  governor,  who  is 
elected  for  two  years,  and  has  the  powers  usually 
vested  in  State  governors,  including  a  limited 
veto.  The  board  of  pardons,  of  which  he  is  a 
member,  may  pardon  or  grant  reprieves.  Other 
State  officials  elected  for  two  years  are  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor, auditor,  treasurer,  attorney- 
general,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Illinois.  The  Constitution  adopted  in  1818 
was  superseded  by  that  of  1848,  which  gave  place 
to  the  Constitution  adopted  in  1870.  This,  with 
several  amendments,  is  now  in  force.  Amend- 
ments proposed  in  either  House  of  the  Legislature, 
approved  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  all  the 
members  of  each  House,  and  ratified  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  electors  voting  at  the  next  general 
election,  become  part  of  the  Constitution.  Pro- 
vision is  also  made  for  Constitutional  amend- 
ments by  means  of  a  convention  called  for  the 
purpose.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of 
fifty-one  members  elected  for  four  years  (about 
half  of  whom  retire  every  two  years),  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  of  153  members 
elected  for  two  years.  The  two  Houses  have 
equal  rights  in  introducing  and  passing  bills. 
Senators  and  Representatives  must  be  citizens, 
not  holding  any  State  or  Federal  office  to  which 
payment  is  attached.  Senators  must  be  25  and 
Representatives  2 1  years  of  age ;  both  must  have 
resided  in  the  State  five,  and  in  the  district  two, 
years  next  before  election.  The  chief  executive 
officer  is  the  governor,  elected  for  four  years. 
He  must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  must  have  been 
a  citizen  for  five  years.  He  appoints  many  State 
officials  and  has  the  powers  and  duties  which 
usually  belong  to  State  governors,  including 
limited  pardoning  power  and  a  limited  veto. 
Other  members  of  the  executive,  elected  for 
four  years,  are  the  lieutenant-governor,  the 
auditor,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  the  attorney-general.  The  treasurer  is 
elected  for  two  years. 


604 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


IMPORTANT   FACTS   CONCERNING 


Countries 

f  /Abyssinia, 

*^  Argentina 

^Australia, 

di^i^|A««Ma-Hungary,  .   .    . 

J-<1   Austria 

1  ,.  Hungary, 

Belgium 

/  ^Bolivia 

/^Brazil 

Bulgaria, 

y  Canada, 

Chile 

7  China 

(NColombia, 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala,     .    .    .    . 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

San  Salvador,     .    .    . 

Cuba 

Denmark 

i  /Ecuador 

lIcEgypt 

Jl*Finland 

2^\France, 

^  ^German  Empire,    .    .    . 

Greece 

Hayti 

4,India,  British 

^2^Italy 

2^Japan 

,/  ^Mexico, 

Netherlands 

jONsw  Zealand 

2§Norway 

■—  i^  Paraguay 

/  )  Persia 

JjPeru 

Portugal 

Roumania, 

/  Russia 

Santo  Domingo,    ... 

Servia 

•  if^Siam 

jiSpain 

75Sweden, 

Switzerland 

'^Turkey 

)ff.'y  9  United  Kingdom,  .    .    . 

3  United  States 

d      Uruguay 

fU  Venezuela 

*  This  figure  applies 


AREA   AND   POPULATION 


Area 
PER  Sq.  Miles 


350.000 

1,135,840 

2,972,573 

241,333 

115,903 

125,430 

11,373 

703,604 

3,219,000 

38,080 

3,745,574 

308,000 

1,532,420 

475,000 

23,000 

46,774 

46,250 

49,200 

7,225 

45,872 

15,360 

118.000 

383,900 

144,255 

207,054 

208,780 

25,014 

10,204 

1,766,642 

110,646 

147,655 

767,060 

12,563 

104,751 

124,130 

97,722 

628,000 

713,859 

36,038 

50,700 

8,647,657 

18.045 

18.630 

236.000 

194.783 

172,876 

15,976 

1,115,»46 

121,371 

3,743,344 

72,210 

693,940 


Population 


4.000,000 

4,794,000 

4,052,878 

47.000,000 

27,000,000 

20,000,000 

6,694,000 

1,816.000 

18.000,000 

3.744,000 

6.504.000 

3.870,000 

407.253,000 

4,000,000 

313.000 

1,647,000 

775.000 

500.000 

1,007,000 

2,048,980 

2,605,268 

1,204.000 

11,189,978 

2.744,000 

38.962,000 

60.641.278 

2.631.952 

1.294.000 

294,361,056 

32,475,000 

46,732,138 

13,545,000 

5,747,000 

788,000 

2.263,000 

636.000 

9.500,000 

4.610.000 

5,429,000 

5,956.690 

152.009,300 

610,000 

2,536,000 

5,000,000 

18,618,000 

5,199,000 

3,356,000 

24i«32,000 

41,961,000 

101,100,000 

959,000 

2,445,000 


Population 
PER  Sq.  Mile 


4.22 

1.27 

188.14 

225.63 

153.51 

588.59 

2.58 

4.45 

98.33 

1.79 

12.56 

265.76 

8.43 

13.61 

35.21 

16.76 

10.16 

139.38 

44.66 

160.41 

10.38 

29.16 

19.02 

188.17 

290.40 

105.22 

126.81 

166.62 

293.50 

316.49 

17.65 

457.45 

7.52 

18.23 

6.51 

15.13 

6.46 

150.65 

117.48 

17.57 

33.80 

136.12 

21.19 

95.58 

30.07 

210.07 

22.36 

345.73 

30.90* 

13.28 

4.12 


STOCK   OF   MONEY 


Total 
Dollars 


315,600,000 
134,700,000 
410,700.000 

149,900,000 

4.200,000 

369.800.000 

6,900,000 

97,400,000 

43,100,000 

750,000,000 

372,000,000 

39,200,000 

3,500,000 

29,200,000 

4,200,000 

36.400,000 

13.800,000 

1,525,700,000 

1,155,100.000 

50.400,000 

6,700,000 

611,400,000 

316.700,000 

154,300,000 

168.600,000 

98,700,000 

19.600,000 
10,600,000 

6,800.000 

74,800.000 

23,200.000 

850,800.000 

6,400.000 

7,900,000 

196.600.000 

392,400.000 

-  53,800,000 

61.300.000 

90.000.000 

782.800,000 

2,368,700,000 

29.500,000 

23,800,000 


Per  Capita 
Dollars 


65.83 

29.54 

9.04 

22.40 
2.31 

25.80 
1.85 

17.85 

14.12 
1.84 

93.00 

9.24 

2.22 

11.84 

3.48 

3.74 

5.03 

39.15 

19.73 

20.71 

5.17 

2.07 

9.75 

3.36 

12.45 

18.46 


16.67 

1.48 
13.78 

3.92 

6.03 
10.49 

3.12 
39.32 
21.08 
10.35 
18.27 

3.61 
18.65 
29.47 
30.76 

9.73 


Standard 
Currency 


Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 


to  continental  United  States  only,  according  to  the  1910  census.     See  also  pages  624-5. 


GOVERNMENT   AND   POLITICS 


606 


THE   COUNTRIES   OF   THE   WORLD 


Approximate 

Debt 

Dollars 


479,765,265 

1,084,605,444 

1,107,464,025 

739,020,208 

1,038,585,000 

544,052,979 

6,180,602 

540,693,936 

62,428,200 

271,829,090 

107,304,151 

613,140,000 

14,494,792 

14,603,556 

12.142,334 

96,249,771 

5,590,636 

3,696,472 

66,033,849 

5,746,628 

500,743,871 

25,897,277 

6,656,706,403 

698,849,400 

159,787,136 

27,961,249 

1,102,905,139 

2,560,605,000 

1,157,346,228 

175,945.345 

463,150,904 

275,439,126 

70,376,355 

11,223,805 

16.737,500 

3,159,700 

819,886,580 

272,774,501 

4,038,199,722 

26,219,449 

80,806,223 

2,061,389.972 

92.833,336 

17.400,567 

458.125,400 

3,885,166,333 

925,011,637 

127,362,827 

49.335,647 


Ruler 


Menelik  II.,  .  .  . 
Roque  Saenz  Pena. 
Lord  Northcote,  . 
Franz  Josef  I.,  .  . 
Franz  Josef  I.,  .  . 
Franz  Josef,    .    .    . 

Albert  I 

Senor  Montes.  .  . 
Hermes  da  Fouaeca, 
Ferdinand,  .... 

Earl  Grey 

Ramon  Barros  Luco, 

PiuYi,. 

Carlos  E.  Restrepo, 
C.  Gonsalez  Viquez, 
Manuel  Cabrera, 
M.  R.  Davila, . 
Josd  Estrada, 
F.  Figueroa.    . 
J.  M.  Gomez.  . 
Frederick  VIII.. 
Emilio  Estrado, 
Abbas  II.,    .    . 
Emperor  of  Russia 
Armand  Fallieres, 
William  II„     .    . 
George.    .... 
Antoine  Simon.  . 
George  V.  of  England, 
Victor  Emmanuel  III 
Mutsuhito,  .    . 
Forfirio  Diaz,  . 
Wilhelmina.    . 
Lord  Plunket. 
Haakon  VII..  . 
Manuel  Condra. 
Ahmed  Mirza, 
A.  B.  Leguia. . 
Theophile  Braga 
Carol  (Charles). 
Nicholas  II..   . 
Ramon  Caceres. 

Peter 

Chowfa  Maha  Vajiravudh 
Alphonso  XIII., 
Gustave  V.,  .  . 
T.  Zemp.  .  .  . 
Mehmed  V.,  .  . 
George  V.,  .  .  . 
William  H.  Taft, 
Claudio  Williman, 
J.  V.  Gomez,  .    . 


Title 


Emperor.  .... 
President,  .  .  . 
Governor-General, 
Emperor,  .... 

Emperor 

King 

King 

President,  .  .  . 
President,     .    .    . 

Prince 

Governor-General, 
President,  .  .  . 
Emperor,  .... 
President.  .  .  . 
President,  .  .  . 
President.  ... 
President.  .  .  . 
President.  .  .  . 
President.  .  .  . 
President.     .    .    . 

King 

President,  .  .  . 
Khedive,  .... 
Grand  Duke,  .  . 
President.     .    .    . 

Emperor 

King 

President,     .    .    . 

Emperor 

King 

Mikado 

President,     .    .    . 

Queen, 

Governor,     .    .    . 

King 

President,     .    .    . 

Shah 

President,  .  .  . 
President,     .    .    . 

King 

Emperor  (Czar).  . 
President,    .    .    . 

King 

King 

King. 

King, 

President,     .    .    . 

Sultan, 

King, 

President,  .  .  . 
President,  .  .  . 
President,     .    .    . 


Capital 


Adis  Ababa,  .  . 
Buenos  Ayres,  . 
Melbourne,  .  . 
Vienna,  .... 
Vienna,  .... 
Budapest,  .   .    . 

Brussels,    .    .    . 

La  Paz 

Rio  de  Janeiro, 

Sofia 

Ottawa 

Santiago,  .  .  . 
Peking,  .... 
Bogota,  .... 
San  Jose,  .  .  . 
New  Guatemala, 
Tegucigalpa, .  . 
Managua,  .  .  . 
San  Salvador,  . 
Havana,  .  .  . 
Copenhagen, .    . 

Quito 

Cairo 

Helsingfors,  .    . 

Paris, 

Berlin 

Athens.  .... 
Port  au  Prince. 
Calcutta.  .  .  . 
Rome,    .... 

Tokio 

Mexico.  .... 
The  Hague.  .  . 
Wellington.  .  . 
Christiania.  .  . 
Asuncion,  .  .  . 
Teheran.  .  .  . 
Lima,  .... 
Lisbon,  .... 
Bucharest,  .  . 
St.  Petersburg, 
Santo  Domingo, 
Belgrade,  .  .  . 
Bangkok,  .  .  . 
Madrid.  .... 
Stockholm.  .  . 
Berne,  .... 
Constantinople, 
London.  .  .  . 
Washington..  . 
Montevideo,  .  . 
Caracas,     .    .    . 


Countries 


Abyssinia. 
Argentina. 
Australia. 
Austria-Hungary. 

Austria. 

Hungary. 
Belgium. 
Bolivia. 
Brazil. 
Bulgaria. 
Canada. 
Chile. 
China. 
Colombia. 
Costa  Rica. 

Guatemala. 

Honduras. 

Nicaragua. 

San  Salvador. 
Cuba. 
Denmark. 
Ecuador. 
Egypt. 
Finland. 
France. 

German  Empire. 
Greece. 
Ilayti. 

India,  British. 
Italy. 
Japan. 
Mexico. 
Netherlands. 
New  Zealand. 
Norway. 
Paraguay. 
Persia. 
Peru. 
Portugal. 
Roumania. 
Russia. 

Santo  Domingo. 
Servia. 
Siam. 
Spain. 
Sweden. 
Switzerland. 
Turkey. 

United  Kingdom. 
United  States. 
Uruguay. 
Venezuela. 


606 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


India.  The  present  form  of  government 
of  the  Indian  Empire  is  estabhshed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  India,  act  of  1858.  By  this  act,  all 
the  territories,  theretofore,  under  the  government 
of  the  East  India  Company  are  vested  in  the 
King  of  Great  Britain,  and  all  its  powers  are 
exercised  in  his  name;  all  territorial  and  other 
revenues,  and  all  tributes  and  other  payments, 
are   likewise    received    in    his    name,    and    dis- 

fosed  of  for  the  purposes  of  the  government  of 
ndia  alone.  The  secretary  of  state  for  India  is 
invested  with  all  the  powers  formerly  exercised 
by  the  company  or  by  the  board  of  control. 
The  administration  of  the  Indian  Empire  in 
England  is  entrusted  to  a  secretary  of  state  for 
India,  assisted  by  a  council  of  not  less  than  ten 
members,  vacancies  in  which  are  filled  by  the 
secretary  of  state  for  India.  The  duties  of  the 
council,  which  has  no  initiative  authority,  are, 
under  the  direction  of  the  secretary  of  state  for 
India,  to  conduct  the  business  transacted  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  relation  to  the  Government 
of  India.  The  supreme  executive  authority  in 
India  is  vested  in  the  governor-general  in 
Council,  often  styled  the  Government  of  India. 
The  governor-general,  who  since  1858  has  also 
been  viceroy,  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and 
usually  holds  office  for  five  years.  The  salary  of 
the  governor-general  is  $83,250  a  year. 

Indiana.  The  Constitution  of  1816  was 
superseded  by  that  of  1851  which,  as  amended 
in  1873  and  1881,  is  still  in  force.  Amendments 
proposed  in  and  approved  by  the  Legislature 
require  the  approval  of  the  succeeding  General 
Assembly;  if  then  passed  by  a  majority  vote, 
they  become  part  of  the  Constitution.  The 
State  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  fifty 
members  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  of  100  members  elected  for  two 
years,  the  two  Houses  together  being  called  the 
General  Assembly.  Special  sessions,  called  by 
the  governor,  are  limited  to  forty  days.  Bill 
for  raising  revenue  may  originate  only  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Eligible  to  sit  in 
either  House  are  all  citizens  of  the  United  States 
who  have  resided  in  the  State  two  years,  and  in 
their  county  or  district  one  year  next  preceding 
the  election ;  but  Senators  must  be  25,  and  Repre- 
sentatives 21  years  of  age.  The  chief  executive 
officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor,  who  is  elected 
for  four  years.  He  may  call  special  sessions  of 
the  Legislature,  and  he  has  a  veto  which  may  be 
overridden  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  two  Houses. 
He  appoints  to  offices  not  otherwise  provided  for 
by  law,  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  militia, 
and  may  pardon  or  reprieve  in  all  cases  of  crime 
except  treason  or  where  the  accused  has  been 
impeached.  Other  elective  officials  are  the 
auditor,  the  treasurer,  and  the  attorney-general. 
Iowa.  The  original  Constitution  of  1846 
was,  in  1857,  superseded  by  a  new  Constitution, 
which,  amended  five  times  since  1868,  is  still  in 
force.  The  Legislature,  known  as  the  General 
Assembly,  consists  of  a  Senate  of  fifty,  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  of  100  members, 
meeting  every  two  years  or  an  unlimited  session. 
Senators  are  elected  for  four  years,  half  of  them 
retiring  every  second  year;  Representatives  for 
two  years.  Any  bill  may  originate  in  either 
House.     The    House    of  Representatives    alone 


can  impeach;  the  Senate  tries  impeachments. 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution  may  be  pro- 
posed in  either  House,  but  to  become  law  they 
must  be  sanctioned  by  a  majority  vote  of  both 
Houses  of  the  then  sitting  and  next  succeeding 
Assembly,  followed  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  elected  for  two  years.  He  has  the 
powers  usually  entrusted  to  State  governors, 
including  limited  pardoning  power  and  a  veto 
which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  all  the  members  of  each  House. 
Other  State  officials  are  a  lieutenant-governor, 
an  auditor,  a  treasurer,  an  attorney-general,  and 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  all  elected 
for  two  years. 

Ireland.  The  head  of  the  executive  in 
Ireland  is  the  viceroy  or  lord-lieutenant,  who  is 
assisted  by  a  chief  secretary,  the  lord  chancellor 
of  Ireland,  the  attorney-general  for  Ireland,  the 
permanent  officials,  and  a  privy  council  (which 
is  a  separate  and  distinct  body  from  the  privy 
council  of  Great  Britain);  but  the  government 
of  the  country  is  in  all  essential  points  carried 
on  under  the  direction  of  or  in  concert  with  the 
ministry  of  the  day  in  London.  The  lord- 
lieutenant  is  charged  with  the  maintenance 
of  law  and  order;  the  Irish  constabulary  are 
under  his  control,  and  he  may,  if  he  think  it 
to  be  necessary,  direct  the  commander  of  the 
forces  to  send  troops  to  their  aid.  He  has  power 
to  commute  sentences  and  pardon  criminals. 
There  are,  however,  more  agreeable  and  less 
anxious  functions  attaching  to  the  office;  for 
as  representing  his  majesty,  the  viceroy,  as- 
sisted by  his  wife,  holds  courts,  drawing-rooms, 
levees,  and  maintains  in  Dublin  an  establish- 
ment of  a  semi-regal  character.  On  occasions 
he  confers  the  honor  of  civil  knighthood  with 
the  approval  of  his  majesty.  During  his  absence 
the  duties  of  chief  governorship  are  performed 
by  one  or  more  lord  justice  or  lord  justices,  those 
who  act  in  this  capacity  being  usually  the  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland,  the  commander  of  the 
forces,  and  some  of  the  judges.  The  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland  is  head  of  the  Irish  judicial 
establishment,  principal  legal  adviser  of  the 
lord-lieutenant,  and  exercises  in  Ireland  many 
of  the  powers  which  in  England  are  vested  in  the 
lord  high-chancellor.  The  office  may  be  held 
by  a  Roman  Catholic.  The  chief  secretary  to 
the  lord-lieutenant,  or  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
as  he  is  usually  called,  has  been  described  as 
prime  minister  to  the  viceroy.  His  office  is  at 
Dublin  Castle;  but  he  has  also  an  office  in  Lon- 
don, which  remains  open  during  the  sitting  of 
parliament.  He  is  directly  responsible  to  the 
House  of  Commons  for  the  acts  of  the  Irish  admin- 
istration. He  is  assisted  by  a  permanent  under- 
secretary, and  other  officials.  There  is  a  sep- 
arate local  government  board ;  a  board  of  public 
works,  which  is  the  great  financial  agent  of  the 
Government  in  Ireland;  a  board  of  national 
education,  by  which  the  grant  made  by  parlia- 
ment for  public  education  is  administered,  and  a 
department  of  agriculture  and  other  industries 
and  technical  instruction  which  was  created  in 
1899.  There  are  also  many  other  government 
departments  in  Ireland  directly  responsible  to 
the  Irish  Government. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


607 


Italy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  Under 
the  constitution  of  1848,  as  subsequently  modi- 
fied and  expanded,  the*  executive  is  vested  in  the 
king,  and  exercised  through  his  ministers.  The 
legislative  authority  is  exercised  by  the  king  in 
conjunction  with  a  senate  of  about  363  members 
in  1906  (composed  of  the  princes  of  the  royal 
house  who  are  of  age,  and  of  an  unlimited  num- 
ber of  members  selected  by  the  ministry  and 
nominated  by  the  king  for  life,  who  have  ren- 
dered eminent  services  to  the  country,  are 
upwards  of  forty  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes  to 
an  annual  amount  of  $600);  and  a  chamber  of 
508  deputies,  elected  by  conditional  universal 
suffrage  for  a  period  of  five  years,  though  the 
king  can  dissolve  the  chamber  at  any  time.  All 
money  bills  must  be  initiated  in  the  chamber. 
Senators  and  deputies  are  unpaid,  but  travel 
free. 

Japan.  The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of 
the  Archipelago  of  Niphon,  which  includes  the 
four  large  islands  of  Honshiu,  Kiushiu,  Shikoku, 
and  Hokkaido,  together  with  Formosa  and  the 
Pescadores,  ceded  by  China  in  1895,  and  nearly 
4,000  smaller  islands.  Although  Japan  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  absolute  monarchies  of 
the  world,  it  possesses  a  Constitution  which 
was  adopted  in  1889.  It  provides  that  the 
Emperor  shall  be  the  head  of  the  empire,  with 
all  the  rights  of  the  sovereign  and  exercising 
full  executive  power,  with  the  advice  and 
assistance  of  the  Cabinet  Ministers  who  are 
appointed  by  Himself.  There  is  also  a  Privy 
Council  and  a  House  of  Diet,  consisting  of 
two  branches,  a  House  of  Peers,  and  a  House 
of  Representatives.  The  House  of  Peers  is 
composed  of  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
counts,  viscounts,  and  barons,  and  an  indefinite 
number  of  persons  appointed  by  the  Emperor 
for  meritorious  service  to  the  state  or  for  erudi- 
tion, and  persons  elected  by  each  Fu  and  Ken. 
The  total  membership  of  the  House  of  Peers  is 
364.  According  to  the  Constitution  the  mem-  [ 
bership  of  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
be  369,  a  fixed  number  being  returned  from  each 
electoral  district.  Voting  is  by  secret  ballot 
and  the  proportion  of  members  to  the  popula- 
tion is  one  to  each  126,000.  Under  the  Consti- 
tution absolute  freedom  of  religious  belief  and 
practice  is  assured  so  long  as  it  does  not 
interfere  with  general  peace  and  order.  There 
is  no  state  religion,  but  the  mass  of  the  people 
follow  one  of  the  eleven  sects  of  Shintoism,  or 
one  of  the  sixteen  sects  and  twenty-five  creeds 
of  Buddhism.  The  present  Mikado  is  Mutsuhito, 
who  was  born  at  Kyoto  on  November  3,  1852. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Komei  Tenno,  Febru- 
ary 13,  1867,  and  was  married  to  Princess 
Haruko,  the  daughter  of  Prince  Ichijo,  on  Feb- 
ruary 9,  1869.  She  was  born  May  28,  1850,  and 
their  issue  has  been:  Prince  Yoshihito,  Prince 
Hirohito,  Prince  Yasuhito,  Princess  Masako, 
Princess  Fusako,  Princess  Nobuko,  Princess 
Toshiko. 

The  Heir  Apparent. —  The  Imperial  House 
law,  which  was  passed  February  11,  1889, 
definitely  fixes  the  succession  to  the  throne 
upon  the  next  male  descendant  of  the  sovereign. 
As  the  result.  Prince  Yoshihito,  the  oldest  son  of 
the  Mikado,  is  the  heir  apparent.     He  was  born 


August  31,  1879,  and  was  proclaimed  Kotaishi, 
or  Crown  Prince,  November  3,  1889.  On  May 
10,  1900,  he  was  married  to  Princess  Sadako, 
the  daughter  of  Prince  Kujo.  They  have  had 
two  children. 

The  Ministry. —  The  Ministry,  or  Cabinet, 
comprises  the  following  departments:  President 
or  Premier;  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Minister 
of  Finance,  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Minister  of 
Justice,  Minister  of  War,  Minister  of  the  Navy, 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture and  Commerce,  Minister  of  Communica- 
tions. 

Kansas.  Successive  Constitutions  were 
framed  in  1857,  1858,  1859,  and  1861,  the  last 
of  which,  amended  nine  times  up  to  1897,  is  still 
in  force.  Amendments,  proposed  in  either  House 
of  the  Legislature,  and  agreed  to  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  each  House,  are  submitted  to  the 
people,  and,  if  approved  by  a  majority  of  those 
who  vote,  become  part  of  the  Constitution.  The 
Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty  members, 
elected  for  four  years,  half  their  number  retiring 
every  two  years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  125  members,  elected  for  two  years.  Any  bill 
may  originate  in  either  House.  The  Senate  tries 
cages  of  impeachment  brought  by  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Legislators  must  be  voters, 
resident  in  the  county  for  which  they  are  elected. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the 
governor,  elected  for  two  years.  He  has  the 
power  usually  invested  in  State  governors, 
including  authority  to  call  special  sessions  of  the 
Legislature,  a  limited  pardoning  power  and  a 
veto  which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  each  House.  Other  officials  elected 
for  two  years  are  the  lieutenant-governor, 
auditor,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  and  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction. 

Kentucky.  The  Constitution  adopted  in 
the  year  1799  was  succeeded  by  other  Constitu- 
tions in  1850  and  1891,  that  of  1891  being  still 
in  force.  Amendments  of  the  Constitution,  pro- 
posed in  either  House  of  the  Legislature  and 
agreed  to  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  all  the  members 
of  each  House,  are  submitted  to  the  popular  vote 
and,  if  then  approved,  become  part  of  the  Con- 
stitution. The  Legislature,  known  as  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty- 
eight  members  elected  for  four  years,  one-half 
retiring  every  two  years,  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  100  members  elected  for  two  years. 
Bills  for  raising  money  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  In  order  to  become 
law  any  bill  at  its  final  passage  must  have  a 
majority  voting  for  it  not  less  than  two-fifths 
of  the  members  elected  to  each  House.  The 
House  of  Representatives  can  impeach;  the 
Senate  tries  impeachments.  Eligible  to  the 
Senate  are  all  citizens  30  years  of  age  who  have 
resided  in  the  State  six  years  and  in  the  district 
one  year  next  before  the  election.  Representa- 
tives must  be  24  years  of  age  and  must  have 
resided  in  the  State  two  years,  and  in  the  county 
or  district  one  year  next  before  election.  The 
chief  executive  authority  resides  in  the  governor, 
elected  for  four  years.  He  has  the  powers  usually 
vested  in  State  governors,  including  a  veto 
which  may  be  overridden  by  a  majority  of  all 
the    members    elected    to    each   House.   Other 


608 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


officials  elected  for  four  years  are  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  treasurer,  auditor,  attorney-general, 
and  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Liberia  is  a  negro  Republic  on  the  coast  of 
West  Africa.     Founded  in   1822,  by  American 

fhilanthropists  for  the  settlement  of  freed  slaves, 
t  was  declared  independent  in  1847,  was 
recognized  as  a  sovereign  state  by  Great 
Britain  in  1848,  and  by  the  United  States  in 
1862.  The  Constitution  is  on  the  model  of  that 
of  the  United  States.  The  President  is  elected 
for  four  years,  the  House  of  Representatives 
(fourteen  members)  for  two  years,  and  the 
Senate  (nine  members)  for  six.  The  Liberian 
Development  Chartered  Company  (British)  in 
1906,  advanced  £100,000  to  the  government, 
with  which  a  government  bank  was  founded, 
roads  were  built,  other  public  works  were 
commenced,  and  a  military  constabulary  force 
was  established.  In  addition  two  British 
officials  were  appointed  to  reorganize  the  cus- 
toms service  and  the  country's  finance. 

Louisiana.  The  Constitution  of  1812  was 
succeeded  by  those  of  1845,  1852,  1864,  1868, 
1879,  and  1898;  the  last-named  was  amended  in 
1900,  in  1902,  and  in  1904,  and  is  still  in  force. 
Amendments  proposed  in  the  General  Assembly 
and  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House 
are  submitted  to  the  popular  vote  for  ratification. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty-one 
members  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  115 
members.  Senators  and  Representatives  being 
chosen  for  four  years.  The  powers  of  the  two 
Houses  are  similar,  but  bills  for  raising  money 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  the  Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment 
brought  by  the  other  House.  Senators  must  be 
at  least  25  and  Representatives  21  years  of  age; 
both  must  have  been  citizens  of  the  State  for 
five  years  and  residents  in  the  State  for  two 
years  next  before  their  election.  The  chief 
executive  officer  is  the  governor,  who  is  elected 
for  four  years,  and  has  the  powers  usually 
entrusted  to  State  governors,  including  the 
limited  veto.  Other  officials  elected  for  four 
years  are  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  treasurer, 
the  secretary  of  state,  the  auditor,  the  attorney- 
general,  and  the  superintendent  of  education. 

Maine.  The  first  Constitution  of  Maine, 
adopted  in  1819,  was  frequently  altered  by 
amendments,  which,  to  the  number  of  twenty- 
one,  were  in  1876  incorporated  in  the  document. 
Between  1876  and  1898  nine  amendments  were 
adopted.  Proposed  amendments,  passed  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  both  Houses  of  the  Legis- 
lature, are  submitted  to  the  voters  at  the  next 
election,  and,  if  then  passed  by  a  majority  of 
those  voting,  they  become  part  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. For  extensive  revision  a  constitutional 
convention  may  be,  but  never  has  been,  called 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  Houses  of  the  Legis- 
lature. The  Constitution  provides  for  a  Legis- 
lature of  two  Houses,  the  Senate,  consisting  of 
thirty-one  members,  and  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives with  151  members,  both  Houses  being 
elected  at  the  same  time  for  two  years.  Senators 
are  elected  in  districts  formed  of  groups  of  towns, 
and  Representatives  are  chosen  by  cities,  towns, 
and  plantations  according  to  population. 
Senators    must    be    25    and     Representatives 


21  years  of  age;  members  of  both  Houses 
must  be  citizens  of  the  United  States,  resident 
in  Maine  for  one  year,  and  in  the  district  or 
town  for  three  months  before  the  election.  But 
no  member  of  Congress,  no  office  holder  of  the 
Federal  Government,  except  a  postmaster,  no 
paid  officer  of  the  State,  except  justices  of  the 
peace,  notaries  public,  coroners,  and  militia  of- 
ficers, may  sit  in  either  House.  The  powers  of 
the  two  Houses  are  similar,  but  money  bills 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  chief  executive  authority  resides  in  the 
governor,  who  is  elected  for  two  years  by  popular 
vote.  He  must  be  30  years  of  age,  born  in 
the  United  States,  resident  in  the  State  for  five 
years  next  before  election,  and  he  may  not  hold 
any  other  office,  either  under  the  United  States 
or  under  the  State  of  Maine.  He  recommends 
legislative  measures,  and  has  a  veto  which  lapses 
if  unused  for  five  days,  and  which  may  be  over- 
ridden by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House.  He 
is  commander-in-chief  of  the  military  forces 
and  he  along  with  the  council,  appoints  many 
State  officers.  He  may  grant  pardons,  etc.,  but 
has  to  report  to  the  Legislature  on  each  case  of 
his  exercise  of  this  power.  The  governor  has 
an  advisory  council  consisting  of  seven  members 
chosen  every  two  years  by  joint  ballot  of  Sena- 
tors and  Representatives.  The  council's  advice 
and  consent  are  required  for  appointments,  and 
its  warrant  for  payment  of  money  from  the 
treasury.  The  secretary  of  state,  treasurer, 
and  attorney-general  are  appointed  by  joint 
ballot  of  the  Legislature.  Other  officers  are  the 
superintendent  of  schools,  various  commissioners 
(for  labor  statistics,  insurance,  land,  etc.),  and 
also  boards  and  commissions  for  State  institu- 
tions, railways,  assessment,  health,  fisheries,  etc. 
For  local  government  the  State  is  divided  into 
sixteen  counties,  subdivided  into  towns,  cities, 
plantations,  and  various  unincorporated  places. 
Counties  are  administered  by  boards  of  com- 
missioners elected  for  six  years,  one  commis- 
sioner retiring  every  year.  These  boards  have 
elective  officers  and  supervise  county  finance, 
property,  jails,  roads,  etc. 

Maryland.  The  first  Constitution  of 
Maryland  was  succeeded  by  others  in  1857,  1864, 
and  1867,  that  of  1867,  amended  ten  times  (last 
in  1901),  being  still  in  force.  Amendments 
proposed  in  the  General  Assembly  must  obtain 
a  three-fifths  vote  of  all  the  members  elected  to 
each  House;  they  must  then  be  submitted  to 
the  people,  and,  if  approved  by  a  majority  of 
those  voting,  they  become  part  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Delegates,  the  two  bodies  together 
being  known  as  the  General  Assembly.  There 
are  twenty-seven  Senators  and  101  Delegates. 
The  Senators  serve  for  four  years,  and  the  Senate 
is  renewed  to  the  extent  of  half  every  two  years. 
The  Delegates  are  elected  for  two  years.  Sena- 
tors must  be  25  years  of  age,  and 
Delegates  21.  Clergy,  members  of  Congress, 
and  federal  officials  are  ineligible  for  either 
Senate  or  House  of  Delegates.  No  person  is  eli- 
gible who  has  not  lived  in  the  State  three  years 
next  preceding  election.  Any  bill  may  originate 
in  either  House  and  be  altered,  amended,  or  re- 
jected by  the  other.     The  House  of  Delegates 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


609 


has  sole  power  of  impeachment,  and  impeach- 
ment cases  are  tried  by  Senate.  The  highest 
officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor,  elected 
for  four  years.  He  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  State  militia,  and,  with  consent  of 
Senate,  appoints  all  civil  and  military  officers  of 
State  whose  appointment  or  election  is  not 
otherwise  provided  for  by  law.  He  may  remove 
for  incompetency  or  misconduct  civil  officers 
who  received  appointment  from  the  executive 
for  a  term  of  years.  He  may  convene  the  Legis- 
lature or  Senate  alone  for  special'  sessions.  He 
has  a  veto  which  may  be  overcome  by  a  three- 
fifths  vote  of  the  members  elected  to  both  Houses. 
He  may  grant  pardons  and  reprieves  except  in 
cases  of  impeachment,  but  must  report  his  action 
to  the  Legislature  whenever  required.  Other 
officers  are  the  secretary  of  state,  treasurer, 
the  comptroller,  the  adjutant-general,  the 
attorney-general,  and  the  superintendent  of 
education.  The  State  is  divided  into  twenty- 
four  counties. 

Massachusetts.  The  first  Constitution 
of  the  State,  after  having  been  submitted  to  and 
accepted  by  the  people,  was  formally  adopted 
at  a  Convention  held  at  Boston  on  June  15,  1780. 
It  has  been  amended  from  time  to  time,  the 
earliest  amendments  having  been  made  in  1821 
and  the  most  recent  in  1894.  The  Constitution 
provides  for  a  legislative  body  consisting  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  styled 
collectively  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts. 
The  Senate  consists  of  forty  members  elected 
annually  by  popular  vote,  the  State  being  di- 
vided into  forty  senatorial  districts,  each  of 
which  returns  one  Senator.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives consists  of  240  members,  elected  in 
164  districts,  each  of  which  returns  one,  two,  or 
three  representatives,  according  to  population. 
There  is  an  annual  session  of  the  Legislature 
and  special  sessions  may  be  called  by  the  gov- 
ernor in  case  of  exigency.  Money  bills  must 
originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
but  may  be  amended  in  the  Senate.  If  the  sub- 
jects under  consideration  are  of  public  interest, 
hearings  are  advertised  and  the  people  have  a 
right  to  appear  and  speak  in  support  of  or 
against  the  passing  of  certain  laws.  Amend- 
ments of  the  Constitution  must  be  proposed 
in  the  General  Court,  and  agreed  to  by  a 
majority  of  the  Senate  and  two-thirds  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  present  and  voting 
thereon;  they  must  be  referred  to  the  General 
Court  next  elected,  and  if  then  agreed  to  by 
similar  majorities,  they  are  submitted  to  the 
people,  and,  if  approved  and  ratified  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  qualified  voters  voting  thereon  at 
meetings  legally  held  for  the  purpose,  they  be- 
come part  of  the  Constitution.  The  executive 
power  of  the  State  resides  in  the  governor, 
assisted  by  a  council.  He  is  chosen  by  popu- 
lar vote  and  holds  office  for  one  year,  but 
no  one  is  eligible  who  has  not  resided  within 
the  State  for  the  seven  years  last  past.  He 
has  power  to  adjourn  or  prorogue  (for  not 
more  than  ninety  days),  or  to  summon  the  Gen- 
eral Court.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
State's  army  and  navy.  He  may,  with  the  ad- 
vice of  his  council,  pardon  convicted  offenders, 
but  not  those  convicted  before  the  Senate  on 


impeachment  by  the  House.  He  appoints  (with 
the  consent  of  his  council)  the  judges,  the  so- 
licitor-general, and  many  other  officials,  and 
he  has  general  supervision  of  the  administration 
of  affairs  in  the  State.  The  council  with  which 
he  atts  consists  of  eight  councillors  elected  by 
popular  vote  in  the  eight  districts  into  which 
the  State  is,  for  this  purpose,  divided.  The 
lieutenant-governor,  who  becomes  acting  gov- 
ernor in  case  of  the  death  of  the  governor,  or 
of  his  absence  from  the  State,  is  similarly  elected 
by  the  people,  and  holds  office  for  one  year. 
The  secretary  of  the  commonwealth  is  also 
elected  by  the  people  for  one  year.  Other  of- 
ficials elected  by  the  people  for  a  year  are  the 
treasurer  and  receiver-general,  who  is  ineligible 
for  more  than  five  successive  years  of  office; 
the  State  auditor,  and  the  attorney-general. 
There  are  fourteen  counties  in  the  State, 
thirty- three  cities  and  321  towns.  The  cities  are 
granted  charters  by  the  State  Legislature.  The 
mayor  is  the  executive  officer  in  each  city,  and 
the  legislative  bodies  are  usually  a  board  of  alder- 
men and  a  common  council.  The  counties  are 
administered  by  officers  styled  the  county  com- 
missioners. 

Mexico.  Under  the  present  Constitution, 
which  bears  date  of  February  5,  1857,  Mexico 
is  a  federative  Republic.  It  was  originally  di- 
vided into  nineteen  States,  but  at  this  time  there 
are  twenty-seven,  with  two  Territories,  and  the 
Federal  District,  and,  while  each  manages  its 
own  local  affairs,  they  are  bound  together  as  an 
inseparable  body  by  the  constitutional  laws. 
The  form  of  government  in  Mexico  is  broadly 
similar  to  that  of  the  United  States,  the  execu- 
tive vesting  in  a  President,  who  is  elected  for  a 
term  of  six  years,  and  who  is  assisted  by  a  Cabi- 
net, while  the  legislative  power  is  conferred  upon 
a  Congress,  which  is  composed  of  two  Houses  — 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
President  may  serve  any  number  of  terms,  and 
the  present  Executive,  General  G.  Porfirio  Diaz, 
is  now  in  his  eighth  term,  as  he  had  already 
served  six  four-year  terms  when  he  was  inaugu- 
rated December  11,  1904.  Under  the  direction 
of  the  President  and  a  Council,  the  administra- 
tion is  carried  on  by  the  Secretaries  of  State  in 
charge  of  the  following  portfolios:  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, Interior,  Justice  and  Public  Instruction, 
Agriculture  and  Colonization,  Finance,  Communi- 
cations and  Public  Works,  War  and  Navy.  The 
Senate  consists  of  fifty-six  members,  two  from 
each  State,  who  must  be  at  least  30  years 
of  age.  They  are  elected  by  the  ballots  of 
all  respectable  males  and  serve  for  a  term  of  two 
years.  Representatives  must  be  25  years 
of  age.  They  are  elected  for  an  equal  term 
with  the  Senators  and  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
President  is  elected  by  electors  popularly  chosen 
at  a  general  election.  There  is  no  state  religion 
in  Mexico,  and  all  religious  sects  are  equal 
before  the  law.  The  prevailing  religion,  of 
course,  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  no  ecclesiastical 
body  can  own  realty,  and  since  1863,  when  all 
the  churches  were  closed  and  the  lands  confis- 
cated, many  of  the  buildings  have  been  assigned 
to  serve  as  hospitals,  schools,  etc.  The  judicial 
power  in  Mexico  is  entirely  distinct  from  that 
of  the  executive.     It  includes  a  Supreme  Court, 


610 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


consisting  of  fifteen  judges,  who  are  chosen  for 
a  term  of  six  years ;  Circuit  Courts,  with  three 
judges,  and  District  Courts,  with  thirty-two 
judges.  The  chief  sources  of  Mexican  revenue 
are  the  internal  taxation  and  the  customs,  less 
than  fifteen  per  cent,  being  obtained  from 'other 
sources. 

Michigan.  Its  first  Constitution  was 
framed  and  adopted  in  1835,  and  Congress  passed 
the  Act  admitting  it  into  the  Union  as  a  State 
on  January  26,  1837.  In  1850  a  new  Constitu- 
tion was  adopted  which  with  little  alteration 
is  still  in  force.  The  legislative  authority  is 
vested  in  a  Senate  of  thirty-two  members  elected 
by  the  counties  or  groups  of  counties  for  two 
years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  from 
sixty-four  to  100  members,  the  electoral  districts 
being  rearranged  according  to  population  every 
five  years.  Senators  and  Representatives  must 
be  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  qualified 
electors  of  the  districts  for  which  they  are  chosen. 
Any  bill  may  originate  in  either  House.  The 
Constitution  was  amended  in  1870,  1875,  1887, 
and  1904.  Amendments  may  be  proposed  in 
either  House;  if  approved  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House  they  are  submitted  for  the 
approval  of  the  people  in  manner  prescribed, 
and,  if  this  approval  be  given,  the  amendments 
become  part  of  the  Constitution.  For  a  com- 
plete or  extensive  revision  a  Convention  is  re- 
quired and  the  question  is  submitted  to  the 
electors.  If  the  majority  of  those  who  vote  are 
on  the  affirmative  side,  the  Legislature  makes 
provision  for  a  Convention.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  the  governor,  elected  for  two 
years.  He  has  the  powers  usually  entrusted  to 
State  governors,  including  a  limited  veto,  and 
he  makes  administrative  appointments,  many  of 
which  require  the  approval  of  the  Senate.  The 
secretary  of  state,  State  treasurer,  auditor- 
general,  and  attorney-general  are  elected  by 
popular  vote.  The  heutenant-governor,  elected 
for  two  years,  presides  over  the  Senate,  and  in 
case  of  the  death,  absence,  or  default  of  the 
governor,  succeeds  to  the  governor's  authority. 
For  local  government  the  State  is  organized 
in  counties,  cities,  towns,  and  villages.  There 
are  eighty-five  counties,  each  of  which  is  a  cor- 
porate body  with  a  board  of  supervisors  as  its 
administrative  authority.  Cities  must  have  each 
a  population  of  not  less  than  3,000,  but  a  few 
which  have  been  long  incorporated  have  a 
smaller  population.  Cities  are  classified  into 
four  groups,  according  to  population,  and  are 
divided  into  three  or  more  wards. 

Minnesota.  The  State  Legislature  con- 
sists of  a  Senate  of  sixty-three  members,  one 
being  elected  in  each  of  tne  legislative  districts, 
and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  119  mem- 
bers elected  in  the  same  districts  in  numbers 
Proportioned  to  population.  Eligible  for  either 
Louse  are  all  male  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
21  years  of  age,  who  have  resided  one  year 
in  the  State  and  six  months  in  the  district 
just  before  election;  but  no  office-holder  under 
the  Federal  or  State  government,  except  a  post- 
master, may  belong  to  either  House.  The  two 
Houses  have  similar  powers,  but  money  bills 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
No  special  laws  relating   to  personal  or  local 


affairs  or  corporations  can  be  enacted.  The 
House  of  Representatives  can  impeach  State 
officers  before  the  Senate,  which  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  members  present  may  convict  and 
deprive  of  office.  Some  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  Constitution,  chiefly,  as  in  1896 
and  1898,  affecting  the  regulations  for  local 
organization.  Amendments  proposed  in  either 
House  and  supported  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
each  and  subsequently  approved  by  the  people 
in  manner  prescribed,  become  part  of  the  Consti- 
tution. For  an  extensive  revision,  the  proposal, 
after  being  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
each  House,  must  be  submitted  to  the  electors; 
if  approved,  the  Legislature  provides  for  the  hold- 
ing of  a  convention ;  delegates  are  elected,  meet 
together,  and  make  the  revision  which  is  then 
referred  to  the  people  and,  if  approved,  becomes 
law.  The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  is 
the  governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for 
two  years.  He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  25  years  of  age,  and  resident  in  the 
State  for  one  year  before  election.  In  legis- 
lation he  has  a  limited  veto  and  other  powers 
usually  entrusted  to  State  governors.  The 
lieutenant-governor  presides  over  the  Senate 
and,  on  the  death  or  absence  of  the  governor, 
he  acts  as  governor.  The  secretary  of  state 
is  elected  for  two  years;  the  auditor  (elected 
for  four  years)  audits  State  accounts  and  super- 
intends State  lands;  the  treasurer  and  attor- 
ney are  elected  for  two  years.  Several  important 
officials,  boards,  and  commissioners,  with  duties 
relating  to  health,  equalization,  charities,  insur- 
ance, railways,  etc.,  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor. The  State  is  organized  in  counties  (usually 
under  special  acts),  and  in  townships,  villages, 
and  cities  (usually  under  general  acts).  There 
are  eighty-two  counties. 

Mississippi.  The  Constitution  of  1817 
was  followed  by  others  in  1832,  1868,  and  1890. 
Proposed  amendments  of  the  Constitution  ap- 
proved by  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  each 
House  voting  on  them  on  three  separate  days, 
and  ratified  by  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors 
voting  on  them,  become  part  of  the  Constitution. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Representatives,  both  elected  for  four 
years.  Ordinary  sessions,  unrestricted  in  length, 
are  held  once  in  four  years.  Special  sessions, 
limited  to  thirty  days,  unless  extended  by  proc- 
lamation by  the  governor,  are  held  alternately 
with  regular  sessions,  so  that  the  Legislature  in 
fact  meets  biennially.  Bills  for  raising  revenue 
and  bills  providing  for  assessment  of  property 
must  be  approved  by  three-fifths  of  the  mem- 
bers of  eacii  House  present  and  voting.  The 
chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the 
governor,  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is 
not  eligible  for  the  succeeding  term.  He  has  a 
limited  veto,  and  the  other  powers  usually 
vested  in  State  governors.  Other  officials 
elected  for  four  years  are  the  secretary  of 
state,  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  treasurer, 
and  the  auditor.  Neither  treasurer  nor  auditor 
is  eligible  for  the  succeeding  term,  nor  can  the 
one  succeed  the  other.  Mississippi  is  divided 
into  seventy-six  counties. 

Missouri.  The  original  Constitution, 
adopted  in  1820,  was  followed  by  those  of  1865 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


611 


and  1875,  the  latter  of  which,  as  amended  in 
1884,  1890,  1900,  and  1902,  is  still  in  force. 
Amendments  proposed  in  either  House  of  the 
Legislature,  and  supported  by  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  each,  are  submitted  to  the  popular 
vote  and,  if  approved,  become  part  of  the  Con- 
stitution. The  Legislature,  called  the  General 
Assembly,  consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty-four 
members  elected  for  four  years  (half  their  num- 
ber retiring  every  two  years),  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  142  members  elected  for  two 
years.  Any  bill  may  originate  in  either  House. 
The  Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment  brought 
by  the  House  of  Representatives.  Senators 
must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age,  electors  in 
the  State  three  years  and  resident  in  the  district 
one  year  next  before  election.  Representatives 
must  be  24  years  of  age,  citizens,  electors 
in  the  State  two  years,  and  resident  in  the 
county  or  district  one  year  next  before  election. 
The  chief  executive  official  is  the  governor, 
who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  possesses  the 
powers  usually  entrusted  to  State  governors, 
including  a  limited  pardoning  power  and  a  veto 
which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds  ma- 
jority of  all  the  members  of  each  House.  Other 
State  officials  are  the  secretary  of  state,  lieu- 
tenant-governor, auditor,  treasurer,  attorney- 
general,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, all  elected  for  four  years.  The  retiring 
governor  and  treasurer  are  not  eligible  for  the 
succeeding  term.  The  State  is  divided  into 
115  counties. 

Monaco.  Monaco  is  a  small  Principality 
in  the  Mediterranean,  surrounded  by  the  French 
Department  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  excepting  on 
the  side  towards  the  sea.  From  968  it  belonged 
to  the  House  of  Grimaldi.  In  1715,  it  passed 
into  the  female  line,  Louise  Hippolyte,  daughter 
of  Antony  I.,  heiress  of  Monaco,  marrying 
Jacques  de  Goyon  Matignon,  Count  of  Thorigny, 
who  took  the  name  and  arms  of  Grimaldi. 
Antony  I.  died  in  1731,  Louise  Hippolyte  reign- 
ing only  ten  months  and  dying  in  1732.  She 
was  succeeded  by  her  husband  under  the  name 
of  Jacques  I.,  who  also  succeeded  Antony  I.  as 
Due  di  Valentinois,  who  was  in  his  turn  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Honorius  III.  This  prince 
was  dispossessed  by  the  French  Revolution  in 
1792,  and  died  in  1795.  In  1814,  the  Principality 
was  reestablished,  but  placed  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  by  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna  (1815).  In  1848,  Mentone  and  Ro- 
quebrune  revolted,  and  declared  themselves 
free  towns;  in  1861,  Charles  III.  ceded  his 
rights  over  them  to  France,  and  the  Princi- 
pality thus  became  geographically  an  enclave 
of  France,  when  the  Sardinian  garrison  was  with  - 
drawn  and  the  protectorate  came  to  an  end. 
The  Prince  is  an  absolute  ruler,  there  being  no 
elective  representation  within  the  Principality. 
The  administration  is  entrusted  to  a  Governor- 
General  with  a  Secretary-General  and  a  Secretary 
of  State.  There  is  a  consultative  State  Council 
of  five  members  appointed  by  the  Prince. 
Municipal  administration .  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
maire  and  two  assistants  with  a  Commission  of 
five  members,  all  appointed  by  the  Prince. 
In  1819,  the  Government  adopted  the  French 
Codes  and  a  Court  of  First  Instance,  as  well  as 


a  Judge  de  Paix's  Court.  A  Court  of  Appeals  is 
constituted  by  the  Prince's  appointment  of  two 
Paris  judges  who  act  as  such  when  necessary. 
The  Principality  has  its  own  coinage,  which  is 
current  since  1876  in  all  the  States  of  the  Latin 
Union;  it  also  issues  its  own  separate  postage- 
stamps. 

Montana  adopted  its  first  and  present  Con- 
stitution in  1889.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives, 
which  meet  in  regular  session  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  January  in  each  odd-numbered  year. 
There  are  twenty-six  Senators,  elected  for  four 
years  in  such  a  manner  that  the  Senate  is  renewed 
to  the  extent  of  one-half  at  each  biennial  election. 
The  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
seventy-two  in  number,  are  elected  for  two  years. 
Elective  State  officials  are  the  governor,  lieu- 
tenant-governor, secretary  of  state,  State  treas- 
urer, attorney-general.  State  auditor,  and 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  The  gov- 
ernor has  the  right  of  appointment  to  various 
offices,  including  those  of  State  land  agent, 
commissioner  of  the  bureau  of  agriculture, 
labor  and  industry,  and  inspector  of  mines. 
For  local  administrative  purposes  the  State  is 
divided  into  twenty-six  counties,  and  into  twelve 
judicial  districts. 

Montenegro.  Under  the  Constitution 
granted  by  the  Prince  of  Montenegro  on  Decem- 
ber 19,  1905,  the  form  of  government  has  been 
changed.  It  is  now  an  hereditary  Constitutional 
monarchy  with  popular  representation,  In  1910 
the  Prince  assumed  the  title  of  King.  A 
National  Assembly  or  Skupshtina  was  convoked 
for  a  short  term  in  1905  to  receive  communica- 
tion of  the  Constitution.  An  electoral  law  has 
been  framed  under  which  elections  took  place  in 
September,  1906,  for  the  present  Skupshtina. 
That  assembly  is  now  convoked  yearly,  on  Octo- 
ber 31st,  by  the  King.  Its  members  are  elected 
by  universal  suffrage  for  a  period  of  four  years. 
Each  of  the  fifty-six  districts  or  capitanats  of 
Montenegro,  and  each  of  the  six  provincial  towns, 
Cettinje,  Podgoritza,  Niksic,  Kolashin,  Antivari, 
and  Dulcigno,  elect  one  representative.  There 
are  also  twelve  ex-officio  members,  including  the 
Montenegrin  Orthodox  Metropolitan,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishop  of  Antivari,  the  Montegrin 
Mussulman  Mufti,  six  high  officials  of  the  state, 
and  three  generals,  nominated  by  the  King. 
There  are  thus  seventy-four  members  in  all. 
Besides  the  Prime  Minister,  there  are  Ministries 
of  the  Interior,  Justice,  Agriculture,  War, 
Foreign  Affairs,  Finance  and  Public  Works,  Wor- 
ship and  PubUc  Instruction. 

Morocco.  The  form  of  government  of  the 
Sultanate,  or  Empire  of  Morocco,  is  in  reality 
an  absolute  despotism,  unrestricted  by  any  laws, 
civil  or  religious.  The  Sultan  is  chief  of  the 
state,  as  well  as  head  of  the  religion.  As  spirit- 
ual ruler,  the  Sultan  stands  quite  alone,  his 
authority  not  being  limited,  as  in  Turkey  and 
other  countries  following  the  religion  of  Mo- 
hammed, by  the  expounders  of  the  Koran,  the 
class  of  "Ulema,"  under  the  "  Sheik-ul-Islam." 
The  Sultan  has  six  ministers,  whom  he  consults 
if  he  deems  it  prudent  to  do  so;  otherwise  they 
are  merely  the  executive  of  his  unrestricted  will. 
They  are  the  Grand  Vizier,  the  Ministers  for 


612 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Foreign  Affairs,  Home  Affairs,  and  War,  Chief 
Chamberlain,  Chief  Treasurer,  and  Chief  Admin- 
istrator of  Customs.  Tlie  unsettled  condition  of 
affairs  in  Morocco  rendered  it  necessary  that 
other  countries  interested  should  come  to  an 
understanding  regarding  their  respective  rights. 
By  the  Anglo-French  Convention  of  April,  1904, 
Great  Britain  recognizes  that  it  appertains  to 
France  to  assist  in  the  administrative,  economic, 
financial,  and  military  forms  in  Morocco,  but 
reserves  the  rights  which  by  treaties  or  usage 
she  now  enjoys.  Both  governments  agree  not 
to  allow  fortifications  on  the  Moorish  coast 
between  Melilla  and  the  heights  dominating 
the  right  bank  of  the  Sebu,  but  this  arrangement 
does  not  apply  to  points  held  by  Spain  on  that 
coast.  Neither  government  will  lend  itself  to  any 
inequality  in  taxation  or  railway  rates,  and 
reciprocal  engagements  with  respect  to  trade 
are  to  last  for  thirty  years  with  prolongation 
for  periods  of  five  years,  failing  denunciation 
a  year  in  advance.  Roads,  railways,  harbor 
works,  etc.,  are  to  remain  under  State  control. 
These  arrangemeftts  were  accepted  also  by 
Spain  in  a  Franco-Spanish  convention.  Ger- 
many, however,  expressed  dissatisfaction  with 
this  arrangement,  and  a  conference  of  thirteen 
delegates,  representing  Morocco,  the  European 
Powers  interested,  and  the  United  States  of 
America,  was  held  at  Algeciras  for  the  settle- 
ment of  disputed  matters,  from  January  16th 
to  April  7,  1906,  when  an  agreement,  em- 
bodied in  a  General  Act,  was  signed  by  all 
the  delegates.  The  Sultan  signed  the  agree- 
ment on  June  18th,  and  ratifications  of  the 
agreement  were  deposited  at  Madrid  by  the 
other  powers,  December  31,  1906.  Under  this 
agreement  there  will  be  a  Moorish  police  force 
commanded  by  Moorish  Kaids,  assisted  by 
French  and  Spanish  instructors  and  officers, 
and  the  force  will  be  inspected  by  a  Swiss  In- 
spector-General, the  arrangement  to  continue 
for  five  years.  The  force  will  be  from  2,000  to 
2,500  strong,  and  will  be  distributed  among  the 
eight  ports  of  Morocco.  A  state  bank  is  to  be 
instituted  with  a  concession  for  forty  years.  It 
will,  to  begin  with,  have  a  capital  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  million  francs ;  it  will  issue  bank  notes, 
will  act  as  Treasurer  and  Paymaster  of  Morocco, 
and  be  the  financial  agent  of  the  government 
at  home  and  abroad.  It  will  be  required  to 
rehabilitate  the  currency.  Its  working  will  be 
observed,  but  not  directed,  by  four  censors  ap- 
pointed by  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Germany,  the 
Bank  of  England,  the  Bank  of  Spain,  and  the 
Bank  of  France.  Other  provisions  deal  with  the 
acquisition  of  land  by  foreigners,  the  imposition 
and  collection  of  taxes,  and  the  authority  of  the 
state  over  the  public  services  and  public 
works.  Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz,  born  February  24, 
1878,  son  of  Sultan  Mulai-Hassan ;  succeeded 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  being  proclaimed 
Sultan  in  the  Sherifian  Camp,  June  7,  1894;  his 
son,  Prince  Hassan,  was  born  July,  1899.  The 
present  Sultan  of  Morocco  —  known  to  his 
subjects  under  the  title  of  "  Emir-al-Mumenin," 
or  Prince  of  True  Believers  —  is  the  fifteenth 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Alides,  founded  by  Mulai- 
Ahmed,  and  the  thirty-sixth  lineal  descendant 
of  Ali,  uncle  and  son-in-law  of  the  Prophet. 


Nebraska.  The  first  Constitution,  adopted 
in  1867,  was  succeeded  in  1875  by  that  which  as 
amended  in  1886,  is  still  in  force.  Amendments 
proposed  in  either  House  of  the  Legislature,  agreed 
to  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  House,  and 
approved  by  a  majority  of  the  electors  voting  on 
them  at  a  general  election,  become  part  of  the 
Constitution.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Sen- 
ate of  thirty-three  members  and  a  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives of  100  members.  The  Legislators 
are  elected  for  two  years.  Money  bills  must 
originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment  brought  by 
the  other  House,  but  if  the  person  impeached  is 
a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  trial  takes 
place  before  a  court  of  impeachment  consisting 
of  tl)e  District  Court  judges.  Legislators  must 
be  citizens  resident  in  the  district  for  one  year 
next  preceding  election.  The  franchise  extends 
not  only  to  citizens  but  also  to  aliens  who,  thirty 
days  before  the  election,  have  declared  their 
intention  of  becoming  citizens.  The  chief  execu- 
tive officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor,  elected 
for  two  years.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  militia,  and,  with  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  appoints  to  various  offices,  and  may 
grant  pardons,  etc.  He  may  call  special  sessions 
of  the  Legislature,  and  he  has  a  veto  which  may 
be  overridden  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  each 
House.  Other  officials  elected  for  two  years, 
besides  those  named,  are  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, auditor,  treasurer,  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  attorney-general,  and  commissioner 
of  public  lands  and  buildings.  The  treasurer  is 
not  eligible  for  a  third  consecutive  term. 

Netherlands.  The  Constitution  of  1848, 
revised  in  1887,  vests  the  executive  in  the  sover- 
eign, and  the  legislative  authority  in  the  sovereign 
and  the  states-general,  the  latter  sitting  in  two 
chambers:  the  first,  consisting  of  fifty  members, 
elected  for  nine  years  (one-third  retiring  every 
three  years)  by  the  provincial  states  from  among 
the  most  highly-assessed  inhabitants  and  from 
among  a  number  of  specified  officials;  the  second 
of  100  members,  elected  for  four  years  by  all  male 
citizens  of  25  years  or  more  who  pay  a  direct  tax 
to  the  state,  or  are  householders  or  own  boats  of 
not  less  than  twenty-four  tons,  or  receive  a 
minimum  wage  or  salary  of  about  $115,  or  give 
other  evidence  of  their  ability  to  support  them- 
selves and  their  families.  The  government  and 
the  second  chamber  alone  possesses  the  initiative 
in  legislation;  the  upper  house  having  the  right 
of  approval  or  rejection,  but  not  of  amendment. 
Alterations  in  constitution  are  made  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  houses,  followed  by  a  general 
election,  and  confirmation  by  a  similar  vote  of 
the  new  states-general.  A  state  covmcil  of  four- 
teen members  appointed  by  the  sovereign  is 
consulted  on  all  legislative  and  on  most  executive 
matters, 

Nevada.  The  original  Constitution  adopt- 
ed in  1864,  is  in  force  as  amended  in  1880  and 
1889.  Amendments  proposed  in  and  approved 
by  the  Legislature  are  submitted  to  the  next 
Legislature  and  if  then  approved  are  referred  to 
the  people  for  ratification.  The  Legislature  con-j 
sists  of  a  Senate  of  seventeen  members  electedj 
for  four  years,  about  half  their  number  retiring! 
every  two  years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


613 


of  thirty-nine  members  elected  for  two  years. 
Any  bill  may  originate  in  either  house.  The 
Senate  tries  cases  of  impeachment  brought  by 
the  House  of  Representatives.  The  chief  execu- 
tive officer  is  the  governor,  elected  for  four  years. 
He  has  the  powers  and  duties  usually  entrusted 
to  State  governors,  except  that  he  has  not  par- 
doning power,  this  authority  being  vested  (apart 
from  impeachment  cases)  in  the  board  of  pardons 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  He  has  the  usual 
limited  veto.  Elective  officers  are  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor, secretary  of  state,  treasurer, 
comptroller,  surveyor-general,  and  attorney- 
general. 

New  Hampshire.  The  Constitution  of 
1783  was  amended  in  1792,  in  1852,  in  1889,  and 
in  1903.  The  sense  of  the  people  as  to  the  calling 
of  a  convention  for  the  revision  of  the  Constitu- 
tion must  be  taken  every  seven  years.  If  a  con- 
vention is  held  the  amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion which  it  proposes  must  be  laid  before  the 
towns,  and  approved  by  two-thirds  of  the 
qualified  voters  present  and  voting  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  State  Legislature,  consisting  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  meets 
once  in  two  years  and  remains  in  session  until 
prorogued  by  the  governor,  generally  about 
three  months.  The  Senate  consists  of  twenty- 
four  members,  elected  for  two  years.  It  cannot 
originate  money  bills.  Any  qualified  elector  is 
eligible  to  sit  in  the  Senate.  The  House  of 
Representatives  consists  of  from  390  to  400 
members,  the  number  varying  slightly  with  each 
session,  as  representation  is  on  the  basis  of  popu- 
lation. The  House  has  the  power  of  impeach- 
ment and  of  originating  money  bills.  The  gov- 
ernor is  chosen  by  popular  election,  and  holds 
office  for  two  years.  He  has  the  nomination  of 
all  judicial  officers,  the  attorney-general,  cor- 
oners, and  all  officers  of  the  navy  and  general 
and  field-officers  of  the  militia.  His  appoint- 
ments require  the  approval  of  the  council.  He 
has  the  other  powers  usually  entrusted  to  State 
governors,  including  a  limited  veto  and  limited 
pardoning  power.  The  secretary  of  state  is 
elected  by  joint  ballot  of  the  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives. The  other  important  State  officials 
are  the  state  treasurer,  adjutant-general,  and 
commissioners  of  labor,  immigration,  railroads, 
banks,  education,  health,  agriculture. 

New  Jersey.  The  Constitution  now  in 
force  was  ratified  on  August  13,  1844,  amended 
in  1875  and  in  1897.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  a  Senate  and  a. General  Assembly,  the 
members  of  which  are  chosen  by  the  people,  all 
male  citizens  (with  necessary  exceptions)  21 
years  of  age,  resident  in  the  State  for  a  year,  and 
in  the  county  for  five  months  preceding  the  elec- 
tion, having  the  right  of  suffrage.  The  Senate 
consists  of  twenty-one  Senators,  one  for  each 
county,  elected  by  the  voters  for  three  years,  in 
such  manner  that  the  Senate  is  renewed  to  the 
extent  of  one-third  annually.  Senators  must  be 
30  years  of  age,  and  must  have  resided,  just 
before  their  election,  four  years  in  New  Jersey, 
and  one  year  in  the  county  for  which  they  are 
elected.  The  General  Assembly  consists  of 
sixty  members  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  coun- 
ties in  numbers  proportioned  to  the  population 
of  the  counties  as  determined  by  the  decennial 


Federal  census.  Money  bills  must  originate  in 
the  Assembly,  but  the  Senate  may  propose 
amendments.  Every  bill  passed  by  both  Houses 
requires  the  assent  of  the  governor,  who  may 
within  five  days  remit  it  for  reconsideration  to 
the  House  in  which  it  originated ;  if  then  the  bill 
be  approved  by  a  majority  of  each  House  it 
becomes  law.  The  executive  of  the  State  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  elected  for  three  years  by 
the  legal  voters.  He  must  be  not  less  than  30 
years  of  age,  have  been  twenty  years  a  citizen 
and  seven  years  resident  in  the  State  imme- 
diately before  election.  He  is  not  eligible  for 
the  next  term  of  the  office.  His  duties  include 
the  military  command-in-chief,  the  summoning 
of  the  Legislature  when  necessary,  the  recom- 
mendation of  legislation,  the  granting  of  com- 
missions, and  the  supervision  of  the  execution  of 
the  laws.  The  State  secretary  is  appointed  for 
five  years  by  the  governor  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate.  The  treasurer  and  the 
comptroller  are  appointed  for  three  years  by  the 
Senate  and  General  Assembly  in  joint  session. 
_  New  Mexico.  Within  the  limits  as- 
signed by  the  organic  act,  legislative  authority 
is  vested  in  a  legislative  assembly,  consisting  of 
a  Council  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Council  has  twelve  members,  one  or  more  for 
each  of  nine  districts;  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives has  twenty-four  members  representing 
fifteen  districts,  the  members  for  each  house 
being  elected  for  two  years.  The  Legislature 
meets  for  sixty  days  once  in  two  years.  The 
United  States  Congress  may  annul  acts  passed 
by  the  Territorial  Legislature.  To  the  Federal 
Congress  the  Territory  sends  one  delegate,  who 
sits  and  may  speak  but  not  vote  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  Territory  has  no  vote  in 
the  election  of  the  Federal  President.  The 
executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
appointed  for  four  years  by  the  Federal  President 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Federal 
Senate.  He  has  a  veto  in  legislation,  but  his 
veto  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds  major- 
ity, in  each  house.  Pie  is  commander-in-chief; 
has  power  of  pardoning,  and  appoints  cer- 
tain territorial  officials  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Council.  The  territorial  secretary  is 
appointed  for  four  years  by  the  Federal  President 
and  Senate.  Besides  discharging  secretarial 
duties,  he  succeeds  to  the  position  of  acting- 
governor  in  case  of  the  death,  removal,  or  inca- 
pacity of  the  governor.  For  local  government 
the  Territory  is  divided  into  twenty-five  counties, 
each  of  which  is  administered  by  a  board  of 
three  commissioners,  elected  for  two  years  by 
the  county  voters.  Cities  (population  over 
3,000)  have  a  mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen; 
towns  (population  under  3,000)  have  a  mayor, 
four  trustees,  and  a  recorder.  An  "enabling 
act,"  providing  for  admission  to  statehood,  was 
passed  in  1910. 

New  York.  From  1609  to  1664  the  region 
now  called  New  York  was  under  the  sway  of  the 
Dutch ;  then  it  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Eng- 
lish who  governed  the  country  till  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  of  Independence.  Between  July  9, 
.1776,  and  April  20,  1777,  a  Convention  framed 
a  Constitution  under  which  New  York  was 
transformed  into  an  independent  State,  after- 


614 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


wards,  in  1788,  entering  the  Union  as  one  of  the 
thirteen  original  States.  A  new  Constitution, 
framed  on  a  wider  basis,  was  ratified  by  the 
people  in  1822.  A  third  Constitution  was 
enacted  in  1846,  and  a  fourth  in  1894.  The 
legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  Senate  of 
fifty  members  elected  every  two  years,  and  an 
Assembly  of  150  members  elected  annually. 
The  senatorial  electoral  districts  are  counties, 
either  singly  or  grouped  according  to  popula- 
tion ;  the  Assembly  districts  are  either  counties 
or  parts  of  counties,  the  various  districts  having 
approximately  equal  population.  Each  sena- 
torial and  each  Assembly  district  elects  one  mem- 
ber. Senators  and  representatives  must  be 
citizens  of  the  United  States  21  years  of  age. 
No  member  of  Congress  or  Federal  officer  or 
officer  of  any  city  government,  nor  any  person 
who  within  100  days  of  the  election  has  held 
such  office,  can  sit  in  either  house.  The  two 
Houses  have  equal  powers,  even  with  respect  to 
money  bills.  Every  law  must  be  passed  by  both 
Houses  with  the  assent  of  the  majority  of  the 
members  of  each.  Bills  appropriating  money 
for  local  or  private  purposes  require  a  two-thirds 
majority.  The  Legislature  is  by  the  Constitu- 
tion prevented  from  enacting  special  laws  in 
numerous  matters,  and  there  are  important 
restrictions  respecting  financial  legislation.  The 
principal  executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the 
governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years. 
He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  30 
years  of  age,  and  resident  in  the  State  for  five 
years  next  preceding  the  election.  He  has  a 
veto  in  legislation,  provided  it  be  exercised 
within  ten  days;  but  it  may  be  overridden  by 
a  two-thirds  majority  of  each  House.  He  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  military  and  naval 
forces ;  with  the  assent  of  the  Senate,  he  appoints 
many  State  officers;  he  may  convene  the 
Senate  or  the  Legislature  if  necessary;  he  rec- 
onMnends  legislative  measures  and  sees  that  the 
laws  are  faithfully  executed.  He  may  reprieve 
or  pardon  criminals,  but  not  in  cases  of  treason 
or  impeachment.  Elective  officers  are  the 
state  secretary  who  keeps  the  State  records  and 
seal;  the  comptroller  who  audits  accounts  and 
issues  warrants  for  payments;  the  treasurer 
who  pays  money  on  warrants;  the  attorney- 
general  who  is  law  officer  of  the  State ;  the  State 
engineer  and  surveyor  who  has  charge  of  public 
lands  and  the  construction  of  canals.  The 
administrative  boards  (civil  service  commis- 
sioners, railroad  commissioners,  and  many 
others)  are  generally  appointed  by  the  governor 
with  the  assent  of  the  Senate. 

New  Zealand.  The  present  form  of 
government  for  New  Zealand  was  established 
in  1852.  By  this  act  the  colony  was  divided 
into  six  provinces,  afterwards  increased  to  nine, 
each  governed  by  a  superintendent  and  provin- 
cial council,  elected  by  the  inhabitants  according 
to  a  franchise  practically  amounting  to  house- 
hold suffrage.  By  a  subsequent  act  of  the  colo- 
nial legislature,  in  1875,  the  provincial  system 
of  government  was  abolished,  and  the  powers 
previously  exercised  by  superintendents  and 
provincial  officers  were  ordered  to  be  exercised  by 
the  governor  or  by  local  boards.  By  the  terms 
of  this  and  other  amending  statutes,  the  legisla- 


tive power  is  vested  in  the  governor  and  a  gen- 
eral assembly,  consisting  of  two  chambers  —  the 
first  called  the  legislative  council,  and  the  second 
the  house  of  representatives.  The  governor  has 
the  power  of  assenting  to  or  withholding  consent 
from  bills,  or  he  may  reserve  them.  He  sum- 
mons, prorogues,  and  dissolves  the  parliament. 
He  can  send  drafts  of  bills  to  either  house  for 
consideration,  but  in  case  of  appropriations  of 
public  money  must  first  recommend  the  house 
of  representatives  to  make  provision  accordingly 
before  any  appropriations  can  become  law.  He 
can  return  bills  for  amendment  to  either  house. 
The  legislative  council  consists  at  present  of 
thirty-eight  members,  who  are  paid  at  the  rate 
of  £200  per  annum.  Those  appointed  before 
September  17,  1891,  are  life  members,  but  those 
appointed  subsequently  to  that  date  hold  their 
seats  for  seven  years  only,  though  they  are 
eligible  for  reappointment.  By  an  act  passed 
in  1900,  the  number  of  members  of  the  house  of 
representatives  was  increased  to  eighty,  includ- 
ing four  Maoris,  elected  by  the  people  for  three 
years.  They  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  £300  per 
annum. 

North  Carolina.  The  Constitution  of 
1776,  was  succeeded  by  that  of  1868,  which, 
amended  in  1872,  1875,  1879,  1888,  and  1899,  is 
still  in  force.  Amendments  proposed  in  either 
House,  and  agreed  to  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of 
each  House  of  the  Legislature,  require  ratification 
by  a  majority  vote  of  the  people.  The  State 
Legislature,  known  as  the  General  Assembly, 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  fifty  members,  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  of  120  members, 
elected  for  two  years.  Senators  must  be  United 
States  citizens,  25  years  of  age,  resident  in  the 
State  for  two  years  next  preceding  the  election; 
Representatives  must  be  2 1  years  of  age,  citizens, 
and  resident  in  the  State  one  year  next  before 
the  election.  Any  bill  may  originate  in  either 
House.  The  chief  executive  official  is  the 
governor,  elected  for  four  years.  He  is  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  militia;  has  power  to 
pardon,  etc.,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
but  must  report  to  the  General  Assembly  on  his 
exercise  of  this  power;  he  appoints,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Senate,  to  offices  not  otherwise 
provided  for.  He  has  no  veto.  Officials  elected 
for  four  years  are  the  lieutenant-governor,  secre- 
tary of  state,  auditor,  treasurer,  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  attorney-general. 

North  Dakota,  with  its  present  boun- 
daries, was  admitted  as  a  State  into  the  Union 
in  1889,  and  the  original  Constitution  is  still  in 
force.  It  may  be  altered  by  amendment  pro- 
posed in  either  House  of  the  Legislature,  agreed 
to  by  a  majority  of  all  the  members  of  each 
House,  and  finally  approved  by  a  popular  vote. 
The  Legislature,  called  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty  members,  elected 
for  four  years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  100  members  elected  for  two  years.  Any 
bill  may  originate  in  either  House.  The  Senate 
tries  cases  of  impeachment  brought  by  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Senators  must  be 
25  years  of  age ;  Representatives,  2 1 ;  both  must 
be  citizens  resident  in  the  State  for  two  years 
next  before  election.  At  the  head  of  the  execu- 
tive is  the  governor,  elected  for  two  years.     He 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


615 


has  the  powers  usually  vested  in  State  governors, 
including  limited  pardoning  power,  and  a  veto 
which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  all  the  members  of  each  House. 
Officials  elected  for  two  years  are  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  secretary  of  state,  auditor,  treasurer, 
and  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Norway.  The  union  with  Sweden,  which 
had  endured  from  1814  to  1905,  was  dissolved 
by  the  action  of  the  Norwegian  Storthing  on 
June  7,  1905,  following  a  protracted  dispute 
between  the  two  countries  as  to  their  diplo- 
matic representation  abroad;  and  the  Karlsbad 
Convention  was  signed  September  24,  1905, 
settling  the  details  of  a  mutual  agreement  for  the 
repeal  of  the  union.  King  Oscar  declined  the 
offer  of  the  throne  to  a  prince  of  his  house,  and 
after  a  plebiscite  it  was  offered  to  and  accepted 
by  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark,  who  became  King 
as  Haakon  VII.  The  Norwegian  Constitution 
of  1814,  several  times  modified  since,  vests  the 
legislative  power  in  the  Storthing,  which  has  123 
members  (forty-one  from  urban  and  eighty-two 
from  rural  districts),  who  are  elected  for  three 
years.  Every  male  citizen  of  25  who  has  re- 
sided in  the  country  for  five  years  is  qualified  as 
an  elector,  except  for  legal  disabilities.  For 
business  purposes  it  is  divided  into  the  Odels- 
thing,  composed  of  three-fourths  of  the  mem- 
bers, and  the  Lagthing,  consisting  of  the  remain- 
der; all  new  bills  originate  in  the  former.  The 
king  has  the  right  of  vetoing  the  laws  passed  by 
the  Storthing,  but  if  the  same  bill  pass  three 
Storthings  separately  and  subsequently  elected, 
his  veto  is  overridden.  The  executive  power 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  king  with  a  council  of 
state  composed  of  a  minister  of  state  and  eight 
councilors. 

Ohio.  The  Constitution  of  1802  was  super- 
seded by  that  of  1851,  which,  with  amendments 
adopted  in  1875,  1883,  1885,  and  1903,  is  still 
in  force.  Amendments  of  the  Constitution,  pro- 
posed in  either  House  of  the  Legislature  and 
agreed  to  by  a  three-fifths  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers of  each  House,  must  be  published  in  pre- 
scribed manner  in  the  counties  for  six  months 
before  the  next  election  of  members  of  the  Legis- 
lature, and  at  that  election  they  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  electors;  if  approved  by  a  major- 
ity of  those  who  vote,  they  become  part  of  the 
Constitution.  The  question  of  a  general  revision 
of  the  Constitution  is  submitted  to  the  people 
every  twenty  years,  provision  being  made  for  the 
appointment  of  a  convention  to  draft  alterations. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty- 
four  members,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  118  members,  both  Houses  being  elected  for 
two  years.  Any  bill  may  be  proposed  in  either 
House  and  is  subject  to  amendment  or  rejection 
in  the  other.  Eligible  to  either  House  are  all 
male  citizens  21  years  of  age,  resident 
in  the  State  and  in  the  district  one  year  next 
before  the  election,  but  paid  office-holders  of 
the  Union  or  of  the  State  are  not  eligible.  The 
chief  executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  gov- 
ernor, elected  for  two  years  (the  present  gov- 
ernor for  three  years).  He  has  the  powers 
usually  entrusted  to  State  governors,  including 
limited  pardoning  power  and  the  veto,  which 
may  be  overridden  by  a  two- thirds  majority  of 


all    the   members    of    each   House.       OflBcials 

elected  for  two  years  are  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, secretary  of  state,  attorney-general, 
treasurer,  and  a  dairy  and  food  commissioner. 
The  common  schools  commissioner  is  elected 
for  three  years,  and  the  State  auditor  for  four 
years.  Ohio  is  divided  into  eighty-eight  counties. 
Oklahoma.  The  President  of  the  United 
States  on  November  16,  1907,  signed  the  Consti- 
tution of  Oklahoma  and  issued  a  proclamation 
announcing  its  admission  as  a  State  into  the 
Union.  The  Census  Bureau  on  September  19, 
1907,  reported  the  result  of  a  special  census 
taken  of  the  population  of  the  new  State,  to  be 
1,414,042. 

The  most  notable  feature  of  the  State  Constitution 
was  its  provisions  for  the  regulation  of  corporations.  In 
line  with  its  other  corporation  provisions  were  the 
adoption  of  2-cent  passenger  fares,  electric  lines  not 
included,  and  the  abolition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  fellow- 
■  servant. 

The  initiative  and  referendum  was  given  a  prominent 
place  in  the  constitution,  but  the  right  of  recall  usually 
regarded  as  practically  a  parallel  proposition,  was 
rejected. 

Separate  schools  for  white  and  negro  children  were 
provided;  all  other  races  than  negroes  being  classed  as 
"white." 

The  State  was  given  the  right  to  engage  in  any  busi- 
ness or  occupation,  but  the  grant  was  limited  by  the 
qualification  that  it  shall  be  "for  public  purposes." 

Trial  by  jury  was  granted  in  contempt  cases  for  viola- 
tions of  injunctions  or  orders  of  restraint,  and  an  oppor- 
tunity to  be  heard  must  be  given  on  all  contempts  before 
punishment  is  imposed.  Three-fourths  jury  verdicts 
were  provided  for  in  civil  cases  and  criminal  ca^es  less 
than  felony.  The  grand  jury  system  was  not  made  man- 
datory. Persons  were  granted  immunity  from  prose- 
cution if  their  testimony  incriminated  themselves. 

Records,  books  and  films  of  all  corporations  shall  be 
subject  to  full  visitation  and  inquisition,  notwithstanding 
the  immunities  and  privileges  conferred  by  the  bill  of 
rights. 

For  every  sale,  the  applicant  must  make  a  sworn 
statement  as  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  liquor  is  to 
be  used,  and  each  sale  must  be  registered. 

The  control  of  all  public-service  corporations  was 
vested  in  a  corporation  commission  of  three  members, 
elected  by  the  people  for  six-year  terms.  Commis- 
sioners are  required  to  take  an  oath  that  they  are  not 
interested  directly  or  indirectly  in  any  company  which 
may  come  under  their  supervision.  All  railroads,  oil, 
pipe,  car,  express,  telephone  or  telegraph  lines  are 
required  to  receive  and  transport  each  other's  business 
without  delay  or  discrimination.  All  railroads  were 
declared  public  highways.  Public  service  corporsitions 
and  their  officials  were  prohibited  from  consolidating 
with  or  owning  stock  in  any  competing  corporation. 

"Transportation  companies  "  were  defined  as  including 
railroads,  street  railways,  canals,  steamboat  lines, 
freight  car  companies  or  car  associations,  express  com- 
panies and  sleeping-car  companies.  "Transportation 
companies"  include  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  and 
both  of  these  classes  were  rated  as  common  carriers. 

The  common  law  doctrine  of  fellow-servant  was 
abrogated  as  to  all  railroad,  street  or  interurban  electric 
lines  and  mining  companies,  and  recovery  may  be  had 
as  fully  in  cases  where  death  occurs  as  where  it  does  not. 

Campaign  contributions  by  corporations  were  for- 
bidden and  it  was  sought  to  prevent  the  issuance  of 
watered  stock  by  providing  that  no  stock  shall  be  issued 
except  for  money,  labor  done  or  property  actually 
received  to  the  amount  of  the  par  value  of  the  stock. 

Oman.  An  independent  state  in  South- 
eastern Arabia  extending  along  a  coast  line  — 
southeast  and  southwest  —  of  almost  1,000 
miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Ormuz  and  inland  to 
the  deserts.  Area,  82,000  square  miles;  popu- 
lation, estimated  at  800,000,  chiefly  Arabs.  The 
capital,  Maskat,  and  the  adjacent  town  of  Matra 
have  together  about  25,000  inhabitants.  Maskat 
was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  till  the  Seven- 
teenth Century.  After  various  vicissitudes  it 
was  taken  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  by  Ahmed 


616 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


bin  Sa'eed,  of  Yemenite  origin,  who  was  elected 
Imam  in  1741.  His  family  have  since  ruled. 
The  present  Sultan  is  Seyyid  Feysil  bin  Turki, 
second  son  of  the  late  Seyyid  Turki  bin  Sa'eed 
bin  Sultan,  who  succeeded  his  father  June  4, 
1888,  and  was  formally  recognized  by  the  British 
Government.  In  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  the  power  of  the  Imam  of  Oman  ex- 
tended over  a  large  area  of  Arabia,  the  islands 
in  the  Persian  Gulf,  a  strip  on  the  Persian  coast, 
and  a  long  strip  of  the  African  coast  south  of 
Cape  Guardafui,  including  Socotra  and  Zanzibar. 
On  the  death  of  Sultan  Sa'eed  in  1856,  one  son 
proclaimed  himself  Sultan  in  Zanzibar  and  an- 
other in  Muscat.  Eventually  the  rivals  agreed 
to  submit  their  claims  to  the  arbitration  of  Lord 
Canning,  Viceroy  of  India,  who  formally  sepa- 
rated the  two  sultanates.  Subsequent  troubles 
curtailed  the  area  of  the  state  in  Asia.  The 
closest  relations  have  for  years  existed  between 
the  Government  of  India  and  Oman  and  a  British 
consul  and  political  agent  resides  at  Maskat. 
The  revenue  of  the  Sultan  amounts  to  about 
$250,000.  The  population  is  poor;  inland  the 
Sultan's  authority  is  merely  nominal  and  there 
is  little  security  for  life  and  property. 

Oregon.  .The  Constitution  adopted  in  1859 
is  still  in  force,  except  as  stated  below.  Amend- 
ments proposed  in  and  approved  by  the  Legis- 
lature are  submitted  to  the  next  elected  Legis- 
lature, and  if  then  approved  are  formally  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  for  ratification;  but  this 
method  of  ratification  is  not  exclusive  (see  below). 
The  Legislature  or  Legislative  Assembly,  con- 
sists of  a  Senate  of  thirty  members,  chosen  for 
four  years  (half  their  number  retiring  every 
two  years),  and  a  House  of  sixty  Representa- 
tives, elected  for  two  years.  Members  of  either 
House  must  be  21  years  of  age  and  must 
have  resided  in  their  county  or  district  for 
one  year  next  before  election.  Bills  for  raising 
revenue  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Represent-' 
atives.  The  Constitution  was  amended  in  1902, 
under  the  terms  of  which  amendment  the  people 
reserve  to  themselves  the  power  to  propose  laws 
and  amendments  to  the  Constitution  and  to 
enact  or  reject  the  same  at  the  polls  independent 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  also  reserve 
the  power  at  their  own  option  to  approve  or 
reject  at  the  polls  any  act  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  This  is  known  as  the  initiative  and 
referendum.  Not  more  than  eight  per  cent,  of 
the  legal  voters  are  required  to  propose  any 
measure  to  be  voted  upon  by  the  people  at  the 
next  ensuing  general  election.  Measures  thus 
initiated  are  enacted  or  rejected  at  the  polls 
independently  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
Under  the  referendum,  any  bill  passed  by  the 
Legislative  •  Assembly,  except  such  as  are  for 
the  preservation  of  the  public  peace,  health, 
and  safety,  may,  by  petition  signed  by  five  per 
cent,  of  the  legal  voters,  be  referred  to  the 
people  to  be  voted  on  for  approval  or  rejection 
at  the  next  ensuing  general  election.  By 
virtue  of  this  provision  several  amendments 
to  the  Constitution  have  been  voted  on,  some 
of  which  have  been  rejected  and  some  adopted. 
A  number  of  laws  have  been  enacted  under 
the  initiative  covering  different  subjects.  The 
chief  executive  officer  of   the  State  is  the  gov- 


ernor, who  is  elected  for  four  years  and  exercises 
the  powers  usually  entrusted  to  governors, 
including  the  pardoning  power,  and  a  limited 
veto  which  does  not  extend  to  acts  referred  to 
the  people.  Elective  officers  are  the  secretary 
of  state,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  and  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction.  State  .printer, 
and  labor  commissioner.  There  are  thirty- 
three  counties  in  the  State. 

Panama.  The  Republic  of  Panama  was 
constituted  on  November  3,  1903,  having  pre- 
viously been  a  department  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  being  strongly  in  favor  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal  Concession  by  the 
United  States  and  the  construction  by  them  of 
the  canal,  declared  their  independence.  The 
United  States  Government  at  once  recognized 
the  new  Republic,  and  concluded  with  it  a  treaty 
•on  November  18,  1903,  guaranteeing  and  agree- 
ing to  maintain  its  independence.  Panama 
then  ratified  the  treaty.  There  is  a  President 
elected  for  four  years.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
consists  of  thirty-two  members  elected  for  two 
years.  The  Republic  is  divided  into  seven  prov- 
inces, each  under  a  governor,  with  other 
subordinate  officials. 

Paraguay  is  a  Republic,  and  is  governed, 
under  a  Constitution  proclaimed  in  November, 
1870,  by  a  President  elected  for  four  years,  a 
Congress  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber 
Deputies,  both  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
and  five  Ministers  of  State  chosen  by  the  Presi- 
dent. The  President  has  a  salary  of  $9,500, 
ministers  of  $3,000,  and  the  Senators  and  Deputies 
each  receive  $1,000.  The  state  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  but  all  others  are  tolerated.  Educa- 
tion is  free  and  nominally  compulsory.  The 
army  numbers  about  1,500  men,  but  every  citi- 
zen between  20  and  35  is  liable  to  military 
service. 

Pennsylvania.  New  Constitutions  were 
adopted  in  1790  and  1838  and  the  one  now  in 
force  was  adopted  1873,  and  amended  1901. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  General 
Assembly  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  General  elections  are  held 
biennally.  The  Senate  consists  of  fifty  mem- 
bers chosen  for  four  years,  twenty-five  Senators 
being  elected  at  each  General  Assembly  election. 
The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of  204 
members  chosen  for  two  years.  Members  of  the 
General  Assembly  must  have  been  citizens  and 
inhabitants  of  the  State  four  years  and  inhabit- 
ants of  their  respective  districts  one  year  next 
before  their  election.  Amendments  to  the  Con- 
stitution agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  each  House, 
approved  by  a  majority  in  each  House  of  Legisla- 
ture next  elected,  and  ratified  by  the  electors  at 
a  special  election  held  for  the  purpose,  become 
part  of  the  Constitution.  The  supreme  execu- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  governor  who  is  elected 
at  the  general  election  and  holds  office  for  four 
years.  He  is  not  eligible  for  election  for  the 
next  succeeding  term.  He  must  be  not  less  than 
30  years  of  age  and  have  been  seven  years  resi- 
dent in  the  State  immediately  before  election; 
he  must  not  be  a  member  of  Congress  nor  can  he 
hold  any  office  under  the  United  States.  His 
duties  include  the  command  of  the  military  and 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


617 


naval  forces  of  the  State,  except  when  these  are 
called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States, 
the  summoning  of  the  Legislature  when  necessary, 
the  granting  of  commissions,  and  the  supervision 
of  the  execution  of  the  laws.  Every  bill  passed 
by  both  Houses  requires  the  assent  of  the  gov- 
ernor, who  may  within  ten  days  remit  it  for  con- 
sideration to  the  House  in  which  it  originated ; 
if  then  the  bill  be  approved  by  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  each  House  it  becomes  law.  A  lieu- 
tenant-governor is  chosen  at  the  same  time,  in 
the  same  manner,  and  for  the  same  term  as  the 
governor.  A  secretary  of  the  commonwealth 
and  an  attorney-general  are  appointed  by  the 
governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
two-thirds  of  all  the  members  of  the  Senate, 
during  pleasure,  and  a  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  similarly  appointed  for  four  years. 
The  qualified  electors  choose  at  each  general 
election  a  secretary  of  internal  affairs  for  a  period 
of  four  years,  an  auditor-general  for  a  period  of 
three  years,  and  a  state  treasurer  for  a  period  of 
two  years. 

Persia.  The  form  of  government  in  Persia 
up  to  the  year  1906  was,  in  the  riiost  important 
features,  similar  to  that  of  Turkey.  The  Shah, 
within  the  limitations  imposed  by  the  Moham- 
medan religion,  was  an  absolute  ruler,  generally 
regarded  by  the  people  as  the  vice-gerent  of  the 
Prophet.  In  1905,  however,  the  Persian  people 
demanded  representative  institutions,  and  in 
January,  1906,  the  government  announced  that 
the  Shah  had  given  his  consent  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  council.  Under  the  rescript 
of  August  5,  1906,  it  was  decided  that  the 
national  council  should  consist  of  and  be  elected 
by  members  of  the  reigning  dynasty,  clergy, 
chiefs,  nobles,  landowners,  merchants,  and 
tradesmen.  An  ordinance  of  September  10, 
1906,  fixed  the  number  of  members  at  156,  and 
early  in  October  elections  were  held.  On  Octo- 
ber 12th,  the  national  council  (or  as  many  of  its 
members  as  could  be  got  together)  met,  chose 
a  president,  and  was  welcomed  by  the  shah, 
whose  speech  was  read  before  it.  The  constitu- 
tion of  January  1,  1907,  signed  by  Muzaffer-ad- 
din,  the  late  shah,  and  countersigned  by  the  VaU 
Ahd,  the  present  shah,  and  by  the  grand  vizier, 
deals  with  the  decree  of  August  5,  1906,  and 
states  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  national 
council,  besides  making  provision  for  the  regula- 
tion of  its  general  procedure  by  the  national 
council  itself.  The  number  of  members  is  at 
present  limited  to  162,  but  may  be  raised  to  200 ; 
members  will  be  elected  for  two  years;  will 
meet  annually,  and  will  have  immunity  from 
prosecution,  except  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
national  council.  The  publicity  of  their  pro- 
ceedings (except  under  conditions  accepted  by 
the  national  council)  is  secured.  Ministers  (or 
their  delegates)  may  appear  and  speak  in  the 
national  council,  and  will  be  responsible  to  that 
body  which  will  have  special  control  of  financial 
affairs  and  internal  administration.  Its  sanction 
will  be  reqviired  for  all  territorial  changes,  for 
alienation  of  state  property,  for  the  granting  of 
concessions,  for  the  contracting  of  loans,  for  the 
construction  of  roads  and  railways,  and  for  the 
ratification  of  all  treaties,  except  such  as  in  the 
interest  of  the  state  require  secrecy.     There  is  to 


be  a  senate  of  sixty  members,  of  whom  thirty 
are  to  be  appointed  to  represent  the  shah,  and 
thirty  to  be  elected  on  behalf  of  the  national 
council,  fifteen  of  each  class  being  from  Teheran, 
and  fifteen  from  the  provinces.  Provision  is 
made  as  to  procedure  in  case  of  difference  of 
opinion  between  the  national  council  and  the 
senate.  The  executive  government  is  carried 
on  under  a  ministry,  the  chief  departments 
of  which  are:  minister  for  war,  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  minister  for  finance  and  treasury, 
and  minister  for  interior. 

Peru.  The  present  Constitution,  proclaimed 
October  16,  1856,  was  revised  November  25, 
1860.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  Both 
senators  and  deputies  are  elected  by  a  direct 
vote.  There  are  fifty-one  senators  and  116 
deputies,  and  there  are  as  many  suplentes,  or 
substitutes,  as  there  are  members  in  each  cham- 
ber. Every  two  years  one-third  of  the  members 
of  each  chamber,  as  decided  by  lot,  retire. 
Congress  meets  annually  on  July  28th,  and  sits 
for  ninety  days  only.  It  may  be  summoned  as 
often  as  necessary,  but  no  extraordinary  session 
may  last  more  than  forty-five  days.  The  execu- 
tive power  is  entrusted  to  a  president,  elected  for 
four  years,  and  not  re-eligible  till  after  another 
four  years.  He  receives  $15,000  a  year  and 
$9,000  for  expenses.  There  are  two  vice-presi- 
dents, who  take  the  place  of  the  president  only 
in  case  of  his  death  or  incapacity,  and  they  are 
elected  for  four  years.  The  vice-presidents 
receive  no  salary  as  such.  The  president  and 
vice-presidents  are  elected  by  direct  vote.  The 
president  exercises  his  executive  functions 
through  a  cabinet  of  six  ministers,  holding  office 
at  his  pleasure.  The  ministers  are  those  of  the 
interior,  war  and  marine,  foreign  affairs,  justice, 
with  worship  and  instruction,  finance  and  public 
works.  Each  minister  receives  $3,000  a  year. 
None  of  the  president's  acts  have  any  value 
without  the  signature  of  a  minister. 

Portugal.  Under  the  Constitutional  Char- 
ter of  1826  (amended  in  1852,  1885,  and  1895) 
Portugal  was  a  representative  constitutional 
monarchy.  The  legislative  power  was  vested  in  a 
Cortes,  consisting  of  the  House  of  Peers,  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  members  of  the  latter 
elected  by  universal  manhood  suffrage  for  a  term 
of  four  years.  On  October  3,  1910,  however,  a 
revolutionary  outbreak  resulted  in  the  dethrone- 
ment of  Manuel  II,  who,  with  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  family,  fled  to  England.  A 
republican  form  of  government  was  instituted 
immediately,  under  which  Theophile  Braga,  the 
leader  of  the  revolutionary  party  became  a  presi- 
dent, and  a  cabinet  was  formed.  The  flight  of 
the  royal  family,  and  the  apparent  solidity  of 
the  new  government  gained  for  the  republic  the 
recognition  of  foreign  powers. 

Prussia.  The  present  Constitution  of  Prus- 
sia was  drawn  up  by  the  government  of  King 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.,  with  the  co-operation 
of  a  constituent  assembly,  sitting  August-Decem- 
ber, 1849,  and  was  proclaimed  January  31,  1850; 
but  subsequently  modified  by  a  number  of  royal 
decrees.  These  fundamental  laws  vest  the  exec- 
utive and  part  of  the  legislative  authority  in  a 
king,    who  attains  his   majority  upon   accom- 


618 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


plishing  his  eighteenth  year.  The  Crown  is  he- 
reditary in  the  male  Hne,  according  to  primogeni- 
ture. In  the  exercise  of  the  government,  the 
king  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  ministers,  ap- 
pointed by  royal  decree.  The  legislative  author- 
ity the  king  shares  with  a  representative  assem- 
bly, the  landtag,  composed  of  two  chambers,  the 
first  called  the  "  Herrenhaus,"  or  house  of  lords, 


and  the  second  the  "abgeordnetenhaus,"  or 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  assent  of  the  king  and 
both  chambers  is  requisite  for  all  laws.  Fman- 
cial  projects  and  estimates  must  first  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  be  either 
accepted  or  rejected  en  bloc  by  the  Herrenhaus. 
The  right  of  proposing  laws  is  vested  in  the 
government  and  in  each  of  the  chambers. 


POPULAR   VOTE   FOR   PRESIDENT  AND   VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM    1789   TO   THE   PRESENT 

Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  popular  vote  for  President  and  Vice-President ;  the  people  vote  for 
electors,  and  those  chosen  in  each  State  meet  therein  and  vote  for  the  candidates  for  President 
and  Vice-President.  The  record  of  any  popular  vote  for  electors  prior  to  1824  is  so  meager  and 
imperfect  that  a  compilation  would  be  useless.  In  most  of  the  States,  for  more  than  a  quarter 
century  following  the  establishment  of  the  Government,  the  State  Legislatures  "  appointed  "  the 
Presidential  electors,  and  the  people  therefore  voted  only  indirectly  for  them,  their  choice  being 
expressed  by  their  votes  for  members  of  the  Legislature.  In  this  tabulation  only  the  aggregate 
electoral  votes  for  candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President  in  the  first  nine  quadrennial  elec- 
tions appears. 


Year 


1789* 


1792 


1796 


1800 


1804 
1808 


1812 
1816 


1820 


Presidential 
Candidates 


George  Washington 
.John  Adams, . 
John  Jay,  .  . 
R.  H.  Harrison, 
John  Rutledge, 
John  Hancock, 
George  Clinton, 
Samuel  Huntington 
John  Milton,  .  .  . 
James  Armstrong, 
Benjamin  Lincoln, 
Edward  Telfair,  . 
Vacancies,  .... 
George  Washington 
John  Adams,  .  . 
George  Clinton,.  . 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Aaron  Burr,  .  .  . 
Vacancies,  .... 
John  Adams, .  .  . 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Thomas  Pinckney, 
Aaron  Burr,  .  .  . 
Samuel  Adams,  .  . 
Oliver  Ellsworth,  . 
George  Clinton,  .  . 
John  Jay,  .... 
James  Iredell,  .  . 
George  Washington 
John  Henry,  .  .  . 
S.  Johnson,  .  .  . 
C.  C.  Pinckney,  .  . 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Aaron  Burr,  .  .  . 
John  Adams,  .  . 
C.  C.  Pinckney,      . 

John  Jay 

Thomas  Jefferson, 
C.  C.  Pinckney, .  . 
James  Madison,  . 
C.  C.  Pinckney, .  . 
George  Clinton, .  . 
Vacancy 


James  Madison, 
De  Witt  Clinton, 
James  Monroe,  . 
Rufus  King,  .    . 
Vacancies,  .   .    . 


James  Monroe,  . 
John  Q.  Adams, 
Vacancy,    .    .    . 


State 


Va. 

Mass. 

N.  Y. 

Md. 

S.  C. 

Mass. 

N.  Y. 

Conn. 

Ga. 

Ga. 

Mass. 

Ga. 

Va.' 

Mass. 

N.Y. 

Va. 

N.Y. 

Mass. 

Va. 

S.  C. 

N.Y. 

Mass. 

Conn. 

N.Y. 

N.Y. 

N.  C. 

Va. 

Md. 

N.  C. 

s.  c. 

Va. 
N.Y. 

Mass. 
S.  C. 
N.Y. 
Va. 
S.  C. 
Va. 

s.  c. 

N.Y, 


Va. 

N.Y. 

Va. 

N.Y. 


Va. 
Mass. 


Party 


Fed., 
Fed., 
Rep.J 


Fed., 
Rep., 
Fed., 
Rep., 
Rep., 
Ind., 
Rep., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Rep.', 
Rep., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Fed., 
Rep. 
Fed., 
Rep., 
Fed., 
Rep., 


Rep., 
Fed., 
Rep., 
Fed., 


Rep., 
Rep., 


Vote 


OQk» 


lot 


15 


16 


24 


73 


1.35 


138 


138 


176 
i76 


218 
22  i 


235 


St 


6 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

4 

1.32 

77 

50 

4 

1 

3 

71 

68 

59 

30 

15 

11 

7 

5 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

73| 

73i 

65 

64 

1 

162 

14 

122 

47 

6 

1 


1^8 
89 

183 

34 

4 


231 
1 


Popular 
Vote 


Candidates  for  Vice-President 


Name 


John  Adams, 


John  Adams, 


Thomas  Jefferson, 


Aaron  Burr, 


George  Clinton, 
Rufus  King,  .  . 
George  Clinton, 
Rufus  King,  .  . 
John  Langdon,  . 

James  Madison, 
James  Monroe,  . 
Elbridge  Gerry. 
Jared  Ingersoll, 
D.  D.  Tompkins, 
John  E.  Howard, 

James  Ross,  .    . 
.lohn  Marshall,  . 
Robert  G.  Harper. 
D.  D.  Tompkins, 


Richard  Stockton, 


State 


Mass. 


Mass. 


Va. 


N.Y. 


N.Y. 

N.  Y. 
N.Y. 
N.Y. 

N.  H. 

Va. 
Va. 
Mass. 
Pa. 

N.Y. 
Md. 

Pa. 
Va. 
Md. 
N.Y. 

N.J.' 


dip*' 

s 


34 


77 


68 


73 


162 

14 

113 

47 


3 

3 

131 

86 

183 

22 

5 
4 
3 
218 
1 
8 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


619 


POPULAR   VOTE   FOR   PRESIDENT   AND   VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM   1789  TO  THE  PRESENT  —  Continued 


Presidential 
Candidates 

State 

Vote 

Candidates  fob  Vice-President 

Year 

Party 

St 

4) 

0 

H 

2 

Popular 
Vote 

Name 

State 

■3 

Daniel  Rodney,     .    . 

Del. 

4 

Robert  G.  Harper,    . 

Md. 

1 

Richard  Rush,  .    .    . 

Pa. 

1 

1824 

John  Q.  Adams,     . 

Mass. 

Rep.,  .    . 

24 

261 

84§ 

108,740 

John  C.  Calhoun,  .    . 

S.  C. 

182 

Andrew  Jackson,  . 

Tenn. 

Dem.,  .   . 

99§ 

153,544 

Nathan  Sanford,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

30 

Henry  Clay,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

Rep.,  .    . 

37 

47,136 

Nathaniel  Macon,     . 

N.  C. 

24 

W.H.Crawford,   . 

Ga. 

Rep.,  .    . 

46 

46,618 

Andrew  Jackson,  .    . 
Martin  Van  Buren,  . 
Henry  Clay,  .... 

Tenn. 
N.Y. 
Ky. 

13 
9 
2 

Vacancy 

1 

1828 

Andrew  Jackson,  . 

Tenn. 

Dem.,  .    . 

24 

26i 

178 

"  647',286 

John  C.  Calhoun,  .    . 

s.  "a 

171 

John  Q.  Adams,    . 

Mass. 

Nat.  Rep. 

83 

508,064 

Richard  Rush,  .    .    . 
William  Smith,  .  .    . 

Pa. 

S.  C. 

83 

7 

1832 

Andrew  Jackson,  . 

Tenn. 

Dem.  .    . 

24 

288 

219 

687,502 

Martin  Van  Buren,  . 

N.  Y. 

189 

Henry  Clay,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

Nat.  Rep. 

49 

530,189 

John  Sergeant,  .    .    . 

Pa. 

49 

John  Floyd,   .    .    . 

Ga. 

Ind.,    .    . 

11 

Henry  Lee 

Mass. 

11 

William  Wirt,    .    . 

Md. 

Anti-M., 

7 

Amos  Ellmaker,    .    . 

Pa. 

7 

Vacancies 

2 

William  Wilkins,  .    . 

Pa. 

30 

1836 

Martin  Van  Buren, 

n!  Y. 

Dem.  '. '  . 

26 

294 

170 

'  '7"6'2',678 

R.  M.  Johnson,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

147 

Wm.  H.  Harrison, 

Ohio 

Whig,  .    . 

73 

) 

Francis  Granger,  .    . 

N.Y. 

77 

Hugh  L.  White,     . 

Tenn. 

Whig,  .    . 

26 

V   735,651 

John  Tyler 

Va. 

47 

Daniel  Webster,    . 

.Mass. 

Whig,  .    . 

14 

\ 

William  Smith,     .    . 

Ala. 

23 

W.  P.  Mangum, 

N.  C. 

Whig,  .    . 

11 

1840 

Wm.  H.  Harrison, 

Ohio 

Whig,  .    . 

'26 

294 

234 

1,275,016 

John  Tyler 

Va. 

234 

Martin  Van  Buren, 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  .    . 

60 

1,129,102 

R. M.  Johnson,  .   .    . 

Ky. 

48 

James  G.  Birney,  . 

N.Y. 

Lib.,    .    . 

7,069 

L.W.Tazewell,     .    . 
James  K.  Polk,  .  .    . 
Thomas  Earle,  .    .    . 

Va. 

Tenn. 
Pa. 

11 
1- 

1844 

James  K.  Polk,  .    . 

Tenn. 

Dem.,  .    . 

26 

275 

170 

1,337,243 

George  M.  Dallas,     . 

Pa. 

170 

Henry  Clay,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

Whig,  . 

105 

1,299,062 

T.  Frelinghuysen,      . 

N.  J. 

105 

James  G.  Birney,  . 

N.Y. 

Lib.,  . 

62,300 

Thomas  Morris,     .    . 

Ohio 

1848 

Zachary  Taylor,    . 

La. 

Whig,  . 

30 

290 

163 

1,360,099 

Millard  Fillmore,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

163 

Lewis  Cass,     .    .    . 

Mich. 

Dem.,  . 

127 

1,220,544 

Wm.  0.  Butler,     .    . 

Ky. 

127 

Martin  Van  Buren, 

N.Y. 

F.  S.,  . 

291,263 

Chas.  F.  Adams,    .    . 

Mass. 

1852 

Franklin  Pierce,     . 

N.  H. 

Dem.,  . 

3l' 

296 

254 

1,601,274 

William  R.  King,  .    . 

Ala. 

254 

Winfield  Scott,  .    . 

N.J. 

Whig,  . 

42 

1,. 386,580 

Wm.  A.  Graham,  .    . 

N.  C. 

42 

John  P.  Hale,    .    . 

N.  H. 

Fed.  D., 

155,825 

George  W.  Julian,     . 

Ind. 

Daniel  Webster,    . 

Mass. 

Whig,  . 

1,670 

1856 

James  Buchanan,  . 

Pa. 

Dem., . 

31' 

296 

174 

1,838,169 

J.  C.  Breckenridge,  . 

Ky. 

174 

John  C.  Fremont,  . 

Cal. 

Rep.,  . 

114 

1,341,264 

Wm.  L.  Dayton,   .    . 

N.J. 

114 

Millard  Fillmore,  . 

N.Y. 

A  men. 

8 

874,534 

A.  J.  Donelson, .    .    . 

Tenn. 

8 

1860 

Abraham  Lincoln, 

111. 

Rep.,  . 

33 

303 

180 

1,866,452 

Hannibal  Hamlin,     . 

Me. 

180 

J.  C.  Breckenridge, 

Ky. 

Dem.,  . 

72 

847,953 

Joseph  Lane,     .    .    . 

Ind. 

72 

Stephen  A.  Douglas, 

111. 

Union  D 

39 

1,375,157 

H.  V.  Johnson,  .    .    . 

Ga. 

39 

John  Bell 

Tenn. 

Amer., 

12 

590,631 

Edward  Everett,  .    . 

Mass. 

12 

1864 

Abraham  Lincoln, 

111. 

Rep.,   . 

36 

3i4 

212 

2,213,665 

Andrew  Johnson,  .    . 

Tenn. 

212 

Geo.  B.  McClellan, 

N.J. 

Dem.,  . 

21 

1,802,237 

G.  H.  Pendleton,  .    . 

Ohio 

21 

1868 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  . 

111. 

Rep.,  . 

37 

3i7 

214 

3,012,833 

Schuyler  Colfax,   .    . 

Ind. 

214 

Horatio  Seymour, 

N.Y. 

Dem., 

80 

2,703,249 

F.  P.  Blair,  Jr 

Mo. 

80 

1872 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  . 

111. 

Rep.,  . 

'37 

366 

286 

3,597,132 

Henry  Wilson,  .    .    . 

Mass. 

286 

Horace  Greeley,    . 

N.Y. 

D.  &  L., 

II 

2,834,125 

B.  Gratz  Brown,  .    . 

Mo. 

47 

Charles  O'Conor,  . 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  . 

29,489 

John  Q.  Adams,    .    . 

Mass. 

James  Black,  .  .    . 

Pa. 

Temp. , 

5,608 

John  Russell,     .    .    . 

Mich. 

Thos.  A.  Hendricks, 

Ind. 

Dem.,  . 

'42 

Geo.  W.  Julian,     .    . 

Ind. 

5 

B.  Gratz  Brown,    . 

Mo. 

Dem.,  . 

18 

A.  H.  Colquitt,  .    .    . 

Ga. 

5 

Charles  J.  Jenkins, 

Ga. 

Dem.,  . 

2 

J.  M.  Palmer,     .    .    . 

111. 

3. 

David  Davis,  .  .    . 

111. 

Ind.,  .. 

1 

T.  E.  Bramlette,   .    . 

Ky. 

3 

Not  counted,  .  .    . 

17 

W.  S.  Grosbeck,    .    . 

Ohio 

1 

W.  B.  Machen,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

1 

N.  P.  Banks 

Mass. 

1 

1876 

Ruth'd  B.  Hayes, . 

Ohio 

Rep.,  .    . 

38 

369 

185 

4,036,298 

Wm.  A.  Wheeler,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

185 

Samuel  J.  Tilden,  . 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  . 

184 

4,300,590 

T.  A.  Hendricks,  .    . 

Ind. 

184 

Peter  Cooper,     .    . 

N.Y. 

Grb.,    . 

81,737 

Samuel  F.  Cary,    .    . 

Ohio 

Green  Clay  Smith, 

Ky. 

Pro.,    . 

9,522 

G.  T.  Stewart,   .    .    . 

Ohio 

James  B.  Walker, . 

111. 

Amer., 

2,636 

D.  Kirkpa trick,     .    . 

N.Y. 

1880 

James  A.  Garfield, 

Ohio 

Rep.,  . 

'38' 

369 

214 

4,454,416 

Chester  A.  Arthur,    . 

N.Y. 

214 

Win'd  S.  Hancock, 

Pa. 

Dem.,  . 

155 

4,444,952 

Wm.  H.  English,  .    . 

Ind. 

155 

James  B.  Weaver. 

Iowa 

Grb.,    . 

308,578 

B.  J.  Chambers,    .    . 

Tex. 

Neal  Dow,  .... 

Me. 

Pro.,    . 

10,305 

H.  A.  Thompson,  .    . 

Ohio 

John  W.  Phelps,   . 

Vt. 

Amer., 

707 

S.  C.  Pomeroy,  .   .    . 

Kan. 

1884 

Grover  Cleveland, 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  . 

38 

461 

219 

4,874,986  " 

T.  A.  Hendricks,  .    . 

Ind. 

219 

James  G.  Blaine,  . 

Me. 

Rep.,  . 

182 

4,851,981 

John  A.  Logan,     .    . 

111. 

182 

John  P.  St.  John, 

Kan. 

Pro.,    . 

150,369 

William  Daniel,    .    . 

Md. 

Benjamin  F.  Butler, 

Mass. 

People's, 

175,370 

A.M.  West 

Miss. 

P.  D.  Wigginton,  . 

Cal. 

Amer., 

1888 

Benjamin  Harrison, 

Ind. 

Rep.,   . 

38 

401 

233 

5,439,853 

Levi  P.  Morton,    .    . 

N.Y. 

233 

Grover  Cleveland, 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  . 

168 

5,540,309 

A.  G.  Thurman,    .    . 

Ohio 

168 

Clinton  B.  Fisk,     . 

N.J. 

Pro.,    . 

249,506 

John  A.  Brooks,    .    . 

Mo. 

Alson  J.  Streeter,  . 

111. 

U.  L.,  . 

146,935 

C.  E.  Cunningham,   . 

Ark. 

R.  H.  Cowdry,  .    . 

111. 

N'd  L., 

2,808 

W.H.Wakefield,.   . 

Kan. 

620 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


POPULAR    VOTE    FOR  PRESIDENT   AND   VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM   1789  TO   THE   PRESENT  — Continued 


Presidential 
Candidates 

State 

Party 

Vote 

Candidates  for  Vice-President 

Yeah 

1^ 

0 

> 
"3 

Popular 
Vote 

Name 

State 

h 

3 

James  L.  Curtis,    . 

N.Y. 

Amer.,     . 

1,591 

James  B.  Greer,    .    . 

Tenn. 

1892 

Grover  Cleveland, 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  .   . 

44 

444 

277 

5,554,437 

A. E.  Stevenson,   .    . 

IlL 

277 

Benjamin  Harrison, 

Ind. 

Rep.,  .    . 

145 

5,175,287 

Whitelaw  Reid,     .    . 

N.Y. 

145 

James  B.  Weaver, 

Iowa 

People's, 

22 

1,041,028 

James  G.  Field,     .    . 

Va. 

22 

John  Bidwell,    .    . 

Cal. 

Pro.,    .    . 

264,133 

James  R.  CranfiU,     . 

Texas 

Simon  Wing,  .    .    . 

Mass. 

Soc.  L..  . 

21,164 

C.  H.  Matchett,     .    . 

N.  Y. 

1896 

William  McKinley, 

Ohio 

Rep.,  .    . 

45 

447 

271 

7,102,272 

Garret  A.  Hobart,    . 

N.J. 

271 

William  J.  Bryan, 

Neb. 

Dem.,       t 

176 

6,273,624 

Arthur  Sewall,      .    . 

Mc 

176 

William  J.  Bryan, 

Neb. 

People's,  ( 

Th.  E.  Watson,     .    . 

Iowa 

John  M.  Palmer,    . 

111. 

Nat.  Dem., 

133,148 

Sim.  B.  Buckner,  .    . 

Ky. 

Joshua  Levering,  . 

Md. 

Pro.,  .     . 

132,007 

Hale  Johnson,  .    .    . 

111. 

Chas.  H.  Matchett, 

N.Y. 

Soc.  L.,  . 

36,274 

Matthew  McGuire,    . 

N.J. 

Chas.  E.  Bentley,  . 

Neb. 

Nat.,   .    . 

13,969 

J.  H.  Southgate,    .    . 

N.  C. 

1900 

William  McKinley, 

Ohio 

Rep.,  .    . 

45 

447 

292 

7,219,101 

Theo.  Roosevelt,  .    . 

N.Y. 

292 

William  J.  Bryan, 
John  G.  Woolley,  . 

Neb. 

Dem.&P., 

155 

6,357,054 

A.  E.  Stevenson,  .    . 

111. 

155 

111. 

Pro 

208,187 

Henry  B.  Metcalf,    . 

R.  I. 

Eugene  V.  Debs,   . 

Ind. 

S.  D..  .    . 

Job  Harriman,  .   .    . 

Cal. 

Wharton  Barker,  . 

Pa. 

M.  R.  P., 

51,585 

Ignatius  Donnelly,   . 

Minn. 

Jos.  F.  Malloney,  . 

Mass. 

Soc.  L.,  . 

99,613 

Val.  Remmel,    .    .    . 

Pa. 

Seth  H.Ellis,     .    . 

Ohio 

U.  R.,.    . 

33,413 

Sam  T.  Nicholson,    . 

Pa. 

J.  F.  R.  Leonard,  . 

Iowa 

U.  C,  .   . 

1,059 

John  G.  Woolley,  .    . 

111. 

1904 

TheodoreRoosevelt, 

N.Y. 

Rep.,  .    . 

45 

476 

336 

7,623,486 

Charles  W.  Fairbanks, 

Ind. 

336 

Alton  B.  Parker,   . 

N.Y. 

Dem.,  .    . 

140 

5,077.971 

Henry  G.  Davis,   .    . 

W.  Va. 

140 

Eugene  V.  Debs,   . 

Ind. 

Soc,    .    . 

402,283 

Benjamin  Hanford, . 

N.Y. 

Silas  C.  Swallow,  . 

Pa. 

Pro.,  .      . 

258,536 

George  W.  Carroll,    . 

Texas 

Thomas  E.Watson, 

Ga.  • 

People's  . 

117,183 

Thomas  H.  Tibbies, . 

Neb. 

Charles  H.Corrigan, 

N.Y. 

Soc.  L..  . 

31,249 

William  W.  Cox,  .    . 

111. 

1908 

William  H.  Taft,  . 

Ohio 

Rep.,  .    . 

46 

483 

321 

7,637,676 

James  S.  Sherman,  . 

N.Y. 

321 

William  J.  Bryan, 

Neb. 

Dem., 

162 

6,393,182 

John  W.  Kern,     .     . 

Ind. 

162 

Eugene  V.  Debs,  . 

Ind. 

Soc,    .    . 

420,393 

Benjamin  Hanford, . 

N.Y. 

Eugene  W.  Chafin, 

111. 

Pro.,    .    . 

241,252 

Aaron  S.  Watkins,   . 

Thomas  L.  Hisgen, 

Mass. 

Ind.  L.,  . 

83,183 

John  Temple  Graves, 

Ga.'  ■  ■ 

Thomas  E.  Watson, 

Ga. 

Peo.,   .    . 

33,871 

Samuel  Williams, .    . 

Ind. 

August  Gilhaus,    . 

NY. 

Soc  L 

15,421 

Donald  L.  Munso,    . 

Va. 

*  Prior  to  1804  each  elector  was  entitled  to  vote  for  two  candidates  for  President.  The  candidate  receiving 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  was  declared  elected,  while  the  candidate  receiving  the  next  highest  vote  was  declared 
Vice-President,  t  Three  States  not  voting,  t  It  is  claimed  that  the  first  Republican  party  was  the  progenitor 
of  the  present  Democratic  party.  §  As  there  was  no  election  the  choice  was  decided  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
II  Owing  to  the  death  of  Horace  Greeley  the  Democratic  electors  scattered  their  vote. 


Rhode  Island.  On  May  29,  1790,  the 
State  accepted  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
entered  the  Union  as  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
States.  The  charter  of  1663,  however,  contin- 
ued to  be  the  constitutional  law  of  the  State 
down  to  1842.  In  that  year  a  new  Constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  which,  with  amendments, 
accepted  between  1854  and  1903,  provides  for 
a  Legislature  called  the  General  Assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives. The  Senate  has  thirty-eight  members, 
one  from  each  of  the  cities  and  towns,  besides 
the  governor  who  is  ex-oflicio  president,  and  the 
lieutenant-governor  who  is  ex-ofjicio  a  senator. 
"The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of  sev- 
enty-two members,  twelve  of  whom  are  from 
the  city  of  Providence  and  the  remainder  from 
the  other  cities  and  towns  according  to  popula- 
tion. Concurrent  action  between  the  two  legis- 
lative bodies  is  necessary  for  the  enactment  of 
laws.  Senators  and  representatives  are  elected 
at  town,  ward,  and  district  meetings  annually 
in  November,  and  hold  office  for  a  year,  com- 
mencing on  the  first  Tuesday  in  January.  The 
governor  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the 
State,  and  his  duty  is  to  see  that  the  laws 
are  faithfully  executed.  He  has  no  power  to 
veto  in  legislation;  most  of  the  appointments 
he  makes  require  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 


The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary 
of  state,  attorney-general,  and  the  general 
treasurer  are  elected  annually  in  the  same 
manner,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  the  senators 
and  representatives.  The  State  is  divided  into 
five  counties  and  thirty-eight  cities  and  towns. 
The  county  divisions  are  now  recognized  only 
for  the  holding  of  courts  and  the  jurisdiction 
of  sheriffs.  In  the  cities  only  certain  property- 
holders  and  tax-payers  can  vote  for  members  of 
coimcils. 

Roumania.  The  Constitution  now  in  force 
in  Roumania  was  voted  by  a  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, elected  by  universal  suffrage,  in  the  summer 
of  1866.  It  has  twice  been  modified,  viz:  in 
1879,  and  again  in  1884.  The  Senate  consists 
of  120  members,  elected  for  eight  years,  includ- 
ing two  for  the  universities,  and  eight  bishops. 
The  heir  to  the  crown  is  also  a  senator.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  consists  of  183  members, 
elected  for  four  years.  A  senator  must  be  40 
years  of  age,  and  a  deputy  25.  Members 
of  either  House  must  be  Roumanians  by 
birth  or  naturalization,  in  full  enjoyment  of 
civil  and  political  rights,  and  domiciled  in  the 
coimtry.  For  the  Senate  an  assured  income  of 
9,400  lei  ($1,880)  is  required.  All  citizens  of  full 
age,  paying  taxes,  are  electors,  and  are  divided 
into  three  electoral  colleges.     For  the  Chamber 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


621 


of  Deputies,  electors  who  are  in  possession  of 
property  bringing  in  $250  or  upwards  per  annum 
vote  in  the  first  college.  Those  having  their 
domicile  and  residence  in  an  urban  commune, 
and  paying  direct  taxes  to  the  state  of  $4  or 
upwards  annually,  or  being  persons  exercising 
the  liberal  professions,  retired  officers,  or  State 
pensioners,  or  who  have  been  through  the  pri- 
mary course  of  education,  vote  in  the  second 
college.  The  third  college  is  composed  of  those 
who,  paying  any  tax,  however  small,  to  the 
State,  belong  to  neither  of  the  other  colleges; 
those  of  them  who  can  read  and  write  and  have 
an  income  of  300  lei  ($60)  from  rural  land,  vote 
directly,  as  do  also  the  village  priests  and  school- 
masters, the  rest  vote  indirectly.  For  each 
election  every  fifty  indirect  electors  choose  a 
delegate,  and  the  delegates  vote  along  with  the 
direct  electors  of  the  colleges.  For  the  Senate 
there  are  only  two  colleges.  The  first  consists 
of  those  electors  having  property  yielding  an- 
nually at  least  $400;  the  second,  of  those  persons 
whose  income  from  property  is  from  $160  to  $400 
per  annum.  At  the  election  of  1905  there  were 
altogether  93,622  enrolled  electors  for  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  and  64,086  voted ;  for  the  Sen- 
ate there  were  24,571  enrolled  electors,  and  16,- 
648  voted.  Both  Senators  and  Deputies  receive 
20  lei  ($4)  for  each  day  of  actual  attendance, 
besides  free  railway  passes.  The  king  has  a  sus- 
pensive veto  over  all  laws  passed  by  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  the  Senate.  The  executive  is 
vested  in  a  council  of  eight  ministers,  the  presi- 
dent of  which  is  prime  minister,  and  may  or  may 
not  have  a  special  department. 

Russian  Empire.  The  Government  of 
Russia  is  a  constitutional  hereditary  monarchy, 
but,  in  fact,  the  whole  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  power  is  united  in  the  Emperor,  whose 
will  alone  is  law.  On  August  6  (19),  1905,  how- 
ever, an  elective  State  Council  (Gosudarstven- 
naya  Duma)  was  created,  and  on  October  17 
(30)  a  law  was  promulgated  granting  to  the  pop- 
ulation the  firm  foundations  of  public  liberty, 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  real  inviolability 
of  the  person,  and  of  freedom  of  conscience, 
speech,  assembly,  and  association,  and  estab- 
lishing as  an  unalterable  rule  that  no  law  shall 
come  into  effect  without  the  approval  of  the 
Duma,  and  that  to  the  elected  of  the  people 
shall  be  guaranteed  the  possibility  of  a  real  par- 
ticipation in  the  control  of  the  legality  of  the 
acts  of  such  authorities  as  are  appointed  by  the 
Emperor.  The  Duma  consists  of  members  elected 
for  five  years  and  representing  the  governments 
or  provinces  and  the  greatest  cities  (St.  Peters- 
burg, Moscow,  and  twenty-six  others).  The 
election  of  the  Deputies  is  indirect,  and  is 
made  by  electoral  bodies  of  the  chief  towns  of 
governments  or  provinces  and  of  the  greatest 
cities,  composed  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  dis- 
trict or  town  elective  assemblies.  In  towns,  all 
lodgers  occupying  for  twelve  months  lodging  let 
to  them,  may  vote  in  these  assemblies,  also  sal- 
aried clerks  of  state,  or  of  municipal  or  railway 
administration;  in  the  country,  all  owners  of  a 
determinate  area  of  land,  different  in  different 
districts,  or  of  non-industrial  estate  more  than 
50,000  roubles  in  value,  are  electors;  the 
volosts   or  peasant   communities  and  manufac- 


tories with  more  than  fifty  work  people  are  rep- 
resented in  the  electoral  assemblies  by  delegates, 
two  for  each  volost,  and  one  for  each  thousand 
workmen.  Students,  soldiers,  governors  of 
provinces  (in  provinces  governed  by  them),  and 
police-officers  (in  the  localities  for  which  they 
act)  may  not  vote.  Under  a  manifesto  and 
ukases  published  on  March  6,  1906  (N.  S.),  the 
Council  of  the  Empire  is  reorganized  and  changes 
are  made  in  the  constitution  of  the  Duma. 
The  Council  of  the  Empire  is  to  consist  of  an 
equal  number  of  elected  members  and  members 
nominated  by  the  Emperor,  and  will  be  convoked 
and  prorogued  annually  by  imperial  ukase. 
The  Council  of  the  Empire  and  the  Duma  will 
have  equal  legislative  powers  and  the  same  right 
of  initiative  in  legislation  and  of  addressing 
questions  to  ministers.  Every  measure,  before 
being  submitted  for  the  imperial  sanction,  must 
be  passed  by  both  the  Duma  and  the  Council  of 
the  Empire,  and  all  such  as  are  rejected  by  one 
of  the  two  legislative  institutions  will  not  be 
laid  before  the  Tsar  at  all.  Both  the  Duma 
and  the  Council  have  the  right  to  annul  the 
election  of  any  of  their  members.  The  elective 
members  of  the  Council  will  be  eligible  for 
nine  years,  a  third  of  the  number  being  elected 
every  three  years.  Each  assembly  of  the  Zemstvo 
of  each  government  will  elect  one  member. 
Six  members  will  be  returned  by  the  synod  of 
the  Orthodox  Church,  six  by  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Uni- 
versities, twelve  by  the  representatives  of  the 
bourses  of  commerce  and  of  industry,  eighteen 
by  the  representatives  of  the  nobility,  and  six 
by  the  representatives  of  the  landed  proprietors 
of  Poland,  assembled  in  congress  at  Warsaw. 
The  congress  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  the  nobility,  and  the 
commercial  and  industrial  communities  for  the 
election  of  their  members  to  the  Council  of 
the  Empire  will  meet  in  St.  Petersburg.  In 
those  provinces  of  European  Russia  which  have 
no  Zemstvo,  a  congress  of  the  representatives  of 
the  landed  proprietors  will  assemble  in  the  chief 
town  of  their  province  to  elect  one  member  for 
each  province  to  the  Council  of  the  Empire. 
All  members  of  the  Council  must  have  attained 
their  40th  year  and  have  an  academical  de- 
gree. The  president  and  vice-president  will  be 
appointed  by  the  Tsar.  The  elective  members 
of  the  Council  will  receive  an  honorarium  of  25 
roubles  ($12.50)  a  day  during  the  session.  The 
sittings  of  both  the  Duma  and  the  Council  of 
the  Empire  will  be  public.  The  closure  of  a 
debate  may  be  voted  by  a  simple  majority. 
Neither  the  Council  of  the  Empire  nor  the  Duma 
is  empowered  to  receive  deputations  or  petitions. 
Ministers  will  be  eligible  for  the  Duma  and,  in 
the  capacity  of  elected  members,  qualified  to 
vote.  Members  of  the  Duma  are  paid  10  rou- 
bles ($5)  per  day  during  session,  and  once  a  year 
traveling  expenses  to  and  from  St.  Petersburg 
at  the  rate  of  5  kopecks  per  verst  (40c.  per  mile). 
Laws  voted  by  the  two  Houses  will  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  imperial  sanction  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  the  Empire.  The  mem- 
bers of  both  institutions  will  have  the  privilege 
of  personal  immunity  during  the  session.  They 
will  only  be  liable  to  arrest  with  the  permission 


622 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  the  Duma  or  the  Council  of  the  Empire,  as 
the  case  may  be,  except  in  cases  of  flagrant 
offences  or  offences  committed  in  the  exercise 
of  their  duties.  The  ukases  further  provide 
that  bills  rejected  by  the  Tsar  cannot  be  brought 
forward  again  in  the  course  of  the  same  session, 
while  bills  rejected  by  one  of  the  legislative 
bodies  cannot  be  brought  forward  again  without 
the  imperial  consent.  The  administration  of 
the  empire  is  still  entrusted  to  great  boards,  or 
councils,  possessing  separate  functions.  One 
of  the  great  colleges,  or  boards  of  government, 
is  the  Ruling  Senate  or  "  Pravitelstvuyush- 
chiy  Senat,"  estabHshed  by  Peter  I.  in  the  year 
1711.  The  functions  of  the  Senate  are  partly 
of  a  deliberative  and  partly  of  an  executive 
character.  To  be  valid,  a  law  must  be  promul- 
gated by  the  Senate.  It  is  also  the  high  court 
of  justice  for  the  empire.  The  Senate  is  divided 
into  six  departments  or  sections,  which  all  sit 
at  St.  Petersburg,  two  of  them  being  Courts  of 
Cassation.  Each  department  is  authorized  to 
decide  in  the  last  resort  upon  certain  descrip- 
tions of  cases.  The  Senators  are  mostly  persons 
of  high  rank,  or  who  fill  high  stations;  but  a 
lawyer  of  eminence  presides  over  each  depart- 
ment, who  represents  the  emperor,  and  without 
whose  signature  its  decisions  would  have  no 
force.  In  the  plenum,  or  general  meeting  of 
several  sections,  the  minister  of  justice  takes 
the  chair.  A  special  department  consisting  of 
six  members  is  entrusted  with  disciplinary  judg- 
ments against  officials  of  the  Crown.  Another 
is  the  college,  established  by  Peter  I.  in  the 
year  1721,  the  Holy  Synod,  and  to  it  is  com- 
mitted the  superintendence  of  the  religious 
affairs  of  the  empire.  It  is  composed  of  the 
three  metropolitans  (St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
and  Kiev),  the  archbishop  of  Georgia  (Caucasus), 
and  several  bishops  sitting  in  turn.  AH  its  de- 
cisions run  in  the  emperor's  name,  and  have  no 
force  till  approved  by  him.  A  third  board  of 
government  is  the  committee  of  ministers,  re- 
organized by  a  decree  of  October  19  (November 
1),  1905.  The  fourth  board  of  government, 
the  most  important  since  the  decree  for  its 
reorganization  issued  October  19  (November  1), 
1905,  is  the  council  of  ministers.  It  consists  of 
all  the  ministers,  and  of  the  general  directors  of 
the  most  important  administrations. 

Local  Government. —  The  empire  is  divided 
into  governments  or  provinces  (oblast),  and  dis- 
tricts {uyezd  or  okrug).  There  are  seventy-eight 
governments  (forty-nine  in  European  Russia 
proper,  ten  in  Poland,  eight  in  Finland,  seven 
in  Caucasus,  four  in  Siberia) ;  nineteen  provinces 
(one  in  European  Russia,  five  in  Caucasus,  nine 
in  Central  Asia,  four  in  Siberia,  and  one  section 
(otdyel)  —  the  north  part  of  the  island  of  Sak- 
halin. Some  of  the  governments  or  provinces 
are  united  into  general  governments.  At  the 
head  of  each  general  government  is  a  governor- 
general,  the  representative  of  the  emperor,  who 
as  such  has  the  supreme  control  and  direction 
of  all  affairs,  whether  civil  or  military.  In  Si- 
beria the  governors-general  are  each  assisted 
by  a  council,  which  has  a  deliberative  voice.  A 
civil  governor  assisted  by  a  council  of  regency, 
to  which  all  measures  must  be  submitted,  is 
established  in  each  government,  and  a  military 


governor  in  seventeen  provinces,  one  town 
(Kronstadt)  and  the  island  of  Sakhalin.  A  vice- 
governor  is  appointed  to  fill  the  place  of  the 
civil  governor  when  the  latter  is  absent  or  un- 
well. There  is,  also,  in  each  government  a 
council  of  control  under  the  presidency  of  a 
Special  officer,  depending  directly  on  the  depart- 
ment of  control.  Each  government  is  divided 
into  from  five  to  fifteen  districts  (815  in  all  Rus- 
sian Empire),  having  each  several  administrative 
institutions.  The  townships  (gradonachalstvo) 
of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Odessa,  Kerch, 
Nikolayev,  and  Rostov-on-Don,  are  adminis- 
tered by  special  governors  (gradonachalnik) ; 
Cronstadt  is  under  a  separate  military  gov- 
ernor. 

Scotland.  By  the  local  government  act 
of  Great  Britain,  in  1894,  a  local  government 
board  for  Scotland  was  constituted.  It  consists 
of  the  secretary  for  Scotland  as  president,  the 
solicitor  general  of  Scotland,  the  under  secretary 
for  Scotland,  and  other  three  members  nomi- 
nated by  the  Crown.  The  local  government  act 
which  was  passed  for  Scotland  in  1889,  followed 
in  its  main  outlines  the  English  Act  of  the  pre- 
vious year.  The  powers  of  local  administration 
in  counties  formerly  exercised  by  the  commis- 
sioners of  supply  and  road  trustees  were  either 
wholly  or  in  part  transferred  to  the  new  councils, 
which  took  over  their  duties  and  responsibilities 
in  1890.  The  act  of  1894  provided  that  a 
parish  council  should  be  established  in  every 
parish  to  take  the  place  of  the  parochial  boards 
and  to  exercise  powers  similar  to  those  of  the 
parish  councils  in  England.  Municipal  bodies 
exist  in  the  towns  of  Scotland,  as  in  those  of 
England,  but  instead  of  their  magistrates  being 
called  aldermen,  they  are  called  bailies,  and 
instead  of  their  chief  magistrates  being  called 
mayors  they  are  called  provosts.  There  are  in 
Scotland  five  kinds  of  burghs — (1)  burghs  of 
barony;  (2)  burghs  of  regality  (no  practical  dis- 
tinction between  these  two);  the  councils  of 
these  two  classes  of  burghs  ceased  to  exist  in 
1893,  by  statutory  enactment;  (3)  royal  burghs, 
representatives  of  which  meet  together  annually 
in  a  collective  corporate  character,  as  the  "con- 
vention of  royal  burghs,"  for  the  transaction  of 
business;  (4)  parliamentary  burghs,  which  pos- 
sess statutory  constitutions  almost  identical 
with  those  of  the  royal  burghs ;  (5)  police  burghs, 
constituted  under  the  burgh  police  (Scotland) 
act,  1892,  in  which  the  local  authority  are  the 
police  commissioners.  These  two  latter  burghs, 
by  acts  passed  in  1879  and  1895,  are  enabled  to 
send  representatives  to  the  convention. 

Servia.  The  independence  of  Servia,  which, 
was  formerly  an  autonomous  province  of  Tur- 
key, was  established  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
1878.  The  constitution,  voted  by  the  national 
assembly  of  1889,  was  abrogated  by  the  king  in 
May,  1894,  and  an  older  constitution  of  1869, 
temporarily  revived;  but  in  1903  the  1889  con- 
stitution was  restored.  The  executive  is  vested 
in  the  king  and  his  ministers,  and  the  legislative 
authority  in  the  king  in  conjunction  with  the 
national  assembly  or  narodna-skuptschina  and 
a  state  council.  The  former  consists  of  160 
deputies  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  four 
years;  the  latter  of  sixteen  members,  eight  nom- 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


623 


inated  by  the  king  and  eight  elected  by  the 
assembly. 

8iaiu.  The  executive  power  is  exercised  by 
the  king  advised  by  a  cabinet  (senabodi)  con- 
sisting of  the  heads  of  the  various  departments 
of  the  government:  foreign  affairs,  interior, 
justice,  finance,  public  instruction,  public  works, 
war,  marine,  police,  etc.  Most  of  the  portfolios 
are  held  by  the  king's  half-brothers  and  sons. 
The  law  of  1874,  constituting  a  council  of  state, 
has  now  been  superseded  by  the  royal  decree  of 
1895,  creating  a  legislative  council.  The  latter 
is  composed  of  the  ministers  of  state  and  others, 
not  less  than  twelve  in  number,  appointed  by 
the  Crown.  The  total  membership  is  now  fifty- 
one.  In  the  preamble  of  the  royal  decree  it  is 
stated  that  the  object  of  this  body  is  to  revise, 
amend,  and  complete  the  legislation  of  the  king- 
dom. It  is  to  meet  at  least  once  a  week,  and  it  may 
appoint  committees  of  three  or  four  members,  with 
the  addition  of  competent  outsiders  who  must  not 
outnumber  the  members.  An  important  article 
gives  the  legislative  council  power  to  promulgate 
laws  without  the  royal  assent  in  the  event  of  any 
temporary  disability  of  the  Crown.  At  other 
times  the  royal  signature  is  indispensable.  This 
council  has  shown  considerable  legislative  activ- 
ity. The  Siamese  Malay  States  are  administered 
by  the  rajahs  mostly  under  the  control  of  com- 
missioners sent  from  Bangkok. 

South  Carolina.  The  first  Constitution, 
adopted  in  1776,  was  succeeded  by  others  in 
1778,  1790,  1865,  1868,  and  1895,  the  last-named 
being  still  in  force.  Amendments  proposed  in 
either  House  of  the  Legislature,  and  approved  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House,  are  submitted 
to  the  popular  vote;  if  approved  by  a  majority 
of  the  voters,  and  by  a  majority  of  each  House 
of  the  next  Legislature  they  become  part  of  the 
Constitution.  The  Legislature,  called  the  General 
Assembly,  consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty-one 
members,  elected  for  four  years  (half  retiring 
biennially),  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of 
124  members,  elected  for  two  years.  Senators 
must  be  25,  and  Representatives  21  years  of  age, 
and  all  the  Legislators  must  be  duly  qualified 
electors  of  the  State.  Revenue  bills  must  origi- 
nate in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor, 
elected  for  two  years.  He  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  militia;  has  power  to  pardon  or  reprieve, 
and  has  a  veto  which  may  be  overcome  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  both  Houses.  He  may  call 
special  sessions  of  the  Legislature.  Other  State 
officials  are  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  treas- 
urer, the  aftorney-general,  the  comptroller-gene- 
ral, the  adjutant  general,  and  the  superinten- 
dent of  education. 

South  Dakota.  Under  the  Constitution 
of  South  Dakota,  adopted  in  1889,  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives; but  to  the  people  is  reserved  the 
right  that  not  less  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  electors 
may  (1)  propose  measures  which  the  Legislature 
shall  enact  and  submk  to  a  vote  of  the  general 
body  of  electors;  (2)  demand  a  referendum  in 
respect  of  laws  enacted  by  the  Legislature,  before 
such  laws  take  effect,  save  in  cases  of  urgency. 
The  Constitution  provides  that  the  Senate  shall 
consist  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  and  not  more 


than  forty-five  members,  and  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives of  not  less  than  seventy-five,  nor 
more  than  135  members.  Both  Senators  and 
Representatives  must,  among  other  qualifications 
have  reached  the  age  of  25  years,  and  have 
resided  in  the  State  for  two  years  immediately 
preceding  election.  The  term  of  office  of  both 
is  two  years.  Any  bill  may  originate  in  .either 
House.  The  House  of  Representatives  has  the 
sole  power  of  impeachment;  impeachments 
must  be  tried  by  the  Senate.  The  chief  execu- 
tive authority  is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor, 
elected  for  two  years.  He  himself  must  be  a 
qualified  elector  and  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  must  have  attained  the  age  of  30  years, 
and  have  resided  in  the  State  during  the  two 
years  immediately  preceding  his  election.  He 
has  the  powers  usually  resident  in  State  govern- 
ors, including  the  limited  veto  and  pardoning 
powers.  At  the  same  time  as  the  governor,  and 
for  the  same  period,  there  are  elected  a  lieuten- 
ant-governor, who  acts  as  president  of  the 
Senate;  a  secretary  of  state,  an  auditor,  a 
treasurer  (who  may  not  hold  office  for  more  than 
two  terms  consecutively),  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  a  commissioner  of  schools  and 
public  lands,  and  an  attorney-general. 

Spain.  By  the  constitution  of  1876,  Spain 
is  declared  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  the 
executive  power  vested  in  the  king,  and  the  leg- 
islative power  in  the  cortes  with  the  king.  The 
cortes  consists  of  senate  and  congress.  The 
senate  is  composed  of  three  classes:  those  who 
sit  by  right  of  royal  or  noble  birth  or  official 
position,  100  members  nominated  by  the.  Crown 
(these  two  classes  not  numbering  more  than  180 
together),  and  180  elected  by  the  communal 
and  provincial  states,  the  church,  the  universi- 
ties, and  the  largest  taxpayers  of  the  kingdom. 
The  elected  senators  must  be  renewed  by  one 
half  every  five  years,  and  altogether  whenever 
the  cortes  are  dissolved.  The  congress  contains 
406  deputies,  elected  for  five  years  by  citizens  of 
25  years  of  age  who  have  enjoyed  full  civil  rights 
in  any  municipality  for  two  years.  There  is 
some  provision  for  minority  representation,  and 
for  the  election  of  ten  deputies,  who,  though  not 
returned  in  any  single  district,  yet  receive  a 
cumulative  vote  of  more  than  10,000  in  several 
districts.  The  senate  and  congress  are  equal  in 
authority,  and  either  of  them,  or  the  king,  can 
introduce  new  laws.  Each  of  the  forty-nine 
provinces  has  its  own  parliament,  and  each  com- 
mune its  own  elected  ayuntamiento,  presided 
over  by  the  alcalde,  for  municipal  and  provincial 
administration;  and  by  the  constitution  neither 
the  executive  nor  the  cortes  can  (although  they 
do)  interfere  in  municipal  or  provincial  admin- 
istration, except  for  the  protection  of  national 
and  permanent  interests.  The  state  religion  is 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  public  worship  of 
any  other  creed  is  forbidden. 

In  1903,  the  army  was  reorganized  on  the 
basis  of  an  effective  of  80,000  men;  the  second 
battalions  of  the  infantry  regiments  and  the 
fourth  squadrons  of  the  cavalry  being  reduced. 
In  1907  the  effective  was  raised  to  100,000  owing 
to  increased  establishments  at  Ceuta,  Melilla,  and 
Minorca,  the  strengthening  of  infantry  battalions 
in  the  Peninsula,  and  other  increases. 


624 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


STATE    STATISTICS  — HISTORICAL, 


States 


Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

California, 
Colorado, 

Connecticut 
Delaware, 

Florida,  . 
Georgia,  . 
Idaho, .    . 

Illinois,    . 

Indiana,  . 
Iowa,    .    . 

Kansas,  . 
Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 


Massachusetts 
Michigan 


Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Montana, 

Nebraska, 


Nevada, 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York, 
North  Carolina, 
North  Dakota, 

Ohio 

Oklahoma,  .  . 
Oregon,  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island, 

South  Carolina, 
South  Dakota, 

Tennessee,  .    . 

Texas,      .    .    . 

Utah 

Vermont,  .  . 
Virginia,  .    .    . 

Washington,   . 

West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin,  .    . 

Wyoming,   .    . 


Origin  and  Meaning 
OF  Name 


Indian  —  Here  we  rest,  .... 

From  a  tribe  of  Indians,     .    .    . 

From  an  old  Spanish  romance, 
Spanish  —  Red,  or  Ruddy,     .    . 

Indian — •  Long  River 

In  honor  of  Lord  Delaware,   .    . 

Spanish  —  Blooming, 

In  honor  of  George  II 

Indian  —  Gem  of  the  Mountains, 

Indian  —  The  Men •   . 

Indian's  Ground 

Indian  —  Drowsy  Ones,      .    .    . 

Indian  —  Smoky  Water,  .  .  . 
Indian  —  Dark      and      Bloody 

Ground 

In  honor  of  Louis  XIV.,.    .    .    . 

The  Main  Land 

In  honor  of    Queen    Henrietta 

Maria 

The  place  of  great  hills 

Indian  —  A  weir  of  fish,     .    .    . 

Indian  —  Cloudy  Water,     .    .    . 

Indian  —  Great  River,  or  Father 

of  Waters 

Indian  —  Great  Muddy,      .    .    . 

Spanish — A  Mountain,      .    .    . 

Indian  —  Shallow  Water,   .    .    . 

Spanish  —  Snow-covered,  .    .    . 

Hampshire,  England 

In  honor  of  governor  of  Jersey 

Island 

In  honor  of  Duke  of  York,.  .  . 
In  honor  of  Charles  II.,  .... 
Indian  —  Allied 

Indian  —  Beautiful  River,  .  . 
Indian  -r-  Beautiful  Land,  .  .  . 
Spanish  —  Wild  Marjoram,  .  . 
Latin  —  Penn's  Woods,  .... 
Rhodes,  an  island  in  the  .lEgian 

Sea, 

In  honor  of  Charles  II 

Indian  —  Allied, 

Indian  —  River  with  the  great 
bend 

From  tribe  of  Indians,     .... 

Indian  —  Mountain  Dwellers,    . 

French  —  Green  Mountain,    .    . 

In  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  Vir- 
gin Queen, 

After  George  Washington,  first 
President  of  United  States,     . 

From  Virginia 

Indian  — •  Wild  Rushing  Channel, 

Indian  —  Extensive  Plain,     .    . 


Date  of 
Admis- 
sion 

INTO 

Union 


1819 

1836 

1850 
1876 

*1788 
*1787 

1845 

*1788 

1890 

1818 

1816 
1846 

1861 

1792 
1812 
1820 

♦1788 

*1788 

1837 

1858 


1817 
1821 

1889 

1867 

1864 
*1788 

♦1787 

*1788 

*1789 

1889 

1803 

1907 

1859 

*1787 

*1790 

*1788 

1889 


1796 
1845 
1896 
1791 

*1788 

1889 
1863 
1848 

1890 


t  SETTLEMENT 


Where 


Mobile  Bay,  . 

Arkansas  Post, 

San  Diego, 
Auroria,      .    . 

Windsor,  .  . 
Wilmington,  . 

St.  Augustine, 
Savannah, 
Coeur  d'Alene, 

Kaskaskia,     . 

Vincennes, .  . 
Dubuque,  .    . 

Leavenworth, 

Boonesboro,  . 
New  Orleans, 
Saco,  .... 

St.  Mary's,     . 
Plymouth, 
Sault  Ste.  Marie 

St.  Paul,     . 


Biloxi,     .    .    . 
St.  Genevieve, 


Yellowstone  River 

Bellevue,    .    .    . 

Genoa 

Portsmouth,  .    . 

Elizabethtown, . 
New  York,     .    . 
Albemarle  Sound, 
Pembino,    .    .    . 

Marietta,  .  .  . 
Guthrie,  .  .  . 
Astoria,  .... 
Chester,  .... 


Providence,  . 
Ashley  River. 
Southeast  part, 


Fort  Loudon,     . 
San  Antonio, 
Salt  Lake  City, . 
Fort  Dummer,  . 

Jamestown,    .    . 

Columbia  River. 
Berkeley  County, 
Green  Bay,     .    . 

Cheyenne,  .    .    . 


When    By  Whom 


1702 

1685 

1768 
1859 

1633 
1637 

1.565 
1733 
1842 

1682 

1702 
1833 

1854 

1769 
1718 
1623 

1632 
1620 
1668 

1838 


1699 
1755 

1809 

1847 

1850 
1623 

1617 
1614 
1653 
1859 

1788 
1890 
1811 
1638 

1636 
1670 
1859 


1757 
1692 
1847 
1724 

1607 

1811 

1726? 

1745 

1867 


French, 

French, 

Spanish, 
American, 

English, 
Swedes, 

Spanish, 
English, 
American, 

French, 

French, 
American, 

American, 

English, 
French, 
English, 

English, 
English, 
French, 


Freijch, 
Frefich, 

American, 

American, 

American, 
English, 

Dutch, 
Dutch, 
English, 
American, 

American, 
American, 
.\merican, 
Swedes, 

English, 
English, 
American, 


English, 
Spanish, 
American, 
English, 

English, 

English, 

American, 

French, 

American, 


Area 
Square 
Miles 


52,250 

53,850 

158,360 
103,925 

4,990 
2,050 

58,680 
59,475 
84,800 

56,650 

36,350 
56,025 

82,080 

40,400 
48,720 
33,040 

12,210 

8,315 

58,915 

83,365 


46,810 
69,415 

146,080 

75,510 

110,700 
9,305 

7,815 
49,170 
52,250 
70,795 

41,060 
70,430 
96,030 
45,215 

1,250 
30,570 
77,650 


42,050 

265,780 

84,970 

9,565 

42,450 

69,180 
24,780 
56,040 

97,890 


*  Dates  of  ratifying  the  Constitution  by  the  Thirteen  Original  States, 
early  settlements;  best  authorities  differ. 


t  Considerable  uncertainty  exists   relative   to 
TERRITORIES   AND    INSULAR 


Territories  and  Insular 
Possessions 


Date  of 

Settle- 
ment 


Place  of 

Settlement 


Bt  Whom 
Settled 


Capitals 


Organ- 
ized 


Popula- 
tion When 
Organized 


New  Mexico,  .    .    . 

Arizona, 

Alaska, 

Hawaiian  Islands, 
Porto  Rico,  .  .  . 
Philippine  Islands, 


1582 

1783 
1820 
1509 
1565 


Santa  F6, 


Kodiak, 
Honolulu, 


Cebu, 


Spaniards, 

Spaniards, 

Russians, 

Americans, 

Spaniards, 

Spaniards, 


Santa  Fe, 
Phcenix,  . 
Juneau,  . 
Honolulu, 
San  Juan, 
Manila,     . 


1850 
1863 
1884 
1900 


GOVERNMENT   AND   POLITICS 
GEOGRAPHICAL,   AND   INDUSTRIAL 


625 


Original  Names,  or  Territory  from 
WHICH  Derived 


Louisiana  and  Georgia,  Mississippi  Territory, 
Alabarria  Territory 

Louisiana,  Louisiana  Territory,  Missouri  Terri- 
tory, Arkansas  Territory 

New  Albion,  Upper  California, 

Louisiana  and  Slexican  cession.  Colorado  Terri- 
tory,   

North  Virginia,  New  England 

New  Sweden,  New  Netherland,  three  lower  coun- 
ties on  the  Delaware 

Florida  Territory, 

One  of  the  Original  Thirteen  States, 

Oregon  Territory,  Washington  Territory,  Idaho 
Territory 

Northwest  Territory,  Indiana  Territory,  Illinois 
Territory,      

Northwest  Territory,  Indian  Territory 

Louisiana,  Missouri,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Iowa  Territories, 

Louisiana,  Kansas  Territory 

Virginia, 


Louisiana,  Territory  of  Orleans •. 

New  England,  Laconia,  and  Massachusetts, 
One  of  the  original  States, 


North  Virginia,  New  England,  Massachusetts  Bay, 

Northwest  Territory,  Indiana  Territory,  Michi- 
gan Territory, 

Louisiana  and  Northwest  Territory,  Minnesota 
Territory 

Louisiana  and  Georgia,  Mississippi  Territory,     . 

Louisiana,  Louisiana  Territory,  Missouri  Terri- 
tory,   

Louisiana,  Nebraska  Territory,  Idaho  Territory, 
Dakota  Territory,  Montana  Territory,  .    .    . 

Louisiana,  Nebraska  Territory 

Upper  California,  Utah  Territory,  Nevada  Terri- 
tory,   

North  Virginia,  New  England,  Laconia 

New  Netherland 

New  Netherland 

Albemarle  Colony 

Louisiana,  Minnesota,  and  Nebraska  Territory, 
Dakota  Territory, 

Northwest  Territory 

Indian  Territory,  Oklahoma  Territory,    .... 

'Oregon  Territory, 

^Original  State, 

North  Virginia,  New  England,  Aquiday,  Provi- 
dence and  Rhode  Island  Plantations,  .... 

Carteret  Colony 

Louisiana,  Minnesota,  and  Nebraska  Territories, 
Dakota  Territory, 

North  Carolina,  Territory  south  of  the  Ohio 
River 


Mexican  Cession,  Utah  Territory 

New  Netherland,  New  Hampshire  Grants, 
South  Virginia, 


Oregon  Territory,  Washington  Territory,    .    .    . 

Virginia, 

Northwest  Territory,  Illinois  Territory,  Michigan 

Territory,  Wisconsin, 

Louisiana  (chiefly),  Nebraska  Territory,  Dakota 

Territory,  Idaho  Territory,  Wyoming  Territory, 


Popula- 
tion, 1910 


2,138,093 

1,574,449 
2,377,549 

799,024 
1,114,756 

202,322 

752,619 

2,609,121 

325,594 

5,638,591 
2,700,876 

2,224,771 
1,690,949 
2,289,905 

1,656,388 

742,371 

1,295,346 

3,366,416 

2,810,173 

2,075,708 
1,797,114 


3,293,335 

376,053 
1,192,214 

81,875 

430,572 

2,537,167 

9,113,614 
2,206,287 

577,056 
4,767,121 
1,657,155 

672,765 
7,665,111 

542,610 
1,515,400 

583,888 

2,184,789 

3,896,542 

373,351 

355,956 

2,061,612 

1,141,990 

1,221,119 

2,333,860 

145,965 


Popula- 
tion, 1900 


1,828,697 

1,311,564 
1,485,063 

539,700 
908,420 

184,735 

528,542 

2,216,331 

161.772 

4,821,550 
2,516,462 

2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147;i74 

1,381,625 

694,466 

1,188,044 

2,805,346 

2,420,982 

1,751,394 
1,551,270 


3,106,665 

243,329 
1,066,30P 

42,335 

411,588 

1,883,669 

7,268,894 
1,893,810 

319,146 

4,157,545 

790,391 

413,536 

6,302,115 

428,556 
1.340,316 

401,570 

2,020,616 

3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 

1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 


%  OF 

Inc. 

1900- 

10 

go 

^2 

16.9 

18 

20.0 
60.1 

25 
12 

48.0 
22.7 

32 
31 

9.5 
42.4 
17.7 

44 
33 
10 

101.3 

43 

16.9 
7.3 

3 
9 

-0.3 

15.0 

6.6 

15 
22 
14 

19.9 
6.9 
9.0 

24 
34 

27 

20.0 

6 

16.1 

8 

18.5 
.  15.8 

19 
21 

6.0 

7 

54.5 
11.8 

40 
29 

93.4 

4.6 

34.7 

46 
39 
11 

25.4 
16.5 

1 
16 

80.8 
14.7 
109.7 
62.7 
21.6 

37 

4 

23 

35 

2 

26.6 
13.1 

38 
26 

45.4 

36 

8.1 
27.8 
34.9 

3  6 
11.2 

17 
5 
41 
42 
20 

120.4 

30 

27.4 

28 

12.8 

13 

57.7 

45 

Metropolis 


Birmingham, 

Little  Rock, 
San  Francisco 

Denver,  .  . 
New  Haven, 

Wilmington, 
Jacksonville, 
Atlanta,    .    . 

Boise  City,  . 

Chicago,  .  . 
Indianapolis, 

Des  Moines, 
Kansas  City, 
Louisville,    . 

New  Orleans, 

Portland, 

Baltimore, 

Boston,    . 

Detroit,    . 

Minneapolis 
Meridian, 


St.  Louis, 

Butte,  .    . 
Omaha,    . 

Reno,    .    . 
Manchester, 
Newark,   . 

New  York, 
Charlotte, 


Grand  Forks 
Cleveland,    . 
Oklahoma  City 
Portland, 
Philadelphia, 

Providence, 
Charleston.  . 

Sioux  Falls, 

Memphis,     . 
San  Antonio, 
Salt  Lake  City, 
Burlington, . 
Richmond,  . 

Seattle,    .    . 

Wheeling,    . 

Milwaukee,  . 

Laramie,  .    . 


States 


Alabama. 

Arkansas. 
California. 

Colorado. 
Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 
Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota 
Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 
Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey. 

New  York. 
North  Carolina. 

North  Dakota. 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode  Island. 
South  Carolina. 

South  Dakota. 

Tennessee. 

Te.xas. 

Utah. 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

Washington. 

West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 

Wyoming. 


Note. —  Population  of  United  States,  91,972,266;   including  possessions,  101,100,000. 
District  of  Columbia,  in  1900,  278,718;   in  1910,  331,069;   increase  21%. 
POSSESSIONS    OF    THE   UNITED   STATES 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 


122,580 
113,020 
590,884 
6,740 
3,600 
127,800 


Population 
1910 


327,301 

204,354 

64,356 

191,909 

1,118,012 

7,635,426 


Population 
1900 


195,310 
122,931 
63,592 
154,001 
953,243 
7,635,426* 


%  OF  Inc. 
1900-10 


67.5 
66.2 
1.2 
24.6 
16.2 


Metropolis 


Albuquerque 
Tucson,  . 
Nome,     . 
Honolulu, 
Ponce,    . 
I  Manila,  . 


Territories  and  Insular 
Possessions 


New  Mexico. 
Arizona. 
Alaska. 

Hawaiian  Islands. 
Porto  Rico. 
Philippine  Islands. 


*  The  only  authentic  figures  obtainable  are  from  the  enumeration  made  by  the  War  Department  in  1903. 


626 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


SUFFRAGE   REQUIREMENTS  THROUGHOUT 

"  Citizen  of  the  United  States"  means,  unless  otherwise  stated,  a  male  of  twenty-one  years  and  over.    Women  vote 


Previous  Residence  Req'red 

Governors 

States 

Capitals 

Requirements  as 
to    Citizenship 

In           In 

In 

In  Pre- 

Persons Excluded 

FROM  Suffrage 

Sala- 

L'gth 
Terra 

Yrs. 

State    County 

Town 

cinct 

ries 

Alabama,  .    .    . 

Montgomery, 

Citizen    of    United 

2  years j  1  year 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

Convicted  of  treason 

$5,000 

4 

States     or     alien 

or    other    felonies, 

who  has  declared 

. 

idiots,  or  insane. 

intentions. 

Arkansas,  .    .    . 

Little  Rock, 

Citizen    of     United 
States    or    alien 
who  has  declared 
intentions. 

1  year 

6  mos. 

30  days 

30  days 

Idiots,   insane,     con- 
victed   of    felony, 
failure  to  pay  poll- 
tax,  U.  S.  soldiers, 
or  mariners. 

4,000 

2 

California,     .    . 

Sacramento, 

Citizen  by  nativity. 

1  year  l90  days 

30  days 

Chinese,     idiots,     in- 

6,000 

4 

naturalization  (90 

sane,  embezzlers  of 

days  prior  to  elec- 

public moneys,  con- 

tion), or  treaty  of 

victed  of  infamous 

Queretaro. 

crime,  t 

Colorado,  .    .    . 

Denver,    .    . 

Citizen,    native    or 
naturalized,  male 
or  female,  who  is 
duly  registered. 

1  year 

90  days 

10  days 

While     confined      in 
public    prison,   un- 
der    guardianship, 
non  compos  mentis, 
insane. 

5,000 

2 

Connecticut, .    . 

Hartford,.    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States    who    can 
read  English  lan- 

1 year 

6  mos. 

Convicted  of  heinous 
crime,   unless  par- 
doned. 

4,000 

2 

Delaware,      .    . 

Dover,  .    .    . 

guage. 
Citizen    who    shall 
have  paid  a  regis- 
tration fee  of  $1. 

1  year 

3  mos. 

30  days 

Insane    persons    and 
paupers,  or  persons 
convicted  of  felony. 

4,000 

4 

Florida 

Tallahassee, 

Citizen    of    United 
States. 

1  year 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 

Idiots,  duelists,  con- 
victed of  felony  or 
any    infamous 
crime. 

5,000 

4 

Georgia,     .    .    . 

Atlanta,    .    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States    who    has 
paid  all  his  taxes 
since  1877. 

1  year 

6  mos. 

Convicted  of  felony, 
bribery,  or  larceny, 
unless      pardoned, 
idiots,  and  insane. 

5,000 

2 

Idaho,    .... 

Bois6  City,  . 

Citizen    of    United 
States,    male    or- 
female. 

6  mos. 

30  days 

Idiots,    insane,    con- 
victed    of     felony, 
bigamists,    polyga- 
mists,  under  guar- 
dianship. 

Convicted    of    felony 

5,000 

2 

Illinois,  .... 

Springfield,  . 

Citizen    of    United 

1  year 

90  days 

30  days 

30  days 

12,000 

4 

States  (6). 

or  bribery  in  elec- 
tions,     unless     re- 
stored   to    citizen- 
ship. 

Indiana,     .    .    . 

Indianapolis, 

Citizen  or  alien  who 

G  mos. 

60  days; 60  days 

30  days 

United     States     sol- 

8,000 

4 

has   declared    in- 

diers,   sailors,    and 

tention    and    re- 

marines,   and    per- 

sided one  year  in 

sons    convicted    of 

United  States. 

infamous  crime. 

Iowa 

Des  Moines, 

Citizen    of    United 
States. 

G  mos. 

60  days 

Idiots,    insane,    con- 
victed of  infamous 
crime,    U.    S.    sol- 
diers (/). 

Convicted  of  treason 

5,000 

' 

Kansas,.    .    .    . 

Topeka,    .    . 

Citizen    of    United 

6  mos. 

30  days 

30  days 

10  days 

5,000 

2 

States     or     alien 

or    felony,    insane. 

who  has  declared 

under  guardian- 

intention (6). 

ship.  (H) 

Kentucky,     .    . 

Frankfort,    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States  (6). 

I  year 

G  mos. 

60  days 

60  days 

Convicted  of  treason, 
felony,  or  bribery  in 
an  election,  idiots, 
and  insane  (;'). 

6,500 

4 

Louisiana,      .    . 

Baton  Rouge, 

Citizen    of    United 
States  (to). 

2  years 

1  year 

G  mos. 

Idiots,  insane,  felons 
under    indictment, 
inmates    of    prison 
or  charitable  insti- 
tution  except  Sol- 
diers' Home. 

5,000 

4^ 

Maine 

Augusta,  .    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States. 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

Paupers  and  Indians 
not  taxed. 

3,000 

Maryland, .    .    . 

Annapolis,    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States. 

1  year 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 

1  day 

Felons  not  pardoned, 
lunatics,   non  com- 
pos mentis,  bribery. 

4,500 

Massachusetts, . 

Boston,     .    . 

Citizen    who    can 
read  and  write(6). 

1  year 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 

Paupers  and  persons 
under  guardianship. 

8,000 

Michigan,  .    .    , 

Lansing,   .    . 

Citizen    of    United 

6  mos. 

20  days  20  days 

20  days 

Indians    with    tribal 

6,000 

States     or    alien 

relations,    duelists, 

■who    declared 

and  accessories. 

intention  2  years 

and     6     months 

prior  to  Novem- 
ber     8,      1894 
(6). 

GOVERNMENT   AND 

POLITICS 

627 

THE 

UNITED   STATES 

at  school  elections  in  several  States 

and  have  ful 

suffrage  in  Colorado, 

Idaho,  Utah,  Washington, 

and  Wyoming. 

Legislatures 

Mem' 

i  Terms 

> 

Total 
Assessed 
Valuation 

Per  Ct. 
Actual 

Value 

Tax  Rate 

per 

$1,000 

Voting  Population 

Ann. 

or 
Bien. 

Limit 

of 
Session 

Salaries 

of 
Members 

Sena- 
tors 

Repre- 
sent- 
atives 

Total 

Whites 

Negroes 

Quad. 

60  days 

$4  per  diem 

4 

2 

11 

S  344,224,221 

40 

$6.50 

413,862 

232,294 

181,471 

Bien. 

60  days 

6  per  diem 

4 

2 

9 

249,779,108 

5.34 

313,836 

226,597 

87,157 

Bien. 

60  days 

8  per  diem 

4 

2 

10 

1,594,781,905 

4.76 

544,087 

489,545 

3,711 

Bien. 

90  days 

7  per  diem 

4 

2 

5 

465,000,000 

4.50 

185,708 

181,616 

3,215 

Bien. 

None 

300  per  annum 

2 

2 

7 

712,519,166 

80 

280,340 

275,126 

4,576 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

3 

76,000,000 

54,018 

45,592 

8,374 

Bien. 

60  days 

6  per  diem 

4 

2 

5 

131,436,593 

6.50 

139,601 

77,962 

61,417 

Annual 

50  days 

4  per  diem 

2 

2 

13 

577,840,282 

Full 

4.80 

500,752 

277,496 

223,073 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

2 

2 

3 

80,707,903 

40 

63,932 

50,328 

130 

Bien. 

None 

1,000  per  sess'n 

4 

2 

27 

1,083,050,979 

20 

5.20 

1,401,456 

1,370,209 

29,762 

Bien. 

60  days 

6  per  diem 

4 

2 

15 

1,360,445,139 

0.90 

720,206 

701,761 

18,186 

Bien. 

None 

550  per  term 

4 

2 

13 

634,733,822 

25 

3.50 

635,298 

630,665 

4,441 

Bien. 

50  days 

3  per  diem 

4 

2 

10 

378,335,401, 

25 

5.20 

413,786 

398,552 

14,695 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

13 

644,489,000 

5.00 

543,996 

469,206 

74,728 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

4 

9 

459,271,270 

Full 

5.00 

325,943 

177,878 

147,348 

Bien. 

None 

300  per  annum 

2 

2 

6 

366,514,014 

Full 

2.50 

217,663 

216,856 

445 

Bien. 
'  Annual 

90  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

'  8 

643,812,408 

1.70 

321,903 

260,979 

60,406 

None 

750  per  annum 

1 

1 

16 

4,222,281,054 

Full 

843,465 

830,049  . 

10,456 

Bien. 

None 

3  per  diem 

2 

2 

14 

1,596,431,914 

85 

1.95 

719,478 

712,245 

5,193 

628 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


SUFFRAGE   REQUIREMENTS   THROUGHOUT 


States 


Minnesota,    .  . 

Mississippi,    .  . 

Missouri,    .    .  . 

Montana,  .    .  . 

Nebraska,  .   .  . 

Nevada,     .    .  . 

New  Hampshire, 

New  Jersey,  .  . 

New  York,    .  . 


North  Carolina, 
North  Dakota, . 


Ohio, 


Oklahoma,     . 
Oregon,  .   .    . 

Pennsylvania, 


Capitals 


St.  Paul, 


Jackson, 


Jefferson  City, 


Helena, 


Lincoln, 


Carson  City, 

Concord,  .    . 
Trenton,  .    . 


Albany, 


Raleigh,    . 
Bismarck, 

Columbus, 


Oklahoma 

City,      . 


Salem, 


Harrisburg, 


Previous  Residence  Re^'red 


Requirements  as 
TO  Citizenship 


Citizen  of  United 
States  who  has 
been  such  for  3 
months  preceding 
election  (6). 


Citizen  of  United 
States  who  can 
read  or  under- 
stand Constitu- 
tion. 

Citizen  of  United 
States  or  alien 
who  has  declared 
intention  not  less 
than  1  year  or 
more  than  6  be- 
fore election. 

Citizen  of  United 
States  (6). 


Citizen  of  United 
States  or  alien 
who  has  declared 
intention  30  days 
before  election  (b) 

Citizen  of  United 
States. 

Citizen    of    United 

States  (6). 
Citizen    of    United 

States. 


Citizen  who  shall 
have  been  a  citi- 
zen for  ninety 
days  prior  to  elec- 
tion. 


Citizen  of  United 
States. 

Citizen  of  United 
States  and  civil- 
ized Indian,  t  (6). 


Citizen    of    United 
States  (6). 


Citizen  of  United 
States. 

Citizen  of  United 
States  or  alien 
who  has  declared 
intention  more 
than  1  year  prior 
to  election  (6). 

Citizen  of  United 
States  at  least 
one  month  and 
if  22  years  old 
or  more  must 
have  paid  tax 
within  two  years. 


In 
State 


6  mos. 

2  years 
1  year 

1  year 
6  mos. 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 
1  year 

lyr.(fc) 


In 
County 


30  days 

1  year 
60  days 

30  days 
40  days 

30  days 

6  mos. 
5  mos. 


In 
Town 


In  Pre- 
cinct 


2  years 
1  year 


1  year 


6  mos. 
6  mos. 


1  year 


30  days 

1  year 
60  days 

30  days 

30  days 

30  days 
6  mos 

(0 


6  mos. 
6  mos. 

30  days 


60  days 
None  • 


Persons  Excluded 
FROM  Suffrage 


30  days 


lyr.(ll) 


20  days 


30  days 


10  days 


30  days 


(I) 


i  4  mos. 


90  days 


20  days 


60  days 
None 


20  days 


30  days 

None 


2  mos. 


Convicted  of  treason 
or  felony,  unpar- 
doned, under  guar- 
dianship, insane, 
Indians  lacking 
customs  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

Insane,  idiots,  In- 
dians not  taxed, 
felons,  persons  who 
have  not  paid  taxes, 
bigamists. 

Persons  in  p  o  o  r  - 
houses  or  asylums 
at  public  expense, 
those  in  prison,  or 
convicted  of  in- 
famous crimes  (n). 

Felons  not  pardoned, 
idiots,  insane,  U.  S. 
soldiers,  seamen, 
and  marines,  In- 
dians. 

Convicted  of  treason 
or  felony,  unless  re- 
stored to  civil 
rights,  persons  non 
compos  mentis   (;'). 

Idiots,  insane,  unpar- 
doned convicts,  In- 
dians, Chinese. 

Paupers  (/()• 

Idiots,  paupers,  in- 
sane, convicted  of 
crime,  unless  par- 
doned or  restored 
by  law  (j). 

Offenders  against 
elective  franchise 
rights,  guilty  of 
bribery,  betting  on 
elections,  and  per- 
sons convicted  of 
bribery  orinfamous 
crime  and  not  re- 
stored to  citizen- 
ship by  the  Execu- 
tive. Convicts  in 
House  of  Refuge  or 
Reformatory  not 
disqualified. 

Convicted  of  felony 
or  infamous  crime, 
idiots,  lunatics. 

Under  guardianship, 
persons  non  com- 
pos mentis,  or  con- 
victed of  felony 
and  treason,  unless 
restored  to  civil 
rights. 

Idiots,  insane,  and 
felons,  persons  in 
U.  S.  military  and 
naval  service  on 
duty  in  Ohio. 

Felons,  idiots,  insane. 

Idiots,  insane,  con- 
victed of  felony, 
Chinese. 


Convicted  of  perjury 
and  fraud  as  elec- 
tion officers,  o  r 
bribery   of   voters. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS 
FHE  UNITED  STATES  — Continued 


629 


Legislatures 


Ann. 

or 
Bien. 

Limit 

of 
Session 

Bien. 

90  days 

Bien. 

None 

Bien. 

70  days 

Bien. 

60  days 

Bien. 

60  days 

Bien. 

50  days 

Bien. 

None 

Annual 

None. 

Annual 

None 

Bien. 

60  days 

Bien. 

60  days 

Bien. 

None 

Bien. 

60  days 

,  Bien. 

J 

40  days 

Bien. 

None 

Salaries 

of 
Members 


S5  per  diem 


400  per  annum 


5  per  diem 


6  per  diem 


500  per  annum 


8  per  diem 

200  per  annum 
500  per  annum 


1,500  per  annum 


4  per  diem 

5  per  diem 

1,000  per  annum 

6  per  diem 
3  per  diem 

1,500  per  sess'n 


Mem's  Terms 


Sena- 
tors 


Repre- 
sent- 
atives 


«  S 


10 


18 


39 


23 


34 


Total 

Assessed 
Valuation 


J87 1,270,822 


222,847,525 


1,489,390,319 


234,070,663 


313,060,301 


28,391,252 

231,641,571 
918,418,741 


8,015,090,722 


461,520,668 
196,462,584 

2,113,806,168 

96,625,604 
188,058,281 

4,405,378,339 


K   H   2 


40 


33  § 


Full 


20 


Full 


66 
25 


60 


25 
33i 


$1.50 


6.00 


1.70 


2.50 


7.00 


8.00 


1.54 


4.30 
5.30 


1.35 


6.50 
5.45 


Voting  Population 


Total 


506,794 


349,177 


856,684 


101,931 


301,091 


17,710 

130,987 
555,608 


2,184,965 


417,578 
95,217 

1,212,223 

1,414,042 
144,446 

1,817,239 


Whites 


502,384 


150,530 


809,797 


94,873 


297,817 


14,652 

130,648 
532,750 


2,145,057 


289,263 
93,237 

1,180,599 

131,261 
1,763,482 


Negroes 


2,168 


197,936 


46,418 


711 


2.298 


70 

230 
21,474 


31,425 


127,114 
115 

31,235 

560 
51,668 


630 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


SUFFRAGE   REQUIREMENTS  THROUGHOUT 


Requirements  as 

Previous  Residence  Req'red 

Governors 

States 

Capitals 

Persons  Excluded 

L'gth 

TO   Citizenship 

In 

In 

In 

In  Pre- 

FROM Suffrage 

Sala- 

State 

County 

Town 

cinct 

ries 

Term 
Yrs. 

Rhode  Island,  . 

Providence, 

Citizen    of    United 

States. 

2  yr.(a;) 

6  mos. 

Paupers,  lunatics  (g). 

$3,000 

1 

South  CaroHna, 

Columbia,     . 

Citizen    of    United 
States  (e). 

2  yr.(c) 

1  year 

4  mos. 

4  mos. 

Felons,   bribery,   un- 
less  pardoned,    in- 

3,000 

2 

South  Dakota, 

Pierre,  .    .    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States     or    alien 
who     has    de- 
clared    intention, 
Indian    who    has 
severed  tribal  re- 
lations (h). 

6  mos.§ 

30  days 

10  days 

10  days 

sane,  paupers. 
Under   guardianship, 
insane,      convicted 
of  treason  or  felony 
unless    pardoned, 
U.  S.  soldiers,  sea- 
men, and  marines. 

3,000 

2 

Tennessee,     .    . 

Nashville,     . 

Citizen    of    United 
States    who    has 
paid    poll-tax 
of    preceding 

1  year 

6mos. 

Convicted  of  bribery 
or  other  infamous 
offense. 

4,000 

2 

Texas,    .... 

Austin,.    .    . 

year. 
Citizen    of    United 

1  year 

6  mos. 

6  mos. 

W) 

Idiots,  lunatics,  pau- 
pers   convicted    of 

4,000 

2 

States     or     alien 

who    has    de- 

felony.   United 

clared     intention 

States  soldiers,  ma- 

six months  prior 

rines,  and  seamen. 

to  election. 

Utah 

SaltLakeCity, 

Citizen    of    United 
States,    male    or 
female. 

1  year 

4  mos. 

60  days 

Idiots,    insane,    con- 
victed of  treason  or 
crime  against  elec- 
tive franchise,  un- 
less pardoned. 

Those  who  have  not 

4,000 

4 

Vermont,  .    .    . 

Montpelier,  . 

Citizen    of    United 

1  year 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

3  mos. 

2,500 

2 

States. 

obtained  the  appro- 
bation of  the  local 
board  of  civil  au- 
thority. 
Idiots,  lunatics,  pau- 

Virginia,   .    .    . 

Richmond,  . 

All  persons'who  six 

2  years 

1  year 

1  year 

30  days 

5,000 

4 

months  before 

pers  (/)  O')' 

the  election  have 

paid   their  State 

poll-taxes  for  the 

three     preceding 

years.     Also  any 

person    who 

served     in    time 

of    war    in     the 

army  or  navy  of 

theUnitedStates, 

of  the  Confeder- 

ate  States,  or  of 

any  State  of  the 

United  States  or 

of  the  Confeder- 

• 

ate  States. 

Washington, 

Olympia,  .    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States     and     all 
residents     of 
Territory  prior  to 
Statehood . 

1  year 

90  days 

30  days 

30  days 

Idiots,  lunatics,  con- 
victed of  infamous 
crimes,  Indians  not 
taxed. 

6,000 

4 

West  Virginia,  . 

Charleston,  . 

Citizen  of  the  State. 

1  year 

6  mos. 

60  days 

(d) 

Paupers,  idiots,  luna- 
tics,   convicted    of 
treason,   felony,  or 
bribery  atelections. 

5,000 

4 

Wisconsin,     .    . 

Madison,  .    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States    or    alien 
who  has  declared 
intention.andciv- 
ilized  Indianst(6) 

1  year 

10  days 

10  days 

10  days 

Under   guardianship, 
insane,      convicted 
of  crime  or  treason, 
betting  on  elections. 

5,000 

2 

Wyoming,     .    . 

Cheyenne,    . 

Citizen    of    United 
States,    male   or 
female. 

1  year 

60  days 

10  days 

10  days 

Idiots,  insane,  felons, 
imable     to     read 
State   Constitution 
in  the  English  lan- 

2,500 

4 

guage. 

The  District  of  Columbia  is  without  suffrage,  t  Or  a  person  unable  to  read  the  Constitution  in  English  and  to  writ* 
his  name.  X  Indian  must  have  severed  tribal  relations.  (§)  One  year's  residence  in  the  United  States  prior  to  election  re- 
quired. (ID  Clergymen  are  qualified  after  six  months' residence  in  precinct,  (f)  Also  public  embezzlers,  persons  guilty  of 
bribery,  or  dishonorably  discharged  soldiers  from  the  United  States  service,  unless  reinstated,  (b)  Women  can  vote  in 
school  elections,  (c)  Ministers  in  charge  of  an  organized  church  and  teachers'of  public  schools  are  entitled  to  vote  after  six 
months'  residence  in  the  State,  (d)  Actual  residence  in  the  precinct  or  district  required,  (e)  Who  has  paid  six  months 
before  election  any  poll-tax  then  due,  and  can  read  and  write  any  section  of  the  State  Constitution,  or  can  show  that  he 
owns,  and  has  paid  all  taxes  due  the  previous  year  on  property  in  the  State  assessed  at  $300  or  more.  (/)  Or  convicted 
of  bribery,  embezzlement  of  public  funds,  treason,  forgery,  perjury,  felony,  and  petty  larceny,  duelists  and  abettors,  unless 


GOVERNMENT  AND 

POLITICS 

631 

riiE 

UNITED   STATES  — Continued 

Legisi 

ATURES 

Mem's  Terms 

o  2 

*^  o 

> 

Total 
Assessed 
Valuation 

Per  Ct. 
Actual 

,  Value 

Tax  Rate 

PER 

$1,000 

Voting  Population 

Ann. 

or 
Bien. 

Limit 
of 

Session 

Salaries 

of 
Members 

Sena- 
tors 

Repre- 

sent- 
.atives' 

Total 

Whites 

Negroes 

Annual 

60  days 

$5  per  diem 

1 

1 

4 

$477,892,908 

75 

$1.80 

127,144 

124,001 

2,765 

Annual 

40  days 

4  per  diem 

4 

2 

9 

210,331,854 

60 

5.00 

283,325 

130,375 

152,860 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

2 

2 

4 

173.206,733 

3.20 

112,681 

107,353 

184 

Bien. 

75  days 

4  per  diem 

.2 

2 

12 

351,762,769 

75 

3.50 

487,380 

375,046 

112,236 

Bien. 

None 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

18 

1,139,022,730 

3.80 

737,768 

599,961 

136,875 

Bien. 

60  days 

4  per  diem 

4 

2 

.3 

146,204.050 

60 

5.00 

67,172 

65.205 

358 

Bien. 

None 

3  per  diem 

2 

4 

187,931,820 

Full 

1.30 

108,356 

108,027 

289 

Bien. 

60  days 

4  per  diem 

4 

2 

12 

423,842,680 

4.00 

447,815 

301,379 

146,122  ■ 

Bien. 

60  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

5 

530,209,882 

60 

5.40 

195,572 

183.999 

1,230 

Bien. 

45  days 

4  per  diem 

4 

2 

7 

875,089,593 

85 

0.85 

247,970 

233,129 

14,786 

Bien. 

None 

500  per  annum 

4 

2 

13 

1,384,580,755 

75 

11.27 

570,715 

567,213 

1,006 

Bien. 

40  days 

5  per  diem 

4 

2 

3 

51,223,203 

25 

5.87 

37,898 

36,262 

481 

mrdoned  by  Legislature,  (g)  Or  persons  non  compos  mentis,  convicted  of  bribery  or  infamous  crime,  until  restored  to  right 
,»  vote,  under  guardianship,  (.h)  Also  persons  excused  from  paying  taxes  at  their  own  request,  and  those  unable  to  read  the 
State  Constitution  in  English,  or  write,  (j)  No  soldier,  seaman,  or  marine  deemed  a  resident  because  stationed  in  the  State. 
;A;)  Inhabitance  not  residence.  (0  Thirty  days  in  election  district,  (w)  Those  able  to  read  and  write  or  who  own  $300  worth 
)f  property  asses'^ed  in  their  name,  or  whose  father  or  grandfather  was  entitled  to  vote  on  January  1,  1867.  (n)  Also 
nldiers,  sailors,  and  marines  in  United  States  service,     (z)  Owners  of  real  estate,  one  year. 


632 


THE  STANDARD.  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Sweden.  Under  the  Swedish  Constitution 
of  1809,  with  subsequent  amendments,  the 
executive  power  is  lodged  in  the  king,  who  also 
possesses  legislative  power  in  matters  of  political 
administration ;  in  all  other  respects  such  power 
is  exercised  jointly  by  the  Diet,  which  alone 
may  impose  taxes.  Every  new  law  must  have 
the  assent  of  the  king.  The  Diet  consists  of  two 
chambers,  the  first  of  150  members  (elected  by 
provinces  and  municipalities  for  nine  years), 
the  second  of  230  members  (150  representing 
rural  and  eighty  urban  constituencies),  elected 
directly  for  three  years.  Members  of  the  second 
chamber  are  paid  $330  per  session. 

Switzerland  is  a  confederation  of  nineteen 
entire  and  six  half  cantons,  which  have  been 
united  for  federal  purposes  since  1848.  The 
Constitution  of  1874  vests  supreme  legislative 
and  executive  authority  in  two  chambers  —  viz : 
(1)  a  state  council  of  forty-four  members,  chosen 
two  for  each  canton  and  one  for  each  half-canton 
for  three  years;  and  (2)  a  national  council  of 
167  delegates  of  the  Swiss  people  (of  whom 
twenty-nine  are  sent  by  Berne  and  twenty-two 
by  Zurich),  chosen  also  for  three  years,  directly 
by  manhood  suffrage,  one  deputy  for  every 
20,000  of  the  population.  The  united  chambers 
form  the  federal  assembly,  to  which  is  confided 
the  supreme  government.  The  executive  author- 
ity is  deputed  to  a  federal  council  of  seven 
members,  elected  for  three  years  by  the  assembly, 
the  president  and  vice-president  of  which  are 
elected  annually,  and  are  the  first  magistrates 
of  the  republic.  The  council  sits  at  Berne, 
which  is  the  headquarters  of  the  federal  admin- 
istration. The  principles  of  the  referendum  and 
of  the  initiative  are  in  force.  The  latter  signifies 
the  right  of  any  50,000  citizens  to  demand  a 
direct  popular  vote  on  any  constitutional  ques- 
tion. The  federal  government  can  alone  con- 
tract treaties  or  declare  war.  The  army,  postal 
svstem,  finance,  and  customs  are  also  under  its 
control.  Civil  and  criminal  law,  justice,  police, 
public  works,  and  schools  are  all  left  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  cantonal  authorities,  while 
labor  legislation  may  be  initiated  either  by  the 
confederation  or  by  the  cantons.  The  neutrality 
of  the  country  is  guaranteed  by  the  treaty  of 
Vienna,  1815. 

Tennessee.  The  Constitution  adopted  in 
1796,  was  superseded  by  that  of  1834,  which 
gave  place  to  that  of  1870,  now  in  force.  Con- 
stitutional amendments  proposed  in  either 
House  of  the  Legislature  and  agreed  to  by  a 
majority  of  all  the  members  of  each  are  referred 
to  the  Legislature  next  elected.  If  they  are  then 
passed  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  the  members 
elected  to  each  House,  they  are  submitted  to  the 
popular  vote,  and,  if  ratified  by  a  majority  of 
those  who  vote,  become  part  of  the  Constitution. 
Amendments,  however,  may  not  be  proposed  in 
the  Legislature  oftener  than  once  in  six  years. 
The  legislature,  known  as  the  General  Assembly, 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty-three  members, 
elected  for  two  years,  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  ninety-eight  members  elected  also  for 
two  years.  Any  bill  may  originate  in  either 
House.  Senators  must  be  30  years  of  age,  and 
representatives  21;  both  must  have  resided  in 
the  State  three  years  and  in  the  county  or  dis- 


trict one  year  next  before  election.  No  clergy- 
man of  any  denomination  is  eligible  to  either 
House.  The  chief  State  officer  is  the  governor, 
who  is  elected  for  two  years.  "  He  shall  not  be 
eligible  more  than  six  years  of  any  term  of  eight." 
He  has  the  usual  powers  of  State  governors, 
including  limited  pardoning  powers  and  a  veto 
which  may  be  overridden  by  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  each  House.  Other  State  officers  are 
the  treasurer,  comptroller,  adjutant-general, 
attorney-general,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

Texas.  The  Constitution  of  1845  was  suc- 
ceeded by  new  Constitutions  in  1866,  1868,  and 
1876.  That  of  1876,  amended  seven  times  (last 
in  1904),  is  still  in  force.  Amendments  proposed 
in  either  House  of  the  Legislature,  approved  by 
a  two-thirds  majority  of  the  members  of  each 
House,  and  ratified  by  a  majority  of  the  electors 
voting  on  them,  become  part  of  the  Constitution. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty- 
one  members,  elected  for  four  years  (about  half 
their  number  retiring  every  two  years),  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  of  133  members. 
Bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate  tries 
cases  of  impeachment  brought  by  the  other 
House.  Eligible  as  Senators  are  citizens  26  years 
of  age,  resident  in  the  State  five  years  next  before 
the  election ;  as  Representatives,  citizens  2 1  years 
of  age,  resident  in  the  State  two  years  next  before 
the  election.  The  chief  executive  officer  is  the 
governor,  elected  for  two  years.  He  has  the 
authority  usually  vested  in  State  governors, 
including  the  limited  veto  and  pardoning  powers. 
With  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  he 
appoints  the  State  secretary,  and  also  fills  vacan- 
cies not  otherwise  provided  for.  State  officials 
elected  for  two  years  are  the  lieutenant-governor, 
comptroller,  treasurer,  commissioner  of  the  gen- 
eral land  office,  and  attorney-general. 

Turkey.  The  commands  of  the  sultan  are 
absolute,  unless  opposed  to  the  express  directions 
of  the  Koran,  a  legal  and  theological  code  upon 
which  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  empire  are 
based.  The  legislative  and  executive  authority 
is  exercised  through  the  grand  vizier  and  the 
Sheik-ul-Islam,  who  are  appointed  by  the  sultan, 
the  latter  with  the  nominal  concurrence  of  the 
ulema  or  general  body  of  lawyers  and  theolo- 
gians, over  which  the  Sheik-ul-Islam,  as  head  of 
the  Church,  presides.  The  grand  vizier,  as  head 
of  the  temporal  government,  is  assisted  by  the 
medjliss-i-hass  or  cabinet  of  ministers,  of  whom 
there  are  twelve,  including  the  grand  vizier  and 
the  Sheik-ul-Islam.  The  ten  other  ministers 
each  take  charge  of  a  department,  e.  g.,  the 
interior,  war,  foreign  affairs,  finance,  justice,  etc. 

United  States.  The  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence was  adopted  by  the  First  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  July  4,  1776.  On  November 
30,  1782,  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies,  and  on  September  3, 
1783,  the  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded.  The 
form  of  government  is  based  on  the  Constitu- 
tion adopted  September  17,  1787,  to  which  ten 
amendments  were  added,  December  15,  1791; 
an  eleventh  amendment,  January  8,  1798;  a 
twelfth  amendment,  September  25,  1804;  a 
thirteenth,  December    18,  1865;    a  fourteenth, 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


633 


July  28,  1868;  and  a  fifteenth,  March  30,  1870. 
The  government  is  entrusted  to  three  separate 
authorities — ^the  Executive,  the  Legislative,  and 
the  Judicial.  The  Executive  is  vested  in  the 
President,  who  holds  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  and  of  the  militia  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  The  Vice-Presi- 
dent is,  ex-officio,  president  of  the  Senate,  and, 
in  case  of  the  death  or  resignation  of  the  Presi- 
dent, he  becomes  President  for  the  remainder 
of  the  term.  Electors  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  are  chosen  in  all  States  the  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November  of  every 
fourth  year  (leap  year),  and  the  President  is 
inaugurated  on  the  4th  of  March  next  following. 
By  an  act  which  became  a  law  January  19, 
1886,  in  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation, 
or  inability  of  both  President  and  Vice-President, 
the  Secretary  of  State  succeeds,  and  after  him 
other  members  of  the  Cabinet  in  this  order: 
Secretary  of  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attor- 
ney-General, Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (the  others 
cannot  succeed,  as  their  offices  were  created 
after  the  passage  of  the  Acts  of  the  Forty- 
ninth  Congress,  Chapter  IV).  The  incumbent 
shall  act  as  President  until  the  disability  of 
the  President  is  removed  or  a  new  President 
shall  be  elected.  In  case  of  death  or  removal 
of  the  Vice-President  the  duties  of  the  office 
shall  fall  upon  the  pro  tempore  president 
of  the  Senate,  who  receives  the  salary  of  Vice- 
President.  Members  of  the  Cabinet  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  but  are  confirmed  by 
the  Senate.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
a  Congress,  which  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Representatives.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  .Supreme  Court  consisting  of  a 
chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  approved  by  the 
Senate.  The  United  States  is  composed  of  thir- 
teen original  States,  seven  States  which  were  ad- 
mitted without  having  been  organized  as  Terri- 
tories, and  twenty-six  States  which  have  been 
Territories.  States  are  admitted  into  the  Union 
by  special  acts  of  Congress,  either  in  the  form 


of  "enabling  acts,"  providing  for  the  drafting 
and  ratification  of  a  State  Constitution,  in  which 
case  the  Territory  becomes  a  State  as  soon  as 
the  conditions  are  fulfilled,  or  by  accepting  a 
Constitution  already  framed,  and  at  once  gain- 
ing admission.  In  four  of  the  six  Territories, 
including  Hawaii,  there  are  local  Legislatures, 
the  form  of  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the 
Federal  Government.  Acts  made  by  the  Legis- 
latures may  be  modified  or  annulled  by  the 
Federal  Congress.  Territorial  governors  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  for  terms  of  four  years. 
The  unit  of  local  government  in  New  England 
is  the  township,  governed  directly  by  the  voters. 
In  large  cities  the  city  government  takes  its 
place.  Townships  are  united  to  form  counties. 
In  the  South  the  unit  is  the  county.  In  the 
Middle  and  Northwestern  States  the  two  sys- 
tems of  local  government  are  mixed.  In  the 
West  the  township  system  is  used  and  public 
lands  are  divided  into  townships  six  miles  square. 
Representatives  to  the  Federal  Congress  must 
not  be  less  than  25  years  of  age  and  must 
have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States  for 
seven  years,  and  residents  of  the  State  in 
which  they  are  elected.  In  addition  to  the 
Representatives  from  the  States,  each  Territory 
is  allowed  a  "delegate,"  who  has  a  right  to 
speak  on  any  subject  and  make  motions,  but 
not  to  vote.  Senators  must  be  30  years  of 
age,  must  have  been  citizens  of  the  United 
States  for  nine  years  and  residents  of  the  State 
in  which  they  are  chosen.  The  franchise  is  not 
absolutely  universal.  In  most  States  residence 
for  at  least  one  year  is  necessary;  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Rhode  Island  two  years'  residence 
is  necessary ;  in  Michigan  and  Maine  three  months 
is  the  minimum.  In  some  of  the  Western  States 
unnaturalized  persons  who  have  declared  their 
intention  of  becoming  citizens  are  admitted  to 
the  franchise.  Five  States  admit  women  to  the 
franchise  on  equal  terms  with  men.  Untaxed 
Indians  are  excluded  from  the  right  to  vote, 
and  in  some  States  convicts,  duellists,  and  fraud- 
ulent voters  are  debarred.  The  following  is  a 
synoptical  outline  of  the  main  features  of  the 
constitutional  government  of  the  United  States : 


THE  LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENT 

The  Senate 
Number. —  Two  Senators  from  each  State. 
Elected. —  By  the  State  Legislatures. 

Term. —  Six  years ;    one- third  of  the  Senate  being  elected  every  two  years. 
Eligibility. —  Citizen   of   the  United   States  nine  years ;    resident   of  the  State ;    minimum  age, 

30  years. 
Salary. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $7,500  per  year. 
President  of  the  Senate. —  The  Vice-President. 
Powers  of  the  Senate: 

Confirms  or  rejects  nominations  of  the  President. 

Ratifies  or  rejects  treaties  with  Foreign  Powers. 

Elects  President  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate,  and  its  other  officers. 

Elects  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  if  regular  election  fails. 

Acts  as  a  Court  for  the  Trial  of  Impeachments. 

The  House  of  Representatives 
Number. —  Three  hundred  and  eighty-six  members,  according  to  the  present  apportionment.* 
Elected. —  By  the  voters  of  the  Congressional  Districts. 
Term. —  Two  years, —  the  entire  House  being  elected  every  two  years. 
Eligibility. — -Citizen  of   the  United   States   seven  years;    resident  of   the  State;    minimum  age, 

25  years. 

*  There  are,  besides,  two  Territorial  Delegates  from  the  Philippines,  and  one  each  from  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii, 
and  Alaska. 


634  THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 

Salary. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $7,500  per  year;  the  Speaker,  $12,000  per  year. 
powers  of  the' House  of  Representatives:  — 

Elects  its  Speaker  (presiding  officer)  and  its  other  officers. 

Elects  President  of  the  United  States  if  the  regular  election  fails. 

Prosecutes  Impeachments  before  the  Senate. 

Originates  all  bills  for  raising  revenue. 

The  Congress 

Consisting  of  both  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives  as  coordinate  bodies. 
Duration. —  The  term  of  each  Congress  is  for  two  years,  commencing  March  4th  of  the  odd  years. 
Regular  Sessions. —  Annual,  beginning  the  first  Monday  in  December. 
Special  Sessions. —  At  the  call  of  the  President. 

Membership. —  Each  House  is  the  judge  of  the  elections  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members. 
Congress  has  General  Powers  of  Legislation:  — 

To  provide  for  the  raising  and  disbursement  of  revenue. 

To  borrow  money ;  to  coin  money  and  to  regulate  its  value ;  and  to  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures. 

To  regulate  foreign  and  interstate  commerce. 

To  declare  war,  and  to  maintain  an  army  and  navy. 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post  roads. 

To  enact  patent  and  copyright  laws. 

To  enact  uniform  naturalization  and  bankruptcy  laws. 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  crimes  against  the  United  States. 

To  establish  courts  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court. 

To  provide  for  organizing  and  calling  out  the  militia. 

To  admit  new  States  into  the  Union. 

To  provide  for  the  government  of  the  Territories. 

To  exercise  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  District  of  Columbia,  public  lands,  public  buildings, 
forts,  and  navy  yards. 

To  enact  all  laws  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  all  the  powers  vested  by 
the  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States. 

THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT 
The  President 
How  Elected. —  The  several  steps  in  the  election  of  the  President  are : 

State  Electors  are  chosen  at  a  General  Election  held  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday 
of  November  of  every  fourth  year ;   the  number  of  Electors  of  each  State  being  equal  to  the 
number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  is  entitled  in  Congress. 
The  Electors  meet  in  their  respective  States  on  the  second  Monday  in  January  following  their 
election,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President ;    and  at  the  same  time  make 
certificates  of  their  vote  and  transmit  the  same  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  meet  together  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  February 
next  ensuing,  and  count  the  votes  of  the  State  Electors,  when,  if  there  is  an  election,  the 
President  of  the  Senate  declares  who  is  elected  President  and  Vice-President. 
In  case  there  is  no  choice  by  the  State  Electors,  the  President  is  elected  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives from  the  three  candidates  who  received  the  most  electoral  votes  for  President; 
in  which  election  the  vote  is  taken  by  States,  each  State  having  but  one  vote,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  being  necessary  to  a  choice. 
Term  of  Office. —  Four  years. 
Eligibility. —  A  natural  born  citizen;    resident  of   the  United  States  fourteen  years;    minimum 

age.  35  years. 
Salary. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $75,000  per  year. 
Poivers  and  Duties  of  the  President:  — 

Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Na\'y. 
Communicates  with  Congress  by  message. 
Approves  or  disapproves  Acts  of  Congress. 
Makes  treaties  with  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 
Appoints  Public  Officers  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 
Commissions  Public  Officers  of  the  United  States. 
Grants  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States. 
The  Vice-President:  — 

Elected  by  State  Electors  the  same  as  the  President;  or 
By  the  Senate,  in  case  there  is  no  choice  by  the  State  Electors. 
Term  of  Office, —  same  as  for  the  President. 
Eligibility, —  same  as  required  of  the  President. 
Salary, —  fixed  by  law  at  $12,000  per  year. 
The  Presidential  Succession: —  In  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability 
Of  the  President,  the  Vice-President  takes  the  President's  place. 
Of  both  President  and  Vice-President,  the  heads  of  the  Executive  Departments  succeed  to 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS  635 

the  Presidency  in  the  order  in  which  the  Executive  Departments  are  named  below;    but 
such  officer  must  be  constitutionally  eligible  to  the  Presidency,  and  not  under  impeachment. 

The  Executive  Departments 

Department  of  State. — •  Has  charge  of  foreign  affairs. 

Treasury  Department. —  Has  ciiargc  of  fiscal  afTairs. 

Department  of  War. —  Has  charge  of  the  Army  and  military  afTairs. 

Department  of  Justice.—  Has  charge  of  the  legal  afTairs  of  the  Government. 

Post-office  Department. —  Has  charge  of  postal  affairs. 

Navy  Department. —  Has  charge  of  the  Navy  and  naval  afTairs. 

Department  of  the  Interior. —  Has  charge  of  domestic  affairs,  including  public  lands,  pensions, 
patents,  Bureau  of  Education,  etc. 

Department  of  Agriculture. —  Has  charge  of  agricultural  afTairs,  including  Weather  Bureau,  etc. 

Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. —  Has  charge  of  domestic  and  foreign  affairs,  relating  to  com- 
merce, transportation.  Department  of  Labor,  etc. 

The  Cabinet 
Composed  of  the  Heads  of  the  Executive  Departments. 
Appointed  by  the  President  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 
Salary.—  Secretary  of  State,  $8,000;  all  other  cabinet  members,  $12,000,  annually. 

The  President  and  Legislation 

Acts  of  Congress  become  laws:  — 

When  signed  (approved)  by  the  President;  or, 

By  his  failure  to  make  objections  in  writing  (veto)  within  ten  days  after  any  act  is  submitted 
to  him,  unless  Congress  by  adjournment  within  that  time  prevents  its  return;    but 
Congress  has  power  to  pass  a  law  over  the  President's  veto  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House. 

THE  JUDICIAL  DEPARTMENT 

Judges  of  the  United  States  Courts 

Appointed  by  the  President  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 

Tenure  of  Ojfice. —  During  life  or  good  behavior;  but  may  retire  on  full  salary  after  reaching  the 
age  of  seventy  years,  and  after  ten  years'  service  on  the  bench. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
Members. — ^  A  Chief  Justice  and  Eight  Associate  Justices. 
Salaries. — -Chief  Justice,  $13,000;  Associate  Justices,  each  $12,500. 
Terms  oj  Court. —  One  each  year,  beginning  on  the  second  Monday  in  October. 
Original  Jurisdiction:  — 

In  all  cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  Ministers,  and  Consuls. 

In  all  cases  in  which  a  State  is  a  party. 
Appellate  Jurisdiction:  —  In  cases  of  law  and  equity  where  the  Inferior  Courts  have  original  juris- 
diction, with  such  exceptions  and  regulations  as  Congress  has  made. 
The  Chief  Justice. —  Presides  over  the  Senate  when  it  sits  as  a  Court  of  Impeachment  for  the  trial 

of  the  President. 

Inferior  Courts 
Jurisdiction:  — 

In  cases  between  citizens  of  difTerent  States. 

In  cases  in  which  the  United  States  is  a  party. 

In  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction. 

In  trials  for  crimes  against  the  United  States;   but  the  trial  of  crimes  must  be  bv  jury,  and  must 
be  held  in  the  State  where  the  crime  was  committed. 
Appeals  to  the  Supreme-Court  may  be   had  in  all   cases  of  law  and   equity,  with  such  exceptions 

and  regulations  as  Congress  has  made. 

Kinds  of  Inferior  Courts 
United  States  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals:  — 

Organized  in  1891  to  relieve  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  Appellate  Cases. 
Number. —  One  in  each  Judicial  Circuit. 

Members. —  Three  judges  selected  from  the  Circuit  and  District  Courts. 
United  States  Circuit  Courts:  — 
Number  of  Circuits. —  Nine. 

Number  of  Judges. —  Each  Circuit  has  two,  three,  or  four   Circuit  Judges,  and   a  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court   is  assigned   to   each  Circuit.     The  District  Judge  also  may  sit  in  a 
Circuit  Court. 
Salary  of  Circuit  Judges. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $7,000  per  year. 
United  States  District  Courts:  — 

.  Number  of   Districts. —  One   or  more   in  each   State.      At   present  there  are  seventy-three 

Judicial  Districts. 
Salary  of  District  Judge. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $6,000  per  year. 


636 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


United  States  Court  of  Claims:  — 

Jurisdiction. —  Claims  against  the  United  States,  including  all  claims  which  may  be  referred 
to  it  by  Congress. 

Members. —  One  Chief  Justice  and  four  Associate  Justices. 

Salaries. —  Chief  Justice,  $6,500;     Associate  Justices,  each  $6,000. 
United  States  Court  of  Customs  Appeals:  — 

Jurisdiction. —  Cases  involving  appeals  from  customs  duties. 

Members. —  One  Chief  Justice  and  four  Associate  Justices. 

Salaries. —  Fixed  by  law  at  $7,000  per  year. 
United  States  Commerce  Court:  — 

Jurisdiction. —  Interstate  commerce  cases  formerly  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Circuit  Courts. 

Members. —  One  Chief  Justice  and  four  Associate  Justices,  from  the  Circuit  Courts. 

Salaries. —  $7,000  per  year;  expense  allowance  of  $1,500. 
In  addition  to  the  above  named  Courts,  Congress  has  established  courts  of  local  jurisdiction  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  the  Territories. 
Department  of  State.  The  Secretary  of  State 
is  charged,  under  the  direction  of  the  Presi- 
dent, with  the  duties  appertaining  to  correspond- 
ence with  the  public  ministers  and  the  consuls  of 
the  United  States,  and  with  the  representatives  of 
foreign  powers  accredited  to  the  United  States; 
and  to  negotiations  of  whatever  character  re- 
lating to  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  United  States. 
He  is  also  the  medium  of  correspondence  be- 
tween the  President  and  the  chief  executives  of 
the  several  States  of  the  United  States;  he  has 
the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal  of  the  United 
States,  and  countersigns  and  affixes  such  seal 
to  all  executive  proclamations,  to  various  com- 
missions, and  to  warrants  for  the  extradition  of 
fugitives  from  justice.  He  is  regarded  as  the 
first  in  rank  among  the  members  of  the  Cabinet. 
He  is  also  the  custodian  of  the  treaties  made 
with  foreign  States,  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  He  grants  and  issues  passports, 
and  exequaturs  to  foreign  consuls  in  the  United 
States  are  issued  through  his  office.  He  pub- 
lishes the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress, 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and  proclama- 
tions declaring  the  admission  of  new  States. 
SECRETARIES    OF   STATE 


Presidents 


Washington 
Washington 
Washington 
Adams,   . 
Adams,   . 
Jefferson, 
Madison, 
Madison, 
•Monroe,  . 
J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson, . 
Jackson, . 
Jackson, . 
Jackson,  . 
Van  Buren 
Harrison, 
Tyler,  .    . 
Tyler,  .    . 
Tyler,  .    . 
Tyler,  .    . 
Polk,   .    . 
Taylor,    . 
Fillmore, 
Fillmore, 
Pierce,     . 
Buchanan, 
Buchanan, 
Lincoln,  . 
Johnson, 
Grant, 
Grant, 


Cabinet  Officers 


Thomas  Jefferson,  . 
Edmund  Randolph, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
John  Marshall,  .  . 
James  Madison,  .  . 
Robert  Smith,  .  .  . 
James  Monroe,  .  . 
John  Quincy  Adams, 

Henry  Clay 

Martin  Van  Buren,  . 
Edward  Livingston, 
Louis  McLane,  .  . 
John  Forsyth  .  .  . 
John  Forsyth,  .  . 
Daniel  Webster,  .  . 
Daniel  Webster,  .  . 
Hugh  S.  Legar6,  .  . 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  .  . 
John  C.  Calhoun,  . 
James  Buchanan,  . 
John  M.  Clayton,  . 
Daniel  Webster,  .  . 
Edward  Everett, 
William  L.  Marcy,  . 

Lewis  Cass 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  . 
William  H.  Seward, 
William  H.  Seward, 
Eiihu  B.  Washburn, 
Hamilton  Fish,    .    . 


Resi- 
dences 


Va. 

Va. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

Va. 

Va. 

Md. 

Va. 

Mass. 

Ky. 

N.  Y. 

ha. 

Del. 

Ga. 

Ga. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

S.  C. 

Va. 

S.  C. 

Pa. 

Del. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

N.  Y. 

Mich. 

Pa. 

N.  Y. 

N.  Y. 

111. 

N.  Y. 


Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 


1789 
1794 
1795 
1797 
1800 
1801 
1809 
1811 
1817 
1825 
1829 
1831 
1833 
1834 
1837 
1841 
1841 
1843 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1853 
1857 
1860 
1861 
1865 
1869 
1869 


Date 

Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Hayes,     .    .    . 

William  M.  Evarts,     . 

N.  Y. 

1877 

Garfield,  .   .    . 

James  G.  Blaine,      . 

Me. 

1881 

Arthur,   .    .    . 

F.  T.  Frelinghuysen, 

N.J. 

1881 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Thomas  F.  Bayard, 

Del. 

1885 

B.  Harrison,  . 

James  G.  Blaine, .    . 

Me. 

1889 

B.  Harrison,  . 

John  W.  Foster,  . 

Ind. 

1892 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Walter  Q.  Gresham 

111. 

1893 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Richard  Olney,    . 

Mass. 

1895 

McKinley,  .    . 

John  Sherman,     . 

'Ohio 

1897 

McKinley,  .    . 

William  R.  Day.  . 

Ohio 

1897 

McKinley,  .    . 

John  Hay,    .    .    . 

Ohio 

1898 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

John  Hay,    .    .    . 

Ohio 

1901 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Elihu  Root,  .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1905 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Robert  Bacon, .    . 

N.  Y. 

1909 

Taft 

Philander  C.  Knox, 

Pa. 

1909 

Treasury  Department.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  is  charged  by  law  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  national  finances.  He  prepares 
plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  revenue  and 
for  the  support  of  the  public  credit;  superin- 
tends the  collection  of  the  revenue,  and  directs 
the  forms  of  keeping  and  rendering  public  ac- 
counts and  of  making  returns;  grants  warrants 
for  all  moneys  drawn  from  the  Treasury  in  pur- 
suance of  appropriations  made  by  law,  and  for 
the  payment  of  moneys  into  the  Treasury;  and 
annually  submits  to  Congress  estimates  of  the 
probable  revenues  and  disbursements  of  the 
Government.  He  also  controls  the  construction 
of  public  buildings;  the  coinage  and  printing 
of  money;  the  administration  of  the  I^ife-Sav- 
ing,  Revenue-Cutter,  and  the  Public  Health  and 
Marine-Hospital  branches  of  the  public  service, 
and  furnishes  information  required  by  either 
branch  of  Congress  pertaining  to  the  foregoing. 

The  routine  work  of  the  Secretary's  office  is 
transacted  in  the  offices  of  the  Supervising 
Architect,  Director  of  the  Mint,  Director  of 
Engraving  and  Printing,  Surgeon-General  of  the 
Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service, 
General  Superintendent  of  the  Life-Saving 'Serv- 
ice, and  in  the  following  divisions:  Bookkeep- 
ing and  warrants;  appointments;  customs; 
public  moneys;  loans  and  currency;  revenue- 
cutter;  stationery,  printing,  and  blanks;  mails 
and  files;  special  agents,  and  miscellaneous. 
SECRETARIES   OF   THE  TREASURY 


Presidents 


Washington, 
Washington, 


Cabinet  Officers 


AJexander  Hamilton, 
Oliver  Wolcott,    .    .    . 


Resi- 
dences 


N.  Y. 
Ct. 


Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 


1789 
1795 


GOVERNMENT   AND    POLITICS 


637 


Date 

Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Adams,   .    .    . 

Oliver  Wolcott,    .    .    . 

Ct. 

1797 

Adams,   .    .    . 

Samuel  Dexter,    .    .    . 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson,    .    . 

gamuel  Dexter,    .    .    . 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson ,     .    . 

Albert  Gallatin,    .    .    . 

Pa. 

1801 

Madison,     .    . 

Albert  Gallatin,   .    .    . 

Pa. 

1809 

Madison,     .    . 

George  W.  Campbell, . 

Tenn. 

1814 

Madison,     .    . 

Alexander  J.  Dallas,    . 

Pa. 

1814 

Madison,     .    . 

William  H.  Crawford, 

Ga. 

1816 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

William  H.  Crawford, 

Ga. 

1817 

J.  Q.  Adams,  . 

Richard  Rush,      .    .    . 

Pa. 

1825 

Jackson, .    .    . 

Samuel  D.  Ingham,     . 

Pa. 

1829 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

Louis  McLane,     .    .    . 

Del. 

1831 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

Roger  B.  Taney,  .    .    . 

N.  H. 

1833 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

William  J.  Duane,  .    . 

Pa. 

1833 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

Levi  Woodbury,  .    .    . 

N.  H. 

1834 

Van  Buren,     . 

Levi  Woodbury,  .    .    . 

N.  H. 

1837 

Harrison,    .    . 

Thomas  Ewing,    .    .    . 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler 

Thomas  Ewing,    .    .    . 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler 

Walter  Forward,.    .    . 

Pa. 

1841 

Tyler 

John  C.  Spencer, .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1843 

Tyler 

George  M.  Bibb,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

1844 

Polk 

Robert  J.  Walker,    .    . 

Miss. 

1845 

Taylor,    .    .    . 

William  M.  Meredith,. 

Pa. 

1849 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Thomas  Corwin,  .    .    . 

Ohio 

1850 

Pierce,     .    .    . 

James  Guthrie,     .    .    . 

Ky. 

1853 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Howell  Cobb 

Ga. 

1857 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Philip  F.  Thomas,   .    . 

Md. 

1860 

Buchanan,  .    . 

.Tohn  A.  Dix,     .... 

N.  Y. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

Salmon  P.  Chase,     .    . 

Ohio 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

William  P.  Fessenden, 

Me. 

1864 

lancoln,  .    .    . 

Hugh  McCulloch,     .    . 

Ind. 

1865 

Johnson,     .    . 

Hugh  McCulloch,     .    . 

Ind. 

1865 

Grant,     .    .    . 

George  S.  Boutwell,    . 

Mass. 

1869 

Grant,      .    .    . 

Wm.  A.  Richardson,    . 

Mass. 

1873 

Grant,      .    .    . 

Benjamin  H.  Bristow, 

Ky. 

1874 

Grant 

Lot  M.  Morrill,     .    .    . 

Me. 

1876 

Hayes,     .    .    . 

John  Sherman,     .    .    . 

Ohio 

1877 

Garfield,  .    .    . 

William  Windom,    .    . 

Minn. 

1881 

Arthur,   .    .    . 

Charles  J.  Folger,    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1881 

Arthur,    .    .    . 

Walter  Q.  Gresham,    . 

Ind. 

1884 

Arthur,   .    .    . 

Hugh  McCulloch,     .    . 

Ind. 

1884 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Daniel  Manning,  .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1885 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Charles  S.  Fairchild,    . 

Ind. 

1887 

B.  Harrison,  . 

William  Windom,    .    . 

Minn. 

1889 

B.  Harrison,   . 

Charles  Foster,     .    .    . 

Ohio 

1891 

Cleveland,  .    . 

John  G.  Carlisle,  .    .    . 

Ky. 

1893 

McKinley,  .    . 

Lyman  J.  Gage,  ... 

111. 

1897 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Lyman  J.  Gage,  .    .    . 

111. 

1901 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Leslie  M.  Shaw,    .    .    . 

la. 

1901 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

George  B.  Cortelyou,  . 

N.  Y. 

1907 

Taft 

Franklin  MaeVeagh,   . 

111. 

1909 

War  Department.  The  Secretary  of  War  is 
head  of  the  War  Department,  and  performs  such 
duties  as  are  required  of  him  by  law  or  may  be 
enjoined  upon  him  by  the  President  concerning 
the  military  service. 

He  is  charged  by  law  with  the  supervision  of 
all  estimates  of  appropriations  for  the  expenses 
of  the  Department,  including  the  military  estab- 
lishment; of  all  purchases  of  army  supplies; 
of  all  expenditures  for  the  support,  transporta- 
tion, and  maintenance  of  the  army,  and  of  such 
expenditures  of  a  civil  nature  as  may  be  placed 
by  Congress  under  his  direction. 

He  also  has  supervision  of  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  at  West  Point  and  of  military 
education  in  the  army,  of  the  Board  of  Ord- 
nance and  Fortification,  of  the  various  battle- 
field commissions,  and  of  the  publication  of  the 
Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

He  has  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  na- 
tional defense  and  seacoast  fortifications,  army 
ordnance,  river  and  harbor  improvements,  the 
prevention  of  obstruction  to  navigation,  and  the 
establishment  of  harbor  lines,  and  all  plans  and 
locations  of  bridges  authorized  by  Congress  to 
be  constructed  over  the  navigable  waters  of  the 
United  States  require  his  approval.     He  also 


has  charge  of  the  establishment  or  abandonment 
of  military  posts,  and  of  all  matters  relating  to 
leases,  revocable  licenses,  and  all  other  privileges 
upon  lands  under  the  control  of  the  War  De- 
partment. 

SECRETARIES   OF   WAR 


Date 

Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Washington,  . 

Henry  Knox,   .... 

Mass. 

1789 

Washington,  . 

Timothy  Pickering,     . 

Mass. 

1795 

Washington,  . 

James  McHenry, .    .    . 

Md. 

1796 

Adams,    .    .    . 

James  McHenry,.    .    . 

Md. 

1797 

Adams,    .    .    . 

John  Marshall,     .    .    . 

Va. 

1800 

Adams,    .    .    . 

Samuel  Dexter,    .    .    . 

Mass. 

1800 

Adams.    .    .    . 

Roger  Griswolci,  .    .    . 

Ct. 

1801 

Jefferson,     .    . 

Henry  Dearborn,     .    . 

Mass. 

1801 

Madison,     .    . 

William  Eustis,    .    .    . 

Mass. 

1809 

Madison,     .    . 

John  Armstrong,      .    . 

N.  Y. 

1813 

Madison,      .    . 

James  Monroe,     .    .    . 

Va. 

1814 

Madison,      .    . 

William  H.  Crawford, 

Ga. 

1815 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

Isaac  Shelby,   .... 

Ky. 

1817 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

Geo.  Graham  (ad.  in.), 

Va. 

1817 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

John  C.  Calhoun,     .    . 

S.  C. 

1817 

J.  Q.  Adams,  . 

James  Barbour,   .    .    . 

Va. 

1825 

J.  Q.  Adams,  . 

Peter  B.  Porter,  .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1828 

Jackson, .    .    . 

John  H.  Eaton,    .    .    . 

Tenn. 

1829 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

Lewis  Cass, 

Ohio 

1831 

.lackson,  .    .    . 

Benjamin  F.  Butler,    . 

N.  Y. 

1837 

Van  Buren,    . 

Joel  R.  Poinsett,  .    .    . 

S.  C. 

1837 

Harrison,    .    . 

John  Bell 

Tenn. 

1841 

Tyler 

John  Bell 

Tenn. 

1841 

Tyler 

John  McLean 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler 

John  C.  Spencer,  .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1841 

Tyler 

James  M.  Porter,     .    . 

Pa. 

1843 

Tyler 

William  Wilkins, .   .    . 

Pa. 

1844 

Polk 

William  L.  Marcy,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

1845 

Taylor,    .    .    . 

George  W.  Crawford,  . 

Ga. 

1849 

Taylor,    .    .    . 

Edward  Bates,     .    .    . 

Mo. 

1850 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Charles  M.  Conrad,  .    . 

La. 

1850 

Pierce,     .    .    . 

Jefferson  Davis,  .    .    . 

Miss. 

1853 

Buchanan,  .    . 

John  B.  Floyd,     .    .    . 

Va. 

1857 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Joseph  Holt,     .... 

Ky. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

Simon  Cameron,  .    .    . 

Pa. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

Edwin  M.  Stanton,  .    . 

Ohio 

1862 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

Edwin  M.  Stanton,  .    . 

Ohio 

1865 

Johnson,  .  .    . 

U.  S.  Grant  (ad.  in.),  . 

111. 

1867 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

Lor.  Thomas  (ad.  in.). 

1868 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

John  M.  Schofield.  .    . 

n'.  Y.' 

1868 

Grant,  .... 

John  A.  Rawlins,     .    . 

III. 

1869 

Grant 

William  T.  Sherman,  . 

Ohio 

1869 

Grant 

William  W.  Belknap,  . 

la. 

1869 

Grant 

Alphonso  Taft,     .    .    . 

Ohio 

1876 

Grant,  ...    . 

James  Don.  Cameron, 

Pa. 

1876 

Hayes,     .    .    . 

George  W.  McCrary,   . 

la. 

1877 

Hayes,     .    .    . 

Alexander  Ramsey,     . 

Minn. 

1879 

Garfield,  .    .    . 

Robert  T.  Lincoln,  .    . 

111. 

1881 

Arthur,    .    .    . 

Robert  T.  Lincoln,  .    . 

111. 

1881 

Clev£land,  .    . 

William  C.  Endicott,  . 

Mass. 

1885 

B.  Harrison,   . 

Redfield  Proctor,     .    . 

Vt. 

1889 

B.  Harrison,   . 

Stephen  B.  Elkins,  .    . 

W.Va. 

1891 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Daniel  S.  Lamont,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

1893 

McKinley,  .    . 

Russell  A.  Alger, .    .    . 

Mich. 

1897 

McKinley,  .    . 

Elihu  Root 

N.  Y. 

1899 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

EUhu  Root 

N.  Y. 

1901 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

William  H.  Taft, .    .    . 

Ohio 

1904 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Luke  E.  Wright, .    .    . 

Tenn. 

1908 

Taft 

J.  M.  Dickinson,  .    .    . 

Tenn. 

1909 

Department  of  Justice.  The  Attorney-Gen- 
eral is  the  head  of  the  Department  of  Justice 
and  the  chief  law  officer  of  the  Government.  He 
represents  the  United  States  in  matters  involv- 
ing legal  questions;  he  gives  his  advice  and 
opinion,  when  they  are  required  by  the  Presi- 
dent or  by  the  heads  of  the  other  Executive 
Departments,  on  questions  of  law  arising  in  the 
administration  of  their  respective  Departments; 
he  appears  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  cases  of  especial  gravity  and  impor- 
tance; he  exercises  a  general  superintendence 
and  direction  over  United  States  attorneys  and 
marshals  in  all  judicial  districts  in  the  States 
and  Territories;   and  he  provides  special  counsel 


638 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


for  the  United  States  whenever  required  by  any 
Department  of  the  Government. 

ATTORNEYS-GENERAL 


Presidents 


Washington, 
Washington, 
Washington, 
Adams,   .    . 
Adams,   .    . 
Jefiferson,    . 
Jefferson,    . 
Jefferson,    . 
Jefferson,    . 
Madison, 
Madison, 
Madison,     . 
Monroe,  .    . 
Monroe,  .    . 
J.  Q.  Adams, 
Jackson,  .    . 
Jackson,  .    . 
Jackson,  .    . 
Van  Buren, 
Van  Buren, 
Van  Buren, 
Harrison,    .    , 

Tyler 

Tyler 

Tyler 

Polk 

Polk 

Polk 

Taylor,  .  .  . 
Fillmore,  .  . 
Pierce,  .  .  . 
Buchanan  .  . 
Buchanan,  .  . 
Lincoln,  .  .  . 
Lincoln,  .  .  . 
Lincoln,  .  .  . 
Johnson,  .  .  . 
Johnson,  .  .  . 
Johnson,  .   .    . 

Grant 

Grant,  .  .    .    . 

Grant 

Grant,  .  .  .  . 
Grant,  .  .  .  . 
Hayes,  .  .  . 
Garfield,  .  .  . 
Arthur,  .  .  . 
Cleveland,  .  . 
B.  Harrison,  . 
Cleveland,  .  . 
Cleveland,  .  . 
McKinley,  .  . 
McKinley,  .  . 
McKinley,  .  . 
Roosevelt,  .  . 
Roosevelt,  .  . 
Roosevelt,  .  . 
Taft 


Cabinet  Officers 


Edmund  Randolph,  . 
William  Bradford,  .    . 

Charles  Lee 

Charles  Lee 

Theophilus  Parsons,    . 

Levi  Lincoln 

Robert  Smith 

John  Breckinridge,  .  . 
CoBsar  A.  Rodney,  .  . 
Caesar  A.  Rodney,  .  . 
William  Pinkney,  .  . 
Richard  Rush,  .  .  . 
Richard  Rush,     .    .    . 

William  Wirt 

William  Wirt,  .... 
John  McP.  Berrien,  . 
Roger  B.  Taney,  .  .  . 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  . 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  . 
Felix  Grundy,  .... 
Henry  D.  Gilpin,  .  .  . 
John  J.  Crittenden, 
John  J.  Crittenden, 
Hugh  S.  Legare,  .  .  . 
John  Nelson,  .... 
John  Y.  Mason,  .  .  . 
Nathan  Clifford,  .  .  . 
Isaac  Toucey,  .... 
Reverdy  Johnson,  .  . 
John  J.  Crittenden, 
Caleb  Cashing,  .  .  . 
Jeremiah  S.  Black,  .  . 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  .  . 
Edward  Bates,  .  .  . 
Titian  J.Coffey(<Ki.  in.) 
James  Speed,   .... 

James  Speed 

Henry  Stanbery,.  .  . 
William  M.  Evarts,  . 
Ebenezer  R.  Hoar,  .  . 
Amos  T.  Ackerman,  . 
George  H.  Williams,  . 
Edwards  Pierrepont,  . 
Alphonso  Taft,  .  .  . 
Charles  Devens,  .  .  . 
Wayne  MacVeagh,  .  . 
Benjamin  H.  Brewster, 
Augustus  H.  Garland, 
William  H.H.Miller,. 
Richard  Olney,  .  .  . 
Judson  Harmon,  .  .  . 
Joseph  McKenna,  .  . 
John  W.  Griggs,  .  .  . 
Philander  C.  Knox,  . 
Philander  C.  Knox,  . 
William  H.  Moody,  .  . 
Charles  J.  Bonaparte, 
George  W.  Wickersham, 


Resi- 
dences 


Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 


Va. 

1789 

Pa. 

1794 

Va. 

1795 

Va. 

1797 

Mass. 

1801 

Mass. 

1801 

Md. 

1805 

Ky. 

1805 

Del. 

1807 

Del. 

1809 

Md. 

1811 

Pa. 

1814 

Pa. 

1817 

Va. 

1817 

Va. 

1825 

Ga. 

1829 

Md. 

1831 

N.  Y. 

1833 

N.  Y. 

1837 

Tenn. 

1838 

Pa. 

1840 

Ky. 

1841 

Kv. 

1841 

S.  C. 

1841 

Md. 

1843 

Va. 

1845 

Me. 

1846 

Ct. 

1848 

Md. 

1849 

Ky. 

1850 

Mass. 

1853 

Pa. 

1857 

Ohio 

1860 

Mo. 

1861 

Pa. 

1863 

Ky. 

1864 

Ky. 

1865 

Ohio 

1866 

N.  Y. 

1868 

Mass. 

1869 

Ga. 

1870 

Ore. 

1871 

N.  Y. 

1875 

Ohio 

1876 

Mass. 

1877 

Pa. 

1881 

Pa. 

1881 

Ark. 

1885 

Ind. 

1889 

Mass. 

1893 

Ohio 

1895 

Cal. 

1897 

N.J. 

1897 

Pa. 

1901 

Pa. 

1901 

Mass. 

1904- 

Md. 

1906 

N.  Y. 

1909 

Department  of  the  Interior.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  is  charged  with  the  supervision 
of  pubUc  business  relating  to  patents  for  inven- 
tions; pensions  and  bounty  lands;  the  public 
lands  and  surveys;  the  Indians;  education;  the 
Geological  Survey  and  Reclamation  Service ;  the 
Hot  Springs  Reservation,  Arkansas;  Yellow- 
stone National  Park,  Wyoming,  and  the  Yosem- 
ite,  Sequoia,  and  General  Grant  parks,  CaUfor- 
nia,  and  other  national  parks;  forest  reserva- 
tions; distribution  of  appropriations  for  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges  in  the  States 
and  Territories;  the  custody  and  distribution 
of  certain  public  documents;  and  supervision 
of  certain  hospitals  and  eleemosynary  institu- 
tions in  the  District  of  Columbia.  He  also 
exercises  certain  powers  and  duties  in  relation 
to  the  Territories  of  the  United  States. 


SECRETARIES   OF   THE    INTERIOR 

Date 

Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

of  Ap- 
point- 

ment 

Taylor,    .    .    . 

Thomas  Ewing,   .    .    . 

Ohio 

1849 

Fillmore,     .    . 

James  A.  Pearce,     .    . 

Md. 

1850 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Thos.  M.  T.  McKernon, 

Pa. 

1850 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Alexander  H.H. Stuart, 

Va. 

1850 

Pierce,     .    .    . 

Robert  McClelland,     . 

Mich. 

1853 

Buchanan, .    . 

Jacob  Thompson,    .    . 

Miss. 

1857 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

Caleb  B.  Smith,   .    .    . 

Ind. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

John  P.  Usher,     .    .    . 

Ind. 

1863 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

John  P.  Usher,     .    .    . 

Ind. 

1865 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

James  Harlan 

Iowa 

1865 

Johnson,  .   .    . 

Orville  H.  Browning,  . 

111. 

1866 

Grant,  .... 

Jacob  D.  Cox,  .... 

Ohio 

1869 

Grant 

Columbus  Delano,   .    . 

Ohio 

1870 

Grant 

Zachariah  Chandler,    . 

Mich. 

1875 

Hayes,     .    .    . 

Carl  Schurz 

Mo. 

1877 

Garfield,  ... 

Samuel  J.  Kirkwood,  . 

Iowa 

1881 

Arthur,    .    .    . 

Henry  M.  Teller,  .    .    . 

Col. 

1882 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,    . 

Miss. 

1885 

Cleveland,  .    . 

William  F.  Vilas,     .    . 

Wis. 

1888 

B.  Harrison,   . 

John  W.  Noble,   .    .    . 

Mo. 

1889 

Cleveland,  .    . 

Hoke  Smith,    .... 

Ga. 

1893 

Cleveland,  .    . 

David  R.  Francis,    .    . 

Mo. 

1896 

McKinley,  .    . 

Cornelius  N.  Bliss,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

1897 

McKinley,  .    . 

Ethan  A.  Hitchcock,  . 

Mo. 

1899 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

Ethan  A.  Hitchcock,  . 

Mo. 

1901 

Roosevelt,  .    . 

James  R.  Garfield,  .    . 

Ohio 

1907 

Taft 

Richard  A.  Ballinger, 

Wash. 

1909 

Post-office  Department.  The  Postmaster- 
General  has  the  direction  and  management 
of  the  Post-office  Department.  He  appoints  all 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Department,  except 
the  four  Assistant  Postmasters-General  and  the 
purchasing  agent,  who  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate;  appoints  all  postmasters  whose 
compensation  does  not  exceed  $1,000;  makes 
postal  treaties  with  foreign  governments,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Presi- 
dent; awards  and  executes  contracts,  and 
directs  the  management  of  the  mail  service. 

POSTMASTERS-GENERAL* 


Date 

Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Washington,  . 

Samuel  Osgood,  .    .    . 

Mass. 

1789 

Washington,  . 

Timothy  Pickering,     . 

Mass. 

1791 

Washington,  . 

Joseph  Habersham,     . 

Ga. 

1795 

Adams,    .    .    . 

Joseph  Habersham,     . 

Ga. 

1797 

Jefferson,    .    . 

Joseph  Habersham,     . 

Ga. 

1801 

Jefferson,    .    . 

Gideon  Granger,  .    .    . 

Ct. 

1801 

Madison,     .    . 

Gideon  Granger,  .    .    . 

Ct. 

1809 

Madison,     .    . 

Return  J.  Meigs,  Jr.,   . 

Ohio 

1814 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

Return  J.  Meigs,  Jr.,   . 

Ohio 

1817 

Monroe,  .    .    . 

John  McLean 

Ohio 

1823 

J.  Q.  Adams, . 

John  McLean 

Ohio 

1825 

Jackson, .    .    . 

William  T.  Barry,   .    . 

Ky. 

1829 

Jackson,  .    .    . 

Amos  Kendall,     .    .    . 

Ky. 

1835 

Van  Buren,     . 

Amos  Kendall,     .    .    . 

Ky. 

1837 

Van  Buren,     . 

John  M.  Niles,  .... 

Ct. 

1840 

Harrison,    .    . 

Francis  Granger, .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1841 

Tyler 

Francis  Granger, .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1841 

Tyler,  .... 

Charles  A.  Wickliffe,   . 

Ky. 

1841 

Polk,   .... 

Cave  Johnson 

Tenn. 

1845 

Taylor,    .    .    . 

Jacob  Collamer,  .    .    . 

Vt. 

1849 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Nathan  K.  Hall,  .    .    . 

N.  Y. 

1850 

Fillmore,     .    . 

Samuel  D.  Hubbard,  . 

Ct. 

1852 

Pierce,     .    .    . 

James  Campbell, .    .    . 

Pa. 

1853 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Aaron  V.  Brown,     .    . 

Tenn. 

1857 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Joseph  Holt 

Ky. 

1859 

Buchanan,  .    . 

Horatio  King 

Me. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

Montgomery  Blair,  .    . 

Md. 

1861 

Lincoln,  .    .    . 

William  Dennison,  .    . 

Ohio 

1864 

Johnson,.    .    . 

William  Dennison,  .    . 

Ohio 

1865 

Johnson, .    .    . 

Alexander  W.  Randall, 

Wis. 

1866 

Grant 

John  A.  J.  Cresswell,  . 

Md. 

1869 

Grant 

James  W.  Marshall,     . 

Va. 

1874 

GOVERNMENT   AND   POLITICS 


639 


Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Grant,  .  . 
Grant,  .  . 
Hayes,    . 
Hayes,     . 
Garfield,  . 
Arthur,    . 
Arthur,    . 
Arthur,    . 
Cleveland, 
Cleveland, 
B.  Harrison 
Cleveland, 
Cleveland, 
McKinley, 
McKinley, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Taft,    .    . 

Marshall  Jewell,  .    . 
James  N.  Tyner,  .    . 
David  McK.,Key,    . 
Horace  Maynard,     . 
Thomas  I,.  James,,  . 
Timothy  0.  Howe,  . 
Walter  Q.  Gresham, 
Frank  Hatton,     .    . 
William  F.  Vilas,     . 
Don  M.  Dickinson,  . 
John  Wanamaker,  . 
Wilson  S.  Bissell,     . 
William  L.  Wilson,  . 
James  A.  Gary,    .    . 
Charles  Emory  Smith 
Charles  Emory  Smith 
Henry  C.  Payne,  .    . 
Robert  J.  Wynne,    . 
George  B.  Cortelyou, 
George  Von  L.  Meyer, 
Frank  H.  Hitchcock, 

Ct. 

Ind. 

Tenn. 

Tenn. 

N.  Y. 

Wis. 

Ind. 

la. 

Wis. 

Mich. 

Pa. 

N.  Y. 

W.Va. 

Md. 

Pa. 

Pa. 

Wis. 

Pa. 

N.  Y. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

1874 
1876 
1877 
1880 
1881 
1881 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1888 
1889 
1893 
189.5 
1897 
1898 
1901 
1901 
1904 
190.5 
1907 
1909 

*  The    Postmaster-General     was     not    considered     a 
Cabinet  officer  until  1829. 

Navy  Department.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  performs  such  duties  as  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  who  is  Commander-in-chief, 
may  assign  him,  and  has  the  general  superin- 
tendence of  construction,  manning,  armament, 
equipment,  and  employment  of  vessels  of  war. 
SECRETARIES   OF   THE   NAVY 


Presidents 


Adams,    . 
Jefferson, 
Jefferson, 
Jefferson, 
Madison, 
Madison, 
Madison, 
Monroe,  . 
Monroe,  . 
Monroe,  . 
J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson,  . 
Jackson,  . 
Jackson, . 
Van  Buren, 
Van  Buren, 
Harrison, 
Tyler,  .   . 
Tyler,  .   . 
Tyler.  .    . 
Tyler,  .    . 
Tyler,  .    . 
Polk.   .    . 
Polk,    .    . 
Taylor,    . 
Fillmore, 
Fillmore, 
Pierce.     . 
Buchanan, 
Lincoln,  . 
Johnson,  . 
Grant,  .  . 
Grant,  .  . 
Hayes.     . 
Hayes,     . 
Garfield.  . 
Arthur,    . 
Cleveland, 
B.  Harrison 
Cleveland, 
McKinley, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Roosevelt, 
Taft,    .    . 


Cabinet  Officers 


Benjamin  Stoddert,  . 
Benjamin  Stoddert,  . 
Robert  Smith,  .... 
Jacob  Crowninshield,  . 
Paul  Hamilton,  .  .  . 
William  Jones,  .  .  . 
B.  W.  Crowninshield,. 
B.  W.  Crowninshield,. 
Smith  Thompson,  .  . 
Samuel  L.  Southard,  . 
Samuel  L.  Southard,  . 
John  Branch,  .... 
Levi  Woodbury,  '.  .  . 
Mahlon  Dickerson,  .  . 
Mahlon  Dickerson,  .  . 
James  K.  Paulding,  . 
George  E.  Badger  .  . 
George  E.  Badger,  .  . 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  .  .  . 
David  Henshaw,  .  .  . 
Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  . 
John  Y.  Mason,  .  .  . 
George  Bancroft,  .  . 
John  Y.  Mason,  .  .  . 
William  B.  Preston,  . 
William  A.  Graham,  . 
John  P.  Kennedy,  .  . 
James  C.  Dobbin;  .  . 
Isaac  Toucey,  .... 
Gideon  Welles,  .  .  . 
Gideon  Welles,  .  .  . 
Adolph  E.  Borie,  .  .  . 
George  M.  Robeson,  . 
Richard  W.  Thompson, 
Nathan  Goff,  Jr.,  .  . 
William  H.  Hunt,  .  . 
William  E.  Chandler,  . 
William  C.  Whitney,  . 
Benjamin  F.  Tracy,  . 
Hilary  A.  Herbert,  .  . 
John  D.  Long,  .... 
John  D.  Long,  .... 
William  H.  Moodj', .  . 
Paul  Morton,  .... 
Charles  J.  Bonaparte, 
Victor  H.  Metcalf.  .  . 
Truman  H.  Newberry, 
George  Von  L.  Meyer. 


Resi- 
dences 


Md. 

Md. 

Md. 

Mass. 

S.  C. 

Pa. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

N.  Y. 

N.J. 

N.  J. 

N.  C. 

N.  H. 

N.J. 

N.J. 

N.  Y. 

N.  C. 

N.  C. 

Va. 

Mass. 

Va. 

Va. 

Mass. 

Va. 

Va. 

N.C. 

Md. 

N.C. 

Ct. 

Ct. 

Ct. 

Pa. 

N.J. 

Ind. 

W.Va. 

La. 

N.  H. 

N.  Y. 

N.  Y. 

Ala. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

Mass. 

N.  Y. 

Md. 

Cal. 

Mich. 

Mass. 


Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 


1798 
1801 
1801 
1805 
1809 
1813 
1814 
1817 
1818 
1823 
1825 
1829 
1831 
1834 
1837 
1838 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1853 
1857 
1861 
1865 
1869 
1869 
1877 
1881 
1881 
1882 
1885 
1889 
1893 
1897 
1901 
1902 
1904 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 


Department  of  Agriculture.  .The  Secretary 
exercises  personal  supervision  of  public  busi- 
ness relating  to  the  agricultural  industry.  He  ap- 
points all  the  officers  and  employees  of  the 
Department  with  the  exception  of  the  Assistant 
Secretary  and  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  President,  and  directs 
the  management  of  all  the  divisions,  offices, 
and  bureaus  embraced  in  the  Department.  He 
sustains  an  advisory  relation  to  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  deriving  support  from  the 
National  Treasury;  has  control  of  the  quaran- 
tine stations  for  imported  cattle,  of  interstate 
quarantine  rendered  necessary  by  sheep  and 
cattle  diseases,  and  of  the  inspection  of  cattle- 
carrying  vessels;  and  directs  the  inspection  of 
domestic  meats  and  of  all  imported  food  prod- 
ucts. He  also  is  charged  with  carrying  into 
effect  the  laws  prohibiting  the  transportation 
by  interstate  commerce  of  game  killed  in  viola- 
tion of  local  laws  and  excluding  from  importa- 
tion certain  noxious  animals,  and  has  authority 
to  control  the  importation  of  other  animals. 

SECRETARIES   OF   AGRICULTURE 


Presidents 


Cleveland,  . 
B.  Harrison, 
Cleveland,  . 
McKinley.  . 
Roosevelt.  . 
Taft.    .    .    . 


Cabinet  Officers 


Norman  J.  Colman, 
Jeremiah  M.  Rusk, 
J.  Sterling  Morton, 
James  Wilson,  .    . 
James  Wilson,  .    . 
James  Wilson, . 


Resi- 
dences 


Mo. 

Wis. 

Neb. 

la. 

la. 

la. 


Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

1889 
1889 
1893 
1897 
1901 
1909 


Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  The 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  is  charged 
with  the  work  of  promoting  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States,  and  its  mining,  manu- 
facturing, shipping,  fishery,  transportation,  and 
labor  interests.  His  duties  also  comprise  the 
investigation  of  the  organization  and  management 
of  corporations  (excepting  railroads)  engaged  in 
interstate  commerce;  the  gathering  and  publi- 
cation of  information  regarding  labor  interests 
and  labor  controversies  in  this  and  other  coun- 
tries; the  administration  of  the  Light-House 
Service,  and  the  aid  and  protection  to  shipping 
thereby;  the  taking  of  the  census,  and  the  col- 
lection and  publication  of  statistical  information 
connected  therewith;  the  making  of  coast  and 
geodetic  surveys;  the  collecting  of  statistics 
relating  to  foreign  and  domestic  commerce;  the 
inspection  of  steamboats,  and  the  enforcement 
of  laws  relating  thereto  for  the  protection  of  life 
and  property ;  the  supervision  of  the  fisheries  as 
administered  by  the  Federal  Government;  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Alaskan  fur-seal, 
salmon,  and  other  fisheries;  the  jurisdiction 
over  merchant  vessels,  their  registry,  licensing, 
measurement,  entry,  clearance,  transfers,  move- 
ment of  their  cargoes  and  passengers,  and  laws 
relating  thereto,  and  to  seamen  of  the  United 
States;  the  supervision  of  the  immigration  of 
aliens,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  relating 
thereto,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  Chinese;  the 
custody,  construction,  maintenance,  and  appli- 
cation of  standards  of  weights  and  measurements ; 
and  the  gathering  and  supplying  of  information 
regarding  industries  and  markets  for  the  foster- 
ing of  manufacturing.     He  has  power  to  call 


640 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


upon  other  Departments  for  statistical  data 
obtained  by  them.  It  is  his  further  duty  to 
make  such  special  investigations  and  furnish 
such  information  to  the  President  or  Congress 
as  may  be  required  by  them  on  the  foregoing 
subject-matters  and  to  make  annual  reports  to 
Congress  upon  the  work  of  said  Department. 

SECRETARIES   OF   COMMERCE-  AND    LABOR 


Presidents 

Cabinet  Officers 

Resi- 
dences 

Date 
of  Ap- 
point- 
ment 

Roosevelt,  .    . 
Roosevelt,  .    . 
Roosevelt,  .    . 
Taft,    .... 

George  B.  Cortelyou,  . 
Victor  H.  Metcalf,  .    . 
Oscar  S.  Straus,  .    .    . 
Charles  Nagel 

N.  Y. 
Cal. 
N.  Y. 

Mo. 

1903 
1904 
1907 
1909 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
title  of  the  presiding  officer  of  the  House  of 
Representatives.  He  is  elected  by  the  members 
of  that  body.  Below  is  given  a  list  of  the  Speak- 
ers who  have  presided  since  the  first  Congress : 

SPEAKERS   OF  THE   HOUSE 


Name 

State 

■2 

Con- 

Q 

F.  A.  Muhlenburg,  . 

Pa. 

1750'l801 

1 

Jonathan  Trumbull, 

Conn. 

1740;i809 

2 

F.  A.  Muhlenburg,  . 

Pa. 

1750 

1801 

3 

Jonathan  Dayton,   . 

N.J. 

1760 

1824 

4,    5 

Theo.  Sedgwick,  .    . 

Mass. 

1746 

1813 

6 

Nathaniel  Macon,    . 

N.  C. 

1757 

1837 

7-9 

Joseph  B.  Varnum, 

Mass. 

1750 

1821 

10,  11 

Henry  Clay 

Ky. 

1777 

1852 

12,  13 

Langdon  Cheves, 

S.  C. 

1776 

1857 

13 

Henry  Clay, .... 

Ky. 

1777 

1852 

14-16 

John  W.  Taylor,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

1784 

1854 

16 

Philip  P.  Barbour,  . 

Va. 

1783 

1841 

17 

Henry  Clay 

Kv. 

1777 

1852 

18 

John  W.  Taylor,  .    . 

N.  Y. 

1784 

1854 

19 

Andrew  Stevenson, 

Va. 

1784 

1857 

20-23 

John  Bell 

Tenn. 

1797 

1869 

23 

James  K.  Polk,    .    . 

Tenn. 

1795 

1849 

24,25 

R.  M.  T.  Hunter,     . 

Va. 

1809 

1887 

26 

.Tohn  White 

Ky. 

1805 

1845 

27 

John  W.  Jones.    .    . 

Va. 

1805 

1848 

28 

John  W.  Davis,    .    . 

Ind. 

1799 

18.50 

29 

Robert  C.  Winthrop, 

Mass. 

1809 

1894 

30 

Howell  Cobb,  .    .    . 

Ga. 

1815 

1868 

31 

Linn  Boyd 

Ky. 

1800 

18.59 

32,  33 

Nathaniel  P.  Banks, 

Mass. 

1816 

1894 

34 

James  L.  Orr,  .    .    . 

S.  C. 

182211873 

35 

Wm.  Pennington,    . 

N.J. 

1796  1862 

36 

Galusha  A.  Grow,    . 

Pa. 

1823  1907 

37 

Schuyler  Colfax,  .    . 

Ind. 

1823  1885 

38-40 

James  G.  Blaine, .    . 

Me. 

1830 

1893 

41-43 

Michael  C.  Kerr,  .    . 

Ind. 

1827 

1876 

44 

Samuel  J.  Randall, 

Pa 

1828 

1890 

44-46 

Joseph  W.  Keifer,   . 

Ohio 

1836 

47 

John  G.  Carlisle,  .    . 

Ky. 

1835 

48-50 

Thomas  B.  Reed,    . 

Me 

1839 

1902 

51 

Charles  F.  Crisp,  .    . 

Ga. 

1845 

1896  52,  531 

Thomas  B.  Reed,    . 

Me. 

1839  1902154,  55 

David  B.  Henderson, 

Iowa 

1840;  1906156,  57 

Joseph  G.  Cannon,  . 

111. 

1836; 159-61 

Champ  Clark,  .    .    . 

Mo. 

1850 

62 

Years 


1789-91 
1791-93 
1793-95 
1795-99 
1799-01 
1801-07 
1807-11 
1811-14 
1814-15 
1815-20 
1820-21 
1821-23 
1823-25 
1825-27 
1827-34 
1834-35 
1835-39 
1839-41 
1841-43 
1843-45 
1845-47 
1847-49 
1849-51 
1851-55 
1855-57 
1857-59 
1859-61 
1861-63 
1863-69 
1869-75 
1875-76 
1876-81 
1881-83 
1883-89 
1889-91 
1891-95 
1895-99 
1899-03 
1903-11 
1911- 


JUSTICES   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 
SUPREME   COURT 
(Names  of  the  Chief  Justices  in  italics.) 


Service 

Born 

Name 

Term 

2 

Died 

1789-1795 
1789-1791 
1789-1810 
1789-1798 
1789-1796 
1789-1790 
1790-1799 

6 
2 
21 
9 
7 
1 
9 

1745 
1739 
1733 
1742 
1732 
1745 
1751 

1829 

John  Rutledge,  S.  C, 
William  Cashing,  Mass 
James  Wilson,  Pa.,    . 
John  Blair,  Va.,     .    . 
Robert  H.  Harrison,  M 
James  Iredell,  N.  C, 

d. 

1800 
1810 
1798 
1800 
1790 
1799 

Name 


Thomas  Johnson,  Md., 
William  Paterson,  N.  J.,  . 

John  Rutledpe,  S.  C 

Samuel  Chase,  Md 

Oliver  Ellsworth,  Ct.,  .  . 
Bushrod  Washington, Va. 
Alfred  Moore,  N.  C,  .   .    . 

John  Marshall,  Va 

William  Johnson,  S.  C,  . 
Brock.  Livingston,  N.  Y., 

Thomas  Todd,  Ky 

Josepli  Story,  Mass.,     .    . 

Gabriel  Duval,  Md 

Smith  Thompson,  N.  Y., 
Robert  Trimble,  Ky.,  .  . 
John  McLean,  Ohio, .  .  . 
Henry  Baldwin,  Pa.,  .  . 
•Tames  M.  Wayne,  Ga., 
Roger  B.  Taney,  Md.,  .  . 
Philip  P.  Barbour,  Va.,  . 
John  Catron,  Tenn.,.  .  . 
John  McKinley,  Ala.,  .  . 
Peter  V.  Daniel,  Va.,  .  . 
Samuel  Nelson,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.,  . 
Robert  C.  Grier,  Pa.,  .  . 
Benj.  R.  Curtis,  Mass.,  .  . 
John  A.  Campbell,  Ala.,  . 
Nathan  Clifford,  Me.,  .  . 
Noah  H.  Swayne,  Ohio,  . 
Samuel  F.  Miller,  Iowa,  . 
David  Davis,  111.,  .  .  .  . 
Stephen  J.  Field,  Cal.,  .  . 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio,  . 
William  Strong,  Pa.,  .  . 
Joseph  P.  Bradley,  N.  J., 

Ward  Hunt,  N.  Y 

Morrison  R.  Waite,  Ohio, 
John  M.  Harlan,  Ky.,  .  . 
William  B.  Woods,  Ga.,  . 
Stanley  Matthew's,  Ohio,  . 
Horace  Gray,  Mass.,  .  . 
Samuel  Blatchford,  N.Y., 
Lucius  Q.C.Lamar,  Miss., 
Melville  W.  Fuller,  111.,  . 
David  J.  Brewer,  Kan.,  . 
Henry  B.  Brown,  Mich.,  . 
George  Shiras,  Jr.,  Pa.,  . 
Howell  E.  Jaokson.Tenn., 
Edward  D.  White,  La.,  . 
Rufus  W.  Peckham.N.Y., 
Joseph  McKenna,  Cal., 
Oliver  W.  Holmes,  Mass., 
William  R.  Day,  Ohio,  .  . 
William  H.  Moody,  .  .  . 
Horace  H.  Lurton,  Tenn., 
Charles  E.  Hughes,  N.  Y. 
Willis  Van  Devanter,  Wyo. 
Joseph  R.  Lamar,  Ga.,     . 


Service 


Term 


1791-1793 
1793-1806 
1795-1795 
1796-1811 
1796-1800 
1798-1829 
1799-1804 
1801-1835 
1804-1834 
1806-1823 
1807-1826 
1811-1845 
1811-1836 
1823-1843 
1826-1828 
1829-1861 
1830-1844 
1835-1867 
1836-1864 
1836-1841 
1837-1865 
1837-1852 
1841-1860 
1845-1872 
1845-1851 
1846-1870 
1851-1857 
1853-1861 
1858-1881 
1861-1881 
1862-1890 
1862-1877 
1863-1897 
1864-1873 
1870-1880 
1870-1892 
1872-1882 
1874-1888 
1877- . . . . 
1880-1887 
1881-1889 
1881-1902 
1882-1893 
1888-1893 
1888-1910 
1889-1910 
1890-1906 
1892-1903 
1893-1895 

1893- 

1895-1909 

1898- 

1902- 

1903-. .  . 
1906-1910 

1909- 

1910- 

1910- 

1910- 


Born 


1732 
1745 
1739 
1741 
1745 
1762 
1755 
17.55 
1771 
1757 
1765 
1779 
1752 
1767 
1777 
1785 
1779 
1790 
1777 
1783 
1786 
1780 
1785 
1792 
1789 
1794 
1809 
1811 
1803 
1804 
1816 
1815 
1816 
1808 
1808 
1813 
1811 
1816 
1833 
1824 
1824 
1828 
1820 
1825 
1833 
1837 
1836 
1832 
1832 
1845 
1837 
1843 
1841 
1849 
1853 
1844 
1862 
1859 
1857 


Died 


1819 
1806 
1800 
1811 
1807 
1829 
1810 
1835 
1834 
1823 
1826 
1845 
1844 
1843 
1828 
1861 
1844 
1867 
1864 
1841 
1865 
1852 
1860 
1873 
1851 
1870 
1874 
1889 
1881 
1884 
1890 
1886 
1899 
1873 
1895 
1892 
1886 
1888 

i887 
1889 
1902 
1893 
1893 
1910 
1910 


1895 
1909 


Uruguay.  The  Republic  of  Uruguay 
declared  its  independence,  August  25,  1825.  Its 
Constitution  was  sworn  to,  July  18,  1830.  By 
the  terms  of  this  charter,  the  legislative  power 
is  in  a  Parliament,  composed  of  two  Houses,  the 
Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Representatives, 
which  meet  in  annual  session,  extending  from 
February  15th  to  July  15th.  In  the  interval 
of  the  session,  a  permanent  committee  of  two 
senators  and  five  members  of  the  lower  house 
assume  the  legislative  power,  as  well  as  the 
general  control  of  the  administration.  The 
representatives  are  chosen  for  three  years, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  3,000  inhab- 
itants, of  male  adults  who  can  read  and 
write.  The  senators  are  chosen  by  an  elec- 
toral college,  directly  elected  by  the  people. 
There  is  one  senator  for  each  department,  chosen 
for  six  years,  one-third  retiring  every  two  years. 
There  are  sixty-nine  representatives  and  nineteen 


GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS 


641 


senators.  The  executive  is  given  by  the  Con- 
stitution to  the  president  of  the  RepubHc, 
elected  for  the  term  of  four  years.  The  presi- 
dent is  assisted  in  his  executive  functions  by  a 
council  of  ministers  divided  into  five  depart- 
ments, namely,  that  of  the  interior,  foreign 
affairs,  finance,  war  and  marine,  and.  instruc- 
tion and  public  works. 

Utah.  The  original  Constitution  of  1895 
is  in  force  as  amended  in  1900.  The  Legislature 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives; but  the  Constitution  provides  for  the 
initiation  of  any  desired  legislation  by  the  legal 
voters  or  such  number  of  them  as  may  be  deter- 
mined by  law,  and  such  voters  may  require  any 
law  passed  by  less  than  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
House  of  the  Legislature  to  be  submitted  to  the 
voters  of  the  State  before  coming  into  effect. 
The  Senate  (in  part  renewed  every  two  years) 
consists  of  eighteen  members,  elected  for  four 
years;  the  House  of  Representatives  has  forty- 
five  members  elected  for  two  years.  Bills  may 
originate  in  either  House.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives may  impeach;  the  Senate  tries  im- 
peachments. Eligible  to  either  House  are 
citizens  25  years  of  age,  three  years  resi- 
dent in  the  State,  and  one  year  in  the  district 
next  before  the  election.  Amendments  to  the 
Constitution  may  be  proposed  in  either  branch 
of  the  Legislature,  but  to  be  embodied  in  the 
Constitution,  they  must  be  carried  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of  each  House 
and  ratified  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  people. 
The  chief  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor  elected  for  four  years.  He  is  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  militia.  With  the  con- 
sent of  the  Senate  he  has  the  appointment  of 
various  officials.  The  governor,  justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  attorney-general  consti- 
tute a  board  of  pardons.  The  governor  has 
the  power  of  veto  but  its  exercise  may  be  over- 
ridden by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of 
each  House.  Other  State  officials  are  the  secre- 
tary of  state,  auditor,  the  treasurer,  the  at- 
torney-general, and  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction;  all  elected  for  four  years. 
There  are  twenty-seven  counties  in  the  State. 

Venezuela.  The  Republic  of  Venezuela 
was  formed  in  1830,  by  secession  from  the  other 
members  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  The  Con- 
stitution in  force  is  that  of  1904.  Legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  a  congress  of  two  chambers, 
the  senate  and  the  chamber  of  deputies.  The 
former  consists  of  twenty-six  members  elected 
for  six  years,  two  for  each  state,  Venezuelans  by 
birth  and  over  30  years  of  age.  The  latter  is 
constituted  as  follows:  Each  state  chooses  by 
direct  election  one  deputy,  a  Venezuelan  by 
birth  and  over  21  years  of  age,  for  every  40,000 
inhabitants,  and  one  more  for  an  excess  of  20,000. 
The  federal  district  and  the  territories  which  are 
sufficiently  populous  elect  deputies  in  manner 
prescribed  by  law.  Deputies  are  elected  for  six 
years.  Congress  meets  biennially  and  sits  for 
ninety  days.  Executive  power  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  president  and  cabinet  of  ministers.  The 
president  holds  office  for  six  years  and  cannot  be 
elected  for  the  following  term.  He  must  be  a 
Venezuelan  by  birth  and  over  30  years  of  age. 
In  case  of  temporary  or  permanent  inability  to 


act,  his  place  is  taken  by  the  first  and  second 
vice-presidents.  The  presidents  and  vice-presi- 
dents are  chosen  by  an  electoral  body  which  is 
itself  elected  by  congress  within  fifteen  days  of 
its  assembling,  and  which  consists  of  a  senator 
or  deputy  for  each  of  the  federal  entities  and  one 
additional  for  the  federal  district.  The  cabinet 
consists  of  the  ministers  of  internal  affairs, 
foreign  affairs,  finance,  and  public  credit,  war, 
and  marine,  development,  public  works,  public 
instruction. 

Vermont.  The  Constitution  in  force  at 
the  time  of  admission  was  that  of  1786.  In  1793, 
a  new  Constitution  was  adopted  which,  with 
amendments  made  in  1828,  1836,  1850,  1870, 
and  1883,  is  still  in  force.  The  State  Legislature 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives having,  the  former  thirty  and  the  latter 
246  members.  Senators  must  be  30  years  of  age 
and  Representatives  2 1 .  The  governor  is  elected 
for  two  years.  He  exercises  the  chief  executive 
power  and  appoints  all  State  officers  not  other- 
wise provided  for  by  law.  He  has  power  to  par- 
don, or  in  certain  cases  only  to  reprieve;  his 
veto  can  be  overridden  by  a  majority  vote  of 
each  House.  Other  important  officials  are 
the  lieutenant-governor,  treasurer,  and  auditor. 

Virginia.  The  first  Constitution  of  Vir- 
ginia was  adopted  on  June  29,  1776,  and  with 
little  change  it  survived  till  recent  years.  The 
Constitution  now  in  force  was  adopted  by  the 
Convention  of  1901-02.  It  provides  for  a  Legisla- 
ture called  the  General  Assembly,  consisting  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Delegates,  the  former 
containing  not  more  than  forty  nor  less  than 
thirty-three  members,  and  the  latter  not  more 
than  100  nor  less  tha.n  ninety.  Senators  are 
elected  for  four  years,  one-half  retiring  every 
two  years.  Eligible  to  either  House  are  persons 
resident  in  the  district  and  qualified  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  General  Assembly,  except  paid 
office-holders  of  the  State  or  of  the  Union.  The 
executive  power  resides  in  a  governor,  elected  for 
four  years  by  the  voters  of  the  State.  He  must 
be  30  years  of  age,  must  have  been  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States  for  ten  years,  and  have  resided 
in  the  State  for  five  years.  He  is  not  eligible  for 
the  succeeding  term.  He  is  required  to  take 
care  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  administered; 
he  recommends  the  legislative  measures  which 
he  considers  necessary;  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  military  forces;  has  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  after  conviction,  but  must 
report  to  the  Legislature  on  each  case.  In  legis- 
lation he  has  a  limited  power  of  veto,  which  may 
be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each 
House,  if  such  majority  includes  a  majority  of  the 
elected  members.  There  is  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, a  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  and  a 
State  treasurer,  each  of  whom  is  elected  for  the 
same  term  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  gov- 
ernor. The  auditor  is  appointed  for  four  years 
by  the  two  Houses  sitting  together. 

Washington  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  State  in  1889.  The  Constitution  of 
that  year  was  amended  in  1894,  1896,  1900,  and 
1904.  Legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  Legis- 
lature consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives,  the  latter  composed  of  not  less 
than    sixty-three    nor   more    than    ninety-nine 


642 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


members  (actually  ninety-five  in  1907),  the 
number  of  Senators  being  not  more  than  half 
nor  less  than  one-third  of  that  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  (actually  forty-two 
in  1907).  The  membership  of  both  Houses  is 
apportioned  anew  every  five  years  according  to 
the  results  of  the  federal  decennial  census  and  of 
the  intervening  decennial  State  census.  Eligible 
for  either  house  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
who  are  qualified  voters  in  the  districts  for  which 
the  election  is  held.  But  members  of  the 
United  States  Congress  and  holders  of  United 
States  or  State  offices  are  disqualified.  The 
chief  executive  authority  resides  in  a  governor, 
chosen  by  the  qualified  electors  of  the  State  and 
holding  office  for  four  years.  He  is  charged  to 
watch  over  the  faithful  execution  of  the  laws; 
he  recommends  legislative  measures,  communi- 
cating by  message  every  session  with  the  Legis- 
lature. He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  State 
military  forces;  he  has  pardoning  powers  as  to 
the  use  of  which  he  reports  to  the  Legislature ;  he 
has  a  veto  in  legislation,  but  his  veto  may  be 
overridden  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  each 
House.  He  signs  all  commissions.  The  execu- 
tive department  consists  of  the  governor,  a  sec- 
retary of  state,  treasurer,  auditor,  attorney- 
general,  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  commissioner  of  public  lands,  all  elected  by 
the  qualified  voters  for  four  years. 

West  Virginia.  The  present  Constitu- 
tion was  framed  and  adopted  in  1872,  super- 
seding the  Constitution  of  1863.  It  was  amended 
in  1879, 1883,  and  1902.  The  Legislature  consists 
of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Delegates.  The 
members  of  both  Houses  are  elected  by  the  gen- 
eral electors.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  thirty 
members  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  in  such 
a  manner  that  half  the  Senate  is  renewed  bien- 
nially. Senators  must  be  at  least  25  years  of  age 
and  have  been  resident  five  years  in  the  State 
and  in  the  senatorial  districts  for  which  they  are 
severally  chosen.  The  House  of  Delegates  con- 
sists of  eighty-six  members.  Every  bill  passed 
by  both  Houses  requires  the  assent  of  the  gov- 
ernor, but  if  this  is  refused  the  bill  may  become 
law  on  being  re  voted  by  a  majority  in  the  Legis- 
lature. The  executive  department  consists  of 
a  governor,  secretary  of  state,  superintendent 
of  free  schools,  auditor,  treasurer,  and  attorney- 
general,  each  elected  fbr  four  years.  The  gov- 
ernor must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age  and  is  not 
eligible  for  reelection.  He  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  State  military  establishment,  con- 
venes the  Legislature  in  extra  session,  approves 
or  disapproves  all  acts  of  the  Legislature,  fills 
vacant  State  offices  by  appointment,  and  is 
president  of  the  board  of  public  works. 

Wisconsin  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in 
1848.  The  Constitution  of  that  year  is  still  in 
force,  but  has  been  frequently  amended,  first  in 
1869,  and  most  recently  in  1904.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  Senate  and  Assembly. 
The  Senate  consists  of  thirty-three  members 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  only  about  one- 
half  of  the  members  being  elected  at  one  time. 
The  Assembly  consists  of  100  members,  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years,  all  of  the  members  being 
elected  at  the  same  time.  The  powers  of  the  two 
Houses  as  to  appropriations  and  revenue  bills  are 


the  same.  Eligible  to  the  -Legislature  are  all 
males  who  are  qualified  electors  in  the  district 
to  be  represented  and  who  have  resided  one  year 
within  the  State,  except  members  of  Congress 
and  office  holders  under  the  United  States.  The 
chief  executive  authority  in  the  State  is  vested 
in  the  governor,  who  is  elected  for  two  years  and 
has  the  powers  usually  resident  in  State  govern- 
ors, including  the  limited  veto  and  pardoning 
power.  The  secretary  of  state  is  elected  for  two 
years.  Other  important  elective  offices  are 
those  of  lieutenant-governor,  treasurer,  attorney- 
general,  superintendent  of  schools,  and  insurance 
commissioner.  Among  the  more  important 
appointive  offices  are  the  following:  commis- 
sioner of  labor  and  industrial  statistics,  appointed 
for  four  years,  commissioner  of  banking,  dairy 
and  food  commissioner,  superintendent  of  public 
property,  and  adjutant-general.  The  railroad 
commission  consisting  of  three  members  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate,  for  a  term  of  six  years.  The  tax  com- 
mission is  composed  of  three  members  similarly- 
appointed  for  a  term  of  eight  years.  The  civil 
service  commission  is  appointed  for  a  term  of 
six  years,  and  the  board  of  control  for  five 
years. 

Wyoming  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a  State  in  1890.  The  original  Constitution, 
adopted  in  1889,  is  still  in  force.  Constitutional 
amendments  proposed  in  either  House  of  the 
Legislature,  agreed  to  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all 
the  members  of  each  House,  and  approved  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  people,  become  part  of  the 
Constitution.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a 
Senate  of  twenty-three  members,  elected  for 
four  years  (about  one-half  retiring  every  two 
years),  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  fifty 
members  elected  for  two  years.  Legislators 
must  be  citizens  (Senators  25  and  Representatives 
21  years  of  age),  and  must  have  resided  in  the 
county  or  district  one  year  next  preceding  the 
election.  Revenue  bills  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate  tries 
cases  of  impeachment  brought  by  the  other 
House.  The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  State 
is  the  governor,  elected  for  four  years.  He  may 
appoint  to  offices  not  otherwise  provided  for  by 
law,  has  a  limited  power  of  pardoning,  etc.,  may 
call  special  sessions  of  the  Legislature,  and  has  a 
veto  which  may  be  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House.  Other  officials  elected  for 
four  years,  are  the  secretary  of  state,  auditor, 
treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. The  treasurer  is  not  eligible  for  the 
succeeding  term. 

Zanzibar.  The  dominions  of  the  Sultan 
of  Zanzibar  include  only  the  islands  of  Zanzibar 
and  Pemba,  and  the  coast  of  the  British  East 
Africa  up  to  ten  miles  inland.  The  Sultan  is  still 
the  titular  sovereign,  under  a  British  Protecto- 
rate. In  October,  1891,  a  regular  government 
was  formed  for  Zanzibar.  All  accounts  are  now 
kept  in  English  and  Arabic,  and  are  always  open 
to  the  inspection  of  the  British  agent  and  consul- 
general,  and  no  new  undertakings  or  additional 
expenditure  can  be  incurred  without  his  consent. 
On  February  1,  1892,  Zanzibar  was  declared  a 
free  port,  and  it  remained  so  until  October  1, 
1899. 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


Adulteration,  a  term  not  only  applied  in 
its  proper  sense  to  the  fraudulent  mixture  of 
articles  of  commerce,  food,  drink,  drugs,  seeds, 
etc.,  with  noxious  or  inferior  ingredients,  but 
also  by  magistrates  and  analysts  to  accidental 
impurity,  and  even  in  some  cases  to  actual  sub- 
stitution. The  chief  objects  of  adulteration  are 
to  increase  the  weight  or  volume  of  the  article, 
to  give  a  color  which  either  makes  a  good  article 
more  pleasing  to  the  eye,  or  else  disguises  an 
inferior  one,  to  substitute  a  cheaper  form  of  the 
article,  or  the  same  substance  from  which  the 
strength  has  been  extracted,  or  to  give  it  a  false 
strength.  Among  the  adulterations  which  are 
practised  for  the  purpose  of  fraudulently  in- 
creasing the  weight  or  volume  of  an  article  are 
the  following: —  Bread  is  adulterated  with  alum 
or  sulphate  of  copper,  which  gives  solidity  to  the 
gluten  of  damaged  or  inferior  flour;  with  chalk 
or  carbonate  of  soda  to  correct  the  acidity  of 
such  flour;  and  with  boiled  rice  or  potatoes, 
which  enables  the  bread  to  carry  more  water, 
and  thus  to  produce  a  larger  number  of  loaves 
from  a  given  quantity  of  flour.  Wheat  flour  is 
adulterated  with  other  inferior  flours,  as  the 
flour  from  rice,  bean,  Indian-corn,  potato,  and 
with  sulphate  of  lime,  alum,  etc.  Milk  is  usually 
adulterated  with  water.  The  adulterations  gen- 
erally present  in  butter  consist  of  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  salt  and  water,  lard,  tallow,  and  other 
fats;  when  of  poor  quality  it  is  frequently  col- 
ored with  a  little  annatto,  and,  at  times,  with  the 
juice  of  carrots.  Genuine  butter  should  not  con- 
tain less  than  eighty  per  cent,  of  butter-fat. 
Cheese  is  also  colored  with  annatto  and  other 
substances.  Tea  is  adulterated  (chiefly  in  China) 
with  sand,  iron-filings,  chalk,  gypsum,  China 
clay,  exhausted  tea  leaves,  and  the  leaves  of  the 
sycamore,  horse-chestnut,  and  plum,  whilst  color 
and  weight  are  added  by  black-lead,  indigo, 
Prussian-blue  (one  of  the  deleterious  ingredients 
used  by  the  Chinese  in  converting  the  lowest 
qualities  of  black  into  green  teas),  gum,  tur- 
meric, soapstone,  catechu,  and  other  substances. 
Coffee  is  mingled  with  chicory,  roasted  wheat, 
roasted  beans,  acorns,  mangel-wurzel,  rye-flour, 
and  colored  with  burned  sugar  and  other  materi- 
als. Chicory  is  adulterated  with  different  flours, 
as  rye,  wheat,  beans,  etc.,  and  colored  with  fer- 
ruginous earths,  burned  sugar,  Venetian  red,  etc. 
Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  mixed  with  the  cheaper 
kinds  of  arrowroot,  animal  matter,  corn,  sago, 
tapioca,  etc.  Sugar  (moist)  may  be  adulterated 
to  some  extent  with  sand  and  flour.  Tobacco  is 
mixed  with  sugar  and  treacle,  aloes,  liquorice, 
oil,  alum,  etc.,  and  such  leaves  as  rhubarb,  chic- 
ory, cabbage,  burdock,  coltsfoot,  besides  excess 
of  salt  and  water.  Snuffs  are  adulterated  with 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  glass,  sand,  coloring  mat- 
ter, etc.  Confections  are  adulterated  with  flour 
and  sulphate  of  lime.  Preserved  vegetables 
are  kept  green  and  poisoned  by  salts  of  copper. 
The  acridity  of  mustard  is  commonly  reduced 
by  flour,  and  the  color  of  the  compound  is  im- 
proved by  turmeric.  Pepper  is  adulterated  with 
linseed-meal,  flour,  mustard  husks,  etc.  Color 
is  given  to  pickles  by  salts  of  copper,  acetate  of 


copper,  etc.  Ale  is  adulterated  with  common 
salt,  Cocculus  Indicus,  grains  of  paradise,  quassia, 
and  other  bitters,  sulphate  of  iron,  alum,  etc. 
Porter  and  stout  are  mixed  with  sugar,  treacle, 
salt,  and  an  excess  of  water.  Brandy  is  diluted 
with  water,  and  burned  sugar  is  added  to  im- 
prove the  color;  sometimes  bad  whiskey  is 
flavored  and  colored  so  as  to  resemble  brandy, 
and  sold  under  its  name.  Gin  is  mixed  with  ex- 
cess of  water,  and  flavoring  matters  of  various 
kinds,  with  alum  and  tartar,  are  added.  Rum 
is  diluted  with  water,  apd  the  flavor  and  color 
are  kept  up  by  the  addition  of  cayenne  and 
burned  sugar.  For  champagne,  gooseberry, 
and  other  inferior  wines  are  often  substituted. 
Port  is  manufactured  from  red  Cape  and  other 
inferior  wines,  the  body,  flavor,  strength,  and 
color  being  produced  by  gum-dragon,  the  wash- 
ings of  brandy  casks,  and  a  preparation  of  Ger- 
man bilberries.  Cheap  brown  sherry  is  mixed 
with  Cape  and  other  low-priced  brandies,  and  is 
flavored  with  the  washings  of  brandy-casks, 
sugar-candy,  and  bitter  almonds.  Pale  sherries 
are  produced  by  gypsum,  by  a  process  called 
plastering,  which  removes  the  natural  acids  as 
well  as  the  color  of  the  wine.  Other  wines  are 
adulterated  with  elderberry,  logwood.  Brazil- 
wood, cudbear,  red  beetroot,  etc.,  for  color; 
with  lime  or  carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of 
soda,  carbonate  of  potash,  and  litharge,  to  cor- 
rect acidity;  with  catechu,  sloe-leaves,  and  oak- 
bark  for  astringency;  with  sulphate  of  lime  and 
alum  for  removing  color;  with  cane-sugar  for 
giving  sweetness  and  body;  with  alcohol  for 
fortifying;  and  with  ether,  especially  acetic 
ether,  for  giving  bouquet  and  flavor.  Medicines, 
such  as  jalap,  opium,  rhubarb,  chinchona  bark, 
scammony,  aloes,  sarsaparilla,  squills,  etc.,  are 
mixed  with  various  foreign  substances.  Castor- 
oil  has  been  adulterated  with  other  oils;  and 
inferior  oils  are  often  mixed  with  cod-liver  oil. 
Cantharides  are  often  mixed  with  golden-beetle 
and  also  artificially-colored  glass.  The  adultera- 
tion of  seeds  is  largely  practiced  also,  the  seed 
which  forms  the  adulterant  being  of  course  of  the 
most  worthless  kind  that  can  be  had.  Thus 
turnip-seed  is  mixed  with  rape,  wild  mustard, 
or  charlock,  which  are  steamed  and  kiln-dried 
to  destroy  their  vitality,  so  as  to  evade  detection 
in  the  progress  of  growth ;  old  and  useless  turnip- 
seed  is  also  used  fraudulently  mixed  with  fresh 
seeds.  Clover  is  also  much  mixed  with  plantain 
and  mere  weeds. 

Acts  against  adulteration  have  been  passed  in 
various  countries  and  at  various  times.  In  1906, 
the  United  States  Congress  passed  comprehen- 
sive laws  against  food  adulteration,  under  the 
titles  of  the  Pure  Food  Act  and  the  Meat  Inspec- 
tion Act. 

Aerial  Navigation.  The  first  balloon 
was  sent  up  by  the  brothers  Stephen  and  Joseph 
Montgolfier,  paper  manufacturers  at-Annonay, 
near  Lyons,  on  June  5,  1783,  and  reached  an 
altitude  of  nearly  a  mile.  It  was  inflated  with 
heated  air,  for  which  hydrogen  gas  was  soon 
substituted.  The  modern  balloon  is  laut  a  slight 
improvement  on  that  invented  by  Montgolfier. 


646 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


In  place  of  heated  air  or  hydrogen,  common  coal 
gas  is  now  used.  This  improvement  was  intro- 
duced by  Mr.  Green,  the  English  aeronaut.  As 
gas  expands  rapidly  as  the  balloon  ascends,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  external  air  is  diminished, 
the  neck  of  the  balloon  is  commonly  left  open, 
and  the  machine  is  also  furnished  with  a  safety 
valve  at  the  top,  which  can  be  opened  or  shut 
at  pleasure.  Mr.  Glaisher,  a  noted  English 
aeronaut,  is  of  the  opinion  that  in  order  to  reach 
great  altitudes  the  balloon  must  have  a  capacity 
of  at  least  90,000  cubic  feet,  of  which  not  more 
than  one-third  need  be  inflated  with  gas,  and 
must  carry  upward  of  600  pounds  of  ballast. 
The  question  of  the  extreme  altitude  to  which 
a  balloon  can  ascend  can  only  be  theoretically 
determined,  since  the  vital  powers  at  37,000  to 
40,000  feet  of  elevation  must  succumb  to  the 
intense  cold  and  the  attenuated  atmosphere. 
Mr.  Glaisher  seriously  doubts  the  practical  iise 
of  the  balloon.  He  sees  no  probability  that  any 
method  of  steering  it  will  be  invented;  but 
Messrs.  Fonvielle  and  Tissandier  believe  it  pos- 
sible to  devise  means  for  its  guidance. 

September  15, 1898,  Stanley  Spencer,  aeronaut, 
and  Dr.  Benson  made  an  ascent  in  a  balloon 
from  London.  They  effectually  steered  the  ma- 
chine by  means  of  a  rudder  and  drag-ropes,  and 
crossed  the  English  channel,  landing  safely  in 
France.  They  reached  an  altitude  of  27,500 
feet,  the  greatest  height  yet  recorded.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1900,  Count  von  Zeppelin  made  an  as- 
cent in  an  air-ship  of  his  invention,  built  chiefly 
of  aluminum  and  driven  electrically  by  four 
huge  propellers,  which  seemed  under  perfect 
control  and  made  an  aerial  journey  of  six  miles. 
On  May  31,  1909,  however,  Count  von 'Zeppelin, 
after  repeated  trials  in  which  he  had  been  aided 
materially  by  the  German  government  and 
people,  broke  all  records  for  distance,  traveling 
from  Lake  Constance  to  Bitterfield  and  return. 
The  only  stop  was  made  seventy  miles  from  the 
finish  at  Gottingen  to  obtain  a  new  supply  of 
benzine  for  the  motors.  The  total  trip  of  850 
miles  was  made  in  thirty-six  hours.  In  October, 
1909,  A.  Holland  Forbes,  carrying  a  passenger, 
won  the  Lahm  cup  for  the  longest  balloon  flight, 
from  St.  Louis  to  Richmond,  Va.,  a  distance  of 
731 J  miles  in  nineteen  hours  and  fifteen  minutes, 
at  an  average  rate  of  thirty-eight  miles  an  hour. 

A  more  practical  type  of  airship,  however,  is 
the  aeroplane.  From  the  remarkable  results 
obtained  within  the  past  two  or  three  years  it 
would  seem  that  the  successful  flying  machine 
of  the  future  is  to  be  a  heavier-than-air  machine, 
a  simple  aeroplane,  supported  by  air  and  pro- 
pelled by  detached  force.  In  the  perfection  and 
management  of  this  type  of  machine  the  Wright 
Brothers,  Wilbur  and  Orville,  have  outshone 
all  their  competitors.  On  September  12,  1908, 
their  biplane  airship  made  a  record  flight  of  one 
hour  fourteen  minutes  and  twenty  seconds, 
rising  from  a  monorail  track.  On  September 
17th.  in  an  attempt  to  meet  the  United  States 
Government  requirements  for  the  signal  corps 
service,  at  Fort  Meyer,  Va.,  Orville  Wright  was 
seriously  injured  and  Lieutenant  Self  ridge, 
U.  S.  A.,  his  passenger,  was  killed.  In  Decem- 
ber of  that  year  Wilbur  Wright  in  a  similar 
machine  made  a  flight  of  one  hour,  fifty-three 


minutes  and  fifty-seven  seconds;  in  a  second 
flight  Jie  reached  a  height  of  360  feet.  On 
December  31st,  Wilbur  Wright  again  laroke  the 
record,  winning  the  Michelin  cup  with  a  flight  of 
two  hours  and  nine  minutes. 

On  July  23,  1909,  Louis  Bleriot  in  a  mono- 
plane of  his  own  invention  startled  the  people  of 
England  by  a  remarkable  flight  across  the 
English  Channel  from  Calais  to  Dover  in  thirty- 
seven  minutes,  distancing  a  fast  torpedo  boat 
that  was  to  follow  him  in  the  event  of  an  acci- 
dent. A  few  days  later,  Hubert  Latham  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  within  two  miles  of  the  English 
coast  when  his  motor  stopped  and  he  dropped 
into  the  sea.  On  August  7th,  Roger  Sommer, 
in  a  Farnam  biplane  made  a  flight  of  two  hours 
twenty-seven  and  one-fourth  minutes.  This  is 
the  endurance  record  for  an  aeroplane.  Henry 
Farnam  flew  from  Chalons  to  Suippes,  France,  a 
distance  of  forty  miles  in  one  hour  five  and  one- 
half  minutes.  On  July  27th,  Orville  Wright, 
carrying  Lieutenant  Lahm  with  him,  made  the 
record  flight  for  an  aeroplane  carrying  two  men, 
the  time  being  one  hour,  twelve  minutes  and 
thirty-six  seconds. 

Later  at  Rheims  Bleriot  drove  his  monoplane 
six  miles  at  a  rate  of  forty-six  miles  an  hour. 
Henry  Farnam  in  his  biplane  won  the  $10,000 
prize  by  a  flight  of  111  miles  in  three  hours. 
The  international  championship  was  won  by  an 
American,  Glenn  H.  Curtiss,  who,  in  a  biplane 
of  the  Wright  type,  covered  the  course  of  12.42 
miles  in  fifteen  minutes  fifty  and  three-fifths 
seconds,  forty-six  miles  an  hour.  On  October 
18,  1909,  at  Paris,  Count  de  Lambert,  in  a 
Wright  biplane,  drove  thirty-one  miles  in  forty- 
nine  minutes  and  thirty-nine  seconds.  On 
October  26th,  Delagrange,  in  a  Bleriot  mono- 
plane flew  one  mile  860  yards  in  one  minute 
forty-seven  and  one-fifth  seconds,  nearly  fifty- 
four  miles  an  hour. 

The  remarkable  record  of  the  past  two  years 
seems  to  indicate  that  there  are  greater  possi- 
bilities than  were  dreamed  of  in  the  line  of  aerial 
navigation,  and  support  the  statement  of  Wilbur 
Wright  that  the  near  future  will  witness  a 
transatlantic  flight. 

Agriculture,  the  art  of  farming.  From 
Egypt  a  knowledge  of  agriculture  extended  to 
Greece,  where  it  flourished  1,000  years  before 
Christ.  Hesiod  describes  a  plough  consisting  of 
a  beam,  a  share,  and  handles.  The  Greek 
farmers  composted  with  skill,  and  saved  the 
materials  for  the  compost  with  care.  A  high 
appreciation  of  agriculture  seems  to  have  been 
a  fundamental  idea  among  the  early  Romans. 
A  tract  of  land  was  allotted  to  every  citizen  by 
the  state  itself,  and  each  one  was  carefully  re- 
stricted to  the  quantity  granted.  The  Roman 
agriculturists  whose  works  have  come  down  to 
us  are  Cato,  Varro,  Virgil,  Columella,  Pliny,  and 
Palladius.  The  .  diff'erence  of  soils  and  their 
adaptation  to  particular  crops  were  well  under- 
stood. Manures  were  saved  with  care.  Com- 
posts were  made  in  suitable  places,  hollows  being 
scraped  out  in  the  form  of  a  bowl  to  receive  the 
wash  from  the  house,  and  properly  protected 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  But  the  inhabitants 
of  the  East  were  familiar  with  many  mechanical 
appliances  unknown  to  the  Romans,  and  proba- 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


647 


ably  their  agricultural  systems  were  more  com- 
plete.— In  Britian,  the  Romans  made  many 
improvements  during  their  400  years  of  occupa- 
tion; but  the  agriculture  of  the  island  was  ex- 
tremely rude  even  when  they  left  it,  by  far  the 
the  greater  part  being  covered  with  forests  and 
marshes.  Then  the  Saxons  overran  the  coun- 
try, subsisting  mainly  by  the  chase  and  by 
keeping  cattle,  sheep,  and  especially  swine, 
which  readily  fatten  on  the  mast  of  the  oak  and 
the  beech.  In  general,  the  only  grains  raised 
were  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  and  they  had  but 
small  quantities  of  these.  No  hoed  crops  of 
edible  vegetables  were  cultivated,  and  even  as 
late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Queen  Catharine 
was  obliged  to  send  to  Flanders  or  Holland  for 
salad.  Neither  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  squashes, 
carrots,  cabbages,  nor  turnips  were  known  in 
England  till  after  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  From  that  time  to  the  present,  the 
gradual  elevation  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes 
has  continued,  and  agriculture  has  steadily 
advanced.  The  first  work  on  agriculture  pub- 
ished  in  England  was  the  "Boke  of  Husband- 
rie,"  in  1523,  by  Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert. 

The  advance  in  the  art  and  science  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  United  States  during  the  last  half 
dozen  years  has  been  remarkable,  and  has  had  a 
tremendous  effect  upon  the  nation's  prosperity. 
The  total  value  of  farm  products  in  1907  ex- 
ceeded $7,000,000,000,  and  in  1906,  $6,800,000,- 
000.  The  value  of  the  products  in  1906  was 
eight  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  1905,  ten 
per  cent,  over  1904,  fifteen  per  cent,  over  1903, 
and  forty-four  per  cent,  over  1899. 

This  marked  progress  is  due  to  a  number  of 
circumstances  and  conditions,  chief  of  which  are 
our  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate,  superior 
intelligence  of  the  American  farmer,  improved 
machinery  and  implements,  scientific  education 
in  all  branches  of  agriculture,  and  increased 
pride  of  occupation. 

Among  the  chief  improvements  we  may  men- 
tion deep  plowing  and  thorough  draining.  By 
the  introduction  of  new  or  improved  implements 
the  labor  necessary  to  the  carrying  out  of  agri- 
cultural operations  has  been  greatly  diminished. 
Science,  too,  has  been  called  in  to  act  as  the  hand- 
maid of  art,  and  it  is  by  the  investigations  of  the 
chemist  that  agriculture  has  been  put  on  a 
really  scientific  basis.  The  organization  of 
plants,  the  primary  elements  of  which  they  are 
composed,  the  food  on  which  they  Hve,  and  the 
constituents  of  soils,  have  all  been  investigated, 
and  most  important  results  obtained,  particular- 
ly in  regard  to  manures  and  rotations.  Artificial 
manures,  in  great  variety,  to  supply  the  elements 
wanted  for  plant  growth,  have  come  into  com- 
mon use,  not  only  increasing  the  produce  of  lands 
previously  cultivated,  but  extending  the  limits 
of  cultivation  itself.  An  improvement  in  all 
kinds  of  stock  is  becoming  more  and  more  gen- 
eral, feeding  is  conducted  on  more  scientific  prin- 
ciples, and  improved  varieties  of  plants  used  as 
field  crops  have  been  introduced.  One  of  the 
recent  innovations  in  the  United  States  is  the 
introduction  of  the  system  of  ensilage  for  pre- 
serving fodder  in  a  green  state,  which  promises 
to  give  valuable  results,  though  it  has  hardly 
been  tested  long  enough  to  decide  as  to  its  value. 


As  a  result  of  the  new  conditions,  to  be  a 
thoroughly  trained  and  competent  agriculturist 
requires  a  special  education,  partly  theoretical 
and  partly  practical.  In  particular,  no  scien- 
tific cultivator  can  now  be  ignorant  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry,  which  teaches  the  constit- 
uents of  the  various  plants  grown  as  crops, 
their  relation  to  the  various  soils,  the  nature  and 
function  of  different  manures,  etc.  In  some 
countries  there  are  now  agricultural  schools  or 
colleges  supported  by  the  state.  In  the  United 
States  nearly  all  the  States  have  colleges,  or 
departments  of  colleges,  devoted  to  the  teaching 
of  agriculture,  and  large  allotments  of  public 
land  have  been  made  for  their  support.  In 
Germany  such  institutions  are  numerous  and 
highly  efficient.  For  teaching  agriculture  prac- 
tically model  farms  are  commonly  established. 
In  many  countries,  too,  there  is  a  ministry  of 
agriculture  as  one  of  the  chief  departments  of 
government.  Our  own  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture has  achieved  the  foremost  place  in  the 
world,  for  its  scientific  work  in  practical  hus- 
bandry and  its  stimulating  inQuence. 

AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS,   VALUE   OF, 
LAST   CENSUS   REPORT 


States  and  Territoeies 


United  States     .    . 

Alabama, 

Alaska, 

Arizona, 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Colorado, 

Connecticut,  .... 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Idaho 

Illinois, 

Indiana 

Indian  Territory,  .    . 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland 

Massachusetts,  .    .    . 

Michigan, 

Minnesota 

Mississippi,         ... 

Missouri, 

Montana,        .... 

Nebraska, 

Nevada, 

New  Hampshire,  .  . 
New  Jersey,  .... 
New  Mexico,  ....    . 

New  York, 

North  Carolina,  .  .  . 
North  Dakota,  .    .    . 

Ohio, 

Oklahoma, 

Oregon, 

Pennsylvania,  .  .  . 
Rhode  Island,  .  .  . 
South  Carolina, .  .  . 
South  Dakota,   .    .    . 

Tennessee, 

Texas 

Utah, 

Vermont, 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia,    .    .    . 

Wisconsin, 

Wyoming, 


Value  of 
Implements 
ON  Farms 


$749,776,660 

$8,675,900 

690 

765,200 

8,750,060 

21,311,670 

4,746,755 

4,948,300 

2,150,560 

136,060 

1,963,210 

9,804,010 

3,295,045 

44,977,310 

27,330,370 

3,939,480 

57,960,660 

29,490,580 

15,301,860 

28,536,790 

8,802,720 

8,611,220 

8,828,950 

28,795,380 

30,099,230 

9,556,805 

28,602,680 

3,671,900 

24,940,450 

888,560 

5,163,090 

9,330,030 

1,151,610 

56,006,000 

9,072,600 

14,055,560 

36,354,150 

6,573,015 

6,506,725 

50,917,240 

1,270,270 

6,629,770 

12,218,680 

15,232,670 

30,125,705 

2,922,550 

7,538,490 

9,911,040 

6,271,630 

5,040,420 

29,237,010 

1,366,000 


648 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


AGRICULTURE  IN 

From  the  reports  of 


State  oh 
Territokt 


Maine,    .... 
New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  .    . 
Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut, . 
New  York,    . 
New  Jersey,  . 
Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  .    . 
Maryland,.    . 
Virginia,    .    . 
West  Virginia, 
North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina, 
Georgia,     . 
Florida, .    . 
Ohio,  .   .    . 
Indiana,    . 
Illinois,  .   . 
Michigan,  . 
Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, 
Iowa, .    .    . 
Missouri,    . 
North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  . 
Kansas, .    . 
Kentucky, 
Tennessee, 
Alabama,  . 
Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  . 
Texas,    .    . 
Oklahoma, 
Arkansas,  . 
Montana,  . 
Wyoming,  . 
Colorado,  . 
New  Mexico, 
Arizona,     . 
Utah,  .  .    . 
Nevada,     . 
Idaho,    .    . 
Washington 
Oregon,  .   . 
California,  . 


Corn 


United  States, 


Total  Farm 
Value 


Winter 
Wheat 


Total  Farm 
Value 


S  333,000 

682,000 

1,485,000 

1,888,000 

250,000 

1,386,000 

11,502,000 

5,517,000 

29,390,000 

2,760,000 

11,986,000 

29,456,000 

15,322,000 

33,358,000 

23,249,000 

43,729,000 

5,614,000 

61,173,00 

75,978,000 

150,813,000 

31,455,000 

25,678,000 

21,802,000 

116,195,000 

113,282,000 

1,848,000 

21,700,000 

73,524,000 

68,262,000 

49,322,000 

44,667,000 

34,422,000 

31,875,000 

19,600,000 

93,353,000 

49,837,000 

29,532,000 

61,000 

52,000 

1,695,000 

877,000 

270,000 

202,000 


S  7,125,000 
1,958,000 

28,891,000 
2,386,000 

14,172,000 
8,024,000 
4,477,000 
5,692,000 
3,203,000 
3,074,000 

28,223,000 
29,931,000 
34,890,000 
11,585,000 
856,000 

986,000 
24,538,000 


33,217,000 

52,306,000 

8,103,000 

7,030,000 

935,000 

19,000 

2,784,000 
7,164,000 
1,390,000 


105,000 

227,000 

326,000 

1,561,000 


$1,336,901,000 


3,014,000 

8,828,000 

6,306,000 

20,110,000 


$361,217,000 


Spring 
Wheat 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$  212,000 
23,000 


Oats 


Total  Farm 
Value 


f,863,000 

62,192,000 

5,290,000 

47,963,000 

28,907,000 

3,053,000 

1,493,000 


3,243,000 
658,000 

6,628,000 

1,027,000 
408,000 

3,431,000 
998,000 

2,774,000 
17,456,000 

5,601,000 


$193  220,000 


$  2,560,000 

258,000 

1,671,000 

147,000 

39,000 

189,000 

21,139,000 

991,000 

16,032,000 

60,000 

404,000 

1,431,000 

990,000 

1,797,000 

2,808,000 

3,607,000 

308,000 

16,416,000 

15,407,000 

41,687,000 

14,656,000 

24,299,000 

25,414,000 

41,382,000 

5,844,000 

12,936,000 

12,764,000 

19,051,000 

6,879,000 

1,656,000 

1,529,000 

2,579,000 

1,047,000 

223,000 

5,700,000 

3,009,000 

1 ,843,000 

5,410,000 

1,177,000 

2,945,000 

254,000 

70,000 

972,000 

217,000 

2,397,000 

4,745,000 

4,394,000 

3,235,000 


Rye 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$334,568,000 


$  23,000 
58,000 

146,000 

1,716,000 

1,043,000 

4,337,000 

14,000 

236,000 

166,000 

106,000 

149,000 

48,000 

163,000 

604,000 

692,000 

785,000 

3,925,000 

3,431,000 

1,079,000 

606,000 

192,000 

227,000 

366,000 

886,000 

406,000 

108,000 

72,000 

21,000 


45,000 
17,000 
15,000 
32,000 
6,000 
29,000 


49,000 

26,000 

48,000 

133,000 

1,063,000 


$23,068,000 


Buck- 
wheat 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$  419,000 

33,000 

123,000 

30,000 

36,000 

3,981,000 

149,000 

3,192,000 

17,000 

115,000 

250,000 

291,000 

55,000 


191,000 
45,000 
54,000 

554,000 

230,000 
54,000 

108,000 
14,000 


12,000 
10,000 


12,000 


$9,975,000 


Flax- 
seed 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$  516,000 

4,878,000 

228,000 

275,000 

13,058,000 

4,512,000 

165,000 

■  485,000 


72,000 
353,000 


171,000 


$24,713,000 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


649 


THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


Hay 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$26,250,000 

13,008,000 

18,054,000 

14,440,000 

1,539,000 

10,829,000 

91,388,000 

10,778,000 

71,946,000 

1,907,000 

6,336,000 

9,529,000 

13,485,000 

3,135,000 

1,518,000 

2,988,000 

513,000 

47,588,000 

37,716,000 

41,030,000 

40,575,000 

35,708,000 

11,475,000 

39,200,000 

37,555,000 

1,547,000 

3,850,000 

14,062,000 

14,950,000 

8,073,000 

7,620,000 

3,019,000 

1,664,000 

660,000 

5,310,000 

3,055,000 

2,937,000 

8,075,000 

3,938,000 

17,366,000 

3,854,000 

3,654,000 

5,222,000 

3,180,000 

8,585,000 

11,535,000 

8,323,000 

13,938,000 


$743,607,000 


Potatoes 
(Irish) 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$  9,582,000 
1,528,000 
1,654,000 
3,024,000 

614,000 

2,464,000 

23,796,000 

6,216,000 

15,389,000 

515,000 
1,710,000 
3,046,000 
2,258,000 
1,579,000 

693,000 

830,000 

8,114,000 

4,750,000 

9,647,000 

12,109,000 

10,237,000 

6,004,000 

6,592,000 

5,136,000 

1,490,000 

1 ,638,000 

4,497,000 

4,976,000 

2,220,000 

1,421,000 

1,425,000 

502,000 

724,000 

2,529,000 

1,960,000 

1,592,000 

1,350,000 

740,000 

4,653,000 

96,000 

780,000 

540,000 

■  1,056,000 

3,000,000 

2,940,000 

6,264,000 


$183,880,000 


Barley 


Total  Farm 
Value 


$  175,000 

38,000 

299,000 


1,580,000 

161,000 

20.000 
36,000 


549,000 

124,000 

402,000 

1,002,000 

13,817,000 

17,864,000 

8,507,000 

26,000 

9,075,000 

12,276,000 

1,206,000 

2,372,000 

19,000 

14,000 


■  50,000 
327,000 

400,000 

87,000 

600,000 

18,000 

720,000 

249,000 

232,000 

1,265,000 

3,876,000 

1,460,000 

23,444,000 


$102,290,000 


Value  of 
Domestic 
Animals 


$  16,298,422 

10,062,877 

17,373,169 

14,730,169 

2,281,817 

10,247,634 

120,673,101 

16,269,548 

97,424,119 

3,733,335 

19.636,844 

39,831,552 

29,231,832 

28,242.147 

19.167.229 

33.499.683 

10,687.632 

120,673.101 

105,048,528 

186,856,020 

75,997,051 

93,521,430 

86,620,643 

271,844,034 

154,295,363 

41,951,659 

64,287,578 

142,769,629 

186,317,248 

70.488,187 

58,043,895 

34,408,932 

40,843,300 

27,757,301 

236,227,934 

53,921,827 

35,739,425 

51,724,113 

39,080,158 

49,359,781 

31,644,179 

15,375,286 

21,175,867 

12,093,608 

21,389,853 

21,437,528 

33,172,342 

65,000,738 


$2,938,250,68.1 


Value  of 
Live  Stock 


$  17,106,634 

10,554,646 

17,841,317 

15,798,464 

2,593,659 

10,932,212 

125,583,715 

17,612,620 

102,439,183 

4,111,054 

20,855,877 

42,026,737 

30,571,259 

30,106.173 

20,199,859 

35,200,507 

11,166,016 

125,954,134 

109,550,761 

193,758,037 

79,042,644 

96,327,649 

89,063,097 

278,830,096 

160,540,336 

14,055,560 

65,173,432 

145.349.587 

190.956,936 

73,739,106 

60,818,605 

36,105,799 

42,657,222 

28,869,506 

240,576,655 

54,829,568 

37,483,771 

52,161,833 

39,145,877 

49,954,311 

31,727,400 

15,458,717 

21,474,241 

12,169,565 

21,657,974 

22,159,207 

33,917,048 

67,303,325 


$1,533,942,531 


Value  of 
Fowl 


$  756,153 

467,104 

421,195 

1,018,119 

305.047 

644.050 

4.310,755 

1,300,853 

4,483,486 

357,475 

1,158,020 

]  ,886,768 

963,805 

1,434,158 

889,953 

1,458,055 

394,557 

5,085,921 

4,222,409 

6,415,033 

2,685,829 

2,410,714 

2,274,649 

6,535,464 

5,720,359 

477.358 

856,966 

2,374,930 

4,356,997 

2,723,221 

2,275,864 

1,409,269 

1,655,319 

1,057,889 

3,595,243 

900,743 

1,540,006 

296,806 

60,397 

393,219 

62,419 

80,798 

186,922 

55,826 

203,127 

614,838 

582,524 

1,877,489 


$85,238,101 


Value  of 
Bees 


$  51,459 

24,665 

46,453 

35,751 

6,795 

40,528 

593,784 

39,219 

531,578 

20,244 

61,013 

308,417 

375,622 

429,868 

142,677 

242,769 

83,827 

402,561 

278,864 

486,164 

352,460 

377,105 

167,280 

443,923 

508,217 

1,474 

10,088 

199,563 

277,967 

527,098 

486,536 

287,598 

158,603 

54,316 

794,483 

6,998 

204,340 

8,139 

5,322 

195,096 

20,802 

66,603 

111,452 

20,131 

64,994 

106,841 

160,382 

363,885 


$10,139,463 


650 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


OTHER   FARM   PRODUCTS 
(From  the  United  States  Census  Reports.) 


Product 


Beans  (castor),  .  . 
Beans  (dry),  .  .  . 
Broom  corn,     .    .    . 

Butter 

Cheese 

Chicory 

Clover  seed 

Cotton  seed,     .    .    . 

Eggs 

Flowers  and  plants. 
Forest  products,  .  . 
Fruits  (orchard),     . 

Apples, 

Apricots 

Cherries 

Peaches,  etc.,  .    . 

Pears 

Plums,  etc.,  .    .    . 

Unclassified,     .    . 

Cider 

Cider  vinegar,  .  . 
Fruits  (small),  .  .    . 

Blackberries,    .    . 

Currants 

Gooseberries,   .    . 

Raspberries,     .    . 

Strawberries,   .    . 

Unclassified,  .  . 
Fruits  (sub-tropical) 

Bananas,  .... 

Citrons,     .... 

Figs 

Guava 

Lemons,    .... 

Limes, 

Olives, 

Oranges 


Unit 

OF 

Meas- 
ure 


Bu's 
Bu's 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Bu's 
Tons 
Dozs. 


Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bu's 

Bbls. 

Bbls. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

Qts. 

B'ches 

Boxes 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Lbs. 

Boxes 


Quantity 


143,388 

5,064,844 

90,947,370 

1,071,745,127 

16,372,330 

21,495,870 

1,349,209 

»4,566,100 

1,293,819,186 


212,366,646 

175,397,626 

2,642,128 

2,873,499 

15,433,623 

6,625,417 

.     8,764,032 

630,321 

1,754,927 

392,497 

431,628,520 

62,189,885 

18,592,695 

9,320,530 

76,628,107 

257,437,523 

7,459,780 

141,6^3 

90 

13,016,274 

1,677,165 

876,978 

24,375 

5,053,637 

6,171,259 


Value 


134,084 
7,634,262 
3,588,414 


73,627 

5,395,578 

46,950,575 

144,286,158 

18,759,464 

109,989,868 

»83,751,840 


25,030,877 


8,549,863 


Product 


Persimmons,    .    . 

Pineapples,  .    .    . 

Pomeloes 

Unclassified,    .    . 

Olive  oil,  .... 

Coffee 

Grapes, 

Grass  seed 

Hemp, 

Hops, 

KaflSr  corn,  .... 
Maple  sugar,  .  .  . 
Maple  syrup,    .    .    . 

Milk 

Mohair  and  goat  hair 
Nursery  products,  . 

Nuts 

Onions, 

Peanuts, 

Peas  (dry) 

Peppermint,  .  .  . 
Potatoes  (sweet),  . 
Seeds  (misc.),  .  .  . 
Sorghum  cane,  .  . 
Sorghum  syrup,  .  . 
Sugar  beets,  .  .  . 
Sugar  cane,  .... 

(5ane  sold,     .    .    . 

Cane  for  seed,  .    . 

Sugar  made,    .    . 

Molasses  made,    . 

Syrup  made,    .    . 
Vegetables  (misc.). 

Wax 

Willows,  .  .  .  .  . 
Wool,    ...... 


Unit 

OF 

Meas- 
ure 


Lbs. 

BxsV 

Lbs. 

Gall's 

Lbs. 

Cen'ls 

Bu's 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Bu's 

Lbs. 

Gall's 

Gall's 

Lbs. 


Bu's 
Bu's 
Bu's 
Lbs. 
Bu's 

Tons 

Gall's 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Lbs. 

Gall's 

Gall's 

Lbs." 

Lbs. ' 


Quantity 


136,030 
2,980,240 
30,791 
2,969,239 
8,643 
2,297,000 
13,010,134 
3,515,869 
11,750,630 
49,209,704 
5,169,113 
11,928,770 
2,056,611 
7,266,392,674 
961,328 


11,791,121 

11,964,957 

9,440,269 

187,427 

42,526,696 

'«29i!7d3 

16,972,783 

793,353 

6,441,578 

1,298,620 

1,453,447 

664,020,814 

10,379,210 

12,293,032 

'i.7'65,ii5 

276,991  i812 


Value 


S      246,181 

14,090,937 

2,868,839 

546,338 

4,081,929 

1,367,040 

1,074,260 

1,562,451 

1 

267,864 
10,123,873 
1,950,161 
6,637,625 
7,271,230 
7,909,074 

143,618 
19,876,200 

826,019 

815,019 
5,288,083 
3,323,240 

'  '4,'6l'l',239 
5,018,469 

24,584,459 

796,990 

4,293,475 

113,871,842 

36,523 
45,723,739 


» Includes  all  milk  products,  the  value  of  which  was  8472,369,255.     '  Not  including  products  sold  with  fiber 
before  ginning.     *  Includes  value  of  cider,  etc.     *  Amount  sold  as  cane  only. 


Air-pump,  an  instrument  for  removing  the 
air  from  a  vessel.  The  essential  part  is  a  hollow 
brass  or  glass  cylinder,  in  which  an  air-tight 
piston  is  made  to  move  up  and  down  by  a  rod. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  a  connecting 
tube  leads  to  the  space  which  is  to  be  exhausted, 
which  is  usually  formed  by  placing  a  bell-glass, 
called  the  receiver,  with  edges  ground  smooth, 
and  smeared  with  lard,  on  a  flat,  smooth  plate  or 
table.  When  the  piston  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel,  and  is  then  drawn  up,  it  lifts  out  the  air 
from  the  barrel,  and  a  portion  of  the  air  under 
the  receiver,  by  its  own  expansive  force,  passes 
through  the  connecting  tube,  and  occupies  the 
space  below  the  piston,  which  would  otherwise 
be  a  vacuum.  The  air  in  the  receiver  and  barrel 
is  thus  rarefied.  The  piston  is  now  forced  down, 
and  the  effect  of  this  is  to  close  a  valve  placed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  connecting  tube,  and  opening 
inwards  into  the  barrel.  The  air  in  the  barrel 
is  thus  cut  off  from  returning  into  the  receiver, 
and,  as  it  becomes  condensed,  forces  up  a  valve 
in  the  piston,  which  opens  outwards,  and  thus 
escapes  into  the  atmosphere.  When  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom,  and  begins  to  ascend  again, 
this  valve  closes ;  and  the  same  process  is  repeat- 
ed as  at  the  first  ascent.  Each  stroke  thus 
diminishes  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  receiver; 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  process,  it  is  evident 
that  the  exhaustion  can  never  be  complete. 
Even  theoretically,  there  must  always  be  a  por- 
tion left,  though  that  portion  may  be  rendered 


less  than  any  assignable  quantity;  and  practi- 
cally the  process  is  limited  by  the  elastic  force  of 
the  remaining  air  being  no  longer  sufficient  to 
open  the  valves.  The  degree  of  rarefaction  is 
indicated  by  a  gauge  on  the  principle  of  the 
barometer.  The  air-pump  was  invented  by 
Otto  Guericke,  1654. 

Alcohol,  the  purely  spirituous  or  intoxi- 
cating part  of  all  liquids  that  have  undergone 
vinous  fermentation,  extracted  by  distillation  — 
a  limpid  colorless  liquid,  of  an  agreeable  smell 
and  a  strong,  pungent  taste.  When  brandy, 
whisky,  and  other  spirituous  liquors,  themselves 
distilled  from  cruder  materials,  are  again  dis- 
tilled, highly  volatile  alcohol  is  the  first  product 
to  pass  off.  The  alcohol  thus  obtained  contains 
much  extraneous  matter,  including  a  proportion 
of  water,  from  the  first  as  high  as  20  or  25  per 
cent.,  and  increasing  greatly  as  the  process  con- 
tinues. Charcoal  and  carbonate  of  soda  put  in 
the  brandy  or  other  liquor,  partly  retain  the 
fusel-oil  and  acetic  acid  it  contains.  The  prod- 
uct thus  obtained  by  distillation  is  called  recti- 
fied spirits  or  spirits  of  wine,  and  contains  from 
55  to  85  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  rest  being 
water.  By  distilling  rectified  spirits  over  car- 
bonate of  potassium,  powdered  quicklime,  or 
chloride  of  calcium,  the  greater  part  of  the  water 
is  retained,  and  nearly  pure  alcohol  passes  oyer. 
It  is  only,  however,  by  very  prolonged  digestion 
with  desiccating  agents  and  subsequent  distilla- 
tion that  the  last  traces  of  water  can  be  removed. 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


651 


The  specific  gravity  of  alcohol  varies  with  its 
purity,  decreasing  as  the  quantity  of  water  it 
contains  decreases.  This  property  is  a  con- 
venient test  of  the  alcoholic  strength  of  liquors 
that  contain  only  alcohol  and  water;  but  on 
account  of  the  condensation  that  invariably 
takes  place  on  the  mixture  of  these  two  liquids, 
it  can  be  applied  only  in  connection  with  special 
tables  of  reference,  or  by  means  of  an  instrument 
specially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  Its  very  low 
freezing-point  renders  it  valuable  for  use  in 
thermometers  for  very  low  temperatures.  Alco- 
hol is  extremely  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a 
pale-blue  flame,  scarcely  visible  in  bright  day- 
light. It  occasions  no  carbonaceous  deposit 
upon  substances  held  over  it,  and  the  products 
of  its  combustion  are  carbonic  acid  and  water. 
The  steady  a'nd  uniform  heat  which  it  gives 
during  combustion  makes  it  a  valuable  material 
for  lamps.  It  dissolves  the  vegetable  acids,  the 
volatile  oils,  the  resins,  tan,  and  extractive  mat- 
ter, and  many  of  the  soaps ;  the  greater  number 
of  the  fixed  oils  are  taken  up  by  it  in  small 
quantities  only,  but  some  are  dissolved  largely. 
When  alcohol  is  submitted  to  distillation  with 
certain  acids  a  peculiar  compound  is  formed, 
called  ether.  It  is  alcohol  which  gives  all  intoxi- 
cating liquors  the  property  whence  they  are  so 
called.  Alcohol  acts  strongly  on  the  nervous 
system,  and  though  in  small  doses  it  is  stimulat- 
ing and  exhilarating,  in  large  doses  it  acts  as  a 
poison.  In  medicine  it  is  often  of  great  service. 
Annuity,  a  sum  of  money  paid  annually  to 
a  person,  and  continuing  either  a  certain  number 
of  years,  or  for  an  uncertain  period,  to  be  deter- 
mined by  a  particular  event,  as  the  death  of  the 
recipient  or  annuitant,  or  that  of  the  party 
liable  to  pay  the  annuity;  or  the  annuity  may 
be  perpetual.  The  payments  are  made  at  the 
end  of  each  year,  or  semi-annually,  or  at  other 
periods.  An  annuity  is  usually  raised  by  the 
present  payment  of  a  certain  sum  as  a  consider- 
ation whereby  the  party  making  the  payment, 
or  some  other  person  named  by  him,  becomes 
entitled  to  an  annuity,  and  the  rules  and  prin- 
ciples by  which  this  present  value  is  to  be  com- 
puted have  been  the  subjects  of  careful  investi- 
gation. The  present  value  of  a  perpetual  an- 
nuity is  evidently  a  sum  of  money  that  will 
yield  an  interest  equal  to  the  annuity,  and 
payable  at  the  same  periods;  and  an  annuity 
of  this  description,  payable  quarterly,  will  evi- 
dently be  of  greater  value  than  one  of  the  same 
amount  payable  annually,  since  the  annuitant 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  the  interest  on 
three  of  the  quarterly  payments  until  the  expi- 
ration of  the  year.  In  other  words,  it  requires 
a  greater  present  capital  to  be  put  at  interest  to 
yield  a  gfven  sum  per  annum,  payable  quarterly, 
than  to  yield  the  same  annual  sum  payable  at 
the  end  of  each  year.  The  present  value  of  an 
annuity  for  a  limited  period  is  a  sum  which,  if 
put  at  interest,  will  at  the  end  of  that  period 
give  an  amount  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  pay- 
ments of  the  annuity  and  interest;  and,  accord- 
ingly, if  it  be  proposed  to  invest  a  certain  sum 
of  money  in  the  purchase  of  an  annuity  for  a 
given  number  of  years  the  comparative  value  of 
the  two  may  be  precisely  estimated,  the  rate  of 
interest  being  given.     But  annuities  for  uncer- 


tain periods,  and  particularly  life  annuities,  are 
more  frequent,  and  the  value  of  the  annuity  is 
computed  according  to  the  probable  duration  of 
the  life  by  which  it  is  limited.  Such  annuities 
are  often  created  by  contract,  whereby  the  gov- 
ernment or  a  private  annuity  office  agrees,  for 
a  certain  sum  advanced  by  the  purchaser,  to 
pay  a  certain  sum  in  yearly,  quarterly,  or  other 
periodical  payments,  to  the  person  advancing 
the  money,  or  to  some  other  named  by  him, 
during  the  life  of  the  annuitant.  Or  the  annuity 
may  be  granted  to  the  annuitant  during  the  life 
of  some  other  person,  or  during  two  or  more 
joint  lives,  or  during  the  life  of  the  longest  liver 
or  survivor  among  a  number  of  persons  named. 
If  a  person  having  a  certain  capital,  and  intend- 
ing to  spend  this  capital  and  the  income  of  it 
during  his  own  life,  could  know  precisely  how 
long  he  should  live,  he  might  lend  this  capital 
at  a  certain  rate  during  his  life,  and  by  taking 
every  year,  besides  the  interest,  a  certain  amount 
of  the  capital,  he  might  secure  the  same  annual 
amount  for  his  support  during  his  life  in  such 
manner  that  be  should  have  the  same  sum  to^ 
spend  every  year,  and  consume  precisely  his' 
whole  capital  during  his  life.  But  since  he  does 
not  know  how  long  he  is  to  live  he  agrees  with 
the  government  or  an  annuity  office  to  take  the 
risk  of  the  duration  of  his  life,  and  agree  to  pay 
him  a  certain  annuity,  during  his  life  in  ex- 
change for  the  capital  which  he  proposes  to 
invest  in  this  way.  The  probable  duration  of 
his  life  therefore  becomes  a  subject  of  compu- 
tation; and  for  the  purpose  of  making  this  cal- 
culation tables  of  longevity  are  made  by  noting 
the  proportions  of  deaths  at  certain  ages  in  the 
same  country  or  district.  Founding  on  a  com- 
parison of  many  such  tables,  the  British  Govern- 
ment has  empowered  the  postmaster-general  to 
grant  annuities,  which  are  probably  more  closely 
adjusted  to  their  actual  value  than  those  of 
insurance  companies  and  other  dealers  in  annu- 
ities. In  the  United  States  the  granting  of 
annuities  is  conducted  by  private  companies  or 
corporations.  The  following  are  the  approxi- 
mate rates  of  the  best  managed  companies:  In 
consideration  of  $1,000  paid  to  a  company,  the 
annuity  granted  to  a  person  aged  40  would  be 
$52.75;  aged  45,  $58.10;  aged  50,  $64.70;  aged 
55,  $73.50;  aged  60,  $86.20;  aged  65,  $100; 
aged  70,  $123.45;  aged  75,  $145.95;  aged  80, 
$180.15.  The  purchase  of  annuities,  as  a  sys- 
tem, has  never  gained  much  foothold  in  America 
—  the  endowment  plan  of  life  insurance,  by 
which  after  the  lapse  of  a  term  of  years  the  in- 
sured receives  a  sum  in  bulk,  being  preferred. 
Massachusetts,  however,  passed  a  law  in  1907 
with  the  direct  purpose  of  encouraging  annuities. 
Automobile,  or  Motor-Car.  An  auto- 
niatic-propelling  vehicle,  the  motive  power  of 
which  is  furnished  by  coal-oil,  gasoline,  electric- 
storage  battery,  compressed  air,  etc.  They  are 
usually  supplied  with  two  gearings,  one  for  a 
low  rate  of  speed  and  the  second  for  more  rapid 
movement.  They  are  largely  in  use  in  America 
and  Europe,  taking  the  place  of  the  horse-drawn 
carriages  and  delivery  wagons.  In  the  larger 
cities  they  are  on  hire  for  public  use,  and  have 
largely  replaced  hacks  and  cabs.  The  engine 
or  dynamo  is  usually  placed  beneath  the  driver's 


652 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


seat  and  connects  with  chains  or  cranks  to  the 
rear  axles,  leaving  the  forecarriage  free  for 
steering  purposes. 

World's  Motor-cars. —  It  is  estimated  that  the 
total  number  of  motor-cars  of  all  kinds  in  use 
in  the  world  in  1907  was  as  follows: 


America,  .  . 
Great  Britain, 
France,  .  .  . 
Germany, 


90,000 
75,000 
30,000 
20,000 


Austria-Hun- 
gary, ....  8,000 

Italy, 6,000 

Spain,    ....  4,000 


Other  European  countries,  including  Russia, 
5,000;  India,  2,000;  Egypt,  Canada,  Australia, 
and  other  British  colonies,  2,000;  Central  and 
South  America,  1,000;  China,  Japan,  and  East 
Asia,  500  —  amounting  to  248,500  vehicles  in  all. 
Banking  was  authorized  in  the  United 
States  during  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  a  reso- 
lution being  adopted  in  Congress  on  May  26, 
1781,  approving  a  plan  for  a  national  bank 
proposed  by  Robert  Morris,  of  Philadelphia. 
As  a  result  the  Bank  of  North  America  was  in- 
corporated on  December  31st  following,  with  a 
capital  of  $4,000,000,  of  which  $254,000  had  been 
subscribed  by  the  United  States  Government. 
This  bank,  rechartered  from  time  to  time,  con- 
tinues in  existence  in  Philadelphia,  and  is  one 
of  the  national  banks  of  the  present.  Another 
bank,  known  as  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
was  projected  by  Alexander  Hamilton  when 
the  government  had  been  organized  under  the 
Constitution.  It  was  duly  established,  and 
continued  in  existence  until  1811,  when  it  went 
out  of  existence,  owing  to  the  failure  to  obtain 
a  renewal  of  its  charter.  A  second  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  incorporated  on  April  3,  1816, 
and  went  into  operation  January  7,  1817.  Mean- 
while other  banks  had  been  established  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  and  these,  driven  to 
suspension  of  specie  payments  by  the  War  of 
1812,  were  aided  by  the  operation  of  the  new 
bank  to  an  extent  which  enabled  them  to  re- 
sume. This  bank  itself,  however,  was  driven 
to  the  wall  in  1840    by  legislation  which  com- 

Eelled  it  to  resume  specie  payments,  which  it 
ad  suspended.  The  present  system  of  national 
banks  was  inaugurated  in  1864,  under  exigencies 
created  by  the  Civil  War.  In  towns  of  a  popu- 
lation of  3,000  or  less  the  minimum  capital  al- 
lowed national  banks  is  $25,000.  In  towns  of 
between  3,000  and  6,000  people  the  minimum 
capital  allowed  is  $50,000;  and  in  cities  and 
towns  having  a  population  of  6,000  or  more, 
but  not  exceeding  50,000,  the  minimum  capital 
must  be  $100,000;  while  in  cities  of  over  50,000 
people  the  bank  must  have  a  capital  of  at  least 
$200,000.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  amount  of 
excess  capital.  Every  national  bank  must  pur- 
chase and  deliver  to  the  treasurer  of  the  United 
States  registered  United  States  bonds  to  an 
amouLt  not  less  than  $50,000,  except  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $150,000,  or  less,  the  minimum 
amount  of  bonds  required  is  one  quarter  of  the 
capital.  The  government  then  issues  and  de- 
livers to  the  bank  circulating  notes  in  denomi- 
nations of  $5,  $10,  $20,  $50,  $100,  as  desired, 
in  total  amount  equal  to  the  par  value  of  the 
bonds  deposited.  A  bank  may  deposit  bonds 
and  receive  circulating  notes  to  an  amount  equal 
to  its  capital.  Each  bank  is  required  to  make 
a  sworn  statement  of  its  condition  to  the  comp- 


troller of  the  currency  at  Washington  at  least 
five  times  a  year,  and  to  publish  the  same  in  a 
newspaper.  Two  examinations  a  year  are  made 
by  capable  men  employed  by  the  government 
as  national  bank  examiners,  their  visits  being 
always  without  notice.  Requirement  is  made 
in  the  national  bank  act  for  the  accumulation 
of  a  surplus  by  each  bank  from  its  earnings  as 
an  additional  protection  above  its  capital  to 
the  depositors.  The  depositors  are  further 
protected  against  loss  by  the  liability  of  each 
stockholder  to  the  pajonent  of  an  amount  equal 
to  the  par  value  of  the  stock  held,  in  event  of 
failure  of  the  bank. 

Canal,  an  artificial  water-course  for  the 
transportation  of  goods  or  passengers  by  boats 
or  ships,  or  for  purposes  of  drainage  or  irriga- 
tion. The  canals  most  familiar  to  ordinary 
readers  are  for  navigation.  These  consist  usu- 
ally of  a  number  of  different  sections,  each  on 
one  level  throughout  its  course,  but  differing  in 
relative  height  from  the  others.  From  one 
section  to  another  boats  are  transferred  by 
means  of  locks,  or  it  may  be  by  inclines  or  lifts. 
The  lock  is  a  water-tight  inclosure  with  gates  at 
.either  end,  constructed  between  two  successive 
sections  of  a  canal.  When  a  vessel  is  descend- 
ing, water  is  let  into  the  lock  till  it  is  on  a  level 
with  the  higher  water,  and  thus  permits  the 
vessel  to  enter;  the  upper  gates  are  then  closed, 
and  by  the  lower  gates  being  gradually  opened, 
the  water  in  the  lock  falls  to  the  level  of  the 
lower  water,  and  the  vessel  passes  out.  In  as- 
cending the  operation  is  reversed.  The  incline 
conveys  the  vessel  from  one  reach  io  another, 
generally  on  a  specially-constructed  carriage 
running  on  rails,  by  means  of  drums  and  cables. 
The  lift  consists  of  two  counterbalancing  troughs, 
one  going  up  as  the  other  descends,  carrying  the 
vessel  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  level,  or 
vice  versa.  Works  of  great  magnitude  in  the 
way  of  cuttings,  embankments,  aqueducts, 
bridges,  tunnels,  reservoirs,  for  water-supply, 
etc.,  are  often  necessary  in  constructing  canals. 
Canals  have  been  known  from  remote  times, 
Egypt  being  intersected  at  an  early  period  by 
canals  branching  off  from  the  Nile  to  distant 
parts  of  the  country,  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
and  navigation.  Under  the  Ptolemies,  before 
the  Christian  era,  there  existed  a  canal  between 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile.  In  China,  also, 
canals  were  early  made  on  a  very  large  scale. 
In  Holland,  where  the  country  is  flat  and  water 
abundant,  canals  were  constructed  as  early  as 
the  Twelfth  Century.  The  lock,  however,  was 
not  invented  until  the  Fifteenth  Century,  both 
the  Dutch  and  the  Italians  claiming  the  honor. 
Since  then  Europe  has  been  provided  with 
numerous  canals,  which  being  connected  usually 
with  navigable  rivers,  give  access  by  water  to 
most  parts  of  its  interior.  Among  the  numerous 
canals  of  Holland,  the  most  important  is  now 
the  great  ship  canal,  from  200  to  300  feet  wide 
and  twenty-three  feet  deep,  which  connects 
Amsterdam  with  the  North  Sea.  In  France 
there  are  many  canals  and  canalized  rivers,  the 
principal  being  the  Canal  du  Midi,  branching  off 
from  the  Garonne  at  Toulouse,  and  falling  into 
the  Gulf  of  Lyons  at  Narbonne,  thus  connecting 
the    Bay    of    Biscay   and    Mediterranean,   and 


INDUSTRY,  invention;  COMMERCE 


653 


three  canals  connecting  the  basins  of  the  Rhone, 
Loire,  Seine,  and  Rhine.  The  canals  of  France 
have  a  total  length  of  3,000  miles.  In  Belgium 
there  is  the  Ghent-Terneuzen  Canal,  which  al- 
lows large  vessels  to  sail  to  Ghent  from  the 
Scheldt  estuary.  The  chief  canals  in  Germany 
are  the  Ludwigs  Canal  in  Bavaria,  connecting 
(through  the  Main  and  Regnitz)  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube;  and  the  Holstein  Canal,  connect- 
ing the  North  Sea  and  Baltic  by  means  of  the 
Eider.  The  latter  will  be  superseded  by  the 
Great  Baltic  Canal  for  sea-going  vessels,  which 
is  to  be  constructed  at  a  cost  of  $40,000,000, 
starting  near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  and  reach- 
ing the  Baltic  near  Kiel.  In  Russia  there  is 
canal  and  river  communication  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Baltic,  a  large  part  of  the  route 
consisting  of  the  Volga.     In  Britain  one  of  the 


earliest  and  most  celebrated  is  the  Bridgewater 
Canal  (1761-65),  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire, 
with  a  length  of  thirty-eight  miles.  In  Scot- 
land there  are  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal, 
thirty- five  miles  long,  joining  these  two  rivers; 
and  the  Caledonian,  sixty  and  one-half  miles 
(including  lakes),  from  the  Moray  Firth  on  the 
east  coast  to  Loch  Eil  on  the  west,  passing 
through  Loch  Ness,  Loch  Oich,  and  Loch  Lochy. 
In  the  British  Islands  there  is  a  total  length  of 
canal  of  about  3,000  miles ;  more  than  five- 
sixths  being  in  England.  The  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  ,  a  waterway  for  ocean-going  steamers 
from  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey,  near  Runcorn, 
to  Manchester,  through  a  few  locks  and  partly 
in  the  beds  of  the  Mersey  and  the  Irwell,  was 
begun  in  the  latter  end  of  1887 ;  estimated  cost, 
$75,000,000. 


CANALS 

Tabulation  showing  the  cost  and  date  of  construction,  length,  number  of  locks,  and  navigable  depth  of  the 
principal  American  canals: 


Canals 


Albemarle      and      Chesa- 
peake,   

Augusta 

Black  River, 

Cayuga  and  Seneca,  .    .    . 

Champlain, 

Chesapeake  and  Delaware, 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio, 
Companys, 


Cost  ok 
constkuc- 

TION* 


Delaware  and  Raritan, 
Delaware  Division,  .  . 
Des  Moines  Rapids,  .    . 

Dismal  Swamp 

Erie .    .    . 

Fairfield, 


Galveston  and  Brazos,  . 

Hocking, 

Illinois  and  Michigan.  . 
Illinois  and  Mississippi, 

Lehigh  Coal  and  Naviga- 
tion Co 

Louisville  and  Portland, 

Miami  and  Erie,     .... 

Morris, 

Muscle  Shoals  and  Elk 
River  Shoals, 

Newberne  and  Beaufort, 

Ogeechee 


Ohio,  .  .  .  . 
Oswego,  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania, 


Portage  Lake  and  Lake 
Superior, 

Port  Arthur, 

Santa  F^, 

Schuylkill  Navigation  Co., 

Sturgeon  Bay  and  Lake 
Michigan, 

St.  Mary's  Falls 

Susquehanna  and  Tide- 
water,   

Walhonding 

Welland  (ship  canal),  .    . 


$1,641,36.3 
1,500,000 
3,581,954 
2,232,632 

4,044,000 
3,730,230 

11,290,327 
90,000 

4,888,749 
2,433,350 
4,582,009 

2,800,000 

52,540,800 


340,000 

975,481 

7,357,787 

7,250,000 


4,455,000 
5, .578,631 
8,062,680 
6,000,000 

3,156,919 

407,810 

4,695,204 
5,239,526 
7,731,750 


528,892 


70,000 
12,461,600 


-  99,661 
7,909,667 


4,921,345 

607,269 

27,275,869 


When 
Com- 
pleted 


1860 
1847 
1849 
1839 

1822 
1829 

1850 
1847 

1838 
1830 
1877 

1822 

1825 


1851 
1843 
1848 
1895 


1821 
1872 
1835 
1836 

1889 

1840 

1835 
1828 
1839 


1873 
1899 
1880 
1826 

1881 
1896 


1840 
1843 
1833 


Length 
Miles 


35 

25 

81 

14 

184 
22 

66 
60 
7i 

22 

387 
4i 

38 

42 

102 

75 


108 

2i 
274 
103 

16 

3 

16 

317 

38 

193 


7 

10 

108 


45 
25 
26  J 


No.  OF 
Locks 


109 
11 

32 
3 

73 
1 

14 

33 

3 


72 
None 


26 

15 

3 


57 

2 

93 

33 

11 
None 


150 
18 
71 


None 


71 


None 
1 


32 
11 
26 


Depth 

FEETt 


7i 
11 
4 

7 


3i 

4 

6 

7 


5i 
5 

6 

3  ' 

4 
7 
6 


15 
26 

5 

6i 

15 
21 


5i 
4 
14 


Location 


Norfolk,  Va.,  to. Currituck  Sound,  N.  C. 
Savannah  River,  Ga.,  to  Augusta,  Ga. 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  to  Lyons  Falls,  N.  Y. 
Montezuma,    N.    Y.,    to    Cayuga   and 

Seneca  Lakes,  N.  Y. 
Whitehall,  N.  Y.,  to  West  Troy,  N.  Y. 
Chesapeake    City,    Md.,    to    Delaware 

City,  Del. 
Cumberland,  Md.,  to  Washington,  D.C. 
Mississippi  River,  La.,  to  BaVou  Black, 

La. 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  to  Trenton,  N.J. 
Easton,  Pa.,  to  Bristol,  Pa. 
At    Des    Moines    Rapids,    Mississippi 

River. 
Connects  Chesapeake  Bay  with  Albe- 
marle Sound. 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Alligator  River  to  Lake  Mattimuskeet, 

N.  C. 
Galveston,  Texas,  to  Brazos  River,  Tex. 
Carroll,  O.,  to  Nelsonville,  O. 
Chicago,  111.,  to  La  Salle,  111. 
Around  lower    rapids   of   Rock    River, 

111.,  connects  with  Mississippi  River. 

Coalport,  Pa.,  to  Easton,  Pa. 

At  Falls  of  Ohio  River,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Cincinnati,  O.,  to  Toledo,  O. 

Easton,  Pa.,  to  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Big  Muscle  Shoals,  Tenn.,  to  Elk  River 

Shoals,  Tenn. 
Clubfoot  Creek  to  Harlow  Creek,  N.  C. 
Savannah    River,    Ga.,    to    Ogeechee 

River,  Ga. 
Cleveland,  O.,  to  Portsmouth,  O. 
Oswego,  N.  Y.,  to  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Columbia,     Northumberland,  .  Wilkes- 

barre,  Huntingdon,  Pa. 

From  Keweenaw  Bay  to  Lake  Superior. 
Port  Arthur,  Tex.,  to  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Waldo,  Fla.,  to  Melrose,  Fla. 
Mill  Creek,  Pa.,  to  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Between  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan. 
Connects  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich. 

Columbia,  Pa.,  to  Havre  de  Grace,  Md. 
Rochester,  O.,  to  Roscoe,  O. 
Connects  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie. 


*  And  improvements,     t  Navigable  depth. 

The  Harlem  River  Ship  Canal,  connecting  the  Hudson  River  and  Long  Island  Sound,  by  way  of   Spuyten 
Duyvil  Creek  and  Harlem  River,  was  opened  for  traflBc  on  June  17,  1895,  and  cost  about  $2,700,000, 


654 


THE  STANDAIfD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


THE  GREAT  SHIP   CANALS  OF   THE.  WORLD 


Canal 


Com- 
pleted 


Connecting 


Length 

Miles 


Width    Depth    No.  of 
Feet*     Feet     Locks 


CosTt 


Suez 

Cronsta'dt  and  St.  Peters- 
burg  

Corinth, 


Manchester 

Kaiser  Wilhelm 

Elbe  and  Trave, 

Welland 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  (American), 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  (Canadian), 


1869 


1884 
1893 

1894 

1895 
1900 
1833 
1855 
1895 


Mediterranean    and    Red 

Seas, 

Bay  of  Cronstadt  and  St. 

Petersburg, 

Gulfs     of     Corinth     and 

.iEgina, 

Manchester,  England,  and 

the  Mersey 

Baltic  and  North  Seas,  .  . 
Baltic  and  North  Seas,  .  . 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  . 
Lakes  Superior  and  Huron, 
Lakes  Superior  and  Huron, 


99 
18i 


35.50 
60 
41 
26} 

1.6 

1.125 


121 J 
275 

72 

120 
85 
72 
156 
160 
150 


28 

22 

26J 

26 
28 
10 
14 
25 
22 


None 

None 

None 

5 


26 
1 
1 


$100,000,000 

7,200,000 

5,000,000 

75,000,000 
40,000,000 
25,200,000 
27,275,869 
6,033,533 
3,770,621 


*  Minimum  width,  or  width  at  bottom,  given  wherever  possible,     t  Cost  of  construction  to  state. 


Celluloid  is  an  artificial  substance  exten- 
sively used  as  a  substitute  for  ivory,  bone,  hard 
rubber,  coral,  etc.,  having  a  close  resemblance 
to  these  substances  in  hardness,  elasticity,  and 
texture.  It  was  invented  by  J.  W.  and  Isaac 
Hyatt  in  1870.  It  is  composed  of  cellulose  or 
vegetable  fibrine  reduced  by  acids  to  pyroxyline 
(or  gun-cotton),  camphor  is  then  added,  and 
the  compound  molded  by  heat  and  pressure 
to  the  desired  shape.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  such 
articles  as  buttons,  handles  for  knives,  forks, 
and  umbrellas,  billiard-balls,  backs  to  brushes, 
piano  keys,  napkin-rings,  opera-glass  frames,  etc. 
It  can  be  variously  colored.  Manufactures  of 
celluloid  now  run  into  millions  of  dollars  annually. 

Chaiupagrne  takes  its  name  from  the 
province  of  Champagne,  France,  where  it  was 
originally  produced.  There  are  white  and  red 
champagnes;  the  white  is  either  sparkling  or 
still.  Sparkling  or  effervescent  champagne  is 
the  result  of  a  peculiar  treatment  during  fermen- 
tation. In  December,  the  wine  is  racked  off, 
and  clarified  with  isinglass,  and  in  March  it  is 
bottled  and  tightly  corked.  The  fermentation 
being  incomplete  when  the  wine  is  bottled,  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  generated  in  a  confined  space 
dissolves  in  the  wine,  and  communicates  the 
sparkling  property  to  champagne.  To  clear 
the  wine  of  sediment,  the  bottles  are  first  placed 
in  a  sloping  position  with  the  necks  downward, 
so  that  the  sediment  may  be  deposited  in  the 
necks  of  the  bottles.  When  this  sediment  has 
been  poured  off,  a  solution  of  sugar-candy  in 
cognac  is  added  to  the  wine,  and  every  bottle  is 
filled  up  with  bright  clarified  wine,  and  securely 
recorked.  The  effervescence  of  the  wine  thus 
prepared  bursts  many  bottles,  in  some  cases  10 
per  cent.;  and  in  seasons  of  early  and  sudden 
heat,  as  many  as  20  and  25  per  cent,  have  been 
bursted.  Wine-buyers  estimate  the  value  of 
wine  according  to  the  breakage,  that  which 
breaks  most  bottles  being  considered  best.  Still 
or  non-effervescent  champagne  is  first  racked  off 
in  the  March  after  the  vintage.  Creaming  or 
slightly  effervescent  champagne  has  more  alcohol 
but  less  carbonic  acid  gas  than  sparkling  cham- 
pagne. The  best  varieties  of  this  wine  are 
produced  at  Rheims  and  Epemay,  and  generally 
on  a  chalky  soil.  The  fact  that  the  sale  of  cham- 
pagne is  very  extensive  and  lucrative  has 
naturally  given  rise  to  adulterations.  Sugar, 
and  the  juices  of  pears  or  gooseberries,  or  birch- 
juice,  etc.,  have  been  used  for  making  spurious 
champagne.     Probably  not  even  a  third  part  of 


the  wine  sold  for  champagne  is  genuine.  The 
greater  part  of  it  is  readily  manufactured  by 
simply  charging'  other  light  wines  with  carbonic 
acid  gas.     German  purveyors  have  succeeded  in 

Sreparing  light  wines  —  such  as  Rhenish,  Main, 
ecker,  Meissner,  and  Naumburg  —  much  like 
genuine  champagne.  In  recent  years  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  champagne  of  excellent 
quality  has  been  produced  in  the  United  States. 
Charcoal,  a  term  applied  to  an  impure 
variety  of  carbon,  especially  such  as  is  produced 
by  charring  wood.  One  kind  of  it  is  also  ob- 
tained from  bones ;  lampblack  and  coke  are  also 
varieties.  Wood  charcoal  is  prepared  by  piling 
billets  of  wood  in  a  pyramidal  form,  with  vacu- 
ities between  them  for  the  admission  of  air,  and 
causing  them  to  burn  slowly  under  a  covering 
of  earth.  In  consequence  of  the  heat,  part  of 
the  combustible  substance  is  consumed,  part  is 
volatilized,  together  with  a  portion  of  water, 
and  there  remains  behind  the  carbon  of  the 
wood,  retaining  the  form  of  the  ligneous  tissue. 
Another  process  consists  in  heating  the  wood  in 
close  vessels,  by  which  the  volatile  parts  are 
driven  off,  and  a  charcoal  remains  in  the  retorts, 
not  so  dense  as  that  obtained  by  the  other  pro- 
cess. Wood  charcoal,  well  prepared,  is  of  a 
deep-black  color,  brittle  and  porous,  tasteless 
and  inodorous.  It  is  infusible  in  any  heat  a 
furnace  can  raise;  but  by  the  intense  heat  of  a 
powerful  galvanic  apparatus  it  is  hardened,  and 
at  length  is  volatilized,  presenting  a  surface 
with  a  distinct  appearance  of  having  undergone 
fusion.  Charcoal  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  is 
not  affected  by  it  at  low  temperatures;  hence, 
wooden  stakes  which  are  to  be  immersed  in 
water  are  often  charred  to  preserve  them,  and 
the  ends  of  posts  stuck  in  the  ground  are  also 
thus  treated.  Owing  to  its  peculiarly  porous 
texture,  charcoal  possesses  the  property  of  ab- 
sorbing a  large  quantity  of  air  or  other  gases  at 
common  temperatures,  and  of  yielding  the 
greater  part  of  them  when  heated.  Charcoal 
likewise  absorbs  the  odoriferous  and  coloring 
principles  of  most  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  hence  is  a  valuable  deodorizer  and 
disinfectant.  Water  which,  from  having  been 
long  kept  in  wooden  vessels,  as  during  long 
voyages,  has  acquired  an  offensive  smell,  is  de- 
prived of  it  by  filtration  through  charcoal  pow- 
der. Charcoal  can  even  remove  or  prevent  the 
putrescence  of  animal  matter.  It  is  used  as 
fuel  in  various  arts,  where  a  strong  heat  is  re- 
quired, without  smoke,  and  in  various  metal- 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


655 


lurgic  operations.  By  cementation  with  char- 
coal, iron  is  converted  into  steel.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  In  its  finer 
state  of  aggregation,  under  the  form  of  ivory- 
black,  lampblack,  etc.,  it  is  the  basis  of  black 
paint;  and  mixed  with  fat  oils  and  resinous 
matter,  to  give  a  due  consistence,  it  forms  the 
composition  of  printing-ink. 

Clearing-house.  The  place  where  is 
carried  on  the  operation  of  clearing  off  balances 
and  adjusting  daily  accounts  between  bankers 
of  the  same  city;  thus  avoiding  the  inconveni- 
ence of  handling  large  amounts  in  currency  or 
convertible  paper.  Each  bank,  or  banker,  dis- 
patches a  clerk  to  the  clearing-house,  who  there 
draws  up  an  abstract  of  the  checks  upon  other 
firms,  and  effects  a  clearance  by  exchanging 
them  against  those  drawn  on  the  bank  to  which 
he  belongs.  The  balance  is  paid  over  in  cash. 
The  first  clearing-house  in  the  United  States 
was  established  in  New  York  in  1833.  In  Eng- 
land, the  railway  companies,  as  well  as  the  banks, 
make  use  of  the  clearing  system. 

Clay.  The  name  of  various  earths,  which 
consist  of  hydrated  silicate  of  aluminium,  with 
small  proportions  of  the  silicates  of  iron,  calcium, 
magnesium,  potassium,  and  sodium.  All  the 
varieties  are  characterized  by  being  firmly  co- 
herent, weighty,  compact,  and  hard  when  dry, 
but  plastic  when  moist,  smooth  to  touch,  not 
readily  diffusible  in  water,  but  when  mixed  not 
readily  subsiding  in  it.  Their  tenacity  and  duc- 
tility when  moist,  and  their  hardness  when  dry, 
has  made  them  from  the  earliest  times  the  ma- 
terials of  bricks,  tiles,  pottery,  etc.  Of  the  chief 
varieties,  porcelain-clay,  kaolin,  or  china-clay, 
a  white  clay  with  occasional  gray  and  yellow 
tones,  is  the  purest.  Potter's-clay  and  pipe- 
clay, which  are  similar  but  less  pure,  are  gener- 
ally of  a  yellowish  or  grayish  color,  from  the 
presence  of  iron.  Fire-clay  is  a  very  refractory 
variety,  always  found  lying  immediately  below 
the  coal;  it  is  used  for  making  fire-bricks,  cru- 
cibles, etc.  Loam  is  the  same  substance  mixed 
with  sand,  oxide  of  iron,  and  various  other  for- 
eign ingredients.  The  boles,  which  are  of  a  red 
or  yellow  color  from  the  presence  of  oxide  of 
iron,  are  distinguished  by  their  conchoidal  frac- 
ture. The  ochres  are  similar  to  the  boles,  con- 
taining only  more  oxide  of  iron.  Other  varieties 
are  fuller's  earth,  Tripoli,  and  .  boulder-clay,  the 
last  a  hard  clay  of  a  dark-brown  color,  with 
rounded  masses  of  rock  of  all  sizes  embedded  in 
it,  the  result  of  glacial  action.  The  distinctive 
property  of  clays  as  ingredients  of  the  soil  is 
their  power  of  absorbing  ammonia  and  other 
gases  and  vapors  generated  on  fertile  and  ma- 
nured lands;  indeed  no  soil  will  long  remain 
fertile  unless  it  has  a  fair  proportion  of  clay  in 
its  composition.  The  best  wheats  both  in  Brit- 
ain and  the  European  continent,  as  well  as  in 
America  and  Siberia,  are  grown  on  calcareous 
clays,  as  also  the  finest  fruits  and  flowers  of  the 
rosaceous  kind. 

Coal.  A  solid,  opaque,  inflammable  sub- 
stance, mainly  consisting  of  carbon,  found  in  the 
earth,  largely  employed  as  fuel,  and  formed  from 
vast  masses  of  vegetable  matter  deposited 
through  the  luxuriant  growth  of  plants  in  former 
epochs  of  the  earth's  history.     In  the  varieties 


of  coal  in  common  use  the  combined  effects  of 
pressure,  heat,  and  chemical  action  upon  the 
substance  have  left  few  traces  of  its  vegetable 
origin;  but  in  the  sandstones,  clays,  and  shales 
accompanying  the  coal,  the  plants  to  wliich  it 
principally  owes  its  origin  are  presented  in  a 
fossil  state  in  great  profusion,  and  frequently 
with  their  structure  so  distinctly  retained,  al- 
though replaced  by  mineral  substances,  as  to 
enable  the  microscopist  to  determine  their  botan- 
ical affinities  with  existing  species.  The  sigil- 
laria  and  stigmaria,  the  lepidodendron,  the  cala- 
mite,  and  tree-ferns  are  amongst  the  commoner 
forms  of  vegetable  life  in  the  rocks  of  the  coal 
formation.  Trees  of  considerable  magnitude 
have  also  been  brought  to  light,  having  a  recog- 
nizable relation  to  the  modern  araucaria.  The 
animal  remains  found  in  the  coal-measures  indi- 
cate that  some  of  the  rocks  have  been  deposited 
in  fresh  water,  probably  in  lakes,  whilst  others 
are  obviously  of  estuarine  origin,  or  have  been 
deposited  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  alternately 
occupied  by  fresh  and  salt-water.  The  great 
system  of  strata  in  which  coal  is  chiefly  found 
is  known  as  the  carboniferous.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  coal,  varying  considerably  in  their 
composition,  as  anthracite,  nearly  pure  carbon, 
and  burning  with  little  flame,  much  used  for 
furnaces  and  malt  kilns;  bituminous  (popularly 
so  called)  or  "household  coal";  and  cannel,  or 
"gas-coal,"  which  burns  readily  like  a  candle, 
and  is  much  used  in  gas-making.  All  varieties 
agree  in  containing  from  sixty  to  over  ninety 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  the  other  elements  being 
chiefly  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  frequently  a 
small  portion  of  nitrogen.  Lignite,  or  brown 
coal,  may  contain  only  fifty  per  cent,  carbon. 
For  manufacturing  purposes  coals  are  generally 
considered  to  consist  of  two  parts,  the  volatile 
or  bituminous  portion,  which  yields  the  gas  used 
for  lighting,  and  the  substance,  comparatively 
fixed,  usually  known  as  coke,  which  is -obtained  . 
by  heating  the  coals  in  ovens  or  other  clo 
arrangements. 

China  and  Japan  contain  about  200,000  square 
miles  of  coal-fields;  United  States,  210,000; 
India,  35,000;  Russia,  27,000;  Great  Britain, 
9,000;  Germany,  3,600;  France,  1,800;  Bel- 
gium, Spain,  and  other  countries,  1,400.  Total, 
487,800. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF   COAL   IN   THE   UNITED 
STATES 

Coal  is  found  in  commercial  quantities  in 
twenty-seven  of  the  States  and  Territories  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Alaska.  The  following 
table  shows  the  area  of  coal-bearing  formations 
in  the  several  States  and  the  rank  of  the  coal- 
producing  States  in  area  and  production : 


States  and 
Territories 


BITUMINOUS 

Alabama, 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Georgia  and  N.  Carolina, 

Illinois 

Indiana 


Area  of  Coal- 
bearing    FOR- 
MATIONS(Sq.  Mis.) 


Toms 


8,500 

1,728 

280 

18,100 

967 

42,900 

9,300 


12,851,775 

1,875,567 

80,000 

10,308,421 

363,463 

38,317,581 

11,422,000 


656 


THE   STANDARD    DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


States  and 
Terbitori  KS 


Bituminous 
Indian  Territory,  . 

Iowa 

Kansas, 

Kentucky 

Maryland 

Michigan,  .... 
Missouri,  .... 
Montana,  .... 
New  Mexico,  .  .  . 
North  Dakota,  .    . 

Ohio 

Oregon, 

Pennsylvania,  .  . 
Tennessee,  .... 

Texas, 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington,  .  .  . 
West  Virginia,   .    . 

Wyoming 

Alaska  and  Nevada, 


Anthracite 
Colorado  and  N.Mexico, 
Pennsylvania,    .... 


Area  of  Coai,- 
BEARiNo  For- 
mations (Sq.Mls.) 


14,848 
20,000 
20,000 
15,800 
510 
11,300 
23,000 
13.000 
2,890 


12,000 

320 

15,800 

4,400 
11,300 

2,000 

1,850 

450 

17,280 

7,500 


484 


Tons 


2,980,600 
7,017,485 
6,010,858 
9,740,420 
5,014,995 
1,370,860 
3,860,000 
1,787,934 
1,973,658 
300,998 

27,213,495 
79,731 
129,532,991 
6,210,000 
1,290,600 
1,839,219 
4.546,040 
3,293,098 

46,452,000 

5,805,322 

90,000 


341,629,113 


70,000 
72,139,566 


72,209,566 


Coal-tar,  or  Gas-tar,  a  substance  obtained 
in  the  distillation  of  coal  for  the  manufacture 
of  illuminating  gas,  a  dark-colored  more  or  less 
viscid  mass,  consisting  principally  of  oily  hydro- 
carbons. It  passes  over  with  the  gas  into  the 
condensers  along  with  ammonia  liquor,  but  being 
heavier  than  the  latter,  it  is  easily  separated 
from  it  when  the  whole  is  allowed  to  stand.  It 
was  formerly  of  comparatively  little  use;  but 
in  recent  years  a  great  number  of  valuable  prod- 
ucts have  been  derived  from  it  by  distillation, 
such  as  ammonia,  naphtha,  creasote,  carbolic 
acid,  and  benzine,  while  it  is  also  the  source  of 
the  whole  series  of  aniline  colors,  and  other  dyes, 
of  alizarine,  salicylic  acid,  etc. 

Coins  and  Coinage.  Coins  were 
probably  used  as  early  as  the  Eighth  Century 
B.  C,  and  by  the  Fourth  Century  every  civilized 
state  had  its  proper  coinage.  Most  of  the  com- 
moner metals  have  in  turn  been  used  for  making 
coins.  The  early  coins  of  Asia  Minor  were  of 
electrum,  a  mixture  of  gold  and  silver,  in  the 
proportion  of  three  of  the  former  to  one  of  the 
latter.  Lycurgus  made  the  money  of  Sparta  of 
iron.  Copper  formed  the  early  money  of  the 
Romans;  and  when  Caesar  landed  in  Britain, 
coins  of  brass  and  iron  were  found  in  use.  Tin 
was  coined  by  Charles  II.,  and  James  II.  even 
resorted  to  gun  metal  and  pewter.  At  the  pres- 
ent day,  gold  and  silver,  with  copper  for  the 
lowest  denomination,  are  almost  universally 
employed.  Coins  of  platinum  were  formerly 
struck  in  Russia.  Although  in  a  few  countries 
coins  have  been  issued  of  almost  absolute  purity, 
such'  as  the  gold  sequins  of  Tuscany,  yet  for  the 
most  part  the  gold  and  silver  are  alloyed  with 
some  other  metal,  generally  copper,  in  definite 
proportions  fixed  by  law.  In  the  United  States 
an  alloy  of  about  nine-tenths  copper  and  one- 
tenth  silver  is  used  with  gold.  The  proportion 
of  alloy  varies  in  dilTerent  countries.  In  Great 
Britain  it 'is  one- twelfth;  while  in  the  United 
States,  France,  Belgium,  and  some  other  coun- 


tries, one-tenth  has  been  adopted.  In  the 
United  States  the  power  to  coin  money  is  vested 
by  the  Constitution  in  Congress,  and  is  expressly 
withheld  from  the  States.  The  earliest  colonial 
coinage  was  in  Massachusetts,  in  pursuance  of 
an  order  of  the  General  Court,  passed  May  27, 
1652,  which  required  the  coinage  of  "  12 
pence,  6  pence,  and  3  pence  pieces."  From 
1778  to  1787  the  power  of  coinage  was  exercised 
not  only  by  the  confederation  in  Congress,  but 
also  by  several  of  the  individual  States.  In 
Vermont  a  mint  was  established  in  1785,  and 
copper  cents  were  issued ;  a  few  half  cents  were 
also  coined.  Connecticut  the  same  year  estab- 
lished a  mint  at  New  Haven,  and  copper  coins 
were  issued.  New  Jersey  authorized  a  copper 
coinage  in  1786.  In  1788  cents  and  half  cents 
were  coined  by  Massachusetts.  In  1787  copper 
cents  were  coined  under  authority  of  Congress. 
On  April  2,  1792,  a  code  of  laws  was  enacted  for 
the  estabhshment  and  regulation  of  the  mint, 
under  which,  with  slight  amendments,  the  coin- 
age was  executed  for  forty- two  years.  The 
act  of  February  12,  1873,  known  as  the  coinage 
act  of  1873,  consolidated  the  regulations  govern- 
ing the  coinage  of  the  United  States.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  a  complete  exhibit  of  the  coin- 
age of  the  United  States  from  the  organization 
of  the  mints,  1792  to  1907: 


Denominations 


Double  eagles,    .    .    . 

Eagles 

Half  eagles, 

Three-dollar  pieces 
(coinage    discontin- 
ued   under    act    of 
September  26,1890), 

Quarter  eagles,    .    .    . 

Dollars  (coinage  dis- 
continued under  act 
of  September  26, 
1890) 

Dollars,  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition 
(act     of     June     28, 
1902) 

Dollars,  Lewis  &  Clark 
Exposition,  .... 

Total  gold 


Dollars  (coinage  dis- 
continued, act  of 
February  12,  1873, 
resumed,  act  of  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1878),  .    . 

Trade  dollars  (discon- 
tinued, act  of  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1887),  .   . 

Dollars  (Lafayette  sou- 
venir, act  of  March 
3,  1899) 

Half  dollars 

Half  dollars  (Colum- 
bian souvenir),    .    . 

Quarter  dollars,  .    .    . 

Quarter  dollars  (Co- 
lumbian souvenir). 

Twenty-cent  pieces 
(coinage  discontin- 
ued, act  of  May  2, 
1878) 

Dimes 

Half  dimes  (coinage 
discontinued,  act  of 
February  12,  1873), 


Pieces 


96,599,669 
38,679,807 
61,629,741 


539,792 
12,251,564 


19,499,337 


250,258 
60,069 


229,510,2.37 


578,303,848 


35,965,924 


50,000 
326,267,284 


5,002,105 
325,999,446 


40,023 


1,355,000 
474,974,190 


97,604,388 


Values 


$1,931,993,380.00 
386,798,070.00 
308,148,705.00 


1,619,376.00 
30,628,910.00 


19,499,337.00 

250,258.00 
60,069.00 


82,678,998,105.00 


$578,303,848.00 
35,965,924.00 


50,000.00 
163,133,642.00 


2,501,052.50 
81,499,361.50 


10,005.75 


271,000.00 
49,497,419.00 


4,880,219.40 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


657 


Denominations 

Pieces 

Values 

Denominations 

Pieces 

Values 

Three-cent    pieces 
(coinage    discontin- 
ued; act  of  Febru- 
ary 12,  1873),.    .    . 

42,736,240 

$   1,282,087.20 

One-cent  pieces,  cop- 
per (coinage  discon- 
tinued, act  of  Febru- 
ary 21,  1857)..    .    . 

One-cent  pieces,  nickel 
(coinage    discontin- 
ued, act  of  April  22, 
1864) 

One-Cent      pieces, 
bronze, 

Half-cent  pieces,  cop- 
per (coinage  discon- 
tinued, act  of  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1857),  .    . 

Total  minor,    .    .    . 

Total  coinage,    .    . 

156,288,744 

200,772,000 
1,438,643,495 

7,985,222 

$  1,562,887.44 

Total  silver,     .    .    . 

1,888,296,448 

$917,394,559.35 

MINOR 

Five-cent      pieces, 
niclcel, 

Three-cent   pieces, 
nickel  (coinage  dis- 
continued,   act    of 
September  26,  1890) 

Two-cent     pieces, 
bronze  (coinage  dis- 
continued,    act    of 
September  26,  1S90) 

513,343,039 
31,378,316 
45,601,000 

$25,667,051.95 

941,349.48 

■   912,020.00 

2,007,720.00 
14,486,434.97 

39,926.11 

2,394,011,828 

$44,517,489.93 

4,412,018,501 

$3,642,410,154.28 

VALUE   OF    FOREIGN    COINS    IN   UNITED   STATES   MONEY 
The  appended  table  relating  to  coins  of  foreign  countries  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  director  of  the  mint. 


Country 


Argentine  R., 

Austria-H., 

Belgium,      .  . 

Bolivia,   .    .  . 

Brazil,  .   .    .  . 

Canada,  .  .  . 
Central  Am.,  . 
Chile 


Cliina,  .... 

Coloinbia,    .    . 

Costa  Rica, 

Denmark,  .  . 
Ecuador,     .    . 

Egypt..   .    .    . 

France,    .    .    . 

Germany,  .  . 
Gt.  Britain,  . 
Greece,    .    .    . 

Hayti 

India 

Italy 

Japan,  .... 

Mexico,   .    .    . 

Netherlands,  . 
Newfoundland, 
Norway,  .  .  . 
Panama, .    .    . 


Peru,  .  . 
Portugal, 
Russia,     . 


Spain,  .  .  . 
Sweden,  .  . 
Switzerland, 

Turkey,  .  . 
Uruguay,  . 
Venezuela,  . 


Standard 


Gold, 

Gold, 
Gold, 
Gold, 
Gold, 

Gold, 

Silver, 

Gold, 


Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 
Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 
Gold 
Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 
Gold 

Gold 

Gold 
Gold 
Gold 
Gold 

Gold 
Gold 
Gold 

Gold 
Gold 
Gold 

Gold 
Gold 
Gold 


Monetary  Unit 


Peso, 

Crown, 

Franc, 

Boliviano, 

Milreis,      

Dollar 

Peso*,    ....... 

Peso 

(  Shanghai, 
Tael,  .    .    .  <  Haikwan, 

(  Canton, 
Dollar 

Colon, 

Crown 

Sucre. 

Pound  (100  piasters), . 

Franc, 

Mark 

Pound  Sterling,  .    .    . 
Drachma 

Gourde, 

Pound  Sterlingt;  •   .    . 

Lira,      

Yen 

PesoJ 

Florin 

Dollar 

Crown, 

Balboa 

Libra, 

Milreis,      

Ruble, 

Peseta 

Crown, 

Franc, 

Piaster, 

Peso 

Bolivar 


Value  in 

U.  S.  Gold 

Dollar 


$0.96,5 

.20,3 
.19,3 
.38,9 
.54,6 

1.00 
.49,9 
.36,5 

.58,5 
.65,2 
.63,9 
1.00 

.46,5 

.26,8 
.48,7 

4.94,3 

.19,3 

.23,8 

4.86,6i 

.19,3 

.96,5 

4.86,6i 

.19,3 
.49,8 

.49,8 

.40,2 
1.01,4 

.26,8 
1.00,0 

4.86,6i 
1.08 
.51,5 

.19,3 
.26,8 
.19,3 

.04,4 

1.03,4 

.19,3 


Coins 


Gold:  argentine  ($4.82,4)  and  i  argentine.  Sil- 
ver:  peso  and  divisions. 

Gold:    10  and  20  crowns.     Silver:    1  and  5  crowns. 

Gold:    10  and  20  francs.     Sdver:    5  francs. 

Silver:    boliviano  and  divisions. 

Gold:  6,  10,  and  20  milreis.  Silver:  i,  1.  and  2 
milreis. 

Silver:   peso  and  divisions. 

Gold:  escudo  ($1.82,5),  doubloon  ($3.65),  and 
condor   ($7.30).     Silver:    peso  and  divisions. 


Gold: 


Sil- 


condor  ($9.64,7)  and  double-condor. 

ver:  peso. 
Gold:    2,  5,  10,  and  20  colons  ($9.30,7).     Silver: 

5,  10,  25,  and  50  centimos. 
Gold:   10  and  20  crowns. 
Gold:     10  sucres   ($4.86,65).     Silver;     sucre  and 

divisions. 
Gold:     pound    (100   piasters),    5,    10,   20,   and   50 

piasters.     Silver:    1,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  piasters. 
Gold:    5,   10,  20,  60,  and  100  francs.     Silver:  5 

Gold:    5,'  10,  and  20  marks. 

Gold:    sovereign  (pound  sterling)  and  J  sovereign. 

Gold:    5,  10,  20.  50.  and  100  drachmas.     Silver: 

5  drachmas. 
Gold:     1,  2,  5,  and  10  gourdes.       Silver:    gourde 

and  divisions. 
Gold:      sovereign  ($4.86.65).       Silver:    rupee  and 

divisions. 
Gold:    5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  lire.     Silver:  5  lire. 
Gold:    1,  2,  5,  10.  and  20  yen.      Silver:    10,  20, 

and  50  sen. 
Gold:    5  and  10  pesos.     Silver:    dollar  (or  peso)§ 

and  divisions. 
Gold:    10  florins.     Silver:    i,  1.  and  2i  florins. 
Gold:  2  dollars  ($2.02,7). 
Gold:   10  and  20  crowns. 
Gold:    1,  2i,  5,  10,  and  20  balboas.     Silver:  peso 

and  divisions. 
Gold:     i  and   1   libra.     Silver:    sol  and  divisions. 
Gold:    1,  2,  5,  and  10  milreis. 
Gold:   5,  7*,  10,  and  15  rubles.     Silver:   5,  10,  15, 

20,  25,  50,  and  100  copeks. 
Gold:    25  pesetas.     Silver:    5  pesetas. 
Gold:   10  and  20  crowns. 
Gold:    5,   10,  20,  50,  and   100  francs.     Silver:  6 

francs. 
Gold:   25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piasters. 
Gold:    peso.     Silver:    peso  and  divisions. 
Gold:    6,   10,  20,  50,  and   100  bolivars.     Silver: 

5  bolivars. 


*  Not  including  Costa  Rica,  t  The  sovereign  is  the  standard  coin  of  India,  but  the  rupee  ($0.32,5)  is  the 
money  of  account,  current  at  15  to  the  sovereign,  t  Seventy-five  centigrams  fine  gold.  §  Value  in  Mexico 
49.8. 


658 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Coke,  the  carbonaceous  residue  of  coal 
which  has  been  heated  in  an  oven  or  retort,  or 
in  any  way  by  which  Httle  air  is  admitted,  until 
all  volatile  matter  has  been  expelled.  The 
simplest  method  of  producing  coke  is  based  on 
the  preparation  of  wood  charcoal,  the  coal  being 
arranged  in  heaps  which  are  smothered  with 
clay  or  coal-dust,  and  then  set  on  fire,  suffipient 
air  being  admitted  to  keep  the  mass  at  the  proper 
temperature  for  decomposition  without  wasting 
the  coke.  After  the  volatile  portions  are  got 
rid  of,  the  heap  is  allowed  to  cool,  or  is  extin- 
guished with  water,  and  the  coke  is  then  ready. 
Methods  of  heating  the  coal  in  close  or  open 
ovens  until  the  gaseous  and  fluid  products  are 
driven  off  are  also  commonly  used.  Gas-coke  is 
that  which  remains  in  the  retorts  after  the  gas 
has  been  given  off.  Good  oven-coke  has  an  iron- 
gray  color,  sub-metallic  luster,  is  hard,  and  some- 
what vesicular;  but  gas-coke  has  rather  a 
slagged  and  cindery -look,  and  is  more  porous. 
Coke  contains  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
and  is  used  where  a  strong  heat  is  wanted  with- 
out smoke  and  flame,  and  it  is  accordingly  largely 
consumed  in  drying  malt  and  similar  purposes. 
It  used  to  be  burned  regularly  in  locomotive- 
engines,  but  raw  coal  is  now  commonly  substi- 
tuted. The  largest  quantities  are  consumed  in 
smelting  operations. 

Cold  Storage.  A  system  for  the  preser- 
vation of  fruits,  meats,  and  other  food  stuffs, 
in  which  the  air  of  the  storage  chambers  is 
kept  near  or  below  the  freezing  temperature 
by  refrigerating  methods  similar  to  those 
employed  in  making  artificial  ice.  By  this 
means  food  can  be  kept  in  an  unchanged 
state  for  an  indefinite  period.  The  system  is 
widely  applied  both  on  land  and  in  ocean 
steamers. 

Copper,  one  of  the  most  anciently  known 
metals,  deriving  its  name  from  Cyprus,  large 
supplies  having  in  Greek  and  Roman  times  come 
from  that  island.  Next  to  gold,  silver,  and 
platinum  it  is  the  most  ductile  and  malleable  of 
metals;  it  is  more  elastic  than  any  metal  except 
steel,  and  the  most  sonorous  of  all  except  alu- 
minium. Its  conducting  power  for  heat  and  elec- 
tricity is  inferior  only  to  that  of  silver.  It  has  a 
distinct  odor  and  a  nauseous  metallic  taste. 
It  is  not  altered  by  water,  but  tarnishes  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  and  becomes  covered  with  a 
green  carbonate.  It  occurs  native  in  branched 
pieces,  dendritic,  in  thin  plates,  and  rarely  in 
regular  crystals,  in  the  primitive  and  older 
secondary  rocks.  Blocks  of  native  copper  have 
sometimes  been  got  weighing  many  tons.  Its 
ores  are  numerous  and  abundant.  All  the  com- 
pounds of  copper  are  poisonous.  It  is  found  in 
most  European  countries,  in  Australia  and  Japan, 
in  Africa  and  in  North  and  South  America 
(especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior). 
In  Britain  the  mines  of  Cornwall  are  the  richest. 

Copper  is  extracted  from  its  ores  either  by  the 
dry  or  the  wet  process.  For  the  former,  what  is 
known  as  the  Welsh  process  is  most  common  in 
Great  Britain.  It  consists  in  alternately  roast- 
ing the  ore,  and  then  smelting  it  in  a  furnace 
with  a  suitable  slag,  until  impure  or  blister  cop- 
per is  obtained.  Before  this  stage  is  reached 
a  metallic  compound  of  copper,   sulphur,  and 


iron  has  been  produced,  technically  known  as 
matt,  regulus,  or  coarse  metal,  and  subsequently 
a  tolerably  pure  sulphide  of  copper  called  fine 
metal.  The  blister  copper  is  refined  by  burning 
off  the  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  other  volatile  im- 
purities, and  by  melting  it  along  with  wood  char- 
coal and  stirring  it  with  a  wooden  pole.  The 
quality  is  then  tested,  and,  if  found  satisfactory, 
the  copper  is  cast  into  ingots.  In  extracting  the 
metal  from  pyrites  by  the  wet  process,  the  ore  is 
first  roasted  to  get  rid  of  the  larger  proportion 
of  sulphur,  then  the  calcined  residue  still  con- 
taining sulphur  is  mixed  with  common  salt, 
ground  and  heated  in  ovens.  The  copper  is  thus 
converted  into  chloride,  part  of  which  volatilizes, 
but  is  condensed,  along  with  arsenic  and  other 
substances,  by  passage  through  flues  and  water- 
condensers.  After  some  hours  the  calcined  mix- 
ture is  raked  out  of  the  ovens,  cooled,  and  trans- 
ferred to  tanks,  where  it  is  exhausted  by  suc- 
cessive treatment  with  water.  The  solution, 
containing  chloride  of  copper,  sulphate  and 
chloride  of  sodium,  and  iron  salts,  is  next  heated 
along  with  scrap-iron.  Copper  precipitates  in 
the  form  of  a  ruddy,  lustrous,  tolerably  compact 
mass,  with  a  crystalline  appearance,  and  mixed 
with  metallic-iron  and  oxide.  The  larger  pieces 
of  iron  are  picked  out,  the  precipitate  washed 
and  drained,  and  then  rendered  compact  by 
heating  in  a  furnace.  A  slag  containing  the 
oxide  of  iron  forms,  and  the  copper,  when 
judged  sufficiently  pure,  is  run  into  moulds. 
Afterwards  this  crude  metal  is  refined  and 
toughened. 

Some  of  the  alloys  of  copper,  especially  those 
containing  tin  and  zinc,  are  of  considerable 
importance,  e.  g.,  bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper 
with  about  eight  or  ten  per  cent,  of  tin;  bell- 
metal  composed  of  eighty  parts  of  copper  and 
twenty  of  tin;  British  bronze  coinage,  copper 
ninety-five,  tin  four,  zinc  one. 

Copper  is  applied  to  a  great  many  useful  pur- 
poses. In  sheets  it  is  used  for  sheathing  the 
bottoms  of  ships,  covering  roofs  and  domes,  the 
constructing  of  boilers  and  stills  of  a  large  size, 
etc.  It  is  also  used  in  electrotyping  and  en- 
graving, for  various  household  untensils  and  fit- 
tings; but  its  use  for  household  utensils  is  by  no 
means  free  from  danger  on  account  of  the  action 
of  acids  on  it,  which  produces  verdigris. 

The  copper  production  in  the  world,  in  1906, 
was  as  follows:  United  States,  416,226  tons; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  50,109;  Chile,  26,157; 
Japan,  40,528;  Germany,  20,665;  Mexico, 
62,690;  Australasia,  36,830;  Canada,  19,106; 
other  localities,  36,312. 

In  the  United  States,  Montana,  Arizona,  and 
Michigan  are  the  chief  copper  producing  States. 

Cotton.  A  soft,  downy  substance,  consist- 
ing of  fine  hair  growing  round  the  seeds  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  genus  Gossypium,  O.  Malvacece. 
The  genus  is  indigenous  to  both  the  American 
and  Asiatic  continents,  but  it  has  been  so  ex- 
tensively spread  by  means  of  cultivation  that  it 
is  now  found  throughout  all  parts  of  the  world, 
within  the  limits  of  36°  north  and  south  of  the 
equator.  All  the  species  and  varieties  form 
herbaceous  or  shrubby  perennial  plants,  varying 
in  height  according  to  the  climate  and  soil  in 
which  they  grow,  some  not  exceeding  two  or  three 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


659 


feet,  while  others  reach  a  height  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet.  Their  leaves  grow  upon  stalks 
placed  alternately  upon  the  branches,  and  are 
generally  heart-shaped,  and  most  commonly 
either  three-  or  five-lobed,  with  the  lobes  sharp 
or  rounded.  The  flowers  are  usually  large  and 
showy,  and  grow  singly  upon  stalks  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  They  have  a  cup-shaped  shortly 
five-toothed  calyx,  surroimded  by  a  larger  outer 
calyx  or  involucel  of  three  broad  deeply-cut  seg- 
ments, joined  together  and  heart-shaped  at  the 
base;  a  corolla  of  five  petals;  many  stamens 
united  into  a  central  column;  and  a  three  or 
five-celled  ovary.  The  fruit  is  a  three-  or  five- 
celled  capsule,  which  bursts  open  through  the 
middle  of  each  cell  when  ripe,  exposing  the  num- 
erous seeds  covered  with  the  beautiful  cellular 
filaments  known  under  the  name  of  cotton. 
The  seeds  themselves  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  bland  oil,  which  has  been  brought 
greatly  into  use  during  the  last  few  years;  and 
the  cake  formed  by  pressing  the  decorticated 
seeds  has  proved  a  valuable  food  for  cattle. 
G.  Barbadense  is  the  species  cultivated  in  the 
United  States,  where  two  well-marked  varieties 
are  recognized.  First,  the  Sea  Island  or  long- 
staple  cotton,  which  was  introduced  from  the 
Bahamas  in  1785,  and  is  only  grown  on  the  low 
islands  and  sea-coast  of  Georgia  and  South  Caro- 
lina; it  is  the  most  valuable  kind,  having  a  fine, 
soft,  silky  staple  from  one  and  one-half  to  one 
and  three-fourths  inches  long,  and  is  easily  sepa- 
rated from  the  seed.  Second,  Upland,  Georgian, 
Bowed,  or  short-staple  cotton,  which  forms  the 
bulk  of  American  cotton,  and  is  the  produce  of 
the  upland  or  inland  districts  of  the  Southern 
States;  the  staple  is  only  one  or  one  and  one- 
fourth  inches  long,  and  it  adheres  firmly  to  the 
seed,  which  is  also  covered  with  short  down. 
Egyptian  cotton,  and  the  kind  called  Bourbon, 
are  likewise  referable  to  this  species.  G.  herba- 
ceum  is  the  indigenous  Indian  species,  and'yields 
the  bulk  of  the  cotton  of  that  country ;  it  is  also 
grown  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  other  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  Persia,  etc. 
Its  seeds  are  woolly  and  yield  a  very  short-stapled 
cotton.  G.  peruvianum  yields  the  cotton  ex- 
ported from  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  and  other  parts 
of  Brazil,  from  Peru,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  called 
kidney  cotton,  on  account  of  its  seeds  adhering 
firmly  together  in  the  form  of  a  kidney.  The 
harvest  of  this  country  commences  in  August, 
and  lasts  till  December.  After  being  picked 
and  dried,  the  cotton  is  separated  from  the  seeds 
by  means  of  machines  called  gins,  and  is  then 
tightly  compressed  into  bales  averaging  about 
500  pounds  in  weight.  Two  kinds  of  gins  are 
used:  the  saw-gin,  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in 
1793,  and  the  roller-gin, —  the  first  consisting 
of  numerous  circular  saws  revolving  between 
iron  grids,  being  used  for  the  short-staple  variety ; 
and  the  latter,  which  is  merely  a  pair  of  rollers, 
for  the  long-staple.  The  production  of  cotton 
in  the  United  States  has  grown  from  1,038,848 
bales  in  1831  to  13,551,000  in  1907. 

Cotton-spinning,  a  term  employed  to 
describe  in  the  aggregate  all  the  operations  in- 
volved in  transforming  raw  cotton  into  yarn. 
The  word  "spinning"  has  also  a  more  limited 
signification,  being  used  to  denote  the  conclud- 


ing process  of  the  series.  The  following  affords 
a  general  notion  of  the  nature  and  order  of  the 
successive  operations  carried  on  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  yarn : —  ( 1 )  Mixing,  the  blend- 
ing of  different  varieties  of  raw  cotton,  in  order 
to  secure  economical  production,  uniform  qual- 
ity and  color,  and  an  even  thread  in  any  desired 
degree.  (2)  The  willowing,  scratching,  or  blow- 
ing, an  operation  which  cleans  the  cotton  and 
prepares  it  in  the  form  of  a  continuous  lap  or 
rolled  sheet  for  the  next  process.  (3)  Carding, 
an  operation  in  which  the  material  is  treated  in 
its  individual  fibers,  which  are  taken  from  the 
lap,  further  cleansed,  and  laid  in  a  position  ap- 
proximately parallel  to  each  other,  forming  a 
thin  film,  which  is  afterwards  condensed  into  a 
sliver  —  a  round,  untwisted  strand  of    cotton. 

(4)  Drawing,  the  drawing  out  of  several  slivers 
to  the  dimensions  of  one,  so  as  to  render  the 
new  sliver  more  uniform  in  thickness,  and  to 
place  the  fibers  more  perfectly  in  parallel  order. 

(5)  Slubbing,  the  further  drawing  or  attenuation 
of  the  sliver,  and  slightly  twisting  it,  in  order  to 
preserve  its  cohesion  and  rounded  form.  (6) 
Intermediate  or  second  slubbing,  a  repetition  of 
the  former  operation  and  further  attenuation, 
not  necessary  in  the  production  of  coarse  yarns. 

(7)  Roving,  a  continuation  of  the  preceding,  its 
principal  object  being  to  still  further  attenuate 
the  sliver,  and  give  it  a  slight  additional  twist. 

(8)  Spinning,  which  completes  the  extension 
and  twisting  of  the  yarn.  This  is  accomplished 
either  with  the  throstle  or  the  mule.  By  means 
of  the  former  machine  the  yarn  receives  a  hard 
twist,  which  renders  it  tough  and  strong.  By 
means  of  the  latter  yarns  of  less  strength  are 
produced,  such  as  warps  of  light  fabrics  and 
wefts  of  all  kinds.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  Eight- 
eenth Century  the  only  method  of  spinning 
known  was  that  by  the  hand-wheel,  or  the  still 
more  primitive  distaff  and  spindle.  In  1763,  a 
poor  weaver  of  the  name  of  Hargreaves,  residing 
at  Stanhill,  near  Blackburn,  in  Lancashire,  in- 
vented a  machine  for  spinning  cotton,  which  he 
named  a  spinning-jenny.  It  consisted  at  first 
of  eight  spindles,  turned  by  a  horizontal  wheel, 
but  was  afterwards  greatly  extended  and  im- 
proved, so  as  to  have  the  vertical  substituted 
for  the  horizontal  wheel,  and  give  motion  to  from 
fifty  to  eighty  spindles.  In  1769,  Arkwright, 
originally  a  barber's  apprentice,  took  out  a  patent 
for  spinning  by  rollers.  From  the  circumstances 
of  the  mill  erected  by  Arkwright  at  Cromford, 
in  Derbyshire,  being  driven  by  water-power,  his 
machine  received  the  name  of  the  water-frame, 
and  the  thread  spun  on  it  that  of  water-twist. 
The  next  important  invention  in  cotton-spinning 
was  that  of  the  mule,  introduced  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Crompton  of  Bolton,  in  1775,  and  so  called  from 
its  combining  the  principle  of  the  spinning-jenny 
of  Hargreaves  with  the  roller-spinning  of  Ark- 
wright. Numerous  improvements  in  cotton- 
spinning  have  been  introduced  up  to  the  present 
day,  but  they  are  all  modifications  of  the  original 
inventions.  Among  these  is  the  throstle,  an 
extension  and  simplification  of  the  original  spin- 
ning-frame, introduced  about  the  year  1810. 
The  first  machines  set  up  in  the  United  States 
were  at  East  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  in  1786,  by 
two    Scotchmen.     In    1812,    Francis   C.  Lowell 


660 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


introduced  the  Cartwright  power-loom  at  Lowell, 
Mass.,  which  is  now  the  largest  cotton-manu- 
facturing center  in  America.  There  are  also  ex- 
tensive mills  in  active  operation  in  Alabama, 
Georgia,  and  other  Southern  States.  In  1907, 
Great  Britain  had  52,000,000  spindles  in  opera- 
tion; the  continent  of  Europe,  35,800,000; 
United  States,  25,924,000;  and  the  East  Indies, 
5,400,000. 

Credit,  in  finance,  is  the  postponement 
agreed  on  by  the  parties  of  the  payrnent  of  a 
debt  to  a  future  day.  It  implies  confidence  of 
the  creditor  in  the  debtor;  and  a  "credit  sys- 
tem "  is  one  of  general  confidence  of  people  in 
each  other's  honesty,  solvency,  and  resources. 
By  means  of  a  credit  system  a  comparatively 
small  stock  of  money  can  be  made  to  do  duty  for 
carrying  on  a  number  of  different  transactions; 
but  it  is  indispensable  for  every  good  system  of 
credit  that  money  must  be  instantly  available 
when  required,  and  this  principle  applies  to 
every  species  of  transaction  where  postponed 
payment  is  concerned.  Public  credit  is  the  con- 
fidence which  men  entertain  in  the  ability  and 
disposition  of  a  nation  to  make  good  its  engage- 
ments with  its  creditors;  or  the  estimation  in 
which  individuals  hold  the  public  promises  of 
payment,  whether  such  promises  are  expressed 
or  implied.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  tne  gen- 
eral credit  of  individuals  in  a  nation;  when 
merchants  and  others  are  wealthy  and  punctual 
in  fulfilling  engagements ;  or  when  they  transact 
business  with  honor  and  fidelity ;  or  when  trans- 
fers of  property  are  made  with  ease.  So  we 
speak  of  the  credit  of  a  bank  when  general  con- 
fidence is  placed  in  its  ability  to  redeem  its  notes, 
and  the  credit  of  a  mercantile  house  rests  on  its 
supposed  ability  and  probity,  which  induce  men 
to  trust  to  its  engagements.  When  the  public 
credit  is  questionable  it  raises  the  premium  on 
loans. 

Cutlery.  A  term  comprising  all  cutting 
instruments  made  of  steel,  but  more  particularly 
confined  to  the  manufacture  of  knives,  scissors, 
razors,  surgical  instruments,  and  swords.  Those 
articles  which  require  the  edge  to  possess  great 
tenacity,  at  the  same  time  that  superior  hardness 
is  not  required,  are  made  from  sheer  steel.  The 
finer  kinds  of  cutlery  are  made  from  steel  which 
has  been  in  a  state  of  fusion,  and  which  is  termed 
cast-steel,  no  other  being  susceptible  of  a  fine 
polish  and  very  keen  edge.  Razors  are  made 
of  cast-steel,  the  edge  of  the  razor  requiring  the 
combined  advantages  of  great  hardness  and 
tenacity.  After  the  razor-blade  is  formed,  it  is 
hardened  by  gradually  raising  it  to  a  bright-red 
heat,  and  plunging  it  into  cold  water.  It  is 
tempered  by  heating  it  afterwards  till  a  bright- 
ened part  appears  of  a  straw  color.  But  the 
beauty  and  elegance  of  polished  steel  is  dis- 
played to  great  advantage  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  finer  kinds  of  scissors.  Damascus  was 
anciently  famed  for  its  razors,  sabers,  and  swords 
—  the  latter  especially,  which  possessed  all  the 
advantages  of  flexibility,  elasticity,  and  hard- 
ness, while  they  presented  a  beautiful  wavy  ap- 
pearance called  the  water.  It  is  not  known  how 
this  effect  is  produced;  but  it  is  well  imitated 
in  Europe  by  scooping  hollows  in  the  blade  and 
filling  them  up;    also  by  welding  together  a 


bimdle  of  steel  bars,  cutting  and  rewelding  them, 
etc.  In  recent  times,  the  English  and  German 
cutlery  has  been  long  celebrated  for  excellence 
ancf  cheapness.  The  manufacture  of  table  cut- 
lery in  the  United  States  was  introduced  in 
1834  by  Mr.  John  Russell,  of  Greenfield,  Mass., 
and  has  assumed  such  an  importance  as  to 
command  a  large  export. 

Forestry  is  the  act,  occupation,  or  art  of 
forming  and  cultivating  forests;  the  systematic 
utilization,  reproduction  and  improvement  in 
productive  capacity  of  trees  in  masses,  including 
the  planting  and  culture  of  new  forests.  The 
usefulness  of  forests  to  man  lies:  (1)  in  their 
furnishing  him  with  timber  for  fuel  and  for 
manufacturing  and  building  purposes  as  well 
as  with  other  serviceable  products,  such  as  their 
bark,  their  sap  (by  distillation),  turpentine, 
creosote,  wood  alcohol,  vanilin,  etc.;  also  fer- 
tilizers, fodders,  materials  for  textile  fabrics, 
dyes,  inks,  etc.  (2)  in  their  influence  on  climate, 
by  furnishing  large  tracts  of  superior  coolness, 
by  conserving  humidity,  decreasing  evapora- 
tion, breaking  the  force  of  winds,  etc.  (3)  In 
their  influence  on  the  waterflow,  by  keeping 
the  ground  more  moist,  conserving  the  springs, 
making  the  outflow  of  water  more  steady  and 
regular,  and  causing  the  snow  within  them  to 
melt  more  slowly,  thus  preventing  dangerous 
floods;  causing  the  rainfall  to  sink  slowly  into 
the  soil  rather  than  to  flow  in  torrents  over  the 
surface;  also  by  holding  the  soil  together  with 
their  roots,  so  keeping  the  hillsides  froin  being 
denuded  and  preventing  their  soil  from  being 
carried  down  over  the  cultivable  fields  below, 
sanding  over  valleys  and  silting  up  streams. 
This  being  the  case,  not  only  private  interest 
exists  in  forests  but  a  public  interest,  which 
necessitates  at  times  governmental  action  —  an 
action  to  which  in  the  United  States  we  have 
but  recently  awaked.  Such  action  rests  on  the 
following  principles:  (1)  The  widest  scope  should 
be  allowed  to  private  enterprise  in  production, 
care  being  taken  that  abundant  statistics  in 
regard  to  supply  and  demand  and  opportunity 
for  education  on  the  subject  be  furnished. 
(2)  Adequate  legal  ^otection  should  be  given 
to  forest  property.  (3)  Whenever  improper 
management  threatens  damage  to  neighboring 
property  the  State  should  interfere  to  enforce 
proper  management.  (4)  Wherever  public  wel- 
fare demands  the  reforestation  of  denuded  tracts 
the  State  should  assist  individual  or  communal 
enterprise  in  performing  this,  or  else  do  the 
reforesting  as  a  work  of  internal  improvement. 
(5)  In  cases  where  a  permanent  forest  is  desir- 
able and  private  interest  can  not  be  relied  on 
for  its  proper  management,  the  State  should 
own  and  manage  it. 

The  total  woodland  area  in  the  United  States 
is  estimated  at  1,094,514  square  miles,  or  about 
699,500,000  acres,  which  is  thirty-six  and  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  the  total  land  area,  Alaska  not 
included.  The  total  annual  consumption  of 
manufactured  forest  products  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  census 
of  1890,  is  more  than  18,000,000,000  cubic  feet, 
divided  approximately  as  follows:  Lumber  mar- 
ket and  manufactures,  2,250,000,000  cubic  feet; 
fuel,    15,000,000,000  cubic  feet;    railroad  ties, 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


061 


27,000,000  cubic  feet;  fencing,  30,000,000  cubic 
feet;  other  items,  1,000,000,000  cubic  feet. 
The  amount  of  cubic  feet  of  standing  timber 
necessary  to  produce  these  quantities  of  usable 
material  is  immensely  greater,  probably  almost 
double.  The  value  of  the  annual  products  of 
our  forests  was  estimated  by  the  census  of  1890, 
at  11,038,616,947.    At  the  present  rate  of  cutting. 


the  forest  land  of  the  United  States  cannot  long 
meet  the  enormous  demand  made  upon  it.  By 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  white  pine  has  been 
cut,  and  vast  inroads  have  been  made  into  the 
supply  of  other  valuable  timbers.  In  many 
sections  of  the  country  more  timber  falls  by 
fire  than  by  the  axe.  The  average  annual  loss 
from  fire  is  not  less  than  $20,000,000. 


GREAT    INDUSTRIES   OP  UNITED   STATES 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  LATEST  CENSUS 


Num- 
ber OF 

Aver- 
age 

Value 

OF  Products 

Industry 

Estab- 

Capital 

Number 

Wages 

lish- 

OF Wage 

Net 

Gross 

Rank 

ments 

Earners 

Iron  and  steel 

668 

5573,391,663 

222,490 

$120,820,276 

$432,687,119 

$803,968,273 

1 

Slaughtering  and  meat  pack- 

ing,   not    including    retail 

, 

butchering, 

1,134 

190,706,927 

69,441 

33,923,253 

684,119,221 

790,252,586 

2 

Foundry  and  machine  shop 

products, 

9,324 

665,058,245 

350,327 

182,232,009 

377,812,876 

644,990,999 

3 

Lumber  and  timber  products. 

33,010 

611,429,574 

283,179 

104,563,603 

307,838,590 

566,621,755 

4 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  prod- 

ucts,      

25,258 
28,014 

218,714,104 
173,034,543 

37,073 
191,043 

17,703,418 
79,434,932 

540,052,649 
220,140,823 

560,719,063 
415,256,391 

5 

Clothing,  men's 

6 

Printing  and  publishing,  .    . 

22,312 

292,517,072 

162,992 

84,249,954 

264,859,062 

347,055,050 

7 

Cotton  manufactures,   .    .    . 

1,055 

467,240,157 

302,861 

86,689,752 

296,633,150 

339,200,320 

8 

Carpentering, 

21,315 

71,327,047 

123,985 

71,049,737 

176,611,706 

316,101,758 

9 

Woolen  manufactures,       .    . 

1,414 

310,179,749 

159,108 

57,933,817 

218,637,292 

296,990,484 

10 

Boots    and    shoes,    factory 

product, 

1,600 

101,795,233 

142,922 

59,175,883 

93,701,767 

261,028,580 

11 

Sugar  and  molasses,  refining. 

832 

184,245,519 

14,262 

6,945,811 

49,216,847 

240,969,905 

12 

Liquors,  malt 

1,509 

415,284,468 

39,532 

25,826,211 

202,582,268 

237,269,713 

13 

Cars  and  general  shop  con- 

struction  and    repairs   by 

steam  railroad  companies. 

1,295 

119,473,042 

173,595 

96,006,570 

111,622,240 

218,113,658 

14 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and 

finished, 

1,306 

173,977,421 

52,109 

22,591,091 

186,389,057 

204,038,127 

15 

Masonry,  brick  and  stone,    . 

8,333 

48,070,239 

93,568 

53,152,258 

125,356,555 

203,593,634 

16 

Bread     and     other     bakery 

products, 

14,917 

81,049,553 

60,271 

27,893,170 

89,262,303 

175,657,348 

17 

Lead,  smelting  and  refining. 

39 

72,148,933 

8,319 

5,088,684 

97,425,341 

175,466,304 

18 

Lumber,  planing  mill  prod- 

ucts, including  sash,  doors. 

and  blinds, 

4,204 

119,271,631 

73,627 

32,685,210 

74,205,166 

168,343,003 

19 

Copper,  smelting  and  refining, 

47 

53,063,395 

11,324 

8,529,021 

76,502,702 

165,131,670 

20 

Tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigar- 

ettes,     

14,539 

67,706,493 

103,462 

40,925,596 

152,300,012 

160,223,152 

21 

Clothing,    women's,    factory 

product 

2,701 

48,431,544 

83,739 

32,586,101 

75,315,179 

159,339,539 

22 

Furniture,  including  cabinet- 

making,  repairing,  and  up- 

holstering  

7,972 

117,982,091 

100,018 

42,638,810 

91,151,488 

153,168,309 

23 

Plumbing,  and  gas  and  steam 

fitting 

11,876 

47,111,264 

53,916 

31,873,866 

68,035.688 

131,852,567 

24 

Cheese,     butter,     and    con- 

densed milk, 

9,355 

36,508,015 

12,865 

6,170,670 

124,008,573 

131,199,277 

25  • 

Paper  and  wood  pulp,  .    .    . 

763 

167,507,713 

49,646 

20,746,426 

77,954,480 

127,326,162 

26 

Petroleum  refining 

67 

95,327,892 

12,199 

6,717,087 

107,512,092 

123,929,384 

27 

Carriages  and  wagons,  .    .    . 

7,632 

118,187,838 

62,540 

29,814,911 

67,172,479 

121,537,276 

28 

Silk  and  silk  goods,   .... 

483 

81,082,201 

65,416 

20,982,194 

86,483,994 

107,256,258 

29 

Cars,  railroad  and  street,  and 

repairs,   not  including  es- 

tablishments operated  by 

193 

106,721,188 

44,063 

23,342,763 

39,326,863 

107,186,359 

30 

Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking. 

and  snufif, 

437 

43,856,570 

29,161 

7,109,821 

92,915,542 

103,754,362 

31 

Agricultural  implements, .    . 

715 

157,707,951 

46,582 

22,450,880 

60,535,599 

101,207,428 

32 

Tinsmithing,  coppersmithing, 

and  sheet-iron  working,    , 

12,466 

55,703,509 

45,575 

22,155,039 

51,638,038 

100,310,720 

33 

Liquors,  distilled 

967 

32,551,604 

3,722 

1,733,218 

91,451,293 

96,798,443 

34 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods,   .    . 

921 

81,860,604 

83,387 

24,358,627 

54,544,999 

95,482,566 

35 

Electrical      apparatus      and 

supplies,      

580 

83,130,943 

40,890 

20,190,344 

44,583,830 

91,348,889 

36 

Painting  and  paper  hanging. 

16,939 

27,217,086 

59,191 

34,822,819 

62,541,861 

88,396,852 

37 

Blacksmithing    and     wheel- 

wrighting, 

51,771 

54,976,341 
67,509,533 

36,193 
54,370 

17,974,264 
28,663,241 

63,764,914 
69,097,079 

85,971,630 
85,101,591 

38 

Marble  and  stone  work,    .    . 

6,070 

39 

Confectionery 

4,297 

35,155,361 

33,583 

10,867,687 

44,179,706 

81,290,543 

40 

Gas,  illuminating  and  heat- 

ing,   

877 
1,116 

567,000,506 
77,362,701 

22,459 
46,781 

12,436,296 
24,839,163 

64,^6,431 
42,492,518 

75,716,693 
74,578,158 

41 

Shipbuilding 

42 

Millinery,  custom  work,    .    . 

16,151 

27,740,386 

33,298 

9,570,536 

34,529,813 

70,363,752 

43 

662  THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 

GREAT  INDUSTRIES   OF  UNITED  STATES  —  Continued 


Num- 
ber OF 

Aver- 
age 

Value 

OF  Products 

Industry 

Estab- 

Capital 

Number 

Wages 

lish- 

OP Wage 

Net 

Gross 

Rank 

ments 

Earners 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and 

grinding 

458 

$28,436,897 

6,387 

$  2,486,759 

$64,741,832 

$69,527,108 

44 

Chemicals, 

459 

89,091,430 

19,054 

9,401,467 

36,918,124 

62,676,730 

45 

Saddlery  and  harness,  .    .    . 

12,934 

43,354,136 

24,123 

10,725,647 

30,677,173 

62,630,902 

46 

Patent  medicines  and  com- 

pounds  

Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake,     . 

2.026 

37,209,793 

11,809 

4,407,988 

43,819,968 

59,611,335 

47 

369 

34,451,461 

11,007 

3,143,459 

43,196,446 

58,726,632 

48 

Fruits  and  vegetables,  can- 

ning and  preserving,     .    . 

1,808 

27,743,067 

36,401 

8,050,793 

36,668,635 

66,668,313. 

49 

Glass 

355 

61,423,903 

52,818 

27,084,710 

43,905,999 

56,539,712 

50 

Ironwork,  architectural  and 

ornamental, 

672 

33,062,409 

20,646 

11,111,226 

23,398,179 

53,508,179 

51 

Soap  and  candles 

558 

38,068,334 

9,487 

3,754,767 

24,228,062 

53,231,017 

52 

Rubber  and  elastic  goods,    . 

262 

39,304,853 

20,405 

8,082.738 

35,278,808 

52,627,030 

53 

Brick  and  tile 

5,423 

82,086,438 

61,979 

21,883,333 

50,312,022 

51.270,476 

54 

Paints 

419 

42,501,782 

8.151 

3,929,787 

18,545,525 

50,874,995 

55 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF   UNITED   STATES 

FROM   THE    LATEST   STATISTICS 

EXPORTS 


Articles 

Quantities 

Values 

Articles 

Quantities 

Values 

Domestic  Merchandise 

Marble,  Stone,  and  Man- 

Agricultural Implements, 

$26,936,456 

ufactures  of 

$  1,433.123 

Aluminum  and  Manufac- 

Musical Instruments,     .  . 

3,256,063 

turers  of,      

442,987 

Naval  Stores, 

21,686,752 

Animals 

41,203,080 

Nickel,  Nickel  Oxide  and 

Books,    Maps,    Engrav- 

Matte,  

3,218,862 

ings,  and  other  Print- 

Oil Cake,  Oil  Cake  Meal, 

ed  Matter, 

5,813,107 

pounds 

2,063,732,272 

26,415,607 

Brass,  and  Manufactures 

Oils:  Animal,  gallons,  .    . 

1,687,126 

655,261 

of, 

4,580,455 

Oils:  Mineral,  Crude,  gal- 

Breadstuffs: Corn, 

lons,     

128,175,737 

6,626,896 

bushels, 

83,300,708 

44,261,816 

Oils:  Mineral,  Refined  or 

Breadstuffs:  Oats, 

Manufactured 

78,228,819 

bushels 

4,014,042 

1,670,881 

Oils:   Vegetable 

19,550,514 

Breadstuffs:  Wheat, 

Paints,     Pigments,     and 

bushels 

76,569,426 

60,21'4,388 

Colors, 

3,931,899 

Breadstuffs:  Wheat, 

Paper,and  Manufactures  of 

9,856,733 

Flour,  barrels 

15,584,667 

62,175,397 

Paraffine,  Paraffine  Wax, 

Cars,  Carriages,  and  other 

pounds 

185,511,773 

9,030,992 

Vehicles  and  parts  of. 

20,513,407 

Provisions:     Beef     Prod- 

Chemicals, Drugs,  Dyes, 

ucts,  pounds 

489,017,635 

39,013,951 

and  Medicines,     .    .    . 

20,373,036 

Provisions :     Hog     Prod- 

Clocks and  Watches  and 

ucts,  pounds 

1,348,212,273 

130,432,473 

parts  of,    .    .    :    .    .    . 

3,169,272 

Provisions:  Oleomargarine 

200,734,785 

17,340,339 

Coal:  Anthracite,  tons,  . 

2,481,920 

12,154,640 

Provisions :    Other    Meat 

Coal:  Bituminous,  tons, . 

8,812,332 

22,573,122 

Products,                 ... 

8,972,519 

Copper  Ore,  tons,    .    .    . 

62,843 

1,838,588 

Provisions :  Dairy  Products 

6.633,226 

Copper  Manufactures  of. 

94,762,110 

Seeds:  Clover,  pounds,     . 

3,989,798 

420,104 

Cotton,  Unmanufactured 

Seeds:  All  other 

9,674,505 

pounds 

4,518,217,220 

481,277,797 

Soap,  .    .     ■ 

3,806,097 

Cotton,  Manufactures  of. 

32,305,412 

Spirits,     Distilled,     proof 

Earthen,      Stone,      and 

gallons 

1,700,309 

1,827,757 

China  Ware 

1,097,000 

Starch,  pounds 

51,334,580 

1,126,465 

Fertilizers 

8,596,711 

Molasses,  and  Syrup,  gal- 

Fibers, Vegetables,  and 

lons,  

17,309,241 

2,348.457 

Textile  Grasses,  Man- 

Sugar, pounds, 

21,237,603 

831,162 

ufactures  of,    ...    . 

8,308,112 

Tobacfco,    Unmanufac- 

Fish  

« 

5,536,856 

tured,  pounds,  .... 

340,742,864 

33,377,398 

Fruit,  Apples,  green  or 

Tobacco,  Manufactures  of 

5,735,613 

ripe,  barrels 

1,539,267 

4,652,966 

Vegetables 

4,007,833 

Fruits  and  Nuts,  all  other. 

12,935,466 

Wood, and  Manufactures  of 

83,349,575 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins,    .    . 

7,139,221 

Wool,  and  Manufactures  of 

2,287,926 

Glass  and  Glassware, .    . 

2,604,717 

All  other  Articles,     .    .    . 

90,582,570 

Glucose  or  Grape  Sugar, 

3,017,527 

Gunpowder    and    other 

Total  Exports,  Domes- 

Explosives, 

4,082,402 

■  tic  Mdse 

$1,853,718,034 

Hay,  tons 

58,602 

976,287 

Exports,   Foreign  Mer- 

Hops, pounds 

16i809,534 

3,531,972 

chandise 

27,133,044 

India  Rubber  Manufac- 

tures,      

7,428,714 

Total   Exports,  Domes- 

Instruments   for    Scien- 

tic and  Foreign,     .   . 

$1,880,851,078 

tific  Purposes 

13,661,455 

Iron  and  Steel,  Manufac- 

Specie: Gold, 

$51,399,176 

tures  of, 

181,530,871 

Specie:  Silver,    .... 

56,739,073 

Leather,    and   Manufac- 
tures of 

45,476,969 

Total  Exports,  Domes- 

Malt Liquors,  .    .    ... 

1,215,340 

tic  and  Foreign,  . .    . 

$1,988,989,337 

INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMxMERCE 


663 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF   UNITED   STATES 

IMPORTS 


Continued 


Articles 


Merchandise 

Animals 

Art  Works, 

Books,  Maps,  Engrav- 
ings, etc., 

Bristles, 

Cement,  Portland,  Hy- 
draulic, pounds,  .    .    . 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes, 
and  Medicines,     .    .    . 

Clocks  and  Watches,  and 
parts  of, 

Coal,  Bituminous,  tons, . 

Cocoa,  Crude,  and  Shells 
of,  pounds 

Coffee,  pounds 

Copper,  and  Manufac- 
tures of  (not  ore).  .    . 

Cork  Wood,  and  Manu- 
factures of, 

Cotton,  Unmanufac- 

tured, pounds      .    .    . 

Cotton,  Manufactures  of 

Earthen,  Stone,  and 
China  Ware 

Feathers,  Flowers,  etc.,. 

Fertilizers 

Fibers,  Vegetable,  IJn- 
manufactured,     .    .    . 

Fibers,  Vegetable,  Man- 
ufactures of 

Fruits  and  Nuts,     .    .    . 

Furs,  and  Manufactures 
of 

Glass  and  Glassware, .    . 

Hair     Unmanufactured, 

Hats,  Bonnets,  and  Ma- 
terials for, 

Hides  and  Skins,  other 
than  Fur,  pounds,  .    . 

India  Rubber  and  Gutta- 
percha,Crude,  pounds. 

Iron  and  Steel,  and  Man- 
ufactures of,     .... 


Quantities 


1,123,763,604 


Values 


1,689,869 


92,249,819 
985,321,473 


104,791,784 


370,983,815 
105,948,388 


S  4.344,282 
5,867,265 

6,451,309 
3,261,877 

3,669,926 

82,997,914 

3,593,173 
4,184,541 

13,376,562 
78,231,902 

39,428,687 

4,063,982 

19,930,988 
73,704,636 

13,706,790 
9,505,515 
5,341,430 

42,239,358 

67,422,458 
35,807,527 

21,883,667 
7,596,631 
3,038,996 

6,820,259 

83,206,545 

70,206,418 

40,587,865 


Articles 


Jewelry  and  Precious 
Stones 

Lead,  Ore,  and  Base  Bul- 
lion, pounds, 

Leather,  and  Manufac- 
tures of, 

Malt  Liquors,  gallons,  .    . 

Meats  and  Dairy  Prod- 
ucts,      

Oils 

Paper,  and  Manufac- 
tures of 

Paper,  Stock,  Crude,     .    . 

Rice,  pounds 

Silk,  Unmanufactured, 

Silk,  Manufactures  of,  .  . 

Spices, 

Spirits,  Distilled,  .... 

Sugar,  pounds, 

Tea,  pounds, 

Tin,  in  Bars,  Blocks,  or 
Pigs,  pounds,     .... 

Tobacco,  Unmanufac- 
tured, pounds,  .... 

Tobacco,  Manufactures 
of 

Toys 

Vegetables, 

Wines, 

Wood,  and  Manufac- 
tures of,  . 

Wool,  Unmanufactured, 
pounds 

Wool,  Manufactures  of,    . 

All  other  Articles,     .    .    . 

Total  Merchandise,  .    . 

Specie:  Gold,     .... 
Specie:  Silver,  .... 

Total  Imports,  .... 


Quantities 


127,196,540 
'  7,267,617 


209,603,190 


4,391,839,975 
86,362,490 

96,003,005 

39,540,321 


203,847,545 


Values 


S  44,247,549 

3,352,534 

20,393,533 
3,408,763 

6,768,432 
17,068,777 

10,727,885 

5,580,528 

4,302,146 

71,411,899 

38,653,251 

5,113,000 

6,886,691 

92,806,253 

13,915,544 

38,117,459 

26,055,248 

4,137,127 

6,993,561 

6,728,472 

11,808,781 

42,969,133 

41,534,028 

22,321,237 

139,649,091 

$1,434,421,425 


114,510,249 
42,946,624 


$1,591,878,298 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 


Countries 


Argentina,      .    .    .    . 

Australia, 

Austria-Hungary,     . 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Canada, 

Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

Chile 

China, 

Denmark 

Egypt 

France 

Germany, 

Greece 


Imports 


$  260 

186 

456 

644 

25 

287 

83 

71 

335 

150 

118 

1,009 

1,868 

27 


522,000 
614,000 
709,000 
024,000 
594,000 
207,000 
012,000 
868,000 
191,000 
000,000 
685,000 
279,000 
426,000 
,686,000 


Exports 


$282 
276 
469 
517 
28 
235 
192 
103 
193 
158 
122 
973 

1,457 
22 


,025,000 
617,000 
521,000 
499,000 
556,000 
,484,000 
858,000 
,223,000 
,185,000 
897,000 
968,000 
427,000 
,750,000 
785,000 


Countries 


India,  British,  .    . 

Italy 

Japan, 

Mexico,  .  .  .  . 
Netherlands,  .  . 
Norway,    .... 

Portugal 

Russia,      .... 

Spain, 

Sweden,  .  .  .  . 
Switzerland,  .  .  . 
United  Kingdorri, 
United  States, .  . 
Uruguay 


Imports 


$334 

466 

208 

109 

1,038 

89 

65 

319 

169 

153 

273 

2,958 

1,320 

21 


,379,000 
,740,000 
,554,000 
,884,000 
,576,000 
,995,000 
,543,000 
255,000 
641,000 
780,000 
792,000 
289,000 
502,000 
938,000 


Exports 


$513 

354 

208 

135 

801 

60 

31 

514 

195, 

120, 

207; 

1,827, 

1,772, 

39, 


,186,000 
319,000 
754,000 
027,000 
493,000 
313,000 
396,000 
673,000 
315,000 
657,000 
450,000 
737,000 
716,000 
764,000 


IMPORTS   AND  EXPORTS   OF   UNITED   STATES   BY  COUNTRIES 


Countries 


Imports 


Exports 


Countries 


Imports 


Exports 


Austria-Hungary,     .    . 
Azores     and     Madeira 

Islands, 

Belgium 

Denmark, 

France, .     ...... 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Greenland,  Iceland,  etc, 

Italy 

Malta,  Gozo,  etc.,     .    . 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Roumania 


$  13,865,433 

26,391 

28,411,318 

1,256,663 

108,415,350 

135,142,996 

14,002 

2,032,408 

102,054 

40,597,556 

25,363 

27,007,107 

3,132,464 

5,139,708 

4,026 


$  14,890,019 

196,882 

50,021,107 

22,943,926 

97,892,480 

234,742,102 

396,224 

239,726 

3,511 

48,081,740 

285,809 

95,471,593 

6,016,269 

1,462,763 

617,608 


Russia,     Baltic,     and 
White  Seas 

Russia,  Black  Sea,  .   . 

Servia, 

Spain, 

Sweden,    ...... 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe,  .    . 

Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land,   

Bermuda, 

British  Honduras,  .    . 

British  North  America: 
Nova    Scotia,    New 
Brunswick,  etc.,  .   . 
Quebec,     Ontario, 


S  10,463,057 

3,073,448 

34,609 

10,689,653 

3,899,481 

23,421,243 

6,508,518 

210,019,336 
410,771 
789,422 


9,927,380 


$  13.704.491 

2,297,479 

1,873 

19,099,336 

7,437,160 

399,366 

874,449 

583,103,322 
1,138,249 
1,094,224 


7,600,910 


664 


THE   STANDARD    DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


IMPORTS   AND   EXPORTS  OF   UNITED    STATES  BY  COUNTRIES 

(CONTINUED) 


Countries 


Manitoba,  etc 

British  Columbia,  . 
Newfoundland      and 

Labrador 

Cen'l  American  States: 

Costa  Rica,    .... 

Guatemala,    .... 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Salvador, 

Mexico, 

Miquelon,  Langley,  etc. 
West  Indies : 

British 

Cuba 

Danish 

Dutch 

French 

Hayti 

San  Domingo,  .  .  . 
Argentine  Republic,     . 

Bolivia, 

Brazil, 

Chile, 

Colombia, 

Ecuador 

Guianas: 

British 

Dutch •  .    . 

French 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela, 


Imports 


$47,242,763 
11,078,907 

1,364,944 

4,622,426 
3,386,317 
1,724.865 
1,478,408 
1 ,065,887 
1,181,734 
50,965,177 
255 

10,259,253 

84,979,821 

366,361 

278,171 

20,042 

1,185,477 

3.086,338 

18,379,063 

"  80',4i6;524 

16,945,476 

7,084,487 

2,632,206 

1,016,405 

708,368 

38,383 

750 

2.454,706 

2,711,807 

8,034,701 


Exports 


$141,131,444 
8,004,321 

2,964,297 

2,337,188 
2,908,655 
1,642,251 
1,870,852 

12,460.289 
1,401,276 

58,182,278 
105,096 

9,706,654 

47,763,688 

726,810 

751,453 

1,265,946 

3,301,840 

2,018,248 

32,673,359 

146,798 

14,530,471 

8,667,227 

3,491,420 

2,009,861 

1,740,609 

572,463 

268,213 

51,917 

4,833,307 

2,905,573 

3,258,133 


Countries 


Aden 

Chinese  Empire,  .    . 

British  China,  .    .    . 

French  China,  .    .    . 

German  China,     .    . 

Russian  China,    .    . 

British  East  Indies, 
Dutch   East  Indies 
French  East  Indies, 

Hong  Kong,     .    .    . 

.Japan, 

Korea, 

Russia,  Asiatic,    .    . 

Siam 

Turkey  in  Asia,   .    . 

All  other  Asia,     .    . 

British  Australasia, 

British  Oceanica,     . 

French  Oceanica,     . 

German  Oceanica,   . 

Philippine  Islands,  . 

British  West  Africa, 

British  South  Africa 

British  East  Africa, 

Canary  Islands,   .    . 

French  Africa,  .   .    . 

German  Africa,    .    . 

Italian  Africa,  .    .    . 

Liberia 

Madagascar,     .    .    . 

Portuguese  Africa,  . 

Egypt 

All  other  Africa,  .  . 

Total, 


Imports 


$  2,312,238 

28,531,207 

7,109 

7,771 

21,548 

'67,i76,'839 

20,575,521 

12,073 

1  829,040 

52,551,520 

218 

282,207 

63,244 

6,485,749 

239,387 

11,515,413 

79,944 

835,112 

1,262 

12,337,927 

7,407 

981,808 

717,507 

169,429 

743,582 


2,112 

483 

58,056 

9,391,621 

556,730 

$1,226,563,843 


Exports 


$  1,708,789 

43,774,375 

307 

228,743 


21,512 

7,454,702 

1.766,159 

8,672 

7,034,907 

38,464,952 

1,065,294 

2,813,544 

355,471 

645,578 

98,185 

29,001,147 

270,690 

339,147 

69,116 

5,459,444 

1,857,940 

11,704,668 

523,815 

359,919 

1,334,033 

67,695 

17,600 

45,578 

1,240 

2,420,891 

1,163,128 

65,794 

$1,717,953,382 


India -Rubber.  A  peculiar  elastic  sub- 
stance composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  found 
in  suspension  in  the  milky  juice  of  the  Siphonia 
Elastica,  and  other  arboraceous  plants.  The 
crude  rubber  is  usually  prepared  where  the  juice 
is  collected,  by  drying  the  -juice  over  a  fire  or  in 
the  sun  on  molds  of  clay,  paddles,  or  lasts; 
by  evaporating  the  juice  in  the  sun  and  removing 
the  successive  pellicles  formed  on  the  surface; 
or  by  coagulating  the  juice,  as  in  Nicaragua,  by 
an  application  of  the  juice  of  the  bejuca  vine, 
and  kneading  and  rolling  the  coagulated  mass. 
Most  of  the  rubber  of  commerce  is  derived  from 
South  America,  from  Pard,  Central  America, 
Mexico,  Carthagena,  etc.;  smaller  quantities 
from  Java,  Penang,  Singapore,  Assam,  and 
South  Africa.  The  purest  comes  from  Pard  in 
large  bottles  and  thick  plates.  Prior  to  the  in- 
troduction of  rubber  into  Europe  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  it  had  already 
been  turned  to  various  domestic  and  industrial 
uses,  such  as  the  making  of  bottles,  syringes, 
boots,  and  waterproofing,  by  the  natives  and 
residents  along  the  banks  of  the  Amazon.  In 
Europe  the  first  important  practical  applica- 
tions of  it  are  associated  with  the  names  of 
Mackintosh,  the  patentee  in  1823  of  a  water- 
proofing process  by  the  solution  of  the  gum  in 
oil  of  turpentine  and  alcohol,  and  in  coal-tar, 
naphtha;  Hancock,  the  inventor  of  the  "mas- 
ticator," a  machine  for  the  condensation  of 
crude  lumps  or  shreds  of  caoutchouc,  as  im- 
ported, into  compact  homogeneous  blocks  for 
subsequent  division  into  cakes,  sheets,  rollers, 
etc. ;  and  Goodyear,  the  inventor  of  the  vulcan- 
izing process,  patented  in  1844.  Since  then  its 
uses  have  multiplied  so  rapidly  that  it  is  em- 


ployed in  every  department  of  industry.  Thus 
apart  from  its  use  in  blocks  and  sheets,  etc.,  in 
tapes  or  threads  for  weaving  into  elastic  tissues, 
and  as  varnish  for  waterproofing,  it  is  employed, 
in  combination  with  other  resinous  materials  in 
a  solvent  such  as  naphtha,  as  a  cement  or  marine 
glue.  When  combined  with  a  small  quantity  of 
sulphur,  etc.,  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
overshoes,  boots,  gloves,  life-preservers,  gas-bags, 
steam  and  water  packing,  belting,  fire-hose,  tub- 
ing, springs,  tires,  artificial  sponges,  etc.  With 
a  larger  proportion  of  sulphur,  and  cured  or 
vulcanized  by  exposure  to  a  high  temperature, 
it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  combs,  pen  and 
pencil  holders,  rulers,  inkstands,  buttons,  canes, 
syringes,  jewelry,  and,  when  colored  with  ver- 
milion, for  mountings  for  artificial  teeth,  etc. 
In  combination  with  asphalts,  oils,  and  sulphur, 
etc.,  and  vulcanized  (kerite)  it  is  used  for  cover- 
ing telegraph  wires. 

Insurance.  Tlie  act  of  providing  against 
a  possible  loss,  by  entering  into  a  contract  with 
one  who  is  willing  to  give  assurance  ;  that  is,  to 
bind  himself  to  make  good  such  possible  loss, 
should  it  occur.  The  instrument  by  which  the 
contract  is  made  is  denominated  a  policy,  and 
the  stipulated  consideration  is  called  the  pre- 
mium. In  this  country.  Fire  and  Marine  insur- 
ance are  almost  invariably  effected  by  joint- 
stock  companies,  whose  modes  of  operations  are 
too  well  known  to  call  for  expatiation  here. 
Life  Insurance  (to  which  the  word  "assurance" 
is  now  more  generally  applied)  is  a  contract  by 
which  a  party,  for  a  certain  premium,  agrees  to 
pay  a  certain  sum,  should  a  person,  to  whose 
life  it  relates,  die  within  a  time  specified ;  or  to 
pay  the  executors  of  the  insured  a  certain  sum 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


m 


at  the  time  of  his  death.  Such  policies,  how- 
ever, formerly  made  an  exception  in  the  case  of 
death  by  suicide.  By  this  means,  a  family  may 
be  furnished  with  means  of  support  in  case  of 
the  death  of  its  head.  According  to  general 
practice,  a  life  insurance  is  seldom  made  by  the 
payment  of  a  single  sum  at  the  time  it  is  effected, 
but  almost  always  by  the  payment  of  an  annual 
premium  during  its  continuance.  An  individual, 
therefore,  who  has  insured  a  sum  on  his  own 
life,  would  forfeit  certain  advantages  of  the  in- 
surance were  he  not  to  continue  regularly  to 
make  his  periodical  payments.  Life  insurance 
is  conducted  by  several  kinds  of  societies;  as 
the  proprietary,  mutual  insurance,  and  mixed  so- 
cieties. The  proprietary,  or  joint-stock  com- 
panies, are  formed  of  persons  who  have  sub- 
scriJDed  a  capital,  on  the  insurance  of  which  the 
business  of  the  company  is  carried  on,  and  who 
divide  the  profit's  entirely  among  themselves. 
In  the  mutual  insurance  societies,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  no  proprietary,  the  assured  being 
likewise  the  assurers,  and  dividing  the  profits 
among  themselves,  after  deducting  the  expenses 
of  management,  and  reserving  a  guaranty  fund. 
In  the  mixed  class  of  offices,  which  is  the  most 
numerous  in  tiie  United  States,  there  is  a  pro- 
prietary, but,  at  the  same  time,  the  assured  are 
allowed  to  participate  largely  in  the  profits  of 
the  society,  which  are  usually  divided  in  the 
form  of  bonuses  at  stated  periods.  The  pre- 
miums to  be  paid  are  adjusted  according  to  the 
age  of  the  party  on  whose  life  the  insurance  is 
made ;  being  lowest  on  young  lives,  and  increas- 
ing from  year  to  year  as  the  expectancy  of  life 
diminishes. 

It  is  within  the  past  sixty  years  that  the  vast 
business  of  life  insurance  in  the  United  States 
has  been  developed.  The  experimental  stage 
was  ended  and  the  era  of  advance  was  opened 
when,  in  1843,  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany of  New  York  began  business,  its  first  policy 
having  been  issued  on  February  1st  of  that  year. 
Since  then  a  large  number  of  life  insurance  com- 
panies have  been  established.  The  following 
list  includes  those  now  transacting  business 
which  had  their  inception  between  1843  and  1860 
inclusive,  arranged  according  to  the  date  of  the 
first  policy  issued : 

Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company,  1843;  New 
England  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  (I), 
1844;  New  York  Life  Insurance  Company,  Mu- 
tual Benefit  Life  Insurance  Company,  State 
Mutual  Life  Assurance  Company  (3),  1845; 
Connecticut  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company, 
1846;  Penn  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company, 
1847;  Union  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company, 
1849;  National  Life  Insurance  Company  of  Ver- 
mont, United  States  Life  Insurance  Company, 
iEtna  Life  Insurance  Company,  Manhattan  Life 
Insurance  Company,  1850;  Massachusetts  Mu- 
tual Life  Insurance  Company,  Phoenix  Mutual 
Life  Insurance  Company,  Berkshire  Life  Insur- 
ance Company  (4),  1851;  Northwestern  Mutual 
Life  Insurance  Company,  1858;  Equitable  Life 
Assurance  Society,  1859;  Washington  Life  In- 
surance Company,  Home  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany, Germania  Life  Insurance  Company,  1860. 

How  life  insurance  has  progressed  since  the 
early  part  of  1843  is  shown  in  the  subjoined 


table  by  periods  of  years  as  indicated,  assess- 
ment insurance  not  being  included: 


Year 

Amount  of  OutstaiSd- 
iNG  Insurance 

Amount  of 

Assets 

1843 

1867 

1892 

1899 

1906 

$6,500,000 

1,235,000,000 

4,898,000,000 

6,266,000,000 

13,706,797,784 

$1,000,000 

124,534,000 

907,441,000 

1,576,000,000 

2,924,253,848 

The  following  is  the  table  of  expectation  of 
life  usually  recognized  by  American  life  insur- 
ance companies: 

EXPECTATION    OF    LIFE 


a 

0 

< 

H   Z  05 
O  "  « 

a 

H  !5  M 
5  "  « 

a 

^  z:  « 
u  -'  « 

H 

x2^ 

a 

^2?s 

H  17  ■< 

B.  5  w 

< 

w  5,  <: 

a.  5  w 

0 
< 

a  ^  < 
P,  g  w 

0 
< 

< 

W  ^  <! 

a-  5  « 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

m 

15.45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.61 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

33.46 

42 

25.19 

62 

14.26 

83 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4  40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

13.05 

84 

4.66 

5  40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

85 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

46 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

V 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

11. Dl 

88 

3.67 

9 

39.72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

89 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

30 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

91 

3.32 

12   38.02 

32 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

7?. 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37.41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

16 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

16 

35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 

17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.C9 

18 

.34.98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6.59 

19 

34 .  59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 

Interest  is  the  allowance  made  for  the  loan 
or  retention  of  a  sum  of  money  which  is  lent  for, 
or  becomes  due  at,  a  certain  time;  this  allow- 
ance being  generally  estimated  at  so  much  per 
cent,  per  annum,  that  is,  so  much  for  the  use  of 
$100  for  a  year.  The  money  lent  or  forborne  is 
called  the  principal ;  the  sum  paid  for  the  use  of 
it,  the  interest.  The  interest  of  $100  for  one 
year  is  called  the  rate  per  cenL,and  the  sum  of 
any  principal  and  its  interest  together,  the 
amount.  Interest  is  either  simple  or  compound. 
Simple  interest  is  that  which  is  allowed  upon  the 
principal  only,  for  the  whole  time  of  the  loan  or 
forbearance.  Compound  interest  is  that  which 
arises  from  any  sum  or  principal  in  a  given  time 
by  increasing  the  principal,  at  fixed  periods,  by 
the  interest  then  due,  and  hence  obtaining  inter- 
est upon  both  interest  and  principal.  The  rate 
of  interest,  supposing  the  security  for  the  prin- 
cipal to  be  equal,  depends  obviously  upon  what 
may  be  made  by  the  employment  of  money  in 
various  industrious  undertakings,  or  on  the  rate 
of  profit.  Where  profits  are  high,  interest  is 
high,  and  vice  versa ;  in  fact,  the  rate  of  interest 
is  simply  the  net  piofit  on  capital.  Besides  this, 
however,  the  interest  on  each  particular  loan 
must  further  vary  according  to  the  supposed 
risk  of  the  lender,  etc.  Bills  and  notes,  by  the 
usage  of  trade,  carry  interest  from  the  date  they 
become  due ;  such  interest  being  recoverable  as 
damages,  but  the  jury  are  not  bound  to  give 
it.  In  the  United  States  interest  is  generally 
awarded  by  the  courts  on  overdue  debts. 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


TABULATED 


States  and 
Territories 


Alabama, 

Arizona 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Colorado, 

Connecticut,      .    .    .    . 

Delaware, 

District  of  Columbia,  . 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Idaho, 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland 

Massachusetts,      .    .    . 

Michigan 

Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Montana,  ....... 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire,      .    . 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina,    .   .    . 
North  Dakota,      .    .    . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon, 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina,     .    .    . 
South  Dakota,      .    .    . 

Tennessee 

Texas, 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington,     .    .    .    . 
West  Virginia       .    .    . 

Wisconsin, 

Wyoming 


INTEREST   LAWS 


Legal 

Rate 

Pek  Cent. 


Allowed  by 
Contract 
Per  Cent. 


12 
10 
Any 
Any 
15 

6 

6 
10 

8 
12 

7 


10 

6 

8 
Any 

6 
Any 

7 
10 
10 

8 
Any 
10 
Any 

6 

6 
12 

6 

6 
12 

8 
10 
10 

6 
Any 

8 
12 

6 
10 
12 

6 

6 
12 

6 
10 
12 


Penalty  for  Usury 


Days 

of 
Grace 


Forfeit  interest,      

No  provision 

Forfeit  principal  and  interest, 

No  provision 

No  provision 

Fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both 

Principal  and  fhterest  forfeited 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  interest,      

Forfeit  excess  of  interest, 

Forfeit  interest  and  10%  of  principal,   ... 

Forfeit  interest,      

Excess  interest  forfeited 

Forfeit  interest  and  8%  of  principal 

Forfeit  of  double  amount  of  usurious  interest, 

Forfeit  of.  interest, 

Forfeit  interest 

No  provision, 

Forfeit  interest ' 

No  provision,      

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  interest, 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeiture  or  misdemeanor, 

No  provision 

Forfeit  interest,      ■ 

No  provision 

Forfeit  three  times  excess, 

Forfeit  interest  and  costs, 

Forfeit  of  twice  the  amount  of  interest,      .    . 
Forfeit  of  principal  and  inter. ;  misdemeanor, 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  interest  over  6% 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  principal  and  interest 

Forfeit  excess  of  interest 

No  provision,       

Forfeit  interest,       

Misdemeanor 

Forfeit  of  excess  interest 

Forfeit  interest 

Forfeit  excess  interest, 

Forfeit  of  excess  interest 

Forfeit  interest,      

Forfeit  of  double   accrued  interest  and  costs. 

Forfeit  excess  interest,      

Forfeit  treble  amount  of  usurious  interest  paid 
Forfeit  interest 


Note. — In  many  of  the  States  it  is  impossible  to  place  a  fixed  amount  on  personal  property  exempt. 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 
COMMERCIAL   LAW 


667 


STATUTES   OF    LIMITATION 

Arrest 

FOR 

Debt 

EXEMPTION    LAWS 

Jurisdiction 
OF  Justices 
OF  the  Peace 

Judg- 
ments, 
Years 

Notes, 
Years 

Open 

Accounts, 

Years 

Personal 

Property, 

Exempt 

Homestead, 
Exempt 

States  and  Terri- 
tories 

20 

6 

3 

No 

$1,000 

$2,000 

JlOO 

Alabama. 

4 

4 

3 

No 

500 

2,500 

300 

Arizona. 

10 

5 

3 

No 

500 

2,500 

300 

Arkansas. 

5 

4 

4 

No 

5,000 

300 

California. 

6 

6 

6 

No 

2,000 

300 

Colorado. 

7 

6 

6 

No 

1,000 

100 

Connecticut. 

10 

6 

3 

No 

200 

200 

Delaware. 

12 

3 

3 

No 

300 

300 

District  of  Columbia. 

20 

5 

3 

No 

1,000 

160  Acres 

100 

Florida. 

7 

6 

4 

No 

300 

1,600 

100 

Georgia. 

6 

5 

4 

No 

5,000 

300 

Idaho. 

20 

10 

5 

No 

400 

1.000 

200 

Illinois. 

20 

10 

6 

No 

600 

or    600 

200 

Indiana. 

20 

10 

6 

No 

200 

or  40  Acres 

100 

Iowa. 

5 

5 

3 

No 

160  Acres 

300 

Kansas. 

15 

15 

5 

No 

250 

1,000 

100 

Kentucky. 

10 

5 

3 

No 

Total,  2,000 

100 

Louisiana. 

20 

20 

6 

No 

500 

20 

Maine. 

12 

3 

3 

No 

100 

100 

Maryland. 

•     20 

6 

6 

Yes 

800 

1,000 

Massachusetts. 

6  and  10 

6 

6 

No 

600 

1.500 

300 

Michigan. 

10 

6 

6 

No 

500 

80  Acres 

100 

Minnesota. 

7 

6 

3 

No 

2,000 

200 

Mississippi. 

10 

10 

5 

No 

300 

1,500  (min.) 

250 

Missouri. 

10 

8 

5 

No 

2,500 

300 

Montana. 

5 

5 

4 

No 

500 

or  2,000 

200 

Nebraska. 

6 

6 

4 

No 

5.000 

300 

Nevada. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

500 

13i 

New  Hampshire. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

200 

1,000 

200 

New  Jersey. 

7 

6 

4 

No 

500 

1,000 

100 

New  Mexico. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

250 

1.000 

200. 

New  York. 

10 

3 

3 

No 

500 

1,000 

200 

North  Carolina. 

10 

6 

6 

No 

1,000 

5,000 

200 

North  Dakota. 

5 

15 

6 

No 

100 

1.000 

300 

Ohio. 

5 

5 

3 

No 

•    ' 

5.000 

200 

Oklahoma. 

10 

6 

6 

N.Q 

1,500 

250 

Oregon. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

300 

300 

Pennsylvania. 

20 

6 

6 

■    Yes 

500 

Rhode  Island. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

500 

1,000 

100 

South  Carolina. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

750 

5,000 

100 

South  Dakota. 

10 

6 

6 

No 

1.000 

500 

Tennessee 

10 

4 

2 

No 

500 

5,000 

200 

Texas, 

8 

6 

4 

No 

2,000 

300 

Utah. 

8 

6 

6 

No 

200 

500 

200 

Vermont. 

20 

5 

2 

No 

2,000 

100 

Virginia. 

6 

6 

3 

No 

1,000 

2,000 

100 

Washington. 

10 

10 

5 

No 

200 

1,000 

300 

West  Virginia. 

20 

6 

6 

No 

200 

5,000 

200 

Wisconsin. 

5 

5 

8 

No 

500 

1,500 

200 

Wyoming. 

In  the  table  above  these  States  have  no  amount  given  in  the  personal  property  column. 


668 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


INVENTIONS   SINCE   THE   DISCOVERY  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Inventions 

Discoveries  of  electrical  phenomena, 

Won  the  title  of  "founder  of  the  science  of  electricity,". 

Screw  printing-press, 

Spirally  grooved  rifle  barrel 

Iron  furnaces, 

The  use  of  steam, 

The  first  authentic  reference  in  English  literature  to  the 
use  of  steam  in  the  arts. 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  first  book  published  in  the  colonies,     .    . 

Barometer, 

Steam  engine,  atmospheric  pressure, 

Machine  for  generating  electricity, 

First  newspaper  in  America,  "Public  Occurrences,"    .    .    . 

First  paper  mill  in  America,      

First  steam  engine  with  a  piston 

The  manufacture  of  plate  glass  established, 

First  to  discover  difference  between  electric  conductors  and 

insulators, 

The  first  practical  application  of  the  steam  engine,  .... 
First  to  produce  electric  spark, 

Thermometer • 

Electrometer,  the  well-known  pith  ball,      

The  "  Franklin  "  printing-press, 

Electrical  glass  plate  machine,      

Stereotyping 

First  to  discover  that  electricity  is  of  two  kinds, 

Flying  shuttle  in  weaving, 

Rotary  3-color  printing-press  (multi-color), 

Electric  or  Leyden  Jar, 

Substitution  of  coke  for  coal  in  melting  iron, 

Lightning  conductor,      

•Spinning  jenny, 

Pianoforte,  played  in  public  in  England  in, 

Drawing  rolls  in  a  spinning  machine, 

The  introduction  of  the  "  Hollander  "  or  beating  engine  for 
pulping  rags  in  the  manufacture  of  paper, 

The  mule  spinner,    .....' 

Cut  nails 

Circular  wood  saw , 

Embryo  bicycle, 

Steam  engine,  the  basis  of  the  modern  engine 

Gas  balloon, 

Fuddling  iron 

PiOW,  with  cast-iron  mold  board,  and  wrought  and  cast- 
iron  shares, 

Power  loom, 

First  steamboat  in  the  United  States '.    .    .    . 

Steam  road  wagon  (first  automobile) 

Grain  threshing  machine 

Hobby  horse,  forerunner  of  bicycle, 

Rotary  steam  power  printing-press,  the  first  idea  of,    .    .    . 

Wood  planing  machine, 

Ga.s  first  used  as  an  illuminant, 

Cotton  gin 

Art  of  lithography,      

Machine  for  making  continuous  webs  of  paper, 

Electric  battery  discovered 

Steam  coach 

Wood  mortising  machine 

Pattern  loom, 

First  fire-proof  safe, 

Steamboat  on  the  Clyde,  "Charlotte  bundas,".    .    .    .    .    . 

First  photographic  experiments 

Planing  machine, 

The  application  of  steam  to  the  loom, .    .    . 

Steel  pen,      

Steam  locomotive  on  rails, 

Application  of  twin-screw  propellers  in  steam  navigation,  . 

Process  of  making  malleable-iron  castings, 

First  life  preserver, 

Electro-plating 

Knitting  machine,  the  latch  needle  in  the,     ....... 

Steamboat  navigation  on  the  Hudson  River 

Percussion  or  detonating  compound, 

First  street  gas  lighting  in  England,    .......... 

Band  wood  saw 

Voltaic  arc, 

First  steamboat  to  make  a  trip  to  sea,  the  "Phoenix,"    .    . 

Multi-wire  telegraphy, 

Revolving  cylinder  printing-press,    ........... 

Breech-loading  shotgun, .    . 

Storage  battery, 

Dry  pile  (prototype  of  dry  battery)',    ...'.'.'.'.'... 

First  practical  steam  rotary  printing-press,  paper  printed  on 
both  sides 


Date 


Inventor 


;i560 
I  1603 
1620 
1620 
1621 
1630 


1640 

1643 

1663 

1681-6 

1690 

1690 

1690 

1695 

J  1696 

I  1736 

1702 

(  1708 

U716 

1709 

(  1718 

I  1772 

1725 

i  1727 

I  1772 

1731 

1733-9 

1733 

1743 

1745 

1750 

1752 

1763 

1767 

1769 

1773 
1774 
1775 
1777 
1779 
1782 
1783 
1783-4 

1784 
1785 
1786 
1787 
1788 
1790 
1790 
1791 
1792 
1793 
1796 
1800 
1800 
1801 
,  1801 
1801 
1801 
1802 
1802 
1802 
1803 
1803 
1804 
1804 
1804 
1805 
1805 
1806 
1807 
1807 
1807 
1808 
1808 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1812 

1814 


William  Gilbert, 


Blaew , 

Koster 

Lord  Dudley,  .  .  .  , 
David  Ramseye,     .    , 

Torricelli,  .  . ,  .  .  , 
Thomas  Newcomen,  . 
Otto  von  Guericke,     , 

William  Rittenhouse, 
Denys  Papin 

Stephen  Gray,     .    .    , 
Thomas  Savery, 
Dr.  J.  Wall,     ... 

Fahrenheit,      ... 
John  Cantor 

Benjamin  Franklin, 
Martin  de  Planta,  . 

William  Ged 

Cisternay  du  Fay,  .    , 

John  Kay 

Piatt  &  Keen 

Kleist 

Abraham  Darby,  .  , 
Benjamin  Franklin,  , 
James  Hargreaves, 

Richard  Arkwright,    , 


Samuel  Crompton, 
Jeremiah  Wilkinson 

Miller 

Branchard  &  Magurier 
James  Watt.    .    . 
J.  E.  &  J.  M:  Montgolfier 
Henry  Cort,     . 


James  Small,   ,    . 
James  Cartwright, 
John  Fitch,      .    . 
Oliver  Evans, 
Andrew  Meikle,  . 


Wm.  Nicholson, 
Samuel  Bentham,  . 
Wm.  Murdoch,    .    . 
Eli  Whitney,    ... 
Alois  Senefelder, 
Louis  Robert,      .    . 

Volta 

Richard  Trevithick, 
M.  J.  Brunei,  .  .  . 
M.  J.  Jacquard,  .  . 
Richard  Scott,  .  . 
William  Symington, 
Wedgwood  &  Davy, 
J.  Bramah,  .  .  . 
William  Horrocks, 

Wise, 

Richard  Trevithick 
John  Stevens, 

Lucas, 

John  Edwards,    . 
Luigi  Brugnatelli, 
Jeandeau,     .    .    . 
Robert  Fulton,    . 
A.  J.  Forsyth,.    . 
F.  A.  Winsor, 
Newberry,    .    .    . 
Sir  Humphry  Davy 
John  Stevens, 
Sommering, .    .    . 
Frederick  Koenig, 
Thornton  &  Hall, 
J.  B.  Ritter,     .    . 
Zamboni,      .    .    . 


Frederick  Koenig, 


Nativity 


England 


Germany 
England 
England 
England 

Massachusetts 
Italy 
England 
Germany 

Pennsylvania 

France 

France 

England 
England 
England 

Danzig 
England 

United  States 
France 

Scotland 

France 

England 

England 

Germany 

England 

United  States 

England 

England 

England 


England 

United  States 

England 

France 

Scotland 

France 

England 

Scotland 

England 

United  States 

United  States 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

United  States 

Germany 

France 

Italy 

England 

England 

France 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

United  States 

England 

England 

Italy 

France 

United  States 

Scotland 

England 

England 

England 

United  States 

Germany 

Germany 

United  States 

Germany 

Italy 

Germany 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


669 


INVENTIONS   SINCE   THE   DISCOVERY  OF  ELECTRICITY 

(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


I 


First  locomotive  in  United  States - 

First  circular  wood  saw  made  in  this  country 

Heliography, . 

Kaleidoscope, 

Miners'  safety  lamp, 

Dry  gas  meter, 

Knitting  machine, 

"Draisine"  bicycle, 

"Columbian"  press,  elbowed  pulling  bar,  number  of  im- 
pressions per  hour,  50, 

Stethoscope, 

Electro-magnetism  discovered, 

Lathe  for  turning  irregular  wood  forms 

The  theory  of  electro-dynamics  first  propounded,      .... 

Electroscope, 

The  conversion  of  the  electric  current  into  mechanical  mo- 
tion,   

Galvanometer, 

Multi-color  printing, 

Calculating  machine 

Discovery  of  thermo-electricity, 

Liquefaction  and  solidification  of  gas, 

Water  gas,  discovery  of, 

Portland  cement, ' 

Electro-magnet, 

First  passenger  railway,  opened  between  Stockton  and  Dar- 
lington, England 

Electrical  spur  wheel, 

First  railroad  in  United  States,  near  Quincy,  Mass.,     .    .    . 

The  law  of  galvanic  circuits  formulated, 

Friction  matches, 

The  reduction  of  aluminum 

Law  of  electrical  resistance, 

Improved  rotary  printing-press,  "London  Times,"  5,000 
impressions  per  hour,      

Hot  air  blast  for  iron  furnaces 

Wood  planing  machine . 

Spool  electro-magnet 

Tubular  locomotive  boiler 

Spinning  ring  frame, 

The  "Washington"  printing-press,  lever  motion  and 
knuckle  joint  for  a  screw,  number  of  impressions  per 
tour,  200 

First  steam  locomotive  in  United  States,  "  Stourbridge  Lion,' 

Double  fluid  galvanic  battery, 

First  portable  steam  fire  engine, 

Magneto-electric  induction, 

Chloroform 

First  conception  of  electric  telegraph, 

First  magneto-electric  machines,      

Rotary  electric  motor 

Chloral-hydrate 

Locomotive,  "  Old  Ironsides,"  built, 

Link-motion  for  locomotives 

Adoption  of  steam  whistle  for  locomotives,    ....... 

Reciprocating  saw-tooth  cutter  within  double  guard  ringers 
for  reapers, 

"  McCormick  "  reaper 

Rotary  electric  motor, 

Carbolic  acid  discovered 

Horseshoe  machine, 

Constant  electric  battery,  .    .    .    .   ' 

Acetylene  gas  discovered, 

The  revolver;  a  device  "for'corhbining  a  number  of  long 
barrels  so  as  to  rotate  upon  a  spindle  by  the  act  of  cock- 
ing the  hammer," 

The  screw  applied  to  steam  navigation,      

The  galvanizing  of  iron, 

Indicator-telegraph, 

Photographic  carbon  printing, 

Babbitt  metal, 

Vulcanization  of  rubber, 

The  first  boat  electrically  propelled 

Daguerreotype, :"•■■.' 

(First  to  produce  a  direct  photographic  positive  in  the 

camera  by  means  of  highly  polished  silver  surfaced 

plate  exposed  to  the  vapors  of  iodine  and  subsequent 

development  with  mercury  vapor.) 

Making  photo-prints  from  paper  negatives 

(First  production  of  positive  proofs  from  negatives.) 
Photographic  portraits  (Daguerreotype  process),      .    .    ^_^ 

First  incandescent  electric  lamp,      

Celestial  photography 

Artesian  well, 

Pneumatic  caissons, 


Date 


1814 
1814 
1814 
1814 
1815 
1815 
1816 
1816 

1817 
1819 
1819 
1819 
1820 
1820 

1821 
1822 
1822 
1822 
1823 
1823 
1823 
1825 
1825 

1825 
1826 
1826 
1827 
1827 
1827 
1827 

1827 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 


1829 
1829 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1831 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1833 

1833 
1834 
1834 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1836 


1836 
1836 
1841 
1837 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1839 
1839 
1839 


1839 

_i&a9 

184ff" 
1840 
1840 
1841 


Inventor 


George  Stephenson, 
Benjamin  Cummings 
Jos.  N.  Niepce,    .    . 
Sir  David  Brewster, 
Sir  Humphry  Davy, 

S.  Clegg 

Brunei,      .... 
Baron  von  Drais, 

George  Clymer,  . 
Laennec,  .... 
H.  C.  Oersted,  . 
Thomas  Blanchard 
Andre  Ampfere,  . 
Bohenberg,  .    .    . 


Michael  Faraday, 
Schweigger,  .  . 
P.  Force,  .  .  . 
Charles  Babbage, 
Professor  Seebeck, 
Michael  Faraday, 
Ibbetson,  .  .  . 
Joseph  Aspdin,  . 
Stufgeon 


Barlow, 

George  S.  Ohm,  .  .  . 

John  Walker,  .    .  .  . 

Friedrich  Wohler,  .  . 

George  S.  Ohm,  .  .  . 

Cowper  &  Applegarth 
J.  B.  Neilson,  .    .    . 
William  Woodworth, 
Joseph  Henry,     .    . 

Sequin 

John  Thorp,     .    .    . 


Samuel  Rust,  .... 

A.  C.  Becquerel,  .  . 
Brathwaite  &  Ericsson 
Michael  Faraday,  .  . 
G.  J.  Guthrie,  .  .  . 
Professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse 

Saxton 

Wm.  Sturgeon,    .    .    . 
Justus  von  Liebig, 
M.  W.  Baldwin,  .    .    . 
Sir  Henry  James,    .    . 
George  Stephenson,    . 

Obed  Hussey,  .  .  . 
Cyrus  H.  Mo(>)rmick, 
M.  H.  Jacobi,  . 
Runge,  .  .  . 
H.  Burden.  .  . 
J.  P.  Daniell,  . 
Edmund  Davy, 


Samuel  Colt,  .  .  .  . 
John  Ericsson,     .    .    . 

Henry  Craiifurd,  .  . 
Cooke  &  Wheatstone, 
Mungo  Ponton,  .  .  . 
Isaac  Babbitt,  .  .  . 
Charles  Goodyear,  .    . 

Jacobi,      

Louis  Daguerre,      .    . 


Fox  Talbot 

Profs.  Draper  &  Morse, 
GT6v"e,  .  ■".    .'.... 
Draper,     ...... 

M.  Triger, 


Nativity 


England 

United  States 

France 

England 

England 

England 

England 

Germany 

United  States 

France 

Denmark 

United  States 

France 

Germany 

England 

Germany 

United  States 

England 

England   ' 

England 

England 

England 

England 


England 

Germany 
United  States 
Germany 
Germany 

England 
Scotland 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
England 


United  States 

France 

England 

England     .^ 

Scotland 

United  States 

United  States 

England 

Germany 

United  States 

England 

England 

United  States 

United  States 

Russia 

Germany 

United  States 

England 

England 


United  States 
United  States 

England 

England 

France 

United  States 

United  States 

Germany 

France 


England 

United  States 
England 
United  States 
Paris 
France 


670 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


INVENTIONS   SINCE   THE   DISCOVERY  OF  ELECTRICITY 

(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Pianoforte  automatically  played, 

Water  gas,  utilization  of 

Steam  hammer, 

Typewriting  machine, 

First  telegram  sent 

The  use  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  anaesthetic, 

The  electric  arc  light  (gas  retort  carbon  in  a  vacuum),    .    . 

First  telegraphic  message,  Washington,  Baltimore 

Automatic  adjustment  of  electric  arc  light  carbons,     .    .    . 

Double  cylinder  printing-press 

Pneumatic  tire, 

Sewing  machine 

Printing  telegraph 

Suez  canal  started 

Ether  as  an  anaesthetic 

Electric  cautery 

Artificial  limbs, 

Gun  cotton,       

First  pianoforte  keyboard  player, 

Chloroform  in  surgery,- 

Nitro-glycerine, 

Time-lock, 

Hoe's  lightning  press,  capable  of  printing  20,000  impressions 

per  hour, 

Match-making  machinery,      . 

Breech  gun-lock,  interrupted  thread 

Magazine  gun,      

Steam  pressure  gauge 

Lenticular  stereoscope 

Latch  needle  for  knitting  machine, 

"Corliss"  engine, 

Printing-press,  curved  plates  secured  to  a  rotating  cylinder, 

MercerizeJd  cotton,  .    .    .    ; 

Collodion  process  in  photography, 

American  machine-made  watches, 

Electric  locomotive 

Self-raker  for  harvesters, 

Breech-loading  rifle , 

leemaking  machine, 

Ophthalmoscope, 

The  Ruhmkorff  coil 

Fire-alarm  telegraph,      

Reticulated  screen  for  half-tone  photographic  printing,   .    . 

Soda  process  of  making  pulp  from  wood, 

Laws  of  magneto-electric  induction, 

Laws  of  electro-statics, 

Electrolysis, ■ 

Duplex  telegraph 

Photographic  roll  films, 

Diamond  rock  drill, 

Four-motion  feed  for  sewing  machines 

Magazine  firearm, 

Fat  decomposed  by  water  or  steam  at  high  temperature, 

since  largely  used  in  soap  making 

Safety  matches, 

Iron-clad  floating  batteries  first  used  in  Crimean  War,    .    . ' 

Cocaine, 

Process  of  making  steel,  blowing  air  through  molten  pig 

iron, 

Dryplate  photography, ..." 

Bicycle 

Sleeping  car, '  . 

Aniline  dyes, 

Printing  machine  for  the  blind  (contains  elements  of  the 

present  typewriting  machine), -.    . 

Regenerative  furnace 

Refining  engine  in  paper  pulp  making 

Coal-oil  first  sold  in  the  United  States 

First  sea-going  iron-clad  war  vessel,  the  "Glorie,"    .    .    .    . 

Ground  wood  pulp 

Inclined  elevator  and  platform  in  the  reaper 

Cable  car 

Breech-loading  ordnance, 

Feed  injector  for  boilers, 

First  Atlantic  cable 

"  Great  Eastern  "  launched 

Storage  or  secondary  battery 

Singing  telephone, 

Ammonia  absorption  ice  machine, 

Improved  stereotyping  process, 

Shoe-sewing  machine, 

Driven  well,  a  tube  with  a  pointed  perforated  end  driven 

into  the  ground, 

Passenger  elevator, 

Barbed-wire  fence  introduced 

Calcium  carbide  produced, ..'...'.'. 


Date 


Inventor 


1842 
1842 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1844 
1844 
1845 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1846 
1847 
1847 
1847 

1847 
1848 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1850 
1850 
1860 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1852 
1852 
1853 
1853 
1853 
1853 
1853 
1854 
1854 
1854 
1854 

1854 
1855 
1855 
1855 

1855 
1855 
1855 
1856 
1856 

1856 
1856 
1856 
1857 
1857 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1860 
1860 
1861 
1861 

1861 
1861 
1861 
1862 


Morse, 


M.  Seytrc,     .    . 

Selligne 

James  Nasmyth, 

Charles  Thurber, 

Professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse 

Dr.  Horace  Wells, 

L^on  Foucault, 

Professor  S.  F.  B 

Thomas  Wright, 

R.  Hoe  &  Co., 

R.  W.  Thompson 

Elias  Howe, 

House, 

De  Lesseps, 

Dr.  Morton, 

Crusell, 


Schonbein,   . 
Debain,     .    . 
Dr.  Simpson, 
Sobrero. 
Savage,     .    . 


Richard  M.  Hoe 
A.  L.  Dennison, 
Chambers,    .    . 
Walter  Hunt,  . 
Bourdon,      .    . 
Sir  David  Brewster, 
J.  T.  Hibbert, 
G.  H.  Corliss,  . 
Jacob  Worms, 
John  Mercer,    . 
Scott  Archer,  . 


Dr.  Page, .    .    . 
W.  H.  Seymour, 
Maynard, .    .    . 
J.  Gorrie,      .    . 
Helmholtz,  .    . 
Ruhmkorff, 
Channing  &  Farmer, 
Fox  Talbot,     .    . 
Watt  &  Burgess, 
Michael  Faraday, 
Michael  Faraday, 
Michael  Faraday, 

Gintl, 

Melhuish 

Herman 

A.  B.  Wilson,  .    . 
Smith  &  Wesson, 

R.  A.  Tilghman, . 
Lundstrom,      .    . 


Gaedeke, 

Sir  Henry  Bessemer, 
Dr.  J.  M.  Taupenot 
Ernst  Michaux, 
Woodruff,     .    . 
Perkins,    .    .    . 


Alfred  E.  Beach, 
Wm.  Siemens, 
T.  Kingsland, 
Messrs.  Stout  &  Hand 


Henry  Voelter, 
J.  S.  Marsh, 
E.  A.  Gardner, 
Wright  &  Gould, 
Giffard,     .    . 
Cyrus  Field, 


Gaston  Plants, 
Philip  Reis, 
F.  P.  E.  Carr^, 
Charles  Craske, 
George  McKay, 


Col.  N.  W.  Green, 
E.  G.  Otis,   .    .    . 


Frederich  Woehler, 


Nativity 


France 
France 
Scotland 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
France 

United  States 
Russia 

Germany 

France 

Scotland 

United  States 

United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
England 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany 
Germany 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
England 
England 
England 
Austria 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 

United  States 
Sweden 

Germany 

England 

France 
United  States 
England 

United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
Germany 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
United  States 

France 

Germany 

France 

United  States 
United  States 

United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


671 


INVENTIONS   SINCE   THE   DISCOVERY  OF  ELECTRICITY 

( CONTINUED ) 


Inventions 


Revolving  turret  for  floating  battery ,   .    .    .    . 

First  iron-clad  steam  battery,  "  Monitor," 

Gatling  gun, 

Smokeless  gunpowder 

Pneumatic  pianoforte  player  (regarded  as  first  to  strike 

keys  by  pneumatic  pockets), 

Explosive  gelatine,      

Rubber  dental  plate, 

Automatic  grain-binding  device, 

Process  of  making  fine  steel, 

Antiseptic  surgery 

Web-feeding  printing-press 

Automatic  shell  ejector  for  revolver, 

Open-hearth  steel  process, 

Compressed  air  rock  drill, 

Torpedo, 

Dynamo  electric  machine, 

Sulphite  process  for  making  paper  pulp  from  wood,     .    .    . 

Dynamo  electric  machine, 

Disappearing  gun  carriage, 

First  practical  typewriting  machine 

Dynamite, 

Oleomargarine, 

Water  heater  for  steam  fire  engine,      

Sulky  plow, 

Railway  air-brake 

Tunnel  shield  (operated  by  hydraulic  power), 

A  curved  spring  tooth  harrow 

Dynamo-electric  machine, 

Celluloid 

Rebounding  gun-lock 

The  Goodyear  welt  shoe-sewing  machine, 

Photographic  gelatino-bromide  emulsion  (basis  of  present 

rapid  photography) '    .    . 

Continuous  web  printing-press,     .' 

Grain  binder, 

Compressed  air  rock  drill,      

Positive  motion  weaving  loom, 

Theory  that  light  is  an  electric  phenomenon, 

Automatic  air  brake, 

Automatic  car  coupler, 

The  photographic  platinotype  process 

(Prints  by  this  process  are  permanent.) 

Quadruplex  telegraph, ;    . 

Twme  binder  for  harvesters, 

Gelatino-bromide  photographic  emulsion   (sensitiveness  to 

light  greatly  increased  by  the  application  of  heat),  .    .    . 

Self-binding  reaper 

Barbed-wire  machine 

Siphon  recorder  for  submarine  telegraphs 

Store  cash  carrier, 

Illuminating  water  gas,      

Roller  flour  mills, 

Middlings  purifier  for  flour, 

Ice-making  machine, 

Speaking  telephone, 

Electric  candle, 

(The  first  step  towards  the  division  of  the  electric  current 
for  lighting.^ 
Continuous  machine  for  making  tobacco  cigarettes, .... 

Steam  feed  saw  mills,      

The  first  Portland  cement  plaot  in  United  States,    .... 

Phonograph 

Gas  engine, 

Carbon  microphone, 

Telephone  transmitter  of  variable  resistance, 

Carbon  filament  for  electric  lamp, 

(Beginning  of  the  incandescent  vacuum  electric  light.) 

Rotary  disk  cultivator 

Decided  advance  in  the  "expression"  of  self-playing  piano- 
fortes,  

Automatic  grain  binder, 

Cathode  rays  discovered, 

Electric  railway 

Steam  plow, 

Magazine  rifle,      

"  Blake  "  telephone  transmitter, 

Hammerless  gun, 

Storage  battery  or  accumulator, 

Typhoid  bacillus  isolated 

Pneumonia  bacillus  isolated, 

Button-hole  machine, .    .    . 

Improvement  in  "expression"  of  self-playing  pianofortes,  . 

Hand  photographic  camera  for  plates, 

Tuberculosis  bacillus  isolated, 

Hydrophobia  bacillus  isolated, 


Date 


1862 
1862 
1862 
1863 

1863 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1866 
1867 
1866 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1868 
1869 
1869 
1870 
1870 
1870 
1871 

1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
1872 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 

1873 
1873 

1873 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1876 
1876 


1876 
1876 
1876 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1878 

1878 

1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1881 
1882 
1882 


Inventor 


Theodore  Timby, 
John  Ericsson,  . 
Dr.  R.  J.  Catling, 
J.  F.  E.  Schultze, 

M.  Fourneaux, 
A.  Nobel, .    .    . 
J.  A.  Cummings, 
Jacob  Behel,    . 
Martin,      .    .    . 
Sir  Joseph  IJster, 
William  Bullock, 
W.  C.  Dodge,   .    . 
Siemens-Martin, 
C.  Burleigh, 
Whitehead, 
Wilde,  .... 
Tilghman,    .    . 
Siemens,  .    .    . 
Moncrief,      .    . 
C.  L.  Sholes,     . 

A.  Mobel,.  .  . 
H.  Mege,  .  .  . 
W.  A.  Brickell, 

B.  Slusser,    .    . 
George  Westinghouse 
Alfred  E.  Beach,     . 
David  L.  Garver,    . 

Gramme 

J.  W.  &  Isaac  Hyatt, 
L.  Hailer,    .. 
Goodyear,    . 


R.  L.  Maddox, 
Hoe  &  Tucker, 
S.  D.  Locke,  . 
S.  IngersoU, 
J.  Lyall,  .  .  . 
Clerk  Maxwell, 
George  Westinghi 
E.  H. Janney, 
Willis,  .    .    . 


T.  A.  Edison,  . 
M.  L.  Gorham, 


Charles  Bennett, 
Locke  &  Wood,  .  . 
Glidden  &  Vaughan, 
Sir  William  Thompso 
D.  Brown,  . 
T.  S.  C.  Lowe, 
F.  Wegmann, 
Geo.  T.  Smith 
R.  P.  Pictet, 
Alex.  G.  Bell, 
Paul  Jablochkoff, 


Russell,     .    .    . 
D.  C.  Prescott, 


T.  A.  Edison,  . 
N.  A.  Otto,  .  . 
T.  A.  Edison,  . 
Emil  Berliner, 
T.  A.  Edison,   . 

Mallon,     .    .    . 


Gaily 

J.  F.  Appleby,  . 
Sir  Wm.  Crookes, 
Siemens,   .... 

W.  Foy 

Lee, 

Blake 

Greener,    .... 
Camille  A.  Faure, 
Eberth  &  Koch, 
Sternberg,    .    .    . 

Reece, 

Schmaele,     .    .    . 
Wm.  Schmid,  .    . 
Robert  Koch, 
Louis  Pasteur,     . 


Nativity 


United  States 
Sweden 
United  States 
Prussia 

France 
Sweden 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
Germany 
England 
United  States 
France 
France 

United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 

England 

United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
England 

United  States 
United  States 

England 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Switzerland 
United  States 
Russia 


United 
United 
Coplay, 
United 
United 
United 
United 
United 


States 
States 
Pa. 
States 
States 
States 
States 
States 


United  States 

United  States 
United  States 
England 
Germany 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
Germany 
United  States 
Unite.d  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany 
France 


672 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


INVENTIONS   SINCE   THE   DISCOVERY  OF  ELECTRICITY 

(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Cholera  bacillus  isolated, 

Diphtheria  bacillus  isolated, 

Lockjaw  bacillus  isolated 

Antipyrene 

Linotype  machine 

The  rear-driven  chain  safety  bicycle, 

Chrome  tanning  of  leather, 

Process  of  reducing  aluminum, 

Gas  burner 

Hydraulic  dredge 

First  electric  railway  in  United  States,  Hampden  and  Balti- 
more, Md 

Contact  device  for  overhead  electric  trolley 

Graphophone, 

Electric  welding,      

Combined  harvester  and  thresher 

Band  wood  saw, 

Cyanide  process  of  obtaining  gold  and  silver 

System  of  polyphase  electric  currents 

Incandescent  gas  light, 

(The  formation  of  a  cone-shaped  interwoven  mantle  of 
thread  coated  with  a  refractory  rare  earth  and  render- 
ing the  same  incandescent  by  the  heat  rays  of  a  Bun- 
sen  gas  burner,  regardless  of  how  the  gas  is  produced.) 

Process  of  annealing  armor  plate, 

"  Kodak  "  snap-shot  camera, 

(Constructed  to  use  a  continuous  sensitized  ribbon  film.) 

Process  of  making  artificial  silk 

Hertzian  waves  or  electric-wave  radiation 

First  rotary  cement  kilns  in  United  States 

Nickel  steel, 

Process  for  making  aluminum, 

Electric  plow 

Improved  linotype  machine, 

Bicycles  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires 

Krag-Jorgensen  magazine  rifle, 

"Coherer"  for  receiving  electric  waves, 

Rotary  steam  turbine, 

Cement-lined  paper-pulp  digester, 

Round  bale  cotton  press, 

Microphone, 

Power  loom 

Commercial  application  of  formic-aldehyde, 

Shoe-last  lathe,  for  different  lengths 

Kinetoscope 

Process  for  making  carborundum 

Calcium  carbide  produced  in  electric  furnace, 

Process  for  liquefying  air, 

Electric  locomotive,  B.  &  O.  Bell  Tunnel, 

X-rays,      

Acetylene  gas  from  calcium  carbide 

System  of  wireless  telegraphy,      

Foundation  laid  of  science  of  radio-activity,  i.  e.,  emana- 
tion of  penetrating  rays  from  luminescent  bodies,     .    .    . 

Use  of  ultra-violet  rays  in  treating  diseases 

Nernst  electric  light 

(Method  of  rendering  a  clay  compound  capable  of  con- 
ducting electricity  and  thence  becoming  brilliantly  in- 
candescent without  a  vacuum.) 

Mercury  vapor  electric  light, ' 

(An  artificial  light  composed  strictly  of  the  ultra-blue 
violet  rays  of  the  spectrum  obtained  by  passing  an 
electric  current  through  a  partial  vacuum  tube  filled 
with  mercury  vapor,  the  latter  acting  as  a  conductor. 
Possesses  remarkable  actinic  power  for  photographic 
purposes.) 

Air-snip, 

Automobile  mower, .    . 

The  first  passenger  steam  turbine  ship,  "Eidward  VII.,"     . 

The  first  oil-burning  steamship  built  in  the  United  States, 
"Nevada," 

English  Pacific  cable,  Canada-Australia,     ......[. 

American  Pacific  cable 

Berlin-Zossen  Road,  130i  miles  an  hour,    .......'. 


Date 


1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1885 
1885 
1885 

1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1887 


1888 
1888 

1888 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 

1896 
1896 
1897 


1900 


1901 
1901 
1901 

1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 


Inventor 


Robert  Koch,      .    .    . 

LoefHer, 

Nicolaier, 

Kuno 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler, 
George  W.  Marble, .    . 

Schultz 

Cowles, 

Carl  Welsbach,    .    .    . 
Bowers 


C.  J.  Van  Depoele, 
Bell.&  Tainter,    .    . 
Elihu  Thompson,    . 
Matteson 

D.  C.  Prescott.     .    . 
Mc Arthur  &  Forrest, 

Nicola  Tesla 

Carl  A.  Von  Welsbach 


Harvey 

Eastman  &  Walker, 

H.  DeChardonnet 
Heinrich  Hertz 


Schneider,    . 
Chas.  M.  Hall. 
W.  Stephens, 
Ottmar  Mergenthaler 


Krag-Jorgensen , 
Edouard  Branly, 
C.  A.  Parsons, 
G.  F.  Russell,  . 
Brown, .... 
Emile  Berliner, 
Northrup,     .    . 
J.  J.  A.  Trillat, 
■Kimball,  .    .    . 
T.  A.  Edison,  . 
E.  G.  Acheson, 
Thos.  L.  Willson, 
Carl  Linde,  . 


Prof.  W.  C.  Roentgen 
Thomas  L.  Willson, 
G.  Marconi,      .    .    . 


Henri  Becquerel, 
Niels  R.  Finsen, 
Walter  Nernst,    . 


Peter  Cooper  Hewitt, 


M.  Santos-Dumont,  . 
Deering  Harvester  Co. 
Denny  &  Brothers, 


Nativity 


Germany 
Germany 
France 
United  States 
Germany 
United  States 
United  States 
England 
Germany 
United  States 


United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Austria 


United  States 
United  States 

France 
Germany 
Coplay,  Pa. 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany 

United  States 
England 
England 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
France 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany 
United  States 
Germany 
United  States 
Italy 

France 

Denmark 

Germany 


United  States 


France 

United  States 
England 


United  States 
Germany 


Iron.  A  metallic  element  very  widely  dif- 
fused in  nature,  and  occurring  in  great  abun- 
dance in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Its  symbol  is 
Fe,  from  the  Latin  word  ferrum;  atmospheric 
weight,  56.  In  the  perfectly  pure  state,  iron  is 
almost  unknown.  In  the  arts,  it  is  met  with  in 
the  forms  of  malleable  iron,  steel  and  cast  iron. 
The  first  being  iron  as  free  from  impurities  as  it 


is  possible  to  get  it,  and  the  other  two  being  iron 
containing  carbon  in  proportions  varying  from 
0.65  to  upwards  of  5.0  per  cent.  Good  malleable 
iron,  known  also  as  wrought  iron,  is  of  a  grayish 
color.  Its  melting-point  approaches  that  of 
platinum;  although  at  temperature  far  below 
this  it  assumes  a  soft,  pasty  condition,  and  is 
capable  of  being  welded  together  into  one  mass. 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


673 


This  property  of  iron  is  of  the  greatest  value  in 
manufacturing  operations.  Its  hardness  and 
toughness  are  scarcely  altered  by  heating  to  red- 
ness and  cooHng  suddenly,  forming  in  this  re- 
spect a  striking  contrast  to  steel  and  cast  iron. 
It  is  very  malleable  and  ductile,  and  at  a  red 
heat  may  be  hammered  and  rolled  into  any 
desired  form.  By  these  operations,  it  acquires 
a  fibrous  texture,  and  increases  greatly  in  tena- 
city. The  presence  of  foreign  substances  modifies 
the  working  properties  of  wrought  iron;  thus, 
sulphur  in  quantities  of  upwards  of  0.01  per 
cent,  renders  it  what  is  technically  called  red 
short  —  that  is,  brittle  and'  non-tenacious  at  a 
red  heat.  Phosphorus,  if  present  in  quantities 
of  more  than  0.5  per  cent.,  renders  the  iron  brittle 
at  the  ordinary  temperature,  or,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called,  cold  short.  In  dry  air  malleable 
iron  is  unchanged,  but  air  and  moisture  quickly 
oxidize  it,  forming  a  red  rust,  which  in  time 
would  eat  through  the  whole  mass.  When 
heated  to  whiteness  in  a  current  of  air,  malleable 
iron  burns  with  vivid  scintillations,  producing 
magnetic  oxide,  and  at  a  red  heat  decomposes 
aqueous  vapor;  forming  magnetic  oxide  and 
evolving  hydrogen.  Cast  iron,  or  pig  iron,  is 
iron  containing  the  highest  amount  of  carbon. 
There  are  two  kinds,  viz:  gray  cast  iron,  which 
is  granular  in  texture  and  of  a  gray  color;  and 
white  cast  iron,  which  is  much  whiter,  has  a 
crystalline  and  somewhat  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  is  very  hard  and  brittle.  The  chief  differ- 
ence between  these  two  kinds  of  cast  iron  appears 
to  be  due  to  the  state  in  which  the  carbon  is 
contained  in  them.  The  carbon  may  be  re- 
moved from  cast  iron  by  heating  it  to  the  weld- 
ing point  and  stirring  it  about  in  the  air  or  with 
oxide  of  iron  (Puddling  process),  or  by  blowing 
air  through  it  in  the  melted  state  (Bessemer  pro- 
cess). In  the  latter  operation  the  heat  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  the  carbon  is  sufficient  to 
raise  the  temperature  to  such  a  degree,  that 
when  at  last  the  carbon  is  all  burnt  off  the  result- 
ing malleable  iron  is  still  in  the  Hquid  state. 
If  these  operations  are  stopped  before  all  the 
carbon  is  burnt  off,  steel  of  various  qualities  is 
produced.     Cast  iron  is  the  form  in  which  the 


metal  is  almost  invariably  prepared  from  its  ore, 
by  processes  whose  description  would  occupy  too 
much  space,  the  reader  being  therefore  referred 
to  works  on  metallurgy  for  further  details.  The 
most  important  iron  ores  are  magnetite,  or  mag- 
netic iron  ore,  which  has  a  black  metallic  luster, 
sometimes  forms  mountainous  masses,  and  con- 
tains 72.41  per  cent,  of  iron.  Hoematite  red  iron 
ore,  or  oligistic  iron,  which  is  ferric  oxide,  occurs 
either  crystalline  or  massive,  and  contains  70  per 
cent,  of  iron.  Specular  iron  ore,  or  elba  iron  ore, 
which  is  also  a  ferric  oxide,  and  is  iron  gray  and 
crystalline.  Brown  iron  ore,  which  is  a  hydrated 
sesquioxide  of  iron,  contains  when  pure  59.89  per 
cent,  of  iron,  and  is  of  a  compact  earthy  appear- 
ance. Spathic  iron  ore,  or  sparry  iron  ore,  a 
native  protocarbonate  of  iron,  crystallizing  in 
masses  of  a  light  yellowish  color,  and  containing 
48.27  per  cent,  of  iron.  And  clay  iron  ore,  which 
consists  of  haematite  or  spathic  iron  ore  with  clay. 
In  1906,  the  production  of  pig  iron  and  steel 
iij  the  principal  producing  countries  of  the  world 
was  as  follows: 


Countries 


Austria-Hungary,  .    . 

Belgium, 

Canada,  

France,    ...... 

Germany,    ..... 

Italy,  ....... 

Russia,    ...... 

Spain, 

Sweden, 

United  Kingdom,  .  . 
United  States,  .  .  . 
All  other  countries,  . 


Pio  Iron. 
Tons 


Steel, 
Tons 


1,403,500 

1,431,160 

650,616 

3,319,032 

12,478,067 

30,450 

2,350,000 

387,500 

552,250 

10,210,178 

25,712,106 

650,000 


1,195,000 
1,185,660 


2.371,377 

11,135,085 

409,000 

1,763,000 

251,600 

351,900 

6,565,670 

23,738.559 

420,000 


In  the  United  States,  Pennsylvania  is  still  far 
in  advance  as  a  producer  of  pig  iron.  Ohio, 
Illinois,  and  Alabama  follow  in  the  order  named. 
Pennsylvania  produces  one-half  of  the  Bessemer 
pig  iron,  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  low  phos- 
phorus, nearly  three-fourths  of  the  basic,  and 
high  percentages  of  the  other  grades,  as  well  as 
fully  50  per  cent,  of  the  cast  steel  and  rolled  iron 
and  steel  products  of  the  country.  Ohio  ranks 
second,  Illinois  third,  and  New  York  fourth  in 
mill  products. 


MERCHANT   MARINE    OF   THE   WORLD 

From  the  Latest  Lloyd  Register. 


Flag 


f  United  Kingdom,  .... 
British  j    Colonies 

[  Total 

I  Sea 
Northern  Lakes,  . 
Philippine  Islands, 

I      Total,     .... 

Argentine, 

Austro-Hungarian, 

Belgian, 

Brazilian, 

Chilean 

Chinese, 

Cuban, 


Steamships 


No.  of 
Steamers 


8,292 
1,219 


9,511 


1,029 

465 

83 


1,577 

169 

312 

131 

283 

87 

50 

51 


Tonnage 
Gross 


15,930,368 
1,070,771 


17,001,139 


1,503,059 

1,618,718 

39,118 


3,160,895 
105,916 
677,221 
191,597 
191,088 
107,727 
67,634 
60,645 


Sailing-ships 


No.  of 
Ships 


1,225 

781 


2,006 


1,905 
47 
29 


1,981 
74 
14 
2 
78 
63 


Tonnage 
Net 


1,069,300 
250,229 


1,319,529 


1,225,652 

119,045 

6,336 


1,351,033 
27,155 
11,398 
1,118 
19,597 
48,589 


1,625 


Steamships  and 
Sailing  Vessels 


No.  of 

Ships 


9,517 
2,000 


11,517 


2,934 
512 
112 


3,558 
243 
326 
133 
361 
150 
50 
60 


Tonnage 


16,999,668 
1,321,000 


18,32J3,668R 


2,728,711 

1,737,763 

45,454 


4,511,928 
133,071 
688.619 
192,715 
210,685 
156,316 
67,634 
62,270 


674 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


MERCHANT  MARINE   OF  THE   WORLD  —  Continued 


Flag 


Danish,  .     .  . 

Dutch,    .    .  . 

French,  .    .  . 

German,     .  . 

Greek,     .    .  . 

Haytian,     .  . 

Honduras,  .  . 

Italian,   .    .  . 

Japanese,    .  . 

Mexican,     .  . 
Montenegrin, 

Norwegian,  . 

Peruvian,    .  . 

Portuguese,  . 
Rumanian, 

Russian,     .  . 

Sarawak,    .  . 

Siamese,     .  . 

Spanish, .    .  . 

Swedish,     .  . 

Turkish, .    .  . 

Uruguayan,  . 

Venezuelan,  . 
Other  countries 

Total,  .   .  . 


Steamships 


No.  of 
Steamers 


501 

455 

809 

1,713 

255 

6 

6 

397 

829 

44 

l,"l8l' 

12 

65 

23 

687 

5 

6 

468 

889 

132 

33 

10 

49 


20,746 


Tonnage 
Gross 


650,955 

776,855 

1,284,308 

3,705,700 

421,743 

3,956 

13,256 

823,325 

1,068,747 

27,025 


1,264,002 

10,723 

62,675 

28,949 

720,198 

3,717 

3,045 

673,301 

686,517 

106,929 

38,146 

4,091 

27,726 


33,969,811 


Sailing-ships 


No.  of 
Ships 


358 
92 
674 
381 
156 

"l 

710 

6 

18 

25 

980 
38 

133 
2 

672 


110 
649 
170 

28 
9 

18 


9,457 


Tonnage 

Net 


77,635 

36,772 

477,415 

404,862 

44,789 


148 

396,084 

3,129 

4,021 

6,299 

654,529 

15,519 

38,363 

419 

217,713 


35,448 

191,031 

58,092 

19,301 

1,282 

6,211 


5,469,106 


Steamships  and 
Sailing  Vessels 


No.  of 
Ships 


859 

547 

1,483 

2,094 

411 

6 

7 

1,107 

SS.'i 

62 

25 

2,161 

50 

198 

25 

1,359 

5 

6 

578 

1,538 

302 

61 

19 

67 


30,203 


Tonnage 


728,590 

813,627 

1,761,783- 

4,110,562 

466,532 

3,956 

13,404 

1,219,409 

1,071,876 

31,046 

6,299 

1,918,531 

26,242 

101,038 

29,368 

937,911 

3,717 

3,045 

708,749 

877,548 

165,021 

57,447 

5,373 

33,937 


39,438,917 


Radium.  A  newly  discovered  element  of 
intense  activity,  casting  off  minute  corpuscles  at 
a  velocity  of  130,000  miles  per  second,  and  with- 
out appreciably  diminishing  in  substance.  Rad- 
ium is  exceedingly  rare  and  costly,  enormous 
quantities  of  pitchblende  yielding  only  a  minute 
amount  of  the  element.  M.  and  Madame  Curie, 
the  discoverers  of  radium,  are  authority  for  the 
statement  that  a  pound  of  radium,  if  it  could  be 
had,  would  have  a  value  of  nearly  a  million  dol- 
lars, and  that  the  thirtieth  part  of  a  grain  costs 
five  dollars.  Many  scientists  affirm  that  radium 
can  give  light  without  heat  or  combustion.  Sir 
William  Ramsay  has  demonstrated  that  the 
emanations  of  radium,  under  certain  conditions, 
have  the  power  to  transmute  certain  substances. 
The  same  claim  was  made  by  Prof.  McCoy  of 
the  University  of  Chicago,  early  in  1908. 

Railroad.  A  road  constructed  of  tracks 
of  iron,  called  rails,  on  which  roll  the  wheels  of 
carriages  drawn  either  by  horses  or  by  steam- 
engines,  and  to  which  they  are  confined  by 
ledges  or  flanges  raised  on  the  tires  of  the  wheels. 
Nearly  two  centuries  before  the  introduction  of 
the  locomotive,  wooden  rails  were  used  at  the 
collieries,  in  the  north  of  England;  their  upper 
surfaces  being,  at  a  later  period,  covered  with  a 
plate  or  bar  of  iron,  to  render  them  more  dur- 
able; and  about  the  year  1776,  flanges  being 
added  to  them  to  keep  the  wagons  from  running 
off.  The  imperfections  of  plate,  or  as  they  were 
also  called  tram  rails,  led,  about  the  year  1801, 
to  the  adoption  of  edge  rails,  or  those  at  present 
exclusively  used ;  and,  soon  after,  cast  iron  was 
supplanted  by  wrought  iron,  in  their  manufac- 
ture. The  use  of  locomotives,  instead  of  ani- 
mals, was  suggested  in  1794 ;  but  no  locomotive 
seems  to  have  been  constructed  until  1805.  At 
first  cogged  wheels,  and  various  kinds  of  pro- 
pellers, were  employed  with  locomotives,  from 
an  erroneous  supposition  that  there  would  not 
be  sufficient  friction  between  the  driving-wheels 


and  rails  to  prevent  the  former  from  turning 
round,  without  the  production  of  progressive 
motions;  but  in  1814,  plain  wheels  were  tried 
and  found  perfectly  efficient.  The  locomotive 
did  not  come  into  practical  use  until  the  opening 
of  the  Liverpool  &  Manchester  .Railway  in 
1830;  although  the  first  railway  Act  received 
the  sanction  of  the  British  legislature  in  1801, 
by  the  incorporation  of  the  Surrey  Iron  Rail- 
way Company.  This  was  indeed  a  compara- 
tively trifling  enterprise,  for,  it  extended  only 
from  Wandsworth  to  Croydon,  and  was  merely 
applicable  for  the  carriage  of  coals,  lime,  etc., 
the  moving-power  being  derived  from  horses 
alone.  In  the  United  States  a  horse-railroad 
was  completed  in  1827,  from  the  granite  quar- 
ries of  Quincy,  Mass.,  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
to  the  Neponset  River.  A  second  road  was  laid 
out  in  January,  1827,  from  the  coal-mines  of 
Mauch  Chunk,  Penn.,  to  the  Lehigh  River,  a 
distance  of  nine  miles,  and  with  various  ramifi- 
cations the  whole  length  exceeded  thirteen  miles. 
The  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company,  in 
1828,  constructed  a  railroad  from  their  coal- 
mines to  Honesdale,  the  terminus  of  their  canal, 
and  sent  a  commissioner  to  England  for  the  pur- 
chase of  rail,  iron,  and  locomotives.  In  the 
spring  of  1829,  these  locomotives  arrived  in  this 
country.  Of  the  succeeding  great  railway  enter- 
prises, one  of  the  principal  was  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  line,  commenced  in  1828,  and  originally 
planned  for  horse-cars  only,  but,  influenced  by 
the  success  of  steam  locomotives  in  England, 
their  employment  was  adopted  on  this  road  in- 
stead of  horse-power.  In  August,  1830,  the 
Hudson  &  Mohawk  Railroad,  from  Albany  to 
Schenectady,  was  commenced.  Several  similar 
enterprises  were  undertaken  in  the  Pennsylvania 
coal  region  in  1830,  and  in  the  legislative  session 
of  1830-31  no  fewer  than  twelve  railroad  com- 
panies were  incorporated.  In  1831  the  Balti- 
more    &     Susquehanna    Railroad    commenced 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


675 


operations.  Such  were  the  beginnings  of  these 
vast  undertakings  which  now  permeate  all  por- 
tions of  the  United  States.  The  following  table, 
from  "  Poor's  Manual,"  shows  the  mileage,  assets, 
liabilities,  earnings,  expenditures,  and  traffic 
of  all  surface  steam  railroads  in  the  United 
States : 

MILEAGE 

Mileage  of  Railroads 224,382.19 

Second  Tracks  and  Sidings 99,651.19 

Total  Track 324,033.38 

Steel  Rails  in  Track 314,713.50 

Iron  Rails  in  Track 9,319.88 

Locomotives, 58,301 

Cars,  Passenger, 35,321 

Cars,  Baggage,  Mail,  etc -    11,952 

Cars,  Freight 2,084,214 

Total  Revenue  Cars 2,131,487 

LIABILITIES 

Capital  Stock $7,458,126,785 

Bonded  Debt -.    .    .    .  9,043,286,284 

Unfunded  Debt 170,389,175 

Current  Accounts 857,734,167 

Sinking  and  Other  Funds 239,727,545 

Total  Liabilities «17,769,263,956 

ASSETS 

Cost  of  Railroad  and  Equipment,  .    .    .  $13,364,275,191 

Other  Investments 3,622,874,372 

Sundry  Assets 692,000,966 

Current  Accounts,     .  ■ 979,730.908 

Total  Assete $18,558,881,437 

Excess  of  Assets  over  Liabilities,   .    .         $789,617,481 

Miles  of  Railroad  Operated, 225,227.23 

Passengers  Carried, 860,648,574 

Passenger  Mileage 28,166,116,577 

Tons  of  Freight  Moved 1,722,210,281 

Freight  Mileage 228,137,507,807 

TRAFFIC     EARNINGS 

Passengers $574,718,578 

Freight 1,825,061,858 

Miscellaneous 202,977,067 

Total  Traffic  Revenue $2,602,757,503 

Net  Earnings $833,839,600 

Receipts  from  Other  Sources 128,015,081 

Total  Available  Revenue $961,854,681 

PAYMENTS 

Interest  on  Bonds $280,931,001 

Other  Interest, ;    .  23,759,329 

Dividends  on  Stock 247,258,219 

Miscellaneous 75,176,725 

Rentals  —  Interest,      ........  38,188,406 

Dividends; 31,087,374 

Miscellaneous,     ......  18,127,456 

Taxes 74,253,245 

Total  Payments $788,781,755 

Surplus $172,572,926 

The  capital  invested  in  the  railways  of  the  world 
is  approximately:  Europe,  $23,049,778,500;  United 
States,  $18,558,881,437;  other  parts  of  the  world, 
$5,063,834,122. 

Telegraph.  The  term  is  now  usually  re- 
stricted to  the  electric  telegraph,  which  stands 
at  the  head  of  all  mediums  for  rapid  and  elabo- 
rate communications.  As  a  system,  the  electric 
telegraph  involves  the  following  apparatus:  (1) 
a  battery  or  other  source   of  electric  power; 


(2)  a  line-wire  or  conductor  for  conveying  the 
electric  current  from  one  station  to  another;  (3) 
the  apparatus  for  transmitting,  interrupting, 
and,  if  necessary,  reversing  the  current  at  pleas- 
ure; and  (4)  the  indicator  or  signaling  instru- 
ment. The  line-wires  for  overhead  lines  are 
usually  of  iron,  protected  from  atmospheric  in- 
fluence by  galvanizing  or  by  being  varnished 
with  boiled  linseed-oil,  a  coating  of  tar,  or  other 
means,  and  are  supported  upon  posts,  to  which 
they  are  attached  by  insulators.  In  under- 
ground lines  the  wires  are  insulated  by  a  gutta- 
percha or  other  non-conducting  covering,  and 
inclosed  in  iron  or  lead  pipes.  The  battery  and 
line-wire  are  common  to  all  telegraphic  systems; 
it  is  in  the  method  of  producing  the  signals  that 
the  great  variation  exists;  but  in  all  of  them 
advantage  has  been  taken  of  one  or  other  of 
the  three  following  properties  of  the  current: 
(1)  its  power  of  producing  the  deflection  of  a 
magnetic  needle,  as  in  the  galvanometer  (which 
see);  (2)  its  power  of  temporarily  magnetizing 
soft  iron ;  and  (3)  its  power  of  producing  chemi- 
cal decomposition. 

The  electro-magnetic  instrument  of  Professor 
Morse,  which,  however,  in  its  perfected  form 
owed  much  to  the  genius  of  Morse's  associates, 
Joseph  Henry  and  Alfred  Vail,  is  an  application 
of  the  second  of  the  above  properties.  By  means 
of  an  electro-magnet,  an  armature,  which  is  at- 
tracted when  the  magnet  is  temporarily  mag- 
netized, a  lever  moved  by  the  armature,  and  a 
style  which  moves  with  the  lever,  this  instru- 
ment impresses  a  message  in  dots  and  dashes  on 
a  ribbon  of  moving  paper,  and  by  it  forty  words 
may  be  sent  in  a  minute.  This  "  dot  and  dash  " 
system  which  was  invented  by  Morse,  is  now  in 
extensive  use.  A  modification  of  this  instru- 
ment, called  a  sounder,  in  which  the  lever  makes 
audible  sounds  by  coming  in  contact  with  a  brass 
rod,  indicates  the  message  by  the  length  of  the 
strokes  produced.  Frequently  the  Morse  is 
simultaneously  a  recorder  and  sounder.  It 
being  necessary  that  this  instrument  should 
produce  sharp  and  distinct  impressions,  and  the 
current  being  weak  for  stages  over  fifty  miles, 
a  relay,  or  subsidiary  electro-magnetic  circuit, 
is  added  to  it  in  the  case  of  longer  distances. 
The  transmitting  instrument  is  a  lever,  which, 
on  being  pressed,  permits  the  current  from  the 
battery  to  flow  into  the  line-wire  during  the 
time  the  contact  is  made.  Both  on  account  of 
its  intrinsic  merits  and  for  the  sake  of  uniformity 
the  Morse  is  the  most  extensively  used  system, 
being  that  in  use  in  America  and  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  being  also  largely  employed 
in  Britain.  Wheatstone's  "  universal  telegraph  " 
is  also  one  in  extensive  use.  The  currents  em- 
ployed are  magneto-electric,  and  are  alternately 
positive  and  negative.  They  produce  successive 
reversals  of  polarity  in  the  delicate  mirror  or 
reflecting  galvanometer,  which  Sir  W.  Thomson 
invented  in  connection  with  the  Atlantic  tele- 
graph. That  distinguished  electrician  has  in- 
vented a  self-recording  instrument,  consisting  of 
a  light  coil  of  wire,  very  delicately  suspended  in 
a  magnetic  field,  the  motions  of  which  coil,  when 
a  current  is  passed  through  it,  are  the  means  by 
which  messages  are  recorded.  The  coil  is  at- 
tached to  a  very  light  glass  siphon  in  the  shape 


676 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of  an  exceedingly  fine  capillary  tube,  through 
which  ink  from  a  reservoir  is  drawn  by  electric 
attraction,  the  reservoir  and  the  moving  paper 
ribbon  upon  which  the  ink  falls  being  oppositely 
electrified.  The  extremity  of  the  siphon  is  not 
in  contact  with,  but  only  very  near,  the  paper. 
When  there  is  no  current  the  ink  traces  a  straight 
line;  when  the  current  is  passing  the  marks  or 
deviations  constituting  the  letters  are  produced. 
The  delicacy  and  rapidity  of  this  instrument  are 
even  greater  than  those  of  the  mirror  galvanom- 
eter, and  the  siphon  recorder  accordingly  is 
highly  valued.  About  the  year  1837  electric 
telegraphs  were  first  established  as  commercial 
speculations  in  three  different  countries.  Stein- 
heil's  system  was  carried  out  at  Munich,  Morse's 
in  America,  and  Wheatstone  and  Cooke's  in  Eng- 
land. The  first  telegraphs  ever  constructed  for 
commercial  use  were  laid  down  by  Wheatstone 
and  Cooke  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  and 
Great  Western  Railways.  The  wires,  which  were 
buried  in  the  earth,  were  five  in  number,  each 
acting  on  a  separate  needle,  but  the  expensive- 
ness  of  this  plan  soon  led  to  its  being  given  up. 
The  single-needle  and  double-needle  telegraphs 
of  the  same  inventors  have  been  more  exten- 
sively used.  Among  recent  improvements  in 
electric  telegraphy  the  most  important  are  those 
by  which  a  wire  can  be  used  for  more  than  one 
message  at  a  time.  In  1872,  a  workable  method 
of  sending  simultaneously  two  messages  in  op- 
posite directions  on  the  same  line  was  intro- 
duced, and  it  was  also  discovered  that  two  mes- 
sages could  be  sent  in  the  same  direction  (duplex 
telegraphy).  The  two  plans  being  combined 
formed  quadruplex  telegraphy,  by  which  the 
message-carrying  powers  of  the  wires  have  been 
greatly  multiplied. 

Wireless  Telegraphy  has  made  use  of  three  dif- 
ferent methods,  which  may  be  classed  as  con- 
duction, induction,  and  wave  methods.  In  the 
first  method  currents  are  sent  through  the  earth 
from  an  electrode  to  another  at  the  sending 
station.  By  induction,  use  is  made  of  the  prop- 
erty which  alternating  currents  possess  of  ex- 
citing similar  currents  in  neighboring  conductors, 
the  aim  being  to  get  as  intense  current  as  possible 
in  the  secondary  circuit.  Mr.  W.  H.  Preece, 
England,  by  combining  the  two  has  signaled 
forty  miles  thus.  The  third  method  is  by  elec- 
tro-magnetic waves  which  are  detected  by  a 
coherer  —  a  glass  tube  filled  with  metallic  filings, 
into  the  end  of  which  the  terminals  of  a  relay 
circuit  enter,  sent  thereto  by  a  transmitter. 
The  wave  falls  on  other  conductors,  and,  the 
spark  gap  being  replaced  by  a  coherer,  the  relay 
circuit  is  closed  and  a  signal  is  made.  Signor 
Marconi,  an  English  naturalized  Italian,  intro- 
duced the  latter  method,  by  which  he  has  sig- 
naled across  the  Atlantic.  To  Marconi  is  gen- 
erally ascribed  the  honor  of  inventing  wireless 
telegraphy,  or  the  sending  of  telegraphic  mes- 
sages without  the  use  of  other  medium  than  the 
atmosphere.  Trans- Atlantic  passenger  vessels 
are  now  fitted  out  with  wireless  telegraphic  appa- 
ratus, by  means  of  which  almost  constant  com- 
munication may  be  maintained  between  passing 
vessels  or  either  shore.  Wireless  telegraphy,' 
from  the  commercial  standpoint,  has  yet  to 
prove  its  value  over  the  systems  at  present  in 


vogue.  Naval  and  military  strategy  have  under- 
gone changes  since  the  necessity  for  wire  and 
cable  communication  has  been  removed.  In  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  wireless  telegraphy  was  ex- 
tensively employed  with  great  precision  by  the 
fleets  of  both  powers. 

The  principal  system  in  America  is  that  of  the 
De  Forest  Wireless  Telegraph  Company.  The 
inventor.  Dr.  de  Forest,  is  a  graduate  of  Yale, 
and  claims  that  he  can  syntonise  his  circuits. 
The  receiver  in  this  system  is  a  telephonic  appa- 
ratus, and  from  twenty  to  thirty  words  a  minute 
can  be  transmitted  and  recorded.  The  main 
advantage  claimed  for  it  is  that  its  usefulness  is 
not  impaired  by  the  presence  of  other  systems 
unless  the  transmitting  stations  are  practically 
in  juxtaposition.  The  De  Forest  Wireless  Tele- 
graph Company  transmitted  a  regular  daily  1 
news  service  from  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition  in  ^ 
1904  to  various  newspapers,  and  messages  were 
sent  from  the  long-distance  tower  to  Chicago, 
300  miles  away.  The  speed  attained  was 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  words  a  minute.  The 
capacity  of  the  De  Forest  system  for  operating 
simultaneously  several  different  transmitters  was 
clearly  shown,  and  the  ability  of  the  operator  to 
tune  his  receivers  at  will  to  various  transmitters 
with  different  wave-lengths.  The  company  has 
five  long-distance  naval  stations,  and  powerful 
land  stations  at  New  York,  Boston,  New  Or- 
leans, St.  Louis,  Chicago,  etc. ;  and  it  is  claimed 
that  these  stations  are  able  to  operate  from  300 
to  1,200  miles  overland. 

Telephone,  an  instrument  used  for  the 
reproduction  of  sounds  at  a  distance  by  means 
of  electricity.  To  Charles  G.  Page,  in  1837,  is 
due  the  generic  idea  from  which  the  invention 
of  the  telephone  became  a  reality.  Page  dis- 
covered that  the  sudden  magnetizing  and  de- 
magnetizing of  a  wire  or  rod  of  iron  caused  it 
to  give  out  sound.  By  the  use  of  a  movable, 
vibrating  disc,  later  inventors  discovered  the 
possibility  of  producing  a  discontinuous  or  pul- 
sating current  which  might  be  made  to  set  a 
second  membrane  in  motion  and  so  to  repro- 
duce sound.  This  "  make-and-break  "  method 
of  varying  the  electric  current  transmitted  per- 
fectly the  pitch  and  intensity  of  tones,  but 
omitted  the  third  and  necessary  characteristic 
of  articulate  speech,  quality.  The  current  must 
be  varied  continuously,  not  broken.  This  was 
accomplished  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  in 
1876.  Elisha  Gray,  also,  invented  a  practical 
speaking  telephone  at  about  the  same  time,  but 
the  courts,  after  extended  litigation,  decided  in 
Bell's  favor. 

In  reality  very  simple  in  construction,  the 
telephone  is  difficult  to  explain  in  words.  To 
tMe  ordinary  user  it  seems  as  if  the  voice,  recog- 
nizable in  articulate  words,  and  even  clearly 
distinguishable  from  every  other  voice,  were 
carried  for  miles  over  a  wire.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  more  common  misconception.  The 
listener  does  not  hear  any  person  talk.  All  that 
goes  over  the  wire  is  thousands  of  continuously 
varying  impulses  of  electricity.  The  secret  of 
the  apparent  actual  transmission  of  the  human 
voice  lies  in  electrical  induction. 

It  is  a  well-established,  and  generally  known 
physical  law  that  electricity  produces  magnet-        m 


INDUSTRY,  INVENTION,  COMMERCE 


677 


ism.  It  is  also  true,  liowever,  that  this  process 
can  be  reversed,  that  magnetism  produces  elec- 
tricity, and  it  was  of  this  fact  that  Bell  took 
advantage  in  his  original  telephone,  and  upon 
this  principle  that  the  modern  telephone,  modi- 
fied only  slightly  in  action,  is  constructed.  An 
approach  to,  or  a  receding  from,  a  wire  carrying 
a  current;  produces  an  induced  current.  If  one 
of  the  pieces  be  a  magnet,  and  there  is  a  rapid 
approach  and  receding  by  a  piece  of  soft  iron, 
an  induced  current  is  also  produced.  Bell's 
system  consisted  of  a  transmitter,  line  wires, 
and  a  receiver,  the  two  instruments  being 
similar.  In  the  transmitter  a  long,  horseshoe 
magnet  is  placed,  upon  one  end  of  which  several 
layers  of  finely  insulated  wire  are  wound.  The 
ends  of  these  bobbins  are  attached  to  the  line 
wires  and  thus  they  become  part  of  the  circuit. 
No  current  passes  over  this  circuit  ordinarily, 
but  one  can  be  induced,  if  a  piece  of  iron  is 
made  to  move  quickly,  to  tremble  near  the  bar 
magnet.  Hence,  a  thin  disc  of  sheet  iron  is 
fastened  securely  very  near  and  crosswise  to 
the  end  of  the  magnet.  The  voice  impinging 
vipon  one  of  the  discs  causes  it  to  vibrate, 
approaching  and  receding  from  the  magnet  in 
consonance  with  the  sound  waves.  As  the 
vibrations  are  very  small,  and  the  disc  has  little 
tendency  to  vibrate  of  itself,  the  vibrations  fol- 
low the  sound  waves  in  every  change  of  pitch 
and  quality.  Every  time  one  of  these  vibra- 
tions occurs  in  the  disc,  a  small  impulse  is  sent 
from  the  magnet  out  over  the  circuit  whose 
coil  incloses  it.  These  impulses,  acting  upon 
the  receiving  disc,  cause  it  to  vibrate  in  unison 
with  the  original  vibrations  in  the  transmitter, 
and  a  similar  sound  is  produced.  It  is  simply 
the  reversal  of  the  process;  if  sound  waves  will 
move  a  disc  in  a  certain  way,  the  moving  of  a 
disc  in  the  same  way  by  some  other  means  will 
produce  sound. 

The  modern  telephone,  enabling  communica- 
tion at  a  distance  of  hundreds  of  miles,  has  been 
rendered  possible  by  the  substitution  of  a  bat- 
tery current  and  a  carbon  disc  for  the  magnet 
and  sheet-iron  plates.  It  is  now  used  through- 
out the  civilized  world,  and,  by  the  adaptation 
of  various  mechanical  contrivances,  though  upon 
the  same  principle,  each  telephone  is  placed  into 
a  possible  communication  with  every  other  one. 

Its  invention  and  perfection  have  been  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  achievements  of  the 
past  few  years,  and  it  is  doubtful  if,  among  all 
the  productions  of  human  genius,  there  will  ever 
be  anything  more  useful  or  more  miraculous 
than  the  telephone. 

Telescope,  an  optical  instrument  essen- 
tially consisting  of  a  set  of  lenses  fixed  in  a  tube 
or  a  number  of  shding  tubes,  by  which  distant 
objects  are  brought  within  the  range  of  distinct 
or  more  distinct  vision.  The  law  of  action  by 
which  the  telescope  assists  human  vision  is  two- 
fold, and  that  under  all  the  varieties  of  its  con- 
struction. A  distant  object  viewed  by  the  un- 
aided eye  is  placed  in  the  circumference  of  a 
large  circle,  having  the  eye  for  its  center,  and 
consequently  the  angle  under  which  it  is  seen  is 
measured  by  the  minute  portion  of  the  circum- 
ference which  it  occupies.  Now,  when  the  dis- 
tance is  great,  it  is  found  that  this  angle  is  too 


small  to  convey  to  the  retina  any  sensible  impres- 
sion —  all  the  light  proceeding  from  the  object 
is  too  weak  to  affect  the  optic  nerve.  This 
limit  to  distinct  vision  results  from  the  small 
aperture  or  pupil  of  the  eye.  The  telescope 
substitutes  its  large  object  lens  or  reflector  for 
the  human  eye,  and  consequently  receives  a 
quantity  of  light  proportioned  to  its  area  or 
surface;  hence  a  distant  point,  inappreciable 
by  the  eye  alone,  is  rendered  visible  by  the  aid 
of  the  telescope. 

The  telescope  almost  universally  employed 
in  modern  times  is  the  astronomical  telescope, 
made  up  of  two  converging  lenses,  known  as  the 
refracting  telescope. 

The  best  specimens  of  the  astronomical  tele- 
scope in  existence  are  the  thirty-six-inch  glass 
of  the  Lick  observatory  and  the  forty-inch 
glass  of  the  Yerkes  observatory,  both  made  by 
the  late  Alvan  G.  Clark.  On  good  nights  these 
instruments  permit  the  use  of  a  magnifying 
power  of  from  2,000  to  3,000. 

This  invention  is  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges, 
about  157L  Roger  Bacon,  about  A.  D.  1250, 
described  telescopes  and  microscopes  exactly, 
and  yet  neither  were  made  till  one  Metius,  at 
Alkamser,  and  Jansen,  of  Middleburgh,  made 
them  about  the  same  time;  the  latter  from  an 
accidental  discovery  made  by  his  children,  1 590- 
1609.  Galileo  imitated  their  invention  by  its 
description,  and  made  three  in  succession,  one 
of  which  magnified  a  thousand  times.  With 
these  he  discovered  Jupiter's  moons  and  the 
phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes  became  very  popu- 
lar, and  were  improved  by  Zucchi,  Huygens, 
Gregory,  and  Newton;  and  finally  by  Martin, 
Hall,  Dolland,  Herschel,  Clark,  and  others. 

THE   LARGE   REFRACTORS   OF   THE  WORLD 


Institution 


Yerkes      Observatory,      Wisconsin, 
U.  S.  A., 

Lick  Observatory,  California,  U.S.A., 

Lifk  Observatory,  California,  U.S.A., 

National  Observatory,  Meudon,     .    . 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam, 

Bischoffsheim  Observatory,  Nice,  .    . 

Imperial  Observatory,  Poulkova,  .    . 

National  Observatory,  Paris,  .   . 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  . 

Imperial  Observatory,  Vienna,  .    .    . 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  .  .    . 

Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  .    . 

Leander  McCormick  Observatory,  Vir- 
ginia, U.  S.  A., 

Cambridge  University  Observatory,  . 

National  University,  Meudon,    .    .    . 

Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A. 

Royal   Observatory,    Cape   of   Good 
Hope, 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico 

National  Observatory,  Paris 

Halstead     Observatory,     Princeton, 
U.  S.  A., 

Etna, 

Buckingham  Observatory 

M.  Porro,  Private  Observatory,  Italy, 

Chamberlin    Observatory,    Colorado, 
U.  S.  A 

Manila  Observatory,  Philippines,  .    . 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam, 

Imperial  Observatory,  Strassburg,     . 

Milan  Observatory,  Italy 


gi 

^1 

0  0  w 

«g 

<:2 

1-1 

40.0 

62.0 

1897 

86.0 

57.8 

1888 

l-iH.O 

49.2 

82.5 

58.0 

1891 

81.1 

39.4 

80.8 

52.6 

1889 

80.0 

42.0 

1882 

28.9 

28.0 

28.0 

1894 

27.0 

34.0 

1894 

26.0 

26.0 

1897 

26.0 

32.5 

1871 

26.0 

32.5 

1874 

25.0 

1868 

24.0 

52.2 

1891 

24.0 

11.3 

1894 

24.0 

22.6 

1897 

24.0 

31.0 

1895 

23.6 

59.0 

1889 

28.0 

32.0 

1881 

21.8 

21.2 

20.5 

20.0 

28.0 

1891 

20.0 

1892 

19.7 

41.2 

19.1 

23.0 

1880 

19.1 

23.0 

678 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


THE   LARGE   REFRACTORS   OF   THE   WORLD 

(Continued) 


Institdtion 

<;2 

0  0 

North-Western  Observatory,  Illinois, 
U.  S.  A 

Dearborn  Observatory 

National  Observatory,  La  Plata,    .    . 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico 

Flower  Observatory,  Philadelphia, 
U.  S.  A., 

Vander  Zee  Observatory 

Royal   Observatory,   Cape  of   Good 

18.5 
18.5 
18.1 
18.0 

18.0 
18.0 

18.0 

27.0 

29.5 
26.3 

22.6 

1863 

iso'o 

1894 
1896 

1897 

Trades -unions.  A  trade  society  is  de- 
fined in  the  report  of  the  Social  Science  Commit- 
tee on  the  subject  appointed  at  Bradford,  in 
1859,  "as  a  combination  of  workmen  to  enable 
each  to  secure  the  conditions  most  favorable 
for  labor  " ;  and  although  trades-unions,  as  they 
are  generally  called,  almost  always  have  other 
objects  in  view  in  addition  to  that  specified  in 
the  definition,  that  object  is  their  distinguishing 
one.  Combinations  of  this  sort  in  Great  Britain 
are  considerably  more  than  three  centuries  old, 
for  there  is  a  statute  of  the  year  1548  expressly 
directed  against  them.  Traaes-unions  generally 
endeavor  to  regulate  the  prices  and  the  hours 
of  labor,  and  in  many  cases  the  number  of  men 
engaged  by  an  employer,  the  number  of  ap- 
prentices which  may  be  bound  in  proportion  to 
the  journeymen  employed  by  a  master,  and  the 
like.  As  accessories,  these  unions  roay  collect 
funds  for  benefit  societies,  and  undertake  the 
insurance  of  tools,  libraries,  and  reading-rooms; 
but  their  fund,  to  which  every  member  must 
regularly  contribute  a  stated  sum,  is  principally 
reserved  for  enabling  the  men  to  resist,  by  strikes 
and  otherwise,  such  action  on  the  part  of  the 
employers  as  would  tend  to  lower  the  rate  of 
wages  or  lengthen  the  hours  of  labor.  That 
trades-unions  enable  the  men  to  benefit  by  the 
state  of  trade  more  than  they  otherwise  would 
have  done  would  appear  from  the  fact  that  the 
worst-paid  trades  are  those  without  unions. 
Trades-unions  are  also  said  to  have  furthered 
the  safety  of  the  laborer  by  producing  beneficial 
modifications  of  the  conditions  in  which  he 
works.  Some  hostility  against  trades-unions 
has  been  produced  by  the  outrages  of  a  more  or 
less  serious  nature  of  which  some  of  the  unions, 
or  members  of  them,  have  been  guilty,  such  out- 
rages being  directed  against  the  property  of 
employers,  or  against  the  persons  and  tools 
of  non-union  men.  The  trades-imions  of  the 
United  States  embrace  over  27,000  local  organ- 
izations, and  about  2,000,000  affiliated  members; 
in  late  years  having  increased  rapidly.  In  1905, 
there  were  1,136  unions  in  Britain  with  a  mem- 
bership of  1,887,000. 

Trusts.  A  corporation  derives  certain  bene- 
fits from  the  state,  and  is  in  turn  subject  to  cer- 
tain state  control.  To  avoid  this  state  control, 
and  in  order  thus  to  enable  the  largest  firms  and 
corporations  in  any  particular  trade  to  com- 
bine, and  by  combined  action  to  limit  produc- 
tion and  raise  prices  while  killing  off  the  com- 


petition any  outsider  may  dare  to  offer,  what 
are  known  as  trusts  have  been  devised.  A 
trust  is  merely  the  combination  for  the  above 
purposes  of  the  large  interests  in  any  branch  of 
trade.  There  is  no  incorporation.  There  is  an 
agreement  between  the  parties ;  the  profits  of  all 
are  divided  into  certain  ascertained  proportions, 
and  the  public  cannot  from  any  sensible  sign 
know  whether  or  not  such  a  combination  exists. 
Secrecy  and  irresponsibility  are  its  objects. 

Turbine,  either  a  horizontal  or  vertical 
water-wheel,  made  to  revolve  by  the  escape  of 
water  through  orifices,  under  the  influence  of  pres- 
sure derived  from  a  fall.  Turbines  are  now  made 
after  a  vast  variety  of  patterns.  The  oldest  and 
simplest  is  the  Scotch  turbine,  or  Barker's  mill. 
In  another  common  form  the  water  passes  verti- 
cally down  through  the  wheel  between  the  fixed 
screw  blades,  which  give  it  a  spiral  motion,  and 
then  strike  similar  blades  attached  to  a  movable 
spindle,  but  placed  in  the  opposite  direction,  so 
that  the  impact  of  the  water  communicates  a 
rotatory  motion  to  the  blades  and  spindles. 
Or  the  water  may  be  passed  from  the  center 
horizontally  outwards  through  fixed  curved 
blades,  so  as  to  give  it  a  tangential  motion,  and 
thereby  cause  it  to  act  on  the  blades  of  the 
wheel  which  revolves  outside.  The  steam  tur- 
bine has  been  successfully  applied  to  the  pro- 
pulsion of  vessels,  notably  in  the  great  ocean 
liners,  "  Lusitania  "  and  "  Mauretania,"  and  is 
steadily  growing  in  favor.  The  number  of  vessels 
so  fitted  is  not  large,  but  the  development  is  none 
the  less  remarkable  when  we'  remember  that 

Cleasure,  and  cross-channel  steamers,  torpedo- 
oat  destroyers,  and  yachts  are  now  fitted  with 
these  engines,  while  ten  years  ago  not  one  tur- 
bine vessel  was  in  service.  The  principal  point 
in  favor  of  a  turbine  is,  that  it  has  no  reciprocat- 
ing motion,  like  that  of  the  piston  of  a  common 
engine,  and  therefore  the  hull  of  a  vessel  is  not 
shaken  so  much  as  by  reciprocating  engines. 
Turbine  engines  weigh  much  less,  and  occupy  less 
room,  than  ordinary  engines  of  the  same  power, 
so  that  passenger  accommodation  can  be  in- 
creased. Usually  three  sets  of  engines  are  em- 
ployed, each  driving  a  separate  propeller  shaft, 
which  again  conduces  to  steadiness  of  motion. 
Type.  The  name  given  to  the  stamps  or 
dies  which  impress  the  letters  on  the  paper  in 
printing.  Printers,  in  early  times,  made  the 
letters  which  they  used,  but  in  process  of  time 
the  necessity  for  a  division  of  labor  created  the 
distinct  business  of  type-founding.  The  type- 
metal  is  a  compound  of  lead  and  antimony, 
with  a  large  proportion  of  tin.  The  antimony 
gives  hardness  and  sharpness  of  edge  to  the 
composition,  while  the  tin  gives  toughness  and 
tenacity,  and  removes  the  brittleness  which 
antimony  causes  when  used  in  a  large  proportion 
without  tin.  The  proper  proportions  of  these 
metals  are  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  type,  a 
greater  quantity  of  antimony  being  employed 
for  small  letters.  A  complete  assortment  of 
types  is  called  a  font,  which  may  be  regulated 
to  any  extent.  Every  type-founder  has  a  scale 
showing  the  proportional  quantity  of  each  letter 
required  for  a  font;  and  a  peculiar  scale  is  re- 
quired for  every  language.  For  the  English  lan- 
guage, the  following  is  a  type-founder's  scale  for 


INDUSTRY,   INVENTION,   COMMERCE 


679 


the  small  letters  of  a  font  of  types  of  a  particular 
size  and  weight : 

•  6,400 


8,500 
1,600 
3,000 
4,400 
12,000 
2,500 
1,700 


8,000 
400 
800 
4,000 
3,000 
8,000 


8,000 
1,700 
500 
6.200 
8,000 
9,000 
3,400 


1,200 
2,000 

400 
2,000 

200 


Beginning  with  the  largest,  the  subjoined  specimens 
show  the  various  sizes  of  type  commonly  used  on  book- 
work.     

Eighteen  Point. 

Fourteen  Point.  Twelve  Point. 

Eleven  Point.       Ten  Point.       Nine  Point. 
Eight  Point.  Seven  Point.  Six  Point. 

Five  and  one-half  Point.       Five  Point.      Four  »nd  one-half  Point 

Thru.  Md  ona-hKlf  point. 

Emerald  ia  a  type  now  little  used,  and  in  size  is 
between  Seven  Point  and  Six  Point. 

Type-writer,  a  machine  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  pen,  and  by  which  the  letters  are 


produced  by  the  impression  of  inked  types. 
The  essential  elements  in  such  machines  are  a 
movement  to  bring  the  type  into  position,  an 
inking  device,  an  impression  movement,  and 
means  for  letter  and  line  spacing.  A  successful 
form  of  the  machine  has  a  series  of  letter  keys 
arranged  in  row^s,  to  be  worked  by  the  fingers  of 
both  hands,  a  letter  being  imprinted  on  the 
paper  (which  moves  automatically)  each  time 
a  key  is  struck.  The  best  known,  probably,  are 
the  Remington,  Hammond,  Bar-Lock,  Smith 
Premier,  Oliver,  Underwood,  Royal,  American, 
etc.  Many  improvements  have  been  made  from 
time  to  time.  One  of  the  latest  is  the  "  English  " 
typewriter,  which  has  only  two  rows  of  keys, 
numbering  twenty-nine  in  all.  Each  key  works 
a  lever  to  which  is  attached  a, capital  letter, 
an  ordinary  Roman  letter,  and  a  figure.  The 
capital  letters  and  the  figures  are  brought  into 
play  by  means  of  two  small  shift  stops,  and  the 
printing  as  it  is  performed  is  in  full  view  of  the 
operator. 


WORLD'S   SUBMARINE 

CABLES 

Country 

No.  OF 

Cables 
WITH  One 
OR  More 

Cores 

Length  in  Nautical  Miles 

Of 
Cables 

Of 

Conductors 

Argentine  Republic, ...        .    . 

13 
47 

1 
»  2 
23 

5 

157 

1 

26 

2 

1 

156 

7 

156 

3 

2 

1  89 

1  177 

46 

32 

5 

36 

103 

1 

1 

147 

16 

322 

4 

19 

,12 

1 

1 

3 

15 

1  17 

2 

'       4 

21 

1 

1 

59.824 
224.250 
211.000 
54.514 
37.779 
84.000 

2,168.013 

0.538 

334.750 

66.300 

113.000 

171.100 

891.490 

4,913.824 

1,567.238 

1,697.326 

2,796.695 

2,265.830 

54.931 

241.543 

7,837.770 

1,063.088 

2,154.883 

1.930 

1.000 

51.789 

285.682 

291.489 

115.050 

52.100 

328.282 

70.157 

3.000 

49.360 

1,771.346 

208.488 

9.827 

4.750 

346.558 

4.500 

3.750 

138.544 

235 . 339 

Baliamas, 

Belgium, 

211.000 
279.856 

66.414 

British  Guiana, .    . 

95.000 

British  India,  Indo-European  Telegraph  Department  Government 

1.711.885 

Bulgaria, 

Canada,     

0.538 
334 . 750 

Ceylon  and  India  (Joint) 

China, 

66.300 
113.000 

Denmark 

Dutch  Indies, 

880.300 
891.490 

5,847.200 

France  (West  Africa) 

1,567.238 

French  Indo-China  (Cochin  China,  Tonquin,  and  Amoy), 

Germany 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

1,697.326 
5,654.977 
7,551.994 

54.931 

Holland 

780.449 

Inter-Colonial  System, 

7,837.770 

Italy, ■ 

1,112.458 

2,851.173 

Macao, 

1.930 

New  Caledonia, ' 

1.000 

New  South  Wales, 

108.459 

290.466 

Norway, 

Portugal 

375.787 
115.050 

Queensland, 

67.520 
408.387 

70.157 

Senegal, 

3.000 

49.360 

Spain, 

1,771.346  ■ 

Sweden • 

368.431 

Switzerland, ^ .    . 

Tasmania, * 

13.400 
19.000 

368.734 

Victoria : 

4.500 

Western  Australia,  .  " 

3.750 

Total  government-owned  cables 

1,378 

1,378 
437 

32,609.748 

32,609.748 
188,682.693 

44,006.813 

GENERAL    SUMMARY 

Government  administered, 

Private  Companies, 

Grand  totaj, 

1,815 

221,292.441 

680 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


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2; 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


Acetic  Acid.  An  acid  produced  by  the 
oxidation  of  common  alcohol,  and  of  many  other 
organic  substances.  Pure  acetic  acid  has  a  very 
sour  taste  and  pungent  smell,  burns  the  skin, 
and  is  poisonous.  From  freezing  at  ordinary 
temperatures  (58°  or  59°)  it  is  known  as  glacial 
acetic  acid.  Vinegar  is  simply  dilute  acetic  acid, 
and  is  prepared  by  subjecting  wine  or  weak 
spirit  to  the  action  of  the  air;  also  from  malt 
which  has  undergone  vinous  fermentation. 
Acetic  acid,  both  concentrated  and  dilute,  is 
largely  used  in  the  arts,  in  medicine,  and  for 
domestic  purposes. 

Acetylene.  A  gaseous  hydro-carbon;  it 
is  a  constituent  of  coal-gas,  and  burns  with  a 
bright,  smoky  flame.  A  method  of  preparing 
acetylene  in  large  quantities  has  been  recently 
devised,  by  the  use  of  carbide  of  calcium,  form- 
erly a  rare  and  expensive  product,  but  now 
manufactured  cheaply  and  abundantly  in  the 
electric  furnace.  When  this  substance  is  thrown 
into  water  a  rapid  chemical  transformation  takes 
place,  and  acetylene  is  given  off  as  one  of  its 
products.  It  has  also  been  discovered  that  if 
this  gas  be  passed  through  pipes  and  burned  at 
a  small  aperture,  hke  ordinary  illuminating  gas, 
it  yields  an  intense  white  flame,  surpassing  in 
brilliancy  any  light  known  but  the  arc  electric 
light.  By  compression,  acetylene  can  be  re- 
duced to  the  liquid  state,  and  if  permitted  to 
escape  slowly  into  pipes,  can  be  burned  for  house 
illumination. 

Acid.  A  class  of  compounds  whose  general 
properties  are:  solubility  in  water;  sour  taste; 
power  of  reddening  litmus;  faculty  of  decom- 
posing carbonates  with  effervescence;  and  the 
power  of  neutralizing  alkalies  and  bases,  form- 
ing salts.  The  progress  of  modern  chemistry  is 
gradually  rendering  the  term  acids  less  definite; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  will  be  dropped 
altogether  in  strictly  scientific  writing,  although 
in  ordinary  language  it  will  be  retained  as  a 
convenient  term  for  expressing  a  very  wide  class 
of  substances.  All  the  above  characteristics  are 
seldom  possessed  together,  many  acids  having 
only  one  or  two  of  these  properties,  and  some 
substances  which  are  not  acids  possessing  all  of 
them.  Thus,  silicic  acid  is  not  soluble  in  water, 
has  no  sour  taste,  and  does  not  redden  litmus. 

Acoustics  (a-hou'stiks).  The  science  of 
sound.  It  teaches  the  cause,  nature,  and  phe- 
nomena of  such  vibrations  of  elastic  bodies  as 
affect  the  organ  of  hearing ;  the  manner  in  which 
sound  is  produced,  its  transmission  through  air 
and  other  media,  the  doctrine  of  reflected  sound 
or  echoes,  the  properties  and  effects  of  different 
sounds,  including  musical  sounds  or  notes,  and 
the  structure  and  action  of  the  organ  of  hearing, 
etc.  The  propagation  of  sound  is  analogous  to 
that  of  light,  both  being  due  to  vibrations  which 
produce  successive  waves,  and  Newton  was  the 
first  to  show  that  its  propagation  through  any 
medium  depended  upon  the  elasticity  of  that 


medium.  Regarding  the  intensity,  reflection, 
and  refraction  of  sound,  much  the  same  rules 
apply  as  in  light.  In  ordinary  cases  of  hearing 
the  vibrating  medium  is  air,  but  all  substances 
capable  of  vibrating  may  be  employed  to  propa- 
gate and  convey  sound.  When  a  bell  is  struck 
its  vibrations  are  communicated  to  the  particles 
of  air  surrounding  it,  and  from  these  to  particles 
outside  them,  until  they  reach  the  ear  of  the 
listener.  The  intensity  of  sound  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  body  sound- 
ing from  the  ear.  Sound  travels  through  the 
air  at  the  rate  of  about  1,090  feet  per  second; 
through  water  at  the  rate  of  about  4,700  feet. 
Sounds  may  be  musical  or  non-musical.  A  mu- 
sical sound  is  caused  by  a  regular  series  of  ex- 
actly similar  pulses  succeeding  each  other  at 
precisely  equal  intervals  of  time.  If  these  con- 
ditions are  not  fulfilled  the  soinid  is  a  noise. 
Musical  sounds  are  comparatively  simple,  and 
are  combined  to  give  pleasing  sensations  accord- 
ing to  easy  numerical  relations.  The  loudness 
of  a  note  depends  on  the  degree  to  which  it  af- 
fects the  ear ;  the  pitch  of  a  note  depends  on  the 
number  of  vibrations  to  the  second  which  pro- 
duce the  note;  the  timbre,  quality,  or  character 
of  a  note  depends  on  the  body  or  bodies  whose 
vibrations  produce  the  sound,  and  is  due  to  the 
form  of  the  paths  of  vibrating  particles.  The 
gamut  is  a  series  of  eight  notes,  which  are  called 
by  the  names,  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  D02 ; 
and  the  numbers  of  vibrations  which  produce 
these  notes  are  respectively  proportional  to  24, 
27,  30,  32,  36,  40,  45,  48.  The  numerical  value 
of  the  interval  between  any  two  notes  is  given 
by  dividing  one  of  the  above  numbers  corre- 
sponding to  the  higher  note  by  the  number  cor- 
responding to  the  lower  note.  The  intervals 
from  Do  to  each  of  the  others  are  called  a  second, 
a  major  third,  a  fourth,  a  fifth,  a  sixth,  a  seventh, 
and  an  octave,  respectively.  The  interval  from 
La  to  D02  is  a  minor  third.  An  interval  of  f  is  a 
major  tone;  ^9°  is  a  minor  tone;  |f  is  called  a 
limma.  The  properties  of  soimd  were  mathe- 
matically investigated  by  Bacon  and  Galileo, 
but  it  remained  tor  Newton,  Lagrange,  Euler, 
Laplace,  Helmholtz,  etc.,  to  bring  the  science  to 
its  present  state. 

Aerolite.  A  stone  falling  from  the  air  or 
atmospheric  regions;  a  meteoric  stone;  some 
suppose  them  to  be  projected  by  lunar  vol- 
canoes, by  others  they  are  thought  to  be  formed 
in  the  air  by  the  union  of  simpler  forms  of  matter 
volatilized  from  the  earth's  surface;  but  they 
are  doubtless  cosmical  bodies  of  the  same  nature 
as  shooting-stars,  revolving  round  the  earth,  and 
falling  when  they  come  within  its  attraction. 
Analyzed,  they  are  found  to  consist  of  twenty- 
two  of  the  elements  found  in  terrestrial  minerals, 
the  most  prominent  being  malleable  metallic 
iron  and  nickel. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  Educational 
institutions,  chiefly  under  government  patron- 


684 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


age,  for  the  promotion  of  scientific  farming.  In 
1862,  the  United  States  Congress  passed  a  so- 
called  land  grant  act,  by  which  land  scrip,  repre- 
senting 30,000  acres  for  every  Senator  and  Rep- 
resentative, was  issued  to  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories, the  object  being  to  provide  a  special  fund 
for  the  creation  of  State  and  Territorial  agri- 
cultural colleges.  The  land  granted  to  the 
States  by  the  act  of  1862  amounted  to  somewhat 
more  than  10,000,000  acres,  which  by  1900  had 

i)roduced  a  permanent  fund  of  $10,262,944,  with 
ands  still  unsold  of  the  estimated  value  of 
$4,062,850,  the  entire  proceeds  being  in  round 
numbers  somewhat  over  $14,250,000.  To  this 
have  been  added  other  land-grant  funds  amount- 
ing to  $1,441,577;  other  permanent  funds,  $14,- 
442,194;  farms  and  grounds,  $5,543,108;  build- 
ings, $16,274,000;  apparatus,  $1,955,859;  ma- 
chinery, $1,373,696;  libraries,  $1,854,942;  and 
miscellaneous  equipment,  $1,997,690,  making  a 
grand  total  of  permanent  plant  of  the  value  of 
$58,944,137.  On  this  basis  sixty- five  of  these 
institutions  have  been  established. 

Three  of  the  land-grant  colleges  in  Southern 
States  (Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina)  have  recently  established  courses  of 
study  in  textile  industry,  with  special  reference 
to  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods.  These  in- 
stitutions have  provided  buildings  of  regular 
cotton-mill  design,  equipped  with  machinery  and 
apparatus  for  textile  work. 

The  Act  of  1862  was  supplemented  by  a 
second  (August  30,  1890),  so  that  under  both 
acts,  each  State  and  Territory  having  an 
agricultural  college  receives  an  appropriation 
annually  from  the  United  States  treasury  for  its 
support.  The  past  few  years  have  witnessed 
the  establishment  of  short  courses  of  study  in 
agriculture,  dairying,  mechanic  arts,  household 
economy,  etc.,  for  persons  who  caimot  take  a 
regular  course. 

Albumen  or  Albumin  (L.,  from  albus, 
white).  A  substance,  or  rather  group  of  sub- 
stances, so  named  from  thfe  Latin  for  the  white 
of  an  egg,  which  is  one  of  its  most  abundant 
known  forms.  It  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of 
the  protein  compounds  or  the  nitrogenous  class 
of  food  stuffs.  One  variety  enters  largely  into 
the  composition  of  the  animal  fluids  and  solids, 
is  coagulable  by  heat  at  and  above  160°,  and  is 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen,  with  a  little  sulphur.  It  abounds  in 
the  serum  of  the  blood,  the  vitreous  and  crystal- 
line humors  of  the  eye,  the  fluid  of  dropsy,  the 
substance  called  coagulable  lymph,  in  nutritive 
matters,  the  juice  of  flesh,  etc.  The  blood  con- 
tains about  seven  per  cent,  of  albumen.  Another 
variety  called  vegetable  albumen  exists  in  most 
vegetable  juices  and  many  seeds,  and  has  nearly 
the  same  composition  and  properties  as  egg  al- 
bumen. When  albumen  coagulates  in  any 
fluid  it  readily  encloses  any  substances  that  may 
be  suspended  in  the  fluid.  Hence  it  is  used  to 
clarify  syrupy  liquors.  In  cookery  white  of 
eggs  is  employed  for  clarifying,  but  in  large 
operations  like  sugar-refining  the  serum  of  blood 
is  used.  From  its  being  coagulable  by  various 
salts,  and  especially  by  corrosive  sublimate, 
with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble  compound, 
white  of  egg  is  a  convenient  antidote  in  cases 


of  poisoning  by  that  substance.  With  lime  It 
forms  a  cement  to  mend  broken  ware. 

In  botany  the  name  albumen  is  given  to  the 
farinaceous  matter  which  surrounds  the  embryo, 
the  term  in  this  case  having  no  reference  to 
chemical  composition.  It  constitutes  the  meat 
of  the  cocoanut,  the  flour  or  meal  of  cereals, 
the  roasted  part  of  coffee,  etc. 

Alchemy  (from  the  Arabic  article  al  and 
kimia,  secret,  hidden),  a  false  science,  founded 
on  no  true  scientific  principles,  which  existed  in 
sorne  form  or  other  from  the  earliest  ages,  but 
which,  in  Europe  at  least,  was  made  the  subject 
of  considerable  study  and  research  during  the 
period  extending  from  the  Twelfth  to  the  Seven- 
teenth Century.  Although  it  was  unproductive 
in  itself,  we  are  yet  indebted  to  it,  if  not  as  the 
parent  of  modern  chemistry,  at  any  rate  as  the 
science  out  of  which  chemistry  has  been  largely 
developed.  The  enthusiasts  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  this  subject  were  styled  Alchemists, 
and  the  task  which  they  set  themselves  to  per- 
form was  threefold,  viz:  (1)  to  discover  the 
philosopher's  stone,  a  mineral  that  would,  by 
mere  contact,  transmute  the  baser  metals  into 
gold ;  (2)  to  prepare  the  elixir  of  life,  a  substance 
which  would  prolong  life  indefinitely;  and  (3) 
to  discover  the  alcahest,  or  universal  solvent. 
These  three  substances,  and  more  especially 
the  first,  they  firmly  believed  to  be  obtainable, 
and  to  need  only  a  fortunate  combination  of 
materials  for  the  production  of  each  of  them; 
and,  accordingly,  fortunes  were  expended,  and 
lives  wasted,  in  these  futile  endeavors.  The 
history  of  Alchemy  is  somewhat  obscure  and 
unconnected,  owing  to  the  secrecy  with  which 
its  operations  were  carried  on ;  but  among  the 
most  prominent  characters  connected  with  it 
may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  English  monk, 
Roger  Bacon,  to  whom  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder is  popularly  attributed,  and  who  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "  The  Mirror  of  Alchymy." 

Alembic.  The  alembic  is  one  of  the  old- 
est forms  of  vessels  for  distillation,  and  the 
type  of  all  later  kinds  of  apparatus  for  that 
purpose.  It  consists  of  a  flask,  composed  of 
either  glass  or  copper,  with  a  wide  neck,  on 
which  is  fitted  a  head  connected  with  a  down- 
ward running  tube,  the  whole  so  arranged  that 
all  vapors  condensed  against  the  inside  of  the 
head  run  through  a  surrounding  gutter  to  the 
tube  and  so  into  a  receiver.  In  some  manu- 
facturing processes  alembics  are  still  advan- 
tageously employed,  more  so  in  France  than 
elsewhere.  For  the  larger  chemical  processes, 
however,  it  is  now  largely  superseded  by  the 
retort  and  worm-still. 

Alexandrian  Library,  the  largest  col- 
lection of  books  of  the  ancient  world,  founded 
by  Ptolemy  Soter  in  the  city  of  Alexandria 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  Third  Century  B.  C. 
At  one  time  it  is  said  to  have  contained  700,000 
manuscripts,  embracing  the  collected  literature 
of  Rome,  Greece,  India,  and  Egypt.  It  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire  by  a  mob  of  fanatic 
Christians  in  A.  D.  391,  and  was  finally  dispersed 
or  destroyed  during  the  siege  of  Alexandria  by 
the  Arabs  under  Amru  (A.  D.  638). 

Alimentary  Canal.  Another  name  for 
the  digestive  tract  of  an  animal.     It  includes  the 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


683 


whole  passage  traversed  by  the  substances  taken 
in  as  food,  from  their  entrance  into  the  mouth 
to  the  excretion  of  the  indigestible  residue  from 
the  rectum.  In  the  mammalia  it  is  made  up  of 
the  following  parts,  viz:  (1)  the  mouth;  (2)  the 
pharynx,  a  funnel-shaped  cavity  at  the  back  of 
the  mouth,  which  communicates  with  the  nos- 
trils; (3)  the  (Esophagus  or  gullet,  a  straight  and 
narrow  tube  which  pierces  through  the  dia- 
phragm or  midriff;  (4)  the  stomach,  a  bag-pipe 
shaped  cavity,  the  wide  expanded  part  of  which 
is  termed  the  cardiac  pouch,  and  the  narrow, 
tapering  part  the  pylorus;  (5)  the  small  intestine, 
remarkable  for  its  length  and  for  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  necessarily  coiled,  and  divided,  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  into  three  parts,  the 
duodenum,  the  jejunum,  and  the  ileum;  (6)  the 
large  intestine,  which  is  thick,  and  presents  ex- 
ternally a  peculiar,  gathered-up  appearance,  also 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  ascending,  trans- 
verse, and  descending  colon;  (7)  the  rectum,  a 
short,  wide,  smooth  tube,  the  terminal  aperture 
of  which  is  called  the  anus.  A  portion  of  the 
large  intestine  which  projects  beyond  the  point 
of  its  union  with  the  small  intestine  is  called  the 
coecum,  and  a  little  worm-like  appendage  to  this 
caecum,  the  function  of  which  has  not  exactly 
been  determined,  is  called  the  vermiform  appen- 
dix. The  commencement  as  well  as  the  end  of 
the  small  intestine,  is  guarded  by  valves  —  the 
pyloric  valve,  in  the  form  of  a  sphincter  muscle, 
separating  the  pylorus  from  the  duodenum,  and 
the  ileo-coecal  valve,  separating  the  ileum  from 
the  large  intestine. 

Alkaloids.  The  name  given  to  a  series  of 
bodies  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
which  closely  resemble  in  their  chemical  action 
the  volatile  alkali  ammonia.  They  all  contain 
nitrogen,  and  exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
ray  of  polarized  light.  Like  ammonia,  they 
combine  directly  with  acids  to  form  salts.  The 
alkaloids  act  most  powerfully  on  the  animal 
economy;  some,  such  as  strychnine  and  nico- 
tine, form  the  most  violent  poisons  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  while  others,  such  as  quinine 
and  morphine,  are  valuable  medicines. 

Aluminium  {&l-u-min'e-Um).  A  metal  of 
which  the  earth  alumina,  the  chief  constituent 
of  clay,  is  an  oxide.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that 
chemists  have  succeeded  in  inventing  a  process 
for  extracting  it  in  sufficient  quantities  and  suffi- 
ciently cheap  to  enable  it  to  be  used  for  manu- 
facturing purposes.  It  has  a  white  color  some- 
what resembling  tin ;  its  specific  gravity  is  only 
2.6  (about  that  of  common  glass),  and  hence  it 
is  frequently  used  in  the  construction  of  articles 
where  lightness  is  an  object.  The  melting  point 
is  much  below  that  of  silver.  When  heated  in 
oxygen  it  burns  with  brilliancy  and  produces 
alumina.  It  is  not  affected  by  sulpnuretted 
hydrogen  like  silver.  From  its  sonorousness  it 
will  probably  be  employed  in  the  construction 
of  musical  instruments.  With  from  92^  to  95 
per  cent,  of  copper  it  forms  an  alloy  named 
aluminium-bronze,  which  is  scarcely  distinguish- 
able by  the  eye  from  gold,  whilst  it  is  nearly  as 
hard  as  iron.  This  alloy  is  coming  into  use  in 
the  manufacture  of  ornamental  articles. 

Amphibia.  A  class  of  vertebrate  ani- 
mals, which  in  their  early  life  breathe  by  gills 


or  branchiae,  and  afterwards  partly  or  entirely 
by  lungs.  The  frog,  breathing  in  its  tadpole 
state  by  gills  and  afterwards  throwing  off  these 
organs  and  breathing  entirely  by  lungs  in  its 
adult  state,  is  an  example  of  the  latter  phase  of 
amphibian  existence.  The  Proteus  of  the  under- 
ground caves  of  Central  Europe  exemplifies 
forms  in  which  the  gills  of  early  life  are  retained 
throughout  life,  and  in  which  lungs  are  developed 
in  addition  to  the  gills.  A  second  character  of 
this  group  consists  in  the  presence  of  two  occipital 
"condyles,"  or  processes  by  means  of  which 
the  skull  articulates  with  the  spine  or  vertebral 
column;  Reptiles  possessing  one  condyle  only. 
The  class  is  divided  into  four  orders :  the  Ophio- 
morpha  (or  serpentiform),  represented  by  the 
blindworms,  in  which  limbs  are  wanting  and 
the  body  is  snake-like ;  the  Urodela  or  "  Tailed  " 
Amphibians,  including  the  newts,  proteus,  siren, 
etc.;  the  Anoura,  or  Tailless  Amphibia,  repre- 
sented by  the  frogs  and  toads;  and  the  Laby- 
rinthodontia,  which  includes  the  extinct  forms 
known  as  Labyrinthodons. 

Aorta.  In  anatomy,  the  great  artery  or 
trunk  of  the  arterial  system,  proceeding  from 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  giving  origin 
to  all  the  arteries  except  the  pulmonary.  It 
first  rises  towards  the  top  of  the  breast-bone, 
when  it  is  called  the  ascending  aorta ;  then  makes 
a  great  curve,  called  the  transverse  or  great  arch 
of  the  aorta,  whence  it  gives  off  branches  to  the 
head  and  upper  extremities;  thence  proceeding 
towards  the  lower  extremities,  under  the  name 
of  the  descending  aorta,  it  gives  off  branches  to 
the  trunk ;  and  finally  divides  into  the  two  iliacs, 
which  supply  the  pelvis  and  lower  extremities. 

Apocrypha  (from  the  Greek  apokrupto,  I 
conceal).  'The  name  given  especially  to  those 
additional  Jewish  writings  which  are  not  con- 
tained in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  or  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  which  were  introduced  into  the  Sep-' 
tuagint,  from  whence  they  were  transferred  into 
the  Vulgate,  and  into  many  subsequent  trans- 
lations. By  the  Jews  they  are  not  held  to  be 
canonical.  They  are  received  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church;  but  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  by  other  Protestant  Churches,  though 
they  are  held  to  be  of  value  for  historical  pur- 
poses and  for  "instruction  of  manners,"  they 
are  not  used  for  "establishment  of  doctrine." 
Besides  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  belong  to  the  literature  of  the  later  Jews, 
there  are  certain  apocryphal  Christian  writings, 
which  are  usually  described  as  the  Apocrypha 
of  the  New  Testament. 

Apostle.  One  who  is  sent  off  or  away 
from;  one  sent  on  some  important  mission;  a 
messenger;  a  missionary.  The  name  given, 
in  the  Christian  Church,  to  the  twelve  men 
whom  Jesus  selected  from  His  disciples  as  the 
best  instructed  in  His  doctrines,  and  the  fittest 
instruments  for  the  propagation  of  His  religion. 
Their  names  were  as  follows:  Simon  Peter, 
Andrew,  his  brother;  James  the  greater,  and 
John,  his  brother,  who  were  sons  of  Zebedee; 
Phihp  of  Bethsaida,  Bartholomew,  Thomas, 
Matthew ;  James,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  commonly 
called  James  the  less;  Lebbeus,  his  brother, 
who  was  surnamed  Thaddeus,  and  was  called 
Judas,    or   Jude;     Simon    the    Canaanite,    and 


686 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Judas  Iscariot.  Of  this  number,  Simon  Peter, 
John,  James  the  greater,  and  Andrew  were 
fishermen;  and  Matthew,  a  publican  or  tax- 
gatherer.  When  the  apostles  were  reduced  to 
eleven,  by  the  suicide  of  Judas,  who  had  be- 
trayed Christ,  they  chose  Matthias  by  lot,  on 
the  proposition  of  St.  Peter.  Soon  after,  their 
number  became  thirteen,  by  the  miraculous 
vocation  of  Saul,  who  under  the  name  of  Paul 
became  one  of  the  most  zealous  propagators  of 
the  Christian  faith. 

Arabian  Numerals.  The  numeral  char- 
acters now  used  in  our  arithmetic.  They 
were  introduced  into  Europe  (Spain)  about  the 
close  of  the  Tenth  Century,  by  the  Moors  or 
Arabs;  but  they  were  known 'to  the  Hindus  as 
early  as  the  Sixth  Century,  and  they  might  more 
properly  therefore  be  called  Hindu  numerals. 
They  were  brought  to  England  in  the  Fourteenth 
or  Fifteenth  Century,  but  their  use  was  not  gen- 
eral till  the  introduction  of  the  art  of  printing. 
Up  to  the  Sixteenth  Century,  accounts  continued 
to  be  kept  in  the  old  Roman  numerals. 

Arian.  A  follower  of  Arius,  Presbyter  of 
Alexandria  in  the  Fourth  Century  A.  D.,  or  one 
holding  the  system  of  doctrine  associated  with 
his  name.  In  the  year  317,  Alexander,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  having  publicly  expressed  his 
opinion  that  the  Son  of  God  is  not  only  of  the 
same  dignity  as  the  Father,  but  of  the  same 
essfence  (in  Greek,  ousia).  Arius,  one  of  the 
Presbyters,  considered  this  view  as  leaning  too 
much  to  Sabellianism,  and,  rushing  to  the  other 
extreme,  he  declared  that  the  Son  of  God  was 
only  the  first  and  noblest  of  created  beings,  and 
though  the  universe  had  been  brought  into  ex- 
istence through  His  instrumentality  by  the 
Eternal  Father,  yet  to  that  Eternal  Father  He 
was  inferior,  not  merely  in  dignity,  but  in  es- 
sence. The  views  of  Arius  commended  them- 
selves to  multitudes,  while  they  were  abhorrent 
to  still  more;  fierce  controversy  respecting 
them  broke  out,  and  the  whole  Christian  world 
was  soon  compelled  to  take  sides.  The  Arians 
greatly  weakened  themselves  by  splitting  into 
sects,  and  the  doctrines  regarding  the  relation 
of  the  three  Divine  Personages  authoritatively 
proclaimed  at  Nice  were  at  last  all  but  univer- 
sally adopted.  They  may  be  found  detailed  in 
what  are  popularly  termed  the  Nicene  and  the 
Athanasian  Creeds.  They  were  held  almost 
without  a  dissentient  voice  through  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  were  cordially  accepted  by  the  leading 
reformers. 

Arteries.  The  blood-vessels  by  which  the 
blood  is  carried  out  from  the  heart,  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  general  system  and  to  the  lungs. 
The  arteries  which  proceed  to  the  general  system 
all  commence  in  one  large  vessel,  the  aorta, 
which  divides  and  subdivides  into  a  large  num- 
ber of  branches,  which  become,  like  those  of  a 
tree,  more  and  more  minute  as  they  are  farther 
removed  from  the  trunk,  until  they  ultimately 
terminate  in  what  are  called  the  capillaries. 
These  arteries  all  contain  pure,  oxidized,  scarlet 
blood,  which  is  hence  known  as  arterial  blood. 
The  arteries  which  proceed  to  the  lungs,  on  the 
other  hand, —  the  pulmonary  arteries,  as  they 
are  called, —  are  two  vessels  which  have  their 
origin  in  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and 


carry  the  blood  to  the  right  and  left  lung  re- 
spectively. They  contain  unpurified,  dark- 
colored  blood,  the  same  as  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  veins,  and  hence  known  as  venous 
blood.  The  principal  arteries  are  the  two  carotid 
arteries,  which  supply  the  head;  the  two  sub- 
clavian arteries,  which  proceed  to  the  arms  or 
front  limbs ;  the  two  iliac  arteries,  to  the  legs  or 
hind  limbs;  the  coeliac  axis,  which  suppHes  the 
liver,  spleen,  stomach,  and  intestines;  and  the 
renal  arteries,  which  supply  the  kidneys.  The 
arteries  and  the  veins  may  readily  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other  in  the  dead  body,  the 
former  being  round  or  cylindrical,  and  having 
their  walls  comparatively  stiff  and  thick,  while 
the  walls  of  the  latter  are  collapsed  and  flaccid. 
It  is  owing  to  this  fact  that  an  artery  when  cut 
continues  to  bleed  until  death  ensues,  and  the 
only  way  to  arrest  the  bleeding  is  to  tie  the 
severed  end  nearest  the  heart ;  the  flow  of  blood, 
too,  from  a  cut  artery  is  of  a  jet-like  nature, 
owing  to  the  force  with  which  the  blood  is  pro- 
pelled from  the  heart,  while  from  a  cut  vein  the 
blood  merely  trickles  out.  The  inner  lining  of 
the  arteries  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  there  are 
no  valves  as  in  the  veins.  The  arteries  derived 
their  name  from  the  fact  of  their  having  been 
supposed  by  the  ancients  to  contain  air,  being 
generally  found  empty  after  death. 

Articles,  The  Thirty -nine,  of  the 
Church  of  England,  a  statement  of  the  particular 
points  of  doctrine,  thirty-nine  in  number,  main- 
tained by  the  English  Church ;  first  promulgated 
by  a  convocation  held  in  London  in  1562-1563, 
and  confirmed  by  royal  authority;  founded  on 
and  superseding  an  older  code  issued  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  five  first  articles  con- 
tain a  profession  of  faith  in  the  Trinity;  the 
incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  descent  to  Hell 
and  His  resurrection;  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  three  following  relate  to  the  canon 
of  the  Scripture.  The  eighth  article  declares  a 
belief  in  the  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athanasian 
creeds.  The  ninth  and  following  articles  con- 
tain the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  of  justification 
by  faith  alone,  of  predestination,  etc.  The  nine- 
teenth, twentieth,  and  twenty-first  declare  the 
Church  to  be  the  assembly  of  the  faithful;  that 
it  can  decide  nothing  except  by  the  Scriptures. 
The  twenty-second  rejects  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory, indulgences,  the  adoration  of  images, 
and  the  invocation  of  saints.  The  twenty-third 
decides  that  only  those  lawfully  called  shall 
preach  or  administer  the  sacraments.  The 
twenty-fourth  requires  the  liturgy  to  be  in  Eng- 
lish. The  twenty-fifth  and  twenty-sixth  declare 
the  sacraments  effectual  signs  of  grace  (though 
administered  by  evil  men),  by  which  God  ex- 
cites and  confirms  our  faith.  They  are  two: 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism,  ac- 
cording to  the  twenty-seventh  article,  is  a  sign 
of  regeneration,  the  seal  of  our  adoption,  by 
which  faith  is  confirmed  and  grace  increased. 
In  the  Lord's  Supper,  according  to  article 
twenty-eighth,  the  bread  is  the  conmiunion  of 
the  body  of  Christ,  the  wine  the  communion  of 
His  blood,  but  only  through  faith  (article  29); 
and  the  communion  must  be  administered  in 
both  kinds  (article  30).  The  twenty-eighth 
article  condemns  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


687 


tion,  and  the  elevation  and  adoration  of  the 
Host;  the  thirty-first  rejects  the  sacrifice  of 
the  mass  as  blasphemous;  the  thirty-second 
permits  the  marriage  of  the  clergy;  the  thirty- 
third  maintains  the  efficacy  of  excommuni- 
cation. The  remaining  articles  relate  to  the 
supremacy  of  the  king,  the  condemnation  of 
Anabaptists,  etc.  They  were  ratified  anew  in 
1604  and  1628. 

Asteroids,  or  Planetoids.  A  numerous 
group  of  very  small  planets  revolving  round  the 
sun  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter, 
remarkable  for  the  eccentricity  of  their  orbits 
and  the  large  size  of  their  angle  of  inclination  to 
the  ecliptic.  The  diameter  of  the  largest  is  not 
supposed  to  exceed  450  miles,  while  most  of  the 
others  are  very  much  smaller.  They  number 
over  330,  and  new  members  are  being  constantly 
discovered.  Ceres,  the  first  of  them,  was  dis- 
covered January  1,  1801,  and  within  three  years 
more  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta  were  seen.  The 
extraordinary  smallness  of  these  bodies,  and 
their  nearness  to  each  other,  gave  rise  to  the 
opinion  that  they  were  but  the  fragments  of  a 

Elanet  that  had  formerly  existed  and  had  been 
rought  to  an  end  by  some  catastrophe.  For 
nearly  forty  years  investigations  were  carried 
on,  but  no  more  planets  were  discovered  till 
December  8,  1845,  when  a  fifth  planet  in  the 
same  region  was  discovered.  The  rapid  succes- 
sion of  discoveries  that  followed  was  for  a  time 
taken  as  a  corroboration  of  the  disruptive  theory, 
but  the  breadth  of  the  zone  occupied  makes  the 
hypothesis  of  a  shattered  planet  more  than 
doubtful.  Their  mean  distances  from  the  sun 
vary  between  200,000,000  and  300,000,000  miles  ; 
the  periods  of  revolution  between  1,191  days 
(Flora)  and  2,868  (Hilda).  Their  eccentricities 
and  inclinations  are  on  the  average  greater  than 
those  of  the  earth,  but  their  total  mass  does  not 
exceed  one-fourth  that  of  the  earth. 

Athanasian  Creed.  A  formulary  or 
confession  of  faith,  said  to  have  been  drawn  up 
by  Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  the 
Fourth  Century,  to  justify  himself  against  the 
calumnies  of  his  Arian  enemies.  That  it  was 
really  composed  by  this  father  seems  more  than 
doubtful;  and  modern  divines  generally  concur 
in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Waterland,  that  it  was 
written  by  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries,  in  the  Fifth 
Century.  It  is  certainly  very  ancient;  for  it 
had  become  so  famous  in  the  Sixth  Century  as  to 
be  commented  upon,  together  with  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  Apostles'  Creed,  by  Venantius  For- 
tunatus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, then  styled  the  Athanasian  Creed,  but 
simply  the  Catholic  Faith.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  received  the  name  of  Athanasius  on  ac- 
count of  its  agreeing  with  his  doctrines,  and 
being  an  excellent  summary  of  the  subjects  of 
controversy  between  him  and  the  Arians.  The 
true  key  to  the  Athanasian  Creed  lies  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  errors  to  which  it  was  opposed. 
The  Sabellians  considered  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit  as  one  in  person;  this  was  "con- 
founding the  persons":  the  Arians  considered 
them  as  differing  in  essence;  this  was  "dividing 
the  substance";  and  against  these  two  errors 
was  the  creed  originally  framed.  This  creed 
was  used  in  France  about  the  year  850;    was 


received  in  Spain  about  100  years  later,  and  in 
Germany  about  the  same  time.  It  was  both 
said  and  sung  in  England  in  the  Tenth  Century; 
was  commonly  used  in  Italy  at  the  expiration 
of  that  century,  and  at  Rome  a  little  later. 
This  creed  is  appointed  to  be  read  in  the  Church 
of  England. 

Atom.  A  part  so  small  as  not  to  be  divis- 
ible. An  ultimate  particle  of  matter.  Two 
opinions,  directly  opposed  to  each  other,  have 
long  had  currency  with  regard  to  the  constitu- 
ent particles  of  material  things;  the  one,  that 
matter  is  composed  of  an  assemblage  of  minute 
particles,  or  atoms,  incapable  of  further  division ; 
the  other,  that  there  is  no  limit  to  its  divisibility, 
the  smallest  conceivable  particle  still  consisting 
of  an  infinity  of  parts.  The  first  of  these  the- 
ories, which  is  commonly  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Atomic  Philosophy,  was  originated  in 
Greece  by  Leucippus;  it  was  supported  by 
Democritus,  and  subsequently  improved  by 
Epicurus  and  his  disciples.  The  Epicureans 
professed  to  account  for  the  origin  and  forma- 
tion of  all  things  by  supposing  that  these  atoms 
were  endued  with  gravity  and  motion,  and  thus 
came  together  into  the  different  organized  bodies 
we  now  see. 

Atomic  Theory.  A  theory  as  to  the 
existence  and  properties  of  atoms  (see  Atom); 
especially,  in  chemistry,  the  theory  accounting 
for  the  fact  that  in  compound  bodies  the  ele- 
ments combine  in  certain  constant  proportions, 
by  assuming  that  all  bodies  are  composed  of 
ultimate  atoms,  the  weight  of  which  is  different 
in  different  kinds  of  matter.  It  is  associated 
with  the  name  of  Dalton,  who  systematized  and 
extended  the  imperfect  results  of  his  predeces- 
sors. On  its  practical  side  the  atomic  theory 
asserts   three  Laws  of  Combining   Proportions: 

(1)  the  Law  of  Constant  or  Definite  Proportions, 
teaching  that  in  every  chemical  compound  the 
nature  and  proportion  of  the  constituent  ele- 
ments are  definite  and  invariable;  thus  water 
invariably  consists  of  eight  parts  by  weight  of 
oxygen   to  one   part  by  weight  of  hydrogen; 

(2)  the  Law  of  Combination  in  Multiple  Propor- 
tions, according  to  which  the  several  proportions 
in  which  one  element  unites  with  another  in- 
variably bear  towards  each  other  a  simple  rela- 
tion; thus  one  part  by  weight  of  hydrogen 
unites  with  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  to 
form  water,  and  with  sixteen  parts  {i.  e.,  8  X  2) 
of  oxygen  to  form  peroxide  of  hydrogen;  (3) 
the  Law  of  Combination  in  Reciprocal  Propor- 
tions, that  the  proportions  in  which  two  elements 
combine  with  a  third  also  represent  the  propor- 
tions in  which,  or  in  some  simple  multiple  of 
which,  they  will  themselves  combine;  thus  in 
olefiant  gas  hydrogen  is  present  with  carbon  in 
the  proportion  of  one  to  six,  and  in  carbonic 
oxide  oxygen  is  present  with  carbon  in  the  pro- 
portion of  eight  to  six,  one  to  eight  being  also 
the  proportions  in  which  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
combine  with  each  other.     The  theory  that  these 

Croportional  numbers  are,  in  fact,  nothing  else 
ut  the  relative  weights  of  atoms  so  far  accounts 
for  the  phenomena  that  the  existence  of  these 
laws  might  have  been  predicted  by  the  aid  of 
the  atomic  hypothesis  long  before  they  were 
actually  discovered  by  analysis.     In  themselves, 


688 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


however,  the  laws  do  not  prove  the  theory  of 
the  existence  of  ultimate  particles  of  matter  of 
a  certain  relative  weight;  and,  although  many 
chemists,  even  without  expressly  adopting  the 
atomic  theory  itself,  have  followed  Dalton  in 
the  use  of  the  terms  atom  and  atomic  weight,  in 
preference  to  proportion,  combining  proportion, 
equivalent,  and  the  like,  yet  in  using  the  word 
atom  it  should  be  held  in  mind  that  it  merely 
denotes  the  proportions  in  which  elements  unite. 
These  will  remain  the  same  whether  the  atomic 
hypothesis  which  suggested  the  employment  of 
the  term  be  true  or  false.  Dalton  supposed  that 
the  atoms  of  bodies  are  spherical,  and  invented 
certain  symbols  to  represent  the  mode  in  which 
he  Qonceived  they  might  combine  together. 

Augsburgr,  Confession  of.  Name 
given  to  the  celebrated  declaration  of  faith,  com- 
piled by  Melanchthon,  revised  by  Luther  and 
other  reformers,  and  read  before  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg,  June  25,  1530.  It  consisted  of 
twenty-eight  articles,  seven  of  which  refuted 
Roman  Catholic  errors,  and  the  remaining 
twenty-one  set  forth  the  Lutheran  creed.  Soon 
after  its  promulgation,  the  last  hope  of  reform- 
ing the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  abandoned 
and  complete  severance  followed.  An  answer 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  was  read  August  3, 
1530;  when  the  Diet  declared  that  it  had  been 
refuted.  Melanchthon  then  drew  up  another 
confession.  The  first  is  called  the  unaltered, 
and  the  second,  the  altered  form. 

Aurora  Borealis,  called  variously  North- 
ern Lights,  Polar  Lights,  or  Streamers,  a  phe- 
nomenon which  generally  appears  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  sky,  and  presents  an  appearance 
somewhat  resembling  the  dawn  or  break  of  day. 
It  is  a  luminous  meteor,  and  appears  to  proceed 
from  a  sort  of  haze  or  cloud  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  heavens.  The  upper  edge  of  the  cloud  is 
whitish,  the  lower  often  dark  or  thick,  and  from 
the  upper  part  streams  of  light  shoot  up  in  the 
form  of  a  column,  with,  in  general,  a  tremulous 
motion.  This  phenomenon  generally  commences 
two  or  three  hours  after  sunset,  and  continues 
for  a  few  hours,  sometimes  the  whole  night;  it 
most  frequently  occurs  in  autumn  and  the  early 
part  of  winter.  Auroras  are  visible  in  most 
countries  in  high  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, and  it  is  asserted  that  similar  appear- 
ances have  been  witnessed  in  high  southern  lati- 
tudes, but  they  are  not  known  in  tropical  regions. 
No  satisfactory  answer  has  yet  been  furnished 
as  to  the  cause  of  these  polar  lights;  there  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  they  are  tne  result  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
but  how  produced  we  are  at  present  unable  to 
say. 

Bap'tists.  A  denomination  of  evangelical 
Christians,  who  differ  from  others  in  respect  to 
baptism.  Thev  baptize  all  who  repent  and  be- 
lieve the  gospel,  at  whatever  age,  and  reject  the 
substitution  of  sprinkling  for  immersion,  which 
they  maintain  was  originally  practiced  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  and  (except  in  the 
case  of  the  sick)  universally  observed  through- 
out Christendom  for  1,300  years.  Open  com- 
munion the  Baptists  of  the  United  States  gen- 
erally regard  as  an  anomaly.  They  believe  in 
the  spiritual  unity  of  the  whole  believing  Church 


under  Christ.  Their  government  is  congrega- 
tional, each  church  bem^  complete  in  itself  for 
the  management  of  its  internal  affairs.  They 
associate,  invite  councils  for  advice,  and  coop- 
erate in  benevolent,  educational,  and  missionary 
enterprises;  but  all  such  associations  disclaim 
the  slightest  jurisdiction  over  the  churches. 
Baptists  make  no  distinction  but  that  of  office 
between  clergymen  and  laymen.  Elders,  as 
evangelists  and  missionaries,  are  ordained  and 
sent  out  to  preach  the  gospel.  In  the  United 
States  the  Baptist,  with  one  exception,  is  now 
the  largest  denomination  of  evangelical  Chris- 
tians. In  1845,  the  southern  Baptists,  by  mutual 
consent,  formed  separate  organizations  for  their 
benevolent  enterprises.  As  early  as  1764,  the 
Baptists  founded  their  first  college  in  Rhode 
Island.  They  have  publication  societies  at 
Philadelphia,  Charleston,  and  Nashville,  and 
maintain  about  fifty  periodical  organs,  including 
a  quarterly  review.  The  Baptists  of  the  United 
States  also  support  the  American  and  foreign 
Bible  society,  the  American  Baptist  missionary 
union,  the  southern  Baptist  board  of  foreign 
and  domestic  missions,  the  Baptist  home  mis- 
sion society,  and  in  part  the  "American  Bible 
Union."  Their  missions  are  planted  in  Canada, 
Oregon,  California,  New  Mexico,  Hayti;  in 
France,  Spain,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Norway;  in  western  and  central  Africa;  in 
southern  India,  Assam,  Burmah,  Siam,  and 
China.  In  doctrine  the  Baptists  of  this  country 
are  Calvinistic,  but  with  much  freedom  and 
moderation.  Besides  the  general  body  of  Bap- 
tists, there  are  in  the  United  States  nine  smaller 
bodies  agreeing  with  them  in  regard  to  baptism, 
but  differing  more  or  less  on  other  points,  viz: 
the  Seventh-day,  Free-will,  Anti-mission,  and 
General  or  Six-principle  Baptists,  Tunkers, 
Mennonites,  Christians,  Campbellites,  and  Wine- 
brennarians.  Some  Baptists  trace  their  history 
in  a  succession  of  pure  churches  from  the  Third 
Century  to  the  Reformation.  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Innocent  I.  of  Rome  began  the  perse- 
cution which  they  suffered  for  centuries.  In 
England,  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  to  Wil- 
liam III.,  the  Baptists  struggled  to  gain  their 
footing,  and  to  secure  liberty  of  conscience  for 
all.  In  the  time  of  Cromwell  they  first  gained 
a  fair  hearing.  Introduced  into  Rhode  Island 
with  Roger  Williams  and  John  Clark  in  1638, 
their  history  for  more  than  a  century,  in  most 
of  the  colonies,  is  that  of  proscribed  and  banished 
men.  Their  prosperity  dates  from  the  Revolu- 
tionary War. 

Blood.  The  nutritive  fluid  of  the  tissues, 
consists  of  a  transparent  colorless  fluid,  the 
liquor  sanguinis,  and  minute  solid  bodies,  the 
"corpuscles,"  which  float  in  it.  The  liquor  san- 
guinis consists  of  water,  in  which  are  dissolved 
fibrine,  albumen,  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potas- 
sium, phosphates  of  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia, 
together  with  fatty  and  extractive  matters, 
the  latter  the  product  of  the  metamorphosis  of 
the  tissues.  The  corpuscles  are  of  two  kinds  — 
white  and  red;  the  white  are  larger  and  less 
numerous  than  the  red,  being  in  healthy  blood 
in  the  proportion  of  two  or  three  to  1,000.  In 
certain  forms  of  disease  the  number  of  these 
white  blood-corpuscles  is  increased.     They  pre- 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


689 


sent  a  granular  appearance  on  the  surface,  have 
a  nucleolus  which  is  speedily  brought  into  view 
by  the  action  of  dilute  acetic  acid,  and  are  identi- 
cal with  the  lymph-corpuscle.  Under  the  micro- 
scope they  vary  their  forms  in  the  same  way  as 
the  amoeba;  hence  these  movements  are  called 
amoeboid.  The  red  corpuscles  are  peculiar  to 
vertebrates,  and  seem  to  have  their  origin  in  the 
white  corpuscles,  are  oval  and  nucleated  in 
fishes,  reptiles,  and  birds,  but  in  man  and  the 
mammalia  generally  they  are  non-nucleated, 
and  are  biconcave,  flattened  disks,  their  edges 
being  thicker  than  the  center;  hence  the  dark 
appearance  of  the  latter  when  seen  under  the 
microscope.  The  color  of  the  blood  varies.  In 
the  arteries  it  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  color,  while 
in  the  veins  it  is  of  a  dark  purple  color.  The 
chief  difference  between  arterial  and  venous 
blood  is  that  the  former  contains  more  oxygen 
and  less  carbonic  acid  than  the  latter.  The  red 
blood  corpuscles  possess  great  powers  of  ab- 
sorbing oxygen.  They  receive  oxygen  in  the 
lungs,  where  they  become  colored,  and  carry  it 
all  over  the  body  to  the  tissues  to  form  new 
combinations.  After  a  time  the  corpuscles  be- 
come dissolved  in  the  liquor  sanguinis,  which 
fluid  they  serve  to  elaborate.  The  products  of 
the  metamorphosis  of-  the  tissues  are  poured 
into  the  blood,  so  that  it  is  really  a  very  complex 
fluid. 

Srahma  (bra'ma).  The  religion  of  the 
Hindoos,  that  which  is  frequently  styled  Brah- 
manism,  or  Brahminism,  inculcates  a  belief  in 
a  supreme  deity  under  the  name  of  Brahma, 
who  is  an  impersonal  divine  substance,  the  ob- 
ject merely  of  devout  contemplation,  not  of 
worship.  There  is  also  Brahma,  the  creator 
of  the  universe  and  the  first  of  the  Trimurti  or 
triad  of  divinities;  of  whom  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
server, and  Siva,  the  destroyer,  are  the  others. 
In  sculpture,  Brahma  is  represented  as  having 
four  faces.  It  is  said  that  there  are  not  any 
temples  exclusively  dedicated  to  him  in  India; 
but  prayers  are  addressed  to  him,  and  he  is 
worshiped  along  with  the  other  members  of 
the  triad.  Vishnu  and  Siva,  however,  have  a 
great  number  of  worshipers,  and  the  sects  who 
acknowledge  each  as  their  chief  object  of  devo- 
tion are  not  to  be  counted.  The  greatest  con- 
fusion exists  as  to  the  names  and  attributes  of 
these  deities.  Great  changes  in  belief  have 
taken  place  in  the  progress  of  time,  and  the 
most  learned  Brahman  is  unable  to  explain  the 
great  majority  of  the  rites  and  articles  of  belief. 
Transmigration  of  souls  is  the  leading  tenet  of 
Hindoo  belief. 

Brah'mans,  Brah'mins.  (Followers 
of  Brahma.)  The  highest  of  the  Hindoo  castes. 
To  its  members  belong  the  exclusive  duty  of 
expounding  the  Vedas,  and  they  were  formerly 
considered  bound  to  abstain  from  all  laborious 
occupations,  and  to  confine  themselves  to  serv- 
ing the  gods  and  meditating  on  holy  things. 
Though  the  members  of  this  caste  exact  and 
receive  respect  from  the  other  Hindoos,  as  their 
superiors,  they  are  found  following  many  occu- 
pations from  which  they  are  in  strictness  inter- 
dicted. The  Gurus  hold  the  first  rank  among 
them;  they  are  the  oriests  or  spiritual  advisers, 
having  authority  in  matters  of  religion  and  edu- 


cation. To  them  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Sanskrit,  or  ancient  language  of  the 
country,  in  which  their  sacred  books  are  written. 

Buddhism  {bud'izm).  A  system  of  religion 
founded  by  Buddha  Gautama,  also  called 
Sakya  Muni,  who  lived  probably  in  the  Sixth 
Century  B.  C.  His  father  was  King  of  Bahar, 
in  Hindustan,  and  was  early  distinguished  for 
his  superior  intellect.  Becoming  a  religious 
teacher,  he  went  through  various  provinces  of 
India,  propagating  his  doctrines,  a  kind  of  re- 
formed Brahmanism.  He  is  said  to  have  lived 
till  his  80th  year,  and  the  date  usually  given  for 
his  death  is  543  B.  C.  But  his  appearance  is 
placed  by  some  as  early  as  the  Fourteenth,  and 
by  others  as  late  as  the  Fourth  Century  B.  C: 
It  is  certain  that  his  religion  was  triumphant  in 
Hindustan  in  the  middle  of  the  Third  Century 
B.  C.  Between  the  Fifth  and  Seventh  Centuries 
of  our  era.  Buddhism  was  expelled  from  India 
proper  by  the  persecution  of  the  Brahmins,  and 
nearly  every  trace  of  it  has  now  disappeared 
from  there;  but  under  several  denominations  it 
has  become  the  prevailing  creed  of  the  Penin- 
sula of  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Thibet,  Ceylon, 
China,  and  Japan.  In  China  the  name  of 
Buddha  has  been  corrupted  into  Fo-ta,  or  Fo. 
After  the  death  of  Buddha,  and  to  fill  his  place, 
a  succession  of  perfectly  virtuous  souls  have 
descended  upon  earth,  and  assumed  human 
forms,  for  the  welfare  of  mankind ;  and  it  is  be- 
lieved in  Thibet  that  the  Grand  Lama  of  Thibet 
is  his  successor  for  the  time  being.  The  sacred 
writings  of  the  Buddhists  are  very  numerous; 
they  were  originally  composed  in  Sanskrit,  from 
which  they  were  afterwards  translated  into 
other  tongues.  It  would  seem  that  there  was 
a  belief  in  a  primeval  deity  named  Adi-Buddha, 
or  the  First  Buddha,  and  he  was  the  first  person 
of  the  trinity,  the  other  two  persons  being  Dhur- 
ma  and  Sunga,  answering  to  Brahma,  Siva,  and 
Vishnu,  of  the  Brahmins.  The  trident  borne 
by  the  priests  is  emblematical  of  this  trinity. 
The  principal  tenets  of  Buddhism  are,  that  the 
\vorld  and  all  it  contains  are  manifestations  of 
the  Deity,  but  of  a  transient  and  delusive  char- 
acter; that  the  human  soul  is  an  emanation  of 
the  Deity,  and,  after  death,  will  be  bound  to 
matter,  and  subjected  to  the  miseries  of  life, 
unless  the  individual  to  whom  it  belongs,  by 
the  attainment  of  wisdom  through  prayer  and 
contemplation,  secures  its  reabsorption  into 
the  Deity.  The  authority  of  the  Vedas,  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Brahmins,  is  rejected,  as 
well  as  the  sacrifices,  ceremonies,  and  other  re- 
ligious observances  of  the  Hindoos.  There  is 
no  distinction  of  caste,  and  the  priests,  who  are 
not  forbidden  the  use  of  animal  food,  are  de- 
rived from  all  classes.  Monasteries  and  nun- 
neries abound  wherever  Buddhism  flourishes. 
The  ceremonies  have  so  many  resemblances  to 
those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  to  strike 
spectators  with  surprise. 

Capillary  Action,  or  Capillarity.  In 
Physical  Science,  the  name  applied  to  certain 
phenomena  which  are  exhibited  when  liquids 
are  placed  in  contact  with  the  surfaces  of  solids. 
Suppose  a  glass  rod  to  be  dipped  for  a  portion 
of  its  length  in  water;  then  the  liquid,  as  if  not 
subject  to  the  laws  of  gravity,  is  raised  upwards 


690 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


against  the  sides  of  the  sohd,  and  its  surface,  in- 
stead of  being  horizontal,  becomes  slightly  con- 
cave. If,  instead  of  a  solid  rod,  a  hollow  tube 
be  immersed  in  the  water,  not  merely  is  the 
liquid  raised  around  the  tube,  but  it  rises  in  the 
inside  to  a  height  which  is  greater  the  narrower 
the  tube,  and  the  surface  of  the  liquid  inside 
the  tube  also  assumes  a  concave  form.  If  a 
glass  tube,  however,  be  immersed  in  mercury 
instead  of  water,  the  liquid  in  the  tube  is  de- 
pressed instead  of  being  raised,  and  the  surface, 
which  was  previously  concave,  now  becomes 
convex.  The  reason  for  this  difference  of  action 
resides  in  the  fact  that  mercury  will  not  wet  the 
tube  as  water  does,  for,  if  a  metallic  tube,  such 
as  one  of  copper,  be  substituted  for  the  glass 
tube,  the  mercury  in  it  will  rise  and  have  a  con- 
cave surface,  because  it  is  able  to  wet  the  sides 
of  the  tube.  Hence,  whenever  a  liquid  is  able 
to  adhere  to  a  solid,  it  rises  in  contact  with  it. 
It  is  from  capillarity  that  sap  rises  in  plants, 
and  that  oil  rises  in  the  wicks  of  lamps.  If  the 
end  of  a  towel  be  left  in  a  basin  of  water,  it  is 
through  capillarity  that  the  basin  is  soon  emp- 
tied of  its  contents.  The  phenomenon  of  capil- 
larity is  intimately  connected  with  what  is 
known  as  the  surface  tension  of  liquids,  and  its 
amount  varies  with  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
particular  liquid.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  capillus,  a  hair,  because  these  phenomena 
are  best  seen  in  narrow  hair-like  tubes. 

Carbon.  One  of  the  elements,  existing  un- 
combined  in  three  forms,  charcoal,  graphite,  or 
plumbago,  and  the  diamond;  chemical  symbol 
C,  atomic  weight  twelve.  The  diamond  is  the 
purest  form  of  carbon ;  in  the  different  varieties 
of  charcoal,  in  coal,  anthracite,  etc.,  it  is  more 
or  less  mixed  with  other  substances.  Pure  char- 
coal is  a  black,  brittle,  light,  and  inodorous 
substance.  It  is  usually  the  remains  of  some 
vegetable  body  from  which  all  the  volatile  matter 
has  been  expelled  by  heat;  but  it  may  be  ob- 
tained from  most  organic  matters,  animal  as 
well  as  vegetable,  by  ignition  in  close  vessels. 
Carbon  being  one  of  those  elements  which  exist 
in  various  distinct  forms  is  an  example  of  what 
■  is  called  allotropy.  The  compounds  of  this  ele- 
ment are  more  numerous  than  those  of  all  the 
other  elements  taken  together.  With  hydrogen 
especially  it  forms  a  very  large  number  of  com- 
pounds, called  hydrocarbons,  which  are  pos- 
sessed of  the  most  diverse  properties,  chemical 
and  physical.  With  oxygen,  again,  carbon 
forms  only  two  compounds,  but  union  between 
the  two  elements  is  easily  effected.  It  is  one  of 
the  regular  and  most  characteristic  constituents 
of  both  animals  and  plants. 

Cardinal.  An  ecclesiastical  prince  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  who  has  a  voice  in  the 
conclave  at  the  election  of  a  pope,  the  popes 
being  taken  from  the  cardinals.  The  cardinals 
are  appointed  by  the  pope,  and  are  divided  into 
three  classes  or  orders,  comprising  six  bishops, 
fifty  priests,  and  fourteen  deacons,  making  sev- 
enty at  most.  These  constitute  the  Sacred  Col- 
lege and  compose  the  pope's  council.  Originally 
they  were  subordinate  in  rank  to  bishops;  but 
they  now  have  the  precedence.  The  chief  sym- 
bol of  the  dignity  of  cardinal  is  a  low-crowned, 
broad-brimmed  red  hat,  with  two  cords  depend- 


ing from  it,  one  from  either  side,  each  having 
fifteen  tassels  at  its  extremity.  Other  insignia 
are  a  red  biretta,  a  purple  cassock,  a  sapphire 
ring,  etc. 

Carnegie  Institution.  An  educational 
body  incorporated  January  4,  1902,  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  by  John  Hay,  Secretary  of 
State ;  Edwin  D.  White,  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court;  Daniel  C.  Oilman,  ex-president  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University;  Charles  D.  Walcott,  su- 
perintendent of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey;  Dr.  John  S.  Billings,  director  of  the 
New  York  Public  Library;  and  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  United  States  Commissioner  of.  Labor. 
The  aims  of  the  institution,  as  expressed  by  the 
founder  are:  (1)  To  increase  the  efficiency  of 
the  universities  and  other  institutions  of  learning 
throughout  the  country  by  utilizing  and  adding 
to  their  existing  facilities,  and  by  aiding  teachers 
in  the  various  institutiont>  for  the  experimental 
and  other  work  in  these  institutions  as  far  as 
may  be  advisable.  (2)  To  discover  the  excep- 
tional man  in  every  department  of  study,  when- 
ever and  wherever  found  to  enable  him  by  fi- 
nancial aid  to  make  the  work  for  which  he  seems 
especially  designed  his  life  work.  (3)  To  pro- 
mote original  research,  paying  great  attention 
thereto  as  being  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  this 
institution.  (4)  To  increase  the  facilities  for 
higher  education.  (5)  To  enable  such  students 
as  may  find  Washington  the  best  point  for  their 
special  studies  to  avail  themselves  of  such  ad- 
vantages as  may  be  open  to  them  in  the  muse- 
ums, libraries,  laboratories,  observatory,  me- 
teorological, piscicultural,  and  forestry  schools 
and  kindred  institutions  of  the  several  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  (6)  To  insure  the 
prompt  publication  and  distribution  of  the  re- 
sults of  scientific  investigation,  a  field  considered 
to  be  highly  important. 

On  January  29,  1902,  the  institution  received 
from  Mr.  Carnegie  a  deed  of  gift  of  $10,000,000. 
In  1907,  the  foundation  was  increased  to  $12,- 
000,000. 

Carnivora.  In  Zoology,  the  name  applied 
to  the  order  of  mammals  which  feed  mainly  upon 
flesh,  and  the  majority  of  which  are  commonly 
known  as  Beasts  of  Prey.  They  are  distin- 
guished by  the  adaptation  of  their  teeth  to  an 
animal  diet.  The  incisors  or  front  teeth  are 
generally  six  in  each  jaw;  the  canines  or  eye- 
teeth  are  two  in  each  jaw,  and  are  always  long 
and  pointed;  the  grinders  are  mostly  furnished 
with  sharp  cutting  edges,  adapted  for  dividing 
flesh,  but  one  or  more  of  the  hinder  ones  are 
generally  furnished  with  a  simple  crown,  adapted 
for  bruising  rather  than  for  cutting.  The  feet 
in  the  Carnivora  are  always  furnished  with 
strong  curved  claws,  and  the  collar-bones  are 
quite  rudimentary,  or  are  altogether  wanting. 
The  order  Carnivora  is  divided  into  the  following 
three  sections: —  (1)  Digitigrades,  in  which  the 
heel  is  raised  from  the  ground,  and  the  animal 
walks  upon  tiptoe:  to  this  section  belong  the 
dogs,  the  hyaenas,  and  the  cats.  (2)  Planti- 
grades, in  which  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground,  so  that  the 
animal  walks  upon  the  soles  of  the  feet :  to  this 
section  belong  the  bears.  (3)  Pinnigrades,  in 
which  the  both  fore  and  hind  legs  are  short,  and 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


691 


the  feet  form  broad  webbed  swimming  paddles : 
this  section  comprises  the  seals  and  the  walruses. 

Carotid  Arteries.  The  two  great  arteries 
which  convey  the  blood  from  the  aorta  to  the 
head  and  brain.  The  common  carotids,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  neck,  divide  each  into  an  ex- 
ternal and  an  internal  branch.  The  external 
carotid  passes  up  to  the  level  of  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw,  where  it  ends  in  branches  to  the  neck, 
face,  and  outer  parts  of  the  head.  The  internal 
carotid  passes  deeply  into  the  neck,  and  through 
an  opening  in  the  skull  behind  the  ear  enters  the 
brain,  supplying  it  and  the  eye  with  blood. 
Wounds  of  the  carotid  trunks  cause  almost  im- 
mediate death. 

Catliolic  Church,  Roman.  The  com- 
munity of  Christians  throughout  the  world 
who  recognize  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the 
Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  are  united  to- 
gether by  the  profession  of  the  same  faith  and 
the  participation  of  the  same  sacraments.  Al- 
though a  few  other  points  of  doctrinal  differences 
separate  the.  Roman  Church  from  the  Greek, 
Russian,  and  Oriental  communions,  yet  the 
most  palpable  ground  of  division  lies  in  the  claim 
of  supremacy  in  spiritual  jurisdiction  on  the 
part  of  the  Roman  bishop.  The  history  of  the 
Roman  Church,  therefore,  in  relation  to  the 
Oriental  Churches,  is,  in  fact,  the  history  of  this 
claim  to  supremacy. 

In  the  minds  of  Roman  Catholics  the  claim 
of  supremacy  on  the  part  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
rests  on  the  belief  that  Christ  conferred  on  Peter 
a  "primacy  of  jurisdiction";  that  Peter  fixed 
his  see  and  died  at  Rome;  and  thus,  that  the 
Bishops  of  Rome,  as  successsor  of  Peter,  have 
succeeded  to  his  perogatives  of  supremacy. 
The  letters  of  Pope  Leo  the  Great  show  beyond 
question  that  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Fifth  Century,  claimed  to 
speak  and  act  with  supreme  authority;  and  the 
first  direct  challenge  to  this  claim  was  made  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Acacius;  and 
although  Constantinople,  in  the  time  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  again  of  Nicholas  I.,  renewed  the 
struggle  for  supremacy,  or  even  equality,  the 
superior  position  of  Rome  continued  to  be  recog- 
nized. Tlie  separation  of  the  Greek  Church  and 
her  dependencies,  under  the  patriarch  Michael 
Cerularius,  in  the  year  1054,  was  but  a  narrowing 
of  the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  Rome;  and  even 
Protestants  have  recognized  the  Roman  Church 
of  the  mediaeval  period  as  absorbing  in  itself  al- 
most the  whole  of  European  Christendom,  and 
as  the  only  public  representative  of  the  Church 
in  the  West.  The  modern  political  institutions 
which  then  began  to  break  upon  the  world  so 
modified  the  puljlic  relations  of  Church  and  State 
as  by  degrees  to  undo  the  condition  of  society 
in  which  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes  had 
its  foundation.  The  great  revolution  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century  completed  the  process.  Nor  was 
the  revolution  with  which  the  popes  thus  found 
themselves  face  to  face  without  its  influence  in 
the  external  history  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
latter  half  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  was  a  period 
of  new  life  in  the  Roman  Church.  The  celebra- 
tion of  local  synods,  the  establishment  of  episco- 
pal seminaries,  the  organization  of  schools,  and 
other    provisions    for    religious    instruction  — 


above  all,  the  foundation  of  active  religious  or- 
ders of  both  sexes  —  had  the  effect  of  arresting 
the  progress  of  Protestantism,  which  in  many 
countries  had  been  at  first  rapid  and  decisive. 
From  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  therefore, 
the  position  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
especially  in  her  external  relations,  may  be  re- 
garded as  settled.  The  local  distribution  of  the 
rival  churches  in  the  world  has  hardly  been 
altered,  except  by  migration,  since  that  time. 
But  in  her  relations  to  the  state  the  Roman 
Church  has  since  passed  through  a  long  and 
critical  struggle.  The  new  theories  to  which  the 
French  Revolution  gave  currency  have  still 
further  modified  these  relations;  but  in  most 
of  the  European  kingdoms  they  were  readjusted 
after  1815  either  by  concordat  or  by  some  similar 
mutual  agreement.  The  details  of  the  doctrinal 
system  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  will  be  best 
collected  and  explained  from  the  latest  authentic 
creed,  that  commonly  called  "the  creed  of  Pius 
v.,"  drawn  up  as  a  summary  of  the  authoritative 
teaching  of  that  ecclesiastical  body  till  the  time 
at  which  it  was  written,  and  published  together 
with  certain  later  doctrinal  pronouncements. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  premise  that,  while  in 
the  view  of  Catholics  all  doctrine  must  be  based 
on  the  word  of  God,  written  or  unwritten,  the 
Church  is  the  only  authoritative  judge  of  that 
rule  of  faith.     The  creed  of  Pius  V.  is  as  follows : 

"I,  N.  N.,  with  a  firm  faith  believe  and  pro- 
fess all  and  every  one  of  these  things  which  are 
contained  in  that  creed  which  the  holy  Roman 
Church  maketh  use  of.  To  wit :  I  believe  in  one 
God,  the  Father  Almighty,  Maker  of  heaven  and 
earth,  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible,  and  in 
one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  Son  of 
God,  bom  of  the  Father  before  all  ages;  God  of 
God,  Light  of  Light ;  true  God  of  the  true  God ; 
begotten,  not  made;  consubstantial  with  the 
Father,  by  whom  all  things  were  made.  Who 
for  us  men,  and  for  our  salvation,  came  down 
from  heaven,-  and  was  incarnate  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  made  man. 
He  was  crucified  also  for  us  under  Pontius  Pilate, 
suffered  and  was  buried.  And  the  third  day  he 
rose  again  according  to  the  Scriptures:  he  as- 
cended into  heaven,  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of 
the  Father,  and  shall  come  again  with  glory  to 
judge  the  living  and  the  dead;  of  whose  king- 
dom there  shall  be  no  end.  I  believe  in  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Lord  and  life-giver,  who  proceedeth 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son;  who,  together 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  adored  and  glori- 
fied; who  spake  by  the  prophets;  and  in  one 
holy,  Catholic,  and  Apostolic  Church.  I  confess 
one  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins ;  and  I  look 
for  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  life  of 
the  world  to  come.     Amen." 

The  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  and  a  still  more  com- 
prehensive body  of  articles  in  the  memorable 
Syllabus  issued  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  and  in  the  de- 
crees of  the  Vatican  Council,  celebrated  under 
the  presidency  of  the  same  pontiff,  have  been 
added  to  the  former  creeds.  The  doctrinal  de- 
cisions of  this  latter  council  are  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  first  "on  the  Catholic  Faith,"  the 
second  "  on  the  Church  of  Christ."  Each  section 
contains  "a  scheme  of  doctrine,"  in  which  the 


692 


THE    STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


heads  of  belief,  and  the  grounds  on  which  they 
rest,  are  explained.  In  the  scheme  "upon  the 
Church  of  Christ"  are  contained,  in  "an  addi- 
tional chapter,"  the  celebrated  declaration  re- 
garding the  infallibility  of  the  pope. 

Under  the  generic  name  Roman  Catholics  are 
comprised  all  those  Christians  who  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  even 
though  they  be  not  of  the  Roman  or  Latin  Rite. 
Not  a  few  individuals  and  churches  of  other 
rites  are  included  under  this  designation,  Greeks, 
Slavonians,  Ruthenians,  Syrians  (including 
Maronites),  Copts,  and  Armenians;  and  these 
communities  are  permitted  to  retain  their  own 
national  liturgy  and  language,  and  for  the  most 
part  their  established  discipline  and  usages. 
As  regards  its  organization  for  the  purposes  of 
ecclesiastical  government  the  normal  territorial 
distribution  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of 
the  several  rites  in  the  various  countries  where 
it  exists  is  into  provinces,  which  are  subject  to 
archbishops,  and  are  subdivided  into  bishoprics, 
each  governed  by  its  own  bishop.  The  following 
summary  shows  the  statistics  of  the  Church  in 
the  United  States,  for  1907 : 

Archbishops,  14;  Bishops,  89;  clergy,  secular, 
11,135;  clergy,  religious,  3,958;  churches,  12,- 
148;  colleges  for  boys,  198;  academies  for  girls, 
678;  parishes,  with  schools,  4,364;  parish 
school  population,  1,096,842;  orphan  asylums, 
255;  orphans  cared  for,  40,588;  charitable 
institutions,  992;  total  Catholic  population 
under  United  States  flag,  22,474,440. 

Celibacy.  The  state  of  being  cehbate  or 
unmarried;  specially  applied  to  the  voluntary 
life  of  abstinence  from  marriage  followed  by 
many  religious  devotees  and  by  some  orders  of 
clergy,  as  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  priests  preserved  a  rigid 
chastity;  the  priestesses  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  were  pledged  to  perpetual  virginity;  and 
celibacy  is  the  rule  with  the  Buddhist  priests 
of  the  East.  Among  Christians  the  earliest 
aspirants  to  the  spiritual  perfection  supposed  to 
be  attainable  through  celibacy  were  not  ecclesias- 
tics as  such,  but  hermits  and  anchorites  who 
aimed  at  superior  sanctity.  During  the  first 
three  centuries  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  was 
freely  permitted,  but  by  the  Council  of  Elvira 
(305)  continence  was  enjoined  on  all  who  served 
at  the  altar.  For  centuries  this  subject  led  to 
many  struggles  in  the  Church,  but  was  finally 
settled  by  Gregory  VII.  positively  forbidding 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(1545)  confirmed  this  rule.  In  the  Greek  Church 
celibacy  is  not  compulsory  on  the  ordinary  clergy. 
Protestants  hold  that  there  is  no  moral  superi- 
ority in  celibacy  over  marriage,  and  that  the 
Church  has  no  right  to  impose  such  an  obligation 
on  any  class  of  her  ministers. 

Chemistry.  The  science  which  is  con- 
cerned with  the  study  of  the  properties  of  the 
different  forms  of  matter,  and  their  mutual 
reactions,  just  as  Physics  is  concerned  with  the 
study  of  force  and  energy.  It  has  developed 
from  the  alchemy  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
chemist  finds  by  actual  experiment  that  he  is 
able  to  divide  all  substances  into  two  great 
classes,  viz:  compounds,  which  can  be  split  up 
into  two  or  more  different  substances  of  a  sim- 


pler nature,  and  elements,  which  he  cannot  split 
up  into  anything  differing  from  themselves.  All 
the  varied  forms  of  matter  which  we  see  around 
us  are  produced  by  the  combinations  of  these 
elementary  substances.  Combination  between 
different  substances  is  due  to  the  existence  of 
chemical  attraction,  or,  as  it  is  often  called, 
chemical  affinity,  between  the  atoms  of  which 
they  are  composed.  The  exact  nature  of  this 
attraction  is  not  understood.  It  differs  from 
heat,  electricity,  and  other  forms  of  energy,  in 
that  it  entirely  changes  the  properties  of  the 
substances  between  which  it  acts,  and,  more- 
over, acts  only  between  bodies  which  are^  in  the 
most  intimate  possible  contact.  Chemical  action 
consequently  takes  place  most  rapidly  between 
gases,  somewhat  less  rapidly  between  liquids, 
and  much  less  rapidly  between  solids.  Chemical 
changes  may  conveniently  be  classed  under 
three  heads:  (1)  Combination  or  synthesis,  in 
which  two  or  more  substances  combine  to  form 
a  new  compound  of  more  complex  composition; 
(2)  Decomposition  or  analysis,  in  which  a  com- 
pound is  split  up  into  its  constituent  elements, 
or  into  other  compounds  of  simpler  nature;  (3) 
Double  decomposition  or  metathesis,  in  which  a 
reaction  takes  place  between  two  or  more  com- 
pounds, accompanied  by  a  mutual  interchange 
of  elements,  and  ending  in  the  formation  of  a 
new  series  of  compounds.  The  occurrence  of 
chemical  change  is  generally  rendered  evident 
by  an  alteration  in  the  physical  properties  of 
the  bodies  affected  by  the  change.  In  many 
cases  there  is  development  of  heat,  sometimes, 
if  the  reaction  is  very  energetic,  accompanied 
by  the  production  of  light.  There  may  also  be 
production,  destruction,  or  change  of  color, 
conversion  of  solids  or  liquids  into  gases,  or 
condensation  of  gases  into  solids  or  liquids, 
production  of  solids  from  liquids,  or  vice  versa. 
The  occurrence  or  non-occurrence  of  chemical 
change  depends  in  the  first  place  on  the  nature 
of  the  substances  brought  into  contact,  and  also 
on  certain  physical  conditions.  In  many  cases 
the  reaction  takes  place  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, in  others  the  substances  have  to  be 
heated  before  any  change  occurs.  On  the  other 
hand,  substances  which  react  on  one  another  at 
ordinary  temperatures  are  without  action  at 
very  low  temperatures.  Further,  many  com- 
pounds are  decomposed  or  split  up  when  heated, 
and,  indeed,  heat  is  one  of  the  main  agents 
which  bring  about  decomposition.  Generally 
speaking,  a  moderately  high  temperature  is 
favorable  to  combination  or  double  decompo- 
sition, while  a  higher  temperature  tends  to 
produce  decomposition.  Oxygen  and  mercury, 
for  example,  combine  together  directly  only  at 
a  temperature  approaching  the  boiling-point  of 
the  latter,  but  if  the  oxide  of  mercury  thus 
formed  is  still  more  strongly  heated,  it  splits  up 
again  into  its  constituent  elements.  If  two  or 
more  substances  are  brought  together  in  a  state 
of  solution,  and  by  their  mutual  reaction  can 
produce  a  new  substance  insoluble  in  the  partic- 
ular liquid  used,  then,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
this  compound  will  be  produced  and  will  be  pre- 
cipitated, or  thrown  out  of  solution.  The  pro- 
duction or  non-production  of  chemical  action  is 
affected  also  by  the  relative  quantities  or  masses 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


693 


in  which  the  different  substances  are  present,  by 
the  relative  volatihty,  etc.,  of  the  bodies  which 
may  be  formed,  and  by  various  other  conditions, 
for  a  discussion  of  which  reference  must  be  made 
to  special  treatises  on  chemistry.  It  is  found 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  those  elements  most 
readily  combine  together  which  exhibit  the 
greatest  differences  in  their  properties.  Chlo- 
rine, for  example,  readily  combines  with  sodium 
or  antimony,  but  has  very  little  attraction  for 
bromine,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  many  of 
its  properties.  It  is  found,  moreover,  that 
combination  always  takes  place  in  certain  defi- 
nite proportions,  and  not  in  any  haphazard 
quantities.  For  example,  16  parts  by  weight  of 
oxygen  always  combine  with  2  parts  of  hydro- 
gen to  form  18  parts  of  water,  and  35.5  parts 
of  chlorine  always  combine  with  1  part  of  hy- 
drogen to  form  36.5  parts  hydrochloric  acid. 
Indeed,  it  is  possible  to  find  by  experiment  for 
each  element  a  number  which  always  represents 
the  proportion  by  weight  in  which  it  combines 
with  other  elements.  This  is  termed  its  com- 
bining or  atomic  weight.  Further,  it  is  found 
that  if  a  piece  of  iron  is  placed  in  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  metallic  copper  is  deposited 
on  the  iron,  whilst  a  portion  of  the  latter  is  dis- 
solved, and  for  every  63.4  parts  of  copper  depos- 
ited, 56  parts  of  iron  are  always  dissolved.  Again, 
when  iron  is  placed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
hydrogen  gas  is  given  off  and  the  metal  is  dis- 
solved, and  it  is  found  that  for  every  1  part  of 
hydrogen  given  off,  28  parts  of  iron  are  dissolved. 
It  follows  that  56  parts  of  iron  are  capable  of 
replacing,  or  are  chemically  equivalent  to,  63.4 
parts  of  copper  or  two  parts  of  hydrogen.  Many 
examples  of  a  similar  kind  might  be  quoted. 
Briefly,  it  is  found  that  a  certain  definite  quan- 
tity of  each  element  is  capable  of  combining 
with,  or  of  replacing  in  compounds,  certain 
definite  quantities  of  other  elements,  and  these 
are  termed  their  chemical  equivalents.  For  the 
sake  of  comparison,  one  part  of  hydrogen  is 
usually  taken  as  the  standard  to  which  all  other 
equivalents  are  referred,  and  from  the  example 
given  above  it  is  evident  that  the  equivalent  of 
iron  is  28,  and  so  on.  In  some  cases,  the  num- 
ber representing  the  equivalent  of  an  element  is 
the  same  as  that  representing  its  atomic  weight ; 
but  in  many  cases,  for  reasons  which  cannot  be 
entered  into  here,  the  latter  is  some  simple 
multiple  of  the  former.  The  equivalent  is  a 
quantity  determined  by  actual  experiment,  the 
atomic  weight  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  matter  of 
theory.  A  similar  series  of  facts  is  observed  in 
the  case  of  compounds.  For  example,  56.1  parts 
of  potash  will  neutralize  as  much  acid  as  40  parts 
of  soda  or  17  parts  of  ammonia;  56.1  parts  of 
potash,  40  parts  of  soda,  and  17  parts  of  am- 
monia, are  therefore  chemically  equivalent  to 
each  other.  Chemistry  was  formerly  divided 
into  two  branches:  Inorganic  chemistry,  or  the 
chemistry  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  Organic 
chemistry,  or  the  chemistry  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  i.  e.,  of  those  substances  which 
are  produced  by  vital  action.  It  was  believed 
that  there  was  an  essential  difference  between 
the  two,  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  prepare 
artificially  in  the  laboratory  those  compounds 
formed  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals. 


In  1828,  however,  the  substance  urea,  a  body 
essentially  characteristic  of  vital  action,  was 
prepared  artificially,  and  even  built  up  from  its 
elements,  by  the  German  chemist,  Wohler.  Since 
that  time  a  large  number  of  the  compounds 
found  in  plants  and  animals  have  been  produced 
from  inorganic  substances,  or  built  up  from 
other  organic  bodies,  and  it  is  now  known  that 
there  is  no  essential  difference  whatever  between 
organic  and  inorganic  chemistry.  The  same 
forces  are  at  work  in  both,  subject  to  the  same 
laws.  One  element,  however,  is  contained  in 
all  organic  bodies,  viz,  carbon.  Carbon  has  the 
peculiar  property  of  combining  as  it  were  with 
itself,  and  by  virtue  of  this  property  it  gives 
rise  'to  an  enormous  number  of  derivatives, 
some  of  very  complex  composition  and  consti- 
tution. Simply  for  the  purposes  of  study,  these 
are  still  classed  together  under  the  head  of 
Organic  chemistry,  which  is  defined  as  the  chem- 
istry of  the  carbon  compounds.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  carbon  compounds  now  known  are 
artificial  products  which  do  not  occur  in  nature. 
The  majority  of  them  may  be  regarded  as  de- 
rived from  the  hydro-carbons  by  the  replace- 
ment of  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen  by  some 
other  element  or  group  of  elements.  Amongst 
the  most  important  of  the  series  thus  derived  are 
the  haloid  derivatives,  alcohols,  ethers,  acids,  alde- 
hydes, ketones,  and  amines.  There  are,  however, 
important  groups  of  substances,  the  relation- 
ships of  which  are  not  yet  clearly  made  out. 
Amongst  these  are  the  carbo-hydrates  and  the 
alkeloids.  The  constitution  and  relationships 
of  the  proteids  or  albuminoid  substances,  and  of 
some  others  found  only  in  the  bodies  of  plants 
or  animals,  are  still  less  understood.  Notwith- 
standing the  differences  already  alluded  to, 
chemical  attraction  is  closely  related  to  the 
various  forms  of  energy,  and,  indeed,  is  itself 
a  form  of  potential  energy.  Of  late  years,  the 
study  of  the  changes  in  the  distribution  of  energy 
which  accompany  chemical  change  has  become 
of  great  importance.  Chemical  combination  is 
in  the  majority  of  cases  accompanied  by  devel- 
opment of  heat,  and  the  quantity  of  heat  thus 
developed  by  the  formation  of  a  given  weight 
of  a  particular  substance  is  always  the  same, 
and  the  decomposition  of  any  compound  re- 
quires the  expenditure,  in  the  form  of  heat  or 
otherwise,  of  exactly  the  same  amount  of  energy 
as  was  liberated  by  its  formation.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  formation  of  some  compounds  is  at- 
tended by  absorption  of  heat,  and  exactly  the 
same  amount  of  heat  is  liberated  when  the  com- 
pound decomposes.  That  branch  of  the  science 
which  deals  specially  with  the  development  or 
obsorption  of  heat  which  accompanies  chemical 
reactions  is  termed  thermo-chemistry.  It  is  found 
that  those  compounds  in  the  formation  of  which 
the  greatest  amount  of  heat  is  developed  or  set 
free  are  the  most  stable,  i.  e.,  the  most  difficult 
to  decompose,  and  vice  versa.  Further,  when 
several  substances  which  theoretically  can  react 
in  several  different  ways,  producing  several 
different  compounds,  are  mixed  together,  it  is 
always  found  that  those  bodies  are  produced  in 
the  formation  of  which  the  greatest  amount  of 
heat  is  developed.  This  important  law  is  known 
as  the  principle  of  maximum  work. 


694 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


TABLE   OF   CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS 


Element 


Aluminium 

Antimony  (stibium),. 

Argon, 

Arsenic 

Barium, 

Bismuth, 

Boron 

Bromine, 

Cadmium, 

Caesium 

Calcium, 

Carbon, 

Cerium, 

Chlorine, 

Chromium, 

Cobalt, 

Columbium  (niobium). 
Copper  (cuprum),  .    . 

Erbium, 

Fluorine, 

Gadolinium,    .... 

Gallium 

Germanium,    .... 
Glucinum  (Beryllium), 
Gold  (aurum),    .    .    . 

Helium 

Hydrogen, 

Indium, 

Iodine 

Iridium, 

Iron  (Ferrum),   .    .    . 

Krypton, 

Lanthanum,    .... 
Lead  (plumbum),  .    . 

Lithium,      

Magnesium 

Manganese 

Mercury  (hydrargyrum 
Molybdenum,      .    .    . 
Neodymium,  .... 

Neon 

Nickel, 

Nitrogen, 

Osmium, 

Oxygen 

Palladium 

Phosphorus 

Platinum, 

Potassium    (Kalium), 
Praseodymium,  .    .    . 

Radium 

Rhodium, 

Rubidium 

Ruthenium 

Samarium, 

Scandium, 

Selenium, 

Silicon, 

Silver  (argentum),     . 
Sodium  (natrium),     . 

Strontium 

Sulphur, 

Tantalum, 

Tellurium, 


Terbium, . 
Thallium, 
Thorium, 


Sym- 
bol 


Thulium 

Tin  (stannum),  .    .    . 

Titanium, 

Tungsten(wolfram'm) 

Uranium, 

Vanadium 

Xenon, 

Ytterbium 

Yttrium, 

Zinc  (zincum),    . 
Zirconium, 


Al 
Sb 
A 
As 
Ba 
Bi 
B 
Br 
Cd 
Cs 
Ca 
C 
Ce 
CI 
Cr 
Co 
Cb 
Cu 
Er 
Fl 
Gd 
Ga 
Ge 
Gl 
Au 
He 
H 
In 
I 

Ir 
Fe 
Kr 
La 
Pb 
Li 
Mg 
Mm 
Hg 
Mo 
Nd 
Ne 
Ni 
N 
Os 
O 
Pd 
P 
Pt 
K 
Pr 
Ra 
Rh 
Rb 
Ru 
Sm 
Sc 
Se 
Si 
Ag 
Na 
Sr 
S 

Ta 
Te 

Tb 
Tl 
Th 

Tu 
Sn 
Ti 
W 
U 
V 


Yb 
Yt 
Zn 
Zr 


Atomic 
Weight 


27.0 
120.0 

19.7 

75.0 
137.0 
208.9 

11.0 

79.95 
112.0 
132.9 

40.0 

12.0 
140.2 

35.45 

52.1 

59.0 

94.0 

63.6 
166.3 

19.0 
156.1 

69.0 

72.3 
9.1 
197.3 
4. 

1.008 
113.7 
125.85 
193.1 

56.0 

81.8 
138.2 
206.95 
7.02 

24.3 

55.0 
200.0 

96.0 
140.5 

20. 

58.0 

14.03 
190.08 

16.0 
106.6 

31.0 
195.0 

39.11 
143.5 
225. 
103.0 

85.5 
101.6 
150.0 

44.0 

79.0 

28.4 
107.9 

23.05 

87.6 

32.06 
182.6 
125.0 

160.0 

204.18 

232.6 

170.7 
119.0 

48.0 
184.0 
239.6 

51.4 


173.0 
89.1 
65.3 
90.06 


Discoverer 


Wohler, 

Valentine 

Rayleigh  and  Ramsey,  .    .    . 

Schroder, 

Davy,  Berzelius,  Pontin,  .    . 

Valentine 

Davy,  Gay-Lussac,  Thenard, 

Balard, 

Hermann  and  Stromeyer,  . 
Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff,  .  . 
Davy,  Berzelius,  Pontin,  .    . 


Berzelius,  Hisinger,  Klaproth, 

Davy,  . 

Vaugelin 

Brandt 

Hatchett 


Mosander,  . 
Ampere,  .  . 
Marignac,  . 
Boisbaudran, 
Winkler,  .    . 


Cavendish 

Reich  and  Richter, 

Courtois,      

Tennant,      .    ... 


Ramsey  and  Travers, 
Mosander, 


Arfvedson, 
Davy,  .  . 
Gahn,   .    . 


Hjelm, 

Welsbach, 

Ramsey  and  Travers,    .    .    . 

Cronstadt 

Rutherford, 

Tennant 

Priestly 

Wollaston, 

Brandt 

Wood 

Davy, 

Welsbach, 

Curies  (Mr.  and  Mrs.)  .Bemont, 

Wollaston 

Bunsen, 

Claus, 

Boisbaudran, 

Nilson, 

Berzelius, 

Berzelius 


Davy, 
Davy, 


Hatchett  and  Ekeburg, 

Reichenstein, 

Klaproth, 

Mosander 

Crookes  and  Lamy,    .    . 

Berzelius, 

Branner  (A.  and  B.),     . 
Cleve 


Klaproth, 

d'Elihujar, 

Klaproth, 

Sefstroem, 

Ramsay,  . 

Marignac, 

Wohler,    . 

Paracelsus, 

Berzelius, 


Year 


1828 
1450 
1894 
1694 
1808 
1450 
1808 
1826 
1817 
1860 
1808 


1803 
1810 
1797 
1733 
1801 


1843 
1810 
1886 
1875 
1886 


1766 
1863 
1811 
1804 


1897 
1841 


1817 
1808 
1774 


1782 
1885 
1898 
1751 
1772 
1803 
1774 
1803 
1669 
1741 
1807 
1885 
1898 
1804 
1860 
1844 
1879 
1879 
1817 
1823 


1807 
1808 


1802 
1782 
1798 
1843 
1862 
1828 
1900 
1879 


1795 
1781 
1789 
1830 
1898 
1878 
1828 
1520 
1824 


SpEcinc 
Gravity* 


2.58 
6.70 
1.5t 
5.71 
3.75 
9.80 
2.6 
3.19 
8.65 
1.88 
1.6  to  1.8 
3.52  t 
6.7 
1.33t 
7.3 
8.96 
Above  7 
8.9 
-4.8 
1.1 

5.95 
5.47 
1.9 
19.3 


0.025t 

7.4 

4.95 
22.4 

8.0 

2.2 

6.1 
11.36 

0.585 

1.75 

7.2 
13.596 

8.6 
About  6.5 

■  8.9' 

0.38" 
22.48 

1.11§ 
12.1 

1.84 
21.5 

0.86 
About  6.5 

12.1 

1.52 
12.26 

7.8 

4.5 
2.48 
10.5 
0.97 
2.5 
2.07 
Above  10 
6.23 


11.19 
11.2 


7.25 
3.5 
19.26 
18.69 
5.87 
3.5 

3.8 

7.12 

4.15 


Fusing  or 
Melting  Point* 


627°  C,  1,160°  F. 
432°  C,  808°  F. 
-128°  C. 

About  500°  C,  932°  F. 
Above  redness. 
268°  C,  517°  F. 
Very  high. 
-7.2°  C,  -20°  F. 
231°  C,  609°  F. 
26.5°  C,  80°  F. 
Bright  redness. 
Infusible. 
Below  silver. 
-75.6°  C,  -103°  F. 
Above  platinum. 
1,500°  C.,  2,732°  F. 
m.  p.^  1,950°  F. 
1,054°  C,  1,931°  F. 

b.  p.K  187°  F. 

30.1°  C,  86°  F. 
900°  C,  1,652°  F. 

1,045°  C,  1,913°  F. 
b.  p.  268°  F. 
-200°  C,  -328°  F. 
176°  C,  348°  F. 
114°  C,  238°  F. 
1,950°  C,  3,542°  F. 
1,600°  C,  2,912°  F. 
b.p.  169°,m.p.l52°F. 

326°  C,  850°  F. 
180°  C,  356°  F. 
About  430°  C,  806°  F. 
Above  iron. 
-38.8°  C,  -38°  F. 
Very  high. 

b.  p.  240°  F. 
1,450°  C,  2,642°  F. 

Nearly  infusible. 

1,500°  C,  2,732°  F. 
442°  C,  112°  F. 
1,775°  C,  3,225°  F. 
62.5°  C,  144.5°  F. 


2,000°  C,  3,632°  F. 
38.5°  C,  101.5°  F. 
Nearly  fusible. 


217°  C,  425°  F. 
Above  800°C.,1,500°F. 
954°  C,  1,750°  F. 
95.6°  C,  204°  F. 
Red  heat. 
114.5°  C,  235°  F. 

455°  C,  851°  F. 


239.9°  C,  561°  F. 
Almost  infusible. 


233°  C,  551°  F. 

Not  fusible. 

Very  high. 

Very  high. 

In  oxyhydric  flame. 


433°  C,  811.5°  F. 
Above  sulphur. 


*  The  factors  in  the  columns  of  specific  gravities  and  melting  points  naturally  vary  with  the  form  which  the 
element  takes  (e.  g.,  in  carbon  the  specific  gravity  varies  as  diamond,  charcoal,  or  lampblack  is  taken) ,  but  hb  far 
as  possible  the  factor  of  the  most  typical  form  is  given. 

t  Of  the  liquid  element.  J  Diamond.  '  Of  the  liquid  at  0°  C. 

§  Of  the  liquid  at  -181°  C.         H  b.  p. —  boiling  point;   m.  p. —  melting  point,  Fahrenheit. 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


695 


Christ,  Disciples  of.  A  denomination 
of  Christians  in  the  United  States  commonly 
known  as  the  Christian  Church,  or  Church  of 
Christ,  and  sometimes  called  Campbellites.  In 
September,  1809,  Thomas  Campbell,  a  Scotch 
minister  of  the  seceders'  branch  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  then  living  in  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania, issued  a  "Declaration  and  Address"  de- 
ploring the  divided  state  of  the  Church,  and 
urging  as  the  only  remedy  a  complete  restora- 
tion of  apostolic  Christianity  and  the  rejection 
of  all  human  creeds  and  confessions  of  faith. 
The  Christian  Association  of  Washington,  Pa., 
was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the 
principles  set  forth  in  this  "declaration."  It 
was  not  the  intention  of  the  Campbellites  to 
form  a  distinct  religious  body,  but  to  effect 
the  proposed  reforms  in  the  Churches.  The 
Disciples  maintained  that  having  accepted 
the  Bible  as  their  only  rule  of  faith  and 
practice,  and  the  only  divine  basis  for  the 
union  of  all  Christians,  they  were  led  to  reject 
infant  baptism  and  adopt  believers'  immersion 
only.  They  observe  the  Lord's  Supper  each 
first  day  of  the  week,  and  heartily  and  practi- 
cally accept  and  exalt  the  doctrine  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ.  In  1907  the  denomination 
had  7,153  ministers,  11,110  churches,  and  1,- 
264,758  communicants,  besides  several  universi- 
ties and  colleges  of  high  rank,  and  a  number 
of  religious  publications. 

Christian  Endeavor,  Young  Peo- 
ple's Society  of.  A  society  distinctly  re- 
Ugious  in  all  its  features ;  organized  February  2, 
1881,  in  Williston  Church,  Portland,  Me.,  by  the 
Rev.  Francis  E.  Clark,  D.  D.  From  one  small 
association  it  expanded,  up  to  1908,  into  over 
69,256  societies,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with 
an  aggregate  membership  of  3,462,800.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  main  organizations  in  the  United 
States  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  form 
branches,  among  which  are  the  Juniors,  organ- 
ized March  27,  1884,  at  Tabor,  la.,  by  the  Rev. 
J.  W.  Cowan  and  Miss  Belle  Smith;  the  Inter- 
mediate, organized  by  the  Rev.  A.  Z.  Conrad, 
of  Worcester,  Mass.;  and  the  Mothers',  sug- 
gested by  Mrs.  Amanda  B.  Fellows,  of  Chicago, 
and  organized  in  April,  1893,  at  Topeka,  Kan., 
by  Mr.  F.  C.  Barton.  The  first  Christian  En- 
deavor Society  in  England  was  organized  in 
1887,  and  was  followed  by  similar  ones  in 
other  countries,  and  the  constitution  has  been 
printed  in  over  thirty  different  languages.  The 
movement  is  not  a  denominational  one.  Any 
society  belonging  to  an  evangelical  Church, 
which  adopts  the  leading  principles  as  set  forth 
in  the  constitution,  is  admitted  to  all  the  priv- 
ileges of  the  organization. 

Christianity.  The  religion  instituted  by 
Jesus  Christ.  Though  the  great  moral  principles 
which  it  reveals  and  teaches,  and  the  main  doc- 
trines of  the  gospel,  have  been  preserved  without 
interruption,  the  genius  of  the  different  nations 
and  ages  have  materially  colored  its  character. 
The  first  community  of  the  followers  of  Jesus 
was  formed  at  Jerusalem  soon  after  the  death 
of  their  Master.  Another  at  Antioch  in  Syria 
first  assumed  (about  65)  the  name  of  Christians  ; 
and  the  travels  of  the  apostles  spread  Chris- 
tianity through  the  provinces  of   the   Roman 


Empire.  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Greece, 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  Italy,  and  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  as  early  as  the  First 
Century,  contained  societies  of  Christians.  At 
the  end  of  the  Third  Century  almost  one-half  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  of 
several  neighboring  countries,  professed  this  be- 
lief. While  Christianity  as  a  system  was  thus 
spreading,  many  heretical  branches  had  sprung 
from  the  main  trunk.  From  the  Gnostics,  who 
date  from  the  days  of  the  apostles,  to  the  Nes- 
torians  of  the  Fifth  Century,  the  number  of 
sects  was  large,  and  some  of  them  exist  to  the 
present  day.  The  most  important  events  in  the 
subsequent  history  of  Christianity  are  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
early  in  the  Eighth  Century ;  and  the  Western 
reformation,  which  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced with  the  sectaries  of  the  Thirteenth 
Century  and  ended  with  the  establishment  of 
Protestantism  in  the  Sixteenth.  The  number  of 
Christians  now  in  the  world  is  computed  at 
475,000,000.  Of  these  about  230,000,000  are 
Roman  Catholics,  98,000,000  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  and  145,000,000  are  Protestants.  Of 
the  various  sects  of  Protestants  in  the  English- 
speaking  world  the  most  numerous  are  the  Epis- 
copalians, Methodists,  Baptists,  and  Presby- 
terians. 

Christian  Science,  a  religious  and  scien- 
tific system  discovered  in  1866  by  Mrs.  Mary 
Baker  Eddy,  Lynn,  Mass.,  practiced  by  thou- 
sands of  disciples  in  America  and  Europe.  The 
members  acknowledge  and  adore  one  Supreme 
God,  taking  the  Scriptures  for  their  guide. 
They  confess  God's  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  man  as  the  Divine  image  and  likeness. 
They  hold  that  Christian  Science  is  the  expli- 
cation of  Truth  which  is  a  power  over  all  error, 
sin,  sickness,  and  death.  The  curative  system 
is  spoken  of  as  Christian  Science  Mind  Healing, 
being  based  on  the  understanding  of  Spirit, 
divine  Mind,  as  the  only  Cause.  In  her 
book.  "Retrospection  and  Introspection,"  Mrs. 
Eddy 'says:  "I  claim  for  healing  scientifically 
the  following  advantages:  (1)  It  does  away 
with  all  material  medicines  and  recognizes  the 
antidote  for  all  sickness,  as  well  as  sin,  in  the 
immortal  Mind ;  and  mortal  mind  as  the  source 
of  all  the  ills  which  befall  mortals.  (2)  It  is  more 
effectual  than  drugs,  and  cures  when  they  fail, 
or  only  relieve,  thus  proving  the  superiority  of 
metaphysics  over  physics.  (3)  A  person  healed 
by  Christian  Science  is  not  only  healed  of  his 
disease,  but  he  is  advanced  morally  and  spiritu- 
ally. The  mortal  body  being  but  the  object- 
ive state  of  the  mortal  mind,  this  mind  must 
be  renovated  to  improve  the  body."  The 
absence  of  creed  and  dogma  in  the  Christian 
Science  Church,  its  freedom  from  materialism, 
mysticism,  and  superstition,  also  the  simplicity, 
uniformity,  and  impersonality  of  its  form  of 
worship  and  organization  are  among  the  dis- 
tinguishing features  which  characterize  this 
modern  religious  movement.  Hypnotism,  mes- 
merism, spiritualism,  theosophy,  faith-cure,  and 
kindred  systems  are  foreign  to  true  Christian 
Science.  Those  practicing  these  beliefs  are 
denied  admission  to  the  Christian  Science 
Church. 


696 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


In  June,  1906,  the  $2,000,000  extension  of  the 
Mother  Church,  the  First  Church  of  Christ  Sci- 
entist, in  Boston,  was  dedicated.  At  the  annual 
meeting,  June,  1907,  an  increase  of  4,000  mem- 
bers over  the  previous  year  was  reported.  The 
total  membership,  resident  and  non-resident, 
was  given  at  43,876.  It  is  estimated  that  at 
present  there  are  upward  of  1,000  churches 
and  societies  of  this  denomination  in  the  United 
States,  with  a  membership  of,  approximately, 
55,000. 

Chronology  (Greek  chronos,  time,  and 
logos,  discourse).  The  science  which  treats 
of  time,  and  has  for  its  object  the  arrange- 
ment and  exhibition  of  historical  events  in 
order  of  time  and  the  ascertaining  of  the 
intervals  between  them.  Its  basis  is  necessarily 
the  method  of  measuring  or  computing  time 
by  regular  divisions  or  periods,  according  to 
the  revolutions  of  the  earth  or  moon.  The 
motions  of  these  bodies  produce  the  natural 
division  of  time  into  years,  months,  and  days. 
As  there  can  be  no  exact  computation  of 
time  or  placing  of  events  without  a  fixed  point 
from  which  to  start,  dates  are  fixed  from  an 
arbitrary  point  or  epoch,  which  forms  the  be- 
ginning of  an  era.  The  more  important  of 
these  are  the  creation  of  the  world  among  the 
Jews;  the  birth  of  Christ  among  Christians; 
the  Olympiads  among  the  Greeks;  the  building 
of  Rome  among  the  Romans;  the  Hejira  or 
flight  of  Mohammed  among  the  Mohammedans, 
etc, 

BEGINNING    OF    EPOCHS.  ERAS,  AND 
PERIODS 

Name  Began 

Grecian  Mundane  Era.     ......  B.C.  5598,  Sept.    1 

Civil  Era  of  Constantinople,    ....  "  5508,  Sept.     1 

Alexandrian  Era, "  5502,  Aug.  29 

Julian  Period "  4713,  Jan.      1 

Mundane  Era "  4008,  Oct.      1 

Jewish  Mundane  Era "  3761,  Oct.      1 

Era  of  Abraham "  2015,  Oct.      1 

Era  of  the  Olympiads "  776,  July     1 

Roman  Era  (A.  U.  C.) "  753,  April  24 

Metonic  Cycle "_  432,  July    15 

Grecian  or  Syro-Macedonian  Era,  .    .  "  312,  Sept.    1 

Era  of  Maccabees "  166,  Nov.  24 

Tyrian  Era "  125,  Oct.    19 

Sidonian  Era "  110,  Oct.     1 

Julian  Year "  45,  Jan.      1 

Spanish  Era "  38,  Jan.      1 

Augustan  Era "  27,  Feb.   14 

Vulgar  Christian  Era A.D.        1,  Jan.      1 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem "  69,  Sept.    1 

Mohammedan  Era "  622,  July    16 

Chrysalis  (kr'is'ah-lls).  A  name  strictly 
belonging  to  those  pupce  of  butterflies  which  are 
adorned  with  golden  spots,  but  extended  to  the 
pupae  of  lepidopterous  insects  generally.  The 
chrysalis  is  inclosed  in  a  somewhat  horny  mem- 
branous case;  sometimes  very  angular,  some- 
times nearly  round;  generally  pointed  at  the 
abdominal  end,  sometimes  at  both  ends;  and 
before  the  caterpillar  undergoes  its  transforma- 
tion into  this  state  it  often  spins  for  itself  a  silken 
cocoon,  with  which  earth  and  other  foreign  sub- 
stances are  sometimes  mixed,  so  as  to  increase 
its  size,  and  within  which  the  chrysalis  is  con- 
cealed. Chrysahs  are  often  suspended  by  cords, 
and  generally  remain  nearly  at  rest ;  some  have 
the  power  of  burying  themselves  in  the  earth; 
others  are  bound  by  a  single  silken  thread  which 


passes  round  their  middle;  some  twirl  them- 
selves round  when  touched,  or  when  the  stalk  or 
leaf  to  which  they  are  suspended  is  touched; 
and,  in  general,  they  give  signs  of  hfe,  when  dis- 
turbed, by  violent  contortions  of  the  abdominal 
part. 

Cinematograph.  A  continuous  band  of 
instantaneous  photographs  which  are  by  means 
of  an  arrangement  similar  to  that  of  a  magic  lan- 
tern projected  on  a  screen  in  such  rapid  suc- 
cession that  the  image  of  one  remains  on  the 
retina  till  it  is  succeeded  by  the  next,  and 
so  the  pictures  are  blended  and  suggest  the 
moving  object  or  objects  originally  photo- 
graphed—  a  horse  race,  a  moving  crowd, 
dancing,  etc. 

Circulation.  The  natural  motion  of  the 
blood  in  a  living  animal,  by  which  it  proceeds 
froryi  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body  by  the 
arteries,  and  returns  to  the  heart  by  the  veins. 
The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  performed  in  the 
following  manner:  It  is  returned  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart  by  the  descending  and  ascend- 
ing vena  cava,  which,  when  distended,  contracts 
and  sends  it  into  the  right  ventricle;  from  the 
right  ventricle  it  is  propelled  through  the  pul- 
monary artery,  to  circulate  through  and  undergo 
a  change  in  the  lungs,  being  prevented  from  re- 
turning into  the  right  auricle  by  the  closing  of 
valves.  Having  undergone  this  change  in  the 
lungs,  it  is  brought  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart 
by  the  four  pulmonary  veins,  and  thence  is 
evacuated  into  the  left  ventricle.  The  left 
ventricle,  after  having  been  distended,  con- 
tracts, and  throws  the  blood  through  the 
aorta  to  every  part  of  the  body,  by  the  arteries, 
to  be  returned  by  the  veins  into  the  vena  cava. 
It  is  prevented  from  passing  back  from  the 
left  ventricle  into  the  auricle  by  a  valvular 
apparatus;  and  the  beginning  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  and  aorta  is  also  furnished  with  similar 
organs,  which  prevent  its  returning  into  the 
ventricles. 

Cloud.  A  collection  of  visible  vapor  or 
watery  particles  suspended  in  the  atmosphere 
at  some  altitude.  They  differ  from  fogs 
only  by  their  height  and  less  degree  of  trans- 
parency. The  average  height  of  clouds  is  cal- 
culated to  be  two  and  one-half  miles,  thin 
and  light  clouds  being  much  higher  than  the 
highest  mountains,  while  thick  heavy  clouds 
often  touch  low  mountains,  steeples,  and  even 
trees.  Clouds  differ  much  in  form  and  char- 
acter, but  are  generally  classed  into  three 
simple  or  primary  forms,  viz:  (1)  The  cirnis, 
so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  lock  of 
hair,  and  consisting  of  fibers  which  diverge 
in  all  directions.  Clouds  of  this  description 
float  at  a  great  height,  usually  from  three  to 
five  miles  above  the  earth's  surface.  (2)  The  cu- 
mulus or  heap,  a  cloud  which  assumes  the  form 
of  dense  convex  or  conical  heaps,  resting  on  a 
flattish  base,  called  also  summer-cloud.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  these  clouds  accompany 
fine  weather,  especially  in  the  heat  of  summer. 
They  attain  their  greatest  size  early  in  the  after- 
noon and  gradually  decrease  towards  sunset. 
(3)  The  stratus,  so  named  from  its  spreading 
out  uniformly  in  a  horizontal  layer,  which 
receives  all  its  augmentations  of  volume  from 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


697 


below.  It  belongs  essentially  to  the  night,  and 
is  frequently  seen  on  calm  summer  evenings 
after  sunset  ascending  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  grounds,  and  dispersing  in  the  form  of  a 
cumulus  at  sunrise.  These  three  primary  forms 
of  clouds  are  subdivided  as  follows:  (1)  The 
cirro-cumulus,  composed  of  a  collection  of  cirri, 
and  spreading  itself  frequently  over  the  sky  in 
the  form  of  beds  of  delicate  snow-flakes.  (2) 
The  cirro-stratus  or  wane-cloud,  so  called  from 
its  being  generally  seen  slowly  sinking,  and  in  a 
state  of  transformation;  when  seen  in  the  dis- 
tance, a  collection  of  these  clouds  suggests  the 
resemblance  of  a  shoal  of  fish,  and  the  sky,  when 
thickly  mottled  with  them,  is  called  in  popular 
language  a  mackerel  sky.  (3)  The  cumulo-stratus 
or  twain-cloud,  one  of  the  grandest  and  most 
beautiful  of  clouds,  and  consisting  of  a  collection 


of  large  fleecy  clouds  overhanging  a  flat  stratum 
or  base.  (4)  The  nimbus,  cumulo-cirro-stratus, 
or  rain-cloud,  recognizable,  according  to  Mr. 
Howard,  by  its  fibrous  border  and  uniformly 
gray  aspect.  It  is  a  dense  cloud  spreading  out 
into  a  crown  of  cirrus  and  passing  beneath  into 
a  shower.  It  presents  one  of  the  least  attractive 
appearances  among  clouds,  but  it  is  only  when 
the  dark  surface  of  this  cloud  forms  its  back- 
ground that  the  splendid  phenomenon  of  the 
rainbow  is  exhibited  in  perfection. 

College  Fraternities.  Societies  existing 
in  American  colleges  which  are  named  from  the 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  and  therefore  com- 
monly called  "Greek  Letter  Societies."  They 
are  secret  organizations  only  in  their  grips  and 
passwords.  They  are  organized  chiefly  for  liter- 
ary and  social  purposes. 


GENERAL   FRATERNITIES  FOR   MEN 


Fraternity 


Alpha  Chi  Rho 

Alpha  Delta  Phi,  .  .  . 
Alpha  Tau  Omega,  .   .    . 

Beta  Theta  Pi 

Chi  Phi 

Chi  Psi 

Delta  Kappa  Epsilon,     . 

Delta  Phi 

Delta  Psi 

Delta  Sigma  Phi,  .  .  . 
Delta  Tau  Delta,     .    .    . 

Delta  Upsilon, 

Kappa  Alpha  (North),  . 
Kappa  Alpha  (South),   . 

Kappa  Sigma 

Omega  Pi  Alpha,     .    .    . 

Phi  Delta  Theta 

Phi  Gamma  Delta,  .  .  . 
Phi  Kappa  Psi,  .  .  .  . 
Phi  Kappa  Sigma,  .  .  . 
Phi  Sigma  Kappa,  .  .  . 
Pi  Kappa  Alpha,     .    .    . 

Psi  Upsilon 

Sigma  Alpha  Epsilon,     . 

Sigma  Chi 

Sigma  Nu 

Sigma  Phi, 

Sigma  Phi  Epsilon, .    .    . 

Sigma  Pi 

Theta  Chi 

Theta  Delta  Chi 

Theta  Xi  (Eng.  Scien.),. 
Zeta  Psi, 

Total 


Member- 


490 

11,274 

7,850 

15,698 

5,193 

4,890 

16,500 

3,600 

2,500 

715 

9,875 

10,500 

1.100 

9,280 

9,057 

312 

16,460 

10,500 

10,500 

3,900 

3,000 

5,000 

11,200 

12,000 

9,280 

8,000 

1,425 

1,000 

495 

500 

5,000 

900 

5,500 


213,494 


Active 
Chapters 


11 
23 
59 
70 
18 
18 
42 
11 


52 
38 

7 
48 
75 

6 
71 
57 
43 
26 
23 
30 
22 
71 
57 
59 

9 
24 

7 

4 
26 
11 
22 


1,056 


Inactive 
Chapters 


1 

6 

23 

20 

30 

12 

11 

5 

0 

1 

26 

4 

2 

10 

17 

0 

24 

25 

20 

14 

0 

6 

1 

27 

21 

14 

2 

6 

5 

0 

16 

0 

9 


358 


No. 

Houses 


11 
23 
45 
59 
18 
17 
25 
No  Rep. 

8 

4 
12 
36 
■  7 
30 
48 

5 
60 
45 
34 
20 
23 
10 
21 
54 
51 
48 

8 
15 

3 

4 
19 
10 
15 


788 


Where  and  When  Founded 


Trinity,  1895. 

Hamilton,  1832. 

Virginia  Military  Institute,  1865. 

Miami,  1839. 

Princeton,  1854. 

Union,  1841. 

Yale,  1844. 

Union,  1827. 

Columbia,  1847. 

College,  City  of  New  York,  1901. 

Bethany,  1859. 

Williams,  1834. 

Union,  1825. 

Washington  and  Lee,  1865. 

University  Virginia,  1869. 

College,  City  of  New  York,  1901. 

Miami,  1848. 

Washington  and  Jefferson,  1848. 

Washington  and  Jefferson,  1852. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,   1850. 

Mass.  Agricultural  College,  1873. 

University  of  Virginia,  1868. 

Union,  1833. 

University  of  Alabama,  1856. 

Miami,  1855. 

Virginia  Military  Institute,  1869. 

Union,  1827. 

Richmond  College,  1901. 

William  and  Mary,  1752. 

Norwich  University,  1856. 

Union,  1848. 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Inst.,  1864. 

New  York  University,  1847. 


FRATERNITIES   FOR   WOMEN 


Fraternity 


Alpha  Chi  Omega,  .  . 
Alpha  Omicron  Pi,  .    . 

Alpha  Phi 

Alpha  Xi  Delta,  .  .  . 
Beta  Sigma  Omicron,  . 

Chi  Omega, 

Delta  Delta  Delta,  .    . 

Delta  Gamma 

Gamma  Phi  Beta,  .  . 
Kappa  Alpha  Theta,  . 

Kappa  Delta 

Kappa  Kappa  Gamma, 

Phi  Mu 

Pi  Beta  Phi 

Sigma  Kappa,  .... 
Sigma  Sigma  Sigma,  . 
Zeta  Tau  Alpha,  .    .    . 

Total 


Member- 
ship 


1,270 

500 

1,800 

626 

600 

1,400 

2,000 

2,408 

1,322 

3,860 

820 

6,000 

1,302 

5,000 

604 

350 

400 


30,262 


Active 
Chapters 


14 
11 
14 
14 
10 
22 
26 
19 
12 
29 
13 
33 
10 
38 
8 
5 
7 


285 


Inactive 

No. 

Chapters 

Houses 

1 

8 

0 

3 

0 

3 

0 

6 

6 

3 

1 

2 

1 

9 

12 

12 

0 

6 

7 

14 

2 

0 

10 

16 

0 

1 

10 

20 

2 

3 

2 

0 

4 

2 

58 

108 

Where  and  When  Founded 


De  Pauw  University,  1885. 
Barnard  College,  1897. 
Syracuse  University,  1872. 
Lombard  College,  1893. 
Missouri  State  University,  1888. 
University  of  Arkansas,  1895. 
Boston  University,  1888. 
Warren   Female  Institute,   1873-4. 
Syracuse  University,  1874. 
De  Pauw  University,  1870. 
Virginia  State  Norraal,  1897. 
Monmouth  College,  1870. 
Wesleyan  College,  1852. 
Monmouth  College,  1867. 
Colby  College,  1874. 
Virginia  State  Normal,  1898. 
Virginia  State  Normal,  1898, 


698 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

"  U.  "  means  "  University  " ;    "  P.  I.  "  means  "  Polytechnic  Institute." 
TABLE   I.— STATISTICS    OF   UNIVERSITIES    AND   COLLEGES 


Name  of 
Institution 


Location 


President  or  Dean 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


Adelphi 

Albion, 

Albright, 

Alfred  U 

Allegheny,     .... 

Allen 

Alma, 

Amer'n  Internation'l, 
Am.  U.  of  Har'man, 

Amherst, 

Antioch 

Ark.  Cumberland,  . 
Atlanta  Baptist,  .  . 
Atlanta  U.,  .... 
Augsburg  Seminary, 
Augustana  C.  &  T.  S., 

Austin 

Baker 

Baldwin  U 

Bates 

Baylor  U . 

Beaver, 

Bellevue 

Beloit 

Berea 

Bethany, 

Bethany 

Bethel, 

Biddle  U 

Blackburn,     .... 

Boston, 

Boston  U 

Bowdoin, 

Bowdon, 

Bridge  water,  .  .  . 
Brigham  Young,  .    . 

Brown  U 

Buchtel 

Bucknell  U 

Buena  Vista,     .    .    . 

Burleson 

Butler,  .  .  ,,  .  .  . 
California, .  W   .    .    . 

Campbell 

Canisius, 

Capital  U.,    .    .    .    . 

Carleton, 

Carthage,  .  .  .  . "  . 
Catholic  U.  of  Am., . 

Cedarville 

Centenary  C.  of  La., 

Central, 

Central  H.  S.  of  Phil., 
Central  Wesleyan,    . 
Central  U.  of  Ky..    .■ 

Charles  City 

College  of  Charleston, 
Christian  Brothers,  . 
Christian  Brothers,  . 

Christian  U 

Claflin  U 

Clark 

Clark  U 

Clark  U 

Coe 

Colby 

Colgate  U.,    .... 

Colorado 

Columbia  U.,  .  .  . 
Columbia  U.,     .    .    . 

Concordia 

Concordia,     .... 

Cooper 

Cornell 

Cornell  U 

Cotner  U 

Creighton  U 

Cumberland  U.,    .    . 
Dakota  Wesleyan  U., 
Dallas 


Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  . 
Albion,  Mich.,  .  . 
Myerstown,  Penn., 
Alfred,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Meadville,  Penn.,  . 
Columbia,  S.  C,  . 
Alma,  Mich.,  .  ..  . 
Springfield,  Mass., 
Harriman,  Tenn.,  . 
Amherst,  Mass.,  . 
Yellow  Springs,  O., 
Clarksville,  Ark.,  . 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  .   .    . 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Minneapolis,  Minn., 
Rock  Island,  111.,  . 
Sherman,  Tex.,  .  . 
Baldwin,  Kan., 

Berea,  O 

Lewiston,  Me.,  .  . 
Waco,  Tex.,  .  .  . 
Beaver,  Penn.,  .  . 
Bellevue,  Neb.,  .    . 

Beloit,  Wis 

Berea,  Ky.,  .  .  . 
Bethany,  W.  Va.,  . 
Lindsborg,  Kan.,  . 
Russellville,  Ky.,  . 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  . 
Carlinville,  111.,  .  . 
Boston,  Mass.,  .  •. 
Boston,  Mass.,  . 
Brunswick,  Me.,  . 
Bowdon,  Ga.,  .  . 
Bridgewater,  Va.,  . 
Logan.  Utah,  .  . 
Providence,  R.  I., 
Akron,  O.,.  .  .  . 
Lewisburg,  Penn., 
Storm  Lake,  la.,  . 
Greenville,  Tex.,  . 
Indianapolis,  Ind., 
Oakland,  Cal.,  .  . 
Holton,  Kan.,  .  . 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Columbus,  O.,  .  . 
Northfield,  Minn., 
Carthage,  111.,  .  . 
Washington,  D.  C, 
Cedarville,  O.,    .    . 

Jackson,  La 

Fayette,  Mo.,  .  . 
Philadelphia,.  .  . 
Warrenton,  Mo.,  . 
Danville,  Ky.,  .  . 
Charles  City,  la.,  . 
Charleston,  S.  C,  . 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  .  . 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  . 
Canton,  Mo.,  .  .  . 
Orangeburg,  S.  C., 
Worcester,  Mass., . 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  .  . 
Worcester,  Mass.,  . 
Cedar  Rapids,  la., 
Waterville,  Me.,  . 
Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  . 
Col.  Springs,  Col.,. 
New  York  City,  . 
Portland,  Ore.,  .  ^. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.. 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  . 
Sterling,  Kan.,  .  . 
Mount  Vernon,  la., 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Bethany,  Neb.,  .  . 
Omaha,  Neb.,  .  . 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  . 
Mitchell,  S.  D.,  .  . 
Dallas,  Ore 


C.  H.  Levermore,  Ph.  D.,  . 

Samuel  Dickie,  LL.  D.,    .  . 

John  F.  Dunlap,  A.  M.,  .  . 

Boothe  C.  Davis,  Ph.  D.,  . 
Rev.  W.  H.  Crawford,  LL.D., 

Rev.Wm.  D.  Chapelle,.    .  . 

August  F.  Bruske,  D.  D.,  . 

James  A.  Tate, 

George  Harris,  LL.  D.,     .    . 

S.  D.  Fess,  LL.  D 

Rev.  G.  D.  Crawford,  .    .    . 

Rev.  John  Hope, 

Edward  T.  Ware 

Sven  Aftedal 

G.  A.  Andreen,  Ph.  D.,  .  . 
Rev.  T.  S.  Clyce,  D.  D.,  .  . 
Lemuel  H.  Murlin,  D.  D.,  . 
G.  A.  Reeder,  D.  D.^  .  .  . 
Rev.  G.  C.  Chase,  D.  D.,.    . 

S.  P.  Brooks.  LL.  D 

Arthur  Staples 

Stephen  W.  Stookey,  .  .  . 
Edward  D.  Eaton,  LL.  D.,  . 
William  G.  Frost,  D.  D.,.  . 
T.  E.  Cramblet,  LL.  D.,  .    . 

Ernest  F.  Pihlblad 

Florian  D.  Perkins,  .... 

H.  L.  McCrorey 

Walter  H.  Bradley,  Ph.  D., 
Rev.  Thos.  I.  Gasson,  S.  J., 
Guy  Potter  Benton,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  W.  D.  Hyde,  LL.  D., 
Vachel  D.  Whatley,  A.  M., 
John  S.  Flory,  Ph.  D., . 
James  H.  Linford,     .    . 
Rev.  W.  H.  P.  Faunce,  D.D 
A.  B.  Church,  LL.  D.,  .    . 
J.  H.  Harris,  LL.  D.,    .    . 
Edward  Campbell,  D.  D., 
Edward  L.  Compore,    .    . 

T.  C.  Howe,  Ph.  D 

Arthur  A.  Maeurda,      .    . 
Thomas  D.  Crites,  D.  D., 
Rev.  A.  A.  Miller,  S.  J.,  . 
Rev.  L.  H.  Schuh,  Ph.  D., 
Donald  J.  Cowling,  D.  D., 
H.  D.  Hoover,  Ph.  D.,     . 
Rev.Thomas  J.Shahan.D.D 
Rev.  D.  McKinney,  D.  D., 
Wm.  L.  Weber,  LL.  D.,  . 

W.  A.  Webb 

R.  E.  Thompson,  M.  A.,  . 
Otto  E.  Kriege,  D.  D.,     . 

F.  W.  Hinitt,  Ph.  D.,  .    . 
Rev.  F.  E.  Hirsch,  D.  D., 
H.  Randolph,  LL.  D.,  .    . 
Rev.  Brother  Justin,  LL.  D 
Rev.  Bro.  Edward,   .    .    . 
Carl  Johann,  LL.  D.,    .    . 
Rev.  L.  M.  Dunton,  D.  D., 
Edmund  C.  Sanford,  Ph.  D 
S.  E.  Idleman,A.M.,D.D., 

G.  Stanley  Hall,  LL.  D., . 
John  A.  Marquis,  D.  D.,  . 
Arthur  J.  Roberts,  A.  M., 
E.B.Bryan, A. B., A.M., LL.D 
W.  F.  Slocum,  LL.  D.,     . 
Nicholas  M.  Butler,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  J.  Gallagher,  C.  S.  C, 
Rev.  Martin  Luecke,    .    . 
Max  J.  F.  Albrecht,      .    . 
Rev.  Ross  T.  Campbell,  . 
Jas.  E.  Harlan,  LL.  D.,    . 
Jacob  G.  Schurman,  LL.  D 

Wm.  Oeschger 

Rev.  E.  A.  Alagevney,  .    . 
Winsted  P.  Bowe,     .    .     . 
Rev.  Sam.  F.  Kerfoot,  D.  D 
Rev.  A.  A.  Winter,  .    .    . 


Non-sect., . 
Methodist, 
Un.  Evang., 
Non-sect.,. 
Methodist, 
African  Meth 
Presbyterian, 
Non-sect., 
Christian, 
Non-sect., 
Non-sect., 
Cumb.  Presb 
Baptist,     . 
Non-sect., . 
Lutheran, . 
Lutheran, . 
Presbyterian 
Methodist, 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Baptist,     . 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., 
Non-sect.,. 
Christian,  . 
Lutheran, . 
Baptist, 
Presbyterian, 
Presbyterian, 
R.  CathoUc,  . 
Methodist,     . 
Non-sect., .    . 
Non-sect...    . 
Ger.  Baptist, 
L.  Day  Saints 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., 
Baptist,     . 
Presbyterian 
Baptist,     . 
Non-sect., 
Baptist,     . 
Un.  Brethren 
R.  Catholic, 
Lutheran, . 
Non-sect.,. 
Lutheran, . 
R.  Catholic, 
Ref.  Presb., 
Meth.  So., 
Meth.  So., 
City,  .    .    . 
Methodist, 
Non-sect., 
Ger.  Meth., 
City,  .    .    . 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
Christian, 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Baptist,     . 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
R.  Catholic, 
Lutheran, 
Lutheran, 
Un.  Presb., 
Methodist, 
Non-sect., . 
Christian,  . 
R.  Catholic, 
Presbyterian 
Methodist, 
Un.  Evang., 


z  a 


30 
25 
19 
25 
18 
15 
26 
11 
11 
45 
13 

9 
15 
20 

8 
38 

9 
32 
18 
21 
41 
15 
20 
35 
60 
18 
40 

7 
14 
12 
25 
158 
23 

8 
14 
46 
85 
21 
61 
16 

8 
25 
17 
17 
28 
11 
21 
13 
32 
11 

5 
12 
76 
18 
87 
15 
10 
27 
18 
14 
40 
27 
28 
16 
21 
16 
42 
47 
614 
17 
10 

8 
12 
39 
548 
42 
120 
18 
25 


o  S 


CO 


500 
450 
210 
273 
315 
51fr 
300 
87 
285 
530 
231 
178 
220 
340 
175 
540 
180 
780 
370 
450 

1,296 
214 
188 
481 

1,150 
300 
936 
61 
215 
150 
525 

1,459 
348 
400 
215 
855 
990 
270 
750 
240 
188 
441 
120 
450 
390 
140 
328 
240 
224 
105 
75 
181 

1,982 
310 
751 
250 
90 
550 
260 
165 
700 
140 
576 
74 
298 
275 
482 
605 

4,461 
175 
220 
208 
183 
755 

4,465 
400 
790 
220 
526 
150 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


699 


COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Location 


President  or  Dean 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


.21 

0  z 

"n 

oS 

<^S 

^\i 

J2;S 

87 

1,216 

20 

330 

6 

40 

24 

165 

44 

583 

44 

1,001 

18 

244 

16 

259 

33 

550 

120 

1,846 

25 

426 

33 

525 

14 

317 

11 

230 

21 

344 

10 

184 

16 

200 

8 

136 

19 

351 

20 

325 

21 

311 

17 

400 

42 

571 

100 

735 

45 

711 

9 

100 

11 

199 

24 

394 

10 

204 

14 

253 

5 

60 

16 

105 

17 

290 

22 

264 

149 

764 

215 

1,258 

25 

174 

12 

156 

34 

450 

11 

139 

19 

247 

18 

228 

25 

655 

12 

250 

25 

400 

19 

186 

17 

365 

8 

127 

16 

200 

634 

4,900 

14 

175 

21 

160 

22 

390 

14 

333 

12 

155 

14 

200 

8 

83 

24 

345, 

22 

325 

22 

105 

30 

428 

29 

390 

21 

311 

10 

200 

100 

1,000 

18 

418 

18 

415 

21 

341 

48 

722 

20 

340 

11 

120 

80 

2,051 

55 

640 

22 

425 

21 

190 

48 

521 

190 

699 

26 

408 

5 

,  120 

67 

454 

65 

1,107 

9 

200 

15 

114 

Value  op 
Property 
(including 
Endow- 
ment) 


1769 
1837 
1903 
1833 
1831 
1837 
1865 
1877 
1783 
1881 
1873 
1859 
1836 
1837 
1882 
1839 
1855 
1871 
1867 
1895 
1887 
1882 
1866 
1841 
1881 
1825 
1834 
1787 
1892 
1851 
1854 
1864 
1849 
1829 
1789 
1821 
1873 
1821 
1887 
18G5 
1892 
1892 
1876 
1837 
1862 
1812 
1854 
1783 
1828 
1636 
1882 
1833 
1850 
1889 
1884 
1894 
1853 
1855 
1850 
1825 
1843 
1878 
1866 
1843 
1867 
1889 
1883 
1829 
1850 
1847 
1880 
1820 
1847 
1844 
1831 
1887 
1876 
1876 
1882 
1895 
1799 
1868 
1824 


Dartmouth,  .... 

Davidson 

Davis  and  Elkins,    . 

Delaware 

Denison  U.,  .... 

De  Pauw  U 

Des  Moines,  .... 

Detroit 

Dickinson 

Drake  U 

Drury 

Earlham 

Emory, 

Emory  and  Henry,  . 

Emporia 

Erskine, 

Eureka, 

Evang.  Proseminar, 

Ewing,   ...... 

Fairmount 

Fargo 

Findlay, 

Fisk  U 

Fordham  U 

Fort  Worth  U.,     .    . 

Franklin, 

Franklin, 

Franklin  &  Marshall, 

Fredericksburg,    .    . 

Furman  U 

Gale 

Gallaudet 

Geneya 

Georgetown, .... 

Georgetown  U.,    .    . 

Geo.  Washington  U., 

German 

Gonzaga, 

Gonzaga, 

Graceland 

Grand  Island,   .    .    . 

Greenville 

Grove  City 

Guilford 

Gustavus  Adolphus, 

Hamilton 

Hamline  U.  of  Minn., 

Hampden-Sidney,    . 

Hanover, 

i  Harvard  U 

!  Hastings 

Haverford,    .... 

Heidelberg  U.,  .    .    . 

Henderson 

Hendrix 

Henry  Kendall,    .    . 

Highland  U 

Hillsdale, 

Hiram, 

Hobart, 

Holy  Cross,  C.  of  the. 

Holy  Ghost,  C.  of  the, 

Hope 

Howard, 

Howard  U.,  .... 

Howard  Payne,    .    . 

Huron 

Illinois, 

Illinois  Wesleyan  U., 

Immaculate  Concept 

Indian  U 

Indiana  U.,   .    .    .    . 

Iowa 

Iowa  Wesleyan  U.,  . 

Jefferson 

John  B.  Stetson  U.,. 

Johns  Hopkins  U.,  . 

Juniata . 

Kansas  Christian,     . 

Kansas  City  U.,    .    . 

Kentucky  U 

Kentucky  Wesleyan, 

Kenyon 


Hanover,  N.  H.,  .  . 
Davidson,  N.  C,    .    . 

Elkins.  W.  Va 

Newark,  Del 

Granville,  O 

Greencastle,  Ind.,  .  . 
Des  Moines,  la.,    .    . 

Detroit,  Mich 

Carlisle,  Pa 

Des  Moines,  la.,  .  . 
Springfield,  Mo.,  .  . 
Richmond,  Ind.,    .    . 

Oxford,  Ga 

Emory,  Va 

Emporia,  Kan 

Due  West,  S.  C,  .  . 
Eureka,  111.,   .... 

Elmhurst,  111 

Ewing,  111 

Wichita,  Kan.,  .    .    . 

Fargo,  N.  D 

Findlay,  O 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  .  . 
Fordham.  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Fort  Worth,  Tex..  . 
New  Athens,  O.,    .    . 

Franklin,  Ind 

Lancaster,  Penn.,  .  . 
Fredericksburg,  Va., 
Greenville,  S.  C,  .  . 
Galesville,  Wis.,  .  . 
Kendall  Green,  D.  C, 
Beaver  Falls,  Penn., 
Georgetown,  Ky., 
Washington,  D.  C.,  . 
Washington,  D.  C.,  . 
Mount  Pleasant,  la., 
Washington,  D.  C,  . 
Spokane,  Wash.,  -.  . 
Lamoni,  la.,  .... 
Grand  Island,  Neb.,  . 

Greenville,  111 

Grove  City,  Penn.,  . 
Guilford  College,  N.C. 
St.  Peter,  Minn.,    .    . 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  .  . 
Hampden-Sidney ,  Va. 
Hanover,  Ind.,  .  .  . 
Cambridge,  Mass., 

Hastings,  Neb 

Haverford,  Penn., .    . 

Tiffin,  O 

Arkadelphia,  Ark.,  . 
Conway,  Ark..  .  .  . 
Tulsa,  Okla.,  .... 
Highland,  Kan.,  .  . 
Hillsdale,  Mich.,    .    . 

Hiram,  O 

Geneva,  N.  Y 

Worcester,  Mass.,  .  . 
Pittsburg,  Penn.,  .    . 

Holland,  Mich 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  . 
Washington,  D.  C,  . 
Brownwood,  Tex.,     . 

Huron,  S.  D 

Jacksonville,  111.,  .  . 
Bloomington,  111.,.  . 
New  Orleans,  La., 
Bacone,  Okla.,  .  .  . 
Bloomington,  Ind.,  . 
Grinnell,  la.,  .  .  .  . 
Mount  Pleasant,  la.. 

Convent,  La 

De  Land,  Fla.,  .  .  . 
Baltimore,  Md.,  .  . 
Huntingdon,  Penn.,  . 
Lincoln,  Kan.,^ .  .  . 
Kansas  City,  Kan.,  . 
Lexington,  Ky.,  .  . 
Winchester.  Ky..  .  . 
Gambler.  O..  .    .    .    . 


Ernest  F.  Nichols.  D.  Sc,  . 
Henry  Louis  Smith.  LL.  D., 
Marshall  C.  Allaben,  .  .  . 
G.  A.  Harter.  Ph.  D..  .  .  . 
Emory  W.  Hunt,  LL.  D..    . 

F.  J.  McConnell,  LL.  D.,.    . 

L.  D.  Osborn,  Ph.  D 

Rev.  R.  D.  Slevin,  S.  J.,  .    . 

G.  E.  Reed,  LL.  D. 

Hill  McClelland  Bell,  .  .  . 
Joseph  Henry  George,  .    .    . 

Robert  L.  Kelly 

James  E.  Dicky,  D.  D..  .  . 
Chas.  C.  Weaver,  Ph.  D.,  . 
H.  C.  Culbertson,  B.  D.,  .  . 
Rev.  J.  S.  Moffatt.  D.  D.,  . 
Alexander  C.  Gray,  A.  M.,  . 

Rev.  D.  Irion.  D.  D 

J.  A.  Leavitt.  D.  D 

Henry  E.  Thayer.  .... 
Chas.  C.  Creegan.  D.  D..  .  . 
Rev.  C.  I.  Brown.  D.  D..  . 
G.eo.  A.  Gates,  D.  D.,  .  .  . 
Rev.  D.  J.  Quinn.  S.  J..  .  . 
Rev.  W.  Fielder,  D.  D..  .    . 

A.  M.  Campbell. 

Melville  E.  Crowell 

Rev.  Henry  H.  Apple,  D.  D., 
Rev.  J.  W.  Rosebro,  D.  D., 
Edwin  M.  Poteat,  D.  D.,     . 
Lars  M.  Gimmestad,     .    .    . 

Percival  Hall,  M.  A 

Rev.  W.  H.  George,      .    .    . 

.Arthur  Yeager, 

Rev.  J.  J.  Himmel,  S.  J.,  . 
Chas.  H.  Stockton   (acting). 

Rev.  H.  G.  Leist 

Rev.  Charles  G.  Lyons,  S.  J., 
Rev.  L.  Taelman,  S.  J.,    .    . 

J.  A.  GunsoUey 

George  Sutherland 

E.  G.  Burritt 

Rev.  I.  C.  Ketler,  LL.  D.,  . 
Lewis  L.  Hobbs,  LL.  D., 
Rev.  P.  A.  Mattson.  Ph.  D., 
Rev.  M.  W.  Stryker,  LL.  D., 
Rev.  G.  H.  Bridgman,  LL.D. 
Rev.  Henry  T.  Graham.  .  . 
Wm.  A.Millis,  LL.D..  .  .  . 
A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  LL.  D. 

A.  E.  Turner,  LL.  D 

Isaac  Sharpless,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
Charles  E.  Miller.  D.D..  .    . 

J.  H.  Hinemon. 

Alex.  C.  Miller,  A.  B 

Seth  R.  Gordon.  D.  D.,    . 
Wm.  C.  T.  Adams,  A.  M.,    . 

J.  W.  Mauck,  LL.  D 

Miner  Lee  Bates. 

Rev.L.C.Stewardson,  LL.D.. 
Rev.  T.  E.  Murphy,  S.  J.,  . 
Rev.  M.  A.  Hehir.  C.  S.  Sp., 

G.  J.  Kollen.  LL.  D 

Andrew  P.  Montague,  .  .  . 
Rev.W.P.Thirkield.  LL.  D., 
Robert  H.  Hamilton,  A.  M., 
Rev.  C.  H.  French,  D.  D.,  . 
C.  H.  Rammelkamp,  Ph.  D.. 
Rev.  Theodore  Kemp,  D.D.. 
Rev.  E.  M.  Mattern,  S.  J..  . 
Ewing  N.  Collette,  A.  M..  . 
W.  L.  Bryan,  Ph.  D.,  LL.D., 
John  H.  T.  Main,      .... 

Edwin  A.  Schell, 

Rev.  R.  H.  Smith,  S.  M..  . 
Lincoln  Hulley,  Ph.  D,.  .  . 
Ira  Remsen,  LL.  D.,  .  .  . 
M.  G.  Brumbaugh,  LL.  D.,  . 
George  R.  Stoner,  M.  S..  .  . 
Rev.  D.  S.  Stephens,  D.  D., 
J.  K.  Patterson,  Ph.D., LL.D. 

John  J.  Tigert,  B.  A 

Rev.  W.  F.  Peirce.  L.  H.  D., 


Non-sect...    . 

Presbyterian. 

Presbyterian, 

State,     .    . 

Baptist, 

Methodist, 

Baptist,     . 

R.  Catholic, 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Friends,     . 

Methodist  So 

Methodist  So 

Presbyterian, 

A.  R.  Presb., 

Non-sect... 

Ger.  Evang.. 

Baptist,     . 

Congregat'nal 

Non-sect.,. 

Ch.  of  God, 

Non-sect.,. 

R.  Catholic, 

Methodist, 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-secty. 

Reformea, 

Non-sect., . 

Bapti.st, 

Lutheran, . 

Non-sect.,. 

Ref.  Presb., 

Baptist,     . 

R.  Catholic, 

Non-sect., . 

Methodist, 

R.  Catholic, 

R.  Catholic, 

Latter  Day, 

Baptist, 

Free  Meth., 

Non-sect.. . 

Friends.     . 

Lutheran, 

Non-sect., . 

Methodist, 

Presbyterian 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Presbyterian 

Friends, 

Reformed, 

Methodist  So 

Methodist  So 

Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Non-sect... 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

R.  Catholic, 

R.  Catholic, 

Reformed, 

Baptist, 

Non-sect.,. 

Baptist, 

Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Methodist, 

R.  Catholic, 

Baptist.     . 

State.     .    . 

Non-sect.. . 

Methodist, 

R.  Catholic, 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect., . 

Ger.  Baptist, 

Christian,  . 

Meth.  Prot., 

Christian,  . 

Methodist  So 

Prot.  Epis.,  . 


700 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES  OP  THE   UNITED  STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Knox,  .  .  . 
Knoxville,  .  . 
Lafayette, .  . 
La  Fayette,  . 
La  Grange,  . 
Lake  Forest,  . 
La  Salle,  .  . 
Leander  Clark, 
Lawrence  U., 
Lebanon  Valley 
Lehigh  U.,  . 
Leland  Stanf  d 
Lenoir,  .  .  . 
Lenox,  .  .  . 
Lima,  .  .  . 
Lincoln,  .  . 
Lincoln  U.,    . 


..U 


Livingstone 
Lombard,  .    .    . 
Louisiana  State 
Loyola,  .    . 
Macalester, 
Manhattan, 
Marietta,    . 
Maryville,  . 
McKendree, 
McMinnville, 
Mercer  U., 
Miami  U., 
Middlebury, 
Milligan,    . 

Milton, 

Mission  House  of  the 

Reformed  Church, 
Mississippi,    .    .    . 
Missouri  Valley,    . 
Missouri  Wesleyan, 
Monmouth,    .    .    . 
Moores  Hill,  .    .    . 
Morningside,      .    . 
Morris  Brown,  .    . 
Morris  Harvey, 
Morrisville,    .    .    . 
Mount  St.  Joseph's, 
Mount  St.  Mary's, 
Mount  Union,    .    . 
Muhlenberg,  .    .    . 
Muskingum,  .    .    . 
Nebraska  Wesleyan 
New  Windsor,  .    . 
New  York  U.,   .    . 
New  York,  Coll.  of 

the  City  of,    . 
Niagara  U.,   .    . 
Northern  Illinois, 
Northwestern,  . 
Northwestern  U., 
Northwestern  U., 
Northwest  Missouri, 
Norwegian  Luther, 
Norwich  U.,  .    . 

Oberlin 

Occidental,    .    . 

Ogden 

Ohio  State  U.,  . 

OhioU 

Ohio  Wesleyan  U 

Olivet 

Ottawa  U.,  .  . 
Otterbein  U.,  . 
Ouachita,  .  .  . 
Pacific,   .... 

PaeificU 

Park 

Parker,  .... 
Parsons,  .  .  . 
Peabody  School 

Teachers,  .    . 

Penn 

Pennsylvania,   .    . 
Pennsylv'a  Military 
Pennsylvania  State, 


for 


Location 


Galesburg,  111.,  . 
Kaoxville,  Tenn., 
Easton,  Pa.,  .    . 
La  Fayette,  Ala., 
La  Grange,  Mo., 
Lake  Forest,  111., 
Philadelphia, .    . 
Toledo,  la.,    .    . 
Appleton,  Wis.,  . 
Annville,  Penn., 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa 
Palo  Alto,  Cal.; . 
Hickory,  N.  C.,,. 
Hopkinton,  la., 
Lima,  O.,    .... 
Lincoln,  111.,  ... 
Lincoln  Univ.,  Ches 

ter  Co.,  Pa.,  .  . 
Salisbury,  N.  C,  . 
Galesburg,  111.,  .  . 
Baton  Rouge,  La., 
Baltimore,  Md., 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  . 
New  York  City, 
Marietta,  O.,  .  .  . 
Maryville,  Tenn.,  . 
Lebanon,  111.,  .  . 
McMinnville,  Ore., 

Macon,  Ga 

Oxford,  O.,     ... 
Middlebury,  Vt.,    . 
Milligan,  Tenn., 
Milton,  Wis.,  .    .    . 


Franklin,  Wis.,  .    . 
Clinton,  Miss.,    .    . 
Marshall,  Mo.,    .    . 
Cameron,  Mo.,    .    . 
Monmouth,  III., 
Moores  Hill,  Ind.,  . 
Sioux  City,  la.,  .    . 
Atlanta,  Ga.,      .    . 
Barboursville,  W.Va 
Morrisville,  Mo.,     . 
Baltimore,  Md., 
Emmitsburg,  Md., 

Alliance,  O 

AUentown,  Penn.,. 
New  Concord,  O.,  . 
University  Place, Neb 
New  Windsor,  Md., 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  . 


New  York,  N.  Y., 
Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y., 

Fulton,  111 

Naperville,  111.,  .  . 
Evanston,  111.,  .  . 
Watertown,  Wis.,  . 
Albany,  Mo.,  .  . 
Decorah,  la..  .  . 
Northfield,  Vt.,  .  . 
Oberlin,  O.,  .  .  . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  . 
Bowling  Green,  Ky., 
Columbus,  O.,  .  . 
Athens,  O..,  .  .  . 
Delaware,  O.,  .  . 
Olivet,  Mich.,  .  . 
Ottawa,  Kan.,  .  . 
Westerville,  O., 
Arkadelphia,  Ark., 
Newberg,  Ore.,  .  . 
Forest  Grove,  Ore., 
Parkville,  Mo.,  .  . 
Winnebago  City,  Min 
Fairfield,  la.,  .    . 


Nashville,  Tenn.,  . 
Oskaloosa,  la.,  .  . 
Gettysburg,  Penn., 
Chester,  Penn.,  .  . 
State  College,  Penn., 


President  or  Dean 


Thomas  McClelland,  D.  D., 
R.  W.  McGranahan,  D.  D., 
Rev.  E.  D.  Warfield,  LL.  D 
Flavius  T.  Appleby, .    .    . 

Chas.  A.  Deppe 

John  S.  Nollen,  Ph.  D.,  . 
Rev.  Brother  Abdas,  .  . 
Franklin  E.  Brooke,  .  . 
Rev.  S.  Plantz,  D.  D.,  . 
Rev.  L.  Keister,  D.  D.,  . 
Henry  S.  Drinker,  LL.  D., 
David  Starr  Jordan,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  R.  L.  Fritz,  A.  M.,  . 
Rev.  E.  E.  Reed,  D.  D.,  . 
Charles  Christian  Miller,  . 
James  H.  McMurray,  Ph.  D, 

Isaac  N.  Rendall,  D.  D., 
William  H.  Goler,  LL.  D., 
Rev.  L.  B.  Fisher,  D.  D.,. 
T.  D.  Boyd,  LL.  D.,     .    . 
Rev.  F.  X.  Brady,  S.  J.,  . 
T.  Morey  Hodgman,  LL.  D 
Rev.  Bro.  Jerome,  F.  S.  C, 
Rev.  A.  T.  Perry,  D.  D.,  . 
Rev.  S.  T.  Wilson,  D.  D., 

John  F.  Harmon 

Leonard  W.  Riley,    .    .    . 
S.  F.  Jameson, 


John  M.  Thomas 

Frederick  D.  Kershner,    . 
Rev.  Wm.  C.  Daland,  D.  D 

Rev.  E.G.  Kramfe,  .  .  . 
Rev.  W.  T.  Lowrey,  D.  D., 
W.  H.  Black,  D.  D.,  .  . 
Rev.  H.  R.  Debra,  D.  D., 
T.  H.  McMichael,  D.  D.,  . 
Harry  A.  King,  S.  T.  B., 
Luther  Freeman,  D.  D.,  . 

Rev.  E.  W.  Lee 

R.  H.  Alderman,  .... 
Rev.  Allen  H.Godbey,  Ph.D 

Brother  Narbert 

Very  Rev.D.J.Flynn,  LL.D 
Rev.  Wm.  H.  McMaster,  . 
Rev.J.  A.  W.Haas,  D.D., 
Rev.  J.  K.  Montgomery, D.D 
Clark  A.  Fulmer  (acting) 
Rev.  J.  Eraser,  Ph.  D., 


John  H.  Finley,  LL.  D.,   . 
Very  Rev.  E.  J.  Walsh,  C.  M 
J.  E.  Bittinger,  A.  M.,  .    . 
H.J.  Kiekhoefer,  Ph.  D., 
Abram  W.  Harris,  LL.  D., 

August  F.  Ernst 

James  Ralph  Clay,  .  .  . 
Christian  Keyser,  .  .  . 
C.  H.  Spooner,  LL.  D.,  . 
Rev.  H.  C.  King,  D.  D.,  . 
John  W.  Baer,  LL.  D.,     . 

W.  R.  Binkley 

W.  O.  Thompson,  LL.  D., 
Alston  Ellis,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
Herbert  Welch,  LL.  D.,  . 
E.  G.  Lancaster,  Ph.  D.,  . 
Silas  Eber  Price,  D.  D.,  . 
Walter  G.  Clippinger,  A.  B 
H.  S.  Hartzog,  LL.  D.,  . 
W.  Irving  Kelsey,  .  .  . 
W.  N.  Ferrin,  LL.  D.,  .    . 

L.  M.  McAfee, 

Marshall  Lewis 

Rev.  W.  E.  Parsons,  D.  D., 


Charles  E.  Little,  .... 
David  M.  Edwards,  .  .  . 
Wm.  A.  Granville,  .  .  . 
Charles  E.  Hyatt, .... 
Edwin  E.  Sparks,  Ph.  D., 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


Non-sect.,.  . 
Un.  Presb.,  . 
Presbyterian, 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Baptist,  .  . 
Presbyterian, 
R.  Catholic,  . 
Un.  Brethren, 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Un.  Brethren, 
Non-sect., .  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
Lutheran^.  . 
Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Presb.  (col'd) 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Universalist, 
Non-sect.,.  . 
R.  Catholic,  . 
Presbyterian, 
R.  Catholic,  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
Presbyterian, 
Methodist,  . 
Baptist,  .  . 
Baptist,  .  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Disc,  of  Christ 
Seven  D.Bap., 

Reformed,  . 
Baptist,  .  . 
Presbyterian, 
Methodist,  . 
Un.  Presb.,  . 
Methodist,  . 
Methodist,  . 
African  M.  E. 
Methodist  So., 
Methodist  So., 
R.  Catholic,  . 
R.  Catholic,  . 
Methodist,  . 
Lutheran, 
Un.  Presb.,  . 
Methodist,  . 
Presbyterian, 
Non-sect., .    . 

City 

R.  Catholic,  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Evang.  Ass'n, 
Methodist,  . 
Lutheran, 
Methodist  So., 
Lutheran, .  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
State,  .  .  . 
State,  .  .  . 
Methodist,  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Baptist,  .  . 
Un.  Brethren, 
Baptist,  .  . 
Friends,  .  . 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Non-sect., .  . 
Free  Baptist, 
Presbyterian, 

Non-sect., . 
Friends,  . 
I;Utheran, . 
Non-sect.,. 
State,    .    . 


^  o 


31 
16 
37 
11 
10 
18 
16 
17 
36 
22 
64 
138 
14 
11 
22 
15 

15 
16 
16 
40 
26 
25 
12 
29 
32 
11 
15 
21 
40 
13 
12 
14 

18 
13 
14 
16 
25 
15 
30 
24 
10 
16 
20 
25 
30 
14 
20 
45 
6 
338 

170 

28 

6 

22 

358 
12 
88 
14 
12 

144 

33 

5 

194 
SS 

124 
30 
22 
30 
30 
8 
23 
25 
9 
20 

32 
18 
19 
14 
120 


^?^ 


700 
607 
455 
295 
167 
190 
150 
312 
60* 
319 
664 
1.751 
215 
185 
400 
334 

198 
350 
125 
549 
230 
250 
280 
504 
622 
226 
229 
297 
1,149 
220 
178 
139 

112 
460 
406 
338 
491 
276 
500 
800 
163 
200 
180 
333 
554 
124 
400 
904 
50 
4,200 

3,905 

275 

180 

483 

3,997 

280 

151 

167 

177 

1,915 

400 

81 

2,686 

1,386 

1,§86 

283H 

450 

551 

400 

138 

230 

420 

183 

240 

587 
221 
300 
142 
1,200 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


701 


COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES  OP  THE   UNITED   STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Philander  Smith, 
Philomath,    .    . 

Pike 

Polytechnic,  .    . 
Poly.  Inst,  of  B'klyn 
Pomona,     . 
Pratt  Institute, 
Presbyterian  of  S 
Princeton  U.,    . 
Pritchett,  .    .    . 
Randolph-Macon, 
Richmond, 
Richmond, 
Rio  Grande, 
Ripon,    .    . 
Roanoke,  . 
Rock  Hill,. 
Rollins, 
Rust  U.,     . 
Rutgers,     . 
Sacred  Heart,  Col 
St.  Anselm's,     . 
St.  Bede's,     .    . 
St.  Benedict's,  . 

St.  Benedict's,  . 
St.  Bernard,  .  . 
St.  Bona  venture's, 
St.  Charles,  .  .  . 
St.  Francis  Solanus 

St.  Francis  Xavier, 

St.  Ignatius, 

St.  John's, 

St.  John's, 

St.  John's, 

St.  John's, 

St.  .John's  Lutheran 

St.  John's  U.,    . 

St.  Joseph's,  .    , 

St.  Lawrence  U 

St.  Leo,      . 

St.  Louis  U., 

St.  Mary's, 
St.  Mary's, 
St.  Mary's, 
St.  Meinrad, 
St.  Olaf,  . 
St.  Peter's, 
St.  Stephen's, 


St.  Vincent's, 
St.  Vincent's, 
St.  Xavier, 
Santa  Clara, 
Scarritt  Coll 
Scio,   .    .    . 
Seton  Hall, 

ShawU.,    . 
Shurtleff,   . 


Inst. 


Simpson 

S.  Carolina  Mil.  Ac 
Southern  U.,      .    . 
Southw'n  Presb.  U. 
Spring  Hill,    .    .    . 
Stanford  Graded, . 
State  Col.for  Col'd  S 
Straight  U.,  .    . 
Susquehanna  U 
Swarthmore, 
Syracuse  U., 


Tabor,  .  . 
Tarkio,  .  . 
Taylor  U.,. 
Temple  U., 
Thief,.  .  . 
Transylvania  U.,. 
Trinity,  . 
Trinity,      . 


Location 


Little  Rock,  Ark.,.  . 
Philomath,  Ore.,  .  . 
Bowling  Green,  Mo., 
Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  . 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Claremont,  Cal.,  .  . 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  .    . 

Clinton,  S.  C 

Princeton,  N.  J.,  .  . 
Glasgow,  Mo.,    .    .    . 

Ashland,  Va 

Richmond,  O.,  .  .  . 
Richmond,  Va.,  .  . 
Rio  Grande,  O.,  .  . 
Ripon,  Wis.,  .    .    .    . 

Salem,  Va 

EUicott  City,  Md.,  . 
Winter  Park,  Fla.,  . 
Holly  Springs,  Miss., 
New  Brunswick,  N.J. 
Denver,  Col.,  .  .  . 
Manchester,  N.  Hv,    . 

Peru,  111 

Atchison,  Kan.,     .    . 


Newark,  N.  J.,   . 
St.  Bernard,  Ala., 
Allegany,  N.  Y., 
Ellicott  City,  Md. 
Quincy,  111.,    .    . 


New  York,  N.  Y.,  . 
Cleveland,  O.,  .  . 
Annapolis,  Md., 
Washington,  D.  C, 
New  York,  N.  Y.-,  . 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  . 
Winfield,  Kan., 
Collegeville,  Minn., 
Dubuque,  la.,  .  . 
Canton,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
St.  Leo,  Fla.,  .  . 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,   .    . 

St.  Mary,  Ky.,  .  . 
Belmont,  N.C.,.  . 
St.  Mary's,  Kan.,  , 
St.  Meinrad,  Ind., 
Northfield,  Minn.,. 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.,. 
Annandale,  N.  Y., 

Beatty,  Penn.,  .  . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal., . 
Cincinnati,  O.,  .  . 
Santa  Clara,  Cal.,  . 
Neosho,  Mo.,  .    .    . 

Scio,  O 

South  Orange,  N.  J. 


Raleigh,  N.  C,  .  . 
Upper  Alton,  111.,  . 

Indianola,  la.,  .  . 
Charleston,  S.  C,  . 
Greensboro,  Ala.,  . 
Clarksville,  Tenn., 
Mobile,  Ala.,  .  .  . 
Stanford,  Ky.,    .    . 

Dover,  Del 

New  Orleans,  La.,. 
Selinsgrove,  Penn., 
Swarthmore,  Penn., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,    . 


Tabor,  la.,      ... 

Tarkio,  Mo 

Upland,  Ind.,  .  . 
Philadelphia,  Penn. 
Greenville,  Penn., 
Lexington,  Ky.,  . 
Hartford,  Conn.,  . 
Durham,  N.  C,      . 


President  or  Dean 


Rev.  J.  M.Cox,  D.  D,  .  . 
Marion  R.  Drury, .... 

L.  M.  Collins 

Rev.  H.  A.Boaz,  A.  M.,  . 
F.  W.  Atkinson,  Ph.  D..  . 
James  A.  Blaisdell,  D.  D., 

C.  M.  Pratt,  A.  M 

Rev.  Almon  E.  Spencer,  . 
John  A.  Stewart,  A.  M.,  . 

Uriel  S.  Hall, 

R.  E.  Blackwell,  LL.  D.,  . 
George  W.  Macmillan, .  . 
F.  W.  Boatwright,  LL.  D., 
John  Merrill  Davis,  .    .    . 

Silas  Evans,  A.  M 

Rev.  J.  A.  Morehead,  D.  D. 
Bro.  Maurice,  F.  S.  C.,.    . 
W.  F.  Blackman,  Ph.  D., 
James  T.  Docking,  Ph.  D., 
Rev.W.H.S.Demarest,  D.D. 
John  J.  Brown,  S.  J.,    .    . 
Rev.  Ernest  Helmstetter, 
Vincent  Huber,  D.  D.,.    . 
Rt.  Rev.  Innocent  Wolf, 

O.  S.  B 

Rev.  P.  Cornelius,     .    .    . 
Rt.Rev.B.Menges,  O.  S.  B., 
Fortunatus  Hauser, .    .    . 
Rev.  F.  X.  McKenny,  A.  M. 
Very  Rev.  P.  A.  Mueller, 

O.  F.  M 

Rev.  T.  J.  McCluskey,  S.  J., 
Rev.  John  B.  Turay,     .    . 
Thomas  Fell,  LL.  D.,   .    . 
Bro.  F.  Andrew,    .... 
Rev.  J.  J.  ColUns,  S.  J.,     . 
Very  Rev.  J.W.Moore,  CM. 
Adolphus  W.  Meyer,     .    . 
Rt.  Rev.  P.  Engel,  Ph.  D., 
Very  Rev.  D.  M.  Gorman, 
A.  Gunnison,  LL.  D.,    .    . 
Rt.  Rev.  C.  H.  Mohr,O.S.B., 
Very  Rev.  John  P.  Frieden 

S.J 

Rev.  M.  Jaglowicz,  C.  R., . 
Rt.  Rev.  L.  Haid,  O.  S.  B., 
Rev.  A.  J.  Breen,  S.  J.,  . 
Rt.Rev.A.Schmitt,  O.  S.  B. 
Rev.  John  N.  Kildahl,.  . 
Rev.  E.  J.Magrath,  S.  J., 
Rev.  Wm.  Rodgers,  D.  D. 

(warden), 

Rt.Rev.W.Stehle,  O.  S.  B., 
Very  Rev.  J.  S.  Glass,  D.  D. 
Rev.  Joseph  Grimmelsman, 
James  P.  Morrissey,  S.  J., 
J.  T.  Prichett,  A.  M.,    .    . 
Robert  E.  Beethan,  D.  D., 
Very  Rev.  J.  F.  Mooney, 

D.  D 

Rev.  C.  F.  Meserve,  LL.  D., 

D.  G.  Ray,  H.  C.  Tilton, 
regents, 

F.  L.  Strickland 

Col.  O.  G.  Bond,  Supt.,     . 
Rev.  Andrew  Sledd,  D.  D., 
Wm.  Dinwiddle,    .... 
Rev.  F.  X.  Twellmever,S.J., 

J.  W.  Ireland 

William  C.  Jason, .... 
Elbert  M.  Stevens,  .  .  . 
Rev.  C.  T.  Aikens,  .  .  . 
Joseph  Swain,  LL.  D.,.  . 
Rev.  J.  R.  Day,  S.  T.  D., 

Chancellor, 

Frederick  W.  Long,  .  .  . 
Rev.  J.  A.  Thompson,  D.  D. 
Rev.  M.  Vayhinger,  D.  D., 
Rev.  R.  H.  Conwell,  LL.  D. 
C.  Theodore  Benze,  .  .  . 
Richard  Crossfield,  .  .  . 
F.  S.  Luther,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
W.  P.  Few,  Ph.  D.,   .    .    . 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


Methodist,     . 
Un.  Brethren 
Non-sect.,.    . 
Methodist  So 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Presbyterian 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Methodist  So 
Non-sect.,. 
Baptist,     . 
Free  Baptist 
Non-sect., . 
Lutheran, . 
R.  Catholic, 
Non-sect., . 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 

R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 

R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
Non-sect., . 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  CathoUc, 
R.  Catholic, 
Lutheran, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic. 
Non-sect., . 
R.  Catholic, 

R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
Lutheran,  . 
R.  Cathohc, 

Prot.  Epis., 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 
R.  Catholic, 

Methodist, 

R.  Catholic, 
Baptist, 

Baptist, 

Methodist, 

State,     .    . 

Methodist  So 

Presbyterian, 

R.  Catholic 

Non-sect.,. 

State,     .    . 

Congregat'nal 

Lutheran, 

Non-sect., 

Non-sect.,. 
Congregat'nal 
Un.  Presb., 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Lutheran, . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., . 
Methodist  So 


i  K 

n 

>-H  0 

fe  Z 

s| 

Oh 
On 

o£ 

!5h 

;zS2 

02 

23 

677 

15 

125 

7 

125 

9 

107 

38 

815 

40 

507 

134 

3,700 

8 

117 

161 

1,312 

7 

128 

18 

131 

6 

50 

23 

319 

11 

169 

23 

204 

16 

•  206 

18 

175 

20 

200 

15 

458 

40 

310 

15 

190 

22 

115 

14 

125 

21 

250 

14 

120 

20 

150 

20 

225 

18 

210 

17 

200 

41 

552 

24 

330 

14 

180 

12 

140 

37 

440 

25 

265 

5 

52 

32 

334 

19 

277 

21 

600 

7 

75 

203 

1,022 

12 

140 

21 

115 

43 

426 

23 

250 

29 

532 

15 

243 

9 

47 

35 

400 

28 

350 

31 

417 

35 

325 

14 

178 

16 

301 

18 

204 

32 

516 

15 

180 

25 

929 

9 

170 

11 

180 

12 

118 

32 

250 

14 

350 

7 

118 

29 

716 

22 

267 

37 

331 

220 

3,300 

13 

130 

25 

317 

17 

177 

212 

3,475 

6 

59 

46 

1,129 

23 

216 

36 

420 

702 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


COLUEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Trinity  U.,  . 
Tufts,  .  .  . 
Tulane  University 

Louisiana, .  . 
Union,  .... 
Union,  .... 
Union  Christian, 
Union  U.,  .    .    . 

U.  of  Alabama, 
U.  of  Arizona,  . 
U.  of  Arkansas, 
U.  of  Buffalo,  . 
U.  of  California, 
U.  of  Chicago,  . 
U.  of  Cincinnati, 
U.  of  Colorado, 
U.  of  Denver,  . 
U.  of  Florida,  . 
U.  of  Georgia,  . 
U.  of  Idaho,  .  . 
U.  of  Illinois,  . 
U.  of  Iowa,  .  . 
U.  of  Kansas,  . 
U.  of  Louisville, 
U.  of  Maine,  .  . 
U.  of  Michigan, 
U.  of  Minnesota, 
U.  of  Mississippi, 
U.  of  Missouri,  . 
U.  of  Montana, 
U.  of  Nashville, 
U.  of  Nebraska, 
U.  of  Nevada,  . 
U.  of  New  Mexico. 
U.  of  North  Carolina 
U.  of  North  Dakota, 
U.  of  Notre  Dame,   . 

U.  of  Oklahoma,  . 
U.  of  Oregon,    .    . 
U.  of  Pennsylvania, 
U.  of  Pittsburg,    . 
U.  of  Rochester,   . 
U.  of  St.  Mary,.    . 
U.  of  S.  California, 
U.  of  South  Carolina 
U.  of  South  Dakota, 
U.  of  Tennessee,    .    . 
U.  of  Texas,.    .    .    . 
U.  of  the  Pacific,  .    . 
U.  of  the  South,    .    . 

U.  of  Utah 

U.  of  Vermont, .  .  . 
U.  of  Virginia,  .  .  . 
U.  of  Washington,  . 
U.  of  Wisconsin,  .  . 
U.  of  Wooster,  .  . 
U.  of  Wyoming,  .  . 
Upper  Iowa  U.,  .  . 
Urbana  U.,    .... 

Ursinus 

Vanderbilt  U.,  .  .  . 
Villanova,  .... 
Virginia  Military  Inst 

Wabash, 

Wake  Forest,  .  .  . 
Walden  University, . 

Wartburg 

Washburn 

Washington 

Washington, .  .  .  . 
Wash't'n  &  Jefferson 
Washingt'n  &  Lee  U. 
Washington  U.,  .  . 
Wesleyan  U.,  .  .  . 
Western  Maryland,  . 
Western  Reserve  U., 

Westfield 

Westminster,  .  .  . 
Westminster,  .  .  . 
West  Virginia,  U.  . 
W.  Va.  Wesleyan,     . 


Location 


Al- 


Waxahachie,  Tex., 
Medford,  Mass., 

New  Orleans,  La. 
Barbourville,  Ky., 
College  View,  Neb 
Merom,  Ind., 
Schenectady  and 
bany,  N.  Y.,  . 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala., 
Tucson,  Ariz.,    . 
Fayetteville,  Ark., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  . 
Berkeley,  Cal.,   . 
Chicago,  111.,  .    . 
Cincinnati,  O.,    . 
Boulder,  Col.,     . 
Denver,  Col., 
Gainesville,  Fla., 
Athens,  Ga.,  .    . 
Moscow,  Idaho, . 
Urbana,  111.,  .    . 
Iowa  City,  la.,   . 
Lawrence,  Kan., 
Louisville,  Ky.,. 
Orono,  Me.,    .    . 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
Minneapolis,  Minn 
University,  Miss., 
Columbia,  Mo.,  . 
Missoula,  Mont., 
Nashville,  Tenn., 
Lincoln,  Neb.,    . 
Reno,  Nev.,    .    . 
Albuquerque,  N.  M., 
Chapel  Hill,  N.  C, 
Grand  Forks,  N.  D., 
Notre  Dame,  Ind., 


Norman,  Okla.; 
Eugene,  Ore.,  .  . 
Philadelphia,  Penn., 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  .  . 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  . 
Galveston,  Tex.,  . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
Columbia,  S-  C.,  . 
Vermillion,  S.  D.,  . 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  . 

Austin,  Tex 

San  Jos^,  Cal.,    .    . 
Sewanee,  Tenn.,     . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
Burlington,  Vt., 
Charlottesville,  Va., 
Seattle,  Wash.,  .    . 
Madison,  Wis.,  .    . 
Wooster,  O.,  .    .    . 
Laramie,  Wye.,.    . 
Fayette,  I^.,  .    .    . 
Urbana,  O.,    .    .    '. 
Collegeville,  Penn., 
Nashville,  Tenn.,   . 
Villanova,  Penn.,  . 
Lexington,  Va., .    . 
Crawfordsville,  Ind. 
Wake  Forest,  N.  C, 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  . 
Clinton,  la.,    .    .    . 
Topeka,  Kan.,    .    . 
Chestertown,  Md., 
Wash'gton  Coll., Tenn 
Washington,  Penn., 
Lexington,  Va.,.    . 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,   .    . 
Middletown,  Conn., 
Westminster,  Md., 
Cleveland,  O.,    .    . 
Westfield,  111.,    .    . 
Fulton,  Mo.,  .    .    . 
N.  Wilmington,  Penn 
Morgantown,  W.  Va., 
Buckhannon,  W.Va., 


President  ok  DEA^ 


S.  L.  Hornback,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
Rev.  F.  W.  Hamilton,  D.D., 

E.  B.  Craighead,  D.  C.  L.,  . 

James  D.  Black 

Frederick  Griggs, 

O.  B.  Whitaker,  D.  D.,     .    . 

Rev.  C.  A.  Richmond,  D.D. 
J.  W.  Abererombie,  LL.  D., . 
K.  C.  Babcock,  Ph.  D.,  .  . 
J.  N.  Tillman,  LL.  D.,  .  .  . 
C.  P.  Norton 

B.  I.  Wheeler,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
H.  P.  Judson,  LL.  D 

C.  W.  Dabney,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
J.  H.  Baker,  LL.  D.,  |.-.r..'-.. 
Rev.  H.  A.  Buchtel,  LL.  D., 
Albert  A.  Murphree,  LL.  D., 

D.  C.  Barrow,  A.  M.,  .  . 
J.  A.  McLean,  LL.  D.,  .    . 

E.  J.  James,  LL.  D.,.  .  . 
G.E.  McLean,  LL.D.,.  . 
Frank  Strong;  Ph.  D.,  .    . 

J.  L.  Patterson 

Robert  J.  Aley,  Ph.  D.,    . 
Harry  B.  Hutchins,  LL.  D 
C.  Northrop,  LL.  D.,    .    . 
A.  A.  Kincannon,  Chan., . 

A.  R.  Hill,  Ph.  D 

C.  H.  Duniway,     .... 
J.  D.  Porter.  LL.  D.,    .    . 
Samuel  Avery,  Ph.D.,lChan 
J.  E.  Stubbs,  LL.  D.,   .    . 
Edward  M.  Gray,  Ph.  D., 

F.  P.  Venable,  LL.  D.,  . . 
Frank  L.  McVey,  .... 
Very  Rev.  J.  Cavanaugh, 

C.  S.  C 

Rev.  A.  Grant  Evans,  .  . 
Prince  L.  Campbell,  .  . 
Edgar  F.Smith,  Ph.D.,  Prov 
S.  B.  McCormick,  .  .  . 
Rush  Rhees,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
Rev.  A.  E.  Otis,  S.  J.,  .    . 

G.  F.  Bovard,  D.  D.,    .    . 
S.  C.  Mitchell,  LL.  D.,.    . 
Franklin  B.  Gault,    .    .    . 
Brown  Ayres,  Ph.  D.,  .    . 
S.  E.  Mezes,  Ph.  D.,     .    . 
Wm.  W.  Guth,  Ph.  D.,    . 
Wm.  B.  Hall  (Vice-Chan.h 
Joseph  T.  Kingsbury,  Ph.D 
M.  H.  Buckham,  LL.  D., 
E.  A.  Alderman,  D.  C.  L., 
T.  F.  Kane,  Ph.  D.,      .    . 

C.  R.  VanHise,  LL.D.,   . 
L.  E.  Holden,  LL.  D.,      . 
Chas.  O.  Merica,  LL.  D.,. 
Richard  W.  Cooper,  Litt.  D. 
P.  H.  Seymour,  Dean, 
Rev.  A.  E.  Keigwin,  D.  D., 
J.  H.  Kirkland,  LL.  D.,  . 
Edward  G.  Dohan,    .    .    . 
E.  W.  Nichols  (Supt.),     . 
George  L.  Mackintosh, 
William  L.  Poteat,    ... 
Rev.  J.  A.  Kumler,  D.  D., 

J.  Fritschell 

Rev.  F.  K.  Sanders,  Ph.  D., 
James  W.  Cain,  LL.  D.,  . 
James  T.  Cootes,  D.  D.,  . 
Rev.  J.  D.  Moffat,  LL.  D., 
G.  H.  Denny,  LL.  D 

D.  F.  Houston,  Chan.,.  . 
Wm.  A.  Shanklin,  LL.  D., 
T.  H.  Lewis,  D.  D.,  .    .    . 

C.  F.  Thwing,  LL.  D.,  .    . 

B.  F.  Daugherty,  D.  D.,  . 

D.  R.  Kerr,  D.  D 

R.  McW.  Russell,  D.  D., 
D.  B.  Purinton,  LL.  D.,  . 

C.  G.  Doney,  D.  D.,      .    . 


Denomina- 
tional 

CONTKOL 


Presbyterian, 
Non-sect., 

State,     .    . 
Methodist, 
Seven  D.  Ad. 
Christian,  . 

Non-sect., . 
State,  .  . 
Territory,  . 
State,  .  . 
Non-sect., . 
State,  .  . 
Baptist, 
City,  .  .  . 
State,  .  . 
Methodist, 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State;  .  . 
Non-sect.,. 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
Non-jsect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
State,  .  . 
State,  .  . 
Territory, 
State,  .  . 
State,     .    . 

R.  Catholic, 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., . 
R.  Catholic, 
Meth.  Epis., 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
Stete,     .    . 
Methodist, 
Prot.  Epis., 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
State,     .    . 
Presbyterian 
State,     .    . 
Methodist, 
New  Church, 
Reformed, 
Methodist  So 
R.  Catholic, 
State,     .    . 
Presbyterian 
Baptist, 
Methodist  So 
Lutheran, 
Congregat'nal 
Non-sect.,.    . 
Presbyterian, 
Presbyterian, 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,, 
Methodist, 
Methodist, 
Non-sect.,. 
Un.  Brethren, 
Presbyterian, 
Un.  Presb.,    . 
State,     .    .    . 
Methodist  So. 


15 
209. 

163 
11 
42 
13 

32 

44 

35 

75 

166 

500 

303 

135 

125 

170 

16 

199 

46 

480 

150 

TT7 

147 

70 

360 

229 

33 

202 

20 

66 

156 

30 

16 

94 

61 

75 
50 
40 

435 

159 
24 
11 

199 
24 
45 

106 
83 
24 
43 
67 
80 
98 

103 

395 
31 
40 
18 
8 
20 

115 
32 
22 
22 
32 
70 
7 
98 
11 
9 
30 
40 

269 
34 
23 

193 
10 
13 
23 
70 
23 


240 
1,135 

1,782 
104 
432 
148 

329 

573 

237 

1,800 

600 

2,805 

5,038 

1,374 

1,025 

1,324 

■100 

3,375 

500 

4,763 

2,072 

2,063 

850 

874 

5,013 

4,421 

344 

2,536 

200 

1,460 

3,237 

276 

158 

790 

861 

900 
790 
512 

4,500 

1,138 
380 
105 

1,470 
280 
424 
755 

1,837 
375 
456 
700 
557 
887 

1,703 

4,500 
628 
230 
504 
54 
183 
902 
357 
340 
301 
371 
925 
85 
711 
137 
135 
442 
560 

2,093 
320 
235 
914 
150 
183 
291 

1,208 
417 


Value  or 
Propebty 
(including 
Endow- 
ment) 


S    150,000 
2,846,000 

3,918,229 
408,000 
182,424 
200,000 

1,341,071 

1,500,000 

265,000 

500,000 

305,000 

9,965,595 

25,587,531 

3,300,000 

800,000 

755,000 

400,000 

1,500,000 

808,121 

3,458,287 

2,574,000 

1,500,000 

250,000 

818,000 

-  3,195,000 

6,033,181 

1,200,000 

2,000,000 

1,200,000 

500,000 

2,800,000 

508,000 

152,500 

1,100,000 

500,000 

2,000,000 

4,350,000 

600,000 

8,872,500 

1,100,000 

1,533,154 

150,000 

700,000 

500,000 

1,360,000 

1,172,688 

3,030,000 

250,000 

850,000 

757,515 

1,738,529 

5,801,420 

1,500,000 

4,570,000 

1,213,782 

381,711 

465,000 

200,000 

400,000 

2,500,000 

526,000 

600,000 

1,000,000 

481,000 

160,000 

93,000 

600,000 

125,000 

115,000 

1,014,500 

1,250,000 

9,600,000 

2,589,923 

350,000 

3,405,000 

100,000 

397,598 

450,000 

1,220,000 

300,000 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


703 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Wheaton,  .... 

Whitman 

Wilberforce  U., 
Wiley  U.,  .  .  .  . 
Willamette  U.,  . 
William  and  Mary, 
William  Jewell, 
Williams,  .... 
Wilmington, .  .  . 
Wittenberg,  .    .    . 

Wofford 

YaleU. 

Yankton,   .... 
York, 


Location 


Wheaton,  111.,  .  . 
Walla  Walla,  Wash. 
Wilberforce,  O.,  . 
Marshall,  Tex.,  .  . 
Salem,  X)re.,  .  .  . 
Williamsburg,  Va., 
Liberty,  Mo.,  .  . 
Williamstown,  Mass 
Wilmington,  O.,  . 
Springfield,  O.,  .  . 
Spartanburg,  S.  C, 
New  Haven,  Conn., 
Yankton,  S.  D.,  . 
York,  Neb 


President  ok  Dean 


C.  A.  Blanchard,  D.  D...  . 
S.  B.  L.  Penrose,  D.  D.,  . 
W.  S.  Scarborough,  LL.  D. 
M.  W.  Dogan,  Ph.  D.,  .    . 

F.  Homan,  D.  D 

L.  G.  Tyler,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
J.  P.  Greene,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
H.  A.  Garfield,  LL.  D.,  . 
A.  J.  Brown,  A.  M.,  .  . 
C.  G.  Heckert,  D.  D.,  .  . 
Henry  N.  Snyder,  .  .  . 
A.  T.  Hadlev,  LL.  D.,  . 
Rev.  H.  K.  Warren,  LL.  D 
W.  E.  Schell,  D.  D.,     .    . 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
African  M.  E 
Methodist, 
Methodist, 
State,     .    . 
Baptist, 
Non-sect., . 
Friends,     . 
Lutheran, 
Methodist  So. 
Non-sect.,.    . 
Congregat'nal 
Un.  Brethren, 


i.  u 

0) 

hH  0 

o§ 

Op 

og 

^fi 

CO 

20 

280 

37 

370 

31 

350 

24 

654 

45 

420 

22 

224 

35 

500 

57 

491 

13 

134 

29 

404 

12 

287 

400 

3,450 

23 

382 

17 

504 

TABLE  II  —  STATISTICS  OF  COLLEGES  FOR  WOMEN 


Alabama  Con.  Fem., 
Alabama  Synodical, 
Albert  Lea,  .  . 
AUentown,  .  . 
Andrew  Female, 
Barnard,  .  .  . 
Baylor  Female, 
Beaumont,  .  . 
Beaver,  .... 
Belhaven(Y'g  Lad's 
Bessie  Tift,  . 
Bethel  Female, 
Blairsville,  . 
Blue  Mountain  Fem 
Boscobel(Y'g  Lad's) 
Brenan,  .  . 
Bryn  Mawr,  . 
CaldwelUY'gWom.) 
Central   Baptist   foi 

Young  Ladies 
Central  Female, 
Chappell  Hill  Female, 
Chickasaw  Female, 
Christian,  .... 
Clifford  Female,    . 
Columbia  Female, 
Converse,  .... 

Cottey 

Cox, 

Due  West  Female, 
Elizabeth, .... 

Elmira, 

Florida  Female,    . 

Gaston 

Glendale,  .... 
Greensboro  Female, 
Hardin,  .... 
Hillman(Y'g  Lad's) 
Hollins  Institute, . 
Howard  Female,  . 
Howard-Payne, 
Illinois  Woman's, 
Irving,  .... 
Isbell,  .... 
Jessamine  Institute, 

Kee  Mar 

La  Grange  Female, 
Lake  Erie  C.&S., 

Lander 

Lasell  S.,  .  .  . 
Lexington,  .  . 
Liberty,  .  .  . 
Limestone,  .  . 
Lindenwood, 
Logan  Fenaale, . 
Louisburg,  .  . 
Louisiana  Female. 
Lucy  Cobb  Institute, 
Maine  Wes.  S.,  . 
Mansfield,  .  .  . 
Marion  Female, 
Marion  Female, 
Martha  Washington, 
Martin, 


Tuskegee,  Ala.,  .  . 
Talladega,  Ala.,  .  . 
Albert  Lea,  Minn.,  . 
AUentown,  Penn.,.  . 
Cuthbert,  Ga.,    .    .    . 

New  York 

Belton,  Tex.,  .  .  . 
Harrodsburg,  Ky.,    . 

Beaver,  Penn 

Jackson,  Miss.,  .    .    . 

Forsyth,  Ga 

Hopkinsville,  Ky.,  . 
Blairsville,  Penn., 
Blue  Mountain,  Miss., 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  .  . 
Gainesville,  Ga.,  .  . 
Bryn  Mawr,  Penn.,  . 
Danville,  Ky.,    .    .    . 

Conway,  Ark 

Lexington,  Mo.,  .  . 
Chappell  Hill,  Tex.,  . 
Pontotoc,  Miss.,     .    . 

Columbia,  Mo 

Union,  S.  C 

Columbia,  S.  C,  .  . 
Spartanburg,  S.  C,    . 

Nevada,  Mo 

Cox  Pk. (Atlanta), Ga., 
Due  West,  S.  C,    .    . 
Charlotte,  N.  C,    .    . 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,    .    .    . 
Tallaha.ssee,  Fla.,  ,    . 

Dallas,  N.C. 

Glendale,  O.,  .  .  .  . 
Greensboro,  N.  C,  . 
Mexico,  Mo.,  .... 

Clinton,  Miss 

Hollins,  Va 

Gallatin,  Tenn.,  .  . 
Fayette,  Mo.,  .  .  . 
Jacksonville,  111.,  .  . 
Mechanicsburg,  Penn. 
Talladega,  Ala.,  .  . 
Nicholasville,  Ky.,  . 
Hagerstown,  Md., 
La  Grange,  Ga.,  .  . 
Painesville,  O.,  .  .  . 
Greenwood,  S.  C,  .  . 
Auburndale,  Mass.,  . 
Lexington,  Mo.,  .  . 
Glasgow,  Ky.,    ... 

Gaffney,  S.  C 

St.  Charles,  Mo  ,  .  . 
Russell ville,  Ky.,  .  . 
Louisburg,  N.C.,.  . 
Keatchie,  La.,  .  .  . 
Athens,  Ga.,  .... 
Kent's  Hill,  Me.,  .  . 
Mansfield,  La.,  .    .    . 

Marion,  Ala 

Marion,  Va 

Abingdon,  Va.,  .  .  . 
Pulaski,  Tenn 


John  Massey,  LL.  D., 
Rev.  T.  P.  Walton,  . 
Anna  Kiermeier,  .  . 
Rev.  W.  F.  Curtis,  . 
Rev.  J.  W.  Malone,  D.  D 
N.  M.  Butler,  LL.  D.,  . 
W.  A.  Wilson,  D.  D.,    . 

Th.  Smith,  A.  M 

Leroy  Weller,  .... 
James  R.  Preston,  .  . 
C.  H.  S.  Jackson,  LL.  D., 
Harry  G.  Brownell,  .  . 
Rev.  N.  L.  Fiscus,  .  . 
B.  G.  Lowrey,  .... 
Mrs.  J.  O'Brien  Rust,  . 
Haywood  J.  Pearce, .  . 
M.  Carey  Thomas,  LL.  D 
John  Carey  Acheson, 

M. 


D, 


W.  W.  Rivers,  A 
G.  W.  Gibson,    .    .    . 
H.  Lee  Vincent,     .    . 

John  Goff 

Mrs.  W.  T.  Moore,  . 
B.  G.  Clifford,  D.  D., 
Rev.  W.  W.  Daniel,  D.  D 
Robert  P.  Pell,  Litt.  D., 
Mrs.  V.  A.  C.  Stockard, 
John  W.  Gaines,  .  .  . 
Rev.  James  Boyce,  .  . 
Rev.  C.  B.  King,  D.  D., 
Rev.  A.  C.  MacKenzie,  D. 
Edward  Conradi,  . 
S.  A.  Wolff,  A.  M., 
Miss  R.  J.  De  Vore,  A.  M 
Mrs.  L.  H.  Robertson, 

J.  W.  Million 

W.  T.  Lowrey,  D.  D.,  . 
Miss  Matty  L.  Cocke,  . 
Amos  L.  Edwards,  .  . 
Rev.  H.  E.  Stout,  .  . 
Rev.  J.  R.  Harker,  Ph.  D 
E.  E.  Campbell,  Ph.  D., 
Frank  B.  Webb,  D.  D., 
J.  B.  Stears,  L.  M.  Phillips 

S.  M.  Newman 

R.  W.  Smith,  A.  M.,  . 
Vivian  B.  Small,  .  .  . 
Rev.  J.  O.  Wilson,  D.  D 

G.  M.  Winslow 

E.  W.  White,  A.  M.,  . 
Robert  E.  Hatton,  Ph.  D 
L.  D.  Lodge,  Ph.  D., 
Rev.  G.  F.  Ayers,  Ph.  D., 
J.  W.  Repass,  .  .  . 
Mrs.  Mary  D.  Allen,. 
Oscar  J.  Peterson, 
S.  G.  Gerdine,  A.W.  Beverly 
Rev.  W.  F.  Berry,  D.  D., 
George  L.  Harrees,  .  .  . 
Junius  M.  Batte,  .... 
Rev.  J.  J.  Scherer,  D.  D., 
Rev.  S.  D.  Long,  D.  D.,  . 
W.  T.  Wynn 


Methodist,     . 

Presbyterian, 

Presbyterian, 

Reformed,     . 

Methodist  So. 

Non-sect.,. 

Baptist,     . 

Non-sect.,. 

Methodist, 

Non-sect.,. 

Baptist, 

Baptist, 

Presbyterian 

Non-sect., . 

Baptist, 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Presbyterian, 

Baptist, 
M.E.  South, 
M.E.  South, 
Presbyterian 
Christian,  . 
Non-sect.,. 
M.  E.  South 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., . 
A.  R.  Presb., 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Lutheran, . 
Non-sect.,. 
M.E.  South, 
Baptist,     . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
M.E.  South, 
Methodist, 
Lutheran, 
Presbyterian 
Non-sect., . 
Lutheran, 
M.  E.  South, 
Non-sect., . 
M.  E.  South, 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Baptist,     . 
Baptist,     . 
Presbyterian 
M.E.  South, 
Methodist, 
Baptist,     . 
Non-sect.,. 
Methodist, 
M.E.  South, 
Non-sect., . 
Lutheran, . 
M.E.  South, 
M.E.  South, 


12 

151 

9 

120 

15 

225 

14 

140 

12 

155 

70 

648 

20 

402 

10 

95 

18 

250 

14 

115 

30 

350 

7 

100 

10 

75 

27 

555 

12 

125 

35 

400 

46 

456 

18 

215 

10 

135 

18 

140 

7 

85 

8 

125 

28 

250 

11 

50 

23 

315 

23 

354 

20 

280 

27 

200 

12 

130 

17 

175 

16 

280 

22 

250 

7 

149 

13 

70 

18 

202 

22 

214 

15 

151 

26 

260 

10 

110 

17 

200 

32 

350 

17 

130 

6 

75 

18 

140 

13 

100 

20 

201 

26 

140 

16 

170 

34 

164 

14 

140 

20 

225 

14 

203 

16 

100 

8 

80 

11 

135 

7 

36 

20 

250 

14 

181 

11 

106 

9 

80 

8 

70 

24 

173 

14 

130 

704 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


COLUEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  — Con. 


Name  of 
Institution 


Location 


Maryland  for  Wom'n, 
Memphis  Con. F. Ins., 
Millersburg  Female, 
Milwaukee-Downer, 
Miss. Ind. Inst. &  Col., 
Moravian  Seminary, 
Mount  Holyoke,   .    . 

Notre  Dame,  .  .  . 
Ogontz  Sell,  for  Girls, 
Owensboro  Female, . 

Oxford 

Packer  Coll.  Inst.,  . 
Penn'a  for  Women,  . 

Potter 

Radcliffe 

Randolph-Macon, 
Roanoke  Female, 

Rockford 

St.  Elizabeth,  .  .  . 
St.  Mary's  School,    . 

Salem  Acad.  &  Coll., 
San  Antonio  Female, 
Sayre  Female  Inst., . 

Shorter, 

Silliman  College  Inst. 

Simmons 

Sisters  of  Bethany,  . 
Smith,    ...;.. 

Soule, 

Stanton, 

Stonewall  Jackson,  . 

Stuart  Hall 

SuUins 

Synodical  Female,  . 
Tennessee  Female,  . 
Tuscaloosa  Female, . 

Vassar, 

Virginia  Institute,  . 
Ward  Sem.   (Young 

Ladies), 

Wellesley,  ...... 

Wells 

Wesleyan  Female,  . 
Westbrook,  Sem.  and 

Female,  .... 
Western  for  Women, 
Whitworth  Female, . 
William  Smith,     .    . 

Wilson 

Woman's, 

Woman's  of  Bait.,  . 
Young's  Female,  .    . 


Lutherville,  Md., 
Jackson,  Tenn.,. 
Millersburg,  Ky., 
Milwaukee,  Wis., 
Columbus,  Miss., 
Bethlehem,  Penn., 
South  Hadley,  Mass. 

San  Jos^,  Cal.,  .  . 
Ogontz,  Penn.,  .  . 
Owensboro,  Ky.,  . 
Oxford,  O.,  ... 
Brooklyn,  IST.  Y.,  . 
Pittsburg,  Penn.,  . 
Bowling  Green,  Ky., 
Cambridge,  Mass., 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  . 
Danville,  va.,  .  . 
Rockford,  111.,  .  . 
Convent  Station,  N.  J 
Knoxville,  111.,  .    . 


Winston-Salem,  N.C 
San  Antonio,  Tex., 
Lexington,  Ky., 
Rome,  Ga.,     .    .    . 
Clinton,  La.,  .    .    . 
Boston,  Mass.,    .    . 
Topeka,  Kan.,    .    . 
Northampton,  Mass., 
Murfreesboro,  Tenn., 
Natchez,  Miss.,  .    . 
Abingdon,  Va.,  .    . 
Staunton,  Va.,   .    . 

Bristol,  Va 

Fulton,  Mo 

Franklin,  Tenn.,    . 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,   . 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
Bristol,  Va.,   .    .    . 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  . 
Wellesley,  Mass.,  . 
Aurora,  N.  Y.,  .  . 
Macon,  Ga 


Portland,  Me.,    .    . 

Oxford,  O 

Brookhaven,  Miss., 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  .    . 
Chambersburg,  Penn 
Frederick,  Md., 
Baltimore,  Md., 
Thomasville,  Ga., 


President  or  Dean 


C.  W.  Gallagher,  D.  D.,    . 
Rev.  A.  B.  Jones,  LL.  1)., 
Rev.  C.G.Fisher,  A.M., 
Miss  E.  C.  Sabin,  A.  M., 
Henry  L.  Whitfield,      . 
John  H.  Clewell,    .    .    . 
Miss   M.   E.   WooUey, 

L.  H.  D 

Sister  Mary  Bernardine, 
Miss  S.  J.  Eastman,  .    . 

J.  B.  La  Rue 

Jane  Sherzer,  Ph.  D.,  . 
E.  J.  Goodwin,  L.  H.  D., 
Rev.  H.  D.  Lindsay.  D.  D. 
Rev.  B.  F.  Cabell,  D.  D., 
LeBaron  R.  Briggs,  LL.  D 
W.  W.  Smith,  LL.  D..  . 
J.  B.  Brower,  Ph.  D.,  .  . 
J.  H.  Gulliver,  Ph.  D.,  . 
Sister  Mary  Pauline,  .  . 
Rev.  C.  W.  LefHngwell, 

D.  D 

H.  E.  Randthaler,  .  .  . 
Rev.  J.  E.  Harrison,  .  . 
J.  Morton  Spencer,  D.  D., 

A.  W.  Van  Horn 

H.  H.  Brownlee,  .... 
H.  Lefavour,  LL.  D.,  .  , 
Rt.  Rev.  F.  R.  Millspaugh, 
M.  LeRoy  Burton,  .  .  . 
Miss  M.  A.  Hopkins,     .    . 

H.  P.  Todd 

May  Moore  Davis,  .  .  . 
Miss  M.  P.  Duvall,  .  .  . 
W.  S.  Neighbors,  .... 
Rev.  C.  A.  McPheeters,  . 
T.  E.  Allen 

B.  Thompson, 

J.  M.  Taylor,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
J.  T.  Henderson,  A.  M.,  . 

J.  D.  Blanton,  LL.  D.,  . 
Ellen  F.  Rendleton, .  .  . 
Rev.  G.M.Ward,  LL.  D., 
William  N.  Ainsworth,     . 

Arthur  C.  Yeaton,  .  .  . 
Rev.  J.  G.  Newman,  D.  D. 
Rev.  I.  W.  Cooper,  D.  D., 
L.  C.  Stewardson,  LL.  D., 
M.  H.  Reaser,  Ph.  D.,  .  . 
J.  H.  Apple,  A.  M.,  .    .    . 

E.  A.  Noble 

J.  E.  Fogartie,  Ph.  D.,     . 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


Non-sect.,. 
M.  E.  South, 
M.E.  South, 
Non-sect.,. 
State,     .    . 
Moravian, . 

Non-sect., . 
R.  Catholic, 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect., . 
Non-sect., . 
Non-.sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect., . 
M.  E.  South, 
Baptist,  . 
Non-sect., . 
R.  Catholic, 

Prot.  Epis., 

Moravian, . 

Methodist  So 

Presbyterian 

Baptist, 

Presbyterian 

Non-sect.,. 

Episcopal, 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect.,. 

Presbyterian 

Prot.  Epis., 

Methodist  So 

Presbyterian 

Non-sect., . 

Non-sect.,. 

Non-sect., . 

Baptist,     . 

Non-sect., . 
Non-sect.,. 
Non-sect.,. 
Methodist  So. 

Universalist, 
Non-sect., .  . 
Methodist  So. 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Presbyterian, 
Non-sect.,.  . 
Methodist,  . 
Presbyterian, 


?:  « 

m 

l-H  0 

f-  z 

fc-h 

Oh 

Oo 

Is 

"D 

^" 

CO 

L3 

100 

22 

225 

11 

140 

36 

465 

75 

750 

18 

100 

89 

760 

ao 

118 

32 

135- 

14 

300 

25 

150 

53 

650 

16 

70 

20 

180 

113 

427 

35 

408 

11 

106 

30 

211 

30 

350 

16 

100 

41 

433 

IS 

217 

11 

75 

30 

250 

9 

90 

61 

550 

15 

142 

117 

1,565 

14 

130 

16 

175 

10 

115 

23 

140 

22 

275 

12 

100 

14 

160 

8 

100 

99 

1.014 

16 

170 

35 

500 

100 

1,273 

25 

179 

31 

400 

11 

81 

25 

209 

20 

260 

22 

23 

33 

345 

18 

212 

25 

345 

11 

60 

Value  of 
Property 
(including 
Endow- 
ment) 


TABLE  III  — SCHOOLS  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


Agricultural  of  Utah, 
Ag.&Mech.(Color'd) 
Alabama  Poly.  Inst., 
Alcorn  Ag.  &  Mech., 
Armour  Inst.of  Tech. 

Case  Sch.  of  Ap.  Sci., 
Thos.  S.  Clarkson,M. 

S.ofT 

Clemson  Agricultural, 
Colorado  Agricultu'l, 
Colorado  Sc.of  Mines, 
Connecticut  Agricu'l, 
Georgia  Sch.of  Tech., 
lowaS.  of  Ag.  &  M.  A., 
Kansas  State  Agric'l, 
Kentucky  Ag.  &  M., 
Maryland  Agricult'l, 
Massachusetts  Agric'l 
Mass.  Inst,  of  Tech., 
Michigan  C.of  Mines, 
Michigan  State  Agri., 
Miller  Manual,  .  .  . 
Miss.  Ag.  &  Mech..    . 


Logan,  Utah, .    . 
Greensb6ro,  N.  C. 
Auburn,  Ala.,     . 
Rodney,  Miss.,  . 
Chicago,  111.,  .    . 

Cleveland,  O.,    . 

Potsdam,  N.  Y., 
Clemson,  Coll.,  S.  C 
Fort  Collins,  Col., 
Golden,  Col.,  .    . 
Storrs,  Conn., 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  .    . 
Ames,  la.,  .    .    . 
Manhattan,  Kan., 
Lexington,  Ky., 
College  Park,  Md. 
Amherst,  Mass., 
Boston,  Mass.,    . 
Houghton,  Mich., 
Lansing,  Mich.,  . 
Crozet,  Va.,    .    . 
Starksville,  Miss., 


J.  A.  Widtsoe,  Ph.  D.,.  . 
J.  B.  Dudley,  A.  M.,  .  . 
C.  C.  Thach,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
Levi  J.  Rowan,  .  .  .  . 
Rev.    F.    W.    Gunsaulus, 

LL.  D., 

C.  S.  Howe.  Ph.  D 

W.  S.  Aldrich,  M.~'E.,   .    . 

Walter  M.  Riggs 

Charles  A.  Lory 

V.  C.  Alderson,  Sc.  D.,     . 

C.  L.  Beach 

K.  G.  Matheson,  LL.  D., 
Edgar  W.  Stanton,   .    .    . 

Henry  J.  Waters 

J.  K.  Patterson,  LL.  D.,  . 
R.  W.  Silvester,  LL.  D.,  . 
K.  L.  Butterfield,  .  .  . 
R.  C.  McLaurin,  .  .  .  . 
Fred  W.  McNair,  D.  Sc, 

J.  L.  Snyder 

R.  B.  Fulton,  LL.  D.,  ,  . 
J.  C.  Hardy,  LL.  D.,    .    . 


State,  . 

State,  . 

State,  . 

State,  . 

Non-sect., 
Non-sect., 

Non-sect., 
Non-sect., 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
Non-sect., 
State,  . 
State,  . 
State,  . 
City,  .    . 


52 

882 

14 

US 

60 

675 

23 

542 

100 

1,800 

38 

427 

9 

93 

47 

690 

43 

600 

21 

361 

20 

152 

42 

562 

163 

2,383 

117 

2,192 

60 

681 

42 

248 

40 

265 

156 

1,475 

32 

266 

95 

1,350 

28 

250 

63 

750 

SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION  705 

COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  —  Con. 


1893 
1900 
1885 
1893 
1889 
1893 
1889 
1890 
1873 
1891 
1868 
1874 
1824 
1890 
1874 
1881 
1885 
1871 
1876 
1891 
1881 
1802 

1845 

1873 
1892 
1805 


Names  of 
Institution 


Montana  Agricultu'l, 
Montana  S.  of  Mines, 
Newark  Tech.  School, 
N.  H.  of  A.  &  M.  A.. 
N.  M.of  A.  &  M.  A., 
N.  M.  Sch.  of  Mines, 
N.  C.  of  A.  &  M.  A., 
North  Dakota  Agric., 
NorthGa.  A.  &M.,  . 
Okla.  Agri.  &  Mech., 
Oregon  Agricultural, 
Purdue  University, 
Rensselaer  Poly.  Ins., 
R.  I.  of  A.  &  M.  A., 
RosePolytechnicIns., 
South  Dakota  Agric, 
S.  D.  S.  of  Mines,      . 
Stevens  Ins.  of  Tech., 
Texas  Agr.  &  Mech., 
Throop  Poly  tec.  Ins., 
Tuskegee  Institute, 
U.  S.  Military  Acad., 

U.S. Naval  Academy, 

Virginia  Polytechnic, 
Washington  Agricul., 
Worcester  Poly. Inst., 


Location 


Bozeman,  Mont.,   . 
Butte,  Mont.,     .    . 
Newark,  N.J. ,   .    . 
Durham,  N.  H.,      . 
Mesilla  Park,  N.  M., 
Socorra,  N.  M., .    . 
West  Raleigh,  N.  C, 
Fargo,  N.  D., .    .    . 
Danionega,  Ga., 
Stillwater,  Okla.,  . 
Corvallis,  Ore.,  .    . 
Lafayette,  Ind., 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Kingston,  R.  I., 
Terre  Haute.  Ind., 
Brookings,  S.  D.,   . 
Rapid  City,  S.D.,. 
Hoboken,  N.  J., 
College  Station,  Tex 
Pasadena,  Cal.,  ,    . 
Tuskegee,  Ala.,  '.    , 
West  Point,  N.  Y., 

Annapolis,  Md., 

Blacksburg,  Va.,  . 
Pullman,  Wash.j  . 
Worcester,  Mass.,  . 


President  or  Dean 


J.  M.  Hamilton,  M.  S., 
Chas.  H.  Bowman,  .  . 
C.  A.  Colton,  Director,  . 
W.  D.  Gibbs,  M.  S.,  . 
W.  E.  Garrison,  Ph.  D., 
Emmet  A.  Drake,     .    . 

D.H.Hill, 

J.  H.  Worst,  LL.  D.,    . 

G.  R.  Glenn 

J.  H.  Connell,  M.  Sc,  . 
W.  J.  Kerr,  D.  Sc,  .  . 
W.  E.  Stone,  Ph.  D.,    . 

P.  C.  Ricketts 

Howard  Edwards,  LL.  D 
C.  Leo  Mees,  Ph.  D.,    . 

R.  L.  Slagle, 

C.  H.  Fulton,  E.  M.,     . 

A.  C.  Humphreys,  LL.  D. 

R.  T.  Milner, 

J.  A.  B.  Scherer,  LL.  D., 

B.  T.  Washington,  LL.  D 
Maj.-Gen.  T.  H.  Barry, 

U.  S.  A.,Superinteitdent 
Capt.  John  M.  Bowyer, 

U.S.  N., Superintendent 
Paul  B.  Barringer,  .  .  . 
E.  A.  Bryan,  LL.  D.,  .  . 
E.  A.  Engler,  LL.  D.,  .    . 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control 


State,  . 
State, 

State,     . 
Territory, 
State,     . 
State, 
State, 
State, 
State,     . 
State,     . 
State,     . 
Non-sect., 
State,     . 
Non-sect., 
State,     . 
State,     . 
Non-sect., 
State,     . 
Non-sect., 
Non-sect., 

National, 

National, 

State,  . 
State,  . 
Non-sect., 


1  « 

Z  OS 

4 

6g 

^'^ 

m 

35 

500 

9 

84 

16 

340 

34 

225 

35 

321 

6 

40 

42 

471 

42 

889 

13 

250 

34 

1,008 

80 

1,156 

142 

2,092 

45 

648 

24 

164 

21 

230 

42 

525 

14 

115 

35 

390 

46 

626 

40 

336 

166 

1,621 

90 

533 

89 

850 

56 

533 

85 

1,366 

51 

487 

Value  of 
Property 

(including 
Endow- 
ment) 

$1,189,483 
227,000 
100,000 
500,000 
246,000 
76,000 
544,517 

2,083,236 
80,000 

1,700,000 
500,000 

1,173,000 

2,288,900 
300,000 
900,000 
614,888 
175,000 

1,500,000 
769,000 
333,998 

2,589,363 

20,000,000 

11,000,000 

760,000 

5,000,000 


Color  is  the  name  given  to  distinguish  the 
various  sensations  that  hghts  of  various  rates 
of  vibration  give  to  the  eye.  As  is  the  case 
with  many  of  the  words  that  denote  our  sensa- 
tions, the  word  color  is  also  apphed  to  the  prop- 
erties of  bodies  that  cause  them  to  emit  the 
hght  that  thus  affects  our  senses.  The  molecular 
constitution  of  a  body  determines  the  character 
and  number  of  the  light  vibrations  it  returns  to 
the  eye,  and  so  gives  to  each  body  its  own  charac- 
teristic color;  hence  the  term  color  is  used  to 
denote  that  in  respect  of  which  bodies  have  a 
different  appearance  to  the  eye  independently 
of  their  form. 

Ordinary  white  light  (the  light  which  comes 
from  an  incandescent  solid  or  liquid)  when  trans- 
mitted through  triangular  prisms  of  glass  or 
other  media  differing  in  dispersive  power  from 
the  atmosphere,  is  shown  to  consist  of  a  number 
of  colored  lights,  which,  meeting  the  eye,  together 
produce  the  sensation  of  white  light.  The  colors 
thus  shown  are  usually  said  to  be  seven  —  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  violet;  al- 
though in  reality  there  is  an  enormous,  if  not 
an  infinite,  number  of  perfectly  distinct  colors 
in  light.  The  seven  colors  are  frequently  called 
the  primary  colors,  and  other  tints  and  shades 
are  producible  by  mixing  them ;  but  in  a  stricter 
sense  the  primary  colors  are  three  in  number, 
namely,  red,  green,  and  violet  (or  blue).  These 
three  colors  or  kinds  of  hght  cannot  be  resolved 
into  any  other.  In  the  scientific  sense  of  the  word 
white  and  black  are  not  considered  colors,  a 
white  body  reflecting  and  a  black  body  absorbing 
all  the  rays  of  hght  without  separating  them, 
whereas  the  colors  proper  are  due  to  separation 
of  the  rays  of  light  by  partial  absorption  and 
reflection  or  by  refraction.  If  a  body  absorbs 
every  other  kind  of  light  and  reflects  or  transmits 
red  light  only,  it  will  appear  of  a  red  color;  if 


it  absorbs  every  kind  except  blue  rays,  it  will 
appear  blue ;  and  so  on.  If  more  than  one  kind 
of  light  be  transmitted  or  reflected  the  object 
will  appear  of  a  color  compounded  of  these  differ- 
ent rays  of  light. 

In  art  the  term  color  is  applied  to  that  com- 
bination or  modification  of  tints  which  produces 
a  particular  and  desired  effect  in  painting.  The 
colors  of  the  spectrum  have  to  be  distinguished 
from  colors  used  in  reference  to  pigments.  The 
pigments  red,  blue,  and  yellow,  regarded  in  the 
arts  as  the  primary  colors,  produce  effects, 
when  mixed,  very  different  from  those  produced 
by  admixture  of  the  corresponding  spectrum 
colors.  These  three  pigment  colors  form  other 
colors  thus :  red  and  yellow  make  orange,  yellow 
and  blue  make  green,  and  red  and  blue  make 
purple;  but  red,  blue,  and  yellow  cannot  be 
produced  by  any  combination  of  the  other  colors. 
—  Local  colors  are  those  which  are  natural  to  a 
particular  object  in  a  picture,  and  by  which  it  is 
distinguished  from  other  objects. —  Neutral 
colors,  those  in  which  the  hue  is  broken  by  par- 
taking of  the  reflected  colors  of  the  objects  which 
surround  them. —  Positive  colors,  those  which  are 
unbroken  by  such  accidents  as  affect  neutral 
objects. —  Complementary  colors,  colors  which 
together  make  white;  thus  any  of  the  primary 
colors  is  complementary  to  the  other  two. —  Sub- 
jective or  accidental  colors,  the  imaginary  comple- 
mentary colors  seen  after  fixing  the  eye  for  a 
short  time  on  a  bright-colored  object,  and  then 
turning  it  suddenly  to  a  white-  or  light-colored 
surface. 

Combustion.  The  operation  of  fire  on 
inflammable  substances;  or  the  union  of  an  in- 
flammable substance  with  oxygen  or  some  other 
supporter  of  combustion,  attended  with  heat  and 
in  most  instances  with  Hght.  In  consequence  of 
the  combination  of  the  carbon  in  fuel  with  the 


706 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


oxygen  of  the  air  being  the  universal  method  of 
getting  heat  and  Hght,  and  as  when  the  action 
takes  place  the  fuel  is  said  to  burn  or  undergo 
combustion,  the  latter  term  has  been  extended 
to  those  cases  in  which  other  bodies  than  carbon 
—  for  example,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  metals, 
etc. —  burn  in  the  air  or  in  other  substances  than 
air  —  for  example,  chlorine.  Though  the  action 
between  the  gas  and  the  more  solid  material, 
as  coal,  wood,  charcoal,  of  whose  combination 
combustion  is  the  result,  is  mutual,  the  one 
having  as  much  to  do  with  the  process  as  the 
other,  yet  the  former,  as  oxygen,  chlorine,  iodine, 
and  the  compounds  which  they  form  with  each 
other  and  with  nitrogen,  have  received  the  name 
of  supporters  of  combustion,  while  to  the  latter 
the  term  combustibles  has  been  assigned. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  is  the  ignition  of  a 
body  by  the  internal  development  of  heat  with- 
out the  application  of  fire.  It  not  unfrequently 
takes  place  among  heaps  of  rags,  wool,  and  cotton 
when  lubricated  with  oil;  hay  and  straw  when 
damp  or  moistened  with  water;  and  coal  in  the 
bunkers  of  vessels.  In  the  first  case  the  oil 
rapidly  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
this  being  accompanied  with  great  heat;  in  the 
second  case  th^iheat  is  produced  by  a  kind  of 
fermentation;  in  the  third  by  the  pyrites  of  the 
coal  rapidly  absorbing  and  combining  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  extraordinary  alleged  phenomenon  of  the 
human  body  being  reduced  to  ashes  without  the 
direct  application  of  fire.  It  is  said  to  have 
occurred  in  the  aged  and  persons  that  were  fat 
and  hard  drinkers ;  but  most  chemists  reject  the 
theory  and  altogether  discredit  it. 

Comet.  A  celestial  body  presenting  a 
nebulous  aspect,  and  traveling  under  the  sun's 
attraction.  Many  of  these  bodies  are  distin- 
guished by  a  remarkable  tail-Hke  appendage. 
The  greater  number  of  those  hitherto  known  have 
revolved  round  the  sun  on  a  path  whose  observed 
portion  belonged  to  an  exceedingly  elongated 
eUipse,  or  was  even  parabolic  or  hyperbolic.  A 
few,  however,  travel  in  closed  orbits  around  the 
sun  in  known  periods.  Among  the  most  remark- 
able comets  in  recent  times  were  those  of  1780, 
1807,  1811,  1815,  1819,  1825,  1843,  1847,  1858, 
1861,  1874,  and  1910  (Halley's).  We  know  so 
little  respecting  the  physical  conditions  of  comets 
that  it  would  be  hazardous  to  speculate  at  present 
concerning  their  real  nature.  A  theory  of  great 
ingenuity,  and  (what  is  novel  in  this  branch  of 
speculation)  founded  on  physical  experiments 
which  really  seem  to  have  some  bearing  on  the 
subject,  were  put  forward  by  Professor  Tyndall, 
who  is  disposed  to  regard  the  tails  of  comets  as 
resulting  from  the  formation  of  a  species  of 
actinic  cloud  by  the  action  of  the  solar  rays, 
after  their  character  has  been  altered  during  their 

Eassage  through  the  comet's  head.     At  present, 
owever,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  such  a 
theory  is  well  or  ill  founded. 

Conchology.  The  science  of  shells,  that 
department  of  zoology  wliich  treats  of  the  nature, 
formation,  and  classification  of  the  shells  with 
which  the  bodies  of  many  moUusca  are  pro- 
tected ;  or  the  word  may  be  used  also  to  include 
a  knowledge  of  the  animals  themselves,  in  which 
case  it  is  equivalent  to  malacology.     In  systems 


of  conchology  shells  are  usually  divided  into 
three  orders:  Univalves,  Bivalves,  and  Multi- 
valves,  according  to  the  number  of  pieces  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

Conductor.  A  body  capable  of  transmit- 
ting the  electric  fluid.  It  is  called  also  a  non- 
electric; for,  unless  insulated,  it  will  not  exhibit 
electrical  excitement,  the  electricity  being  car- 
ried off  along  it  as  fast  as  it  is  communicated  to 
or  excited  upon  it.  The  metals  are  the  best 
conductors;  resinous  substances  are  very  bad 
ones.  Bodies  incapable  of  transmitting  elec- 
tricity are  called  non-conductors;  and,  because 
electricity  may  be  communicated  to  or  excited 
upon  them,  without  artificial  insulation,  they  are 
termed  electrics.  There  is  no  body  a  perfect 
conductor,  or  a  perfect  non-conductor.  The 
non-conducting  power  depends  very  much  on 
the  extent  of  non-conducting  surface.  In  fric- 
tional  electricity,  the  best  conductors  are  the 
metals,  as  before  stated;  after  which  come 
graphite,  sea-,  spring-,  and  rain-water.  Ice  is 
a  worse  conductor  than  fluid  or  water.  Alcohol, 
ether,  paper,  dry  wood,  and  straw,  are  also  weak 
conductors.  Shellac,  wax,  amber,  and  sulphur 
become  conductors  when  fused;  and  glass  at  a 
red  heat  conducts  readily.  A  conductor  is  said 
to  be  insulated  when  it  rests  upon  non-conduct- 
ing supports.  A  lightning-conductor  is  a  pointed 
metallic  rod  fixed  to  the  upper  parts  of  build- 
ings to  secure  them  from  the  effects  of  lightning. 
It  is  connected  with  the  earth,  or,  what  is  better, 
the  nearest  water,  by  a  good  conductor,  which 
is  sufficiently  thick  not  to  be  melted  in  trans- 
mitting the  electricity;  and  which,  where  at- 
tached to  the  wall,  is  insulated  by  non-conduct- 
ors, so  that  the  electricity  may  not  be  diverted 
to  the  building,  instead  of  passing  harmlessly 
away.  This  useful  instrument  was  invented  by 
Franklin  in  1755. 

Congregationalists.  A  large  and  in- 
fluential Christian  sect,  called  also  Independents 
in  England,  because  they  hold  that  every  single 
congregation  of  Christians,  when  properly  con- 
stituted with  deacons  and  a  pastor,  forms  an 
independent  body,  competent  to  its  own  direc- 
tion and  government,  without  interference  from 
any  other  church,  or  any  presbyteries,  bishops, 
etc.  They  therefore  hold  that  each  congrega- 
tion has  inherent  in  itself  power  to  fix  its  own 
tenets  and  form  of  religious  worship,  and  to  ex- 
ercise ecclesiastical  government.  They  hold  a 
Christian  Church  to  be  a  congregation  of  true 
believers;  i.  e.,  persons  who  both  openly  pro- 
fess their  faith  in  the  essential  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel,  and  evince  the  earnestness  of  their  be- 
lief by  a  corresponding  change  of  disposition 
and  demeanor.  The  doctrines  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Churches  are  almost  identical  with  those 
embodied  in  the  Articles  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  interpreted  according  to  their  Calvin- 
istic  meaning.  They  disavow  all  subscription 
to  creeds,  confessions,  or  articles  of  faith;  never- 
theless, they  are  distinguished  by  a  singular 
degree  of  uniformity  in  faith  and  practice.  As 
to  the  origin  of  Independency,  it  is  probable 
that  some  conventicles  were  secretly  established 
in  England  soon  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth ; 
but  the  first  prominent  advocate  of  Congrega- 
tional principles  appeared  in  1580,  in  the  person 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


707 


of  Robert  Brown.  The  Plymouth  and  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  settlements  in  this  country  were 
founded  by  Congregational  pilgrims  in  1620 
and  1628;  and  others,  a  few  years  afterwards, 
in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  Congrega- 
tionalism gave  New  England  the  distinctive 
character  it  bears  in  history,  and,  in  return,  the 
development  of  the  New  England  Churches, 
and  the  teachings  of  their  pastors,  gave  Congre- 
gationalism substantially  its  form.  "From  the 
earliest  settlement  of  New  England,  there  was  a 
definite  but  peculiar  relation  between  the 
Churches  and  the  State.  It  was  neither  that 
in  which  the  State  rules  the  Church,  nor  that  in 
which  the  Church  rules  the  State,  but  rather  a 
peculiar  blending  of  the  two.  Townships  were 
incorporated  with  a  view  to  ability  to  maintain 
a  settled  ministry,  and  to  the  convenience  of  the 
people  in  attending  public  worship.  Provision 
was  made  by  law  for  the  support  of  pastors, 
and  for  all  necessary  expenses.  The  choice  of 
a  pastor  belonged  to  the  Church."  Throughout 
the  whole  of  the  early  history  of  New  England, 
the  affairs  and  discussions  of  Church  and  State 
were  blended  in  what  would  now  seem  an  ex- 
tremely curious  manner.  Though  the  doctrine 
of  Congregationalism  is,  that,  according  to 
Scripture,  every  Church  is  confined  to  the 
limits  of  a  single  congregation,  "the  fellow- 
ship of  the  Churches  has  always  been  main- 
tained, and  all  'matters  of  common  concern- 
ment' have  been  decided  by  the  common 
consent  of  the  whole  body,  and  sometimes 
embodied  in  the  pronounced  opinions  of 
general  bodies  convened  for  the  special  occasion. 
Denying  the  authority  of  any  standing  judica- 
tory, Congregationalists  recognize  the  necessity 
and  desirableness  of  occasional  synods  for  de- 
liberation and  advice  on  great  public  inter- 
ests." Until  within  recent  times  the  Congre- 
gational Churches  had  not  made  rapid  growth 
west  of  the  Hudson  River;  but,  latterly,  move- 
ments to  spread  the  sect  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  have  been  pushed  with  great 
energy,  and  the  Churches  have  increased 
rapidly. 

Constellations  are  the  groups  into  which 
astronomers  have  divided  the  fixed  stars,  and 
which  have  received  names  for  the  convenience 
of  description  and  reference.  It  is  plain  that 
the  union  of  several  stars  into  a  constellation, 
to  which  the  name  of  some  animal,  person,  or 
inanimate  object  is  given,  must  be  entirely  arbi- 
trary, since  the  several  points  (the  stars)  may 
be  united  in  a  hundred  different  ways,  just  as 
imagination  directs.  The  grouping  adopted  by 
the  Egyptians  was  accordingly  modified  by  the 
Greeks,  though  they  retained  the  Ram,  the  Bull, 
the  Dog,  etc. ;  and  the  Greek  constellations  were 
again  modified  by  the  Romans,  and  again  by  the 
Arabians.  At  various  times,  also,  Christianity 
has  endeavored  to  supplant  the  pagan  system, 
the  Venerable  Bede  having  given  the  names  of 
the  twelve  apostles  to  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
and  Judas  Schillerius  having,  in  1627,  applied 
Scripture  names  to  all  the  constellations.  Wei- 
gelius,  a  professor  of  Jena,  even  grouped  the 
stars  upon  a  heraldic  basis,  introducing  the  arms 
of  all  the  princes  of  Europe  among  the  constel- 
lations.    The  old  constellations  have,  however. 


been  for  the  most  part  retained.  Ptolemy  enu- 
merated, in  the  "Syntaxis,"  forty-eight  con- 
stellations, still  called  the  Ptolemaan.  They  are 
the  following:  (1)  The  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  (2)  Twenty-one  constellations  found 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  —  the  Great  Bear 
(Ursa  Major),  the  Little  Bear  (Ursa  Minor), 
Perseus,  the  Dragon,  Cepheus,  Cassiopeia,  An- 
dromeda, Pegasus,  Equuleus  (Horse's  Head),  the 
Triangle,  the  Charioteer  (Auriga),  Bootes,  the 
Northern  Crown  (Corona  Borealis),  Ophiuchus, 
the  Serpent  (Serpentarius),  Hercules,  the  Arrow 
(Sagitta),  the  Lyre,  the  Swan  (Cygnus),  the  Dol- 
phin, the  Eagle  (AquUa).  (3)  Fifteen  constella- 
tions in  the  southern  hemisphere  —  Orion,  the 
Whale  (Cetus),  Eridanus,  the  Hare  (Lepus),  the 
Great  Dog  (Canis  Major),  the  Little  Dog  (Cants 
Minor),  Hydra,  the  Cup  (Crater),  the  Crow 
(Corvus),  the  Centaur,  the  Wolf  (Lupus),  the 
Altar  (Ara),  the  Southern  Fish  (Piscis  Australis), 
the  Argo,  the  Southern  Crown  (Corona  Austra- 
lis). Others  were  subsequently  added,  this  be- 
ing especially  rendered  necessary  by  the  in- 
creased navigation  of  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  now  the  different  groups  of  stars  have  come 
to  be  associated  with  all  sorts  of  animals  and 
objects,  including  the  Camelc^rd,  the  Fly,  the 
Air-pump,  the  Compasses,  etc. 

Continuity,  Law  of.  The  principle  that 
nothing  passes  from  one  state  to  another  without 
passing  through  all  intermediate  states.  From 
this  law,  for  instance,  if  it  be  known  that  at  two 
instants  of  time  a  body  had  a  temperature  of 
20°,  and  at  another  a  temperature  of  40°,  then 
there  must  have  been  an  instant  between  these 
at  which  the  temperature  was  30°.  If  a  body,  at 
two  different  times,  had  velocities  of  twelve  feet 
and  twenty  feet  per  second,  respectively,  we 
may  conclude,  from  the  law  of  continuity,  that 
between  these  times  it  had  all  velocities  between 
twelve  feet  and  twenty  feet.  The  principle  is  of 
considerable  use  in  investigations  on  motion  and 
physical  change ;  it  was  distinctly  laid  down  by 
Galileo,  who  ascribed  it  to  Plato;  but  Leibnitz 
was  the  first  to  apply  it  extensively  to  test 
physical  theories.  He  established  its  truth  by 
the  method  of  redu^tio  ad  absurdum.  If  a  change 
were  to  happen  without  the  lapse  of  time,  the 
thing  changed  must  be  in  two  different  condi- 
tions at  the  same  instant,  which  is  obviously 
impossible. 

Contractile  Force  or  Contractility. 
That  property  or  power  inherent  in  certain  elas- 
tic bodies,  on  account  of  which,  after  having 
been  extended,  they  reduce  themselves  again  to 
their  former  dimensions,  if  permitted  to  do  so. 
It  has  been  calculated  from  Joule's  data  that  the 
force  exerted  by  heat  in  expanding  a  pound  of 
iron  between  0°  and  100°  during  which  it  in- 
creases about  ^1^  of  its  bulk,  is  equal  to  16,000 
foot  pounds;  that  is,  it  could  raise  a  weight  of 
seven  tons  through  a  height  of  one  foot.  An 
application  of  this  contractile  force  is  seen  in 
the  mode  of  securing  the  tirers  on  wheels.  The 
tire  being  made  red-hot,  and  thus  considerably 
expanded,  is  placed  on  the  circumference  of  the 
wheel  and  then  cooled.  The  tire,  when  cold, 
embraces  the  wheel  with  such  force  as  not  only 
to  secure  itself  on  the  rim,  but  also  to  press  home 
the  joints  of  the  spokes  into  the  felloes  and  nave. 


708 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Convection.  When  a  liquid  is  heated 
from  above,  the  temperature  of  the  mass  rises 
with  extreme  slowness,  because  liquids  possess 
but  little  conducting  power  for  heat ;  thus  water 
may  be  boiled  on  ice,  although  separated  from 
it  by  a  very  thin  stratum  of  water.  But  if  the 
liquid  be  heated  from  below,  we  notice  at  once 
that  currents  of  liquid  ascend  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top  of  the  vessel,  and  the  liquid  acquires 
a  uniform  temperature.  This  transport  of  heat 
by  masses  of  matter  is  known  as  Convection. 
The  layers  of  a  liquid  or  gas  which  are  nearest 
to  the  source  of  heat  are  expanded,  and  thus 
become  specifically  lighter  than  surrounding 
portions,  consequently  they  rise;  while  colder, 
and  consequently  heavier,  portions  descend,  are 
heated  in  their  turn,  and  then  ascend  to  make 
way  for  other  colder  portions.  Thus,  however 
badly  a  liquid  or  gas  conducts  heat,  it  can  rap- 
idly acquire  a  uniform  temperature  by  the  con- 
vection of  heat;  and  convection  takes  place  in 
gases  far  more  readily  than  in  fluids,  because 
for  equal  increments  of  heat  they  expand  to  a 
greater  extent  than  liquids. 

Cooper  Union  or  Cooper  Institute. 
An  institute  founded  in  New  York  City  in  1857, 
by  Peter  Cooper;  Its  object  is  to  provide  free 
schools  of  art  and  science,  and  free  reading  rooms 
and  library  for  the  working  classes.  There  are 
lecture  courses,  a  museum,  an  art  gallery,  and 
a  library  of  31,000  volumes,  with  a  reading  room 
containing  current  numbers  of  nearly  500  maga- 
zines and  newspapers.  The  institute  was  built 
at  a  cost  of  $630,000  and  was  endowed  by  Mr. 
Cooper  with  $300,000.  It  has  received  addi- 
tional gifts  from  time  to  time  from  Edward 
Cooper  and  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  and  in  1899  An- 
drew Carnegie  gave  it  $300,000  for  the  founding 
of  a  mechanical  day  art  school. 

Correlation  of  tlie  Piiysical  Forces. 
The  principle  that  any  one  of  the  various  forms 
of  physical  force  may  be  converted  into  one  or 
more  of  the  other  forms.  Thus,  heat  may 
mediately  or  immediately  produce  electricity, 
electricity  may  produce  heat,  and  so  of  the  rest, 
each  merging  itself  as  the  force  it  produces 
becomes  developed;  and  that  the  same  must 
hold  good  of  other  forces,  it  being  an  irresistible 
inference  from  observed  phenomena  that  a  force 
cannot  originate  otherwise  than  by  devolution 
from  pre-existing  force  or  forces.  This  prin- 
ciple is  also  called  Transmutation  of  Energy. 

Cosmogony.  A  theory  of  the  origin  or 
formation  of  the  universe.  Such  theories  may 
be  comprehended  under  three  classes:  (1)  The 
first  represents  the  world  as  eternal,  in  form  as 
well  as  substance.  (2)  The  matter  of  the  world 
is  eternal,  but  not  its  form.  (3)  The  matter  and 
form  of  the  universe  is  ascribed  to  the  direct 
agency  of  a  spiritual  cause;  the  world  had  a 
beginning,  and  shall  have  an  end.  Aristotle 
appears  to  have  embraced  the  first  theory;  but 
the  theory  which  considers  the  matter  of  the 
universe  eternal,  but  not  its  form,  was  the  pre- 
vailing one  among  the  ancients,  who,  starting 
from  the  principle  that  nothing  could  be  made 
out  of  nothing,  could  not  admit  the  creation  of 
matter,  yet  did  not  believe  that  the  world  had 
been  always  in  its  present  state.  The  prior 
state  of  the  world   subject  to  a  constant  succes- 


sion of  uncertain  movements  which  chance 
afterwards  made  regular,  they  called  chaos. 
The  Phenicians,  Babylonians,  and  also  Egyp- 
tians, seem  to  have  adhered  to  this  theory. 
One  form  of  this  theory  is  the  atomic  theory, 
as  taught  by  Leucippus,  Epicurus,  and  Lucre- 
tius. According  to  it  atoms  or  indivisible  par- 
ticles existed  from  eternity,  moving  at  hazard, 
and  producing,  by  their  constant  meeting,  a 
variety  of  substances.  After  having  given  rise 
to  an  immense  variety  of  combinations  they 
produced  the  present  organization  of  ^bodies. 
The  third  theory  of  cosmogony  makes  God,  or 
some  deity,  tlie  Creator  of  the  world  out  of 
nothing.  This  is  an  ancient  and  widely- 
spread  theory,  and  is  that  taught  in  the  book 
of  Genesis.  Anaxagoras  was  the  first  among 
the  Greeks  who  taught  that  God  created  the 
universe  from  nothing.  The  Romans  generally 
adopted  this  theory,  notwithstanding  the 
efforts  of  Lucretius  to  establish  the  doctrine  of 
Epicurus. 

Councils  of  the  Cliurch.  General 
councils,  called  also  oecumenical  or  universal, 
are  summoned  by  the  Pope  of  Rome,  and  are 
designed  to  settle  questions  affecting  the  Uni- 
versal Church.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
recognizes  twenty-one  general  councils;  the 
Greek  Church,  the  first  seven  of  these,  besides 
that  of  Jerusalem ;  and  the  Protestant  Churches 
generally  admit  the  full  authority  of  none  of 
them,  and  reckon  as  oecumenical  only  the  first 
six.  The  following  are  the  most  notable  of  the 
councils  of  the  Church  of  Rome : 

A.  D. 

50.  Of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem. 

314.  Of  the  Western  Bishops  at  Aries,  in  France,  to 
suppress  the  Donatists;  three  fathers  of  the 
English  Church  went  over  to  attend  it. 

325.  The  first  fficumenical  or  General  Nicene,  held  at 
Nice,  Constantine  the  Great  presided ;  Arius  and 
Eusebius  condemned  for  heresy.  This  council 
composed  the  Nicene  Creed. 

335.  At  Tyre,  when  the  doctrine  of  Athanasius  was 
canvassed. 

337.  The  first  held  at  Constantinople,  when  the  Arian 
heresy  gained  ground. 

342.  At  Rome,  concerning  Athanasius,  which  lasted 
eighteen  months. 

347.   At  Sardi;    370  bishops  attended. 

359.  Of  Rimini;  400  bishops  attended,  and  Constantine 
obliged  them  to  sign  a  new  confession  of  faith. 

381.  The  second  General  at  Constantinople;  350 
bishops  attended   and  Pope  Damasius  presided. 

431.  The  third  at  Ephesus,  when  Pope  Celestine  pre- 
sided. 

451.  Fourth  at  Chalcedon;  the  Emperor  Marcian  and 
his  Empress  attended. 

553.  The  fifth  at  Constantinople,  when  Pope  Vigilius 
presided. 

650.  The  sixth  at  Constantinople,  when  Pope  Agatho 
presided. 

715.  Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  reestablished 
by  Theodosius. 

787.  The  second  Nicene  Council,  seventh  General;  350 
bishops  attended. 

869.  Of  Constantinople,  eighth  General;    the  Emperor 

Basil  attended. 
1122.  The  first  Lateran,  the  ninth  General;    the  right  of 
investitures    settled    by    treaty    between    Pope 
Calixius  II.  and  the  Emperor  Henry  V. 
1139.  The  second  Lateran,  tenth  General,  Innocent  II. 
presided;    the  preservation  of  the  temporal  ties 
of  ecclesiastics,  the  principal  subject  which  occa- 
sioned the  attendance  of   1,000  fathers  of  the 
Church. 
1179.  The  third  Lateran,  eleventh  General;   held  agamst 

schismatics. 
1215.   Fourth    Lateran,    twelfth    General;     400    bishops 
and  1,000  abbots  attended;    Innocent  III.  pre- 
sided. 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


709 


A.  D. 

1245.  Of    Lyons,    the    thirteenth    General,    under    Pope 

Innocent  IV. 
1274.  Of  Lyons,  the  fourteenth  General,  under  Gregory 

1311.  Of   Vienna   in    Dauphine,    the   fifteenth   General; 

Clement  V.  presided  and  the  kings  of  France  and 

Arragon  attended.     The  order  of   the  Knights 

Templar  suppressed. 
1409.  Of  Pisa,  the  sixteenth  General;   Gregory  XII.  and 

Benedict  XIII.  deposed,  and  Alexander  elected. 
1414.  Of  Constance,  the  seventeenth  General;    Martin  V. 

is  elected  pope;    and  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 

Prague  condemned  to  be  burnt. 
1431.  Of  Basil,  the  eighteenth  General. 

The  fifth  Lateran,  the  nineteenth  General,  begun 

by  Julius  II. 
1512.  Continued  under  Leo  X.,  for  the  suppression  of  the 

Pragmatic    sanction     of     France      against     the 

Council  of  Pisa,  etc. 
1545.  Of  Trent,  the  twentieth  (Ecumenical .  as  regarding 

the  affairs  of  all  the  Christian  world;   it  was  held 

to    condemn    the    doctrines    of    the    reformers, 

Luther,  Zuinglius,  and  Calvin. 
1870.  Of  Rome,  the  last  CEcumenical  which  adopted  the 

dogma  of  Papal  infallibility. 

Creed.  A  summary  of  belief,  from  the 
Latin  credo  (I  believe),  with  which  the  Apostles' 
and  Nicene  Creeds  begin.  These  two  creeds, 
together  with  the  Athanasian  Creed,  are  the 
most  ancient  authoritative  Christian  creeds, 
though  numerous  ancient  formularies  of  faith 
are  preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers. 
The  Nicene  Creed  was  set  forth  by  the  Council 
of  Nicea  in  325,  and  is  closely  similar  in  wording 
to  ancient  creeds  of  Oriental  Churches,  and 
specially  founded  upon  the  baptismal  creed  of 
the  Church  of  Cajsarea  in  Palestine.  The 
Apostles'  Creed  was  originally  a  baptismal  con- 
fession, and  not  a  summary  of  apostolic  teaching. 

Dew.  The  moisture  which  rises  into  the 
atmosphere  during  the  day,  and  is  afterwards 
deposited  on  the  earth  in  gentle  drops  during  the 
night.  The  air,  when  heated  during  the  day,  is 
capable  of  holding  a  larger  quantity  of  water  in 
solution  as  vapor,  than  when  cooled  during  the 
night,  the  low  temperature  of  which  causes  some 
of  the  water  to  separate.  The  separated  parti- 
cles, uniting,  form  drops  of  dew.  When  the  night 
is  cloudy,  the  surfaces  on  which  the  dew  would 
be  deposited  are  not  sufficiently  cooled  down  for 
the  purpose,  since  the  clouds  give  back  some  of 
the  heat  which  passed  off  by  radiation. 

Digestion  is  that  process  in  the  animal  body 
by  which  the  aliments  are  so  acted  upon  that  the 
nutritive  parts  are  prepared  to  enter  the  circula- 
tion, and  separated  from  those  .which  cannot 
afford  nourishment  to  the  body.  The  organs 
effecting  this  process  are  called  the  digestive 
organs,  and  consist  of  the  stomach,  the  great  and 
small  intestines,  etc.,  the  liver,  and  pancreas. 
When  the  aliments,  after  being  properly  prepared 
and  mixed  with  saliva  by  mastication,  have 
reached  the  stomach,  they  are  intimately  united 
with  a'  liquid  substance  called  the  gastric  juice, 
by  the  motion  of  the  stomach.  By  this  motion 
the  aliments  are  mechanically  separated  into 
their  smallest  parts,  penetrated  by  the  gastric 
juice,  and  transformed  into  a  uniform  pulpy  or 
fluid  mass.  The  gastric  juice  acts  upon  the 
albuminous  parts  of  the  food,  converting  them 
into  peptones,  which  can  pass  through  organic 
membranes  and  thus  enters  the  blood.  This 
action  is  aided  by  the  warmth  of  the  stomach. 
The  pulpy  mass  called  chyme  proceeds  from  the 
stomach,  through  the  pylorus,  into  that  part 


of  the  intestinal  canal  called  the  small  intestine, 
where  it  is  mixed  with  the  pancreatic  juice,  bile, 
and  intestinal  juice.  The  pancreatic  juice  con- 
verts starch  into  sugar,  albumins  into  peptones, 
and  emulsionizes  fats,  so  that  all  these  kinds  of 
food  are_  rendered  capable  of  absorption.  The 
process  is  aided  by  the  intestinal  juice.  The 
bile  also  acts  upon  fats,  and  thus  the  food  is 
formed  into  the  chyle,  which  is  absorbed  into 
the  system  by  the  capillary  vessels  called  lacteals, 
while  the  non-nutritious  matters  pass  down  the 
intestinal  canal  and  are  carried  off 

Dissenter.  One  who  secedes  from,  or  is 
opposed  to,  the  service  and  worship  prescribed 
by  any  established  or  state  Church.  In  Eng- 
land, the  term  is  applied  (indifferently  with  that 
of  Nonconformist)  to  those  who  do  not  conform 
to  the  rites  and  services  of  the  Church  as  estab- 
lished by  law  of  the  land.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  the  term  does  in  no  case  apply  to 
either  Jews  or  Roman  Catholics.  Thus  the  ap- 
parent paradox  exists  that  in  England  the  Pres- 
byterian body  are  Dissenters,  while  in  Scotland 
they  form  the  Established  Church,  leaving  the 
Episcopalians  as  the  chief  dissenting  body.  In 
this  country,  there  being  no  state  Church,  such 
differences  in  the  ecclesiastical  polity  have, 
necessarily,  no  existence. 

Distillation.  An  operation  by  which  a 
liquid  is  converted  into  vapor  by  heat,  which 
vapor  is  condensed  by  cold  in  a  separate  vessel. 
It  may  be  employed  for  various  purposes :  thus 
simple  distillation  purifies  liquids;  it  enables  a 
more  volatile  to  be  separated  from  a  less  volatile 
substance;  by  its  means  a  liquid  possessing  a 
definite  boiling-point  may  be  separated  from 
other  liquids  possessing  other  boiling-points. 
This  latter  is  known  as  fractional  distillation, 
and  is  much  used  in  the  separation  of  hydro- 
carbons, the  various  products  being  collected 
at  intervals  of,  say,  ten  degrees  of  temperature. 
The  essential  parts  of  a  distilling  apparatus  are 
a  vessel  in  which  the  substance  is  heated,  called 
sometimes  a  still  and  sometimes  a  retort;  a  con- 
denser ov  refrigerator,  in  which  the  vapor  is  cooled, 
and  a  receiver,  in  which  the  condensed  products 
are  collected.  Distillation  was  an  important 
operation  in  the  earliest  alchemical  processes  of 
which  we  have  any  record ;  it  does  not,  however, 
appear  to  have  been  known  before  the  time  of 
Pliny. 

Dominicans.  An  order  of  preaching 
friars,  founded  at  Toulouse  in  1215,  by  the  Span- 
ish St.  Dominic  de  Guzman,  who  was  born  in 
Old  Castile,  in  1170,  became  one  of  the  instigators 
of  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and  died 
in  1221.  This  order,  confirmed  by  bull  of  Pope 
Honorius,  1216,  rapidly  multiplied  in  Christen- 
dom. In  course  of  time,  however,  the  Domini- 
cans were  superseded  in  the  schools  by  the  Jes- 
uits, and  were  also  eclipsed  by  the  great  rival 
order  of  the  Franciscans.  Among  the  lights  of 
the  Dominican  order  may  be  counted  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Albertus  Magnus.  In  more  modern 
times,  the  order  has  been  resuscitated  in  France 
by  the  propaganda  of  P^re  Lacordaire,  and  they 
are  likewise  to  be  found  in  Belgium,  Hungary, 
Switzerland,  and  the  United  States.  Their 
rule  is  very  strict,  including  rigorous  fasting 
and  total  abstinence  from  flesh.     They  wear  a 


710 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


white  robe,  with  a  black  gaberdine,  and  a 
pointed  black  cap. 

Drawing.  The  art  of  representing  on  a 
flat  surface  the  forms  of  objects,  and  their  posi- 
tions and  relations  to  each  other,  was  prehistoric 
in  origin. 

Drawings  may  be  divided  into  five  classes: 
sketches,  finished  drawings,  studies,  academic 
drawings,  and  cartoons.  First  sketches  are  the 
ideas  put  on  paper  by  an  artist,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  carrying  them  out  with  more  complete- 
ness and  detail  in  some  more  elaborate  work. 
They  are  merely  intended  to  fix  and  retain  his 
first  thoughts.  Finished  drawings  are  such  as 
are  carefully  executed  and  made  complete  in 
all  their  parts.  By  studies  are  generally  under- 
stood separate  parts  of  objects  carefully  drawn 
either  from  life  or  from  figures  in  relief  ;  for  ex- 
ample, heads,  hands,  feet,  arms;  but  sometimes 
the  term  is  applied  to  drawings  of  entire  figures. 
To  this  class  also  belong  drawings  of  the  skeleton 
and  muscles,  as  well  as  of  draperies,  animals, 
trees,  foregrounds,  or  other  parts  of  landscapes. 
Academic  drawings  are  those  made  in  art  acade- 
mies from  a  living  model  in  lamplight  which 
brings  out  the  shadows  more  than  daylight. 
The  position  of  the  model  is  carefully  arranged 
at  the  commencement  of  each  sitting,  and  in  that 
position  he  is  required  to  remain.  In  this  way 
the  learners  practice  the  drawing  of  the  figure  in 
various  attitudes.  In  studying  drapery  and 
dress,  a  lay  figure,  made  of  wood  and  with  mov- 
able joints,  is  clothed  in  various  styles,  and 
drawings  made  from  it.  Cartoons  are  drawings 
made  on  stout  paper  of  the  size  of  the  painting 
to  be  executed  from  them.  They  are  mostly 
employed  for  pictures  of  large  size,  and  are  regu- 
larly used  by  fresco  painters.  The  design  is 
pricked  through  or  traced  from  the  cartoon  on 
the  surface  that  receives  the  finished  picture. 

Dream.  A  series  of  mental  impressions 
occurring  to  sleeping  persons,  and  which,  there- 
fore, are  not  under  the  command  of  reason. 
Dreams  have  been  referred  to  various  causes; 
among  others,  to  direct  impressions  on  the  or- 
gans of  sense  during  sleep;  to  the  absence  of  a 
power  to  test  the  inaccurate  conclusions  drawn 
from  one  set  of  impressions  by  other  impressions ; 
to  a  disordered  state  of  the  digestive  organs;  to 
a  less  restrained  action  of  the  mental  faculties; 
to  the  suspension  of  volition  while  the  powers  of 
sensation  continue,  etc.  In  health  there  is  a  less 
tendency  to  dream  than  in  disease ;  in  the  earlier 
than  in  the  later  periods  of  life;  and  the  very 
act  of  dreaming  shows  that  the  brain  is  not  en- 
joying a  complete  state  of  rest.  The  phenomena 
of  dreams  are  yet  too  little  studied  to  enable  us 
to  attest  much  with  certainty  regarding  them. 
The  popular  belief  has  frequently  ascribed  them 
to  supernatural  agency,  especially  where  there 
has  been  any  coincidence  between  a  dream  and 
an  external  event;  and  it  may  be  said  that  if 
many  of  the  instances  of  remarkable  dreams 
may  be  explained  by  natural  causes,  there  are 
others  so  well  authentica+<jd  that  we  cannot  al- 
together discredit  them  that  are  manifestly 
unexplained  by  any  scientific  theory. 

Dynamics.  That  branch  of  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  action  of  force  in  producing 
motion.     It  treats  of  bodies  not  in  equilibrium, 


as  statics  treats  of  bodies  at  rest.  Dynamics  is 
divided  into  two  parts  —  kinematics,  which  in- 
vestigates the  circumstances  of  mere  motion 
without  reference  to  the  bodies  moved,  the  forces 
producing  the  motion,  or  to  the  forces  called  into 
action  by  the  motion;  and  kinetics,  which  in- 
vestigates the  nature  and  relation  of  the  forces 
which  produce  motion.  Dynamics  has  to  do 
with  the  primary  conceptions  of  space,  matter, 
time,  and  velocity,  each  of  which  admits  of 
numerical  estimation  by  comparison  with  units 
arbitarily  chosen;  hence  dynamics  is  a  science 
of  numbers.  It  is  usual  to  consider  the  subject 
in  two  parts:  the  dynamics  of  a  particle,  and  the 
dynamics  of  a  rigid  body.  The  science  owes  its 
origin  to  Galileo,  to  whom  is  due  the  law  of  the 
acceleration  of  falling  bodies.  Huyghens  added 
the  theories  of  the  penduluni  and  centrifugal 
force,  and  Newton  developed  the  science,  and 
applied  it  to  the  infinitesimal  calculus. 

Electricity,  from  the  Greek  elektron 
(amber),  the  name  apphed  originally  to  the  un- 
known cause  of  the  attractions,  repulsions,  spark- 
lings,  etc.,  which  attend  the  friction  of  amber 
and  similar  substances.  The  same  cause  is  now 
recognized  as  giving  rise,  under  various  circum- 
stances, to  many  phenomena.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  true  nature  of 
electricity,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  we  have 
yet  any  sure  knowledge  of  what  this  subtle  agent 
really  is.  Electricity  behaves  as  if  it  were  an 
incompressible  fluid  substance,  but  it  differs 
from  all  known  fluids  in  so  many  particulars 
that  it  may  be  asserted  that  whatever  else  it 
may  be,  it  is  not  a  fluid  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word.  Neither  is  it  a  form  of  energy,  though 
electrification  as  distinguished  from  electricity 
certainly  is  such.  Many  scientific  men  hold  the 
view  that  electricity  is  the  ether  itself  (the  elastic, 
incompressible  medium  pervading  all  space  and 
conveying  luminous  and  other  vibrations),  and 
that  the  phenomena  of  positive  and  negative 
electrifications  are  due  to  displacement  of  the 
ether  at  the  surfaces  of  bodies.  The  researches 
of  Hertz,  who,  by  direct  experiment,  verified 
James  Clerk  Maxwell's  brilliant  theory  that 
electrical  action  is  propagated  through  space 
by  wave  motion  in  the  ether,  differing  only  in 
respect  of  wave  length  and  period  from  the 
vibrations  which  constitute  light,  have  been 
of  the  unmost  value  in  helping  to  arrive  at  a 
solution  of  this  question.  Investigations  into 
the  phenomena  of  electric  discharges  in  high 
vacua,  followed  by  the  discovery  of  Roentgen 
of  the  X-Rays,  have  also  thrown  great  light  on 
the  subject.  The  applications  of  electricity  are 
extremely  varied.  Its  employment  for  teleg- 
raphy and  electro-metallurgy,  for  chemical  and 
for  medical  and  physiological  purposes,  for  the 
production  of  light  to  illuminate  streets  and 
buildings,  for  driving  vehicles  and  machinery 
of  various  kinds,  may  be  mentioned  as  examples. 

Motor.  For  practical  purposes,  to  produce 
continuous  power,  it  is  most  convenient  to  use 
a  machine  called  a  motor,  which  is  so  arranged 
that  the  electricity  traverses  a  wire  wound  (in 
the  form  of  one  or  more  coils)  many  times  around 
a  suitably-shaped  frame  of  iron  called  a  field 
magnet  or  simply  a  field.  The  current  so  circu- 
lating round  the  field  magnetizes,  or  as  it  is 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


711 


called,  excites  it,  causing  it  to  exert  an  attrac- 
tion or  pull  upon  another  part  of  the  machine 
known  as  the  armature.  The  armature  is  also 
wound  with  wire  through  which  the  current 
passes,  and  is  placed  between  the  extremities 
of  the  field  magnet  which  are  called  poles.  The 
electrical  connections  are  so.  adjusted  that  the 
attraction  or  pull  between  the  field  and  armature 
is  up  on  one  side  of  the  armature  and  down  on 
the  other,  thus  causing  the  latter  to  rotate  with 
any  desired  speed  and  power  according  to  the 
size  of  the  motor.  The  power  may  be  brought 
in  by  wires  through  the  window-casing,  and  the 
whole  machinery  started  and  stopped  by  turning 
a  switch.  Being  entirely  noiseless,  perfectly 
clean,  susceptible  of  being  started,  regulated, 
or  stopped  as  stated  by  the  mere  pressure  of  a 
button,  and  cheap,  both  in  constructing  and 
operating,  its  utility  for  the  lighter  kinds  of  in- 
dustrial service  is  beyond  question.  There  is  no 
delay  with  electric  motors  similar  to  that  in 
getting  up  steam  in  a  steam-engine,  and  this 
quality  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  fire- 
engine  service,  and  is  made  use  of  in  the  electric 
fire-engine.  Upon  reaching  a  fire  the  connecting 
wires  from  the  electric  engine  are  hooked  into 
the  box  on  the  electric  light  post,  from  which 
wires  run  up  to  the  electric  light  wires  above. 
The  engine  is  then  ready  for  instant  operation 
at  full  power.  The  revival  of  interest  in  the 
electric  motor  causes  it  to  seem  like  a  new  in- 
vention to  those  not  familiar  with  the  record 
of  electrical  science.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
electrician  Jacobi,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Czar  of  Russia,  propelled  a  boat  on  the  Neva 
by  electricity  more  than  half  a  century  ago; 
and  not  many  years  later  Professor  Page,  in  this 
country,  succeeded  in  driving  a  car  by  an  electric 
locomotive  between  Washington  and  Bladens- 
burg  at  a  speed  of  nineteen  miles  an  hour.  But 
nothing  resulted  from  those  early  experiments 
on  account  of  the  rudimentary  methods  of 
generating  electricity ;  and  had  not  the  dynamo 
machine  been  made  commercially  successful 
the  motor  would  still  be  floating  in  the  brain  of 
scientists  as  a  future  but  very  indefinite  possi- 
bility. Now,  however,  it  has  been  caught  and 
made  objective.  Thousands  of  electric  motors 
are  at  work  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
ranging  in  capacity  from  one-half  to  twenty 
horse-power,  and  they  are  transferring  freight 
and  passengers,  running  printing-presses,  lifting 
elevators,  driving  ventilators,  and  making  them- 
selves generally  useful  at  domestic  and  industrial 
service.  The  adaptability  of  the  motor  for 
operating  street  railways  is  its  chief  recommen- 
dation to  the  American  people. 

The  Dynamo.  This  machine  is  very  like 
the  modern  motor  just  described.  In  fact  a 
dynamo  may  be  used  as  a  motor  by  supplying 
it  with  electricity  from  another  dynamo  or  any 
other  source  of  electricity,  and  if  the  armature 
of  a  motor  be  rotated  by  a  steam-engine  or  other 
prime  mover,  it  will  give  a  current  of  electricity 
and  become  for  the  time  being  a  dynamo.  The 
only  difference  between  the  dynamo  and  motor 
is  in  the  proportioning  of  parts,  the  modes  of 
regulating  speed  power,  etc.  Only  after  the  in- 
vention of  the  modern  dynamo  was  this  fact 
discovered,  and  in  the  early  and  partially  suc- 


cessful attempts  to  make  both,  the  experimenters 
did  not  appear  to  even  guess  that  there  was  any 
particular  connection  between  them.  The  de- 
signing of  motors  does  not  stop  with  the  simple 
application  of  the  revolving  wheel  principles 
explained  above,  but  furnishes  unlimited  room 
for  skill  in  making  them  in  forms  convenient 
for  use,  and  adapted  for  direct  connection  to 
various  kinds  of  machinery.  American  inge- 
nuity has  undoubtedly  taken  the  lead  in  making 
motors  of  all  kinds. 

Tfw  Trolley.  An  electric  street  car,  such 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  majority  of  towns  and 
cities  throughout  the  Union,  is  known  as  a 
trolley  car  because  the  current  is  taken  from 
the  overhead  wire  through  the  trolley  or  wheel, 
whence  it  goes  down  the  pole  and  through  a 
wire  to  the  motor  which  is  situated  under  the 
floor,  then  into  car  wheels  and  so  to  the  rails 
and  ground  and  back  to  the  generator  or  dynamo 
in  the  power  station. 

Electric  Light,  is  one  of  the  many  electric 
processes  which  depend  upon  the  faculty  of  being 
easily  converted  into  heat  at  any  desired  place 
and  in  any  part  of  its  conductor.  In  itself  elec- 
tric lighting  covers  a  range  of  sizes  or  powers 
more  extensive  than  the  candle,  the  gas-burner, 
and  the  calcium  light  combined.  Heat  is  the 
vibratory  motion  of  the  atoms  which  compose 
substances,  which  kind  of  motion  electricity 
always  produces  when  moving  through  a  con- 
ductor. The  temperature  increases  with  the 
current,  and  it  becomes  possible,  therefore,  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  given  conductor  to  a 
red  or  white  heat.  If  such  a  current  be  sent 
through  an  iron,  a  copper,  or  a  platinum  wire  it 
will  glow  very  brightly  and  be  in  danger  of  fusing; 
but  if  a  filament  of  carbon  be  used  instead,  in- 
closed in  a  vacuum,  it  cannot  fuse,  but  gives  out 
a  bright  light.  It  is  also  a  great  advantage  to 
be  able  to  produce  intense  heat  at  a  particular 
spot  by  passing  a  current  through  a  wire  and 
thinning  the  wire  at  the  desired  place.  The 
higher  incandescent  or  luminous  heat  is  obtained 
by  making  the  section  of  the  wire  still  thinner, 
which  brings  it  to  a  heat  of  dazzling  brilliancy. 
This  is  the  whole  principle  of  the  incandescent 
electric  light  in  a  nutshell.  Electric  lights  are  of 
two  classes,  known  as  "arc"  and  "incandes- 
cent." The  latter,  named  from  the  incandescent 
heat  of  the  thin  wire,  consists  of  a  fine  wire  or 
filament  of  any  substance  which  will  stand 
enormous  heat,  inclosed  in  a  glass,  with  the  air 
removed  to  prevent  its  burning  up  at  the  high 
temperature.  These  lights,  which  are  usually 
small,  are  very  soft  and  pleasant  to  the  eye,  and 
are  used  for  indoor  illumination.  The  arc  light 
is  produced  by  the  current  passing  from  the  end 
of  one  rod  of  carbon  to  the  end  of  another  rod 
through  the  vapor  produced  by  the  burning  of  the 
carbon  and  is  named  from  the  curved  or  arc- 
shaped  path  which  the  current  takes  in  passing 
through  this  vapor.  The  passage  of  the  current 
heats  the  particles  of  carbon  in  the  vapor 
as  well  as  the  tips  of  the  rods  to  an  intense 
degree,  and  gives  off  a  light  of  absolutely  unap- 
proached  brilliancy.  They  are  used  for  street 
illumination,  man-of-war  search-lights,  etc.,  and 
have  been  tried  in  the  more  important  light- 
houses of  the  world.     An  ordinary  gas-burner 


712 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


is  of  16  candle-power.  The  bright  electric  lights 
in  the  street  are  1,200  to  1,500  candle-power. 
The  Statue  of  Liberty  light  is  48,000  candle- 
power.  Going  to  the  other  extreme,  we  have 
very  small  lights  of  1,  ^,  and  even  ^  candle-power 
for  special  purposes.  They  are  used  for  house 
decorations,  in  the  hair  with  ball  costumes,  in 
bouquets,  etc.,  but  the  important  uses  are  for 
illuminating  for  exploration  places  into  which 
no  burning  light  could  be  introduced,  as  in  the 
method  recently  devised  by  medical  electricians 
of  illuminating  the  interior  of  the  stomach  for 
examination. 

Eng^ineering,  the  branch  of  science  deal- 
ing with  the  design,  construction,  and  operation 
of  various  machines,  structures,  and  engines  used 
in  the  arts,  trades,  and  everyday  life.  Engineer- 
ing is  divided  into  many  branches,  the  more 
important  being  civil,  mechanical,  electrical, 
mining,  military,  marine,  and  sanitary  engineer- 
ing. Mechanical  engineering  has  to  do  with 
the  design,  construction,  and  operation  of  ma- 
chinery, the  design  of  manufacturing  plants,  and 
all  branches  of  industrial  production.  The 
mechanical  engineer's  education  should  be 
similar  to  that  of  the  civil  engineer,  with  the 
addition  of  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  machine  construction.  Electrical  engi- 
neering is  a  branch  of  mechanical  engineering 
and  includes  the  application  of  electricity  to 
mechanical  and  industrial  pursuits,  as  derived 
from  some  other  source  of  energy.  Mining 
engineering  is  a  combination  of  the  three  pre- 
ceding branches  as  applied  to  the  discovery  and 
operation  of  mines,  the  building  of  mineral 
working  plants,  and  treatment  of  ores.  Military 
engineering  deals  entirely  with  the  arts  of  war, 
the  design,  construction  and  maintenance  of 
fortifications,  machines  of  defense  and  attack, 
ordnance,  and  the  surveying  of  country  in  prepa- 
ration for  military  operations.  Marine  engi- 
neering is  partly  military  and  partly  civil, 
embracing  naval  architecture,  building  and 
operating  of  ships  and  naval  accessories.  In 
the  military  sense,  it  comprises  the  construc- 
tion of  war  vessels  and  the  construction  and 
placing  of  torpedoes,  submarine  mines,  etc. 
Sanitary  engineering  consists  of  the  construc- 
tion of  sewers  and  drains,  providing  for  the 
cleaning  of  city  streets  and  the  disposal  of  gar- 
bage and  sewage,  reclaiming  of  swamps,  and 
overcoming  of  all  conditions  tending  to  interfere 
with  public  health.  The  education  and  training 
of  the  engineer  in  modern  times  have  called  for 
the  establishment  of  technical  schools  and 
courses  in  engineering  in  the  large  colleges  and 
universities.  These  schools  provide  the  student 
with  the  theories  of  mathematics,  mechanics, 
and  engineering,  and  by  means  of  extensive 
laboratory  and  outside  work  provide  him  with 
practice  in  the  design,  construction,  and  use  of 
modern  engineering  appliances. 

Episcopal  Church,  Protestant,  a 
denomination  in  the  United  States  directly 
descended  from  the  Church  of  England,  which 
doctrinally  claims  to  be  based  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  as  interpreted  in  the  Apostles  and 
other  ancient  creeds  of  the  Church  that  have 
been  universally  received,  and  to  have  kept  her- 
self aloof  from  all  the  modern  systems  of  faith, 


whether  of  Calvin,  or  Luther,  or  Arminius,  leav- 
ing its  members  free  to  enjoy  their  own  opinions 
on  all  points  not  represented  in  the  Scriptures  as 
necessary  to  soul's  health,  and  refusing  to  be 
narrowed  down  to  any  other  creed  or  creeds  than 
those  of  the  Apostles  andthe  Primitive  Church. 
It  claims  also  to  have  retained  all  that  is  essen- 
tial to  Church  organization  in  its  episcopate,  and 
in  its  liturgy  to  have  not  only  a  wise  and  judi- 
cious compend  of  doctrine  and  devotion,  but 
also  one  of  the  most  effectual  of  all  possible  con- 
servative safeguards  for  the  faith  once  delivered 
to  the-  saints.  Three  clerical  orders  are  recog- 
nized —  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  -^  the 
first  deriving  their  office  in  direct  succession  from 
the  apostles  by  episcopal  consecration,  and  the 
others  receiving  ordination  at  the  hands  of  a 
bishop.  Those  of  the  second  order  are  entitled 
archdeacons,  deans,  rectors,  vicars,  or  curates, 
according  to  their  functions.  A  reader  is  a  lay- 
man licensed  by  the  bishop  to  read  in  a  church 
or  chapel  where  there  is  no  clergyman.  Parson 
signifies  a  clergyman  in  possession  of  a  parochial 
church.  From  the  time  of  the  first  congrega- 
tions of  the  Church  of  England,  in  America,  in 
1607,  to  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  all  the 
clergy  in  the  colonies  were  regarded  as  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Bishop  of  London.  The  first 
American  Bishop  was  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury, 
who,  in  1783,  was  consecrated  in  Scotland  as 
Bishop  of  Connecticut.  All  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Churches  in  the  United  States  are  associated 
in  one  national  body,  called  the  General  Conven- 
tion, which  meets  triennially. 

Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  name  given 
to  certain  writers,  or  apologists,  of  the  early 
Christian  Church.  They  are  usually  divided  into 
three  classes  —  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  the  Primi- 
tive Fathers,  and  (simply)  the  Fathers.  The 
Apostolic  Fathers,  who  were  contemporary  to 
some  extent  with  the  apostles,  are  Hermas, 
Barnabas,  Clemens  Romanus,  Ignatius,  and 
Polycarp.  The  Primitive  Fathers,  who  lived  in 
the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,  include  Justin 
Martyr,  Irenseus,  Athenagoras,  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus,  Hippolytus,  and  Origen  (who  wrote 
in  Greek),  and  Tertullian,  Minutius  Felix,  and 
Cyprian  (who  wrote  in  Latin).  The  Fathers,  or 
those  of  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries,  belonged 
either  to  the  Greek  or  to  the  Latin  Church.  The 
principal  Greek  Fathers  are  Eusebius,  Athanasius, 
Ephraem  Syrus,  Basil,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Gregory  Nazienzen,  Macarius,  Gregory  Nyssen, 
Epiphanius,  John  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria, and  Theodoret.  The  principal  Latin 
Fathers  .  are  Hilary,  Lactantius,  Ambrose, 
Jerome,  and  Augustine. 

Friends,  Society  of,  the  organization 
commonly  called  Quakers,  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century  by  George  Fox. 
They  are  distinguished  from  other  Christian 
bodies  by  the  special  stress  they  lay  on  the 
immediate  teaching  and  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  their  belief  that  no  one  should  be 
paid  or  appointed  by  human  authority  for  the 
exercise  of  the  gift  of  the  ministry.  In  obedi- 
ence to  this  belief  they  hold  their  meetings  with- 
out any  prearranged  service  or  sermon,  and 
sometimes  in  total  silence.  The  Friends  believe 
that  the  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


713 


Supper  are  to  be  taken  spiritually,  and  not  in  an 
outward  form.  Their  protests  against  the  use 
of  oaths  and  against  the  exaction  of  tithes  and 
church  rates  cost  them  much  suffering  and 
frequent  imprisonment  during  the  first  fifty 
years  of  their  existence.  The  simplified  dress 
which  Friends  adopted  from  conviction  200 
years  ago  became  stereotyped  into  a  uniform. 
This  dress  has  generally  been  given  up,  as  have 
also  the  antipathy  to  music  and  singing  in 
its  rigid  application,  and  the  peculiarities  of 
speech,  such  as  the  use  of  "thee"  and  "thou" 
instead  of  "you"  (though  many  Friends  still 
retain  this  custom  among  themselves),  and  the 
avoidance  of  all  titles  of  courtesy.  Of  late  years 
there  has  been  a  very  decided  evangelical  move- 
ment among  Friends,  under  the  influence  of 
which  the  old  quietism  is  dying  out.  As  a  result 
of  this  change  the  influence  of  the  Society 
beyond  its  own  borders,  through  home  and 
foreign  missions  and  adult  First  Day  (Sunday) 
Schools,  has  developed  to  a  remarkable  extent. 
There  is  in  the  United  States  a  numerous  body 
of  Friends  called  Hicksites  (from  their  founder, 
Elias  Hicks),  who  separated  from  the  orthodox 
community.  They  hold  latitudinarian  views. 
The  Wilburite  section  are  conspicuous  in  Penn- 
sylvania by  their  adherence  to  the  livery  and  the 
"plain  language."  Large  numbers  of  persons 
who  do  not  appear  in  the  statistical  returns 
attend  the  Mission  meetings  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  very  large  numbers  come  under 
their  influence  in  the  foreign  mission  field. 

Greek  Church,  The,  taken  in  the  widest 
sense,  comprehends  all  those  Christians  following 
the  Greek  or  Greco-Slavonic  rite  who  receive  the 
first  seven  general  councils,  but  reject  the  author- 
ity of  the  Roman  pontiff  and  the  later  councils 
of  the  Western  Church.  The  Greek  Church 
calls  itself  "the  Holy  Orthodox  Catholic  and 
Apostolic  Church,"  and  it  includes  three  distinct 
branches  —  the  Church  within  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  subject  directly  to  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople;  the  Church  in  the  kingdom  of 
Greece;  and  the  Russo-Greek  Church  in  the 
dominions  of  the  czar.  The  proper  history  of 
the  Greek  Church  as  a  separate  body  dates  from 
the  commencement  of  the  Greek  schism,  or 
rather  from  the  commencement  of  the  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople  to 
establish  for  itself  a  distinct  jurisdiction,  and  an 
independent  headship  in  the  eastern  division  of 
the  empire.  The  ecclesiastical  preeminence  of 
Constantinople,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  followed 
upon  the  political  distinction  to  which  it  rose  as 
the  seat  of  the  imperial  residence  and  the  cen- 
ter of  the  imperial  government.  Originally 
Byzantium  was  but  a  simple  episcopal  see,  sub- 
ject to  the  metropolitan  of  Heraclea;  but  the 
rank  of  the  see  rose  with  the  fortunes  of  the  city ; 
and  before  the  close  of  the  Fourth  Century  a 
canon  of  the  council  of  Constantinople,  held 
in  381,  assures  to  it,  on  the  ground  that  "Con- 
stantinople is  the  new  Rome,"  the  "precedence 
of  honor"  next  after  the  ancient  Rome.  The 
United  Greek  Church  comprehends  those  Chris- 
tians who,  while  they  follow  the  Greek  rite, 
observe  the  discipline  of  the  Greek  Church  and 
make  use  of  the  Greek  liturgy,  are  yet  united 
with  the  Church  of  Rome,  admitting  the  double 


procession  of  the  spirit  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  pontiff,  and  accepting  all  the  doctrinal 
decisions  subsequent  to  the  Greek  schism  which 
have  force  as  articles  of  faith  in  the  Roman 
Church.  The  United  Greeks  are  found  chiefly 
in  southern  Italy,  in  the  Austrian  dominions,  in 
Poland,  and  the  Russian  Empire.  In  Italy  they 
are  computed  at  80,000;  in  Austria  at  about 
4,000,000;  and  in  Poland  at  about  250,000.  In 
Russia  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  their  number; 
it  has  fallen  off  considerably  in  late  years.  In 
Austria  they  are  divided  into  Roumanians  and 
Ruthenians  —  the  former  being  settled  in 
Wallachia,  Transylvania,  and  eastern  Hungary; 
the  latter,  in  Little  Russia,  Galicia,  and  north- 
eastern Hungary.  The  union  of  the  Greek 
Christians  of  Wallachia  and  Transylvania  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  Twelfth  Century;  and 
although  the  Reformation  made  some  progress 
among  them,  they  still  for  the  most  part  re- 
mained true  to  the  union.  The  union  of  the 
Galician  Greeks  or  Ruthenians  is  of  much  later 
date,  about  the  close  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  add  that  the  usage  of  the 
United  Greek  Church  a,s  to  the  law  of  celibacy  is, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  the  same 
as  among  the  other  Greeks.  They  are  also  per- 
mitted to  administer  communion  under  both 
kinds. 

Heart.  A  hollow  muscular  organ,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  maintain  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood.  The  human  heart  is  formed  of 
a  firm  thick  muscular  tissue,  composed  of  fibers 
interlacing  with  each  other,  and  is  supplied  with 
nerves  and  vessels,  which  are  termed  coronary. 
Its  coronary  arteries  branch  off  from  the  aorta, 
and  the  coronary  veins  return  the  blood  in  the 
right  auricle.  Its  nerves  are  branches  of  the 
eighth  and  great  intercostal  pairs.  It  is  divided 
in  the  middle  by  a  strong  partition,  and  on  each 
side  by  two  cavities,  called  ventricles ;  one  the 
right  or  pulmonic,  and  the  other  the  left  or  sys- 
temic. Attached  to  the  base  of  the  heart  are  two 
auricles,  so-called  from  their  resemblance  to  an 
ear.  In  the  right  auricle  there  are  four  aper- 
tures :  two  of  the  venoe  cavce,  one  of  the  coronary 
vein,  and  one  an  opening  into  the  right  ventricle. 
There  are  five  apertures  in  the  left  auricle ;  one 
into  the  left  ventricle,  and  those  of  the  four 
pulmonary  veins.  Each  ventricle  has  two 
orifices;  one  from  the  auricle,  and  another  into 
the  artery.  The  ventricles  are  supplied  with 
valves ;  those  at  the  arterial  opening  being,  from 
their  form,  called  semi-lunar;  those  at  the  orifice 
of  the  right  auricle,  tricuspid ;  and  those  at  the 
orifice  of  the  left  auricle,  mitral.  The  valve  at 
the  termination  of  the  vena  cava  inferior,  just 
within  the  auricle,  is  called  the  valve  of  Ev^ta- 
chius.  The  dilatation  of  the  heart  is  called 
diastole;  its  contraction,  systole.  The  alternate 
contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  heart  are 
entirely  involuntary,  and  dependent  on  the 
nervous  system.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
the  daily  work  of  an  ordinary  human  heart,  in 
propelling  the  blood,  is  equal  to  the  lifting  124 
tons  a  foot  high. 

Horse  Power,  the  measure  of  a  steam 
engine's  power,  as  originally  settled  by  James 
Watt,  being  a  lifting  power  equal  to  33,000 
pounds  raised  one  foot  high  per  minute.     Thus, 


714 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


an  engine  is  said  to  be  of  100  horse  power  (h.  p.) 
when  it  has  a  lifting  capacity  equivalent  to 
3,300,000  pounds  one  foot  high  per  minute.  To 
ascertain  the  horse  power  of  an  engine  multiply 
together  the  pressure  in  pounds  on  a  square  inch 
of  the  piston,  the  area  of  the  piston  in  inches, 
the  length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number 
of  strokes  per  minute,  divide  the  result  by  33,000 
and  the  quotient,  less  one-tenth,  allowed  for  loss 
by  friction,  will  give  the  horse  power.  Engines 
are  frequently  said  to  be  of  so  many  horse  power 
nominal ;  the  real  or  indicated  horse  power,  how- 
ever, often  exceeds  the  nominal  by  as  much  as 
three  to  one. 

Illiteracy.  The  following  percentages  in- 
dicate the  relative  illiteracy  of  the  chief  nations 
of  the  world.  In  Rumania,  88.4  per  cent,  of  the 
population  can  neither  read  nor  write ;  in  Servia, 
79.3  per  cent.;  in  Portugal,  79.2;  in  Spain,  68.1 
per  cent. ;  in  Russia,  61.7  per  cent. ;  in  Hungary, 
47.8  per  cent.;  in  Austria,  35.6  per  cent.;  in 
Italy,  32.9  per  cent. ;  in  Greece,  30  per  cent. ;  in 
Belgium,  10  per  cent.;  in  Ireland,  7.9  per  cent.; 
in  France,  4.7  per  cent. ;  in  England,  3  per  cent. ; 
in  Scotland,  2.5  per  cent.;  in  The  Netherlands, 
2.3  per  cent.;  in  Finland,  .5  per  cent.;  in  Den- 
mark, .2  per  cent. ;  in  Switzerland,  .13  per  cent. ; 
in  Sweden  and  Norway,  .08  per  cent.;  in  The 
German  Empire,  .05  per  cent.;  and  in  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg  and  some  other  German 
states  only  rarely  a  person  can  be  found  who  can- 
not read  and  write.  In  the  United  States  the  ratio 
of  illiteracy  among  the  whites  is  6.2  per  cent. 

Libraries.  Libraries  existed  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  and  Pisistratus  is  credited 
with  the  honor  of  introducing  a  public  library 
at  Athens  about  B.  C.  337.  Cicero  and  various 
wealthy  Romans  made  collections  of  books,  and 
several  Roman  Emperors  established  libraries, 

gartly  with  books  obtained  as  spoils  of  war. 
<y  far  the  most  celebrated  library  of  antiquity 
was  the  Alexandrian.  In  the  West,  libraries  of 
any  note  were  founded  in  the  second  half  of  the 
Eighth  Century  by  the  encouragement  of  Charle- 
magne. In  France  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
was  that  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Germain  des  Pr6s, 
near  Paris.  In  Germany  the  libraries  of  Fulda, 
Corvey,  and  in  the  Eleventh  Century  that  of  Hir- 
schau,  were  valuable.  Ill  Spain,  in  the  Twelfth 
Century,  the  Moors  had  seventy  public  libraries, 
of  which  that  of  Cordova  contained  250,000  vol- 
umes. In  Britain  and  Italy  libraries  were  also 
founded  with  great  zeal.  After  the  invention  of 
printing  this  was  done  more  easily  and  at  less  ex- 
pense. The  principal  libraries  of  modern  times  are: 

Library  City        No.  of  Vols. 

Bibliotheque  nationale,    .    .   Paris 3,000,000 

British  Museum London,  ....  2,000,000 

Imper.  publicnaja  biblioteka.St.  Petersburg,   .  2,000,000 
Library  of  Congress,  ....   Washington,    .    .   1,550,000 
Public  Library  —  Astor, 
Lenox,  and  Tilden  Foun- 
dation,      New  York  City,  .  1,350,000 

Konigliche  bibliothek,      .    .   Berlin 1,230,000 

New  York  State, Albany 1,000,000 

Kon.    Hof-u.    Staatsbiblio- 

thek, Munich 1,000,000 

Public  Library Boston,    ....       963,000 

K.u.k.  Hofbibliothek,  .  .  .  Vienna,  ....  900,000 
Universitats-  u.     landesbib- 

liothek, Strasburg,    .    .    .      814,000 

Harvard  University  Library,  Cambridge  (U.  S.),  804,000 
Publicnyj  i  Rumjancovskij 

musej, Moscow,  ....      800,000 


Library                               City             No.  of  Vols. 
Cambridge  University    Lib- 
rary  Cambridge(Eng.)  700,000 

Bodleian  Library, Oxford,    .      .    .  700,000 

Det  store  kongelige  biblio- 
thek,     Copenhagen,    .    .  650,000 

Biblioteca  nacional,  ....   Madrid,    ....  650,000 
K.     k.     Universitats-biblio- 

thek Vienna 650,000 

Leipsic  University,    ....    Leipsic 600,000 

National  Library Rome, 600,000 

Yale  University New  Haven,    .    .  550,000 

Universitats-bibiiothek,   .    .   Gottingen,  .    .    .  550,000 

Universiteit  bibliotheek,  .    .   Amsterdam,    .    .  500,000 
Bibliotheca  Nazionale  Cen- 

trale, Florence,.    .    .    .  500,000 

Kon  bibliotheek The  Hague,     .    .  500,000 

Other  large  and  valuable  libraries  are:  the 
royal  libraries  at  Stuttgart  and  Dresden;  the 
university  hbraries  of  Genoa,  Prague,  Upsal,  and 
Dublin;  also  the  libraries  of  Venice,  Milan, 
Bologna,  Naples,  and  the  Advocates',  Edinburgh. 
The  Vatican  library,  Rome,  and  the  Bodleian, 
Oxford,  are  particularly  valuable  in  rare  books 
and  manuscripts.  The  spread  of  education  has 
called  into  existence  innumerable  smaller  libraries, 
ready  of  access,  and  providing  such  literature  as 
the  special  class  of  readers  demand.  This  public 
library  system  has  naturally  been  most  developed 
in  highly-educated  countries,  such  as  Germany, 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States. 

Light.  That  peculiar  property  of  matter 
which  affects  the  nerves  of  sight,  and  causes  us 
to  see.  A  ray  of  light  is  an  exceedingly  small 
portion  of  light  as  it  comes  from  a  luminous 
body.  A  beam  of  light  is  a  collection  of  parallel 
rays.  A  medium  is  a  body  which  affords  a  pas- 
sage for  the  rays  of  light.  A  pencil  of  rays  is  a 
mass  of  diverging  or  converging  rays.  Converg- 
ing rays  are  those  which  tend  to  a  common  point ; 
diverging  rays,  those  which  come  from  one  point, 
and  continually  separate  as  they  proceed.  The 
rays  of  light  are  parallel,  where  the  lines  which 
they  describe  are  so.  The  radiant  point  is  the 
point  from  which  diverging  rays  proceed.  The 
focus  is  the  point  to  which  the  converging  rays 
are  directed.  Light  passes  off  from  a  luminous 
body  in  all  directions ;  and  its  intensity  decreases 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  increases:  thus,  if 
one  object  is  twice  as  far  from  a  luminous  body 
as  another  of  the  same  size,  it  will  receive  only 
one-fourth  as  much  light  as  the  latter.  The 
velocity  with  which  light  travels  is  enormous; 
it  was  estimated,  on  astronomical  data,  at  183,- 
470  miles  per  second;  but  according  to  Leon 
Foucault's  recent  experiments  with  the  "  turning 
mirror,"  it  is  185,170  EngHsh  miles  per  second; 
and  it  requires  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  to  pass  through  the  diameter  of  the  earth's 
orbit.  When  light  encounters  an  obstacle,  some 
of  it  is  reflected,  some  absorbed,  and,  if  the  inter- 
posed body  is  not  opaque,  some  of  it  is  trans- 
mitted. During  transmission  it  is  modified, 
being  in  some  cases,  as  with  doubly  refracting 
crystals,  decomposed  into  two  white  rays,  pos- 
sessing different  properties;  and  in  others,  as 
with  glass  prisms,  decomposed  into  a  number 
of  colored  rays,  accompanied  by  rays  which  are 
colorless,  and  in  fact  invisible,  but  which  have 
marked  chemical  and  calorific  properties.  When 
luminous  rays  pass  into  a  dark  chamber  through 
a  small  aperture,  and  are  received  upon  a  screen, 
they  form  images  of  external  objects.       These 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


715 


images  are  inverted;  their  shape  is  always  that 
of  the  external  objects,  and  is  independent  of  the 
shape  of  the  aperture.  The  inversion  of  the 
images  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  luminous 
rays  proceeding  from  external  objects,  and  pene- 
trating into  the  chamber,  cross  one  another  in 
fjassing  the  aperture.  Continuing  in  a  straight 
ine,  the  rays  from  the  higher  parts  meet  the 
screen  at  the  lower  parts,  and  inversely,  those 
which  come  from  the  lower  parts  meets  the 
higher  parts  of  the  screen.  Hence  the  inversion 
of  the  image.  Light,  heat,  and  the  chemical 
principle  seem  to  be  modifications  of  the  same 
element;  but  there  are  circumstances  in  which 
they  differ. 

Liquid  Air  is  based  upon  the  cooling 
that  air  undergoes  when  it  is  subject  to  ex- 
pansion and  passes  from  a  given  to  a  lower 
pressure.  To  obtain  a  liquefaction  of  the  air 
at  atmospheric  pressure  it  is  necessary  to  cool 
it  to  —  191°;  that  is,  to  compress  it  to  800 
atmospheres  before  expanding  it.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  an  electric  motor  actuating  a 
pump  which  sucks  air  from  the  atmosphere.  It 
IS  then  dried  by  passing  over  chloride  of  calcium, 
thence  into  a  liquid  ammonia  refrigerating  ap- 
paratus. It  is  successfully  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  oxygen.  It  is  of  little  use  as  a 
motive  power  or  refrigerant,  partly  on  account 
of  its  cost. 

Lunges,  the  sole  breathing  organs  of  reptiles, 
birds,  mammals,  and  in  part  of  amphibians 
(frogs,  newts,  etc.),  the  latter  forms  breathing  in 
early  life  by  branchiae  or  gills,  and  afterwards 
partly  or  entirely  by  lungs.  The  essential  idea 
of  a  lung  is  that  of  a  sac  communicating  with  the 
atmosphere  by  means  of  a  tube,  the  trachea  or 
windpipe,  through  which  air  is  admitted  to  the 
organ,  and  through  structural  peculiarities  to  its 
intimate  parts,  the  air  serving  to  supply  oxygen 
to  the  blood  and  to  remove  carbonic  acid.  In 
the  Mammalia,  including  man,  the  lungs  are  con- 
fined to  and  freely  suspended  in  the  cavity  of  the 
thorax  or  chest,  which  is  completely  separated 
from  the  abdominal  cavity  by  the  muscular 
diaphragm  or  "midriff."  In  man  the  lungs  are 
made  up  of  honeycomb-like  cells  which  receive 
their  supply  of  air  through  the  bronchial  tubes. 
If  a  bronchial  tube  is  traced  it  is  found  to  lead 
into  a  passage  which  divides  and  subdivides, 
leading  off  into  air-cells.  The  walls  of  these  air- 
cells  consist  of  thin,  elastic,  connective  tissue, 
through  which  run  small  blood-vessels  in  con- 
nection with  the  pulmonary  artery  and  veins. 
By  this  arrangement  the  blood  is  brought  into 
contact  with,  and  becomes  purified  by  means  of, 
the  air.  The  impure  blood  enters  at  the  root  of 
the  lung  through  the  pulmonary  artery  at  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  and  passes  out  purified 
through  the  pulmonary  veins  towards  the  left 
side  of  the  heart.  Both  lungs  are  enclosed  in  a 
delicate  membrane  called  the  pleura,  which 
forms  a  kind  of  double  sac  that  on  one  side  lines 
the  ribs  and  part  of  the  breast  bone,  and  on  the 
other  side  surrounds  the  lung.  Pleurisy  arises 
from  inflammation  of  this  membrane.  The 
lungs  are  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  heart, 
the  upper  part  of  each  fits  into  the  upper  corner 
of  the  chest,  about  an  inch  above  the  collar-bone, 
while  the  base  of  each  rests  upon  the  diaphragm. 


The  right  lung  is  shorter  and  broader  than  the 
left,  which  extends  downwards  further  by  the 
breadth  of  a  rib.  Each  lung  exhibits  a  broad 
division  into  an  upper  and  lower  portion  or  lobe, 
the  division  being  marked  by  a  deep  cleft  which 
runs  downwards  obliquely  to  the  front  of  the 
organ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  right  lung  there  is 
a  further  division  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
cleft.  Thus  the  left  lung  has  two,  whilst  the 
right  lung  has  three  lobes.  These  again  are 
divided  into  lobules  which  measure  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  and  consists 
of  air-cells,  blood  vessels,  nerves,  lymphatic  ves- 
sels, and  the  tissue  by  which  the  lobules  them- 
selves are  bound  together.  The  elasticity  of  the 
lungs  by  which  they  expand  and  expel  the  air  is 
due  to  the  contractile  tissues  found  in  the  bron- 
chial tubes  and  air-cells,  this  elasticity  being 
aided  by  a  delicate,  elastic,  surface  tissue.  The 
lungs  are  popularly  termed  "lights,"  because 
they  are  the  lightest  organs  in  the  body,  and 
float  when  placed  in  water,  except  when  they 
are  diseased. 

Lutherans.  A  designation  originally  ap- 
plied by  their  adversaries  to  the  Reformers  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  afterward  appro- 
priated among  Protestants  themselves  to  those 
who  took  part  with  Martin  Luther  against  the 
Swiss  Reformers,  particularly  in  the  contro- 
versies regarding  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  so 
employed  to  this  day  as  the  designation  of  one 
of  the  two  great  sections  into  which  the  Protes- 
tant Church  was  divided,  the  other  being  known 
as  the  Reformed  Church.  Lutheranism  is  the 
prevailing  form  of  Protestantism  in  Germany; 
it  is  the  national  religion  of  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway;  and  there  are  Lutheran  churches 
in  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia,  in  Holland, 
France,  Poland,  and  the  United  States.  The 
growth  in  Continental  Europe  has  been  most 
marked.  Among  the  Lutheran  symbolical  books 
the  "Augsburg  Confession,"  Luther's  "Shorter 
Catechism,"  and  the  "Formula  Concordiae" 
("Formula  of  Harmony"),  hold  the  principal 
place.  It  is  often  alleged  that  the  chief  differ- 
ence between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed 
is  that  the  Lutherans  hold  to  the  doctrine  of 
consubstantiation  and  reject  transubstantiation. 
This,  however,  is  repudiated  by  the  Church's 
theologians  without  a  dissenting  voice.  In  the 
"Wittenberg  Concord,"  prepared  in  1536,  and 
signed  by  Luther  and  the  other  leaders  in  the 
Church,  it  is  said:  "We  deny  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  as  we  do  also  deny  that  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  locally  included  in 
the  bread."  The  "Formula  of  Concord"  says: 
"The  presence  of  Christ  in  the  supper  is  not  of  a 
physical  nature,  nor  earthly,  nor  Capernaitish, 
and  yet  it  is  most  true."  In  its  constitution  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  generally  unepiscopal  with- 
out being  properly  Presbyterian.  It  is  consisto- 
rial,  with  the  civil  authorities  so  far  in  place  of 
bishops.  In  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway 
there  are  bishops,  and  in  Sweden  an  archbishop 
(of  Upsala),  but  their  powers  are  very  limited. 
In  the  United  States  wider  extremes  in  the  mode 
of  worship  have  existed  than  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  There  are  four  general  bodies  of 
Lutherans  in  the  United  States,  besides  fifteen 
independent    synods,    with    a    total    of    8,040 


716 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


ministers,  13,169  churches,  and  over  2,000,000 
members. 

Meth'odlst.  A  branch  of  the  Christian 
Church  which  originated  in  England  during  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  In  1729  John  Wesley, 
with  his  brother  Charles  and  a  few  other  asso- 
ciates at  Oxford,  organized  a  meeting  for  their 
mutual  moral  improvement.  They  were  soon 
joined  by  others,  among  them  Mr.  Hervey  and 
George  Whitefield,  till  at  the  end  of  six  years 
they  numbered  fourteen  or  fifteen.  The  term 
"Methodists"  was  applied  to  them  on  account 
of  their  methodical  mode  of  life  and  work. 
After  his  return  from  Georgia,  in  1738,  Wesley 
began  to  preach  with  great  fervor.  In  the  early 
part  of  1739,  Whitefield  set  the  first  example  of 
open-air  preaching  at  Kingswood,  near  Bristol, 
addressing  an  immense  crowd  of  colliers.  John 
Wesley,  as  well  as  his  brother  Charles,  followed 
this  example.  Being  denied  admission  to  the 
churches  by  the  clergy,  they  preached  in  private 
houses,  barns,  market  places,  and  the  open  fields. 
The  converts  made  by  their  preaching  were 
either  despised  or  utterly  neglected  by  the  Church , 
and  hence  Wesley,  at  their  own  request,  formed 
them  into  societies  for  mutual  edification  and 
improvement,  called  "the  United  Societies." 
For  their  government  a  few  simple  rules  were 
proposed  by  the  Wesleys,  which,  with  slight 
exceptions,  are  still  recognized  as  the  "General 
Rules"  by  all  branches  of  the  Methodist  Church. 
Methodism  strove  at  first  only  to  restore  a 
purified  and  intensified  spiritual  life.  The  sub- 
stance of  its  doctrines  is  to  be  found  in  the  writ- 
ings of  John  Wesley,  John  Fletcher,  Richard 
Watson,  and  others,  and  in  the  generally  uniform 
teachings  of  the  Methodist  pulpit.  The  articles 
which  Wesley  prepared  for  the  Methodist  Church 
in  America  were  taken  substantially  from  the 
thirty-nine  articles  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Methodism  holds  that  the  salvation  or  non- 
salvation  of  each  human  being  depends  solely 
on  his  own  free  action  in  respect  to  the  enlighten- 
ing, renewing,  and  sanctifying  inworkings  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  hence  it  is  Arminian  in  dis- 
tinction from  Calvinistic.  It  emphasizes  the 
doctrine  of  assurance,  i.  e.,  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
bears  witness  of  pardon  and  acceptance  to  the 
justified  sinner.  It  also  makes  prominent  the 
doctrine  of  Christian  perfection,  or  perfect  love. 
Methodist  polity,  like  the  Methodist  confession, 
is  to  be  understood  only  by  regarding  Methodism 
as  a  revival  and  missionary  movement.  Wesley 
thought  as  little  of  establishing  a  separate  Church 

golity  as  of  publishing  a  separate  theology, 
ut  the  neglect  and  frequent  ridicule  of  the  con- 
verts by  the  clergy  of  the  establishment  caused 
many  to  relapse;  and  this  led  him  to  consent 
reluctantly  to  the  appointment  of  lay  preachers. 
The  first  assembly  that  took  the  name  of  "con- 
ference" was  held  in  the  Foundery,  London, 
June  25,  1744,  and  thereafter  annually.  Se- 
cession was  discouraged,  and  they  distinctly 
denied  that  they  were  dissenters.  Previous  to 
the  conference  of  1744,  the  greater  portion  of 
England  had  been  divided  into  "circuits,"  and 
provision  had  been  made  to  supply  these  with 
preachers  for  such  time  as  the  need  of  the  work 
seemed  to  indicate.  Wesley's  views  of  ecclesias- 
tical  authority   and   polity   underwent   radical 


changes,  and  led  him,  at  the  recognition  of  the 
independence  of  the  American  colonies,  to  pro- 
vide a  separate  Church  organization  for  the 
Methodists  of  America,  and  at  his  death  to  per- 
petuate his  work  by  constituting  the  "United 
Societies"  a  distinct  ecclesiastical  body  in  regu- 
lar legal  form.  Methodism  holds  to  no  inspired 
or  divinely  imposed  Church  polity.'  In  Great 
Britain  it  recognizes  but  one  order  of  clergy, 
while  in  America  it  has  provided  two. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  the  original 
and  largest  body  of  Methodists  in  the  United 
States.  Wesley  and  Whitefield,  during  their 
visits  to  America,  had  organized  no  _Methodist 
societies.  In  1766,  a  class  was  formed  by  Philip 
Embury,  greatly  assisted  by  Captain  Thomas 
Webb,  an  officer  of  the  British  Army  stationed 
in  New  York,  one  of  Wesley's  local  preachers. 
Webb  preached  and  formed  classes  during  1768, 
on  Long  Island,  and  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
and  Philadelphia.  In  the  same  year  the  first 
chapel  was  dedicated  in  John  Street,  New  York; 
and  in  1770,  the  first  Methodist  Church  in  Phila- 
delphia was  erected.  In  1769,  Boardman  and 
Pilmore,  the  first  missionaries  sent  to  America 
by  Wesley,  arrived  in  New  York.  In  1771, 
Francis  Asbury  arrived,  and  the  next  year  he 
was  appointed  by  Mr.  Wesley  superintendent 
of  the  American  societies.  He  was  soon  super- 
seded by  Thomas  Rankin.  The  first  American 
conference  was  held  in  1773,  and  consisted  of 
ten  preachers,  all  of  Eurbpean  birth.  The  so- 
cieties then  aggregated  1,160  members.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  revolutionary  struggle  nearly 
all  the  preachers  of  English  descent,  except  As- 
bury, returned  home.  During  the  war  the  Eng- 
lish Church  in  America  was  nearly  extinguished, 
and  the  dependence  of  the  Methodists  on  the 
English  clergy  for  the  sacraments  almost  entirely 
failed  them.  Wesley  in  1780,  applied  to  the 
Bishop  of  London  to  ordain  at  least  one  presbyter 
to  administer  the  sacraments  among  the  American 
Methodists,  but  was  refused.  Therefore,  in  1784, 
Wesley,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Creighton 
and  Richard  Whatcoat,  presbyters,  ordained 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Coke,  LL.  D.,  as  superintendent 
of  the  American  Methodist  Churches,  with  the 
instruction  that  Asbury  should  be  assistant 
superintendent.  On  Coke's  arrival  a  general 
conference  of  sixty  ministers  met  in  Baltimore, 
December  24,  1784,  adopted  the  episcopal  form 
of  government,  made  the  episcopal  office  elective, 
and  held  the  superintendents  amenable  to  the 
body  of  ministers  and  preachers.  The  "  Sunday 
Service"  and  twenty-five  "Articles  of  Religion" 
were  adopted.  In  1800,  Richard  Whatcoat  was 
elected  bishop,  and  in  1808,  William  McKendree. 
In  1808,  the  plan  of  a  delegated  general  con- 
ference was  adopted.  This  body,  composed  of 
ninety  members,  held  its  first  session  in  1812. 
The  doctrines  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
are  expressed  in  the  twenty-five  "Articles  of 
Religion,"  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
twenty-third,  which  recognizes  the  civil  author- 
ity of  the  United  States,  were  prepared  by  Mr. 
Wesley  from  the  thirty-nine  articles  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

There  are  five  judicatory  bodies,  termed  re- 
spectively the  "general  conference,"  the  "judi- 
cial conference,"  the  "annual  conference,"  the 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


717 


"district  conference,"  and  the  "quarterly  con- 
ference." Prior  to  1872,  the  general  conference 
was  composed  exclusively  of  preachers.  It  sub- 
sequently consisted  of  two  laymenforeach  annual 
conference  and  one  minister  for  every  forty-five 
members.  In  1900,  the  representation  was  made 
equal.  The  general  conference  meets  quadren- 
nially, and  is  presided  over  by  the  bishops.  It 
is  the  sole  legislative  body  of  the  Church.  It 
elects  bishops,  missionary  and  educational  secre- 
taries, book  agents,  and  editors  of  its  periodicals, 
and  is  also  the  court  of  final  appeal.  The  annual 
conference  consists  of  traveling  preachers.  A 
bishop  is  the  presiding  officer,  or  in  his  absence 
the  conference  may  appoint  its  president.  Its 
powers  are  simply  administrative.  It  holds 
its  members  responsible,  passing  their  character 
under  examination  each  year.  The  district  con- 
ference is  composed  of  the  presiding  elder  of  the 
district,  pastors,  local  preachers,  exhorters,  and 
one  steward  and  Sunday  school  superintendent 
from  each  pastoral  charge. 

Mohammedanisiu,  the  name  com- 
monly given  in  Christian  countries  to  the  creed 
established  by  Mohammed.  His  followers  call 
their  creed  Islam.  Their  common  formula  of 
faith  is,  "There  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and  Moham- 
med is  his  prophet."  The  dogmatic  or  theoretical 
part  of  Mohammedanism  embraces  the  following 
points:  (1)  Belief  in  God,  who  is  without 
beginning  or  end,  the  sole  Creator  and  Lord  of 
the  universe,  having  absolute  power,  knowledge, 
glory,  and  perfection.  (2)  Belief  in  his  angels, 
who  are  impeccable  beings,  created  of  light. 
(3)  Belief  in  good  and  evil  Jinn  (genii),  who  are 
oreated  of  smokeless  fire,  and  are  subject  to 
death.  (4)  Belief  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
are  his  uncreated  word  revealed  to  the  prophets. 
Of  these  there  now  exist,  but  in  a  greatly  cor- 
rupted form,  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  and 
the  Gospels;  and  in  an  uncorrupted  and  incor- 
ruptible state  the  Koran,  which  abrogates  and 
surpasses  all  preceding  revelations.  (5)  Belief 
in  God's  prophets  and  apostles,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  whom  are  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mohammed.  Mohammed 
is  the  greatest  of  them  all,  the  last  of  the  prophets 
and  the  most  excellent  of  the  creatures  of  God. 
(6)  Belief  in  a  general  resurrection  and  final 
judgment,  and  in  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, chiefly  of  a  physical  nature.  (7)  The 
belief,  even  to  the  extent  of  fatalism,  of  God's 
absolute  foreknowledge  and  predestination  of  all 
events  both  good  and  evil.  The  practical  part 
of  Mohammedanism  inculcates  certain  observ- 
ances or  duties,  of  which  four  are  most  important. 
•-The  first  is  prayer,  including  preparatory  purifi- 
cations. Prayer  must  be  engaged  in  at  five 
stated  periods  each  day.  On  each  of  these  occa- 
sions the  Moslem  has  to  offer  up  certain  prayers 
held  to  be  ordained  by  God,  and  others  ordained 
by  his  prophet.  During  prayer  it'  is  necessary 
that  the  face  of  the  worshiper  be  turned  towards 
the  kebla,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  Mecca. 
Prayers  may  be  said  in  any  clean  place,  but  on 
Friday  they  must  be  said  in  the  mosque.  Second 
—  in  importance  to  prayer  stands  the  duty  of  giving 
*-  alms.  Next  comes  the  duty  of  fasting.  The 
Moslem  must  abstain  from  eating  and  drink- 
ing, and  from  every  indulgence  of  the  senses, 


every  day  during  the  month  of  Ramadhan, 
from  the  first  appearance  of  daybreak  until 
sunset,  unless  physically  incapacitated.  The  < 
fourth  paramount  religious  duty  of  the  Moslem 
is  the  performance  at  least  once  m  his  life,  if  pos- 
sible, of  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  after  which  he 
becomes  a  Hadji.  Circumcision  is  general ' 
among  Mohammedans,  but  is  not  absolutely 
obligatory.  The  distinctions  of  clean  and  un- 
clean meats  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  Mosaic 
code.  Wine  and  all  intoxicating  liquors  are 
strictly  forbidden.  Music,  games  of  chance,  and 
usury  are  condemned.  Images  and  pictures  of 
living  creatures  are  contrary  to  law.  Charity, 
probity  in  all  transactions,  veracity  (except  in  a 
few  cases),  and  modesty,  are  indispensable 
virtues.  After  Mohammed's  death  Abu  Bekr, 
his  father-in-law,  became  his  successor,  but  dis- 
putes immediately  arose,  a  party  holding  that 
Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  was  by  right 
entitled  to  be  his  immediate  successor.  This 
led  to  the  division  of  the  Mohammedans  into  the 
two  sects  known  as  Shiites  and  Sunnites.  The 
former,  the  believers  in  the  right  of  Ali  to  be  con- 
sidered the  first  successor,  constitute  at  present 
the  majority  of  the  Mussulmans  of  Persia  and 
India;  the  latter,  considered  as  the  orthodox 
Mohammedans,  are  dominant  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  Arabia,  Turkestan,  and  Africa.  The 
total  Mohammedan  population  of  the  world  is 
estimated  at  fully  215,000,000. 

Moon.  The  orb  which  revolves  round  the 
earth;  a  secondary  planet  or  satellite  of  the 
earth,  whose  borrowed  light  is  reflected  to  the 
earth  and  serves  to  dispel  the  darkness  of  night. 
Its  mean  distance  from  the  earth  is  about  237,000 
miles;  its  diameter  is  2,160  miles  and  its  magni- 
tude about  one-forty-ninth  of  that  of  the  earth. 
It  completes  its  revolution  round  the  earth,  in  a 
mean  or  average  period  of  twenty-seven  days, 
seven  hours,  forty-three  minutes,  eleven  and 
one-half  seconds,  which  constitutes  the  sidereal 
month.     The  satellite  of  any  planet. 

Moravians.  A  religious  sect,  called  at 
first  Bohemians,  and  constituting  a  branch  of 
the  Hussites,  who,  when  the  Calixtines  came  to 
terms  with  the  council  of  Basel,  in  1433,  refused 
to  subscribe  the  articles  of  agreement,  and  con- 
stituted themselves  into  a  distinct  body. 
Their  tenets  were  evangelical.  In  1522,  they 
made  advances  to  Luther,  who  partially  recog- 
nized them,  but  they  ultimately  adopted  Cal- 
vinistic  views  as  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Driven 
by  persecution,  they  scattered  abroad,  and  for 
a  time  their  chief  settlement  was  at  Fulnek  in 
Moravia,  whence  they  were  called  Moravian 
Brethren,  or  Moravians.  On  May  26,  1700, 
was  born  Nicolaus  Ludwig,  Count  von  Zinzen- 
dorf,  son  of  the  chamberlain  and  state  minister 
of  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of 
Poland.  Having  met  with  a  Moravian  refugee, 
who  told  him  of  the  persecutions  to  which  his 
sect  was  exposed  in  Austria,  Count  Zinzendorf 
offered  him  and  his  coreligionists  an  asylum  on 
his  estate.  The  man,  whose  name  was  David, 
accepted  the  offer,  and  in  1722,  settled  with  three 
other  men,  at  a  place  called  by  Zinzendorf 
"Herrnhut"  (the  Lord's  guard).  Under  his 
fostering  care,  the  sect  greatly  increased  in 
strength.     Till  his  death,  on  May  9,   1760,  he 


718 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


traveled,  largely  spreading  their  views.  Though 
they  have  never  been  numerous,  yet  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  they  acquired 
great  reputation  from  having  a  larger  proportion 
of  their  membership  engaged  in  foreign  missions 
than  any  Christian  denomination  since  apostolic 
times.  Statistics  of  the  denomination  in  the 
United  States  show  about  129  ministers,  119 
churches,  and  17,200  members. 

Mormons,  a  sect  founded  in  1830,  by 
Joseph  Smith,  a  native  of  the  United  States. 
The  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  the  sect  are 
—  the  belief  in  a  continual  divine  revelation 
through  the  inspired  medium  of  the  prophet  at 
the  head  of  their  Church,  the  practice  of  polyg- 
amy, and  a  complete  hierarchical  organization. 
The  supreme  power,  spiritual  and  temporal,  rests 
with  the  president  or  prophet  (elected  by  the 
whole  body  of  the  Church),  who  alone  works 
miracles  and  receives  revelations.  The  Mor- 
mons accept  both  the  Bible  and  the  Book  of 
Mormon  as  divine  revelations,  but  hold  them 
equally  subject  to  the  explanation  and  correction 
of  the  prophet.  The  latter  mentioned  book  (in 
large  part  a  kind  of  historical  romance  written 
by  one  Solomon  Spaulding,  in  1812),  pretends  to 
be  a  history  of  America  from  the  first  settlement 
of  the  continent  after  the  destruction  of  the 
tower  of  Babel  up  to  the  end  of  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury of  our  era,  at  which  time  flourished  the 
legendary  prophet  Mormon,  its  reputed  author. 
It  was  said  to  have  been  written  on  gold  plates,  and 
concealed  until  its  hiding  place  was  revealed  to 
Smith  by  an  angel.  The  name  given  to  it  was 
evidently  owing  to  the  important  part .  which 
Spaulding  had  assigned  to  Mormon  and  his  son 
Moroni  in  his  novel;  but  Smith  and  his  coadju- 
tors, instead  of  confining  themselves  to  the 
original  manuscript,  had  clumsily  engrafted  upon 
it  a  number  of  maxims,  prophecies,  etc. ,  evident- 
ly garbled  from  the  sacred  volume,  and  interpo- 
lated in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  anachron- 
isms and  contradictions.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Mormons  is  a  mixture  of  materialism  and 
millenarianism,  and  their  most  distinctive  fea- 
ture, polygamy,  which,  though  originally  con- 
demned in  the  Book  of  Mormon,  was  introduced 
under  a  theory  of  "  spiritual  wives,"  and  a  mys- 
terious system  of  unrestricted  marriage  called 
"sealing.  The  Mormons  first  appeared  at 
Manchester,  New  York,  whence  they  were  com- 
pelled by  the  persevering  hostility  of  their 
neighbors  to  flee,  first  to  Kirtland  in  Ohio  (1831), 
then  to  Nauvoo,  the  "City  of  Beauty,"  in  Illinois 
(1838),  and  finally  to  the  Salt  Lake  in  Utah 
(1848).  In  1844,  the  founder,  Joseph  Smith, 
was  shot  by  a  mob  in  Carthage  prison,  where  his 
lawless  behavior  had  brought  nim.  The  advance 
made  by  Mormonism  seems  to  have  been  due  far 
more  to  the  abilities  of  Brigham  Young,  the 
successor  of  Smith,  than  to  the  founder  himself, 
who  was  little  better  than  a  dissipated  and 
immoral  scamp.  Under  Young's  direction  large 
tracts  of  land  at  Salt  Lake  were  brought  under 
cultivation,  an  emigration  fund  was  established, 
and  a  skillful  system  of  propagandism  set  on  foot, 
by  which  large  numbers  of  converts  were  brought 
from  Europe,  especially  from  Great  Britain. 
A  State  was  organized  under  the  name  of  Deseret. 


Congress  refused  to  recognize  it,  but  erected 
Utah  into  a  Territory,  and  Brigham  Young  was 
appointed  governor  of  it.  He  was  soon  removed 
by  the  United  States  authorities,  but  after  a 
time  the  Mormons  were  left  pretty  much  to 
themselves.  In  1870,  Congress  passed  a  bill  to 
compel  them  to  renounce  polygamy,  or  quit  the 
United  Statee.  A  prosecution  was  instituted 
against  Brigham  Young,  who  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment.  In  1877,  Young  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  John  Taylor,  an  English- 
man, during  whose  presidency  the  United  States 
Government  has  passed  several  bills  for  the 
abolition  of  polygamy.  The  Reorganized 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints, 
sometimes  called  non-polygamous  Mormons, 
claim  to  be  true  to  the  doctrines  proclaimed  by 
Joseph  Smith,  insisting  that  Brigham  Young's 
followers  were  led  by  him  from  the  truth,  and 
deny  that  Young's  revelation  in  1852  concerning 
polygamy  was  genuine. 

Mosque  (mosk),  a  Mohammedan  temple  or 
house  of  worship.  The  first  mosque,  square 
and  capacious,  erected  by  Mohammed  at  Me- 
dina, partly  with  his  own  hands,  became  in  its 
plan  the  model  for  all  others,  which  was,  how- 
ever, subsequently  modified  by  the  addition  of 
the  cupola  and  minaret.  This  mosque,  that  at 
Mecca,  and  the  mosque  of  Omar  at  Jerusalem 
are  considered  peculiarly  holy  by  the  Moslems. 
The  jumma  musfid  or  great  mosque  at  Delhi, 
built  by  Shah  Jehan  in  1631-37,  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  noblest  building  ever  erected  for 
Mohammedan  worship.  The  chief  officer  of  a 
mosque  is  the  Nazir,  under  whom  are  two 
Imdms,  a  kind  of  religious  official,  in  no  way  to 
be  compared  with  what  we  understand  by  a 
clergyman  of  a  creed,  but  who  performs  a  cer- 
tain number  of  religious  rites  as  long  as  the 
Nazir  allows  him  to  do  so,  and  who,  being  very 
badly  remunerated,  generally  has  to  find  some 
other  occupation  besides.  With  many  of  the 
larger  mosques  there  are  schools,  academies,  and 
hospitals  connected,  and  public  kitchens,  in 
which  food  is  prepared  for  the  poor. 

Music.  The  origin  of  music  is  involved  in 
obscurity,  and  it  has  been  said  that  speech  and 
song  are  coeval.  From  several  passages  in  the 
Old  Testament  it  is  evident  that  music  was 
made  use  of  at  an  early  period,  but  probably 
without  any  regard  to  rhythm.  The  Greeks, 
who  inherited  the  art  from  the  Egyptians,  were 
the  first  to  reduce  music  to  a  system ;  but  it  was 
not  until  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Western  Europe  that  marked  signs  of  improve- 
ment took  place,  and  not  until  the  Fifteenth 
Century  that  any  rapid  progress  was  made. 
The  great  distinction  between  the  music  of  the 
ancients  and  that  of  modern  times  lies  in  the 
peculiarity  of  the  scales  in  which  it  is  written. 
The  scales  or  modes  of  the  ancients  varied  from 
four  to  fourteen,  and  were  distinguished  by  the 
position  of  the  semitones,  as  in  our  modern 
major  and  minor  scales.  Many  of  our  national 
melodies  are  written  in  these  ancient  scales, 
their  peculiar  character  being  derived  from  the 
position  of  the  semitones.  Melody  was  probably 
the  sole  characteristic  of  the  music  of  the  an- 
cients, and  it  was  not  until  the  Seventh  Century 
that  composition  in  harmony,  either  vocal  or 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


719 


instrumental,  came  into  use.  In  the  Eleventh 
Century  we  also  find  an  innovation  by  the  intro- 
duction of  notes  of  unequal  length,  giving  variety 
to  melody;  and  the  question  of  time  and  rhythm 
came  into  consideration.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  art  of  composition  was  first  cultivated  in 
Flanders.  The  earliest  example  is  of  the  Tenth 
Century,  and  consists  simply  of  a  succession, 
of  fourths  and  fifths.  Harmony  probably  be- 
longs exclusively  to  the  music  of  the  most  civil- 
ized nations  of  modern  times.  In  the  Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth  Centuries  we  have  Palestrina 
and  his  contemporaries,  Boyd,  Gibbons,  etc., 
who  enriched  the  art  by  their  compositions, 
simplifying  the  harmonies,  and  giving  more 
flowing  and  natural  melodies.  In  the  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries  we  have  Handel, 
Bach,  Haydn,  Mozart;  and  in  the  Eighteenth 
and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  perfection  of  the  art 
has  almost  been  attained  in  Beethoven,  Spohr, 
Weber,  Cherubini,  Mendelssohn,  Chopin,  and 
Schumann,  etc.  The  science  of  music  is  treated 
in  works  on  acoustics,  and  has  reference  to  the 
nature  of  musical  sounds  and  their  relation  to 
each  other.  Under  this  branch  of  the  science 
are  classed  musical  sounds,  the  vibrations  re- 
quired to  produce  them,  pitch,  harmonies,  etc. 
The  theory  of  music  has  reference  to  the  symbols 
and  the  language  in  which  music  is  expressed, 
and  to  the  rules  generally  laid  down  in  order  to 
produce  correct  and  effective  musical  composi- 
tion. The  symbols  used  in  music  are  scales, 
clefs,  forms  of  notes  and  equivalent  rests,  tune 
divisions,  and  others,  respecting  which  informa- 
tion may  be  obtained  from  any  catechism  of 
music.  These  symbols  and  signs  were  not  com- 
pleted in  their  present  form  until  very  recent 
times.  Having  obtained  the  necessary  materials, 
the  laws  of  composition  may  be  studied,  the 
simplest  form  being  that  of  melody,  produced  by 
a  single  voice  or  instrument.  The  higher  branches 
of  the  art  are  harmony,  composition,  modula- 
tion, and  counterpoint,  the  rules  for  which  are 
laid  down  in  text-books  on  the  subject. 

Ozone.  A  substance  discovered  by  Schon- 
bein,  occasionally  existing  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  having  a  peculiar  odor  resembling  that  pro- 
duced when  repeated  electric  sparks,  or  electric 
discharges,  from  a  point  are  transmitted  through 
the  air.  It  is  supposed  to  be  an  allotropic  form 
of  oxygen.  It  is  also  formed  in  certain  cases  of 
the  slow  action  of  air  upon  phosphorus.  The 
ozone  existing  from  time  to  time  in  the  atmos- 
phere has  been  supposed  to  have  an  influence  on 
the  health  of  the  community,  and  observations 
with  regard  to  it  are  frequently  made  by  means 
of  an  apparatus  called  an  ozonometer,  the  es- 
sential parts  of  which  consist  of  strips  of  paper 
steeped  in  a  mixture  of  starch  and  iodide  of 
potassium.  Ozone  turns  the  paper  brown,  the 
tint  varymg  with  the  quantity  of  ozone. 

Paganism.  The  religion  of  the  heathen 
world,  in  which  the  deity  is  represented  under 
various  forms,  and  by  all  kinds  of  images  or 
idols;  it  is  therefore  called  idolatry  or  image- 
worship.  The  theology  of  the  pagans  was  of 
three  sorts  —  fabulous,  natural,  and  political  or 
civil.  The  fabulous  treats  of  the  genealogy, 
worship,  and  attributes  of  their  deities,who  were 
for  the  most  part  the  offspring  of  the  imagination 


of  poets,  painters,  and  statuaries.  The  natural 
theology  of  the  pagans  was  studied  and  taught 
by  the  philosophers,   who  rejected  the  multi- 

Elicity  of  gods  introduced  by  the  poets,  and 
rought  their  ideas  to  a  more  rational  form. 
The  'political  or  civil  theology  of  the  pagans  was 
instituted  by  legislators,  statesmen,  and  poli- 
ticians, to  keep  the  people  in  subjection  to  the 
civil  power.  This  chiefly  related  to  their  tem- 
ples, altars,  sacrifices,  and  rites  of  worship. 
The  word  pagan  was  originally  applied  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  rural  districts,  who,  on  the 
first  propagation  of  the  Christian  religion,  ad- 
hered to  the  worship  of  false  gods,  or  who  refused 
to  receive  Christianity  after  it  had  been  adopted 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  this  name  was  given  to  all  who  were  not 
Jews  or  Christians,  they  only  being  considered 
to  belong  to  a  true  religion ;  but  in  more  modern 
times,  Mohammedans,  who  worship  the  one  su- 
preme God  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  are  not 
called  pagans. 

Pagouda.  A  Hindoo  place  of  worship,  con- 
taining an  idol.  It  consists  of  three  portions: 
an  apartment  surmounted  by  a  dome,  resting  on 
columns,  and  accessible  to  all;  a  chamber  into 
which  only  Brahmins  are  allowed  to  enter;  and, 
lastly,  a  cell  containing  the  statue  of  the  deity, 
closed  by  massive  gates.  The  most  remarkable 
pagodas  are  those  of  Benares,  Siam,  Pegu,  and 
particularly  that  of  Juggernaut,  in  Orissa. 

Parsees.  The  name  given  in  India  to  the 
fire-worshiping  followers  of  Zoroaster,  chiefly 
settled  in  Bombay,  Surat,  etc.,  where  they  are 
amongst  the  most  successful  merchants.  They 
have  a  great  reverence  for  fire  in  all  its  forms, 
since  they  find  in  it  the  symbol  of  the  good  deity 
Ahurfi-Mazda  (Ormuzd).  To  this  divinity  they 
have  dedicated  "fire-temples,"  on  whose  altar 
the  sarced  flame  is  kept  continually  burning. 
Benevolence  is  the  chief  practical  precept  of 
their  religion,  and  their  practice  of  this  finds  its 
evidence  in  their  many  charitable  institutions. 
One  of  the  most  curious  of  their  customs  is  in 
the  disposal  of  their  dead.  For  this  they  erect 
what  are  called  "towers  of  silence,"  built  of 
stone,  about  twenty-five  feet  high,  and  with  a 
small  door  to  admit  the  corpse.  Inside  is  a  large 
pit  with  a  raised  circular  platform  round  it  on 
which  the  body  is  exposed  that  it  may  be  de- 
nuded of  flesh  by  vultures,  after  which  the  bones 
drop  through  an  iron  grating  into  the  pit  below. 

Perfectionists,  or  Bible  Commun- 
ists, popularly  named  Free-lovers,  an  Ameri- 
can sect  founded  in  1838  by  John  Humphrey 
Noyes.  Noyes  was  employed  as  a  law-clerk  at 
Putney,  in  Vermont,  when  the  fierce  religious 
revival  of  1830  spread  over  the  New  England 
States,  but  he  abandoned  law  for  religion,  and 
took  upon  himself  the  restoration  of  the  primi- 
tive Christian  ideal.  His  distinctive  doctrines 
were:  (1)  reconciliation  to  God  and  salvation 
from  sin — ^  purely  matters  of  faith;  (2)  recog- 
nition of  the  brotherhood  and  the  equality  of 
man  and  woman;  and  (3)  community  of  labor 
and  its  fruits.  In  1838  he  succeeded  in  organiz- 
ing a  society  giving  expression  to  his  views  at 
Putney.  Besides  himself  this  included  his  wife, 
his  mother,  and  his  sister  and  brother,  who  were 
joined  by  several  other  families.     All  property 


720 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


was  thrown  into  a  common  stock;  all  debts,  all 
duties  fell  upon  the  society,  which  ate  in  one 
room,  slept  under  one  roof,  and  lived  upon  one 
common  store.  All  prayer  and  religious  service 
were  stopped,  Sunday  was  unobserved,  family 
ties  were  broken  up,  and  a  complex  marriage 
system  was  established,  by  which  each  man  be- 
came the  husband  and  brother  of  every  woman ; 
every  woman  the  wife  and  sister  of  every  man. 
They  held  that  true  believers  are  free  to  follow 
the  indications  of  the  Holy  Spirit. in  all  things, 
nothing  being  §ood  or  bad  in  itself.     Conse- 

2uently,  they  rejected  all  laws  and  rules  of  con- 
uct,  except  those  which  each  believer  formu- 
lated for  himself;  but  to  prevent  the  inconveni- 
ences arising  from  an  ignorant  exercise  of  indi- 
vidual liberty,  they  introduced  the  "  principle  of 
sympathy,"  or  free  public  opinion,  which,  in  fact, 
constituted  the  supreme  government  of  the  sect. 
Presbyterian  Church.  A  name  ap- 
plied to  those  Christian  denominations  which 
hold  that  there  is  no  order  in  the  Church  as  es- 
tablished by  Christ  and  His  apostles  "superior 
to  that  of  presbyters,  and  who  vest  Church  gov- 
ernment in  presbyteries,  constituted  of  ministers 
and  elders,  possessed  of  equal  powers,  thus  with- 
out superiority  among  themselves.  Presby- 
terianism  does  not  recognize  the  term  bishop 
as  the  superior  of  the  presbytery,  because  these 
two  names  or  titles  in  the  New  Testament,  are 
used  interchangeably  of  the  same  persons. 
Presbyterians  hold  that  the  authoritv  of  their 
ministers  is  derived  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  which 
is  symbolized  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of 
presbytery  collectively.  They  affirm  that  all 
Christian  ministers,  bemg  ambassadors  of  Christ, 
are  equal  by  their  commission.  The  congrega- 
tion elects  its  own  minister  and  elders,  and  also 
its  deacons  and  trustees  —  the  former  of  the 
last  two,  takes  charge  of  the  charities  of  the 
Church,  and  the  latter  of  its  temporal  or  financial 
affairs.  The  session,  consisting  of  the  minister 
and  elders,  has  the  spiritual  oversight  of  the 
church  members.  The  Presbytery  is  consti- 
tuted by  ministers  and  elders  in  equal  numbers. 
A  congregation  for  the  time  without  a  pastor 
can  be  represented  in  the  presbytery  by  an 
elder.  An  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  presby- 
tery from  congregations  or  sessions.  A  synod 
consists  of  a  number  of  presbyteries  within  de- 
fined boundaries.  The  general  assembly  is  the 
highest  court  of  the  Church,  and  consists  of 
representatives  from  all  the  presbyteries,  each 
mmister  is  accompanied  by  an  elder  from  the 
same  presbytery.  The  first  Presbyterian  Church 
in  modern  times  was?  founded  in  Geneva  by  John 
Calvin,  about  1541;  and  the  constitution  and 
doctrines  were  thence  introduced,  with  some 
modifications,  into  Scotland  by  John  Knox, 
about  1560,  though  the  Presbyterian  was  not 
legally  recognized  as  the  national  form  of  Church 
government  till  1592.  The  first  Presbyterians 
in  America  were  emigrants  from  the  British 
Isles,  and  the  first  Presbyterian  Church  in  Amer- 
ica was  founded  in  the  colony  of  Massachusetts 
in  1629.  It  was  the  outgrowth  of  a  Presby- 
terian congregation  that  landed  there  in  1625. 
This  movement  was  projected  by  Presbyterian 
leaders  in  the  south  of  England  and  also  in  Lon- 
don.    It  was  designed  to  be  a  colonization  on 


a  higher  principle  than  the  desire  for  gain.  The 
Church  now  has  five  theological  semmaries.  A 
revision  of  the  confession  was  commenced  in 
1891,  and  is  now  in  progress.  It  is  also  proposed 
to  formulate  a  creed  which  shall  express  the 
doctrine  of  all  the  branches  of  the  Church.  There 
are  several  branches  which  virtually  hold  the 
polity  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  each  having  its  own  theological  semi- 
naries and  colleges,  such  as  the  Presbyterian 
churches  northern  and  southern,  the  Cumber- 
land, Reformed,  the  United  Presbyterian,  the 
Reformed  Dutch  and  German,  etc.  The  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Canada  is  strong  and  pros- 
perous, with  six  theological  colleges.  Recent 
statistics  show  the  total  number  of  Presbyterians 
in  Canada  to  be  about  850,000.  In  the  Aus- 
tralasia colonies,  Presbyterianism  is  also  vigorous. 
In  the  Cape  Colony  and  minor  colonies,  Presby- 
terianism IS  also  represented. 

Reformed  Church.  In  general,  com- 
prehends those  Churches  which  were  formed  at 
the  Reformation;  but  the  term  is  specifically 
applied  to  those  Protestant  Churches  which  did 
not  embrace  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of 
Luther.  The  title  was  first  assumed  by  the 
French  Protestants,  but  afterwards  became  the 
common  denomination  of  all  the  Calvinistic 
churches  on  the  European  continent.  The  Re- 
formed Church  of  America  is  a  body  known  up 
to  1867  as  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch 
Church,  being  founded  by  settlers  from  Holland 
and  holding  Calvinistic  doctrines.  The  first 
minister  was  the  Rev.  George  Michael  Weiss, 
who  emigrated  with  about  400  people  of  the 
Palatinate  in  1727.  These  and  most  of  the 
immigrants  who  followed  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, east  of  the  Susquehanna.  In  1746,  the 
Rev.  Michael  Schlatter  was  commissioned  by 
the  synods  of  North  and  South  Holland  to  visit 
their  German  missions  in  America,  and  to  regu- 
late their  ecclesiastical  relations.  He  assembled 
in  Philadelphia  the  first  synod  (or,  as  it  was 
then  called,  coetus)  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church,  September  29,  1747.  The  German  Re- 
formed coetus  continued  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Church  of  Holland  till  1793,  when  an 
independent  synod  was  formed.  It  increased 
rapidly  in  membership  and  congregations.  The 
spread  of  the  English  language  led  to  a  closer 
connection  with  other  Protestant  Churches  of  the 
United  States;  and  many  ministers  and  con- 
gregations showed  a  tendency  to  drop  certain 
customs  of  the  Church,  as  confirmation  and 
church  holidays.  The  first  triennial  general 
synod,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church, 
met  in  Pittsburgh  in  November,  1863.  The 
general  synod  of  1869,  resolved  to  drop  the  word 
German  from  the  name  of  the  Church.  The 
Heidelberg  catechism  is  the  only  standard  of 
doctrine.  As  this  book  was  intended  to  harmo- 
nize the  Melanchthonian  and  Calvinistic  ten- 
dencies, it  has  been  construed  by  theologians 
of  these  two  schools  in  different  ways.  In  the 
German  Reformed  Church  the  Melanchthonian 
element  has  been  predominant,  so  that  many 
representative  theologians  have  incurred  the 
charge  of  Romanizing  tendencies.  The  worship 
of  the  Church  is  liturgical;  its  government  is 
presbyterian. 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


721 


RELIGIOUS   STATISTICS 

DIVISIONS   OF   EUROPE 


Countries 


Russia 

Germany,  .... 
Austria-Hungary, 

France 

United  Kingdom, 

Italy 

Spain, 

Belgium,  .... 
Rumania,  .... 
Ottoman  Empire, 
Netherlands,  .  . 
Portugal,  .... 
Sweden,  .  .  .  . 
Switzerland, .  .  . 
Denmark,  .... 

Greece 

Servia,  

Bulgaria 

Norway,  .... 
Rumelia,  .... 
Montenegro, .  .  . 
Luxembourg,    .    . 

Malta 

Gibraltar,  .... 


Total  Followers 160,165,000 


Catholic 

Protestant 

Orthodox 

Jews 

Moham- 

Unclas- 

Church 

Churches 

Churches 

medans 

sified 

9,600,000 

3.400,000 

73,310,000 

3,400,000 

3.000,000 

290,000 

17,100,000 

29,478,000 

590,000 

32.000 

31,100,000 

3,900,000 

3,100,000 

1,700,000 

100.000 

35,387,000 

580,000 

49,000 

84.000 

6,500,000 

30,100,000 

100,000 

500.000 

29,850,000 

62,000 

38,000 

50.000 

16,850,000 

29,000 

5,000 

5,880,000 

15,000 

3,000 

2,000 

100,000 

15,000 

4,800,000 

400,000 

30,000 

55,000 

320,000 

11,000 

1,700,000 

60,000 

2,708,000 

70,000 

1,545,000 

2,756,000 

83,000 

16,000 

4,300,000 

1,000 

1,000 

4,698,000 

2,000 

1,000 

1,172,000 

1,710,000 

8.000 

10,000 

3,000 

2,089,000 

4.000 

4,000 

10,000 

10,000 

1,930,000 

5,000 

45,000 

6,000 

1,000 

1,973,000 

5,000 

15,000 

29,000 

1.393,000 

571.000 

1,000 

1,958,000 

1,000 

30,000 

•700,660 

'4.660 

240.000 

2,000 

5,000 

290.000 

1,000 

200,000 

160,000 

16,000 

160,165,000 

80,812,000 

89,196,000 

6.456.000 

6,609,000 

1,219,000 

The  distinction  between  followers  and  actual  communicants  should  be  observed. 


DENOMINATIONS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES* 


Denominations 


Ministers 

Churches 

Communicants 

1,565 

2,499 

95,437 

38,010 

54,566 

5,140,770 

173 

98 

4,239 

314 

6,661 



47 
9 

15,883 

12,762 

12,651.944 

95 

10 

1.491 

63 

12,77 

1,348 

1,340 

101,597 

104 

110 

40,000 

1,326 

1,000 

65,000 

201 

268 

17,500 

499 

590 

41,475 

128 

139 

8,084 

22 

3,084 

5,959 

5,943 

694,923 

7,153 

11.110 

1,264,758 

3,241 

1,100 

121,194 

1,508 

2,730 

179,339 

1,466 

1,075 

118,752 

4 

4 

340 

100 

155 

20,000 

964 

1.227 

228,420 

301 

570 

143,000 

1,652 

1,328 

396,354 

8,040 

13,169 

2,000,000 

345 

351 

46,000 

1,240 

701 

61,690 

41,483 

60,352 

6,551,891 

130 

119 

17,200 

12,723 

16,478 

1,821,504 

5,258 

7,567 

846,492 

2,044 

2,563 

422,359 

3,773 

983 

28,500 

5 

8 

731 

17 

20 

913 

5 

1,700 

748- 

295.000 

71 

2.607 

2,247 

4,351 

286,238 

544 

464 

71,000 

720 

977 

55,831 

54 

156 

14,126 

Adventists 

Baptists 

Brethren  (River), 

Brethren  (Plymouth) 

Buddhist  (Chinese) 

Buddhist  and  Shintoist  (Japanese) 

Catholics 

Catholic  Apostolic. 

Christadelphians. 

Christian  Connection 

Christian  Catholic  (Dowie) 

Christian  Scientists. 

Christian  Union. 

Church  of  God  (Winebrennerian), 

Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

Communistic  Societies 

Congregationalists. 

Disciples  of  Christ. 

Dunkards, 

Evangelical  Bodies, 

Friends, 

Friends  of  the  Temple ' 

German  Evangelical  Protestant, 

German  Evangelical  Synod, 

Jews, 

Latter-Day  Saints, 

Lutherans,     .    .    .    .   • 

Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  ( Waldenstromians) , 

Mennonites. 

Methodists. 

Moravians 

Presbyterians. 

Protestant  Episcopal, 

Reformed, 

Salvation  Army, 

Schwenkfeldians. 

Social  Brethren 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture, 

Spiritualists " 

Theosophical  Society 

United  Brethren. 

Unitarians, 

Universalists 

Independent  Congregations, .    . 


♦These  statistics  necessarily  change  with  the  growth  of  the  denominations.     Their  value  is  chiefly  comparative. 


722 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF    FACTS 


Respiration.  A  function  proper  to  ani- 
mals, the  object  of  which  is,  to  place  the  ma- 
terials of  the  blood  —  the  mixture  of  the  venous 
blood  with  lymph  and  chyle  —  in  contact  with 
atmospheric  air,  in  order  that  it  may  acquire 
the  vivifying  qualities  which  belong  to  arterial 
blood.  The  organs  for  executing  this  function 
are,  in  the  mammalia,  birds,  and  reptiles,  the 
lungs.  In  man,  the  respiration  consists  of  me- 
chanical and  chemical  phenomena.  The  me- 
chanical are  inspiration  and  expiration.  The 
evident  chemical  phenomena  consist  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  certain  quantity  of  carbonic  acid, 
the  absorption  of  a  part  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
and  the  disengagement  of  a  quantity  of  water 
in  the  state  of  vapor.  In  the  healthy  condition 
the  respiration  is  easy,  gentle,  regular,  and  with- 
out noise.  In  man,  the  respirations  are  gen- 
erally about  thirty-five  per  minute  in  the  first 
year  of  life;  twenty-five  during  the  second; 
twenty  at  puberty;  and  eighteen  in  the  adult 
age  —  during  which  time  he  inhales  about  eigh- 
teen pints  of  air.  The  air  drawn  in  and  expelled 
by  the  lungs  in  respiration  is  called  breath. 

Salvation  Army,  The.  The  Salvation 
Army  is  a  missionary  organization  set  on  foot 
in  England  by  William  Booth,  who  was  called 
the  "General "  of  the  army.  The  plan  of  opera- 
tion is  for  a  company  to  march  about  cities, 
towns,  and  villages,  singing  popular  sacred 
songs  and  speaking  between  whiles  for  about 
five  minutes.  The  army  has  also  a  large  num- 
ber of  religious  periodicals  and  small  books. 
Mr.  Booth  was  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion,  which  he  left  in  1861,  to  begin  "re- 
vivalistic  services"  in  a  tent  in  Whitechapel. 
In  1865,  his  little  band  of  followers  called  them-; 
selves  "The  East  London.  Christian  Revival 
Society,"  afterwards  changed  to  "The  Christian 
Mission."  In  1869,  the  Mission  made  expedi- 
tions to  provincial  towns.  Lastly  in  1873,  the 
name  was  changed  to  "The  Salvation  Army." 
Its  literary  organ,  called  "The  Christian  Mis- 
sion," first  appeared  monthly  in  1874.  In  1879, 
it  was  called  "The  Salvationist,"  and  in  the 
same  year  its  title  was  changed  into  "The  War 
Cry."  Its  flag  now  flies  in  fifty-one  countries 
or  colonies,  where,  under  the  charge  of  20,000 
officers  and  employees,  with  46,000  local  officers, 
and  about  50,000  musicians.  The  army  has 
sixty-three  weekly  newspapers  and  magazines, 
with  a  total  weekly  circulation  of  1,300,000, 
and  published  in  twenty-four  languages. 

Sciences.  The  name  for  such  portions  of 
human  knowledge  as  have  been  more  or  less 
generalized,  systematized,  and  verified.  The 
term  "Philosophy"  is  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
not  altogether,  coincident  with  science,  being 
applied  to  the  early  efforts  and  strainings  after 
the  explanation  of  the  universe,  that  preceded 
exact  science  in  any  department.  Both  names 
denote  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  as  knowledge, 
or  for  intellectual  satisfaction,  in  contrast'  to 
the  search  that  is  limited  to  immediate  practice 
or  utility. 

The  sciences  have  been  variously  classified, 
and  the  principles  of  their  classification  have 
been  a  subject  of  discussion.  We  shall  here  de- 
scribe the  mode  of  classifying  them  in  accord- 
ance with  present  usage,  and  with  the  principles 


most  generally  agreed  upon.  It  is  convenient 
to  prepare  the  way  by  distinguishing  between 
Theoretical  Sciences,  which  are  the  sciences 
properly  so  called,  and  Practical  Science.  A 
Theoretical  Science  embraces  a  distinct  depart- 
ment of  nature,  and  is  so  arranged  as  to  give, 
in  the  most  compact  form,  the  entire  body  of 
ascertained  (scientific)  knowledge  in  that  de- 
partment: such  are  mathematics,  chemistry, 
physiology,  zoology.  A  practical  science  is  the 
application  of  scientifically  obtained  facts  and 
laws  in  one  or  more  departments  to  some  prac- 
tical end,  which  end  rules  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  the  whole;  as,  for  example, 
navigation,  engineering,  mining,  medicine.  Nav- 
igation selects  from  the  theoretical  sciences  — 
mathematics,  astronomy,  optics,  meteorology, 
etc. —  whatever  is  available  for  guiding  a  ship 
on  the  seas,  and  converts  the  knowledge  into 
rules  or  prescriptions  for  that  purpose.  The 
arts  that  can  thus  draw  upon  the  exact  sciences 
are  by  so  much  the  more  certain  in  their  opera- 
tions;   they  are  the  scientific  arts. 

Another  distinction  must  be  made  before 
laying  down  the  systematic  order  of  the  theo- 
retical sciences.  A  certain  number  of  these 
sciences  have  for  their  subject  matter  each  a 
separate  department  of  natural  forces  or  powers ; 
thus,  biology  deals  with  the  department  of 
organized  beings,  psychology  with  mind.  Others 
deal  with  the  application  of  powers  elsewhere 
recognized  to  some  region  of  concrete  facts  or 
phenomena.  Thus,  geology  does  not  discuss 
any  natural  powers  not  found  in  other  sciences, 
but  seeks  to  apply  the  laws  of  physics,  chem- 
istry, ^nd  biology  to  account  for  the  appear- 
ances of  the  earth's  crust.  The  sciences  that 
embrace  peculiar  natural  powers  are  called 
abstract,  general,  or  fundamental  sciences; 
those  that  apply  the  powers  treated  of  under 
these  to  regions  of  concrete  phenomena  are 
called  concrete,  derived,  or  applied  sciences. 

The  abstract  or  theoretical  sciences,  as  most 
commonly  recognized,  are  these  six:  mathe- 
matics, physics,  chemistry,  biology  (vegetable 
and  animal  physiology),  psychology  (mind), 
sociology  (society).  The  concrete  sciences  are 
the  natural  history  group  —  meteorology,  min- 
eralogy, botany,  zoology,  geology,  also  geog- 
raphy, and  we  might,  with  some  explanations, 
add  astronomy.  The  abstract  or  fundamental 
sciences  have  a  definite  sequence,  determining 
the  proper  order  for  the  learner,  and  also  the 
order  of  their  arriving  at  perfection.  We  pro- 
ceed from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the 
independent  to  the  dependent.  Thus,  mathe- 
matics relates  to  quantity,  the  most  pervading, 
simple,  fundamental,  and  independent  attribute 
of  the  universe.  The  consideration  of  this  at- 
tribute has  therefore  a  natural  priority;  its 
laws  underlie  all  other  laws.  As  mathematics 
is  at  present  understood,  it  has  an  abstract  de- 
partment, which  treats  of  quantity  in  its  most 
f general  form,  or  as  applied  to  nothing  in  particu- 
ar  —  including  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  the 
calculus  —  and  a  concrete  or  applied  depart- 
ment —  viz :  geometry,  or  quantity  in  space  or 
extension.  It  has  been  suggested  that  general 
mechanics,  or  the  estimation  of  quantity  in 
force,  should  be  considered  a  second  concrete 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION* 


723 


department.  But  usually  mechanics  ranks 
with  the  next  fundamental  science  in  order, 
called  physics. 

Natural  philosophy  has  long  been  considered 
the  name  of  a  distinct  department  of  science: 
the  designation  physics  is  now  more  common. 
This  science  succeeds  mathematics,  and  precedes 
chemistry.  Of  all  the  fundamental  sciences,  it 
has  the  least  unity,  being  an  aggregate  of  sub- 
jects with  more  or  less  connection.  Mechanics, 
hydrostatics,  hydraulics,  pneumatics,  acoustics, 
astronomy,  are  all  closely  related;  they  repre- 
sent the  phenomenon  of  movement  in  mass,  as 
applied  to  all  the  three  states  of  matter,  solid, 
liquid,  and  gas.  The  remaining  subjects  — 
heat,  light,  and  electricity  —  together  with  the 
attractions  and  repulsions  that  determine  cohe- 
sion, crystallization,  etc.,  are  described  as  relat- 
ing to  movement  in  the  molecule.  We  have  thus 
molar  physics  and  molcular  physics;  and  the 
tendency  is  now  to  treat  the  two  separately. 

Chemistry  lies  between  physics  and  biology, 
reposing  upon  the  one  and  supporting  the  other. 
It  assumes  all  the  physical  laws,  both  molar  and 
molecular,  as  known,  and  proceeds  to  consider 
the  special  phenomenon  of  the  composition  and 
decomposition  of  bodies  considered  as  taking 
place  in  definite  proportions,  and  leading  to 
change  of  properties.  The  composition  of  a  cup 
of  tea  from  water,  sugar,  milk,  and  infusion  of 
tea-leaf,  is  physical;  the  composition  of  marble 
from  oxygen,  carbon,  and  calcium,  is  chemical. 
In  the  one  case,  the  properties  of  the  separate 
ingredients  are  still  discernible;  in  the  other, 
these  are  merged  and  untraceable. 

Biology,  or  the  science  of  living  organization, 
involves  mathematical,  physical,  and  chemical 
laws,  in  company  with  certain  others,  called 
vital.  It  is  most  usually  expounded  under  the 
designations  vegetable  and  animal  physiology; 
and  in  the  concrete  departments,  botany,  zool- 
ogy, and  anthropology. 

Psychology,  or  the  science  of  mind,  makes  a 
wide  transition,  the  widest  that  can  be  taken 
within  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  from  the 
so-called  material  world,  to  the  world  of  feeling, 
volition,  and  intellect.  The  main  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  mind  is  self-consciousness;  and  it 
is  only  from  the  intimate  connection  of  mind 
with  a  living  organism,  that  the  subject  is  a 
proper  sequel  to  biology.  Not  until  lately  has 
any  insight  into  mind  been  obtained  through 
the  consideration  of  the  physical  organ  —  the 
brain;  so  that  psychology  might  have  been 
placed  anywhere,  but  for  another  consideration 
that  helps  to  determine  the  order  of  the  sciences 
—  viz :  that  the  discipline,  or  method,  of  the 
simpler  sciences  is  a  preparation  for  the  more 
abstruse.  Mathematics  and  physics  especially 
are  an  admirable  training  of  the  intellect  for  the 
studies  connected  with  mind  proper,  although 
the  laws  of  physics  may  not  of  themselves 
throw  any  direct  light  on  the  successions  of 
thought  and  feeling. 

These  five  sciences  embrace  all  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  world,  and,  if  perfect,  their 
application  would  suffice  to  account  for  the 
whole  course  of  nature.  To  a  person  fully  versed 
in  them,  no  phenomenon  of  the  explained  uni- 
verse can  appear  strange;    the  concrete  sciences 


and  the  practical  sciences  contain  nothing 
fundamentally  new.  They  constitute  a  liberal 
scientific  education.  It  is  not  uncommon,  how- 
ever, to  rank  sociology,  or  the  laws  of  man  in 
society,  as  a  sixth  primary  science  following  on 
psychology,  of  which  it  is  a  special  development. 

The  practical  sciences  do  not  admit  of  any 
regular  classification.  They  are  as  numerous 
as  the  separate  ends  of  human  life  that  can  re- 
ceive aid  from  science,  or  from  knowledge  scien- 
tifically constituted.  Connected  with  mind  and 
society,  we  have  ethics,  logic,  rhetoric,  gram- 
mar, philology,  education,  law,  jurisprudence, 
politics,  political  economy,  etc.  In  the  manual 
and  mechanical  arts,  there  are  navigation,  prac- 
tical mechanics,  engineering,  civil  and  military, 
mining  and  metallurgy,  chemistry  applied  to 
dyeing,  bleaching,  etc. 

The  medical  department  contains  medicine, 
surgery,  midwifery,  materia  medica,  medical 
jurisprudence.  A  science  of  living,  or  of  the  pro- 
duction of  happiness  by  a  skilled  application  of 
all  existing  resources,  would  be  the  crowning 
practical  science. 

Septuagint  {sep'tu-a-ftnt).  A  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament;  so 
called  because  the  translation  is  supposed  to 
have  been  made  by  seventy-two  Jews,  who,  for 
the  sake  of  round  numbers,  are  usually  called 
the  seventy  interpreters.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
made  at  the  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
King  of  Egypt,  about  280  years  B.  C.  It  is  that 
out  of  which  all  the  citations  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Old  are  taken.  It  was  also  the 
ordinary  and  canonical  translation  made  use  of 
by  the  Christian  Church  in  the  earliest  ages;  and 
is  still  retained  in  the  Churches  both  of  the  East 
and  West.  According  to  the  chronology  of  the 
Septuagint,  there  were  fifteen  hundred  years 
more  from  the  creation  to  Abraham  than 
according  to  the  present  Hebrew  copies  of  the 
Bible. 

Shorthand.  An  art  by  which  writing  is 
abbreviated,  so  as  to  keep  pace  with  speaking. 
Its  great  and  general  utility  has  been  recognized 
in  every  age,  and  numberless  systems  have  been 
devised  to  facilitate  its  acquirement.  It  was 
practiced  by  the  ancients  for  its  secrecy  as  well 
as  for  its  brevity,  and  a  work  is  extant  on  the 
art,  which  is  ascribed  to  Tiro,  the  freedman  of 
Cicero.  The  first  English  treatise  on  stenog- 
raphy, in  which  marks  represent  words,  was 
published  in  1588,  by  Timothy  Bright,  M.  D., 
under  the  title,  "  Characterie :  an  Art  of  Short, 
Swift,  and  Secret  Writing  by.  Character."  In 
1837,  appeared  Pitman's  "Phonography" — the 
first  really  popular  system.  Melville  Bell,  fol- 
lowing in  the  path  marked  out  by  Pitman, 
founded  his  system  on  the  sounds  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  first  sketch  appeared  in  1849;  in 
1852,  the  first  complete  edition,  under  the  title 
"Semi-Phonography."  Shorthand  is  now  largely 
practiced  in  both  the  United  States  and  England, 
and  has  extended  its  benefits  to  many  classes 
besides  that  of  the  professional  reporter.  This 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  excellences  of  Pitman's 
system  and  to  his  activity  in  disseminating  its 
principles.  The  existence  of  two  styles  of  pho- 
nography, one  adapted  for  letter  writing  and  the 
other  for  reporting  —  the  second,  however,  being 


724 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


only  an  extension  of  the  first,  and  not  a  new 
system  in  itself  —  has  been  the  chief  basis  of  the 
popularity  of  phonetic  shorthand.  Popular 
modifications  of  Pitman's  system  have  been 
made  in  the  United  States  by  Graham,  Burnz, 
and  Munson. 

Skeleton.  A  term  which  is  popularly  used 
to  denote  the  system  of  hard  parts  forming  the 
bony  framework  of  the  body.  The  skeleton  of 
mammalia  consists  of  an  axial  portion  which 
comprises  the  skull,  the  vertebral  column,  the 
sternum  and  ribs,  and  an  appendicular  portion 
consisting  of  the  limbs.  The  skull  consists 
mainly  of  the  cranium,  which  is  the  strong  bony 
case  or  frame  whicn  encloses  the  brain,  and  af- 
fords support  and  protection  to  the  organs  of 
smell,  taste,  sight,  and  hearing.  To  the  inferior 
surface  of  the  cranium  are  suspended  the  man- 
dible, or  lower  jaw,  and  also  a  group  of  skeletal 
structures  termed  the  hyoidean  apparatus,  which 
supports  the  tongue,  etc.  The  vertebral  or  spinal 
coliunn  consists  of  a  series  of  bones  called  verte- 
brae, arranged  in  close  connection  with  each 
other  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  neck  and  trunk. 
It  generally  extends  posteriorly  beyond  the 
trunk  to  form  the  tail,  and  anteriorly  it  articu- 
lates with  the  skull.  The  number  of  distinct 
bones  of  which  the  vertebral  column  consists 
varies  in  different  animals,  the  variation  being 
mainly  due  to  the  development  of  the  tail.  The 
vertebrae  differ  in  form  m  the  different  regions 
of  the  column,  but  they  are  nevertheless  con- 
structed on  a  common  plan.  The  sternum  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  bones  placed  longitudinally 
in  the  middle  line  of  the  ventral  side  of  the  thorax 
or  chest,  and  connected  on  each  side  with  the 
vertebral  column  by  a  series  of  long,  narrow, 
and  more  or  less  flattened  bones  termed  the 
ribs.  The  anterior  limbs  consist  of  the  follow- 
ing bones :  the  humerus,  or  arm-bone ;  the  radius 
and  ulna,  which  together  constitute  the  fore- 
arm; the  carpal,  or  wrist  bones;  and  the  meta- 
carpals and  phalanges,  or  bones  of  the  hand. 
The  posterior  limbs  consist  of  the  femur,  or 
thigh  bone;  the  tibia  and  fibula,  or  leg  bones; 
the  tarsal  bones,  forming  the  ankle;  and  the 
meta-tarsals  and  phalanges,  constituting  the 
bones  of  the  foot. 

Skin.  The  integument  which  invests  and 
surrounds  the  exterior  of  the  body.  The  skin 
of  man  consists  of  two  fundamental  layers,  viz : 
the  cuticle,  or  epidermis,  and  the  cutis,  dermis, 
or  true  skin.  The  cuticle,  or  epidermis,  is  a 
layer  of  epithelial  cells;  it  differs  in  thickness 
in  different  parts  of  the  body,  is  without  blood- 
vessels and  nerves,  and  is,  therefore,  quite  de- 
void of  sensibility.  It  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups  of  strata,  a  superficial  and  a  deep  stra- 
tum. The  superficial  one  is  what  is  usually 
termed  the  epidermis,  in  the  more  precise  mean- 
ing of  the  word.  The  inner  or  deep  layer  is 
molded  on  to  the  true  skin,  and  consists  of 
softer,  moister,  and  more  rounded  cells  than 
the  outer  layer.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Malphigian  layer,  or  rete  mucosum;  and  it  is 
the  seat  of  the  coloring  material  or  pigment  of 
colored  races,  such  as  the  negro.  The  cutis  or 
dermis,  or  true  skin,  forms  the  more  complex 
lower  layer  of  the  skin.  It  consists  of  densely- 
interwoven  tissues,  and  is  well  supplied  with 


blood-vessels  and  nerves.  This  layer  contains 
the  sudoriparous  or  sweat-glands,  which  ex- 
crete the  perspiration,  and  also  the  sebaceous 
glands,  which  secrete  oily  matter,  and  the  func- 
tion of  which  it  is  to  keep  the  skin  soft  and  flex- 
ible. The  papillae  of  the  skin  consist  of  small 
conical  processes  on  the  surface  of  the  cutis. 
The  central  portion  of  each  papilla  contains  a 
group  of  blood-vessels  and  a  nerve,  and  on  the 
more  sensitive  parts  of  the  skin  touch-corpuscles 
are  also  present.  Hair,  nails,  etc.,  are  developed 
from  skin.  The  skin  is  the  organ  of  the  sense 
of  touch;  it  protects  the  superficial  parts  of  the 
body;  is  an  organ  of  respiration,  excretion,  and 
absorption;  and  regulates  the  temperature  of 
the  body. 

Smithsonian  Institution.  A  scien- 
tific institute  in  Washington,  organized  by  Act 
of  Congress  in  1846,  to  carry  into  effect  the  pro- 
visions of  the  will  of  James  Smithson,  the 
founder.  Smithson  was  a  natural  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland;  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  was,  in  1790,  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  died  at  Genoa  in  1829, 
leaving  his  property  (worth  $600,000)  to  his 
nephew,  with  the  condition  that  if  the  latter 
died  without  issue  the  property  was  to  go  to 
the  United  States  to  found  an  establishment 
for  the  increase  Lud  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
In  1835,  the  nephew  died  childless,  and  in  1838, 
the  sum  of  $515,169  was  paid  to  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States.  In  1846,  the  interest  on 
this  sum  (the  principal  itself  must  remain  un- 
touched) was  applied  to  the  erection  of  a  suitable 
building,  with  apartments  for  the  reception 
and  arrangement  of  objects  of  natural  history, 
including  a  geological  and  mineralogical  cabinet, 
a  chemical  laboratory,  a  library,  a  gallery  of  art, 
and  the  necessary  lecture-rooms.  The  building 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Washington.  A  portion  of 
the  funds  of  the  institution  is  devoted  to  scien- 
tific researches  and  the  publication  of  works 
too  expensive  for  private  enterprise.  Three 
series  of  publications  are  issued:  "Contribu- 
tions to  Knowledge,"  "Miscellaneous  Collec- 
tions," and  "Annual  Reports."  The  institu- 
tion contains  the  National  Museum,  which  is, 
however,  wholly  maintained  by  the  government. 
The  institution  is  administered  by  regents,  com- 
posed of  the  chief-justice  of  the  United  States, 
three  members  of  the  Senate,  and  three  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  with  six  other  per- 
sons, not  members  of  Congress.  The  president 
vice-president,  and  members  of  the  cabinet  for 
the  time  being  have  the  position  of  governors 
or  visitors  of  the  institution,  the  president  being 
ex  officio  at  the  head. 

Stars,  The,  are  mostly  suns,  but  being, 
the  nearest  of  them,  at  a  distance  from  us  more 
than  500,000  times  our  distance  from  the  sun, 
are  of  a  size  we  cannot  estimate,  but  are  believed 
to  be  300  times  larger  than  the  earth;  they  are 
of  unequal  brightness,  and  are,  according  to  this 
standard,  classified  as  of  the  first,  second,  down 
to  the  sixteenth  magnitude;  those  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  include  stars  from  the  first  to  the 
sixth  magnitude,  and  number  3,000,  while  20,- 
000,000  are  visible  by  the  telescope;  of  these  in 
the  Milky  Way  alone  there  are  18,000,000; 
they  are  distinguished  by  their  colors  as  well 


SCIENCE,  EDUCATION,  RELIGION 


725 


as  their  brightness,  being  white,  orange,  red, 
green,  and  blue,  according  to  their  temperature 
and  composition;  they  have  from  ancient  date 
been  grouped  into  constellations  of  the  northern 
and  the  southern  hemispheres  and  of  the  zodiac, 
the  stars  in  each  of  which  being  noted  by  the 
Greek  letters,  according  to  their  brightness. 

Stomach.  In  comparative  anatomy,  a 
membranous  sac,  formed  by  a  .dilation  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  in  which  food  is  received  and 
subjected  to  the  processes  of  digestion.  The 
human  stomach  is  an  elongated,  curved  pouch, 
from  ten  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  four  or  five 
inches  in  diameter  at  its  widest  part,  lying  al- 
most immediately  below  the  diaphragm,  nearly 
transversely  across  the  upper  and  left  portion 
of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  having  the  form 
of  a  bagpipe.  It  is  very  dilatable  and  contrac- 
tile, and  its  average  capacity  is  about  five  pints. 
The  food  enters  the  stomach  through  the  oesoph- 
agus by  the  cardia  or  cardiac  orifice,  and  after 
having  been  acted  on  by  the  gastric  juice,  is 
passed  on  in  a  semi-fluid  or  pulpy  state  through 
the  pylorus  into  the  small  intestines.  Owing  to 
the  recent  improvements  in  electrical  apparatus, 
the  physiology  and  pathology  of  the  human 
stomach  in  life  is  becoming  much  better  known. 
Medical  electricians  have  recently  devised  a 
plan  by  which  the  interior  of  the  human  stom- 
ach may  be  illuminated  for  examination.  The 
patient  is  laid  on  the  operating  table  and  a 
slender  tube,  carrying  a  glass  bead  on  its  end, 
is  introduced  into  the  stomach.  A  small  light 
inside  the  bead  is  supplied  by  fine  wires  running 
out  through  the  tube  and  connected  to  a  small 
battery.  The  interior  of  the  stomach  is  plainly 
lighted  and  all  its  parts  are  brought  into  view 
by  a  small  movable  mirror  at  the  end  of  the 
tube. 

Sun.  The  central  orb  of  the  solar  system, 
that  around  which  revolve  the  earth  and  the 
other  planets.  The  sun  appears  to  be  a  perfect 
sphere,  with  a  diameter  of  866,900  miles;  its 
mean  density  is  about  one-fourth,  taking  that 
of  the  earth  as  one ;  its  mean  distance  from  the 
earth  is  taken  as  93,000,000  miles.  It  rotates 
on  its  own  axis;  this  axis  of  rotation  being  in- 
clined to  the  ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  82°  40' ;  and 
its  rotation  period  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  twenty-five  to  twenty-eight  days.  The 
mass  of  the  sun  is  about  750  times  that  of  all  the 
other  members  of  the  solar  system  combined, 
and  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  solar  system  lies 
somewhere  in  the  sun,  whatever  may  be  the 
relative  positions  of  the  planets  in  their  orbits. 
The  dark  spots  on  the  sun  discovered  by  Galileo 
have  been  shown  to  be  hollows,  and  their  depth 
has  been  estimated  at  from  3,000  to  10,000 
miles.  The  spots  are  very  changeable  in  their 
figure  and  dimensions,  and  vary  in  size  from 
mere  points  to  spaces  of  50,000  miles  or  more 
in  diameter.  It  is  from  observations  of  these 
spots  that  the  siin's  rotation  on  its  axis  has  been 
calculated.  The  frequency  of  sun  spots  attains 
a  maximum  every  ten  and  a  half  years,  the 
number  of  spots  falling  off  during  the  interval 
to  a  minimum,  from  which  it  recovers  gradually 
to  the  next  maximum.  This  periodicity  has 
been  thought  to  be  intimately  connected  with 
the  meteorological  phenomena  observed  on  the 


earth,  especially  with  the  rainfall.  Spots  are 
called  maculce,  brighter  portions  of  the  sun  are 
called  faculoe,  and  the  lesser  markings  are  called 
mottlings.  The  sun  is  now  generally  believed 
to  be  of  gaseous  constitution,  covered  with  a 
sort  of  luminous  shell  of  cloud  formed  by  the 
precipitation  of  the  vapors  which  are  cooled 
by  external  radiation.  This  dazzling  shell  is 
termed  the  photosphere.  The  spots  are  sup- 
posed to  be  cavities  in  this  cloud-layer,  caused 
by  the  unequal  velocities  of  neighboring  por- 
tions of  the  solar  atmosphere.  Zollner,  who 
considers  the  body  of  the  sun  to  be  liquid,  sees 
therein  slags  or  scorise  floating  on  a  molten 
surface,  and  surrounded  by  clouds.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  sun's  radiation  would  melt  a 
shell  of  ice  covering  its  own  surface  to  a  depth 
of  between  thirty-nine  and  forty  feet  in  one 
minute,  but  the  temperature  of  the  surface  has 
not  yet  been  ascertained.  It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, that  the  temperature  and  radiation  have 
remained  constant  for  a  long  period.  The  photo- 
sphere is  overlaid  by  an  atmosphere  which  is 
shown  by  the  spectroscope  to  contain  nearly 
all  the  materials  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  sun.  The  region  outside  the  photo- 
sphere in  which  these  colored  prominences  are 
observed  has  been  called  the  chromosphere, 
which  has  an  average  depth  of  from  3,000  to 
8,000  miles.  The  incandescent  hydrogen  clouds 
stretch  out  beyond  this  to  altitudes  of  20,000 
to  100,000  miles,  and  jets  of  chromospheric 
hydrogen  have  been  observed  to  reach  a  height 
of  200,000  miles  in  twenty  minutes,  and  disap- 
pear altogether  within  half  an  hour.  Outside 
the  chromosphere,  extending  very  far  out  from 
the  sun,  is  the  corona,  an  aurora  of  light  observed 
during  total  eclipses.  The  amount  of  light  sent 
forth  by  the  sun  is  not  exactly  measurable,  but 
the  amount  of  heat  has  been  pretty  accurately 
computed,  and  it  is  equivalent  in  mechanical 
effect  to  the  action  of  7,000  horse-power  on 
every  square  foot  of  the  solar  surface,  or  to  the 
combustion  on  every  square  foot  of  upwards 
of  thirteen  and  one-half  hundred  pounds  of  coal 
per  hour. 

Theology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
existence  of  God,  his  attributes,  and  the  Divine 
will  regarding  our  actions,  present  condition,  and 
ultimate  destiny.  In  reference  to  the  sources 
whence  it  is  derived  theology  is  distinguished 
into  natural  or  philosophical  theology,  which  re- 
lates to  the  knowledge  of  God  from  His  works  by 
the  light  of  nature  and  reason ;  and  supernatural, 
positive,  or  revealed  theology,  which  sets  forth  and 
systematizes  the  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures. 
With  regard  to  the  contents  of  theology  it  is 
classified  into  theoretical  theology  or  dogmatics, 
and  practical  theology  or  ethics.  As  compre- 
hending the  whole  extent  of  religious  science, 
theology  is  divided  into  four  principal  classes, 
historical,  exegetical,  systematic,  and  practical 
theology.  Historical  theology  treats  of  the  his- 
tory of  Christian  doctrines.  Exegetical  theology 
embraces  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures 
and  Biblical  criticism.  Systematic  theology  ar- 
ranges methodically  the  great  truths  of  religion. 
Practical  theology  consists  of  an  exhibition,  first, 
of  precepts  and  directions;  and,  secondly,  of  the 
motives  from  which  we  should  be  expected  to 


726 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


comply  with  these.  Apologetic  and  polemic 
theology  belong  to  several  of  the  above-men- 
tioned four  classes  at  once.  The  Scholastic  theol- 
ogy attempted  to  clear  and  discuss  all  questions 
by  the  aid  of  human  reason  alone,  laying  aside 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  adopting  instead 
the  arts  of  the  dialectician. 

Theos'ophy,  according  to  its  etymology 
the  science  of  divine  things.  But  the  name  of 
theosophists  has  generally  been  applied  to  persons 
who  in  their  inquiries  respecting  God  have  run 
into  mysticism,  as  Jacob  Bohme,  Swedenborg, 
St.  Martin,  and  others.  At  the  present  day  the 
term  is  applied  to  the  tenets  of  the  Theosophical 
Society,  founded  in  New  York  in  1875  by  a  Col. 
Olcott,  the  objects  6i  which  are:  to  form  the 
nucleus  of  a  universal  brotherhood  of  humanity, 
to  promote  the  study  of  Eastern  literature  and 
science,  and  chiefly  to  investigate  unexplained 
laws  of  nature,  and  the  physical  powers  of  man, 
and  generally  the  search  after  divine  knowledge 
—  divine  applying  to  the  divine  nature  of  the 
abstract  principle,  not  to  the  quality  of  a  per- 
sonal God.  The  theosophists  assert  that  human- 
ity is  possessed  of  certain  powers  over  nature, 
which  the  narrower  study  of  nature  from  the 
merely  materialistic  standpoint  has  failed  to 
develop. 

Unitarian  Church.  A  communion  com- 
prising all  who  maintain  that  God  exists  in  one 
person  only.  The  name  Unitarian  is  applied 
specially  to  a  small  Christian  sect  whose  dis- 
tmguishing  tenet  is  the  unity  as  opposed  to  the 
trinity  of  the  Godhead.  In  the  more  general 
sense  the  name  of  course  includes  the  Jews  aind 
the  Mohammedans.  From  the  middle  of  the 
Second  Century  to  the  end  of  the  Third  Century 
there  was  a  succession  of  eminent  Christian 
teachers  —  Monarchians  —  who  maintained, 
against  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine  of  the  Logos, 
the  undivided  unity  of  God.  There  are  said 
to  have  been  two  classes  of  them  —  those  who 
taught  that  Christ  was  God  in  such  a  sense 
that  it  was  the  Father  who  became  man  and 
those  who  held  that  Christ  was  in  nature  a  mere 
man,  but  exalted  above  all  other  prophets  by 
the  superior  measure  of  Divine  wisdom  with 
which  he  was  endowed.  The  latter  class  was  ! 
represented  by  Theodotus,  Artemon,  and  espec-  [ 
ially  Paul  of  Samosata.  The  grand  theological 
struggle  which  followed  in  the  Fourth  Century  '' 
between  the  Arians  and  the  Athanasians  may 
be  regarded  as  a  phase  of  the  Unitarian  con- 
troversy. Unitarians  of  all  shades  of  opinion 
are  agreed  in  rejecting  the  entire  orthodox 
scheme  —  including  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity,  the  vicarious  atonement,  the  deity 
of  Christ,  original  sin,  and  everlasting  pun- 
ishment —  as  both  unscriptural  and  irra- 
tional. They  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
their  churches,  not  as  a  sacrament,  but  as  a 
service  commemorative  of  Christ's  death,  and 
expressive  of  spiritual  communion  with  Him. 
They  also  adhere  generally  to  the  rite  of  infant 
baptism,  though  there  are  a  few  Unitarian 
Baptist  churches. 

United  Brethren  In  Christ.  A  de- 
nomination of  evangelical  Christians,  founded 
through  the  labors  of  Rev  William  Otterbein, 
a  minister  of  the  German  Reformed  Church. 


His  meeting  with  Rev.  Martin  Boehm,  a  minister 
of  the  Mennonite  Society,  about  1766,  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  wide-spread  revival,  in  which 
he  and  Boehm  were  the  recognized  leaders. 
Preachers  were  licensed,  the  Church  was  to  a 
certain  extent  brought  under  system,  confer- 
ences were  held  in  1789  and  1791,  but  the  re- 
ligious movement  did  not  take  the  form  of  a 
Church  till  1800,  in  which  year  an  important 
conference  was  held  at  Peter  Kemp's  in  Fred- 
erick County,  Maryland.  At  this  time  the  name 
of  the  denomination  was  definitely  fixed,  and 
Otterbein  and  Boehm  were  chosen  bishops. 
Thereafter  conferences  were  held  yearly.  The 
Church  is  Arminian  in  doctrine,  very  aggressive 
in  work,  and  has  been  characterized  by  a  strong 
reform  spirit,  standing  from  the  first  opposed 
to  slavery,  intemperance,  and  connection  with 
secret  societies. 

Universallsts.  A  religious  sect  who 
maintain  as  a  fundamental  article  of  their  belief 
that  saving  grace  is  given  to  all  men,  without 
reserve,  and  that  its  operation  is  universal  — 
whence  their  denomination.  Universallsts,  it 
may  be  observed,  generally  differ  from  the  pre- 
valent bodies  of  Cnristians  in  other  important 
doctrines,  though  it  is  not  because  of  such  dif- 
ferences that  they  have  received  their  name, 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  merit  the  name  that  one 
should  share  these  differences.  Most  of  them 
agree  with  Unitarians  —  but  there  are  eminent- 
examples  to  the  contrary  —  in  rejecting  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  they  are  also  Pelagian 
in  the  matter  of  original  sin,  and  reject  the 
notion  that  the  new  birth  is  something  super- 
natural. Universalism,  as  a  mode  of  belief,  is 
of  very  ancient  origin;  but  it  was  in  1770,  that 
the  Rev.  John  Murray  became  a  propagator 
of  Univeralist  views,  and  some  years  later  Uni- 
versalism, as  a  sect,  was  founded  in  the  United 
States  by  Hosea  Ballou  (commonly  called 
"Father  Ballou"),  a  learned  divine  and  indefat- 
igable preacher. 

X-Rays.  Invisible  rays  producing  fluores- 
cence upon  striking  certain  substances  and  acting 
upon  a  photographic  plate.  Obtained  by  dis- 
charging a  high-pressure  electric  current  through 
a  vacuum  glass  tube.  They  differ  from  cathode 
rays  in  not  being  deflected  by  a  magnet.  Their 
practical  use  in  photographing  the  skeleton  and 
interior  organs  of  the  human  body  is  of  great 
service  in  locating  foreign  bodies  in  surgical 
operations,  and  facilitating  the  setting  of  broken 
bones,  etc. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions. Among  the  first  of  these  was  that 
founded  in  London,  in  1844,  by  Mr.  George 
Williams.  Its  object  was  the  holding  of  religious 
meetings  in  business  houses  in  the  center  of  Lon- 
don. The  movement  extended,  and  became  one 
not  only  for  the  religious  but  for  the  general 
culture  and  social  well-being  of  young  men 
engaged  in  business.  In  1908,  the  young  men's 
Christian  Associations,  all  of  which  are  self-gov- 
erning while  forming  an  organized  union,  were 
7,771  in  number.  Of  these,  1,952  associations, 
with  437,178  members,  were  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  In  the  United  States,  in  1907, 
current  expenses,  $6,000,000;  value  of  property, 
over  $34,000,000 


MANATEE 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


AUig^ator.  A  genus  of  saurian  reptiles. 
They  differ  from  the  true  crocodiles  in  having 
a  shorter  and  flatter  head,  cavities  or  pits  in  the 
upper  jaw,  into  which  the  long  canine  teeth  of 
the  under  jaw  fit,  and  feet  much  less  webbed. 
Their  habits  are  less  perfectly  aquatic.  The  larg- 
est grows  to  the  length  of  seventeen  or  eighteen 
feet.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  sand,  to 
be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  They  are 
found  only  in  tropical  America.  Among  the 
fossils  of  the  south  of  England,  however,  are 
remains  of  a  true  alligator. 

Ant.  An  insect  belonging  to  the  same  order 
as  the  bees  and  wasps.  Like  bees,  the  ants  form 
communities,  consisting  of  males,  females,  and 
neuters.  The  males  and  females  are  winged, 
and  are  produced  in  great  numbers  at  a  particular 
time  of  the  year;  they  then  quit  the  nest  and 
pair,  after  which  the  males  die,  while  the  females, 
losing  their  wings,  become  the  queens  of  fresh 
societies.  The  neuters  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  workers  and  soldiers,  the  former  doing 
all  the  necessary  work,  except  defending  the 
nest,  which  devolves  upon  the  latter.  Many 
singular  habits  and  instincts  of  ants  have  been 
observed.  Two  of  the  most  interesting  are  the 
instinct  of  making  slaves,  and  that  of  milking, 
so  to  speak,  the  little  plant-lice.  As  regards  the 
former,  it  is  found  that  certain  ants  capture  the 
pupce  of  other  species  of  ants  (i.  e.,  when  they 
are  in  the  quiescent  or  chrysalis  stage),  and  bring 
them  up  as  slaves. 

Antelope.  In  Zoology,  a  genus  of  rumi- 
nating mammals,  belonging  to  the  hollow-horned 
family,  and  distinguished  by  the  round,  annu- 
lated  form  of  their  horns,  which  are  unbranched, 
and  by  the  grace  and  symmetry  of  their  pro- 
portions. Externally,  they  very  much  resemble 
deer,  from  which,  however,  they  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  various  points  of  structure,  such 
as  the  horns,  which  in  the  deer  are  solid  and 
branched,  and  by  the  absence  of  front  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw.  Generally  speaking,  antelopes 
are  gregarious,  and  unite  in  large  flocks  or  herds. 
Africa  may  be  considered  the  headquarters  of 
the  antelope.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
include  the  spring  bok,  hartbeest,  gnu,  eland, 
and  gazelle,  among  others.  There  are  two  Eu- 
ropean antelopes,  the  chamois  which  inhabits  the 
Alps,  and  the  saiga  from  Eastern  Russia. 

Ape.  A  name  somewhat  loosely  employed, 
in  common  language,  as  a  synonym  for  monkey, 
but,  in  its  more  restricted  sense,  applicable  only 
to  the  highest  section  of  the  order  Quadrumana, 
or  four-handed  mammals;  those  which  make  a 
nearer  approach,  in  anatomical  structure,  to  the 
human  species  than  do  any  other  animals.  The 
group  of  apes  includes  the  gibbons,  orangou- 
tangs, chimpanzees,  and  gorillas.  They  are  all 
devoid  of  tails  and  cheek-pouches;  the  arms  are 
remarkable  for  their  extreme  length,  and  the 
hind  limbs  for  their  comparative  shortness.  On 
the   ground    these   animals   are   awkward   and 


waddling;  they  tread  rather  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  sole  than  on  the  sole  itself,  which  imparts 
to  their  hind-limbs  a  bowed  appearance;  while 
their  long  fore-limbs  ^re  employed  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  crutches,  on  the  half-closed 
fists  of  which,  planted  firmly  on  the  ground, 
they  rest  their  bodies.  The  great  length  of  their 
arms,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  these  animals 
peculiar  advantages  in  their  native  forests,  and 
they  climb  to  the  topmost  branches,  or  pass  from 
tree  to  tree,  with  surprising  facility.  They  do 
not  repose,  like  ordinary  monkeys,'on  their  hams, 
but  stretch  themselves  on  their  sides,  like  human 
beings.  The  apes  in  general  appear  to  be  more 
grave,  and  less  petulant  and  mischievous,  than 
the  ordinary  monkey. 

Apple.  The  name  applied  to  a  tree  belong- 
ing to  the  rose  family  of  plants,  as  well  as  to  its 
fruit.  There  are  two  real  types,  the  common 
apple,  Pyrus  malus,  and  the  crab  apple,  Pyrus 
baccata,  from  which  all  the  cultivated  apples  of 
the  world  have  developed.  The  fruit  of  the 
apple  is  a  pojne,  consisting  of  a  thickened  fleshy 
portion,,  resulting  from  the  development  of  th^ 
calyx,  inclosing  the  horny  cells  forming  the  core, 
and  covering  the  true  seeds.  The  apple  has 
been  known  since  prehistoric  times.  The  genus 
extends  around  the  world  in  the  north  temperate 
zone.  The  crab  apple  is  of  value  chiefly  because 
it  transmits  its  hardiness  to  its  crosses  with  the 
common  apple,  producing  a  fruit  of  good  quality 
that  can  endure  northern  climates.  America  is 
the  chief  apple  growing  country,  producing 
annually  about  200,000,000  bushels.  The  export 
trade  to  Europe  is  constantly  increasing.  The 
apple  is  used  principally  as  a  dessert,  for  cooking, 
and  for  making  cider,  vinegar,  and  brandy. 

Baboon.  The  name  applied  in  popular 
language  to  a  genus  of  the  zoological  order 
Quadrumana  (four-handed  mammals),  or  mon- 
keys. The  baboons  rank  next  to  the  apes  in 
the  ascending  series  of  animals,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished externally  by  a  short  tail  and  by  the 
large  head,  which  has  a  muzzle  resembling  that 
of  a  dog,  the  nostrils  being  situated  at  its  ex- 
tremity. They  are  large,  strong  animals,  ex- 
tremely unattractive  in  outward  appearance, 
and  of  great  ferocity.  More  than  any  other  of 
the  monkeys,  they  employ  the  fore-limbs  in 
terrestrial  progression,  running  upon  all  fours 
with  the  greatest  ease;  and,  though  they  climb 
trees  with  facility,  they  prefer,  as  a  rule,  to 
dwell  among  craggy  rocks  and  precipices.  They 
are  all  inhabitants  of  Africa,  and  one  of  them, 
the  Mandrill,  attains  very  nearly  the  height  of 
a  man.  The  Common  Baboon,  a  native  of  Gui- 
nea, is  very  often  brought  to  Europe,  and  is 
that  most  usually  seen  in  menageries  and  mu- 
seums. It  is  of  a  uniform  reddish-brown  color, 
with  black  face  and  white  eyelids;  when  young 
it  is  gentle,  curious,  gluttonous,  and  incessantly 
in  motion,  but  as  it  grows  older  it  ceases  to  be 
familiar,  and  assumes  all  the  morose  look  and 


730 


THE   STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


repulsive     manners    which      characterize      the 
baDoons  in  general. 

Bacteria  (Gr.  bakterion,  a  rod).  A  class  of 
very  minute  microscopic  organisms,  often  of  a 
rod-like  form,  which  are  regarded  as  of  vege- 
table nature,  and  as  being  the  cause  of  putre- 
faction; they  are  also  called  microbes  or  micro- 
phytes. The  genus  Bacterium,  in  a  restricted 
sense,  comprises  microscopic  unicellular  rod- 
shaped  vegetable  organisms,  which  multiply  by 
transverse  division  of  \he  cells.  Species  are 
found  in  all  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable 
liquids.  The  bacilli  are  often  spoken  of  as  bac- 
teria, this  latter  term  being  used  in  a  wide 
sense  and  comprising  organisms  of  various  forms 
and  with  several  distinct  names,  as  spirillum, 
micrococcus,   etc.     They   consist   of  a  mass  of 

Erotoplasm  inclosed  in  a  membrane,  and  all 
ave  at  some  stage  or  other  cilia  serving  for 
locomotion.  Reproduction  is  asexual  and  by 
division. 

Badger.  A  plantigrade,  carnivorous  mam- 
mal, allied  both  to  the  bears  and  to  the  weasels, 
of  a  clumsy  make,  with  short,  thick  legs,  and 
long  claws  on  the  fore-feet.  The  common  bad- 
ger {Meles  vulgaris)  is  as  large  as  a  middling- 
sized  dog,  but  much  lower  on  the  legs,  with  a 
flatter  and  broader  body,  very  thick,  tough  hide, 
and  long,  coarse  hair.  It  inhabits  the  north  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  burrows,  is  indolent  and 
■sleepy,  feeds  by  night  on  vegetables,  small  quad- 
rupeds, etc.  Its  flesh  may  be  eaten,  and  its 
hair  is  used  for  artists'  brushes  in  painting. 
The  American  badger  belongs  to  a  separate 
genus.  Badger  baiting,  or  drawing  the  badger,  is 
a  barbarous  sport  formerly,  and  yet  to  some 
extent,  practiced,  generally  as  an  attraction  to 
public-houses  of  the  lowest  sort.  A  badger  is 
put  in  a  barrel,  and  one  or  more  dogs  are  put 
in  to  drag  him  out.  When  this  is  effected  he  is 
returned  to  his  barrel,  to  be  similarly  assailed 
by  a  fresh  set.  The  badger  usually  makes  a 
most  determined  and  savage  resistance. 

Balata.  A  gum  yielded  by  MimHsops  Ba- 
tata, a  tree  growing  abundantly  in  British, 
French,  and  Dutch  Guiana,  Honduras,  and 
Brazil,  obtained  in  a  milky  state  by  "tapping" 
the  tree,  and  hardening  to  a  substance  like 
leather.  Used  for  similar  purposes  to  india- 
rubber,  and  in  the  United  States  chewed  as  a 
masticatory. 

Balm  of  Gilead.  The  exudation  of  a 
tree,  Balsamodcndron  gileadense,  nat.  order 
Amyridacece,  a  native  of  Arabia  Felix,  and 
also  obtained  from  the  closely  allied  species 
Balsamodcndron  Opobalsdmum.  The  leaves  of 
the  former  tree  yield  when  bruised  a  strong 
aromatic  scent;  and  the  balm  of  Gilead  of  the 
shops,  or  balsam  of  Mecca  or  of  Syria,  is  ob- 
tained from  it  by  making  an  incision  in  its 
trunk.  It  has  a  yellowish  or  greenish  color,  a 
warm,  bitterish,  aromatic  taste,  and  an  acidu- 
lous, fragrant  smell.  It  is  valued  as  an  odorif- 
erous unguent  and  cosmetic. 

Balsam.  An  aromatic,  resinous  substance, 
flowing  spontaneously  or  by  incision  from  cer- 
tain plants.  A  great  variety  of  substances  pass 
under  this  name.  But  in  chemistry  the  term 
is  confined  to  such  vegetable  juices  as  consist 
of  resins  mixed  with  volatile  oils,  and  yield  the 


volatile  oil  on  distillation.  The  resins  are  pro- 
duced from  the  oils  by  oxidation.  A  balsam  is 
thus  intermediate  between  a  volatile  oil  and  a 
resin.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and 
capable  of  yielding  benzoic  acid.  The  balsams 
are  either  liquid  or  more  or  less  solid;  as,  for 
example,  the  balm  of  Gilead,  and  the  balsams 
of  copaiba,  Peru,  and  Tolii.  Benzoin,  dragon's- 
blood,  and  storax  are  not  true  balsams,  though 
sometimes  called  so.  The  balsams  are  used  in 
perfumery,  medicine,  and  the  arts. 

Bamboo.  The  common  name  of  the  arbor- 
escent grasses  belonging  to  the  genus  Bambusa. 
There  are  many  species,  belonging  to  the  warmer 
parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  and  growing 
from  a  few  feet  to  as  much  as  100,  requiring 
much  moisture  to  thrive  properly.  The  best- 
known  species  is  B.  arundinacea,  common  in 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  From  the 
creeping  underground  rhizome,  which  is  long, 
thick,  and  jointed,  spring  several  round  jointed 
stalks,  which  send  out  from  their  joints  several 
shoots,  the  stalks  also  being  armed  at  their 
joints  with  one  or  two  sharp,  rigid  spines.  The 
oval  leaves,  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  are  placed 
on  short  footstalks.  The  flowers  grow  in  large 
panicles  from  the  joints  of  the  stalk.  Some 
stems  grow  to  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
and  are  so  hard  and  durable  as  to  be  used  for 
building  purposes.  The  smaller  sticks  are  used 
for  walking-sticks,  flutes,  etc. ;  and,  indeed,  the 
plant  is  used  for  innumerable  purposes  in  the 
East  Indies,  China,  and  other  Eastern  countries. 
Cottages  are  almost  wholly  made  of  it;  also, 
bridges,  boxes,  water-pipes,  ladders,  fences,  bows 
and  arrows,  spears,  baskets,  mats,  paper,  masts 
for  boats,  etc.  The  young  shoots  are  pickled 
and  eaten,  or  otherwise  used  as  food ;  the  seeds 
of  some  species  are  also  eaten.  The  substance 
called  tabasheer  is  a  siliceous  deposit  that  gathers 
at  the  internodes  of  the  stems.  The  bamboo  is 
imported  into  Europe  and  America  as  a  paper 
material  as  well  as  for  other  purposes. 

Banyan,  or  Banian,  a  tree  of  India, 
of  the  fig  genus.  The  most  peculiar  feature  of 
this  tree  is  its  method  of  throwing  out  from  the 
horizontal  branches,  supports  which  take  root 
as  soon  as  they  reach  the  ground,  enlarge  into 
trunks,  and  extending  branches  in  their  turn, 
soon  cover  a  prodigious  extent  of  ground.  A 
celebrated  banyan-tree  has  been  known  to  shelter 
7,000  men  beneath  its  shade.  The  wood  is  soft 
and  porous,  and  from  its  white,  glutinous  juice 
bird-lime  is  sometimes  prepared.  Both  juice 
and  bark  are  regarded  by  the  Hindoos  as  val- 
uable medicines. 

Baobab,  or  Monkey-bread  Tree.  A 
tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  (or  sub-order) 
Bombacea;,  and  the  only  known  species  of  its 
genus,  which  was  named  after  the  naturalist, 
A.danson.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  trees,  its 
trunk  sometimes  attaining  a  diameter  of  thirty 
feet;  and  as  the  profusion  of  leaves  and  droop- 
ing boughs  sometimes  almost  hides  the  stem, 
the  whole  forms  a  hemispherical  mass  of  ver- 
dure 140  to  150  feet  in  diameter  and  sixty  to 
seventy  feet  high.  It  is  a  native  of  Western 
Africa,  and  is  found  also  in  Abyssinia;  it  is 
cultivated  in  many  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
world.     The  roots  are  of  extraordinary  length, 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


731 


a  tree  seventy-seven  feet  in  girth  having  a  tap- 
root 110  feet  in  length.  The  leaves  are  deep 
green,  divided  into  five  unequal  parts,  lanceolate 
in  shape,  and  radiating  from  a  common  center. 
The  flowers  resemble  the  white  poppy,  having 
snowy  petals  and  violet-colored  stamens;  and 
the  fruit,  which  is  large  and  of  an  oblong  shape, 
is  said  to  taste  like  gingerbread,  with  a  pleasant 
acid  flavor.  The  wood  is  pale-colored,  light  and 
soft.  The  tree  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  a 
fungus  which,  vegetating  in  the  woody  part, 
renders  it  soft  and  pithlike.  By  the  negroes  of 
the  west  coast  these  trunks  are  hollowed  into 
chambers,  and  dead  bodies  are  suspended  in 
them.  There  they  become  perfectly  dry  and 
well  preserved,  without  further  preparation  or 
embalming.  The  baobab  is  emollient  and  muci- 
laginous; the  pulverized  leaves  constitute  lalo, 
which  the  natives  mix  with  their  daily  food  to 
diminish  excessive  perspiration,  and  which  is 
even  used  by  Europeans  in  fevers  and  diarrhoeas. 
The  expressed  juice  of  the  fruit  is  used  as  a 
cooling  drink  in  putrid  fevers,  and  also  as  a 
seasoning  for  various  foods. 

Banana.  A  plant  of  the  genus  Musa,  nat- 
ural order  Musaceae,  being  M.  sapientum,  while 
the  plantain  is  M.  paradisi&ca.  It  is  originally 
indigenous  to  the  East  Indies,  and  an  herba- 
ceous plant  with  an  underground  stem.  The 
apparent  stem,  which  is  sometimes  as  high  as 
thirty  feet,  is  formed  of  the  closely  compacted 
sheaths  of  the  leaves.  The  leaves  are  six  to 
ten  feet  long  and  one  or  more  broad,  with  a 
strong  midrib,  from  which  the  veins  are  given 
off  at  right  angles;  they  are  used  for  thatch, 
basket-making,  etc.,  besides  yielding  a  useful 
fiber.  The  spikes  of  the  flowers  grow  nearly 
four  feet  long,  in  bunches,  covered  with  purple- 
colored  bracts.  The  fruit  is  four  to  ten  or  twelve 
inches  long,  and  one  inch  or  more  in  diameter; 
it  grows  in  large  bunches,  weighing  often  from 
forty  to  eighty  pounds.  The  pulp  is  soft  and 
of  a  luscious  taste ;  when  ripe  it  is  eaten  raw  or 
fried  in  slices.  The  banana  is  cultivated  in 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  and  is  an 
important  article  of  food  Manilla  hemp  is  the 
product  of  a  species  of  banana. 

Barbary  Ape.  A  species  of  ape,  or  tail- 
less monkey,  with  greenish-brown  hair,  of  the 
size  of  a  large  cat,  remarkable  for  docility,  also 
called  the  magot.  It  is  common. in  Barbary  and 
other  parts  of  Africa,  and  some  used  to  live 
formerly  on  Gibraltar  Rock,  being  the  only 
European  monkey,  though  probably  not  in- 
digenous. It  has  been  the  "showman's  ape" 
from  time  immemorial. 

Barberry.  A  genus  of  shrubs,  the  com- 
mon barberry  having  bunches  of  small,  beautiful 
red  berries,  somewhat  oval ;  serrated  and  pointed 
leaves ;  thorns,  three  together,  upon  the  branches 
and  hanging  clusters  of  yellow  flowers.  The 
berries  nearly  approach  the  tamarind  in  respect 
of  acidity,  and  when  boiled  with  sugar  make  an 
agreeable  preserve,  rob,  or  jelly  They  are 
also  used  as  a  dry  sweetmeat,  and  in  sugar- 
plums or  comfits;  are  pickled  with  vinegar,  and 
are  used  for  the  garnishing  of  dishes.  The  bark 
is  said  to  have  medicinal  properties,  and  the 
inner  bark  and  roots  with  alum  yield  a  fine 
yellow  dye.     The  shrub  was  originally  a  native 


of  eastern  countries,  but  is  now  generally  diffused 
in  Europe,  as  also  in  North  America.  *  In  Eng- 
land it  has  been  almost  universally  banished 
from  hedgerows,  from  the  belief  that  it  causes 
rust  on  corn  —  a  supposition  supported  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  subject  itself  to  attacks  of  a  sort 
of  epiphyte.  Numerous  other  species  belong  to 
Asia  and  America. 

Barbets.  A  family  of  climbing  birds  with 
a  thick,  conical  beak,  having  tufts  of  bristles  at 
its  base  Their  wings  are  short  and  their  flight 
somewhat  heavy.  They  have  been  divided  into 
three  sub-genera:  The  barbicans  (Pogonias),  in- 
habiting India  and  Africa,  and  feeding  chiefly 
on  fruit;  the  barbels  proper  (Bucco),  found  in 
Africa  and  America,  and  nearly  related  to  the 
woodpeckers;  and  the  puff -birds  (Tamatia),  in- 
habiting America,  and  feeding  on  insects. 

.Bark.  The  exterior  covering  -of  the  stems 
of  exogenous  plants.  It  is  composed  of  cellular 
and  vascular  tissue,  is  separable  from  the  wood, 
and  is  often  regarded  as  consisting  of  four 
layers:  (1)  The  epidermis  or  cuticle,  which,  how- 
ever, is  scarcely  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  true 
bark;  (2)  the  epiphlceum  or  outer  cellular  layer 
of  the  true  bark  or  cortex;  (3)  the  mesophlaum 
or  middle  layer,  also  cellular;  (4)  an  inner  vas- 
cular layer,  the  liber  or  endophloeum,  commonly 
called  bast.  Endogenous  plants  have  no  true 
bark.  Bark  contains  many  valuable  products, 
as  gum,  tannin,  etc.;  cork  is  a  highly  useful 
substance  obtained  from  the  epiphlceum;  and 
the  strength  and  flexibility  of  bast  makes  it  of 
considerable  value.  Bark  used  for  tanning  is 
obtained  from  oak,  hemlock-spruce,  species  of 
acacia  growing  in  Australia,  etc.  Angostura 
bark,  Peruvian  or  cinchona  bark,  cinnamon, 
cascarilla,  etc.,  are  useful  barks. 

Bark,  Peruvian,  is  the  bark  of  various 
species  of  trees  of  the  genus  Cinchona,  found  in 
many  parts  of  South  America,  but  more  par- 
ticularly in  Peru,  and  having  medicinal  prop- 
erties. It  was  formerly  called  Jesuit's  bark, 
from  its  having  been  introduced  into  Europe 
by  Jesuits.  Its  medicinal  properties  depend 
upon  the  presence  of  quinine,  which  is  now 
extracted  from  the  bark,  imported,  and  pre- 
scribed in  place  of  nauseous  mouthfuls  of  bark. 

Barley.  The  name  of  several  cereal  plants 
yielding  a  grain  used  as  food  and  also  for  making 
malt,  from  which  are  prepared  beer,  porter,  and 
whisky.  Barley  has  been  known  and  cultivated 
from  remote  antiquity,  and  beer  was  made  from 
it  among  the  Egyptians.  Excellent  barley  is 
produced  in  Britain.  The  species  principally 
cultivated  are  Hordeum  distichum,  two-rowed 
barley;  H  vulgare,  four-rowed  barley;  and  H. 
hexastichum,  six-rowed,  of  which  the  small  va- 
riety is  the  sacred  barley  of  the  ancients.  The 
varieties  of  the  four  and  six-rowed  species  are 
generally  coarser  than  those  of  the  two-rowed, 
and  adapted  for  a  poorer  soil  and  more  exposed 
situation.  Some  of  these  are  called  bere  or  bigg. 
In  Britain  barley  occupies  about  the  same  area 
as  wheat,  but  in  North  America  the  extent  of 
it  as  a  crop  is  comparatively  small,  being  in 
Canada,  however,  relatively  greater  than  in  the 
States,  and  the  Canadian  barley  is  of  very  high 
quality.  Barley  is  better  adapted  for  cold  cli- 
mates than  any  other  grain,  and  some  of  the 


732 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


coarser  varieties  are  cultivated  where  no  other 
cereal  can  be  grown.  Some  species  of  the  genus, 
three  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain,  are  mere 
grasses.  Pot  or  Scotch  barley  is  the  grain  de- 
prived of  the  husk  in  a  mill.  Pearl  barley  is  the 
grain  polished  and  rounded  and  deprived  of 
husk  and  pellicle.  Patent  barley  is  the  farina 
obtained  by  grinding  pearl  barley.  Barley- 
water,  a  decoction  of  pearl  barley,  is  used  in 
medicine  as  possessing  emollient,  diluent,  and 
expectorant  qualities. 

Barnacle.  The  name  of  a  family  of  ma- 
rine cnistaceous  animals.  They  are  enveloped 
by  a  mantle  and  shell,  composed  of  five  principal 
valves  and  several  smaller  pieces,  joined  to- 
gether by  a  membrane  attached  to  their  circum- 
ference; and  they  are  furnished  with  a  long, 
flexible,  fleshy  stalk  or  peduncle,  provided  with 
muscles,  by  which  they  attach  themselves  to 
ships'  bottoms,  submerged  timber,  etc.  They 
feed  on  small  marine  animals,  brought  within 
their  reach  by  the  water  and  secured  by  their 
tentacula.  Some  of  the  larger  species  are  edible. 
According  to  an  old  fable,  these  animals  pro- 
duced barnacle  geese. 

Barnacle  Goose.  A  summer  visitant  of 
the  northern  seas,  in  size  rather  smaller  than  the 
common  wild  goose,  and  having  the  forehead 
and  cheeks  white,  the  upper  body  and  neck 
black.  A  fable  asserts  that  the  crustaceans 
called  barnacles  (see  preceding  article)  changed 
into  geese,  and  various  theories  have  been 
framed  to  account  for  its  origin.  Max  Miiller 
supposes  the  geese  were  originally  called  Hiber- 
niculoe  or  Irish  geese,  and  that  barnacle  is  a 
corruption  of  this;  but  the  resemblance  of  a 
barnacle  to  a  goose  hanging  by  the  head  may 
account  for  it.  The  Brent  Goose  is  also  some-' 
times  called  the  Barnacle  Goose,  but  the  two 
should  be  discriminated. 

Basalt.  A  well-known  igneous  rock  occur- 
ring in  the  ancient  trap  and  the  recent  volcanic 
series  of  rocks,  but  most  abundantly  in  the 
former.  It  is  a  fine-grained,  heavy  crystalline 
rock,  consisting  of  felspar,  augite,  and  magnetic 
iron,  and  sometimes  contains  a  little  olivine. 
Basalt  is  amorphous,  columnar,  tabular,  or- 
globular.  The  columnar  form  is  straight  or 
curved,  perpendicular  or  inchned,  sometimes 
nearly  horizontal;  the  diameter  of  the  columns 
from  three  to  eighteen  inches,  sometimes  with 
transverse  semispherical  joints,  in  which  the 
convex  part  of  one  is  inserted  in  the  concavity 
of  another;  and  the  height  from  five  feet  to  150. 
The  forms  of  the  columns  generally  are  pen- 
tagonal, hexagonal,  or  octagonal.  When  decom- 
posed it  is  found  also  in  round  masses,  either 
spherical  or  compressed  and  lenticular.  These 
rounded  masses  are  sometimes  composed  of 
concentric  layers,  with  a  nucleus,  and  sometimes 
of  prisms  radiating  from  a  center.  Fingal's 
Cave,  in  the  island  of  Staffa,  furnishes  a  remark- 
able instance  of  basaltic  columns.  The  pillars 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  Ireland,  composed  of 
this  stone,  and  exposed  to  the  roughest  sea,  for 
ages,  have  their  angles  as  perfect  as  those  at  a 
distance  from  the  waves.  Basalt  often  assumes 
curious  and  fantastic  forms,  as  for  example, 
those  masses  popularly  known  as  "Sampson's 
Ribs"  at  Arthur's  Seat,  Edinburgh,  and  "Lot" 


and  "Lot's  Wife"  near  the  southern  coast  of 
St.  Helena. 

Bass.  The  name  of  a  number  of  fishes  of 
several  genera,  but  originally  belonging  to  the 

Eerch  family,  distinguished  from  the  true  perches 
y  having  the  tongue  covered  by  small  teeth 
and  the  preoperculum  smooth.  Labrax  lupus, 
the  only  British  species,  called  also  sea-dace, 
and  from  its  voracity,  sea-wolf,  resembles  some- 
what the  salmon  in  shape,  and  is  much  esteemed 
for  the  table,  weighing  about  fifteen  pounds. 
Labrax  lineatus,  or  striped  bass,  an  American 
species,  weighing  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
pounds,  is  much  used  for  food,  and  is  alsoknown 
as  rock-fish.  Both  species  occasionally  ascend 
rivers,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate 
British  bass  in  fresh-water  ponds  with  success. 
Two  species  of  black  bass,  American  fresh-water 
fishes,  are  excellent  as  food  and  give  fine  sport 
to  the  angler.  The  former  is  often  called  the 
large-mouthed  black  bass,  from  the  size  of  its 
mouth.  Both  make  nests  and  take  great  care 
of  their  eggs  and  young.  The  Centropristis 
nigricans,  an  American  sea-fish  of  the  perch 
family,  and  weighing  two  to  three  pounds,  is 
known  as  the  sea-bass. 

Bat.  One  of  the  group  of  wing-handed,  fly- 
ing mammals,  having  the  fore-limb  peculiarly 
modified  so  as  to  serve  for  flight,  and  constitut- 
ing the  order  Clieiroptera.  Bats  are  animals  of 
the  twilight  and  darkness,  and  are  common  in 
temperate  and  warm  regions,  but  are  most 
numerous  and  largest  in  the  tropics.  All  Euro- 
pean bats  are  small,  and  have  a  mouse-like 
skin.  The  body  of  the  largest  British  species, 
Vespertilio  noctula,  is  less  than  that  of  a  mouse, 
but  its  wings  stretch  about  fifteen  inches.  Dur- 
ing the  day  it  remains  in  caverns,  in  the  crevices 
of  ruins,  hollow  trees,  and  such-like  lurking- 
places,  and  flits  out  at  evening  in  search  of  food, 
which  consists  of  insects.  Several  species  of 
the  same  genus  are  common  in  North  America. 
Many  bats  are  remarkable  for  having  a  singular 
nasal  cutaneous  appendage,  bearing  in  some 
cases  a  fancied  resemblance  to  a  horse-shoe. 
Two  of  these  horse-shoe  bats  occur  in  Britain. 
Bats  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions: the  insectivorous  or  carnivorous,  com- 
prising all  European  and  most  African  and 
American  species;  and  the  fruit-eating,  belong- 
ing to  tropical  Asia  and  Australia,  with  several 
African  forms.  An  Australian  fruit-eating  bat, 
commonly  known  as  the  kalong  or  flying-fox,  is 
the  largest  of  all  the  bats;  it  does  much  mis- 
chief in  orchards.  At  least  two  species  of  South 
American  bats  are  known  to  suck  the  blood  of 
other  mammals,  and  thence  are  called  "vam- 
pire-bats" (though  this  name  has  also  been 
given  to  a  species  not  guilty  of  this  habit).  The 
best  known  is  the  Desmddus  rufus  of  Brazil, 
Chile,  etc.  As  winter  approaches,  in  cold  cli- 
mates bats  seek  shelter  in  caverns,  vaults, 
ruinous  and  deserted  buildings,  and  similar  re- 
treats, where  they  cling  together  in  large  clus- 
ters, hanging  head  downwards  by  the  feet,  and 
remain  in  a  torpid  condition  until  the  returning 
spring  recalls  them  to  active  exertions.  Bats 
generally  bring  forth  two  young,  which,  while 
suckling,  remain  closely  attached  to  the  mother's 
teats,  which  are  two,  situated  upon  the  chest. 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


733 


The  parent  shows  a  strong  degree  of  attachment 
for  her  offspring,  and,  when  they  are  captured, 
will  follow  them,  and  even  submit  to  captivity 
herself  rather  than  forsake  her  charge. 

Batrachia  (from  the  Gr.  batrachos,  a  frog). 
An  order  of  amphibious  animals,  which  includes 
the  frogs  and  toads ;  it  is  also  designated  by  the 
name  of  Anoura,  or  "tailless"  amphibians.  In 
the  batrachia,  the  adult  is  destitute  of  gills  and 
tail,  and  the  two  pairs  of  limbs  are  always 
present;  there  are  no  ribs,  and  the  skin  is  soft; 
the  mouth  is  sometimes  without  teeth,  but  the 
upper  jaw  is  usually  provided  with  teeth,  and, 
more  rarely,  both  jaws;  the  hind-limbs  usually 
have  the  toes  webbed  for  swimming,  and  are 
much  larger  than  the  fore-limbs.  In  the  adult 
batrachia  the  breathing  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  lungs;  but,  as  there  are  no  movable  ribs,  the 
process  of  breathing  is  somewhat  peculiar  —  in 
fact,  it  is  one  of  swallowing,  and  it  is  possible  to 
suffocate  a  frog  simply  by  holding  its  mouth 
open.  The  moist  and  delicate  skin,  however, 
also  performs  an  important  part  in  respiration. 
The  young,  or  larvce,  of  frogs  and  toads  are 
familiarly  known  as  "tadpoles."  The  eggs  are 
deposited  in  masses  in  water,  and  the  young, 
when  hatched,  are  fish-like  in  form,  with  a 
broad,  rounded  head  and  a  compressed  tail. 
There  are  at  first  two  sets  of  gills,  one  external 
and  the  other  internal;  but  the  outer  ones  dis- 
appear very  shortly  after  birth,  and  the  inner 
ones  are  subsequently  replaced  by  lungs.  The 
hind-limbs  first  make  their  appearance,  and  are 
followed  by  the  fore-limbs;  and  as  the  limbs 
become  fully  developed  the  tail  gradually  dis- 
appears. In  both  the  common  frog  and  the  toad 
the  tongue  is  fixed  to  the  front  of  the  mouth, 
whilst  it  is  free  behind,  so  that  it  can  be  pro- 
truded for  some  distance  from  the  mouth.  The 
Tree-frogs  have  the  toes  of  all  the  feet  furnished 
with  terminal  suckers,  by  the  help  of  which 
they  climb  with  ease;  they  are  mostly  found  in 
America,  but  one  species  is  European.  The 
Surinam  toads  (found  in  Surinam  and  also  in 
Brazil)  rarely  have  teeth,  sLnd  the  mouth  is 
destitute  of  a  tongue. 

Bdellium  (del'i-um).  An  aromatic  gum 
resin  brought  chiefly  from  Africa  and  India,  in 
pieces  of  different  sizes  and  figures,  externally 
of  a  dark  reddish  brown,  internally  clear,  and 
not  unlike  glue.  To  the  taste  it  is  slightly 
bitterish  and  pungent;  its  odor  is  agreeable. 
It  is  used  as  a  perfume  and  a  medicine,  being  a 
weak  deobstruent.  Indian  bdellium  is  the  prod- 
uce of  Balsamodendron  Roxburghii;  African  of 
B.  ajricanum;  Egyptian  bdellium  is  obtained 
from  the  doum  palm;  and  Sicilian  is  produced 
by  Daucus  gummifer,  a  species  of  the  genus  to 
which  the  carrot  belongs.  The  bdellium  men- 
tioned in  Genesis  ii.  was  apparently  a  precious 
stone,  perhaps  a  pearl. 

Bean.  A  name  given  to  several  kinds  of 
leguminous  seeds  and  the  plants  producing 
them,  probably  originally  belonging  to  Asia. 
They  belong  to  several  genera,  particularly  to 
Faba,  garden  and  field  bean;  Phasedlus,  French 
or  kidney  bean;*  and  Dolichos,  tropical  bean. 
The  common  bean  (F.  vulgaris)  is  cultivated 
both  in  fields  and  gardens  as  food  for  man  and 
beast.     There  are  many  varieties,  as  the  maza- 


gan,  the  Windsor,  the  long-pod,  etc.,  in  gardens, 
and  the  horse  or  tick  bean  in  fields.  The  soil 
that  best  suits  is  a  good,  strong  clay.  The  seed 
of  the  Windsor  is  fully  an  inch  in  diameter ;  the 
horse-bean  is  much  less,  often  not  much  more 
than  half  an  inch  in  length  and  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Beans  are  very  nutritious, 
containing  36  per  cent,  of  starch  and  23  per  cent, 
of  nitrogenous  matter  called  legumin,  analogous 
to  the  caseine  in  cheese.  The  bean  is  an  annual, 
from  two  to  four  feet  high.  The  flowers  are 
beautiful  and  fragrant.  The  kidney-bean,  French 
bean,  or  haricot,  is  the  Phasedlus  vulgaris,  a  well- 
known  culinary  vegetable-  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal varieties,  annual  dwarfs  and  runners.  The 
beans  cultivated  in  America  and  largely  used  as 
articles  of  food  belong  to  the  genus  Phasedlus. 
The  scarlet-runner  bean  (Phasedlus  coccineus),  a 
native  of  Mexico,  is  cultivated  on  account  of  its 
long,  rough  pods  and  its  scarlet  flowers.  St. 
Ignatius'  bean  is  not  really  a  bean,  but  the  seed 
of  a  large  climbing  shrub,  of  the  order  Logania- 
ceae,  nearly  allied  to  the  species  of  Strychnos 
which  produces  nux  vomica. 

Bear.  The  name  of  several  large  planti- 
grade carnivorous  mammals  of  the  genus  Ursus. 
The  teeth  are  forty-two  in  number,  as  in  the 
dog,  but  there  is  no  carnassial  or  sectorial  tooth, 
and  the  molars  have  a  more  tubercular  character 
than  in  other  carnivores.  The  eyes  have  a 
nictitating  membrane,  the  nose  is  prominent 
and  mobile,  and  the  tail  very  short.  The  true 
bears  are  about  ten  in  number,  natives  chiefly 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America.  They 
generally  lie  dormant  in  their  den  during  the 
winter  months.  The  brown  or  black  bear  of 
Europe  is  the  Ursus  arctos.  It  is  a  native  of 
almost  all  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  was  at  one  time  common  in  the  British 
islands.  It  feeds  on  fruits,  roots,  honey,  ants, 
and,  in  case  of  need,  on  mammals.  It  some- 
times reaches  the  length  of  seven  feet,  the 
largest  specimens  being  found  farthest  to  the 
north.  It  lives  sohtarily.  The  American  black 
bear  is  the  Ursus  americanus,  with  black  shining 
hair,  and  rarely  above  five  feet  in  length.  It  is 
a  great  climber,  is  less  dangerous  than  the  brown 
bear,  and  is  hunted  for  its  fur  and  flesh.  It  is 
very  amusing  in  captivity.  The  grizzly  bear 
{Ursus  ferox  or  horribilis)  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  it  is  a  ferocious  animal, 
sometimes  nine  feet  in  length,  and  has  a  bulky 
and  unwieldy  form,  but  is  nevertheless  capable 
of  great  rapidity  of  motion.  The  extinct  cave- 
bear  {Ursus  speloeus)  seems  to  have  been  closely 
akin  to  the  grizzly.  The  Siberian  bear  {Ursus 
collaris)  is  perhaps  a  variety  of  the  broWn  bear. 
The  polar  or  white  bear  {Ursus  maritimus)  is 
characterized  by  its  flat  head  and  comparatively 
long  neck. 

Beaver.  A  quadruped  of  the  order  Ro- 
dentia,  or  gnawers,  the  only  species  of  its  genus. 
It  is  very  widely  distributed,  being  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
nowadays  most  abundantly  in  the  northern  and 
thinly  peopled  parts  of  North  America,  dwelling 
in  communities  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes. 
At  one  time  immense  numbers  of  these  animals 
were  killed  for  thfeir  fur,  which  was  largely  used 
in  making  hats,  but  in  more  recent  times  they 


734 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


have  suffered  less  persecution  on  this  account, 
their  fur  now  not  being  held  in  the  same  estima- 
tion. The  beaver  is  about  two  feet  in  length; 
its  body  thick  and  .heavy;  the  head  compressed, 
and  somewhat  arched  at  the  front,  the  upper 
part  rather  narrow;  the  snout  much  so.  The 
eyes  are  placed  rather  high  on  the  head,  and  the 
pupils  are  rounded;  the  ears  are  short,  ellipti- 
cal, and  almost  concealed  by  the  fur.  The  skin 
is  covered  by  two  sorts  of  hair,  of  which  one  is 
long,  rather  stiff,  elastic,  and  of  a  gray  color  for 
two-thirds  of  its  length  next  the  \)ase,  and  termi- 
nated by  shining,  reddish-brown  points;  the 
other  is  short,  thick,  tufted,  and  soft,  being  of 
different  shades  of  silver-gray  or  light  lead  color. 
The  hair  is  shortest  on  the  head  and  feet.  The 
hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  fore,  and  are  com- 
pletely webbed.  The  tail  is  ten  or  eleven  inches 
long,  and,  except  the  part  nearest  the  body,  is 
covered  with  hexagonal  scales. 

Bee.  A  well-known  family  of  insects,  be- 
longing to  the  order  Hymenoptera,  an  order 
which  also  includes  the  wasps,  ants,  and  gall- 
flies. Man  appears  from  the  very  earliest  ages 
to  have  known  the  value  of  bees,  and  to  have 
taken  advantage  of  their  produce.  The  Bible 
makes  mention  of  honey-bees,  and  the  Latin 

Eoet  Virgil  has  celebrated  them  in  the  fourth 
ook  of  his  Georgics,  where  he  has  summed  up 
all  that  the  ancients  knew  about  them.  During 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  population  of 
our  hives  is  composed  exclusively  of  two  sorts 
of  individuals,  namely,  the  female  or  mother  bee, 
called  also  the  queen  bee,  and  the  working  bees 
or  neuters,  which  are,  properly  speaking,  females 
imperfectly  developed.  A  third  kind  of  indi- 
viduals, the  males,  called  also  drones,  are  gener- 
ally not  met  with  except  from  May  to  July. 
The  working  bees  constitute  essentially  the  bee 
community:  they  are  recognized  by  their  small 
size,  reddish-brown  color,  and,  above  all,  by 
the  palettes  and  brushes  with  which  the  hind 
legs  are  furnished.  The  three  pairs  of  legs, 
which  are  inserted  in  the  thorax,  or  chest,  of  the 
bee,  are  its  tools.  The  two  hind  legs  are  longer 
than  the  other  pairs,  and  present  on  the  exterior 
a  triangular  depression,  resembling  a  palette, 
which  is  surrounded  by  stiff  hairs,  forming  the 
borders  of  a  sort  of  basket  in  which  the  insect 
deposits  the  pollen  of  flowers.  To  each  of  these 
hind  legs  is  jointed  a  square  expanded  piece, 
which  might  be  termed  the  ankle,  smooth  on 
the  exterior,  but  having  hairs  on  its  interior  sur- 
face, which  has  caused  it  to  be  named  the  brush, 
and  which  is  employed  in  collecting  the  pollen. 
The  other  tools  of  "the  working  bee  consist  of  a 
pair  of  movable  mandibles,  which  close  the 
mouth  on  its  two  sides,  and  of  &  trunk,  or  pro- 
boscis, which  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of 
tongue;  this  latter  organ  has  a  hairy  surface, 
to  which  the  honey  of  flowers  adheres,  whence 
it  is  conveyed  to  the  mouth,  and  from  it  to  the 
stomach,  to  be  subsequently  disgorged.  The 
males,  or  drones,  are  larger  and  more  hairy  than 
the  working  bees;  they  emit  a  buzzing  sound, 
have  no  palettes,  and  no  sting.  The  female, 
or  queen,  has  a  longer  body  than  the  workers, 
and  the  wings  shorter  in  proportion.  The  only 
part  she  has  to  play  is  that  of  laying  eggs,  and 
60  she  has  no  palettes  or  brushes.     Only  one 


queen  lives  in  each  hive;  of  which  she  is  perfect 
sovereign,  all  the  workers  submissively  obeying 
her.  The  number  of  males  is  scarcely  one^tenth 
that  of  the  working  bees,  and  they  live  only 
about  three  months.  The  wax  of  which  the 
cells  of  the  honeycomb  are  constructed  is  sup- 
posed to  be  secreted  by  an  organ  situated  in  the 
abdomen,  or  belly,  of  the  bee;  but,  in  addition 
to  wax,  another  substance,  much  resembling  it, 
but  not  identical,  called  propolis,  is  elaborated 
from  the  juices  of  certain  plants,  and  employed 
to  line  the  inner  surface  of  the  hive.  The  cells 
are  hexagonal  in  shape,  that  is,  having  six  equal 
sides  —  the  most  economical  form  as  regards 
space  —  and  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  store- 
cells,  which  are  filled  with  honey,  as  a  reserve 
store  of  food,  and  cradle-cells,  in  which  the  eggs 
are  desposited.  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year 
the  queen  leaves  the  hive,  accompanied  by  the 
drones,  and  takes  what  is  called  her  "nuptial 
flight"  through  the  air.  About  forty-eight 
hours  after  her  return  to  the  hive  she  begins  lay- 
ing her  eggs,  at  the  rate  of  about  two  hundred  a 
day.  The  eggs  which  are  destined  to  develop 
into  workers  are  first  laid,  then  those  which  are 
to  produce  males,  and  lastly  those  which  give 
birth  to  females.  The  eggs  are  not  long  in  being 
hatched,  and  the  larvce,  or  caterpillars,  which 
emerge  from  them  are  tended  by  the  workers, 
and  fed  by  them  on  a  peculiar  paste,  which  is 
apparently  a  preparation  of  pollen.  In  five  or 
six  days  the  larvae  pass  into  the  condition  of  pupa, 
or  chrysalis,  and  in  about  seven  or  eight  days 
after  this  the  perfect  insect  is  hatched. 

Beet  (Beta).  A  genus  of  plants,  distin- 
guished by  its  fruit  being  inclosed  in  a  tough 
woody  or  spongy  five-lobed  enlarged  calyx. 
Two  species  only  are  known  in  general  cultivation 
namely,  the  sea-beet  (Beta  maritima)  and  the 
garden  beet  {Beta  vulgaris).  The  former  is  a 
tough-rooted  perennial,  common  on  many  parts 
of  the  British  coast  and  sometimes  cultivated 
for  its  leaves,  which  are  an  excellent  substitute 
for  spinach.  Of  the  garden  beet,  which  differs 
from  the  last  in  being  of  only  biennial  duration 
and  in  forming  a  tender  fleshy  root,  two  principal 
forms  are  known  to  cultivators,  the  chard  beet 
and  the  common  beet.  In  the  chard  beet  the 
roots  are  small,  white,  and  rather  tough,  and  the 
leaves  are  furnished  with  a  broad,  fleshy  midrib 
(chard),  employed  as  a  vegetable  by  the  French, 
who  dress  the  ribs  like  sea-kale  under  the  name 
of  poiree.  Some  writers  regard  this  as  a  peculiar 
species,  and  call  it  Beta  cicla  or  hortensis.  The 
common  beet  includes  all  the  fleshy-rooted  va- 
rieties, such  as  red  beet  (with  a  fleshy  large  carrot- 
shaped  root),  yellow  beet,  sugar-beet,  mangel- 
wurzel,  etc.  For  garden  purposes  the  best  is 
the  red  beet  of  Castelnaudary,  so  called  from  a 
town  in  ^le  southwest  of  France.  The  beet  re- 
quires a  rich  light  soil,  and  being  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region  is  impatient  of  severe  cold, 
requiring  to  be  taken  up  in  the  beginning  of 
winter  and  packed  in  dry  sand,  or  in  pits  like 
potatoes,  the  succulent  leaves  having  been  first 
removed.  Red  beet  is  principally  used  at  table, 
but  if  eaten  in  great  quantity  i^said  to  be  injuri- 
ous. The  beet  may  be  taken  out  of  the  ground 
for  use  about  the  end  of  August,  but  it  does  not 
attain  its  full  size  and  perfection  till  the  month 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


735 


of  October.  A  good  beer  may  be  brewed  from 
the  beet,  and  it  yields  a  spirit  of  good  quality. 
From  the  white  beet  the  French,  during  the  wars 
with  Napoleon  I.,  succeeded  in  preparing  sugar. 
Since  that  time,  with  the  increase  of  chemical 
and  technical  knowledge,  the  makiiig  of  beet- 
sugar  has  become  an  important  industry  in 
France,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  has  even  been  tried  in  England,  and  the  failure 
of  attempts  to  produce  beet-sugar  on  a  large 
scale  there  seems  to  have  been  mainly  due  to 
artificial  conditions  of  trade  competition. 

Beetle.  A  name  often  used  as  synonymous 
with  the  term  Coleoptera,  but  restricted  by 
others  to  include  all  those  insects  that  have  their 
wings  protected  by  hard  cases  or  sheaths,  called 
elytra.  Beetles  vary  in  size  from  a  mere  point 
to  the  bulk  of  a  man's  fist,  the  largest,  the  ele- 
phant beetle  of  South  America,  being  four  inches 
long.  The  so-called  "black  beetles"  of  kitchens 
and  cellars  are  not  properly  beetles  at  all,  but 
cockroaches,  and  of  the  order  Orthoptera. 

Segonla.  An  extensive  genus  of  succu- 
lent-stemmed herbaceous  plants,  order  Begoni- 
acece,  with  fleshy  oblique  leaves  of  various  colors, 
and  showy  unisexual  flowers,  the  whole  perianth 
colored.  They  readily  hybridize,  and  many 
fine  varieties  have  been  raised  from  the  tuberous- 
rooted  kinds.  From  the  shape  of  their  leaves 
they  have  been  called  elephant's  ear.  Almost  all 
the  plants  of  the  order  are  tropical,  and  they 
have  mostly  pink  or  red  flowers. 

Belladonna.  A  European  plant  {Atr6pa 
Belladonna),  or  deadly  nightshade.  It  is  native 
in  Britain.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  poisonous, 
and  the  incautious  eating  of  the  berries  has  often 
produced  death.  The  inspissated  juice  is  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna. It  is  narcotic  and  poisonous,  but  is  of 
great  value  in  medicine,  especially  in  nervous 
ailments.  It  has  the  property  of  causing  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  to  dilate.  The  fruit  of  the  plant 
is  a  dark  brownish-black  shining  berry.  The 
name  signifies  "beautiful  lady,"  and  is  said  to 
have  been  given  from  the  use  of  the  plant  as  a 
cosmetic. 

Betel  {Belle).  A  species  of  pepper,  Chavica 
Betel,  a  creeping  or  climbing  plant,  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  native  order  Piperacece.  The 
leaves  are  employed  to  inclose  a  piece  of  the 
areca  or  betel-nut  and  a  little  lime  into  a  pellet, 
which  is  extensively  chewed  in  the  East.  The 
pellet  is  hot  and  acrid,  but  has  aromatic  and 
astringent  properties.  It  tinges  the  saliva,  gums 
and  lips  a  brick-red,  and  blackens  the  teeth. 

Birch  {Betula).  A  genus  of  trees,  order 
Betulacece,  which  comprises  only  the  birches 
and  alders,  which  inhabit  Europe,  Northern 
Asia,  and  North  America.  The  common  birch 
is  indigenous  throughout  the  north,  and  on  high 
situations  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  extremely 
hardy,  and  only  one  or  two  other  species  of 
trees  approach  so  near  to  the  north  pole.  There 
are  two  varieties  natives  of  Britain,  Betula  alba, 
and  Betula  alba  pendula,  or  weeping-birch,  the 
latter  a  very  beautiful  tree.  The  wood  of  the 
birch,  which  is  light  in  color,  and  firm  and  tough 
in  texture,  is  used  for  chairs,  tables,  bedsteads, 
and  the  woodwork  of  furniture  generally,  also 


for  fish-cases  and  hoops,  and  for  smoking  hams 
and  herrings,  as  well  as  for  many  small  articles. 
In  France  wooden  shoes  are  made  of  it.  The 
bark  is  whitish  in  color,  smooth  and  shining, 
separable  in  thin  sheets  or  layers.  Fishing-nets 
and  sails  ars  steeped  with  it  to  preserve  them. 
In  some  countries  it  is  made  into  hats,  shoes, 
boxes,  etc.  In  Russia  the  oil  extracted  from  it 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  Russian  leather, 
and  imparts  the  well-known  scent  to  it.  In  Lap- 
land bread  has  .been  made  from  it.  The  sap, 
from  the  amount  of  sugar  it  contains,  affords  a 
kind  of  agreeable  wine,  which .  is  produced  by 
the  tree  being  tapped  during  warm  weather  in 
the  end  of  spring  or  beginning  of  summer,  when 
the  sap  runs  most  copiously.  The  dwarf  birch, 
Betula  nana,  a  low  shrub,  two  or  three  feet  high 
at  most,  is  a  native  of  all  the  most  northerly 
regions.  Betula  lenta,  the  cherry-birch  of  Amer- 
ica, and  the  black  birch  {Betula  nigra)  of  the 
same  country,  produce  valuable  timber,  as  do 
other  American  species.  The  largest  of  these 
is  the  yellow  birch  {Betula  lutea  or  excelsa),  which 
attains  the  height  of  eighty  feet.  It  is  named 
from  its  bark  being  of  a  rich  yellow  color.  The 
paper  birch  of  America  {Betula  papyracea)  has 
a  bark  that  may  be  readily  divided  into  thin 
sheets  almost  like  paper.  From  it  the  Indian 
bark  canoes  are  made. 

Bird -catching  Spider.  A  name  ap- 
plied to  gigantic  spiders  of  the  genera  MygSle 
and  Epeira,  more  especially  to  the  Myg&le  avi- 
cularia,  a  native  of  Surinam  and  elsewhere, 
which  preys  upon  insects  and  small  birds,  which 
it  hunts  for  and  pounces  on.  It  is  about  two 
inches  long,  very  hairy,  and  almost  black;  its 
feet  when  spread  out  occupy  a  surface  of  nearly 
a  foot  in  diameter. 

Bird  of  Paradise.  The  name  for  mem- 
bers of  a  family  of  birds  of  splendid  plumage 
allied  to  the  crows,  inhabiting  New  Guinea  and 
the  adjacent  islands.  The  family  includes  eleven 
or  twelve  genera  and  a  number  of  species,  some 
of  them  remarkably  beautiful.  The  largest 
species  is  over  two  feet  in  length.  The  king  bird 
of  paradise  {Paradisea  regia),  is  possibly  the 
most  beautiful  species,  but  is  rare.  It  has  a  mag- 
nificent plume  of  feathers,  of  a  delicate  yellow 
color,  coming  up  from  under  the  wings,  and 
falling  over  the  back  like  a  jet  of  water.  The 
feathers  of  the  Paradisea  major  and  ParadisM- 
minor  are  those  chiefly  worn  in  plumes.  These 
splendid  ornaments  are  confined  to  the  male 
bird. 

Birds.  A  class  of  animals  comprising  all 
oviparous  vertebrates  which  are  clothed  with 
feathers,  furnished  with  a  bill,  and  organised  for 
flight.  They  have  warm  blood,  and  a  complete 
double  circulation.  They  are  all  bipeds;  the 
body  is  inclined  before  their  feet,  the  thighs 
are  directed  forward,  and  the  toes  elongated, 
forming  a  broad  supporting  base.  The  head 
and  neck  are  more  or  less  prolonged,  the  latter 
very  flexible,  and  generally  containing  twelve 
or  more  vertebrae.  The  posterior  extremities 
present  five  principal  modifications,  affording 
characters  which  distinguish  five  primary  orders. 
In  the  first  order  the  foot  has  three  toes  before 
and  one  behind,  all  armed  with  long,  strong, 
crooked,    and    more    or   less    retractile    talons, 


736 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


adapted  to  seize  and  lacerate  a  living  prey ;  this 
structure  is  associated  with  a  strong,  curved, 
sharp-edged  and  sharp-pointed  beak,  often 
armed  with  a  lateral  tooth;  a  very  muscular 
body,  and  capability^  of  rapid  and  long-continued 
flight.  This  order  is  termed  Raptores  or  Accipi- 
tres.  The  second  type  of  foot  presents  three 
toes  before  and  one  behind,  and  placed  on  the 
same  level ;  slender,  flexible,  of  moderate  length, 
and  provided  with  long,  pointed,  and  slightly 
curved  claws.  The  two  external  toes  are  united 
by  a  very  short  membrane.  A  foot  so  con- 
structed is  especially  adapted  for  the  delicate 
operations  of  nest-building,  and  for  grasping 
and  perching  among  the  slender  branches  of 
trees ;  hence  the  order  so  characterized  has  been 
termed  Insessores,  and  from  including  the  smaller 
tribes  of  birds,  Passeres.  In  the  third  type 
of  foot  the  hinder  toe  is  raised  above  the  level  of 
the  three  anterior  ones;  this  lessens  the  power 
of  perching;  but  the  other  toes  are  strong, 
straight,  and  terminated  by  robust  obtuse  claws, 
adapted  for  scratching  up  the  soil,  and  for  run- 
ning along  the  ground;  the  legs  are  for  this 
purpose  very  strong  and  muscular,  and  the  order 
so  characterized  is  termed  Rasores,  or  Gallince. 
The  modification  by  which  birds  are  enabled  to 
wade  and  seek  their  food  in  water  along  the 
margins  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  estuaries,  is  gained 
simply  by  elongating  the  bones  of  the  leg  (tibia 
and  metatarsus),  which  are  covered  with  a  naked 
scaly  skin.  The  three  anterior  toes  are  very 
long  and  slender,  as  in  the  Parra  Jacana,  by 
which  the  bird  can  support  itself  upon  the  broad 
floating  leaves  of  aquatic  plants;  sometimes 
the  toes  are  united  by  intervening  webs;  the 
legs  are  placed  behind  the  center  of  equilibrium ; 
the  body  is  protected  by  a  dense  covering  of 
feathers,  and  a  thick  down  next  to  the  skin; 
and  the  whole  organization  is  especially  adapted 
for  aquatic  life.  Hence  the  order  is  termed 
Natatores. 

Bison.  The  name  applied  to  two  species 
of  ox.  One  of  these,  the  European  bison  or 
aurochs  {Bos  bison  or  Bison  europceus),  is  now 
nearly  extinct,  being  found  only  in  the  forests 
of  Lithuania  and  the  Caucasus.  The  other,  or 
American  bison,  improperly  termed  buffalo 
(Bison  americanus),  is  found  only  in  the  region 
lying  north  and  south  between  the  Great  Slave 
Lake  and  the  Yellowstone  River,  and  in  parts 
of  Kansas  and  Texas,  and  is  rapidly  becoming 
extinct  in  the  wild  state,  though  formerly  to  be 
met  with  in  immense  herds.  The  two  species 
closely  resemble  each  other,  the  American  bison, 
however,  being  for  the  most  part  smaller,  and 
with  shorter  and  weaker  hind-quarters.  The 
bison  is  remarkable  for  the  great  hump  or  pro- 
jection over  its  fore-shoulders,  at  which  point 
the  adult  male  is  almost  six  feet  in  height;  and 
for  the  long,  shaggy,  rust-colored  hair  over  the 
head,  neck,  and  forepart  of  the  body.  In  sum- 
mer, from  the  shoulders  backwards,  the  surface 
is  covered  with  a  very  short  fine  hair,  smooth 
and  soft  as  velvet.  The  tail  is  short  and  tufted 
at  the  end.  The  American  bison  used  to  be 
much  hunted  for  sport  as  well  as  for  its  flesh  and 
skin.  Its  flesh  is  rather  coarser  grained  than 
that  of  the  domestic  ox,  but  was  considered  by 
hunters  and  travelers  as  superior  in  tenderness 


and  flavor.  The  hump  is  highly  celebrated  for 
its  richness  and  delicacy.  Their  skins,  especially 
that  of  the  cow,  dressed  in  the  Indian  fashion, 
with  the  hair  on,  make  admirable  defenses 
against  the  cold,  and  are  known  as  buffalo  robes; 
the  wool  has  been  manufactured  into  hats,  and  a 
coarse  cloth.  The  American  bison  has  been 
found  to  breed  readily  with  the  common  ox, 
the  issue  being  fertile  among  themselves. 

Bittern.  The  name  of  several  grallatorial 
birds,  family  Ardeidce  or  herons,  genus  Botaurus. 
There  are  two  British  species,  the  common  bit- 
tern (Botaurus  stellaris)  and  the  little  bittern 
(Botaurus  miniitus),  a  native  of  the  South,  and 
only  a  summer  visitor  to  Britain.  Both,  how- 
ever, are  becoming  rare  from  the  reclamation  of 
the  marshy  grounds  that  form  their  favorite 
haunt.  The  common  bittern  is  about  twenty- 
eight  inches  in  length,  about  forty-four  in  ex- 
tent of  wing;  general  color,  dull  yellowish- 
brown,  with  spots  and  bars  of  black  or  dark 
brown;  feathers  on  the  breast  long  and  loose; 
tail  short ;  bill  about  four  inches  long.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  curious  booming  or  bellowing 
cry,  from  which  come  the  provincial  names  of 
miredrum  and  butter-bump,  etc.  The  eggs  (green- 
ish-brown) are  four  or  five  in  number.  The 
little  bittern  is  not  more  than  fifteen  inches  in 
length.  The  American  bittern  (Botaurus  lenti- 
ginosus)  has  some  resemblance  to  the  common 
European  bittern,  but  is  smaller. 

Bitter -root  (Gentiana  catesboei).  A  plant 
of  Canada  and  part  of  the  United  States,  order 
Mesembryacece,  so  called  from  its  root  being 
bitter  though  edible,  and  indeed  esteemed  as  an 
article  of  food  by  whites  as  well  as  Indians. 
From  the  root,  which  is  long,  fleshy,  and  taper- 
ing, grow  clusters  of  succulent  green  leaves, 
with  a  fleshy  stalk  bearing  a  solitary  rose-colored 
flower  rising  in  the  center,  and  remaining  open 
only  in  sunshine.  Flower  and  leaves  together, 
the  plant  appears  above  ground  for  only  about 
six  weeks.  California  bitter-root  (Echinocystis 
fabacla)  and  Natal  bitter-root  (Gerrardanthus 
macrorhiza)  both  belong  to  the  gourd  family. 

Blacliblrd  (Turdus  merUla),  called  also  the 
merle,  a  well-known  species  of  thrush,  common 
in  Britain  and  throughout  Europe.  It  is  larger 
than  the  common  thrush,  its  length  being  about 
eleven  inches.  The  color  of  the  male  is  a  uni- 
form deep  black,  the  bill  being  an  orange-yellow ; 
the  female  is  of  a  brown  color,  with  blackish- 
brown  bill.  The  nest  is  usually  in  a  thick  bush, 
and  is  built  of  grass,  roots,  twigs,  etc.,  strength- 
ened with  clay.  The  eggs,  generally  four  or 
five  in  number,  are  of  a  greenish-blue,  spotted 
with  various  shades  of  brown.  The  song  is  rich, 
mellow,  and  flute-like,  but  of  no  great  variety 
or  compass.  Its  food  is  insects,  worms,  snails, 
fruits,  etc.  The  blackbirds  or  crow-blackbirds 
of  America  are  quite  different  from  the  Europe- 
an blackbird,  and  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
starlings  and  crows.  The  red-winged  blackbird 
(Agelaius  phcenicSus),  belonging  to  the  starhng 
family,  is  a  familiar  American  bird  that  congre- 
gates in  great  flocks. 

Blood -tiound.  A  variety  of  dog  with 
long,  smooth  and  pendulous  ears,  remarkable 
for  the  acuteness  of  its  smell,  and  employed  to 
recover  game  or  prey  which  has  escaped  wounded 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


737 


from  the  hunter,  by  tracing  the  lost  animal  by 
the  blood  it  has  spilt:  whence  the  name  of  the 
dog.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  animal, 
as  the  English,  the  Cuban,  and  the  African 
bloodhound.  In  former  times  blood-hounds 
were  not  only  trained  to  the  pursuit  of  game, 
but  also  to  the  chase  of  man.  In  America 
they  used  to  be  employed  in  hunting  fugitive 
slaves. 

Blue -bird.  A  small  dentirostral,  insessor- 
ial  bird,  the  ErytMca,  or  Sialia  Wilsoni,  very 
common  in  the  United  States.  The  upper  part 
of  the  body  is  blue,  and  the  throat  and  breast  of 
a  dirty  red.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the  hole  of  a 
tree  or  in  the  box  that  is  so  commonly  provided 
for  its  use  by  the  friendly  farmer.  The  blue-bird 
is  the  harbinger  of  spring  to  the  Americans;  its 
song  is  cheerful,  continuing  with  little  interrup- 
tion from  March  to  October,  but  is  most  fre- 
quently heard  in  the  serene  days  of  the  spring. 
It  is  also  called  blue  robin  or  blue  redbreast,  and 
is  regarded  with  the  same  sort  of  sentiments  as 
the  robin  of  Europe. 

Blue -fish  {TemnMon  or  Pomatdtnus  salta- 
tor).  A  fish  "common  on  the  eastern  coasts  of 
America,  allied  to  the  mackerel,  but  larger, 
growing  to  the  length  of  three  feet  or  more,  and 
much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is  very  de- 
structive to  other  fishes.  It  is  also  called  horse- 
mackerel,  green-fish,  skip-jack,  etc. 

Boa.  A  genus  of  serpents,  family  Boidce, 
having  the  jaws  so  constructed  that  these  ani- 
mals can  dilate  the  mouth  sufficiently  to  swallow 
bodies  thicker  than  themselves.  They  are  also 
distinguished  by  having  a  hook  on  each  side  of 
the  vent;  the  tail  prehensile;  the  body  com- 
pressed and  largest  in  the  middle,  and  with 
small  scales,  at  least  on  the  posterior  part  of  the 
head.  The  genus  includes  some  of  the  largest 
species  of  serpents,  reptiles  endowed  with  im- 
mense muscular  power.  They  seize  sheep,  deer, 
etc.,  and  crush  them  in  their  folds,  after  which 
they  swallow  the  animal  whole.  The  boas  are 
peculiar  to  the  hot  parts  of  South  America. 
The  Boa  constrictor  is  not  one  of  the  largest 
members  of  the  genus,  rarely  exceeding  twenty 
feet  in  length;  but  the  name  boa  or  boa  con- 
strictor is  often  given  popularly  to  any  of  the 
large  serpents  of  similar  habits,  and  so  as  to 
include  the  Pythons  of  the  Old  World  and  the 
Anaconda  and  other  large  serpents  of  America. 

Boneset  or  Thorougiiwort  (Eupator- 
ium  perfoliatum).  A  useful  annual  plant,  in- 
digenous to  America,  and  easily  recognized  by 
its  tall  stem,  four  or  five  feet  in  height,  passing 
through  the  middle  of  a  large  double  hairy  leaf, 
and  surmounted  by  a  broad,  flat  head  of  light 
purple  flowers.  It  is  much  used  as  a  domestic 
medicine  in  the  form  for  an  infusion,  having 
tonic  and  diaphoretic  properties. 

Bony  Pike  or  Gar -fish.  A  remarkable 
genus  of  fishes  inhabiting  North  American  lakes 
and  rivers,  and  one  of  the  few  living  forms  that 
now  represent  the  order  of  ganoid  fishes  so  largely 
developed  in  previous  geological  epochs.  The 
body  is  covered  with  smooth  enameled  scales, 
so  hard  that  it  is  impossible  to  pierce  them  with 
a  spear.  The  common  gar-fish  attains  the  length 
of  five  feet,  and  is  easily  distinguished  by  the 
great  length  of  its  jaws. 


Borax.  Biborate  of  sodium.  Native  bo- 
rax has  long  been  obtained  under  the  name  of 
tincal,  from  India,  the  main  source  being  not 
India  but  a  series  of  lakes  in  Tibet.  As  im- 
ported it  is  in  small  pieces  of  a  dirty  yellowish 
color,  and  is  covered  with  a  fatty  or  soapy 
matter.     Tincal,    which    contains    various    im- 

Curities,  was  formerly  the  only  source  of  borax; 
ut  besides  Tuscany  other  sources  of  boracic 
acid,  more  particularly  in  North  and  South 
America,  and  the  salt  mines  at  Stassfurt,  etc., 
in  Germany,  have  been  rendered  available. 
North  America  yields  large  quantities,  there 
being  rich  deposits  of  borax  and  boracic  min- 
erals on  the  Pacific  slope.  Pure  borax  forms 
large,  transparent,  six-sided  prisms,  which  dis- 
solve readily  in  water,  effloresce  in  dry  air,  and 
when  heated  melt  in  their  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion, swell  up,  and  finally  fuse  to  a  transparent 
glass.     Borax  has  a  variety  of  uses. 

Bower-bird.  A  name  given  to  certain 
Australian  birds  of  the  starling  family  from  a 
remarkable  habit  they  have  of  building  bowers 
to  serve  as  places  of  resort.  The  bowers  are 
constructed  on  the  ground,  and  usually  under 
overhanging  branches  in  the  most  retired  parts 
of  the  forest.  They  are  decorated  with  varie- 
gated feathers,  shells,  small  pebbles,  bones,  etc. 
At  each  end  there  is  an  entrance  left  open. 
These  bowers  do  not  serve  as  nests  at  all,  but 
seem  to  be  places  of  amusement  and  resort, 
especially  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
Satin  Bower-bird  is  so  called  from  its  beautiful 
glossy  plumage,  which  is  of  a  black  color.  An- 
other common  species  is  the  Spotted  Bower-bird, 
which  is  about  eleven  inches  long,  or  rather 
smaller  than  the  first  mentioned,  and  less  gay 
in  color,  but  is  the  most  lavish  of  all  in  decorat- 
ing its  bowers. 

Box-tree.  A  shrubby  evergreen  tree, 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  order  Euphorbiaceoe, 
a  native  of  England,  Southern  Europe,  and 
parts  of  Asia,  with  small  oval  and  opposite 
leaves,  and  greenish,  inconspicuous  flowers,  male 
and  female  on  the  same  tree.  It  was  formerly 
so  common  in  England  as  to  have  given  its 
name  to  several  places  —  Boxhill,  in  Surrey,  for 
instance,  and.Boxley,  in  Kent.  The  wood  is  of 
a  yellowish  color,  close-grained,  very  hard  and 
heavy,  and  admits  of  a  beautiful  polish.  On 
these  accounts  it  is  much  used  by  turners,  wood- 
carvers,  engravers  on  wood  (no  wood  surpassing 
it  in  this  respect),  and  mathematical-instrument 
makers.  Flutes  and  other  wind-instruments  are 
formed  of  it.  The  box  of  commerce  comes 
mostly  from  the  regions  adjoining  the  Black 
Sea  and  Caspian,  and  is  said  to  be  diminishing 
in  quantity.  In  gardens  and  shrubberies  box- 
trees  may  often  be  seen  clipped  into  various 
formal  shapes.  There  is  also  a  dwarf  variety 
reared  as  an  edging  for  garden  walks  and  the 
Uke. 

Bramble.  The  name  commonly  applied 
to  the  bush  with  trailing  prickly  stems,  which 
bears  the  well-known  berries  usually  called  in 
Scotland  brambles,  and  in  England  blackberries. 
It  is  similar  to  the  raspberry,  and  belongs  to 
the  same  ^enus,  natural  order  Rosaceoe.  It  is 
rarely  cultivated,  but  as  a  wild  plant  it  grows 
in  great  abundance.     The  flowers  do  not  appear 


738 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


till  late  in  the  summer,  and  the  fruit,  which  is 
deep  purple  or  almost  black  in  color,  does  not 
ripen  till  autumn. 

Brazil -Avood.  A  kind  of  wood  yielding  a 
red  dye,  obtained  from  several  trees  of  the  genus 
Coesalpinia,  order  Leguminosoe,  natives  of  the 
West  Indies  and  Central  and  South  America. 
The  best  kind  is  Casalpinia  echinata;  other  vari- 
eties are  Coesalpinia  brasiliensis,  Coesalpinia  crista, 
and  Coesalpinia  Sappan. ,  The  wood  is  hard  and 
hea\y,  and  as  it  takes  on  a  fine  polish  it  is  used 
by  cabinet-makers  for  various  purposes,  but  its 
principal  use  is  in  dyeing  red.  The  dye  is  obtained 
by  reducing  the  wood  to  powder  and  boiling  it  in 
water,  when  the  water  receives  the  red  coloring 
principle,  which  is  a  crystallizable  substance 
called  brazilin.  The  color  is  not  permanent  un- 
less fixed  by  suitable  mordants. 

Bread-fruit.  A  large,  globular  fruit  of  a 
pale-green  color,  about  the  size  of  a  child's  head, 
marked  on  the  surface  with  irregular  six-sided 
depressions,  and  containing  a  white  and  some- 
what fibrous  pulp,  which,  when  ripe,  becomes 
juicy  and  yellow.  The  tree  that  produces  it 
grows  wild  in  Otaheite  and  other  islands  of  the 
South  Seas,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America.  It  is  about 
forty  feet  high,  with  large  and  spreading  branches 
and  has  large,  bright-green  leaves  deeply  divided 
into  seven  or  nine  spear-shaped  lobes.  The  fruit 
is  generally  eaten  immediately  after  being  gath- 
ered, but  is  also  often  prepared  so  as  to  keep  for 
some  time  either  by  baking  it  whole  in  close 
underground  pits  or  oy  beating  it  into  paste  and 
storing  it  underground,  when  a  slight  fermenta- 
tion takes  place.  The  eatable  part  lies  between 
the  skin  and  the  core,  and  is  somewhat  of  the 
consistence  of  new  bread.  Mixed  with  cocoa- 
nut  milk  it  makes  an  excellent  pudding.  The 
inner  bark  of  the  tree  is  made  into  a  kind  of 
cloth  The  wood  is  used  for  the  building  of 
boats  and  for  furniture.  The  jack,  much  used 
in  India  and  Ceylon,  is  another  member  of  this 
genus. 

Bread -nuts.  The  seeds  of  the  BrosXmum 
alicastrum,  a  tree  of  the  same  order  as  the  bread- 
fruit. The  bread-nut  tree  is  a  native  of  Jamaica. 
Its  wood,  which  resembles  mahogany,  is  useful 
to  cabinet-makers,  and  its  nuts  make  a  pleasant 
food,  in  taste  not  unlike  hazel-nuts. 

Brussels  Sprouts.  One  of  the  cultivated 
varieties  of  cabbage,  having  an  elongated  stem 
four  or  five  feet  high,  with  small,  clustering, 
green  heads  like  miniature  cabbages.  They  are 
cultivated  in  great  quantities  near  Brussels,  as 
well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Buckwhieat  or  Brank.  A  plant  with 
branched  herbaceous  stem, .  somewhat  arrow- 
shaped  leaves,  and  purplish-white  flowers,  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  about  thirty  inches,  and 
bearing  a  small  triangular  grain  of  a  brownish- 
black  without  and  white  within.  The  shape  of 
its  seeds  gives  it  its  German  name  Buchweizen, 
"beech-wheat,"  whence  the  English  name.  The 
plant  was  first  brought  to  Europe  from  Asia  by 
the  Crusaders,  and  hence  in  France  is  often 
called  Saracen  corn.  It  grows  on  the  poorest 
soils.  It  is  cultivated  in  China  and  other  east- 
em  countries  as  a  bread-corn.  In  Europe  buck- 
wheat has  been  principally  cultivated  as  food 


for  oxen,  swine,  and  poultry;  but  in  Germany 
it  serves  as  an  ingredient  in  pottage,  puddings, 
and  other  food,  and  in  America  buckwheat  cakes 
are  common. 

Bull -dog.  A  variety  of  the  common  dog, 
remarkable  for  its  short,  broad  muzzle,  and  the 
projection  of  its  lower  jaw,  which  causes  the 
lower  front  teeth  to  protrude  beyond  the  upper. 
The  head  is  massive  and  broad;  the  lips  are 
thick  and  pendulous;  the  ears  pendent  at  the 
extremity;  the  neck  robust  and  short;  the 
body  long  and  stout;  and  the  legs  short  and 
thick.  The  bull-dog  is  a  slow-motioned,  fero- 
cious animal,  better  suited  for  savage  combat 
than  for  any  purpose  requiring  activity  and 
intelligence.  For  this  reason  he  is  often  employ- 
ployed  as  a  watch-dog.  It  was  formerly  used 
—  as  its  name  implies  —  for  the  barbarous  sport 
of  bull-baiting.  The  bull  terrier  was  originally 
from  a  cross  between  the  bull-dog  and  the 
terrier.  It  is  smaller  than  the  bull-dog,  lively, 
docile,  and  very  courageous. 

Bull -frog.  A  large  species  of  frog  found- 
in  North  America,  eight  to  twelve  inches  long, 
of  a  dusky-brown  color  mixed  with  a  yellowish- 
green,  and  spotted  with  black.  These  frogs  live 
in  stagnant  water,  and  utter  a  low,  croaking 
sound  resembling  the  lowing  of  cattle,  whence 
the  name. 

Bull- head.  The  popular  name  of  certain 
fishes.  One  of  these,  the  Cottus  gobio,  a  British 
fish,  is  about  four  inches  long,  with  head  very 
large  and  broader  than  the  body.  It  is  often 
called  also'  Miller' s-ihumb.  The  armed  bull- 
head is  found  in  the  Baltic  and  northern  seas; 
the  six-horned  bull-head  is  a  North  American 
species.  In  America  this  name  is  given  to  a 
species  of  Cat-fish  and  Horned-pout. 

Bustard.  A  bird  belonging  to  the  order 
Cursores,  or  runners,  but  approaching  the 
waders.  The  great  bustard  is  the  largest  Euro- 
pean bird,  the  male  often  weighing  thirty  pounds, 
with  a  breadth  of  wing  of  six  or  seven  feet.  The 
bustard  is  now  rare  in  Britain,  but  abounds  in 
the  south  and  east  of  Europe  and  the  steppes  of 
Tartary,  feeding  on  green  corn  and  other  vege- 
tables, and  on  earth-worms.  Its  flesh  is  es- 
teemed. All  the  species  run  fast,  and  take 
flight  with  difficulty.  The  little  bustard  occa- 
sionally visits  Britain.  The  Australian  species 
is  a  magnificent  bird  highly  prized  as  food. 

Butterfly.  The  family  of  the  butterflies 
is  a  very  extensive  one,  and  naturalists  differ 
much  as  to  the  manner  of  subdividing  it.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  circum- 
stances connected  with  these  beautiful  insects 
is  their  series  of  transformations  before  reaching 
a  perfect  state.  The  female  butterfly  lays  a 
great  quantity  of  eggs,  which  produce  larvae, 
commonly  called  caterpillars.  After  a  short  life 
.these  assume  a  new  form,  and  become  chrysalids 
or  pupae.  These  chrysalids  are  attached  to  other 
bodies  in  various  ways,  and  are  of  various  forms ; 
they  often  have  brilliant  golden  or  argentine 
spots.  Within  its  covering  the  insect  develops, 
to  emerge  as  the  active  and  brilliant  butterfly. 
These  insects  in  their  perfect  form  suck  the 
nectar  of  plants,  but  take  little  food,  and  are 
all  believed  to  be  short-lived,  their  work  in  the 
perfect  state  being  almost  confined  to  the  propa- 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


739 


gation  of  the  species.  Butterflies  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  coloring. 

Buzzard.  The  name  of  raptorial  birds 
which  form  one  of  the  sub-families  of  the  diur- 
nal birds  of  prey;  characters,  a  moderate-sized 
beak,  hooked  from  the  base,  long  wings,  long 
tarsi,  and  short,  weak  toes.  The  common  buz- 
zard is  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe  as 
well  as  the  north  of  Africa  and  America.  Its 
food  consists  of  moles,  mice,  frogs,  toads,  worms, 
insects,  etc.  It  is  sluggish  in  its  habits.  Its 
length  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  inches. 
The  rough-legged  buzzard,  so  called  from  having 
its  legs  leathered  to  the  toes,  is  also  a  native  of 
Britain.  Its  habits  resemble  those  of  the  com- 
mon buzzard.  The  red-tailed  hawk  of  the 
United  States  is  a  buzzard.  It  is  also  called 
hen-hawk,  from  its  raids  on  the  poultry-yard. 
The  name  buzzard  is  commonly  given  to  Ameri- 
can vultures,  as,  for  instance,  the  familiar  tur- 
key buzzard. 

Cabbage.  The  popular  name  of  various 
species  of  cruciferous  plants  of  the  genus  Bras- 
sica,  and  especially  applied  to  the  plain-leaved, 
hearting,  garden  varieties  of  Brassica  oleracea, 
cultivated  for  food.  The  wild  cabbage  is  a 
native  of  the  coasts  of  Britain,  but  is  much  more 
common  on  other  European  shores.  The  kinds 
most  cultivated  are  the  common  cabbage,  the 
savoy,  the  broccoli,  and  the  cauliflower.  The 
common  cabbage  forms  its  leaves  into  heads  or 
bolls,  the  inner  leaves  being  blanched.  Its 
varieties  are  the  white,  the  red  or  purple,  the 
tree  or  cow  cabbage  for  cattle  (branching  and 
growing  when  in  flower  to  the  height  of  ten 
feet),  and  the  very  delicate  Portugal  cabbage. 
The  garden  sorts  form  valuable  culinary  vege- 
tables, and  are  used  at  table  in  various  ways. 

Cabbage -rose.  A  species  of  rose  {Rosa 
centi folia)  of  many  varieties,  supposed  to  have 
been  cultivated  from  ancient  times,  and  emi- 
nently fitted  for  the  manufacture  of  rose-water 
and  attar  from  its  fragrance.  It  has  a  large, 
rounded,  and  compact  flower.  Called  also  Pro- 
vence Rose. 

Cacao,  or  Cocoa.  The  seeds  of  a  plant 
known  as  Theobroma  Cacao  (or  "Food  of  the 
Gods,"  as  Linnaeus  named  the  tree),  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  and  of  tropical  America,  and 
cultivated  in  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  a  small  tree, 
seldom  more  than  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  high, 
with  large  oblong  leaves,  and  clusters  of  flowers 
which  have  rose-colored  sepals  and  yellowish 
petals.  Its  fruits  vary  from  six  to  ten  inches  in 
length,  and  from  three  to  five  in  breadth,  each 
containing  between  fifty  and  a  hundred  seeds, 
and  it  is  from  these  that  the  cocoa  is  prepared. 
When  ripe  the  fruits  turn  yellow  outside,  and 
they  are  then  gathered  by  hand,  and  afterwards 
split  open  and  the  seeds  removed.  The  seeds 
are  oval,  and  about  as  large  as  an  olive.  To 
prepare  them  for  use  they  are  roasted,  and  then 
bruised  to  loosen  their  skins  which  are  removed 
by  fanning;  the  seed-lobes,  commonly  called 
"  cocoa-nibs,"  are  next  crushed  and  ground  be- 
tween rollers,  which  reduces  them  to  a  uniform 
pasty  consistence.  This  paste,  when  sweetened, 
flavored  with  vanilla  or  cinnamon,  and  dried, 
constitutes  Chocolate.  Cocoa  contains  an  active 
principle  called  theo-bromine,  resembling  caffeine, 


the  alkaloid  in  tea  and  coffee.  A  fatty  or 
oily  matter,  called  butter  of  cacao,  is  also  present 
in  the  cocoa-seeds,  to  the  extent  of  one-half  their 
weight.  Cocoa  must  not  be  confounded  with 
Cuca,  or  Coca,  a  plant  chewed  by  the  Indians  of 
South  America. 

Cactus.  A  Linnaean  genus  of  plants,  now 
used  as  a  name  for  any  of  the  Cactaceae,  a  natural 
order  of  dicotyledons,  otherwise  called  the  Indian 
fig  order.  The  species  are  succulent  shrubs, 
with  minute  scale-like  leaves  (except  in  the 
genus  Pereskia,  tree-cactus,  with  large  leaves), 
and  with  clusters  and  spines  on  the  stems.  They 
have  fleshy  stems,  with  sweetish  watery  or  milky 
juice,  and  they  assume  many  peculiar  forms. 
The  juice  in  some  species  affords  a  refreshing 
beverage  where  water  is  not  to  be  got.  All  the 
plants  of  this  order,  except  a  single  species,  are 
natives  of  America.  They  are  generally  found 
in  very  dry  localities.  Some  are  epiphytes. 
Several  have  been  introduced  into  the  Old 
World,  and  in  many  places  they  have  become 
naturalized.  The  fruits  of  some  species  are 
edible,  as  the  prickly-pear  and  the  Indian  fig, 
cultivated  throughout  the  Mediterranean  region. 
The  flowers  are  usually  large  and  beautifully 
colored,  and  many  members  of  the  order  are 
cultivated  in  hothouses. 

Camel.  The  Camel  family,  including  horn- 
less ruminant  animals  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  two  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  The 
genus  Camelus  embraces  two  species,  which  are 
only  known  in  the  domesticated  state.  The 
dromedary,  or  African  camel,  has  one  hump  on 
the  back;  the  common,  or  Asiatic  camel,  has 
two  humps.  The  camel,  by  its  power  of  sus- 
taining abstinence  from  drink  for  many  days, 
from  the  pecuhar  formation  of  its  stomach,  and 
of  subsisting  on  a  few  coarse  shrubs,  is  peculiarly 
fitted  for  the  parched  and  barren  lands  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  The  Arabians  live  chiefly  on  the 
milk  of  their  camels;  and  without  them  they 
could  neither  carry  on  trade,  nor  travel  over 
their  sandy  deserts. 

Camellia  (ka-mel'ya).  A  genus  of  plants, 
order  TernstroemiaceoB  (the  tea  order),  with 
showy  flowers  and  elegant  dark-green,  shining, 
laurel-like  leaves,  nearly  allied  to  the  plants 
which  yield  tea,  and  named  from  George  Joseph 
Kamel,  a  ]\Ioravian  Jesuit.  The  Camellia 
japonica,  in  Japan  and  China,  is  a  lofty  tree  of 
beautiful  proportions.  It  is  the  origin  of  many 
double  varieties  of  our  gardens.  Besides  this 
species,  the  Camellia  Sasanqua,  with  small  white 
scentless  flowers,  and  the  Camellia  reticulata 
(net-veined),  with  its  large  peony-like  flowers, 
are  cultivated  in  United  States. 

Camelopard.  The  Camelopard  or  Gi- 
raffe, a  genus  of  ruminant  animals,  family  Cer- 
vidce.  The  only  known  species,  Camelopard  gi- 
rafa,  is  a  native  of  several  parts  of  Africa,  living 
in  forests,  and  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  trees. 
It  has  two  straight  horns,  without  branches, 
six  inches  long,  covered  with  hair,  truncated  at 
the  end,  and  tufted.  The  shoulders  are  of  such 
a  length  as  to  render  the  fore  part  of  the  animal 
much  higher  than  the  hind  part.  The  neck  is 
very  long,  the  head  slender  and  elegant,  and  the 
color  of  the  body  is  a  dusky  white,  with  large 
rusty  spots.     It  is  mild  and  inoffensive,  and  in 


740 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


case  of  danger  has  recourse  to  flight  for  safety, 
but  when  obhged  to  stand  on  self-defense,  it 
kicks  its  adversary. 

Canary.  A  popular  song  bird  of  the  finch 
family,  native  of  the  Canary  Islands.  It  has 
been  domesticated  for  over  three  hundred  years. 
There  are  many  varieties,  and  in  Great  Britain 
an  intense  interest  is  displayed  in  the  frequent 
canary  shows.  The  bird  usually  possesses 
remarkable  qualities  as  a  songster.  Practically 
all  the  caged  varieties  are  of  a  yellow  plumage, 
though  in  the  native  state  they  are  of  a  dull 
greenish  color.  It  is  generally  used  as  a  house  bird 
in  the  United  States.  The  birds  frequently  com- 
mand a  price  of  upwards  of  one  hundred  dollars. 

Canvas -back  Duck.  A  bird  peculiar 
to  North  America,  and  considered  the  finest  of 
the  water-fowl  for  the  table.  They  arrive  in  the 
United  States  from  the  North  about  the  middle 
of  October,  sometimes  assembling  in  immense 
numbers.  The  plumage  is  black,  white,  chest- 
nut brown,  and  slate  color;  length  about  twenty 
inches. 

Caper.  The  unopened  flower-bud  of  a  low 
trailing  shrub,  which  grows  from  the  crevices  of 
rocks  and  walls,  and  among  rubbish,  in  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  Picked 
and  pickled  in  vinegar  and  salt  they  ate  much 
used  as  a  condiment  (caper-sauce  being  especially 
the  accompaniment  of  boiled  mutton).  The 
plant  was  introduced  into  Britain  as  early  as 
1596,  but  has  never  been  grown  on  a  large  scale. 
The  flower-buds  of  the  marsh-marigold  and 
nasturtium  are  frequently  pickled  and  eaten  as 
a  substitute  for  capers. 

Caraway.  An  umbelliferous  biennial 
plant,  with  a  tapering  fleshy  root,  a  striated 
furrowed  stem,  and  white  or  pinkish  flowers. 
It  produces  a  well-known  seed  used  in  confec- 
tionery, and  from  which  both  a  carminative  oil 
is  extracted  and  the  liqueur  called  kummel  pre- 
pared. 

Cardinal  Bird.  A  North  American  bird 
of  the  finch  family,  with  a  fine  red  plumage,  and 
a  crest  on  the  head.  Its  song  resembles  that  of 
the  nightingale,  hence  one  of  its  common  names, 
Virginian  Nightingale.  In  size  it  is  about  equal 
to  the  starling.  Called  also  Scarlet  Grosbeak  or 
Cardinal  Grosbeak  and  Redbird. 

Caribou,  a  name  derived  from  the  Indian 
languages,  and  given  by  French-Canadians  to 
the  reindeer  of  North  America.  The  caribou  is 
thought  by  most  zoologists  to  be  a  variety  of 
the  European  reindeer,  though  a  few  regard  it  as 
a  distinct  species.  It  is  found  throughout  the 
wooded  districts  of  Canada,  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States,  in  Maine  and  around  Lake 
Superior.  It  ranges  the  woods  and  swampy  dis- 
tricts, uniting  in  bands  of  hundreds  in  winter, 
traversing  the  snow  on  its  broad,  hairy  hoofs,  and 
subsisting  on  leaves,  berries,  and  lichens.  Caribou 
are  hunted  for  their  flesh  and  skin,  and  are  the 
chief  dependence  of  many  Indians.  The  Green- 
land, or  barren-ground  caribou  are  somewhat 
smaller  and  paler  than  the  woodland  variety, 
and  exist  in  large  herds  north  of  Hudson  Bay. 

Carrot.  A  biennial  umbelliferous  plant. 
In  gardens  there  are  three  chief  varieties.  The 
leaves  are  tripinnate,  of  a  handsome  feathery 
appearance.     The  plants  rise  to  the  height  of 


two  feet,  and  produces  white  flowers.  The  root, 
in  its  wild  state,  is  small,  tapering,  of  a  white 
color,  and  strong-flavored ;  but  that  of  the  culti- 
vated variety  is  large,  succulent,  and  of  a  red, 
yellow,  or  pale-straw  color,  and  shows  remark- 
ably the  improvement  which  may  be  effected  by 
cultivation.  It  is  cultivated  for  the  table  and 
as  a  food  for  cattle.  Carrots  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  saccharine  matter,  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  extract  sugar  from  them. 
They  have  been  also  employed  in  distillation. 

Cat.  A  well-known  domesticated  quadru- 
ped, order  Carnivora,  the  same  name  being  also 
given  to  allied  forms  of  the  same  order.  It  is 
believed  that  the  cat  was  originally  domesticated 
in  Egypt,  and  the  gloved  cat  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia  has  by  some  been  considered  the  original 
stock  of  the  domestic  cat,  though  more  prob- 
ably it  was  the  Egyptian  cat.  It  was  seldom, 
if  at  all,  kept  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
till  long  after  the  Christian  era  was  rare  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  Some  have  thought 
that  the  domestic  breed  owed  its  origin  to  the 
wild  cat;  but  there  are  considerable  differences 
between  them,  the  latter  being  larger,  and  hav- 
ing a  shorter  and  thicker  tail,  which  also  does 
not  taper.  The  domestic  cat  belongs  to  a  genus 
—  that  which  contains  the  lion  and  tiger  — 
better  armed  for  -the  destruction  of  animal  life 
than  any  other  quadrupeds.  The  short  and 
powerful  jaws,  trenchant  teeth,  cunning  dispo- 
sition, combined  with  nocturnal  habits  (for 
which  their  eyesight  is  naturally  adapted)  and 
much  patience  in  pursuit,  give  these  animals 
great  advantages  over  their  prey.  The  cat,  in 
a  degree,  partakes  of  all  the  attributes  of  its 
race.  Its  food,  in  a  state  of  domestication,  is 
necessarily  very  various,  but  always  of  flesh  or 
fish  if  it  can  be  obtained.  Instances  of  its 
catching  the  latter  are  known,  though  usually 
the  cat  is  extremely  averse  to  wetting  itself. 
It  is  a  very  cleanly  animal,  avoiding  to  step  in 
any  sort  of  filth,  and  preserving  its  fur  in  a 
very  neat  condition.  Its  fur  is  very  easily 
injured  by  water  on  account  of  the  want  of  oil 
in  it,  and  it  can  be  rendered  highly  electric  by 
friction.  The  cat  goes  with  young  for  sixty- 
three  days,  and  brings  forth  usually  from  three 
to  six  at  a  litter,  which  remain  blind  for  nine 
days.  It  is  usually  regarded  as  less  intelligent 
than  the  dog,  but  this  is  by  no  means  certain. 
It  has  a  singular  power  of  finding  its  way  home 
when  taken  to  a  distance  and  covered  up  by 
the  way.  Among  the  various  breeds  or  races 
of  cat  may  be  mentioned  the  tailless  cat  of  the 
Isle  of  Man  (and  the  Crimea);  the  tortoise- 
shell,  with  its  color  a  mixture  of  black,  white, 
and  brownish  or  fawn  color;  the  large  Angora 
or  Persian  cat,  with  its  long  silky  fur;  and  the 
blue  or  Carthusian,  with  long,  soft,  greyish- 
blue  fur. 

Cat- bird.  A  well-known  species  of  Amer- 
ican thrush,  which,  during  the  summer,  is 
found  throughout  the  Middle  and  New  England 
States,  frequenting  thickets  and  shrubberies. 
Its  note  is  strikingly  similar  to  the  plaint  of  a 
kitten  in  distress.  The  plumage  is  a  deep  slate- 
color  above  and  lighter  below,  and  it  is  about 
nine  inches  in  length.  In  habit  it  is  lively, 
familiar,  and  unsuspicious;    the  song  is  largely 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


741 


imitative  of  those  of  other  birds.  During  the 
winter  it  inhabits  the  extreme  south  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  found  also  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  The  cat-bird  frecjuently  at- 
tacks the  common  black  snake,  which,  in  the 
absence  of  the  bird,  rifles  its  nest. 

Cedar.  A  tree  which  forms  fine  woods  on 
the  mountains  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  an  evergreen, 
grows  to  a  great  size,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
durability.  Of  the  famous  cedars  of  Lebanon 
comparatively  few  now  remain,  and  the  tree 
does  not  grow  in  any  other  part  of  Palestine. 
The  most  celebrated  group  is  situated  not  far 
from  the  village  of  Tripoli,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  circum- 
ference of  the  twelve  largest  trees  here  varies 
from  about  eighteen  to  forty-seven  feet.  Cedar 
timber  was  formerly  much  prized,  but  In  mod- 
ern times  is  not  regarded  as  of  much  value, 
perhaps  from  the  trees  not  being  of  sufficient 
age.  Some  fine  cedars  are  met  with  in  America 
and  England.  The  name  is  given  also  to  the 
deodar,  .which  is  indeed  regarded  by  many 
botanists  as  a  mere  variety  of  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon,  and  which  produces  excellent  timber. 
It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  a  large  and  hand- 
some tree,  growing  in  the  Himalayas  to  the 
height  of  150  feet,  with  a  circumference  of 
thirty.  It  has  wide-spreading  branches,  which 
droop  a  little  at  the  extremities.  The  leaves 
are  tufted  or  solitary,  larger  than  those  of  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon  and  very  numerous,  of  a 
dark-bluish  green,  and  covered  with  a  glaucous 
bloom.  The  cones  are  rather  larger  than  those 
of  the  Lebanon  cedar,  and  very  resinous.  The 
wood  is  well  adapted  for  building  purposes, 
being  compact  and  very  enduring. 

Chameleon  (ka-me'li-on).  A  genus  of 
reptiles  belonging  to  the  Saurian  or  lizard  order, 
a  native  of  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  south 
of  Europe.  The  best-knowTi  species  has  a  naked 
body  six  or  seven  inches  long,  with  a  prehensile 
tail  of  about  five  inches,  and  feet  suitable  for 
grasping  branches.  The  skin  is  cold  to  the  touch, 
and  contains  small  grains  or  eminences  of  a 
bluish-gray  color  in  the  shade,  but  in  the  light 
of  the  sun  all  parts  of  the  body  become  of  a 
grayish-brown  or  tawny  color.  It  possesses  the 
curious  faculty,  however,  of  changmg  its  color, 
either  in  accordance  with  its  environment,  or 
with  its  temper  when  disturbed,  the  change  being 
due  to  the  presence  of  clear  or  pigment-bearing 
|Contractile  cells  placed  at  various  depths  in  the 
skin,  their  contractions  and  dilatations  being 
f  under  the  influence  of  the  nervous  system. 
Their  power  of  fasting  and  habit  of  inflating 
themselves  gave  rise  to  the  fable  that  they  lived 
on  air,  but  they  are  in  reality  insectivorous, 
taking  their  prey  by  rapid  movements  of  a  long 
viscid  tongue.  In  general  habit  they  are  dull 
and  torpid. 

Chamois.  A  species  of  goat-like  antelope 
inhabiting  high  inaccessible  mountains  in  Europe 
and  Western  Asia.  Its  horns,  which  are  about 
six  or  seven  inches  long,  are  round,  almost 
smooth,  perpendicular  and  straight  until  near 
the  tip,  where  they  suddenly  terminate  in  a 
hook  directed  backwards  and  downwards.  Its 
hair  is  brown  in  winter,  brown  fawn  color  in 


summer,  and  grayish  in  spring.  The  head  is  of 
a  pale  yellow  color  with  a  black  band  from  the 
nose  to  the  ears  and  surrounding  the  eyes.  The 
tail  is  black.  Its  agility,  the  nature  of  its  haunts, 
and  its  powers  of  smell,  render  its  pursuit  an 
exceedingly  difficult  and  hazardous    occupation. 

Chimpanzee.  The  native  Guinea  name 
of  a  large  West  and  Central  African  ape  belong- 
ing to  the  anthropoid  or  man-like  monkeys,  and 
to  the  same  genus  as  the  gorilla.  When  full 
grown  it  is  sometimes  about  five  feet  high,  with 
black  hair,  and  is  not  so  large  and  powerful  as 
the  gorilla.  Like  the  orang,  it  has  the  hair  on 
its  forearm  turned  backwards,  but  differs  from 
it  in  having  an  additional  dorsal  vertebra  and  a 
thirteenth  pair  of  ribs.  It  walks  erect  better 
than  most  of  the  apes.  It  feeds  on  fruits,  often 
robs  the  gardens  of  the  natives,  and  constructs 
a  sort  of  nest  amongst  the  branches.  It  is  com- 
mon in  menageries,  where  it  shows  much  intel- 
ligence and  docility. 

Chrysanthemum.  A  genus  of  herba- 
ceous or  slightly  shrubby  plants,  distinguished 
by  their  hemispherical  involucre  being  composed 
of  imbricated  scales  which  are  membraneous  at 
the  edges,  and  large  naked  receptacles.  The 
ox-eye  daisy  is  a  common  weed  in  hay-fields, 
where  its  flowers,  which  are  white  with  a  yellow 
disk,  are  conspicuous.  The  corn  marigold  has 
large  golden-yellow  flowers.  It  is  a  handsome 
but  mischievous  weed  in  cornfields.  The  species, 
however,  which  holds  so  high  a  rank  among 
florists'  flowers  is  a  plant  which  has  been  long 
familiar  to  us  from  its  frequent  appearance  in 
Chinese  drawings,  but  has  of  late  years  been 
improved  to  such  ah  extent  as  to  be  prized  for 
its  intrinsic  beauty,  and  not  simply  from  its 
valuable  property  of  blooming  in  November 
and  December. 

Cloves.  A  very  pungent  aromatic  spice, 
the  dried  flower-buds  of  Caryophvllus  aromaticus, 
a  native  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  belonging  to 
the  myrtle  tribe,  now  cultivated  in  Sumatra, 
Mauritius,  Malacca,  Jamaica,  etc.  The  tree  is 
a  handsome  evergreen  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
feet  high,  with  large  elliptic  smooth  leaves  and 
numerous  purplish  flowers  on  jointed  stalks. 
Every  part  of  the  plant  abounds  in  the  volatile 
oil  for  which  the  flower-buds  are  prized.  The 
spice  yields  a  very  fragrant  odor,  and  has  a 
bitterish,  pungent,  and  warm  taste.  It  is  some- 
times employed  as  a  hot  and  stimulating  medi- 
cine, but  is  more  frequently  used  in  culinary 
preparations. 

Cocoanut  or  Coco-nut.  A  woody  fruit 
of  an  oval  shape,  from  three  or  four  to  six  or 
eight  inches  in  length,  covered  with  a  fibrous 
husk,  and  lined  internally  with  a  white,  firm, 
and  fleshy  kernel.  The  tree  which  produces  the 
cocoa-nut  is  a  palm,  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  high, 
The  trunk  is  straight  and  naked,  and  surmounted 
by  a  crown  of  feather-like  leaves.  The  nuts 
hang  from  the  summit  of  the  tree  in  clusters  of 
a  dozen  or  more  together.  The  external  rind  of 
the  nuts  has  a  smooth  surface.  This  incloses 
an  extremely  fibrous  substance,  of  considerable 
thickness,  which  immediately  surrounds  the 
nut.  The  fibrous  coat  of  the  nut  is  made  into 
the  well-known  cocoa-nut  matting;  the  coarse 
yarn  obtained  from  it  is  called  coir,  which  is  also 


742 


THE  STANDARD    DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


used  for  cordage.  The  hard  shell  of  the  nut  is 
poUshed  and  made  into  a  cup  or  other  domestic 
utensil.  The  fronds  are  wrought  into  baskets, 
brooms,  mats,  sacks,  and  many  other  useful 
articles;  the  trunks  are  made  into  boats  or 
furnish  timber  for  the  construction  of  houses. 
By  boring  the  tree  a  white  sweetish  liquor  called 
toddy  exudes  from  the  wound,  and  yields  by  dis- 
tillation one  of  the  varieties  of  the  spirit  called 
arack.  A  kind  of  sugar  called  jaggery  is  also 
obtained  from  the  juice  by  inspissation. 

Coffee.  Is  the  seed  of  an  evergreen  shrub 
which  is  cultivated  in  hot  cliriiates,  and  is  a 
native  of  Abyssinia  and  of  Arabia.  This  shrub 
is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  height ;  the  leaves 
are  green,  glossy  on  the  upper  surface,  and  the 
flowers  are  white  and  sweet-scented.  The  fruit 
is  of  an  oval  shape,  about  the  size  of  a  cherry, 
and  of  a  dark-red  color  when  ripe.  Each  of 
these  contains  two  cells,  and  each  cell  a  single 
seed,  which  is  the  coffee  as  we  see  it  before  it 
undergoes  the  process  of  roasting.  Great  at- 
tention is  paid  to  the  culture  of  coffee  in  Arabia. 
The  trees  are  raised  from  seed  sown  in  nurseries 
and  afterwards  planted  out  in  moist  and  shady 
situations,  on  sloping  grounds  or  at  the  foot  of 
mountains.  Care  is  taken  to  conduct  little  rills 
of  water  to  their  roots,  which  at  certain  seasons 
require  to  be  constantly  surrounded  with  moist- 
ure. When  the  fruit  has  attained  its  maturity 
cloths  are  placed  under  the  trees,  and  upon  these 
the  laborers  shake  it  down.  They  afterwards 
spread  the  berries  on  mats,  and  expose  them 
to  the  sun  to  dry.  The  husk  is  then  broken  off 
by  large  and  heavy  rollers  of  wood  or  iron. 
When  the  coffee  has  been  thus  cleared  of  its 
husk  it  is  again  dried  in  the  sun,  and,  lastly, 
winnowed  with  a  large  fan,  for  the  purpose  of 
clearing  it  from  the  pieces  of  husks  with  which 
it  is  intermingled.  A  pound  of  coffee  is  gener- 
ally more  than  the  produce  of  one  tree;  but  a 
tree  in  great  vigor  will  produce  three  or  four 

Sounds.  The  best  coffee  is  imported  from 
[ocha,  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  packed  in  large 
bales,  each  containing  a  number  of  smaller  bales, 
and  when  good  appears  fresh  and  of  a  greenish- 
olive  color.  Next  m  quality  to  the  Mocha  coffee 
may  perhaps  be  ranked  that  of  Southern  India 
and  that  of  Ceylon,  which  is  strong  and  well 
flavored.  Java  and  Central  America  also  pro- 
duce large  quantities  of  excellent  coffee.  Bra- 
zilian coffee,  though  produced  more  abundantly 
than  any  other,  stands  at  the  bottom  of  the  list 
as  regards  quality.  Liberian  coffee  may  also 
be  mentioned.  American  coffee  holds  m  the 
judgment  of  all  Orientals  the  very  last  rank. 
The  Dutch  were  the  first  to  extend  the  cultiva- 
tion of  coffee  beyond  the  countries  to  which  it 
is  native.  About  1690,  some  coffee  seeds  were 
brought  to  Java,  where  they  were  planted  and 
produced  fruit.  By  1718,  the  Dutch  planters 
of  Surinam  had  entered  on  the  cultivation  of 
coffee  with  success,  and  ten  years  after  it  was 
introduced  from  that  colony  by  the  English  into 
Jamaica,  and  by  the  French  into  Martinique. 
It  was  not  till  1774,  that  the  planters  of  Brazil, 
now  the  greatest  producers  of  coffee  in  the  world, 
commenced  its  cultivation.  Coffee  as  an  article 
of  diet  is  of  but  comparatively  recent  introduc- 
tion.    To  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  wholly 


unknown.  From  Arabia  it  passed  to  Egypt 
and  Turkey,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  a  Turkey  merchant  named  Edwards  in 
1652,  whose  Greek  servant,  named  Pasqua,  first 
opened  a  coffee-house  in  London.  In  1671,  an 
Armeniaa  named  Pascal  set  up  a  coffee-house 
in  Paris.  In  Great  Britain  much  less  is  drunk 
than  on  the  continent  of  Europe  or  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  tea  being  the  British  national 
beverage.  The  excellence  of  coffee  depends  in 
a  great  measure  on  the  skill  and  attention  exer- 
cised in  roasting  it.  If  it  be  too  little  roasted 
it  is  devoid  of  flavor,  and  if  too  much  it  becomes 
acrid,  and  has  a  disagreeable,  burned  taste. 

Condor.  A  South  American  bird,  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  vUlturine  birds.  In  its  essen- 
tial features  it  resembles  the  common  vultures, 
differing  from  them  mainly  in  the  large  cartila- 
ginous caruncle  which  surmounts  its  beak,  and  in 
the  large  size  of  its  oval  and  longitudinal  nostrils 
placed  almost  at  the  extremity  of  the  cere.  De- 
spite the  many  stories  of  its  gigantic  proportions, 
Humboldt  met  with  no  specimens  whose  wings  ex- 
ceeded nine  feet  in  expanse,  though  H  has  oc- 
casionally been  known  to  attain  an  expanse  of 
fourteen  feet.  It  is  found  in  greatest  numbers 
in  the  Andes  chain,  frequenting  regions  from 
10,000  to  15,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
where  they  breed,  depositing  their  two  white 
eggs  on  the  bare  rock.  They  are  generally  to  be 
seen  in  groups  of  three  or  four,  and  only  descend 
to  the  plains  under  stress  of  hunger,  when  they 
will  successfully  attack  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and 
bullocks.  They  prefer  carrion,  however,  and, 
when  they  have  opportunity,  gorge  themselves 
until  they  become  incapable  of  rising  from  the 
ground,  and  so  become  a  prey  to  the  Indians. 

Crab.  The  popular  name  for  a  considerable 
group  of  invertebrate  animals,  belonging  to  the 
class  Crustacea,  of  which  there  are  numerous 
species,  exceedingly  various  in  size,  color,  and 
modes  of  living.  Like  other  crustaceans,  their 
bodies  are  covered  by  an  external  skeleton  or 
calcareous  crust;  they  have  ten  jointed  limbs, 
adapted  for  walking;  and  the  breathing  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  gills,  which  are  somewhat 
like  a  pyramid  in  form,  and  in  the  edible  crabs 
are  popularly  called  dead  men's  fingers.  The 
head  and  breast  are  united,  constituting  the 
cephalothorax,  and  the  whole  covered  by  a  strong 
carapace,  which  is  broader  than  it  is  long.  The 
tail,  or  abdomen,  is  very  short,  and  is  tucked  up 
beneath  the  cephalothorax  out  of  view;  it  is 
employed  by  the  females  to  carry  the  eggs.  In 
all  the  essential  points  of  their  anatomy  the 
crabs  do  not  differ  from  the  lobster  and  the 
crayfish,  but  they  are  decidedly  higher  in  their 
organization.  The  sense  of  sight  is  peculiarly 
acute,  and  enables  them  to  distinguish  the  ap- 
proach of  objects  at  a  considerable  distance. 
The  mouth  is  furnished  with  several  pairs  of 
strong  jaws;  in  addition  to  which  the  stomach 
has  its  internal  surface  studded  with  hard  pro- 
jections, or  teeth,  for  the  purpose  of  grinding 
the  food.  The  liver  is  of  great  size,  and  con- 
stitutes that  soft,  rich,  yellow  substance,  found 
immediately  beneath  the  shell,  and  called  the 
fat  of  the  crab.  The  crabs,  like  the  lobsters, 
"moult,"  or  throw  off  their  entire  calcareous  cov- 
ering, periodically,  when  they  are  soft  and  help- 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


743 


less,  and  usually  bury  themselves  in  the  sand 
until  a  new  crust  is  formed.  Most  of  them  are 
littoral  in  their  habits,  dwelling  upon  the  shores 
of  the  sea  or  those  of  creeks  and  rivers,  but  some 
few  live  inland,  and  are  known  as  land  crabs. 
One  remarkable  species  inhabits  holes  in  the 
highest  hills  and  mountains  of  Jamaica  and 
other  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  When  the 
season  for  spawning  arrives,  they  proceed  to  the 
sea  in  a  body  of  many  millions,  a  journey  which 
occupies  some  weeks.  Having  deposited  their 
eggs  in  the  sand,  they  return,  traveling  only  by 
night,  and  arrive  emaciated  and  exhausted. 

Crane.  A  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the 
order  Gralloe.  They  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
their  long  migrations.  In  these  journeys  they 
usually  fly  in  large  flocks  led  by  a  single  leader, 
the  whole  assemblage  assuming  a  wedge-like 
form,  and  the  leadership  is  continually  changed, 
so  that  it  is  occupied  in  succession  by  every 
crane  in  the  flock.  The  common  crane  breeds 
in  the  north  of  Europe  and  in  Siberia,  and  mi- 
grates southwards  at  the  approach  of  winter. 
It  is  a  fine  bird,  attaining  nearly  five  feet  in 
height;  with  the  exception  of  the  neck,  which 
is  black,  the  body  is  of  a  uniform  ashy-grey;  it 
has  a  noble  and  graceful  carriage,  and  the 
feathers  on  its  tail,  which  rise  up  in  undulating 
clusters,  adds  much  to  its  elegance.  It  frequents 
large  plains  and  marshes,  and  feeds  miscellan- 
eously on  fish,  reptiles,  frogs,  molluscs,  worms, 
insects,  and  even  small  mammals.  When  the 
breeding  season  arrives,  the  birds  break  up  their 
social  compact,  and  pair  off  for  the  purpose  of 
reproduction  and  rearing  the  young.  The  nest, 
in  which  are  usually  laid  two  eggs,  is  roughly 
constructed  on  the  ground,  and  the  male  shares 
with  the  female  the  cares  of  incubation.  When 
caught  young,  cranes  are  easily  tamed.  The 
games  and  dances  in  which  they  are  said  to  in- 
dulge are  not  mere  idle  stories;  it  is  certainly 
true  that  these  birds  form  groups  in  various 
fashions,  advance  towards  one  another,  make 
a  kind  of  salutation,  and  adopt  the  strangest 
postures.  The  Demoiselle  crane  is  remarkable 
for  two  beautiful  clusters  of  white  feathers  on 
either  side  of  its  head,  and  for  a  black  pendent 
tuft  down  the  breast.  Its  size  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  common  crane,  and  its  shape  is 
still  more  elegant.  It  is  a  native  of  Turkey, 
Northern  Africa,  and  some  parts  of  Asia.  The 
crested  crane  has  the  top  of  its  head  adorned 
with  a  tuft  of  feathers,  which  ii  has  the  power 
of  spreading  out  like  a  fan.  It  inhabits  the 
eastern  and  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  and  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Crocodile.  A  genus,  family,  and  order  of 
saurian  reptiles,  comprising  the  largest  living 
forms  of  reptiles.  The  characters  of  the  order 
Crocodilia  are  as  follows:  The  skin  is  covered 
with  square,  bony  plates;  the  tail  is  long  and 
compressed  laterally.  The  four  feet  are  short, 
and  there  are  five  toes  on  each  of  the  two  fore- 
feet, and  four  on  each  of  the  two  hind-feet,  the 
latter  more  or  less  webbed;  the  limbs  are  feeble. 
The  jaws  are  long  and  their  gape  of  enormous 
width.  The  nostrils  are  at  the  extremity  of 
the  snout,  and  capable  of  being  closed  to  pre- 
vent ingress  of  water.  The  heart  is  four-cham- 
bered.     The    families    now    existing    are    the 


Alligatoridoe,  Crocodilidoe,  and  Gavialidoe.  The 
alligators  are  all  New  World  forms.  The  gavial 
proper  is  confined  to  the  East  Indies.  The 
Crocodilida,  to  which  family  the  crocodile  be- 
longs, have  unequal  teeth  and  no  abdominal 
plates,  and  the  cervical  and  dorsal  plates  are 
distinct  for  the  most  part.  The  crocodile  of 
the  Nile  is  the  best-known  member  of  the  order; 
another  species  is  met  with  •  in  South  Asia, 
Sunda,  and  the  Moluccas.  The  crocodile  is 
formidable  from  its  great  size  and  strength,  but 
on  shore  its  shortness  of  limb,  great  length  of 
body,  and  difficulty  of  turning  enable  men  and 
animals  readily  to  escape  pursuit.  In  the  water 
it  is  active  and  formidable.  It  is  exclusively 
carnivorous,  and  always  prefers  its  food  in  a 
state  of  putrefaction.  In  Egypt  it  is  no  longer 
found  except  in  the  upper  or  more  southern 
parts,  where  the  heat  is  greatest  and  the  popu- 
lation least  numerous.  Crocodiles  are  still 
common  enough  in  the  river  Senegal,  the  Congo, 
Niger,  etc.  They  grow  sometimes  to  a  length 
of  thirty  feet,  and  apparently  live  to  a  vast  age. 

Crow,  the  crow  family.  They  are  very 
omnivorous,  and  remarkable  for  their  intelli- 
gence. The  family,  widely  diffused  over  the 
world,  includes  the  common  crow,  and  the 
raven,  the  fish-crow,  the  rook,  the  jay,  and  the 
magpie.  The  common  crow  of  Nortn  America 
is  remarkable  for  its  gregarious  and  predatory 
habits.  They  pair  in  March;  the  old  repair 
their  nests,  the  young  frame  new  ones;  but  they 
are  such  thieves,  that  while  the  one  is  fetching 
materials,  the  other  must  keep  watch  to  prevent 
the  rising  fabric  from  being  plundered  by  their 
neighbors.  As  soon  as  the  nest  is  finished  and 
the  eggs  produced  (five,  bluish-green,  with  dark 
blotches),  the  male  takes  upon  himself  the  care 
of  providing  for  his  mate,  which  he  continues 
during  the  whole  period  of  incubation.  They 
frequent  the  same  rookeries  for  years,  but  allow 
no  intruders  into  their  community.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  worms  and  the  larvae  of  insects; 
they  also  eat  grain  and  seeds,  whence  they  have 
sometimes  been  supposed  injurious  to  the  farmer; 
but  they  amply  repay  him  for  what  they  take 
by  destroying  the  vermin  in  his  fields. 

Cypress.  A  genus  of  coniferous  trees. 
The  common  European  cypress  is  a  dark-colored 
evergreen  with  extremely  small  leaves,  entirely 
covering  the  branches.  It  has  a  quadrangular, 
or,  where  the  top  branches  diminish  in  length, 
pyramidal  shape.  Cypress  trees,  though  of  a 
somewhat  somber  and  gloomy  appearance,  may 
be  used  with  great  effect  in  shrubberies  and 
gardens.  They  are  much  valued  also  on  ac- 
count of  their  wood,  which  is  hard,  compact, 
and  very  durable,  of  a  reddish  color  and  a  pleas- 
ant smell.  It  was  used  at  funerals  and  as  an 
emblem  of  mourning  by  the  ancients.  Amongst 
other  members  of  the  genus  are  the  Indian 
cypress;  the  Cypress  pendula,  a  native  of  China 
and  Japan;  the  incense-bearing  cypress,  a 
native  of  Mexico;  and  the  evergreen  American 
cypress  or  white  cedar.  The  deciduous  cypress 
of  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  is  frequently 
called  the  Virginian  cypress.  Its  timber  is 
valuable,  and  under  water  is  almost  imperish- 
able. In  parts  of  the  United  States  this  cypress 
constitutes  forests  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent. 


744 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Deer.  A  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds 
now  constituting  the  family  Cervidce,  which  some 
naturalists  have  divided  into  a  number  of  genera, 
whilst  others  still  regard  it  as  forming  only  one. 
Deer  are  animals  of  graceful  form,  combining 
much  compactness  and  strength  with  slender- 
riess  of  limb  and  fleetness.  They  use  their  power- 
ful horns  for  weapons  of  defense,  and  sometimes 
of  offense ;  but  in  general  they  trust  to  flight  for 
their  safety.  They  have  a  long  neck,  a  small 
head,  which  they  carry  high,  large  ears,  and 
large  full  eyes.  In  most  of  them  there  is,  below 
each  eye,  a  sac  or  fold  of  the  skin,  sometimes 
very  small,  sometimes  of  considerable  size, 
called  the  suborbital  sinus,  lachrymal  sinus,  or 
tear-pit,  the  use  of  which  is  not  well  known. 
Deer  have  no  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper,  but 
eight  in  the  lower  jaw;  the  males  have  usually 
two  short  canines  in  the  upper,  but  neither  sex 
has  any  in  the  lower  jaw;  the  praemolars  are 
three,  and  the  true  molars  three  on  each  side 
in  each  jaw.  They  are  distinguished  from  all 
other  ruminants  by  their  branching  horns 
(antlers),  which  in  most  of  the  species  exist  in 
the  male  sex  only;  they  are  solid  and  deciduous, 
i.  e.,  fall  off  annually,  and  are  renewed  with 
increase  of  size,  and  of  breadth  of  palmation, 
and  number  of  branches,  according  to  the  kind, 
until  the  animal  has  reached  old  age,  when  the 
size  of  the  horns  begins  to  diminish  on  each 
annual  renewal.  Deer  are  found  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  globe  except  Australia  and  the  south 
of  Africa,  their  place  in  the  latter  region  being 
supplied  by  antelopes  in  extraordinary  number 
and  variety.  Some  of  them  live  amidst  the 
snows  of  very  northerly  regions,  and  some  in 
tropical  forests;  the  greater  number  inhabit 
the  warmer  temperate  countries,  and  -they  are 
chiefly  found  in  wide  plains  and  hills  of  moderate 
height,  none  dwelling  on  those  lofty  mountain 
summits  which  are  the  chosen  abode  of  some 
animals  of  the  kindred  families  of  Antilopidoe, 
Capridce  and  Moschidce,  as  the  chamois,  the 
bouquetin,  and  the  musk.  The  flesh  (venison) 
of  most  kinds  of  deer  is  highly  esteemed  for  the 
table,  and  they  have  long  been  regarded  as  among 
the  noblest  objects  of  the  chase.  Only  one  spe- 
cies, the  reindeer,  can  be  said  to  have  been  fully 
domesticated  and  reduced  to  the  service  of  man 
although  individuals  of  many  species  have  been 
rendered  very  tame. 

Doge.  An  animal  well  known  for  its  attach- 
ment to  mankind,  and  remarkable  for  the  al- 
most infinite  varieties,  as  to  size,  form,  color, 
and  quality  of  the  hair,  which  the  influence  of 
domestication  has  brought  about  in  the  species. 
It  belongs  to  the  order  of  carnivorous  mammals, 
and  to  that  section  of  quadrupeds  which  is  dis- 
tinguished as  digitigrade.  The  zoological  genus 
is  termed  Cams,  and  includes,  besides  the  dog, 
the  jackal  and  the  wolf;  and  by  many  writers 
the  fox  is  also  placed  in  the  same  genus.  It  is 
a  question  of  considerable  interest  what  was 
the  parent  stock  of  the  dog.  Some  zoologists  are 
of  opinion  that  the  breed  is  derived  from  the 
wolf;  others  that  it  is  a  familiarized  jackal; 
all  agree  that  no  trace  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  a 
primitive  state  of  nature.  That  there  are  wild 
dogs,  we  know.  The  Dhole  of  India  and  the 
Dingo   of  Australia  are   remarkable   examples, 


which  exist  in  a  state  of  complete  independence, 
and  without  any  indication  of  a  wish  to  ap- 
proach the  dwellings  of  man.  These  dogs, 
however,  throw  very  little  light  upon  the  ques- 
tion. They  may  have  escaped  from  the  do- 
minion or  half-dominion  of  man,  and  have  be- 
taken themselves  to  a  vagabond  life.  The  food 
of  the  dog  is  various.  It  will  live  on  cooked 
vegetable  matter,  but  prefers  animal  food.  In 
drinking,  it  laps  with  the  tongue.  It  never  per- 
spires, but  the  nose  is  naked  and  moist,  and, 
when  hot,  the  tongue  hangs  out  of  the  mouth, 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  drops  from 
it.  The  female  goes  with  young  sixty-three 
days,  and  usually  has  about  six  or  eight  at  a 
litter,  though  sometimes  more.  The  young  are 
blind  at  birth,  and  do  not  acquire  their  sight 
until  the  tenth  day.  The  dog  attains  its  full 
growth  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  it 
is  old  at  fifteen  years,  and  seldom  lives  beyond 
twenty  years. 

Eagle.  A  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the 
order  Accipitres,  and  to  the  same  family  as  the 
falcons  and  the  hawks.  They  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  size  varies  according 
to  the  species,  but  all  attain  imposing  dimen- 
sions. The  Golden  Eagle  measures  about  three 
feet  nine  inches  in  height,  and  the  spread  of  its 
wings  is  nearly  ten  feet,  while  in  the  Imperial 
Eagle  the  spread  of  the  wings  is  only  six  feet. 
The  eagle  soars  at  prodigious  heights,  and  its 
sense  of  vision  is  very  highly  developed.  It 
builds  its  nests  in  the  clefts  of  the  most,  inacces- 
sible rocks,  and  lays  generally  two  or  three 
eggs;  the  period  of  incubation  is  thirty  days. 
If  captured  young,  the  eagles  are  susceptible  of 
a  certain  amount  of  education;  when  taken  old 
they  are  quite  untamable.  Besides  the  Golden 
Eagle  and  the  Imperial  Eagle,  there  are  other 
species,  such  as  the  American  Eagle,  White- 
tailed  Eagle,  Bonelli's  Eagle,  the  Tawny  Eagle, 
and  the  Booted  Eagle;  and  numerous  smaller 
species  are  to  be  met  with  in  tropical  regions. 

Eilephant.  A  genus  of  mammals,  the  only 
living  representatives  of  the  order  Proboscidea, 
or  animals  with  a  trunk  or  proboscis.  They  are 
exclusively  confined  to  the  tropical  regions  of 
the  old  world,  in  the  forests  of  which  they  live 
in  herds.  Only  two  existing  species  are  known, 
the  Asiatic  elephant  and  the  African  elephant. 
In  both  species  the  two  upper  incisors,  or  front 
teeth,  are  enormously  developed,  constituting 
long  tusks.  The  lower  incisors  are  absent,  and 
there  are  no  other  teeth  in  the  jaws  except  the 
large  molars,  or  grinders,  which  are  usually 
two  in  number  on  each  side  of  each  jaw.  The 
molar  teeth  are  of  very  large  size,  and  are  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  transverse  plates  of  enamel, 
united  together  by  dentine.  In  the  Indian  ele- 
phant the  transverse  ridges  of  enamel  are  narrow 
and  undulating,  whilst  in  the  African  elephant 
they  enclose  lozenge-shaped  intervals.  The 
nose  is  prolonged  into  a  cylindrical  trunk,  mov- 
able in  every  direction,  highly  sensitive,  and 
terminating  in  a  finger-like,  prehensile  lobe. 
The  nostrils  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  this 
proboscis.  The  feet  are  furnished  with  five  toes, 
but  these  are  only  indicated  externally  by  the 
divisions  of  the  hoof;  and  the  sole  of  the  foot 
is  formed  of  a  thick  pad  of  integument.      The 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


745 


Indian  elephant  is  the  only  species  which  is 
now  caught  and  domesticated;  and,  as  it  will 
scarcely  ever  breed  in  captivity,  the  demand  for 
it  is  supplied  entirely  by  the  capture  of  adult 
wild  individuals,  which  are  taken  chiefly  by  the 
assistance  of  those  which  have  been  already 
tamed.  The  Indian  elephant  is  distinguished 
by  its  concave  forehead  and  its  small  ears;  the 
African  elephant,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a 
strongly  convex  forehead,  and  great  flapping 
ears.  The  African  elephant  is  chiefly  hunted 
for  the  sake  of  its  ivory,  and  there  is  too  much 
reason  to  believe  that  the  pursuit  will  ultimately 
end  in  the  complete  extinction  of  these  fine 
animals.  The  elephants  are  all  vegetable 
feeders,  living  almost  entirely  on  the  foliage  of 
shrubs  and  trees,  which  they  strip  off  by  means 
of  the  prehensile  trunk.  As  the  tusks  prevent 
the  animal  from  drinking  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner, the  water  is  sucked  up  by  the  trunk,  which 
is  then  inserted  in  the  mouth,  into  which  it 
empties  its  contents.  Many  species  of  fossil  ele- 
phants are  known,  the  most  familiar  of  which  is 
the  Mammoth. 

Falcon.  A  name  of  various  birds  of  prey, 
members  of  the  family  Falconidae.  The  falcons 
proper,  for  strength,  symmetry,  and  powers  of 
flight,  are  the  most  perfectly  developed  of  the 
feathered  race.  They  are  distinguished  by  hav- 
ing the  beak  curved  from  the  base,  hooked  at 
the  point,  the  upper  mandible  with  a  notch  or 
tooth  on  its  cutting  edge  on  either  side,  wings 
long  and  powerful,  the  second  feather  rather  the 
longest,  legs  short  and  strong.  The  largest 
European  falcons  are  the  jerfalcon  or  gyrfalcon 
proper,  a  native  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula, 
and  the  Iceland  falcon;  to  which  may  be  also 
added  the  Greenland  falcon.  Between  these 
three  species  much  confusion  at  one  time  pre- 
vailed, but  they  are  now  distinctly  defined  and 
described.  In  the  Greenland  falcon  the  pre- 
vailing color  at  all  ages  is  white,  in  the  Iceland 
falcon,  dark.  The  latter  more  nearly  resembles 
the  true  gyrfalcon  of  Norway,  which,  however, 
is  generally  darker,  rather  smaller,  but  with  a 
longer  tail.  The  average  length  of  any  of  these 
falcons  is  about  two  feet.  The  Greenland 
species  used  to  be  the  most  highly  prized  by 
falconers.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  ptar- 
migans, hares,  and  water-fowl.  It  is  found 
over  a  wide  range  of  northern  territory.  The 
peregrine  falcon  is  not  so  large  as  the  jerfalcon, 
but  more  elegant  in  shape.  It  chiefly  inhab- 
its wild  districts,  and  nestles  among  rocks. 
It  preys  on  grouse,  partridges,  ptarmigans, 
pigeons,  rabbits,  etc.  Its  flight  is  exceeding- 
ly swift,  said  to  be  as  much  as  150  miles  an 
hour. 

Ferns.  A  natural  order  of  cryptogamous 
or  flowerless  plants,  forming  the  highest  group 
of  the  acrogens  or  summit-growers.  They  are 
leafy  plants,  the  leaves,  or  more  properly  fronds, 
arising  from  a  rhizome  or  root-stock,  or  from  a 
hollow  arborescent  trunk,  and  being  circinate  in 
vernation,  a  term  descriptive  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  fronds  are  rolled  up  before  they  are 
developed  in  spring,  having  then  the  appear- 
ance of  a  bishop's  crosier.  Ferns  have  a  wide 
feographical  range,  but  are  most  abundant  in 
umid,  temperate,  and  tropical  regions.     In  the 


tropical  forests  the  tree-ferns  rival  the  palms, 
rising  sometimes  to  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty 
feet.  Ferns  are  very  abundant  as  fossil  plants. 
The  earliest  known  forms  occur  in  Devonian 
rocks.  Various  systems  of  classification  for 
ferns  have  been  proposed.  At  present  the  order 
is  usually  divided  into  six  or  eight  sub-orders 
or  tribes  distinguished  by  differences  in  the 
structure  of  the  sporangium.  The  generic  char- 
acters are  founded  on  the  position  and  direction 
of  the  sori  and  on  the  venation.  The  largest 
division  is  that  of  the  Poly podiacese,  to  which 
belong  the  polypody,  the  lady-fern,  the  bracken, 
the  hard-fern,  the  spleenwort,  the  maiden-hair, 
the  hart's-tongue  fern,  etc.  A  few  of  the  ferns 
are  used  medicinally,  mostly  as  demulcents  and 
astringents.     Some  yield  food. 

Fishes.  The  lowest  class  of  back-boned 
animals,  or  that  division  of  the  animal  kingdom 
which  is  known  to  zoologists  as  Vertebrata. 
They  are  wholly  adapted  for  an  aquatic  mode 
of  life.  The  shape  of  the  body  is  such  as  to 
give  rise  to  the  least  possible  friction  in  swim- 
ming, and  thus  to  admit  of  rapid  locomotion 
in  water.  To  this  end  also,  as  well  as  for  pur- 
poses of  defense,  the  body  is  usually  covered 
with  a  coating  of  scales.  The  limbs,  when 
present,  are  always  in  the  form  of  fins,  but  one 
or  both  pairs  may  be  wanting;  the  anterior  or 
fore  limbs  are  known  as  the  pectoral  fins,  and 
the  posterior  or  hind  limbs  as  the  ventral  fins. 
Besides  the  fins  which  represent  the  limbs, 
fishes  possess  other  fins  placed  in  the  middle 
line  of  the  body;  one  or  two  of  these  run  along 
the  back,  and  are  known  as  the  dorsal  fins,  one 
or  two  lie  on  the  belly,  near  the  vent,  known  as 
the  anal  fins,  and  a  broad  fin  at  the  extremity 
of  the  spinal  column  is  called  the  caudal  or  tail 
fin.  The  tail  fin  is  always  set  vertically  in 
fishes,  so  as  to  work  from  side  to  side,  and  is 
the  chief  organ  of  progression;  it  differs  alto- 
gether from  the  horizontal  expansion  which 
constitutes  the  tail  of  whales,  dolphins,  dugongs, 
and  manatees  —  animals  which  belong  to  the 
class  of  mammals.  In  the  form  of  the  tail, 
fishes  exhibit  two  very  distinct  types  of  struc- 
ture, termed  respectively  the  homocercal  and  the 
heterocercal  type  of  tail.  The  homocercal  tail 
is  the  one  which  most  commonly  occurs  in 
existing  fishes,  and  it  is  characterized  by  the 
fact  that  the  two  lobes  of  the  tail  are  equal, 
and  the  spinal  column  stops  short  at  its  base; 
in  the  heterocercal  tail,  on  the  other  hand, 
found  in  many  fossil  specimens  of  the  fish  class, 
the  spinal  column  is  prolonged  into  the  upper 
lobe  of  the  tail,  so  that  the  tail  becomes  un- 
equally lobed.  All  the  fins  are  supported  by 
bony  spines,  or  rays,  which  are  of  two  kinds, 
termed  respectively  spinous  rays  and  soft  rays. 
Further,  to  aid  in  supporting  themselves  at 
varying  depths  in  the  water,  most  fishes  are 
provided  with  a  sac  containing  gas,  situated 
above  the  alimentary  tube,  and  known  as  the 
air  or  swim  bladder,  by  the  filling  or  emptying 
of  which  the  fish  is  rendered  heavier  or  lighter 
in  comparison  with  the  surrounding  water.  The 
skeleton  of  most  fishes  consists  entirely  of  bone^ 
but  in  some  it  is  partly  of  bone  and  partly  of 
cartilage,  and  in  a  few  it  remains  permanently 
cartilaginous. 


746 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Flamingo.  A  genus  of  web-footed  birds 
which  may  be  regarded  as  in  some  respects  inter- 
mediate between  the  storks  and  the  ducks,  their 
long  legs  and  necks  giving  them  a  resemblance 
to  the  former,  while  their  webbed  feet  connect 
them  with  the  latter.  There  are  nine  species  of 
true  flamingoes.  Their  food  appears  to  be  mol- 
lusca,  spawn,  grass,  water  plants,  insects,  etc., 
which  they  fish  up  by  means  of  their  long  neck. 

They  breed  in  companies  in  mud-flats  or 
inundated  marshes,  raising  up  the  mud  into  a 
small  hillock,  which  is  concave  at  the  top  so  as 
to  form  a  nest.  In  this  hollow  the  female  lays 
her  eggs,  and  hatches  them  by  sitting  on  them 
with  her  legs  doubled  up  under  her. 

The  young,  which  never  exceed  three  in  num- 
ber, do  not  fly  till  they  have  nearly  attained 
their  full  growth,  though  they  can  run  very 
swiftly  and  swim  with  ease  almost  immediately 
after  their  exclusion  from  the  shell.  The  com- 
mon American  species  is  of  a  deep  red  color, 
with  black  quills.  It  is  peculiar  to  tropical 
America,  migrating  in  summer  to  the  Southern, 
and  rarely  to  the  Middle  States. 

Flax.  A  fiber  obtained  from  a  plant  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Linaceoe.  Common  flax  (Linum 
usitatissimum)  is  an  annual  plant,  with  a  slender 
erect  stem,  two  or  three  feet  high,  which  is 
grown  in  large  quantities  in  Italy,  Russia,  Sax- 
ony, Belgium,  Holland,  and  Northern  France, 
but  is  not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent  in  this 
country.  After  being  cut,  and  allowed  to  dry, 
the  flax  undergoes  a  process  called  retting,  in 
order  to  remove  resinous  and  glutinous  sub- 
stances, and  disintegrate  the  woody  portions  of 
the  stem.  The  flax  is  steeped  in  water,  and  after 
a  time  a  process  of  fermentation  sets  in,  by  which 
the  resinous  and  glutinous  substances  are  decom- 
posed. The  fibers  are  then  freed  from  portions 
of  woody  matter,  and  separated  one  from  an- 
other by  a  process  known  as  scutching.  The 
seeds  of  the  flax  plant  are  also  a  valuable  article 
of  corrimerce. 

Flea.  A  name  for  several  insects  regarded 
by  entomologists  as  constituting  a  distinct  order 
Aphaniptera,  because  the  wings  are  inconspicu- 
ous scales.  All  the  species  of  the  genus  are  very 
similar  to  the  common  flea.  It  has  two  eyes  and 
six  feet;  the  feelers  are  like  threads;  the  oral 
appendages  are  modified  into  piercing  stilets 
and  a  suctorial  proboscis.  The  flea  is  remark- 
able for  its  agility,  leaping  to  a  surprising  dis- 
tance, and  its  bite  is  very  troublesome. 

Flounder.  One  of  the  flat-fishes,  family 
Pleuronectidce,  genus  Pleuronectes  or  Platessa, 
the  common  flounder  being  the  Pleuronectes  or 
Platessa  flesus.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  of 
the  flat-fishes,  and  is  found  along  the  shores  of 
almost  all  countries.  The  body  is  extremely 
flattened  at  the  sides.  Flounders  have  been 
successfully  transferred  to  fresh-water  ponds. 
They  feed  upon  Crustacea,  worms,  and  small 
fishes,  and  are  much  used  as  food.  The  Argus- 
flounder  is  the  Pleuronectes  argus,  a  native  of  the 
American  seas. 

Flower.  That  part  of  a  plant  in  which  the 
organs  of  reproduction  {stamens  and  pistils)  are 
situated.  The  parts  are  arranged  in  whorls. 
In  a  complete  flower  the  outer  one  consists  of  the 
calyx,  formed  of  one  or  more  leaves  termed  sepals; 


the  next  is  the  corolla,  composed  of  one  or  more 
petals;  the  third  whorl  is  formed  by  the  stamens, 
and  the  innermost  of  the  pistils.  Sometimes 
there  is  only  one  whorl  of  floral  leaves,  and  then 
the  flower  is  said  to  be  monochlamydeous;  if 
neither  whorl  is  present,  it  is  termed  achlamy- 
deous.  If  both  calyx  and  corolla  are  present, 
but  so  blended  together  that  they  are  not  easily 
distinguished,  the  floral  envelope  is  called  a 
perianth.  Double  or  semi-double  flowers  are 
those,  in  which  through  the  effect  of  cultivation, 
what  should  be  stamens  are  changed  into  petals, 
as  in  the  rose,  camellias,  carnations,  etc.  The 
colors  and  odors  of  flowers  are  subjects  in  the 
investigation  of  which  physiologists  have  not 
yet  been  able  to  go  far.  The  chemical  products 
on  which  they  immediately  depend  are  partially 
known;  but  how  the  chemical  changes  are 
wrought,  and  what  various  purposes  they  all 
serve  as  to  the  plant  itself,  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  have  even  begun  to  be  ascertained.  Both 
colors  and  odors  are  more  or  less  owing  to  the 
action  of  the  sun's  rays.  They  also  are  some- 
times modified  by  soil;  and  diversities  of  color 
have  been  obtained  in  cultivated  flowers  by 
changing  the  soil  in  which  they  grow. 

Fly.  A  winged  insect  of  various  genera  and 
species,  whose  distinguishing  characteristics  are 
that  the  wings  are  transparent  and  have  no  cases 
or  covers.  By  these  marks  flies  are  distinguished 
from  beetles,  butterflies,  grasshoppers,  etc.  The 
true  flies  or  Diptera  have  only  two  wings,  viz: 
the  anterior  pair.  In  common  language,  fly  is 
the  house-fly,  of  the  genus  Musco.  The  house- 
fly is  found  wherever  man  is,  and  in  hot  weather 
causes  a  good  deal  of  annoyance.  It  is  furnished 
with  a  suctorial  proboscis,  from  which,  when 
feeding  on  dry  substances,  it  exudes  a  liquid, 
which,  by  moistening  them,  fits  them  to  be  sucked. 
From  its  feet  being  beset  with  hairs,  each  termi- 
nating in  a  disc  which  is  supposed  to  act  as  a 
sucker,  it  can  walk  on  smooth  surfaces,  as  a  ceil- 
ing, even  with  its  back  down.  The  female  lays 
her  eggs  in  dung  or  refuse ;  the  larvae  are  small 
white  worms.  They  change  into  pupae  without 
casting  their  skins,  and  in  from  eight  to  fourteen 
days  the  perfect  fly  emerges.  The  very  small 
flies  and  the  very  large  ones  often  seen  about 
houses  belong  to  other  species. 

Flylng-flsh.  A  name  common  to  various 
fishes  which  have  the  power  of  sustaining  them- 
selves for  a  time  in  the  air  by  means  of  their 
large  pectoral  fins.  Generally,  however,  the 
name  is  limited  to  the  species  of  the  genus  Exo- 
coetus,  which  belongs  to  the  family  Scombereso- 
cidce  (mackerel-pikes).  The  pectoral  fins,  which 
are  very  large,  are  the  principal  instruments  in 
their  flight,  serving  to  sustain  the  fish  tempor- 
arily in  the  air  after  it  has  acquired  an  initial 
velocity  in  its  rush  through  the  water.  It  can 
pass  through  the  air  to  a  considerable  distance, 
sometimes  as  much  as  200  yards,  which  it  does 
to  escape  from  the  attacks  of  other  fishes,  espec- 
ially the  dolphin.  It  is  most  common  between 
the  tropics.  The  best-known  species  are  Exo- 
ccetus  volitans,  abundant  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  Exocoetus  exiliens  of  the 
Mediterranean.  By  some  naturalists  this  genus 
has  been  subdivided  into  several,  characterized 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  barbels. 


I 


CANADA    LYNX 


COLLARED  PECCARY 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


747 


Flying- squirrel.  A  genus  of  rodent 
animals,  family  Sciuridce  (squirrels),  to  which 
the  skin  of  the  flank,  extending  between  the  fore 
and  hind  legs,  imparts  the  faculty  of  supporting 
themselves  for  a  moment  in  the  air,  as  with  a 
parachute,  and  of  making  very  great  leaps. 
The  European  flying-squirrel  is  a  native  of  the 
forests  in  the  colder  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia ; 
the  American  flying-squirrel  lives  in  troops  in 
the  western  parts  of  North  America. 

Fox.  A  carnivorous  animal,  of  which  there 
are  several  species,  belonging  to  the  same  fam- 
ily as  the  dog.  It  is  chiefly  characterized  by 
its  sharp  muzzle,  and  its  long  bushy  tail;  as 
well  as  by  its  cunning,  which  has  passed  into  a 
proverb.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  elongated, 
and  not  circular  as  in  the  dog,  and  the  ears  are 
triangular  in  shape  and  pointed.  A  very  power- 
ful scent  is  emitted  from  the  fox,  in  consequence 
of  some  glands  which  are  placed  near  the  root 
of  the  tail,  and  which  furnish  the  odorous  se- 
cretion; this  odor  is  so  fetid,  that  even  other 
animals  avoid  its  locality.  The  common  fox  is 
an  inhabitant  of  most  parts  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  extends  also  into  Northern  Asia. 
Its  senses  are  extremely  acute,  so  as  alike  to 
inform  it  of  the  neighborhood  of  its  prey  and 
to  warn  it  of  the  approach  of  danger.  It  usually 
remains  concealed  during  the  day  in  a  burrow, 
which  it  has  either  dug  for  itself  or  usurped, 
and  ventures  abroad  chiefly  at  night,  with 
stealthy  movements,  in  search  of  food.  Birds, 
rabbits,  or  hares  constitute  its  usual  prey,  but, 
when  pressed  by  necessity,  it  will  have  recourse 
to  other  food,  and  it  has  a  predilection  for  cer- 
tain kinds  of  fruit,  such  as  grapes.  To  domestic 
poultry  it  is  terribly  destructive.  Though 
slightly  made,  the  fox  has  great  muscular  vigor, 
and  bites  with  much  severity.  Even  when 
taken  at  a  very  early  age,  it  is  never  properly 
domesticated;  and  adults,  when  placed  in  con- 
finement, show  great  ferocity,  and  soon  die. 
It  is  to  its  power  of  endurance  and  its  great 
speed,  as  well  as  to  the  cunning  which  dictates 
various  expedients  for  escape,  that  the  chase  of 
this  animal  owes  its  exciting  character.  Among 
the  most  common  of  its  expedients  for  escape 
is  that  of  feigning  death,  which  is  done  also  by 
several  other  animals.  Numerous  other  species 
of  fox  exist  in  the  old  and  new  worlds,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  Arctic,  or  Blue  Fox, 
and  the  American,  or  Red  Fox.  The  Arctic  Fox 
abounds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  is  remarkable 
for  changing  its  color  with  the  season,  being 
brown  or  bluish  in  summer,  and  white  in  winter. 
The  soles  of  its  feet  are  hairy.  The  Red  Fox  is 
found  throughout  North  America;  it  is  very 
variable  in.  color  and  marking,  and  varieties  of  it 
are  known  by  different  names.  The  skins  of 
all  the  species  of  fox  are  valuable,  and  make 
warm  and  soft  furs,  used  for  muffs,  linings,  etc. 

Frog.  The  genus  is  distinguished  from  its 
congeners  by  having  the  tongue  and  tympanum 
distinct,  the  skin  smooth,  and  the  toes  without 
claws;  they  are,  however,  pointed,  and  the 
hinder  feet  are  united  almost  to  the  tips  by  a 
membrane.  The  species  are  numerous;  they 
are  widely  distributed  over  the  globe,  many 
inhabiting  tropical  regions.  The  common  frog 
is  too  well  known  to  require  description.     It  is 


found  at  the  genial  period  of  the  year,  burying 
itself  at  the  approach  of  winter,  in  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  ponds,  and  reappearing  early  in 
spring.  In  the  month  of  March  it  lays  its  eggs, 
which  are  enveloped  in  a  gelatinous  material, 
in  water,  where  they  float.  Each  female  deposits 
from  600  to  1,200  eggs  a  year.  By  April  they 
have  greatly  increased  in  size  and  are  becoming 
hatched.  The  immature  frogs  which  come 
forth  are  called  tadpoles.  They  have  tails, 
no  legs,  breathe  by  gills,  and  are  aquatic.  Six 
or  eight  weeks  later  the  legs  are  fully  developed, 
the  tail  is  absorbed,  and  they  quit  the  water, 
remaining,  however,  in  its  vicinity  to  the  last. 
The  common  frog  is  found  in  most  parts  of  this 
country,  in  Europe,  in  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
north  of  Africa.  The  eatable  frog  is  common 
on  the  European  continent.  The  bull-frog  of 
North  America  is  also  well  known.  In  farriery, 
a  kind  of  tender  horny  substance  growing  in  the 
middle  of  a  horse's  foot,  dividing  into  two 
branches  which  run  like  a  fork  toward  the  heel. 

Gazelle.  An  animal  belonging  to  the  An- 
telope family;  of  very  graceful  shape,  and 
rather  smaller  in  size  than  the  chamois*  The 
color  of  the  gazelle  is  fawn  or  dun  on  the  back, 
which  is  separated  from  the  white  belly  by  a 
brown  or  blackish  band.  The  horns,  which  are 
stronger  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  are  twice 
bent,  in  the  shape  of  a  lyre,  and  without  sharp 
edges.  The  eyes  of  this  animal  are  beautiful 
and  soft  in  expression,  and  its  movements  are 
elegant  and  light.  It  inhabits  the  large  plains 
and  the  Saharian  region  of  Northern  Africa, 
as  well  as  Arabia  and  Syria,  living  in  numerous 
herds.  When  taken  young,  the  gazelle,  though 
naturally  wild  and  timid,  is  readily  domesticated, 
and  becomes  quite  tame. 

Giraffe.     See  Camelopard. 

Geranium.  A  genus  of  plants  embracing 
a  large  number  of  species  unequally  distributed 
throughout  the  world.  The  well-known  herb, 
Robert  (Geranium  Robertianum)  is  a  low, 
spreading  weed,  a  rank-odored  plant,  common  on 
rocks,  where  its  soft,  compound,  fern-like  leaves, 
and  pink,  little  flowers  are  very  attractive. 
The  best  known  geranium  is  the  Pelargonium. 
These  plants  are  prized  on  account  of  the  colors 
of  the  flowers,  and  the  shape  and  marking  of  the 
leaves.  Many  hybrids  have  been  produced  and 
there  is  hardly  a  better  known  window  plant. 
They  are  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  in  light, 
rich  soil  and  with  good  drainage.  Alum  Root, 
a  North  American  species,  with  flowers  of  con- 
siderable beauty  is  the  most  valuable  medicinally. 
It  is  very  astringent  and  abounds  in  tannin,  a 
characteristic  of  many  species  of  the  genus.  On 
the  Pacific  Coast  the  geranium  is  valued  as  a 
forage  plant  and  is  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 

Goat.  A  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds  so 
closely  allied  to  the  sheep  that  it  is  not  easy 
exactly  to  define  the  distinction,  although  the 
common  domestic  goat  and  sheep  are  of  widely 
different  appearance.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  books  of  Moses,  and  formed  a 
large  portion  of  the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs. 
The  uses  of  the  goat  are  numerous.  The  flesh 
is  good;  that  of  the  kid,  or  young  goat,  is,  in 
most  countries,  esteemed  a  delicacy.  The  milk 
is  very  rich  and  nutritious,  more  easy  of  diges- 


748 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


tion  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  is  often  useful 
to  consumptive  patients.  Some  goats  yield  as 
much  as  four  quarts  of  milk  daily,  although  the 
average  quantity  is  more  nearly  two.  The  skin 
of  the  goat  was  early  used  for  clothing,  and  is 
now  dressed  as  leather  for  many  uses,  particu- 
larly for  making  gloves  and  the  finer  kinds  of 
shoes.  The  hair,  which  may  be  advantageously 
clipped  annually,  is  used  for  making  ropes 
which  are  indestructible  in  water.  The  horns 
are  used  for  making  knife- handles,  etc.,  and  the 
fat  is  said  to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  ox  for 
candles.  Goats  are  found  wild  only  in  moun- 
tainous countries;  they  all  exhibit  a  great  apti- 
tude for  scrambling  among  rocks  and  bushes, 
are  extremely  sure-footed  on  narrow  ledges  and 
pinnacles,  and  display  great  strength  and  agility 
m  leaping.  The  Rocky  Mountain  goat  is  an 
animal  of  the  antelope  family.  Its  size  is  about 
that  of  an  ordinary  sheep,  and  its  general  ap- 
pearance, is  not  unlike  that  of  a  sheep  of  the 
Merino  breed,  its  long,  straight  hair  hanging 
down  in  an  abundant  white  fleece. 

Gold*  On  account  of  its  beautiful  color  and 
since  ij.  does  not  become  tarnished  or  corroded 
in  use,  is  considered  the  most  precious  of  metals 
and  is  used  as  the  principal  basis  of  value 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  It  has  been 
known  from  time  immemorial,  and  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  usually  found 
in  the  metallic  or  native  state  in  the  form  of 
nuggets  or  smaller  particles,  in  sand  or  gravel, 
or  distributed  through  rocks  or  veins.  Nuggets 
weighing  as  much  as  1,000  ounces  have  been 
found.  Native  gold  always  contains  some 
silver.  The  metal  is  also  found  in  combination 
with  tellurium  as  "telluride  ore,"  and  it  fre- 
quently accompanies  copper  ores  and  iron 
pyrites.  The  extraction  of  gold  from  sands  or 
gravels,  called  alluvial  or  placer  mining,  is 
accomplished  by  washing  with  water  in  various 
ways.  The  heavy  gold  sinks  to  the  bottom 
when  the  material  is  stirred  up  with  water,  and 
mercury  (quicksilver)  is  usually  used  to  amal- 
gamate the  gold  and  hold  it.  Solid  ores  have 
to  be  powdered  by  stamp  mills  or  other  devices 
before  the  gold  can  be  extracted,  and  sometimes 
they  must  be  heated  to  redness  (roasted)  to 
drive  off  tellurium  or  other  things.  One  of  the 
modern  methods  of  extracting  gold  from  ores 
consists  in  dissolving  out  the  metal  with  water 
containing  potassium  cyanide.  This  is  known 
as  the  "cyanide  process."  Gold  is  the  heav- 
iest of  all  the  familiar  metals  except  platinum. 
It  is  more  than  nineteen  times  as  heavy  as 
water.  In  malleability  it  stands  first  among 
the  metals,  being  capable  of  being  beaten  to  a 
thickness  of  jsiyuiss  of  an  inch  and  ductile  enough 
to  be  drawn  into  a  wire  500  feet  long  and  weigh- 
ing only  one  grain.  It  may  be  alloyed  with 
other  metals  to  change  the  color  for  designs. 
The  best  known  alloy  of  gold  is  that  with 
copper,  which  is  used  for  gold  coins.  The  chief 
gold  discoveries  have  been  in  California,  1848; 
Australia,  1851;  British  Columbia,  1858;  New 
Zealand  and  Nova  Scotia,  1861;  South  Africa, 
1868;  West  Australia,  1870;  South  Australia, 
1886;    Alaska  and  Klondike. 

Goose.  A  genus  of  web-footed  birds, 
having   the    bill    not    longer    than    the    head, 


more  high  than  broad  at  the  base,  the  upper 
mandible  slightly  hooked  at  the  tip;  the  legs 
placed  farther  forward  than  in  ducks,  and  so 
better  adapted  for  walking;  the  neck  of  mod- 
erate length,  with  sixteen  vertebrae,  a  character 
which  widely  distinguishes  them  from  swans. 
In  general,  geese  spend  more  of  their  time  on 
land  than  any  other  of  the  Anatidce,  feeding  on 
grass  and  other  herbage,  berries,  seeds,  and 
other  vegetable  food.  Although  large  birds, 
and  of  bulky  form,  they  have  great  powers  of 
flight.  They  strike  with  their  wings  in  fighting, 
and  there  is  a  hard  callous  knob  or  tubercle  at 
the  bend  of  the  wing,  which  in  some  species 
becomes  a  spur.  The  domestic  goose  is  regarded 
as  deriving  its  origin  from  the  Gray  Lag  goose 
or  common  wild  goose,  but  all  the  species  seem 
very  capable  of  domestication,  and  several  of 
them  have  been  to  some  extent  domesticated. 
The  Gray  Lag  goose  is  almost  three  feet  in 
length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity 
of  the  short  tail.  Its  extent  of  wing  is  about 
five  feet.  The  wings  do  not  reach  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  tail.  The  weight  of  the  largest, 
birds  IS  about  ten  pounds.  The  color  of  the 
plumage  is  gray,  varying  in  some  parts  to 
grayish-brown;  the  rump  and  belly  white,  the 
tail  grayish-brown  and  white;  the  bill  is  orange, 
the  nail  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  white. 
The  young  are  darker  than  the  adults. 

Guinea  Pig  or  Cavy.  A  small  animal 
belonging  to  the  family  of  rodents.  It  is  in- 
digenous to  South  America,  and  has  been  intro- 
duced into  many  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  is 
domesticated  as  a  pet.  It  possesses  a  very  low 
degree  of  intelligence;  in  its  natural  home  it  is 
gregarious,  and  is  usually  found  living  on  dry 
lands  covered  with  low  brushwood.  The  color 
of  the  guinea  pig  is  variegated,  and  its  tail  is 
quite  rudimentary.  It  is  an  extremely  prolific 
animal,  and  begins  to  breed  at  the  age  of  ten 
months,  producing  many  broods  in  a  year; 
each  litter  usually  consists  of  about  eight.  The 
origin  of  the  popular  name  of  this  animal  is 
quite  unknown;  it  appears  to  be  very  inappro- 
priate, for  the  animal  does  not  come  from 
Guinea,  nor  yet  is  it  a  pig. 

Hippopotamus.  A  genus  of  animals 
nearly  allied  to  the  pigs,  hogs,  and  peccaries, 
and  belonging  to  the  class  Ungulata.  The 
^roup  is  represented  by  only  one  (well-estab- 
lished) living  species,  the  Hippopotamus  am- 
phihius,  or  River  horse,  of  Africa.  It  is  enor- 
mously bulky  and  unwieldy,  attaining  a  height 
of  five  feet,  and  a  length  of  as  much  as  twelve 
feet.  The  feet  are  massive,  and  are  terminated 
by  four  hoofed  toes;  the  skin  is  very  thick  and 
strong.  Between  the  skin  and  the  flesh  there  is 
a  layer  of  fat,  which  is  salted  and  eaten  by  the 
Dutch  settlers  of  South  Africa.  The  hippopota- 
mus feeds  entirely  upon  vegetable  substances, 
such  as  grasses  and  shrubs;  it  dives  and  swims 
with  great  facility. 

Horse.  An  ungulate  or  hoofed  mammal. 
The  horse  proper  is  characterized  by  the  tail 
being  furnished  with  long  hairs  from  its  base; 
by  the  long  and  flowing  mane;  by  the  posses- 
sion of  a  bare  callosity  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  hind  as  well  as  of  the  fore  legs;  and  by  the 
head   and    ears   being   smaller   and   the   limbs 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


749 


longer  than  in  the  ass  and  other  species  related 
to  the  horse.  The  native  country  of  the  horse 
seems  to  have  been  Central  Asia.  It  became 
early  domesticated  in  Egypt.  It  is  mentioned 
throughout  the  Bible.  The  people  of  Thessaly 
were  excellent  equestrians,  and  probably  first 
among  the  Greeks  who  broke  horses  in  for 
service  in  war;  whence  probably  arose  the 
fable  that  Thessaly  was  originally  inhabited  by 
centaurs.  "Solomon  had  40,000  stalls  of  horses 
for  his  chariots,  and  12,000  horsemen,"  1014 
B.  C.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  some  cov- 
ering to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  from  injury. 
In  the  Ninth  Century,  horses  were  only  shod  in 
time  of  frost.  Shoeing  was  introduced  into 
England  by  WiUiam  I.,  in  1066.  It  is  believed 
that  the  original  breed  of  horses  is  extinct,  and 
that  the  half-wild  herds  existing  in  many  places 
have  descended  from  animals  once  in  captivity. 
Thus,  when  the  horse  was  first  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1537,  at  BuenoS  Ayres,  there 
were  no  wild  horses  in  America.  But  individ- 
uals escaping  ran  wild,  and,  by  1580,  their 
descendants  nad  spread  over  the  continent  as 
far  as  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Their  favorite 
abode  is  on  the  Pampas,  where  they  now  exist 
in  untold  numbers.  But  there  was  found  in  La 
Plata  a  now  extinct  species  of  horse,  and  more 
Equidse  have  been  found  in  the  New  than  in 
the  Old  World.  The  horse  may  have  descended 
from  a  striped  ancestor,  stripes  still  sometimes 
remaining,  especially  in  duns  and  mouse-duns. 
His  present  colors  are  brown,  gray,  or  black, 
sometimes  with  roundish  pale  spots.  His  age 
is  ascertained  by  examining  first  which  teeth 
are  developed,  and  then  to  what  extent  they 
have  been  worn  away  by  use.  They  are  best 
tamed  by  kindness.  4^ke  other  domestic  ani- 
mals the  horse  has  run  into  various  breeds. 
The  most  celebrated  is  the  Arab  horse.  Great 
attention  is  given  in  America  to  the  breeding 
of  horses,  and  American  horses  have  won  races 
both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  The 
fear  that  the  horse  would  go  out  of  fashion  on 
account  of  bicycles  and  automobiles  seems 
unfounded.  A  similar  fear  was  expressed  when 
the  railway  took  the  place  of  the  stage-coach. 

Hyena.  A  genus  of  carnivorous  animals, 
containing  three  species.  Two  of  these,  the 
Spotted  Hyena  and  the  Brown  Hyena,  are  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  African  continent;  while 
the  third  species,  the  Striped  Hyena,  is  found  in 
Northern  Africa,  and  ranges  over  all  the  open 
country  of  India  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  through  Persia  and  Asia  Minor.  These 
animals  have  a  villainous  appearance,  and  are 
covered  with  coarse  bristly  hair,  short  over  the 
greater  portion  of  the  body,  but  produced  into 
a  mane  along  the  ridge  of  the  neck.  The  hind 
legs  are  shorter  than  the  fore,  giving  the  body 
a  slope  from  the  withers  to  the  haunches.  In 
size  they  are  somewhat  larger  than  a  shepherd's 
dog.  The  cheek-muscles  are  greatly  developed, 
and  the  large  grinding  teeth  have  great  conical 
crowns,  giving  to  them  the  power  of  smashing 
the  thigh-bones  of  animals  the  size  of  a  horse, 
and  enabling  them  to  procure  their  favorite 
morsel,  the  marrow.  As  carrion-feeders  they 
are  useful  scavengers.  All  the  species  are  noc- 
turnal in  their  habits. 


Insects.  A  class  of  invertebrate  animals, 
in  which  the  body  is  divided  into  a  variable 
number  of  segments,  which  usually  become 
modified  to  form  three  distinct  regions,  known 
as  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen. 
The  total  number  of  segments  never  exceeds 
twenty.  Of  these,  five,  and  probably  six, 
become  completely  united  to  form  the  head, 
which  carries  four  pairs  of  appendages,  viz: 
a  pair  of  antennae,  a  pair  of  mandibles,  and  two 
pairs  of  maxilla?,  the  second  pair  of  which 
together  constitute  the  labium.  There  is  gen- 
erally a  pair  of  compound  eyes  on  the  sides  of 
the  head,  and  sometimes  simple  eyes,  or  ocelli, 
also.  The  thorax  always  consists  of  three  seg- 
ments, which  are  termed  respectively  the  pro- 
thorax,  the  meso-thorax,  and  the  meta-thorax. 
Each  of  these  carries  a  pair  of  jointed  legs,  and 
the  possession  of  these  six  legs  is  characteristic 
of  the  whole  class  of  insects;  when  wings  are 
present  they  are  attached  to  the  second  or  third 
thoracic  segments,  or  to  both.  The  remaining 
segments  constitute  the  abdomen;  they  have 
no  appendages.  The  organs  of  the  mouth  in 
insects  are  of  two  principal  types,  viz:  mas- 
ticatory (beetles,  dragon-flies,  ants,  etc.),  and 
suctorial  (butterflies,  moths,  fleas,  gnats,  etc.). 
The  digestive  apparatus,  or  alimentary  canal, 
usually  consists  of  an  ajsophagus,  a  crop,  a  giz- 
zard, a  stomach,  a  small  intestine,  a  iarge  intes- 
tine, and  a  rectum,  together  with  organs  playing 
the  part  of  liver  and  kidneys.  There  is  no 
definite  and  regular  course  of  circulation  in 
insects.  The  heart  is  represented  by  a  con- 
tractile tube,  situated  on  the  back,  and  termed 
the  dorsal  vessel.  Respiration  is  effected  by 
means  of  branching  air  tubes,  or  trachece,  which 
ramify  through  the  entire  body,  and  open  on  the 
exterior  by  lateral  apertures,  known  as  stigmata , 
or  spiracles.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a 
chain  of  ganglia  placed  on  the  ventral  surface, 
and  connected  by  a  series  of  double  cords. 
The  sexes  of  insects  are  in  different  individuals, 
and  most  are  oviparous.  Most  insects  in  the 
course  of  their  lives  pass  through  a  series  of 
changes,  which  constitute  the  m,etam^r phases, 
before  attaining  maturity. 

Jaguar.  A  carnivorous  mammal,  belong- 
ing to  the  cat  family.  In  size  it  is  rather  larger 
than  the  leopard,  but  is  more  elegant  in  form 
and  in  the  beauty  of  its  skin,  the  ground  color 
of  which  is  pale  brownish-yellow,  variegated  on 
the  upper  parts  with  streaks  and  irregular 
oblong  spots  of  black.  The  top  of  the  back  is 
marked  with  long  uninterrupted  stripes,  and 
the  sides  with  rows  of  regular  open  marks; 
on  the  thighs  and  the  legs  are  full  black  spots; 
the  breast  and  the  belly  are  whitish;  the  tail 
is  not  so  long  as  the  body,  and  is  spotted  irreg- 
ularly with  black.  This  animal  is  one  of  the 
most  formidable  beasts  of  prey  found  in  Amer- 
ica, being  of  an  extremely  fierce .  nature.  It 
inhabits  North  and  South  America,  extending 
from  the  southern  regions  of  the  United  States, 
through  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Brazil, 
as  far  south  as  Paraguay.  Wooded  banks  of 
rivers  are  its  favorite  haunts,  and  it  is  said  to 
frequent  the  reedy  margins  of  lakes,  seeming 
to  have  a  great  predilection  for  water.  It 
preys  chiefly  upon  the  water-hog,  and  is  said 


750 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


to  catch  fish;  but  occasionally  it  kills  horses 
and  cattle,  and  even  men.  The  jaguar  is  a 
noisy  animal,  roaring  much  at  night,  especially 
on  the  approach  of  bad  weather. 

Kangaroo.  A  family  of  pouch-bearing 
animals.  They  are  the  most  highly  developed 
members  of  the  order,  and  are  peculiarly  suited 
for  the  conditions  of  life  in  Australia,  over  all 
parts  of  which  they  range,  supplying  the  place 
of  deer  and  cattle.  The  family  comprises  no 
fewer  than  fifty-six  species,  and  of  these  the 
Great  Kangaroo  may  be  taken  as  a  type.  This 
species  was  formerly  plentiful,  and  roamed  over 
all  the  plains,  but  it  is  now  fast  retiring  before 
the  colonist.  The  fore-limbs  are  small;  the 
hind-limbs  very  large  and  thick;'  the  head 
small,  with  rather  long  ears,  and  a  long,  dusky- 
brown  muzzle;  the  body  long,  with  the  fur 
shortish  but  thick,  and  of  a  grey-brown  tint. 
In  height  it  is  as  tall  or  taller  than  a  man.  The 
female  carries  her  young  in  a  pouch  on  the 
underside  of  the  belly.  When  moving  quickly 
the  hind-limbs  alone  are  brought  into  action, 
and  by  means  of  these  the  animal  bounds  along 
in  great  leaps  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  the 
body  being  carried  in  a  nearly  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  the  tail  extended  to  balance  it.  The 
fore-limbs  are  chiefly  used  in  handling,  and 
with  these  the  females  lift  their  young,  and 
place  therA  in  the  pouch.  The  kangaroos  are 
vegetable  feeders,  delighting  in  grasses,  leaves, 
and  herbs. 

Lark.     The  common  name  of  birds  com- 

§  rising  the  genus  Alaiida  and  Sturnella.  The 
ky-lark,  or  Laverock,  of  Europe,  the  most 
harmonious  of  this  musical  tribe,  commences 
its  song  early  in  the  spring,  continues  it  during 
the  whole  summer,  and  is  one  of  those  few  birds 
that  chant  while  on  the  wing.  When  it  first 
rises  from  the  earth,  its  notes  are  feeble  and 
interrupted;  as  it  ascends,  however,  they  grad- 
ually swell  to  their  full  tone,  and  long  after 
it  is  lost  to  the  sight  it  still  continues  to  charm 
the  ear  with  its  melody.  It  mounts  almost 
perpendicularly,  but  descends  in  an  oblique 
direction,  unless  threatened  with  danger,  when 
it  drops  like  a  stone.  The  Meadow-lark  of 
North  America,  about  ten  inches  long,  some- 
what resembles  the  Sky-lark  in  its  habits,  but 
its  song  is  not  so  sweet  and  harmonious. 

L<eopard.  The  Felis  Leopardus  differs 
from  the  panther  only  by  having  small  spots 
thickly  set,  while  the  panther's  spots  are  large 
and  open.  The  species  is  a  native  both  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  The  body  of  this  fierce  and 
rapacious  animal  is  about  four  feet  long.  From 
the  great  flexibility  of  the  limbs  and  spine,  it 
can  take  surprising  leaps,  swim,  crawl,  and 
ascend  trees. 

Lemon.  A  plant  of  the  genus  Citrus,  be- 
longing to  the  order  AurantiaceoB,  which  also 
includes  the  orange,  lime,  citron,  etc.  The 
lemon  is  a  native  of  Northern  India,  and  is 
extensively  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  the  pulp  of 
which  abounds  in  citric  acid,  and  is  much  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  cooling  and  effervescing 
drinks.  The  peel,  or  rind,  is  covered  with 
glands  containing  oil,  which  is  used  as  an 
aromatic;  when  dried  and  preserved,  it  forms 
an  article  of  commerce,  and  is  used  for  flavor- 


ing. The  produce  of  the  lemon  groves  of  the 
Mediterranean  is  chiefly  imported  to  the  north. 

Lilac.  A  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Oleaceoe  (which  includes  the  ash, 
jessamine,  olive,  etc.).  The  lilacs  are  natives 
of  the  east;  they  are  shrubs  or  small  trees; 
and  the  flowers  are  characterized  by  a  four- 
cleft  corolla,  by  two  stamens,  and  by  a  two- 
valved  fruit.  Several  species  are  cultivated  for 
ornamental  purposes,  the  common  lilac  being 
one  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated  shrubs 
in  Europe.  Lilac  bark  is  used  as  a  febrifuge 
in  some  parts  of  France. 

Lily.  A  popular  name  applied  to  plants  of 
several  genera  belonging  to  the  order  LiliacecB, 
but  especially  to  the  individuals  constituting 
the  genus  Lilium.  They  are  herbaceous,  with 
scaly  bulbous  roots  and  conspicuous  flowers,  on 
account  of  which  they  are  great  favorites  with 
the  horticulturist,  and  are  extensively  culti- 
vated. The  tiger  lily,  with  its  showy  yellow 
flowers,  is  a  native  of  warm  climates,  and  is 
peculiar  in  producing  bulbs  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  and  capable  of  independent  growth. 
The  white  lily  and  the  orange  lily  are  also 
familiar  under  cultivation.  The  bulbs  are  rich 
in  starch,  and  in  some  districts  those  of  certain 
species  are  used  as  food. 

Lion.  The  largest  and  most  majestic  of 
carnivorous  quadrupeds.  It  is,  when  mature, 
of  a  nearly  uniform  tawny  or  yellowish  color, 

Ealer  on  the  under  parts,  the  young  alone  ex- 
ibiting  markings  like  those  common  in  the 
Felidce;  the  male  has,  usually,  a  great  shaggy 
and  flowing  mane,  and  the  tail,  which  is  pretty 
long,  terminates  in  a  tuft  of  hair.  The  whole 
frame  is  extremely  muscular,  and  the  foreparts, 
in  particular,  are  remaricably  powerful,  giving, 
with  the  large  head,  bright,  flashing  eye,  and 
copious  mane,  a  noble  appearance  to  the  animal, 
wnich,  with  its  strength,  has  led  to  its  being 
called  the  "king  of  beasts."  A  lion  of  the 
largest  size  measures,  about  eight  feet  from  the 
nose  to  the  tail,  and  the  tail  about  four  feet. 
The  lioness  is  smaller,  has  no  mane,  and  is  of  a 
lighter  color  on  the  under  parts.  The  strength 
of  the  lion  is  such  that  he  can  carry  off  a  heifer 
as  a  cat  carries  a  rat.  The  lion  is  chiefly  an 
inhabitant  of  Africa,  although  it  is  found  also 
in  some  of  the  wilds  of  Asia,  particularly  in 
certain  parts  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India.  It 
was  anciently  much  more  common  in  Asia, 
and  was  found  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  according 
to  Herodotus  and  other  authors.  The  lion  is 
not,  in  general,  an  inhabitant  of  deep  forests, 
but  rather  of  open  plains  in  which  the  shelter 
of  occasional  bushes  and  thickets  may  be  found. 
The  lion  is  easily  tamed,  at  least  when  taken 
young  and  when  abundantly  supplied  with  food. 
Lions  were  made  to  contribute  to  the  barbarous 
sports  of  the  ancient  Romans;  a  combat  of 
lions  was  an  attractive  spectacle,  and  vast 
numbers  were  imported  into  Rome,  chiefly 
from  Africa,  for  the  supply  of  the  amphitheater. 
Pompey  exhibited  600  at  once.  The  mane  of 
the  lion  and  the  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  tail  are 
not  fully  developed  till  he  is  six  or  seven  years 
old.  The  tail  terminates  in  a  small  prickle, 
the   existence   of    which    was    known    to    the 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


751 


ancients,  and  which  was  supposed  by  them  to  be 
a  kind  of  goad  to  the  animal  when  lashing  him- 
self with  his  tail  in  rage.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  the  lion,  slightly  differing  from 
each  other  in  form  and  color,  but  particularly 
in  the  development  of  the  mane.  The  largest 
lions  of  the  south  of  Africa  are  remarkable  for 
the  size  of  the  head  and  the  great  black  mane. 

Llama.  The  popular  name  of  the  genus 
Auchenia,  family  Camelidce.  The  llama  proper, 
and  the  Alpaca  or  Peruvian  sheep,  which  is 
entirely  confined  to  Peru,  are,  according  to  Cu- 
vier,  only  domesticated  forms  of  the  Guanaco, 
while  Humboldt  considers  them  as  distinct 
species.  The  Vicuna,  which  belongs  to  the 
same  genus,  is  a  more  beautiful  animal  than 
any  of  its  congeners.  In  size,  it  is  intermediate 
between  the  llama  and  the  alpaca.  Its  neck 
is  longer  and  more  slender  than  theirs;  its  wool 
is  also  finer,  short,  and  curled.  It  is  of  a  rich 
brown  color,  with  patches  of  white  across  the 
shoulders,  and  the  inner  side  of  the  legs.  The 
Vicuna  inhabits  the  most  desolate  parts  of  the 
Cordillera,  at  great  elevations;  like  the  wild 
goat  and  the  antelope,  it  is  a  very  active  animal. 

Lobster.  A  familiar  invertebrate  animal, 
belonging  to  the  order  Crustacea,  and  inhabiting 
the  sea.  Lobsters  are  found  in  great  numbers 
about  many  European  shores,  and  the  greater 
part  of  those  taken  to  English  markets  are 
supplied  from  Norway;  they  are  also  quite 
numerous  on  the  coasts  of  North  America. 
The  body  of  the  lobster  is  composed  of  two 
principal  divisions,  popularly  termed  head  and 
■  tail ;  the  former,  however,  which  is  technically 
called  the  cephalo-thorax,  is  constituted  (as  the 
name  implies)  by  both  head  and  thorax;  the 
tail  is  the  abdomen.  The  body  carries  twenty 
pairs  of  appendages,  consisting  of  feelers,  jaws, 
claws,  legs,  etc.  Lobsters  are  extremely  com- 
bative, and  fight  furiously,  the  vanquished 
party  usually  leaving  one  of  its  limbs  in  its 
opponent's  grasp. 

Lynx,  a  kind  of  wild  cat,  differing  from  the 
ordinary  small  cats  of  the  wilderness  by  being 
shorter  and  more  robust,  with  long  limbs, 
stumpy  tail  and  tufted  ears.  In  color  it  is  light 
brown  or  gray  with  darker  spots.  In  North 
America  there  are  two  main  species,  the  Can- 
adian, "red"  lynx,  and  the  southern  "bobcat." 
The  color  of  the  northern  lynx  is  grizzly  brown- 
ish-gray, the  ear  tufts  and  tip  of  tail  black, 
belly  white.  The  habits  are  those  of  forest  cats 
generally.  The  fur  is  highly  prized,  especially  as 
the  animal  is  becoming  rarer  near  civilized  dis- 
tricts. The  Alaskan  lynx  wears  a  paler  coat, 
while  the  fur  of  the  southern  animal  is  reddish. 

Magnolia.  A  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
named  from  Pierre  Magnol,  a  French  botanist 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  The  species,  which 
chiefly  inhabit  North  America,  Northern  India, 
Chian,  Japan,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  are  trees 
much  admired  on  account  of  the  elegance  of 
their  flowers  and  foliage,  and  are  in  great  re- 
quest in  gardens.  In  their  native  countries 
some  of  them  attain  great  height,  and  have 
flowers  ten  inches  across.  The  umbrella-tree 
has  important  tonic  properties.  The  cones 
of  some  species  yield  a  spirituous  liquor,  em- 
ployed   in    Virginia    in    rheumatic    affections. 


Big-laurel  and  the  yulan  or  Chinese  magnolia, 
grow  well  in  the  south  of  England,  and  are 
splendid  ornamental  trees.  The  yulan  is  re- 
markable in  that  it  flowers  in  spring  before  the 
leaves  expand. 

Magpie.  A  bird  belonging  to  the  crow 
family.  There  are  several  species,  two  of  which 
belong  to  America.  The  common  European 
magpie  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  length;  the 
plumage  is  black  and  white,  the  black  glossed 
with  green  and  purple;  the  bill  is  stout,  and 
the  tail  is  very  long.  The  magpies  continue  in 
pairs  throughout  the  year,  and  prey  on  a  variety 
of  food,  chiefly  animal.  They  are  determined 
robbers  of  other  birds'  nests,  destroying  the  eggs 
and  young  birds.  In  captivity  they  are  cele- 
brated for  their  crafty  instincts,  their  power  of 
imitating  words,  and  their  propensity  to  purloin 
and  secrete  glittering  articles. 

Mahogany.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies  and  of  Tropical  America.  It  is  a 
tree  of  considerable  magnitude,  with  compound 
leaves  of  several  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  yellowish 
white  flowers.  Mahogany  is  applied  to  many 
uses.  It  is  a  fine  wood,  of  close  texture,  of  a 
reddish  color  shaded  with  brown,  and  is  capable 
of  taking  a  fine  polish.  It  varies  much  in  value 
according  to  the  color  and  markings.  The 
mahogany  tree  is  found  most  commonly  on  the 
coasts  of  Honduras  and  Campeachy,  and  also 
in  the  islands  of  Cuba  and  Hayti.  It  was  for- 
merly plentiful  in  Jamaica.  The  wood  obtained 
from  Honduras  and  Campeachy  is  often  termed 
bay- wood;  that  from  Cuba  and  Hayti  (which  is 
of  finer  quality)  is  known  in  the  market  as 
Spanish  mahogany.  There  are  one  or  two  other 
varieties  of  mahogany,  produced  by  trees  belong- 
ing to  the  same  natural  order,  and  natives  of 
the  East  Indies. 

Man.  The  only  species  composing  the  or- 
der of  Mammals  Bimana.  He  possesses  two 
prehensile  hands,  with  fingers  protected  by  flat 
nails;  two  feet  with  single  soles,  a  single  stom- 
ach, and  three  kinds  of  teeth:  incisive,  canine, 
and  molar.  His  position  is  upright;  his  food 
both  vegetable  and  animal ;  his  body  without 
natural  covering.  Blumenbach  divides  man- 
kind into  five  varieties:  (1)  The  first  occupies 
the  central  parts  of  the  old  continent,  namely. 
Western  Asia,  Eastern  and  Northern  Africa, 
Hindostan,  and  Europe.  Its  characters  are,  the 
color  of  the  skin,  more  or  less  white  or  brown; 
the  cheeks  tinged  with  red;  long  hair,  either 
brown  or  fair;  the  head  almost  spherical;  the 
face  oval  and  narrow;  the  features  moderately 
marked;  the  nose  slightly  arched;  the  mouth 
small;  the  front  teeth  placed  perpendicularly 
in  the  jaws;  the  chin  full  and  round.  This  is 
called  the  Caucasian,  from  its  supposed  origin 
in  the  Caucasus.  (2)  The  second  variety  has 
been  termed  the  Eastern.  The  color  in  this 
race  is  yellow ;  the  hair  black,  stiff,  straight,  and 
rather  thin;  the  head  almost  square;  the  face 
large,  flat,  and  depressed;  the  features  indis- 
tinctly marked;  the  nose  small  and  flat;  the 
cheeks  round  and  prominent;  the  chin  pointed; 
the  eyes  small.  This  variety  comprises  all  the 
Asiatics  to  the  east  of  the  Ganges  and  of  Mount 
Beloor,  except  the  Malays;  it  also  includes  the 
Turks,  Egyptians,  Persians,  Hindoos,  Tartars, 


752 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Chinese,  etc.  (3)  The  American  variety.  (4) 
The  fourth  variety  is  called  by  Blumenbach  the 
Malay,  and  described  as  of  a  tawny  color;  the 
hair  black,  soft,  thick,  and  curled ;  the  forehead 
a  little  projecting.  This  variety  comprehends 
the  islanders  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  (5)  The  re- 
maining variety  is  the  Negro.  Its  characters 
are:  color,  black;  hair,  black  and  woolly;  head, 
narrow;  forehead  convex  and  arched;  cheek- 
bones projecting;  nose  large,  and  almost  con- 
founded with  the  upper  jaw;  the  upper  front 
teeth  obliquely  placed;  the  lips  thick;  the  chin 
drawn  in;  the  legs  crooked.  This  race  is  found 
in  Western  and  Southern  Africa,  and  the  great 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  generally  in  the  interior. 
There  are  very  great  differences  in  the  tribes 
included  in  this  variety;  as  witness,  the  Negro, 
with  the  complexion  of  jet,  and  woolly  hair; 
the  Kaffre,  with  a  copper  complexion  and  long 
hair;  the  sooty  Papuan,  or  New  Guinea-man; 
the  native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land;  and  the 
Hottentot.  The  structure  of  man  is  essentially 
the  same  in  kind  as  that  of  other  mammals, 
differing  only  or  mainly  in  degree;  yet  the  de- 
grees of  difference  separate  him  widely  from  all 
other  animals,  and  place  him  in  an  order  by 
himself,  and  far  above  all  other  organized  beings. 
He  is  the  only  animal  to  which  the  erect  posture 
is  natural;  his  whole  organization  is  adapted 
to  that  attitude.     His  brain  is  the  largest  in  the 


animal  kingdom,  excepting  that  only  of  the 
elephant  and  of  the  whale,  and  in  its  organiza- 
tion is  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  animal. 
His  face  is  a  model  of  beauty,  and  endowed  with 
a  wonderful  power  of  expression.  The  hand  of 
man  is  superior  in  its  structure  and  in  its  func- 
tions to  the  corresponding  member  of  any  other 
animal.  Man  alone  truly  speaks  a  language. 
Even  physically  considered,  he  is  the  highest 
possible  expression  of  a  vertibrate.  But  man 
is  the  highest  representative  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, not  only  on  account  of  his  superior  form 
and  higher  physical  organization,  but,  above  all, 
on  account  of  those  high  mental  and  spiritual 
endowments  which  belong  to  him  alone,  and 
which  enable  him  to  understand  and  appreciate 
the  wonderful  and  sublime  harmonies  of  the 
material  and  moral  world,  and  his  own  relations 
to  the  Author  of  nature  and  of  revelation. 
While  each  species  of  the  lower  animals  is 
limited  to  a  given  region  or  country,  and  in 
many  cases  cannot  survive  a  removal,  man's 
home  is  the  whole  earth  —  he  alone  is  truly 
cosmopolite.  It  is  not  possible  to  fix  the  date 
of  man's  appearance  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  or  even  to  approximate  to  it,  but  the  re- 
searches of  modern  geologists  show  that  there 
is  apparent  evidence  of  his  existence  far  be- 
yond that  which  is  assigned  by  our  popular 
chronology. 


R.\CES   OF   MANKIND 


Arranged  by  Ethnologist  Fignier  and  others. 


European 
Branch. 


Aramean 
Branch. 


Hyperborean 
Branch. 

Mongolian 
Branch. 


Sinaic 
Branch. 


Hindo 

Branch. 

Ethopian 

Branch. 

Malay 
Branch. 


Southern 
Branch. 


Northern 
Branch. 


Western 
Branch. 

Eastern 
Branch. 


WHITE    HACK 

i Teutonic  Family Scandinavians,  Germans,  English. 
Latin  Family, French,  Spaniards,  Italians,  Moldo-Wallachians. 
Slavonian  Family Russians,  Finns,  Bulgarians,  Servians,  Magyars,  Croats,  Czechs,  Poles, 
Lithuanians. 
Greek  Family Greeks,  Albanians. 

I  Libyan  Family Egyptians,  Berbers. 
Semitic  Family Arabs,  Jews,  Syrians. 
Persian  Family Persians,  Afghans,  Kurds,  Armenians,  Ossetes. 
Georgian  Family Georgians. 
Circassian  Family Circassians,  Mingrelians. 

YELLOW    KACE 

iLapp  Family Samoyed,    Kamtschadale,     Esquimau,    Tenissian,     Jukaghirite,     and 
Koriak  Families. 

Mongol  Family,  .  .    .    .    .    .  Mongols,  Kalmucks,  Burials. 

Tunguse  Family, 'funguses,  Manchus. 

Turk  Family Turcomans,  Kirghis,  Nogays,  Osmanlis. 

Yakut  Family Yakuts. 

C  Chinese  Family, Chinese. 

<  Japanese  Family Japanese. 

(  Indo-Chinese  Family,  .    .    .   Burmese,  Siamese. 

BROWN    HACE 

5  Hindo  Family,  ......  Sikhs,  Jats.  Rajpoots,  Mahrattas,  Bengalese,  Cingalese. 

I  Malabar  Family Malabars,  Tamils,  Telingas. 

j  Abyssinian  Family,  ....  Abyssinians,  Berabras,  Gallas. 

\  Fellan  Family Fellans. 

(  Malay  Family Malays,  Javanese,  Battas,  Bougis,  Maccassars,  Dyaks,  Togals. 

•<  Polynesian  Family Maoris.  Tongas,  Tahitians,  Pomotouans,  Marquesans,  Sandwichians. 

(  Micronesian  Family,     .    .    .  Ladrone,  Caroline,  and  Mulgrave  Islanders. 

RED   RACE 
f  Andian  Family Quichuas  (or  Incas),  Antis,  Andians,  Araucanians. 

<  Pampean  Family Pataponians,  Puelches,  Charruas,  Tobas,  Moxas,  Abipous,  etc. 

(  Guarani  Family Guaranis,  Bocotudos. 

f  Southern  Family, Aztecs,  Mayas,  Lencas,  Othomis,  Tarascas,  etc. 

<  Northeastern  Family,  .    .    .   Cherokees,  Hurons,  Iroquois,  Sioux,  Apaches,  Comanches,  Creeks,  etc. 
(  Northwestern  Family,  .   .    ,   Chinooks,  Digger  Indians,  Nootkans,  etc. 

BLACK    RACE 

(  Kaffre  Family 

<  Hottentot  Family 

(  Negro  Family, 

(  Papuan  Family Fijians,  New  Caledonians,  etc. 

(  Andaman  Family Andamans,  Australians. 


GAZ-EL 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROS  HYENA 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


753 


Manatee.  The  sea-cow  or  lamantin,  a 
gregarious  aquatic  mammal  of  the  genus  Mana- 
tus,  order  Sirenia,  found  on  the  coasts  of  South 
America,  Africa,  and  Australia.  They  gener- 
ally frequent  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  estuaries, 
and  feed  on  algae  and  such  littoral  land  vegetations 
as  they  can  reach  at  high  tide.  Their  anterior 
limbs  or  swimming  paws  are  furnished  with  nails 
by  means  of  which  they  drag  themselves  along 
the  shore.  They  are  large  awkward  animals, 
attaining  a  length  of  eight  to  ten  feet  as  a  rule, 
but  sometimes  growing  to  twenty  feet.  The 
skin  is  of  a  grayish  color,  sparsely  covered  with 
hairs.  Their  flesh  is  excellent,  and  they  furnish 
a  soft,  clear  oil  which  does  not  become  rancid. 
There  are  several  species,  the  principal  being  the 
American  manatee,  which  inhabits  the  shallow 
waters  of  the  east  coasts  of  South  and  North 
America,  and  the  African  manatee. 

Mandrill.  A  species  of  baboon  which  is 
distinguished  by  the  short  or  rudimentary  tail, 
by  the  elongated,  dog-like  muzzle,  and  by  the 
presence  of  buttock  callosities  which  are  gener- 
ally brightly  colored.  The  mandrill  inhabits 
Western  Africa,  where  they  associate  in  large 
troops.  Full-grown  males  measure  about  five 
feet ;  they  are  exceedingly  strong  and  muscular, 
and  fierce  in  disposition.  It  has  cheek  protuber- 
ances colored  with  stripes  of  brilliant  red  and 
blue. 

Mangrove.  A  genus  of  plants  consisting 
of  trees  or  shrubs  which  grow  in  tropical  coun- 
tries along  the  muddy  beaches  of  low  coasts, 
where  they  form  "impenetrable  barriers  for  long 
distances.  They  throw  out  numerous  roots 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  and  also  send 
down  long,  slender  roots  from  the  branches,  like 
the  Indian  banyan-tree.  The  seeds  germinate 
in  the  seed-vessel,  the  root  growing  downward 
till  it  fixes  itself  in  the  mud.  The  wood  is  dark- 
red,  hard,  and  durable,  and  the  bark  is  used  for 
tanning. 

Manna.  The  sweet,  concrete  juice  which 
is  obtained  by  incisions  made  in  the  stem  of  a 
species  of  ash,  Fraxinus  Ornus,  a  native  of  Sicily, 
Calabria,  and  other  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  manna  of  commerce  is  collected  in  Sicily, 
where  the  manna-ash  is  cultivated  for  the  pur- 
pose in  regular  plantations.  The  best  manna  is 
in  oblong  pieces  or  flakes  of  a  whitish  or  pale- 
yellow  color,  light,  friable,  and  somewhat  trans- 
parent. It  has  a  slight  peculiar  odor,  and  a 
sweetish  taste  mixed  with  a  slight  degree  of 
bitterness,  and  is  employed  as  a  gentle  laxative 
for  children  or  persons  of  weak  habit.  It  is, 
however,  generally  used  as  an  adjunct  to  other 
more  active  medicines.  Other  sweetish  secre- 
tions exuded  by  some  other  plants  growing  in 
warm  and  dry  climates,  as  the  Eucalyptus  nmn- 
nifcra  of  Australia,  the  Tamarix  mannifera  or 
gallica  of  Arabia  and  Syria,  are  considered  to  be 
kinds  of  manna.  Small  quantities  of  manna, 
known  under  the  name  of  Briangon  manna,  are 
obtained  from  the  common  larch.  In  Scripture 
we  are  told  that  a  substance  called  manna  was 
miraculously  furnished  as  food  for  the  Israelites 
in  their  journey  through  the  wilderness  of  Ara- 
bia. Some  persons  identify  it  with  the  sac- 
charine substance  yielded  by  the  Tamarix 
mannifera. 


Maple.  A  name  for  trees  of  the  genus  Acer, 
natural  order  Aceracece  or  Sapindacece,  pecuhar 
to  the  northern  and  temperate  parts  of  the 
globe.  About  fifty  species  are  known,  distrib- 
uted through  Europe,  North  America,  and  differ- 
ent parts  oi  Asia.  They  are  small  or  large  trees, 
with  a  sweetish,  rarely  milky,  sap,  usually  lobed 
leaves,  and  small  greenish  flowers. 

Mistletoe.  An  American  and  European 
plant  growing  parasitically  on  various  trees, 
and  celebrated  on  account  of  the  religious  pur- 
poses to  which  it  was  consecrated  by  the  ancient 
Celtic  nations  of  Europe,  being  held  in  great 
veneration  by  the  Druids,  particularly  when  it 
was  found  growing  on  the  oak.  It  is  a  small 
shrub,  with  sessile,  oblong,  entire,  somewhat 
leathery  leaves,  and  small,  yellowish-green 
flowers,  the  whole  forming  a  pendent  bush, 
covered  in  winter  with  small  white  berries, 
which  contain  a  glutinous  substance.  It  is 
common  enough  on  certain  species  of  trees,  such 
as  apple  and  pear  trees,  hawthorn,  maple,  lime 
and  other  similar  trees,  but  is  very  seldom  found 
on  the  oak.  Its  roots  ■  penetrate  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tree  on  which  it  grows,  and  latterly 
it  kills  the  branch  supporting  it.  Traces  of  the 
old  superstitious  regard  for  the  mistletoe  still 
remain  in  Germany  and  England,  as  kissing 
under  it  at  Christmas. 

Mocking  Bird.  A  genus  of  the  family 
Turdidce,  or  Thrushes,  exclusively  American  in 
its  distribution,  but  ranging  widely  over  the 
northern  and  southern  portions  of  that  conti- 
nent. These  birds  are  remarkable  for  their 
power  of  song.  The  best  known  species  is 
Mimus  polyglottus,  which  has  marvelous  power 
of  voice,  and  is  able  to  imitate  almost  any 
species  of  animal,  as  well  as  noises  produced 
artificially.  Its  own  song  is  loud,  full,  and  ex- 
ceedingly varied.  In  plumage  it  is  decidedly 
somber,  being  of  a  general  ashy-gray  hue,  paler 
beneath;  but,  though  the  mocking  bird  cannot 
vie  with  other  American  birds  in  brilliancy  of 
plumage,  its  sweet  and  varied  notes,  and  its 
faculty  of  imitation,  render  it  a  prime  favorite. 

Monkey.  The  popular  name  of  a  large 
group  of  animals,  belonging  to  the  order  Pri- 
mates, or  the  Cuvierian  order  Qu^drumana,  and 
to  the  class  Mammalia.  The  name  is  frequently 
used  to  comprehend  the  members  of  the  follow- 
ing families  and  sub-families  of  the  order,  viz: 
the  Simiidce  (Anthropoid  Apes  and  Gibbons), 
the  Semnopithecince  (Old  World  Monkeys),  the 
Cynopithednce  (Baboons  and  Macaques),  the 
Cebidce  (American  Monkeys),  and  the  Hapalidoe 
(Marmosets).  In  a  restricted  sense,  however, 
it  is  only  applicable  to  certain  members  of  some 
of  the  above  families  and  sub-families,  and  can- 
not be  correctly  applied  to  the  apes  and  gibbons 
(Simiidce),  or  to  the  baboons.  The  characteris- 
tics of  the  different  species  of  monkeys  are  so 
very  varied,  that  it  is  impossible  to  frame  a 
general  definition  of  them  that  would  be  appli- 
cable to  all,  and  the  limits  of  space  preclude  us 
from  entering  into  a  description  of  each  species. 
The  Semnopithednoe  comprise  the  long-tailed 
monkeys  without  cheek-pouches,  which  have 
rather  long,  rounded  faces  and  more  prominent 
muzzles ;  they  are  widely  distributed  over  Africa 
and  Asia.     The  Cynopithednce  contain  all  the 


754 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


monkeys  with  cheek-pouches ;  they  have  affin- 
ities with  the  baboons,  and  are  generally  dis- 
tributed over  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  Malay 
Islands,  one  species,  the  Gibraltar  monkey,  being 
the  only  monkey  inhabiting  Europe.  The  fam- 
ily Cebidoe  comprise  all  the  larger  American 
monkeys,  which  differ  from  those  of  the  old 
world' m "  having  an  additional  molar  tooth,  or 
grinder,  in  each  jaw,  and  the  nostrils  widely 
separated;  while  they  have  neither  cheek- 
pouches  nor  callosities,  and  their  thumbs  are 
never  completely  opposable;  some  have  a  pre- 
hensile tail,  which  is  as  useful  to  them  as  an 
additional  limb  in  their  arboreal  haunts.  The 
members  of  this  family  are  strictly  confined  to 
the  forest  regions  of  tropical  America,  from 
Southern  Mexico  to  Northern  Chile.  The  last 
family,  the  Hapalidoe,  comprises  the  marmosets, 
which  are  strictly  South  American  in  their  dis- 
tribution. The  habitats  of  all  monkeys  are 
chiefly  confined  to  forests,  for  which  their  form 
is  especially  adapted,  enabling  them  to  climb 
trees  with  ease,  and  to  leap  from  branch  to 
branch  with  extraordinary  agility.  Here  they 
are  masters  of  the  situation,  the  only  foe  they 
dread  being  the  serpent,  which  alone  can  reach 
them  in  their  arboreal  retreats.  Their  food  con- 
sists chiefly  of  fruits  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances; but,  in  addition  to  these,  birds  and 
their  eggs,  and  insects,  are  by  no  means  unac- 
ceptable to  them. 

Mosses.  A  large  group  of  flowerless  plants 
of  diminutive  size,  which  constitute  the  class 
Musci.  Mosses  are  among  the  most  extensively 
diffused  of  all  plants,  and  are  both  terrestrial 
and  aquatic  in  habits.  They  consist  of  a  leafy 
stem,  the  leaves  being  often  closely  packed  or 
overlapping  one  another.  The  fructification  of 
mosses  is  somewhat  complicated,  and  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  ferns  in  all  essential  points. 
A  capsule  is  first  produced,  and  borne  at  the  top 
of  a  long  foot-stalk  which  springs  from  a  tuft  of 
leaves.  It  is  covered  at  first  by  a  hood,  termed 
the  calyptra,  but  this  afterwards  falls  off,  and 
the  capsule  is  then  seen  to  be  closed  by  an 
operculum  or  lid,  which  eventually  bursts  away 
to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  contained  spores. 
The  mouth  of  the  capsule,  when  the  operculum 
has  fallen  off,  is  seen  to  be  surrounded  by  a  row 
of  minute  teeth  which  constitute  the  peristome. 
The  development  of  the  spore  gives  rise  to  a 
branching  filament,  on  several  points  of  which 
buds  appear,  which  become  leafy  stems;  and 
some  of  these  produce  true  reproductive  organs, 
the  male  organs  being  termed  antheridia,  and 
the  female  organs  archegonia;  these  may  be 
borne  by  the  same  plant,  or  by  different  plants. 
Several  thousand  species  of  mosses  are  known, 
and  many  of  them  are  extremely  beautiful, 
especially  under  the  microscope. 

Moth.  The  popular  name  of  a  numerous 
and  beautiful  division  of  lepidopterous  insects, 
readily  distinguished  from  butterflies  by  their 
antenn£E  tapering  to  a  point  instead  of  terminat- 
ing in  a  knob,  by  their  wings  being  horizontal 
when  resting,  and  by  their  being  seldom  seen  on 
the  wing  except  in  the  evening  or  at  night 
(though  some  moths  fly  by  day);  hence  the 
terms  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  lepidoptera 
applied  to  them.     Amongst  the  more  notable  of 


the  moths  are  the  "feather"  or  "plume-moths," 
the  "death's-head  moth,"  the  "clothes-moths," 
and  the  "silk-moth." 

Mother-of-pearl,  or  Nacre.  The  hard 
silvery,  brilliant,  internal  or  nacreous  layer  of 
several  kinds  of  shells,  particularly  of  the  oyster 
family,  often  variegated  with  changing  purple 
and  azure  colors.  It  is  destitute  of  coloring 
matter,  but  is  composed  of  a  series  of  minute 
and  slightly  imbricated  layers  or  ridges  which 
have  the  power  of  decomposing  the  rays  of 
light,  thus  producing  beautiful  iridescent  hues. 
The  large  oysters  of  the  tropical  seas  alone 
secrete  this  coat  of  sufficient  thickness  to  render 
their  shells  available  for  the  purposes  of  manu- 
facture. Mother-of-pearl  is  extensively  used  in 
the  arts,  particularly  in  inlaid  work,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  handles  for  knives,  buttons, 
toys,  snuff-boxes,  etc. 

Mouse.  The  name  given  to  certain  species 
of  small  mammals,  belonging  to  the  order  Ro- 
dentia,  or  gnawing  animals.  The  mice,  along 
with  the  rats,  form  the  very  extensive  genus 
Mu^,  and,  with  other  aUies,  the  family  Muridce. 
The  British  species  of  mice  are  the  Common 
House  Mouse,  which  is  too  familiar  to  need  any 
description;  the  Harvest  Mouse,  the  smallest 
and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  prettiest  of 
British  mammals,  which  in  the  summer  con- 
structs a  curious  nest  high  up  in  the  straws  of 
the  standing  corn,  retiring  in  the  winter  into 
burrows,  in  which  it  hibernates;  and  the  Long- 
tailed  Field  Mouse,  which  frequents  fields  and 
gardens.  The  Dormouse  belongs  to  another  fam- 
ily, Myoxida,  of  the  same  order. 

Mulberry.  A  fruit-tree  of  the  genus  Morus 
akin  to  nettles.  The  black  or  common  mul- 
berry {Morus  nigra)  is  the  only  species  worthy 
of  being  cultivated  as  a  fruit-tree.  The  fruit  is 
used  at  dessert,  and  also  preserved  in  the  form 
of  a  syrup.  The  juice  of  the  berries  mixed  with 
that  of  apples  forms  a  beverage  of  a  deep  port- 
wine  color. 

Mule.  A  hybrid  animal  between  the  horse 
and  the  ass,  differing  in  size,  strength,  and 
beauty,  according  to  the  predominance  of  its 
parental  species;  those  between  a  male  ass  and 
a  mare  being  far  superior  to  the  progeny  of  a 
she-ass  with  a  horse.  In  mountainous  coun- 
tries mules  are  highly  serviceable;  no  beast  of 
burden  being  either  so  sure-footed,  or  so  capable 
of  enduring  fatigue ;  but  in  beauty  of  form  they 
fall  very  short  of  that  noble  quadruped,  the 
horse;  the  mule  having  a  large,  clumsy  head, 
long  erect  ears,  a  short  mane,  and  a  thin  tail. 

Mungoose.  A  species  of  ichneumon, 
otherwise  known  as  the  "gray"  or  "Indian" 
ichneumon.  Being  easily  domesticated,  it  is 
kept  in  many  houses  in  Hindustan  to  rid  them 
of  reptiles  and  other  vermin,  as  rats,  mice,  etc. 
It  has  been  said  that  it  neutralizes  the  poison  of 
snakes,  which  it  fearlessly  attacks,  by  eating, 
during  its  contests  with  them,  the  snake-root; 
but  its  immunity  is  really  due  to  the  extreme 
celerity  of  its  movements.  It  is  of  a  gray  color 
flecked  with  black,  and  about  the  size  of  a  rat. 

Musk -deer.  A  genus  of  deer,  forming  the 
type  of  the  family  Moschidae,  which  is  essentially 
distinct  from  the  family  of  the  Cervids,  or  true 
deers.     Their  chief  habitat  is  Asia  and  the  is- 


NATURAL   ITTSTORY 


755 


lands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago;  though  one 
species  is  found  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The 
typical  species  of  the  family  is  found  chiefly  in 
the  elevated  tablelands  of  Central  Asia,  and 
particularly  of  Tibet.  These  animals  attain 
<the  size  of  a  young  roe-deer,  and  the  upper  jaw 
bears  prominent  canine  teeth.  The  males  alone 
jy^ield  the  musk,  which  is  secreted  by  an  abdom- 
mal  gland  of  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg. 
The  Tibet  musk  is  most  in  repute,  that  known 
as  Russian  or  Siberian  being  inferior  in  quality. 
Besides  its  familiar  use  as  a  scent,  musk  is  em- 
ployed medicinally  as  an  antispasmodic.  There 
are  six  or  seven  other  species  of  Mosehus,  two 
of  which,  very  diminutive,  lack  the  musk  gland. 

Musk-ox.  An  animal  intermediate  be- 
tween the  ox  and  sheep.  Resembling  in  gen- 
eral appearance  a  large  goat-like  sheep,  its  bodv 
is  covered  with  a  coat  of  tufted  hair,  brownish 
in  color  and  of  great  length.  The  hair  about  the 
neck  and  shoulders  is  so  thick  as  to  give  the 
animal  a  "humped"  appearance;  on  the  rest 
of  the  body  it  is  very  long,  smooth,  and  flowing, 
while  interspersed  among  its  fibers  is  a  layer  of 
lighter-colored  wool.  The  musk-ox  is  active 
and  agile,  and  climbs  mountainous  places  with 
ease  and  dexterity.  The  horns,  broad  at  the 
base  and  covering  the  forehead  and  crown, 
curve  downwards  between  the  eye  and  the  ear,' 
and  then  upwards  and  slightly  backwards.  The 
horns  of  the  female  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
male,  and  their  bases  do  not  touch.  The  ears  are 
short,  the  head  large  and  broad,  the  muzzle 
blunted.  The  average  size  of  the  male  is  that 
of  a  small  domestic  ox.  The  food  consists  of 
grass,  lichens,  etc.  The  musk-ox  inhabits  the 
Arctic  regions  of  America  north  of  the  sixtieth 
degree  of  latitude.  The  flesh  is  pleasant  to  the 
taste,  though  it  smells  strongly  of  musk,  the 
odor  of  which  is  also  diffused  from  the  living 
animal. 

Nightingale.  A  genus  of  birds  belonging 
to  the  order  Passeres,  of  which  there  are  two 
species,  very  similar  in  plumage,  inhabiting 
Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  North  Africa. 
One  of  these  is  a  summer-visitant  to  the  south- 
ern and  eastern  counties  of  England,  arriving 
about  the  middle  of  April;  it  occurs  very  occa- 
sionally as  far  north  as  Mid- Yorkshire.  The 
plumage  of  this  delightful  songster  is  of  a  som- 
ber hue,  being  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  reddish 
brown,  redder  on  the  head  and  rump;  the  tail 
a  lighter  tint;  the  throat,  lower  part  of  the 
breast,  and  abdomen,  greyish  white;  the  lower 
neck  and  sides  pale,  greyish  brown.  The  favor- 
ite haunts  of  this  bird  are  copses  and  hedge- 
rows, and  its  food  consists  of  insects  of  various 
descriptions.  The  nest  is  composed  of  dry 
leaves,  lined  with  grass,  roots,  and  hair.  The 
eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  and  of  an 
uniform  olive-brown,  tinged  with  greyish  blue. 

Opossum.  A  family  of  mammals,  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  pouch-bearers,  which  range 
throughout  the  wooded  districts  of  America, 
from  the  southern  boundary  of  Texas  to  the 
La  Plata  River,  where  they  are  most  numerous; 
while  one  species  is  found  in  North  America, 
from  Florida  to  the  Hudson  River,  and  west  to 
the  Missouri.  They  are  rat-like  in  form,  and 
the  largest  species  is  about  the  size  of  the  com- 


mon cat;  they  have  a  long  tail,  which  is  almost 
destitute  of  hair,  and  is  very  useful  from  its  pre- 
hensile nature,  enabling  the  animal  not  only 
to  hang  by  it,  but  also  to  climb  and  descend 
trees.  They  are  sly  and  intelligent,  and  live 
chiefly  in  trees,  lying  up  in  the  daytime,  and  at 
night  roaming  abroad  in  search  of  their  food, 
which  consists  of  insects,  small  reptiles,  birds' 
eggs,  etc.  Some  species  have  no  marsupium, 
or  pouch,  or  it  is  very  slightly  developed;  and 
in  these  particular  species  the  young,  on  leaving 
the  nipples,  are  carried  on  their  mother's  back, 
retaining  their  position  by  entwining  their  tails 
I  around  hers.  The  opossums  may  be  divided 
into  three  groups:  those  whose  pouch  is  well 
developed,  those  in  which  it  is  a  mere  fold,  and 
those  which  have  webbed  feet,  and  live  in  the 
water  like  otters. 

Orange.  The  name  given  to  certain  plants 
of  the  genus  Citrus.  The  common  or  sweet 
orange  is  in  universal  request  for  its  fruit.  It 
is  an  evergreen  tree,  with  oblong  leaves  and 
white  flowers.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Southern  Europe,  and,  in  fact,  in  every  part  of 
the  world  where  the  climate  is  suitable.  There 
are  numerous  varieties  of  the  common  orange, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Chinese  or 
Mandarin  orange,  the  Maltese  and  St.  Michael's 
oranges,  and  the  blood  orange,  which  is  remark- 
able for  the  color  of  the  pulp.  The  Seville  or 
bitter  orarige  is  another  species,  having  a  bitter 
fruit  of  different  shape,  but  of  not  less  impor- 
tance than  the  common  orange.  Its  flowers 
yield  the  distilled  water  (orange-flower  water), 
so  much  used  in  medicine,  and  the  volatile  oil 
called  essence  of  Neroli,  used  in  the  preparation 
of  Eau  de  Cologne.  The  rind  is  much  used  for 
making  marmalade,  and  in  the  young  state  is 
one  of  the  principal  flavoring  ingredients  of  the 
liqueur  Curagoa.  Orange-trees  are  extremely 
fruitful,  a  single  tree  sometimes  producing  as 
many  as  20,000  oranges.  The  importance  of 
these  fruits  is  due  to  the  free  acids  contained 
in  the  pulp,  and  the  volatile  oil  secreted  by  the 
glands  which  cover  the  rind.  The  orange  is 
especially  cultivated  in  the  Azores,  America, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  Mediterranean  re- 
gions. 

Orang  Outang.  In  zoology  the  Mias  of 
the  Dyaks;  also  known  as  the  "  wild  man  of  the 
wood."  It  is  a  dull,  slothful  animal,  but  pos- 
sessed of  great  strength.  These  animals  are 
now  confined  to  the  swampy  forests  of  Sumatra 
and  Borneo.  Their  height  has  been  variously 
stated,  but  we  have  not  the  least  reliable  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  orangs  in  Borneo  more 
than  four  feet  two  inches  high.  The  legs  are 
very  short,  the  arms  are  disproportionately 
long,  reaching  to  the  ankle  when  the  animal  is 
placed  in  an  erect  position.  The  males  have  a 
longish  beard,  and  they  sometimes  develop 
warty  protuberances  on  each  side  of  the  face. 
The  resemblance  to  man  in  appearance  is  great- 
est in  the  females  and  in  young  animals.  The 
head  of  a  baby  orang  is  not  very  different  from 
that  of  an  average  child;  but  in  the  adult  the 
muzzle  is  as  well-marked  a  feature  as  in  the 
Carnivora.  It  never  walks  erect,  unless  when 
using  its  hands  to  support  itself  by  branches 
overhead,  or  when  attacked. 


756 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Oriole.  A  family  of  birds  which  inhabit 
Southern  Asia,  the  Malay  Islands,  Africa,  and 
Australia,  while  one  species,  the  Golden  Oriole, 
is  a  summer  visitant  to  Central  Europe,  and, 
during  the  period  of  migration,  is  occasionally 
observed  in  England.  The  male  of  this  species 
is  of  great  beauty,  having  a  brilliant  yellow 
body  and  black  wings  and  tail.  The  female  is 
much  plainer,  being  of  a  greenish  hue,  streaked 
with  duskv  lines.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the 
common  tnrush.     The  name  Oriole  is  also  ap- 

glied  to  several  American  birds,  of  which  the 
altimore  Oriole,  a  bird  ranging  from  Canada 
to  Mexico,  is  a  well-known  example.  It  has  the 
head,  throat,  wings,  and  upper  back  black;  the 
lower  back  and  all  the  under  parts  bright  orange, 
deepening  into  vermilion  on  the  breast. 

Ostrich.  A  family  of  birds,  belonging  to 
the  order  Struthiones ;  having  a  raft-like  sternum 
(breast-bone),  and  consequently  not  possessing 
the  power  of  flight.  The  ostriches  are  contained 
in  two  genera,  which  are  sometimes  considered 
as  distinct  families.  The  genus  Struthio  com- 
prises the  true  ostriches,  which  inhabit  the 
desert  regions  of  Northeast  and  South  Africa, 
and  of  Arabia  and  Syria.  The  other  genus, 
Rhea,  contains  the  three  species  of  ostriches 
(of  which  the  Nandu  is  one),  inhabiting  South 
America  from  Patagonia  to  Brazil.  The  os- 
triches, of  which  there  are  two  species,  are 
generally  found  in  small  companies;  they  are 
polygamous,  each  male  accompanying  three 
or  four  females,  all  of  which  deposit  their  eggs 
in  a  single  lafge  nest  scooped  out  in  the  sand; 
all  the  hens  sit  and  relieve  each  other  by  turns, 
the  male  also  taking  his  turn  and  assisting  in 
the  incubation  of  the  eggs.  The  Rheas  are 
distinguished  by  possessing  three  toes,  whilst  the 
ostriches  have  only  two;  the  head  and  neck 
are  fully  feathered,  and  there  is  no  tail  visible. 
Their  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  the  African 
birds,  but  they  do  not  attain  to  the  stature  of 
the  latter,  and  their  feathers  are  not  of  such 
beauty. 

Owl.  The  popular  name  applied  to  the 
species  of  birds  formerly  regarded  as  a  division 
of  the  falcon  tribe.  This  order  is  a  sharply- 
defined  one.  The  head  is  extremely  large;  the 
eyes  huge  and  directed  forward;  the  bill  short 
and  stout;  the  apertures  of  the  ears  very  large; 
the  legs  feathered;  the  toes  four  in  number, 
the  outer  one  capable  of  being  directed  back- 
wards. The  plumage  is  full  and  remarkably 
soft,  the  feathers  of  the  face  being  so  arranged 
as  to  form  two  discs  around  the  eyes.  The  owls 
are  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  ranging 
over  the  whole  of  the  globe  from  the  highest 
northern  latitudes,  and  are  even  found  in  the 
remotest  oceanic  islands.  They  feed  on  small 
mammals,  birds,  fishes,  and  insects,  swallowing 
the  hair,  bones,  feathers,  and  scales,  which  they 
afterwards  disgorge  in  the  shape  of  "pellets." 
Their  flight  is  buoyant  and  noiseless.  They 
place  their  nests  on  the  ground,  among  rocks, 
m  hollow  trees,  and  in  buildings,  while  some 
resort  to  the  old  nests  of  other  birds.  They  lay 
from  two  to  five  roundish  white  eggs. 

Oyster.  A  well-known  edible  shell-fish. 
The  oyster  particularly  when  eaten  raw,  is  easy 
of  digestion,  and  remarkably  nutritious.     The 


principal  breeding-time  of  the  common  oyster 
IS  in  April  or  May,  when  their  spawn  is  usually 
cast;  this  appears  at  first  like  little  spots  of 
grease,  which  fasten  upon  rocks,  stones,  or  other 
hard  substances  that  happen  to  be  near.  Very 
commonly  they  adhere  to  adult  shells;  and  thus 
are  formed  the  large  masses  termed  oyster-banks. 
In  about  a  year  and  a  half  they  attain  a  size  fit 
for  the  table. 

Palms.  A  large  and  important  order  of 
plants,  which  are  chiefly  trees,  often  of  great 
height.  They  have  simple  (rarely-branched) 
trunks,  marked  with  scars,  which  indicate  the 
attachment  of  former  leaves.  The  leaves  are 
usually  either  feather-shaped  or  fan-shaped, 
arranged  in  a  crown  at  the  summit  of  the  stem, 
and  often  of  gigantic  size.  The  flowers  are  com- 
monly male  and  female,  and  small,  but,  when 
taken  collectively,  their  bright  clusters  form  a 
striking  object.  The  palms  are  mostly  natives 
of  the  tropics,  and  form  one  of  the  most  striking 
characteristics  of  tropical  vegetation.  The  only 
European  species  is  the  Fan  Palm.  The  proper- 
ties of  the  palms  are  various.  The  fruits  of  some 
are  edible,  as  the  cocoa-nut  palm  and  the  date 
palm,  and  form  an  important  item  of  food  in  the 
countries  where  they  grow.  Many  supply  oils, 
wax,  starchy  matter,  and  sugar,  from  which  an 
intoxicating  beverage  is  obtained  by  fermenta- 
tion and  distillation.  The  palm  of  the  Bible 
appears  to  be  the  date  palm.  The  cocoa-nut 
palm  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  family. 
Betel-nut  is  the  produce  of  a  palm  of  the  genus 
Areca;  and  sago  is  also  obtained  from  the  stem 
of  a  palm.  The  Palmyra  palm  of  the  East  Indies 
is  chiefly  important  for  its  timber,  which  is  very 
hard,  heavy,  and  of  a  black  color. 

Panther.  A  carnivorous  animal  measur- 
ing about  six  feet  and  a  half  from  nose  to  tail, 
which  is  itself  about  three  feet  long.  It  differs 
from  the  leopard  chiefly  by  its  superior  size  and 
deeper  color.  The  manner  it  seizes  its  prey, 
lurking  near  the  sides  of  woods,  etc.,  and  darting 
forward  with  a  sudden  spring,  resembles  that  of 
the  tiger.  The  puma,  or  cougar,  is  sometimes 
called  the  American  panther. 

Parrot.  The  name  applied  in  a  general 
sense  to  all  the  members  of  the  order  Psittaci, 
which  comprises  the  parrots  proper,  the  cocka- 
toos, parroquets,  macaws,  lories,  nestors,  etc. 
The  true  parrots  have  the  upper  mandible 
toothed,  and  longer  than  it  is  high,  and  have  a 
short  and  rounded  tail.  These  birds  combine 
with  the  beauty  of  their  plumage  a  nature  of 
great  docility,  and  have  the  faculty  of  imitating 
the  human  voice  in  a  degree  not  possessed  by 
other  birds.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  Africa, 
from  whence  we  get  the  Grey  Parrot,  which  is 
the  favorite;  South  America,  which  is  particu- 
larly rich  in  species,  furnishes  the  well-known 
Green  Parrot;  and  North  America  is  the  home 
of  a  single  species,  the  Carolina  Parrot.  The 
parrots  are  forest  birds,  and  are  adepts  at  climb- 
ing, using  for  that  purpose  both  the  feet  and  the 
bill.     Their  food  consists  of  seeds  and  fruits. 

Partridge.  A  well-known  bird  of  the 
grouse  family.  The  common  partridge  is  the 
most  plentiful  of  all  game-birds  in  Britain,  and 
occurs  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Europe,  in  North 
Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  Western  Asia.     The 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


757 


wings  and  tail  are  short,  the  tarsi  as  well  as  the 
toes  naked,  and  the  tarsi  not  spurred.  The 
greater  part  of  the  plumage  is  ash-grey  finely 
varied  with  brown  and  black.  They  feed  on 
grain  and  other  seeds,  insects  and  their  larvae 
and  pupse,  and  are  chiefly  found  in  cultivated 
grounds.  Besides  this  species  there  are  the  red- 
legged,  French,  or  Guernsey  partridge,  which 
may  now  be  found  in  considerable  numbers  in 
different  parts  of  England ;  the  Greek  partridge, 
the  African  partridge,  the  Arabian  partridge, 
the  Indian  partridge.  The  name  partridge  is 
applied  in  the  United  States  to  several  North 
American  species  of  the  genus  Ortyx  or  quails. 

Passion-flower.  A  large  genus  of  twining 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Passiflora- 
ceae.  They  are  all  twining  plants,  often  scram- 
bling over  trees  to  a  considerable  length,  and  in 
many  cases  are  most  beautiful  objects,  on  ac- 
count of  their  large,  rich,  or  gaily-colored  flowers, 
which  are  often  succeeded  by  orange-colored 
edible  fruits,  for  which  indeed  they  are  chiefly 
valued  in  the  countries  where  they  grow  wild. 
Passiflora  laurifolia  produces  the  water  lemon 
of  the  West  Indies,  and  passiflora  maliformis 
bears  the  sweet  calabash.  The  name  is  applied 
more  especially  to  passiflora  cserulSa,  which  is 
commonly  cultivated  in  England  out  of  doors, 
and  is  the  one  to  which  the  genus  owes  its  name. 

Peacock.  The  common  name  of  a  genus 
of  beautiful  birds,  including  only  the  common 
peacock  and  the  Javanese  peacock.  The  name 
properly  belongs  to  the  male,  but  it  is  popularly 
applied  to  the  species  in  general;  though  the 
female  is,  for  distinction's  sake,  called  a  peahen. 
Like  other  domesticated  birds,  the  common  pea- 
cock exhibits  several  varieties.  The  ordinary 
length  of  this  splendid  bird,  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  that  of  the  full-grown  fan-expanded  tail, 
is  about  four  feet.  The  female  is  rather  less; 
and  her  train  is  not  only  very  short,  but  desti- 
tute of  those  brilliant  hues  and  striking  beauties 
which  adorn  the  male;  her  crest,  too,  is  less 
developed,  and  her  whole  plumage  partakes  of 
a  cinereous  hue.  When  pleased,  the  peacock 
erects  his  tail,  unfolds  his  feathers,  and  fre- 
quently turns  round,  as  if  to  catch  the  sunbeams 
in  every  direction,  accompanying  this  movement 
with  a  hollow  murmuring.  At  other  times  his 
cry  is  very  disagreeable,  and  often  repeated, 
especially  before  rain.  Every  year  he  sheds  his 
plumes,  and  courts  the  most  obscure  retreats 
till  the  returning  spring  renews  his  lyster.  The 
Javanese  peacock  resembles  the  common  kind, 
but  has  a  larger  crest. 

Peach.  A  stone  fruit  native  to  China.  It 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times, 
reaching  Europe  by  way  of  Persia,  hence  its 
name,  Prunus  Persica.  The  tree  is  small  and 
much-branched,  about  fifteen  to  twenty  feet 
high.  It  is  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  apple,  but 
owing  to  its  early  blooming  habit,  its  successful 
commercial  culture  is  limited  to  comparatively 
few  localities,  as,  in  America,  the  eastern  and 
southern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  Maryland,  northern  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  parts  of  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
eastern  Texas,  and  all  of  California.  Peaches 
are  propagated  from  the  seed,  the  trees  bearing 
about  the  third  year.     Under  the  most  favorable 


conditions  the  tree  seldom  reaches  thirty  years, 
commercial  orchards  usually  lasting  about  ten. 
The  fruit  is  usually  classified  as  cling-stone  and 
free-stone.  The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  varying  much 
in  size  and  color  of  flesh  and  downy  skin.  It  is 
used  as  a  dessert,  for  canning,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  peach  brandy. 

Pear.  An  orchard  fruit  grown  widely 
throughout  all  temperate  regions.  The  coun- 
tries of  largest  production  are  France  and  the 
United  States,  where  the  pear  ranks  fourth  in 
importance  among  orchard  fruits.  The  best 
districts  in  the  United  States  are  the  north- 
eastern States  from  New  England  to  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  in  California  and  parts  of  Washington 
and  Oregon.  Left  to  themselves  the  trees  some- 
times reach  a  height  of  sixty  feet.  The  size  and 
quality  of  the  fruit  is  increased,  however,  by 
dwarfing,  which  is  done  by  grafting  on  quince 
stock.  The  Chinese  pear,  of  little  importance 
itself,  has  given  two  hybrids,  the  LeConte  and 
Kieffer,  which  have  proved  successful  in  the 
South.  Pear  trees  thrive  best  on  heavy  clay 
loams,  bearing  in  five  to  seven  years.  They  are 
grown  from  the  seed.  The  leading  commercial 
variety  is  called  the  Bartlett  pear.  The  Seckle 
is  a  prominent  eastern  variety  of  exceptionally 
good  quality. 

Pelican.  The  popular  name  applied  to  a 
species  of  a  genus  of  birds,  characterized  by  pos- 
sessing a  long,  straight,  broad,  and  much-de- 
pressed bill,  the  upper  mandible  flat  and  termi- 
nating in  a  very  strong  hook,  and  the  lower 
mandible  formed  by  two  long  branches, 
flexible  and  united  at  the  tip.  *  From  these 
branches  is  suspended  a  pouch  of  naked  skin, 
of  considerable  elasticity,  and  capable  of  holding 
a  large  number  of  fish.  In  this  pouch  these 
birds  stow  away  the  results  of  their  fishing  ex- 
cursions, after  having  satisfied  the  immediate 
cravings  of  their  stomachs.  The  pelicans  are 
large,  ungainly-looking  birds,  about  six  feet 
long,  with  an  expanse  of  wing  of  about  thirteen 
feet,  and  having  webbed  feet.  In  their  habits 
they  are  gregarious,  and  frequent  the  banks  of 
rivers  and  lakes  or  the  sea-coast. 

Peony.  A  genus  of  plants  very  generally 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  sake  of  their  large 
showy  flowers.  The  species  are  mostly  herbace- 
ous, having  perennial  tuberous  roots  and  large 
deeply-lobed  leaves.  The  flowers  are  solitary, 
and  of  a  variety  of  colors,  crimson,  purplish, 
pink,  yellow,  and  white.  The  flowers,  how- 
ever, have  no  smell,  or  not  an  agreeable  one, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  shrubby  species,  a  native 
of  China,  of  which  several  varieties,  with  beauti- 
ful whitish  flowers  stained  with  pink,  are  culti- 
vated in  gardens.  The  roots  and  seeds  of  all 
the  species  are  emetic  and  cathartic  in  moderate 
doses.  The  common  peony  of  cottage  gardens 
was  formerly  in  great  repute  as  a  medicine. 

Pepper.  A  name  applied  to  various  plants 
having  pungent,  acrid,  and  aromatic  properties. 
The  most  important  is  the  black  pepper,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  and  now  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  tropics  for  the  fruit,  which  is  used 
for  various  purposes,  but  chiefly  as  a  spice  and 
a  condiment.  It  is  a  climbing  shrub,  with 
opposite  leathery  leaves,  and  spikes  of  her- 
maphrodite flowers.     The  fruit,   which  is  about 


758 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


the  size  of  a  pea,  is  gathered  in  an  unripe  state 
and  dried,  constituting  the  "black  pepper"  of 
commerce.  The  term  "white  pepper"  is  ap- 
pUed  to  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  same  plant  after 
it  is  deprived  of  the  outer  fleshy  portion.  The 
dried  fruiting  spikes  of  a  species  of  Chavica  con- 
stitute "long  pepper,"  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses and  for  pickling.  Most  of  these  plants 
owe  their  active  properties  to  the  presence  of  an 
acrid  resin,  and  of  a  crystalline  principle  called 
piperine.  Cayenne-pepper  is  the  produce  of 
Capsicum.  Jamaica  pepper  is  obtained  from  a 
species  of  eugenia  belonging  to  the  myrtle  family. 

Petroleum.  A  combustible  fluid  which 
exudes  from  the  earth  "in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  generally  in  or  near  the  coal-formations, 
and  is  formed  during  the  conversion  of  vegetable 
remains  into  coal,  or  derived  from  animal  re- 
mains, as  it  is  now  maintained  by  some  scientists. 
Petroleum  varies  greatly  in  color  and  consistence, 
being  sometimes  thin  and  pale,  at  others  thick 
and  dark-colored.  The  substances  which  miner- 
alogists have  distinguished  by  the  names  asphal- 
tum,  maltha,  petroleum,  and  naphtha,  are 
thought  by  some  naturalists  to  be  mere  varieties 
of  one  species.  Abundant  supplies  of  petroleum 
are  obtained  from  wells  and  springs  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Texas,  California,  and  Canada, 
and  the  demand  for  it  to  serve  as  an  illuminating 
agent,  and  for  the  lubrication  of  machinery,  has 
created  an  important  branch  of  commerce, 
innumerable  quantities  of  rock-oil  being  sold 
under  the  names  of  petroleum,  kerosene,  sano- 
line,  leucaline,  etc. 

Pheasant.  A  family  of  birds  comprising 
peafowl,  true  pheasants,  jungle  fowl,  turkeys, 
and  Guinea  fowl.  The  true  pheasants,  of  which 
there  are  about  fifteen  species,  whose  home  is 
Western  Asia,  are  among  the  most  gorgeous  of 
the  feathered  tribe  No  pheasant  is  indigenous 
to  Europe,  the  British  species  being  an  intro- 
duction from  Asia  Minor,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  imported  into  England  by  the  Romans. 
At  the  present  day,  however,  very  few  of  this 
original  breed  exist  in  that  country,  for  it  has 
been  crossed  with  the  Chinese  Ringnecked  Pheas- 
ant to  such  a  degree  that  pure-bred  birds  are 
rare.  The  pheasant  chiefly  frequents  woods 
for  the  purpose  of  roosting,  being  in  the  day- 
time found  in  hedge-bottoms  and  thickets 
searching  for  its  food,  which  consists  of  grain, 
seeds,  green  shoots,  and  insects.  It  is  polyg- 
amous, and  very  tenacious  of  its  own  territory, 
not  permitting  mtrusion  from  the  males  of  its 
race.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs,  from  six 
to  ten  in  number,  in  a  slight  hollow,  scantily 
lined  with  dry  leaves;  but,  being  a  very  timid 
bird,  and  easily  made  to  desert  her  post,  the  eggs 
are  in  most  cases  removed  from  the  nest,  and 
the  young  hatched  out  under  domestic  fowls; 
and  it  is  questionable,  if  this  were  not  done,  if 
the  pheasant  would  not  gradually  become  ex- 
tinct in  that  country.  Among  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  pheasant  family  are  the  Golden  Pheasant, 
the  Reeves  Pheasant,  and  the  Impeyan  Pheas- 
ant, all  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia. 

Pigeon.  The  common  name  of  a  group  of 
birds,  forming  in  some  systems  a  section  of  the 
order  of  rasorial  or  gallinaceous  birds,  in  others 
a  distinct  order.     The  pigeons  or  doves  as  a 


group  have  the  upper  mandible  arched  towards 
its  apex,  and  of  horny  consistence;  a  second 
curve  exists  at  its  base,  where  there  is  a  cartilag- 
inous plate  or  piece  through  which  the  nostrils 
pass.  The  crop  is  of  large  size.  The  pigeons 
are  generally  strong  on  the  wing.  They  are 
mostly  arboreal  in  habits,  perching  upon  trees, 
and  building  their  nests  in  elevated  situations. 
Both  sexes  incubate;  and  these  birds  generally 
pair  for  life;  the  loss  or  death  of  a  mate  being 
in  many  cases  apparently  mourned  and  grieved 
over,  and  the  survivor  frequently  refusing  to  be 
consoled  by  another  mate.  The  song  consists 
of  the  well-known  plaintive  cooing.  The  pigeons 
are  distributed  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
but  attain  the  greatest  luxuriance  of  plumage 
in  \varm  and  tropical  regions.  The  pigeon  fam- 
ily is  divided  into  various  groups.  The  true 
pigeons  are  represented  by  the  stock-dove,  the 
common  wild  pigeon,  from  which,  it  was  once 
supposed,  most  of  the  beautiful  varieties  of  the 
Columbidae,  which  in  a  state  of  domestication 
are  dependent  upon  man,  derived  their  origin; 
but  it  is  now  believed  the  rock-dove  is  the  parent 
stock.  The  passenger-pigeon,  once  very  abun- 
dant in  North  America,  seems  now  to  be  prac- 
tically extinct.  The  numbers  that  sometimes 
moved  together  were  enormous.  Numerous 
flocks  of  these  pigeons  associated  together  in  a 
single  roost.  The  house-pigeons,  tumblers,  fan- 
tails,  pouters,  carriers,  and  jacobins  are  the  chief 
varieties  of  the  rock-pigeon,  and  have  been  em- 
ployed by  Darwin  to  illustrate  many  of  the  points 
involved  in  his  theory  of  "descent  by  natural 
selection."  Other  species  are  the  fruit-pigeons 
of  India,  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  Australia; 
and  the  ground-pigeons,  including  the  crowned 
pigeon  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

Pine.  The  popular  name  of  trees  of  the 
genus  Pinus,  divided  into  the  fir  tribe  and  the 
cypress  tribe.  The  pines  belong  to  the  former 
section,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  spruce,  « 
larch,  fir,  cedar,  etc.,  chiefly  by  having  per-  | 
sistent  leaves  in  clusters  of  two  to  five  in  the  i 
axils  of  membraneous  scales.  Most  of  the  Euro- 
pean species  have  only  two  leaves  in  a  sheath; 
most  of  the  Asiatic,  Mexican,  and  Californian 
kinds  have  three,  four,  or  five  leaves,  and  those 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  generally 
three.  The  cones  also  afford  an  important 
ready  means  of  distinction  and  classification. 
The  Scotch  pine  or  fir  is  a  tall,  straight,  hardy 
tree,  from  sixty  to  100  feet  high;  a  native  of 
most  parts  of  Europe,  flowering  in  May  and  June, 
and  having  many  varieties.  The  leaves  are 
rigid,  in  pairs,  somewhat  waved  and  twisted; 
the  lower  branches  are  somewhat  pendent;  the 
bark  is  of  a  reddish  tinge,  sometimes  rough  and 
furrowed.  The  leaves  are  distinguishable  from 
those  of  all  other  pines  in  which  they  occur  in 
pairs  by  their  glaucous  hue,  especially  when 
young.  The  Scotch  pine  almost  always  occurs 
in  masses;  it  is  considered  full  grown  and  fit 
to  be  cut  down  for  timber  in  fifty  or  sixty 
years;  but  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  where  pine 
forests  grew  to  perfection  in  former  times,  the 
tree  continued  to  increase  in  bulk  for  three  or 
four  centuries.  The  tree  is  most  abundant  in 
the  north  of  Europe.  There  are  extensive  for- 
ests of  it  in  Russia,  Poland,  Sweden,  Norway, 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


759 


Germany,  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Vos- 
ges.  The  Corsican  pine  is  said  to  reach  an 
altitude  of  140  to  150  feet.  The  pinaster,  or 
cluster  pine,  is  indigenous  to  the  south  of  Europe, 
to  the  west  of  Asia,  the  Himalayas,  and,  it  seems, 
even  to  China.  It  is  a  large,  handsome,  pyra- 
midal tree,  varying  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in 
height.  Its  cones  point  upwards,  in  star-like 
clusters,  whence  the  name  of  pinaster  or  star 
pine.  The  stone  pine  is  a  lofty  tree  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  where  it  is  a  native;  its 
spreading  head  forms  a  kind  of  parasol;  the 
trunk  is  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  and  clear 
of  branches.  Sabine's  pine  was  discovered  in 
California  in  1826.  The  leaves  are  in  threes, 
rarely  in  fours,  from  eleven  to  fourteen  inches 
long;  the  trees  are  of  a  tapering  form,  straight, 
and  from  forty  to  120  feet  high,  with  trunks 
from  three  to  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  The  red 
Canadian  pine  or  yellow  pine,  inhabits  the  whole 
of  Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and 
the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  trunk  rises  to  the  height  of  seventy 
or  eighty  feet  by  about  two  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  uniform 
size  for  two-thirds  of  its  length.  The  wood  is 
yellowish,  compact,  fine-grained,  resinous,  and 
durable.  The  true  yellow  pine  rises  to  the  height 
of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  by  fifteen  or  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter  at  base.  The  timber  is  largely 
u^ed  in  shipbuilding  and  for  house  timber. 
The  other  American  pines  are  the  Jersey  pine, 
the  pitch  pine,  the  loblolly  pine,  the  long-leaved 
pine  of  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  fur- 
nishing resin,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine,  and  tim- 
ber which  is  hardly  inferior  to  the  white  oak  in 
naval  architecture,  the  Weymouth  pine,  and 
Lambert's  pine,  which  grows  between  the  for- 
tieth and  forty-third  parallels  of  latitude,  and 
about  100  miles  from  the  Pacific.  It  is  of 
gigantic  size,  the  trunk  rising  from  150  to  up- 
wards of  200  feet,  and  being  from  seven  to 
nearly  twenty  feet  in  diameter. 

Pineapple.  A  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
plant  of  increasing  commercial  importance, 
which  grows  a  single  fragrant  and  palatable  fruit 
usually  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter  and 
six  to  ten  inches  high.  The  plant  is  regularly 
from  two  to  four  feet  in  height.  It  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  Florida, 
and  propagated  by  slips  from  the  parent  plant. 
Plants  are  set  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  about 
two  feet  distant  in  the  row.  In  Florida  they 
are  usually  grown  under  lath  sheds  to  protect 
them  from  frost. 

Pink.  A  genus  of  plants  of  which  more 
than  100  species  are  known,  all,  with  perhaps 
one  or  two  exceptions,  natives  of  the  northern 
and  temperate  parts  of  the  European  continent. 
Their  roots  are  annual  or  perennial;  the  stems 
herbaceous  and  jointed;  the  leaves  opposite 
and  entire,  and  the  flowers  terminal,  aggregate, 
or  solitary,  and  always  beautiful.  The  clove 
pink  or  carnation,  and  the  garden  pink,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties,  are  familiar  species. 

Platypus,  or  Duckbill, a  curious, aquatic, 
egg-laying  mammal,  of  which  only  one  species 
is  known,  inhabits  the  rivers  of  Australia,  Papua, 
and  Tasmania.  It  is  about  twenty  inches  long, 
with  an  oval,  flattened  body,  clothed  with  hair, 


and  a  short,  dense,  waterproof  fur.  The  head  is 
small  and  round ;  the  eyes  small.  There  are  no 
external  ears,  but  internal  ears  highly  developed. 
Instead  of  the  muzzle  of  the  ordinary  quadruped, 
the  platypus  possesses  a  broad,  flat  bill,  covered 
with  a  sensitive,  loose  skin,  which  folds  back  to 
protect  the  eyes  in  burrowing.  The  young  ani- 
mal has  teeth,  which  soon  disappear,  to  be  re- 
placed in  each  jaw  by  two  pairs  of  flat,  horny 
plates.  Food,  gained  at  the  bottoms  of  the 
rivers,  is  stored  in  cheek-pouches,  and  after- 
ward swallowed.  The  fore  feet  have  five  toes, 
and  a  web  which  folds  back  in  burrowing;  the 
hind  feet  have  five  toes,  but  a  shortened  web. 
The  male  has  a  homy,  poisonous  spur  on  its  heels. 
The  animal  is  very  shy,  living  in  burrows,  one 
entrance  of  which  is  in  the  water.  Though  long 
disputed,  it  is  now  known  that  the  young  are 
hatched  from  eggs,  laid  often  only  one  at  a  time. 

Plum.  A  stone  fruit,  widely  grown  in  all 
temperate  climates,  and  ranking  third  in  impor- 
tance among  orchard  products  in  the  United 
States.  The  three  principal  types  of  plums  are 
the  European  plums,  Japanese,  and  native 
plums.  The  European  plums  thrive  in  the 
regions  about  the  Great  Lakes  and  northern 
States,  and  on  the  Pacific  slope  where  the  prune 
industry  has  reached  its  greatest  development. 
The  Japanese  variety  was  introduced  about 
1870,  and  flourishes  much  farther  south  than 
the  European  plum.  The  native  plum  is 
inferior  to  either,  though  more  hardj^.  The 
fruit  is  distinguished  from  the  peach,  its  near 
relative,  jjy  its  smooth  skin  and  unwrinkled 
stone.  Firm,  sweet-fleshed  varieties  of  plums 
that  can  be  successfully  cured  are  called  prunes. 
They  are  extensively  grown  on  the  Pacific  coast 
where  very  favorable  conditions  exist  for 
drying  them.  California  produces  about  eighty- 
five  million  pounds  of  prunes  yearly. 

Polecat.  A  name  common  to  several  spe- 
cies of  the  weasel  family.  The  common  pole- 
cat is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 
Its  body  is  about  seventeen  inches  long,  and  the 
tail  six  inches.  The  color  is  dark  brown.  It  is 
a  nocturnal  animal,  sleeping  during  the  day 
and  searching  for  its  prey  at  night.  It  is  espe- 
cially destructive  to  poultry,  rabbits,  and  game, 
as  pheasants,  so  that  in  Britain  it  is  being  rapidly 
exterminated  by  gamekeepers,  farmers,  and 
others.  Frogs,  toads,  newts,  and  fish  are  often 
stored  as  food  by  this  voracious  animal.  It  has 
glands  secreting  a  fetid  liquor,  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  American  skunk,  which  it  ejects  when  irri- 
tated or  alarmed.  The  name  of  "  Foumart "  is 
also  applied  to  the  polecat ;  and  its  fur,  which 
is  imported  in  large  quantities  from  Northern 
Europe,  is  known  as  that  of  the  "  Fitch."  Its 
hairs  form  a  superior  kind  of  artists'  brushes. 

Poppy.  The  common  name  for  plants  of 
the  genus  Papdver.  The  species  of  poppy  are 
herbaceous  plants,  all  bearing  large,  brilliant, 
but  fugacious  flowers.  The  white  poppy  yields 
the  well-known  opium  of  commerce.  Most  of 
the  species  are  natives  of  Europe,  and  four  are 
truly  natives  of  Britain.  They  often  occur  as 
weeds  in  fields  and  waste  places,  and  are  fre- 
quently also  cultivated  in  gardens  for  ornament. 
The  seeds  of  the  white  poppy  yield  a  fixed  harm- 
less oil  employed  for  culinary  purposes ;  and  the 


760 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


oil-cake  is  used  for  feeding  cattle.  The  roots  of 
the  poppy  are  annual  or  perennial ;  the  calyx 
is  composed  of  two  leaves,  and  the  corolla  of 
four  petals;  the  stamens  are  numerous,  and  the 
capsule  is  one-celled,  with  several  longitudinal 
partitions,  and  contains  a  multitude  of  seeds. 

Porcupine.  A  name  of  certain  rodent 
quadrupeds,  the  best-known  species  of  which 
belong  to  the  genus  Hystrix.  The  body  is  cov- 
ered, especially  on  the  back,  with  the  so-called 
quills,  or  dense  solid  spine-like  structures,  inter- 
mixed with  bristles  and  stiff  hairs.  There  are 
two  incisors  and  eight  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw, 
which  continue  to  grow  throughout  life  from 
permanent  pulps.  The  muzzle  is  generally 
short  and  pointed,  the  ears  short  and  rounded. 
The  anterior  feet  possess  four,  and  the  hinder 
feet  five  toes,  all  provided  with  strong  thick 
nails.  The  common  or  crested  porcupine, 
hystrix  cristata,  found  in  Southern  Europe  and 
in  Northern  Africa,  is  the  best-known  species. 
When  fully  grown  it  measures  nearly  two  feet 
in  length,  and  some  of  its  spines  exceed  one 
foot.  Its  general  color  is  a  grizzled  dusky  black. 
The  spines  in  their  usual  position  lie  nearly  flat, 
with  their  points  directed  backwards;  but  when 
the  animal  is  excited  they  are  capable  of  being 
raised.  The  quills  are  loosely  inserted  in  the 
skin,  and  may,  on  being  violently  shaken,  be- 
come detached. 

Porgy.  A  fish  of  the  family  Sparidoe,  with 
an  oblong  body,  scaly  cheeks,  and  one  dorsal 
fin,  found  off  the  coasts  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  fishes,  and 
attains  a  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  a  weight 
of  four  pounds. 

Porpoise.  A  species  of  marine  fish-like 
mammals,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the 
Dolphin,  and  to  the  order  Cetacea.  It  is  an  in- 
habitant of  northern  seas,  and  is  familiar  on 
our  own  shores.  It  is  usually  from  four  to  five 
feet  in  length,  though  frequently  more.  In 
color  it  varies,  but  is  mostly  of  a  bluish-black 
tint  on  the  upper  surface,  merging  into  pink, 
mottled  grey,  or  white  beneath.  The  porpoise 
is  compelled  continually  to  seek  the  surface  of 
the  water  for  breathing  purposes;  and  it  is 
then  observed  rolling  over,  as  it  were,  and  is 
heard  discharging  air  from  the  crescent-shaped 
blowhole  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  at  the  same 
time  taking  in  a  fresh  supply  at  the  mouth. 
Porpoises  are  frequently  observed  in  great  num- 
bers in  pursuit  of  shoals  of  herring,  mackerel, 
and  other  small  fish,  among  which,  being  of  an 
exceedingly  voracious  nature,  they  commit  sad 
havoc. 

Prairie  Dog.  The  name  given  to  two 
species  of  small  rodent  animals  of  the  squirrel 
family,  found  in  America,  on  the  plains  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  Upper  Missouri 
to  the  Red  River  and  Rio  Grande.  They  much 
resemble  their  allies,  the  marmots,  in  appear- 
ance, and  have  well-developed  claws  on  all  the 
toes  of  the  fore-feet;  shallow  cheek-pouches; 
and  two  rows  of  grinding  teeth  converging 
towards  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The  best 
known  species  is  about  one  foot  in  length,  and 
has  a  tail  of  about  four  inches.  On  the  upper 
surface  it  is  reddish-brown  variegated  with 
grey.     These  animals  live  together  in  great  so- 


cieties on  those  portions  of  the  prairies  where 
their  favorite  food,  the  buffalo  grass,  grows  lux- 
uriantly. Here  they  excavate  burrows  in  the 
ground  in  contiguity  to  each  other,  and,  when 
the  little  creatures  are  out,  quite  a  busy  scene 
is  presented.  The  name  Prairie  Dog  is  given  to 
the  animal  on  account  of  a  resemblance  which 
is  supposed  to  exist  between  its  cry  and  the  bark 
of  a  small  dog. 

Precious  Stones  are  those  which,  be- 
cause of  their  beauty,  hardness,  and  rarity,  are 
prized  for  use  in  ornamentation,  especially  in 
jewelry.  The  diamond,  ruby,  sapphire,  and 
emerald  are  the  only  stones  which  are,  strictly 
speaking,  entitled  to  be  called  "precious"  in 
this  sense ;  but  the  opal,  on  account  of  its  beauty, 
is  often  classed  with  the  precious  stones;  as  is 
also  the  pearl,  which  is  really  not  a  stone,  but  a 
secretion  of  a  shell  fish. 

Agate.  A  semipellucid,  uncrystallized  variety  of 
quartz,  presenting  various  tints  in  the  same  specimen. 
Its  colors  are  delicately  arranged  in  stripes  or  bands,  or 
blended  in  clouds. 

Alexandrite.  A  variety  of  chrysoberyl  found  in  the 
mica  slate  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  It  is  of  a  rich  garnet 
color  by  artificial  light;  by  daylight  of  a  dark  moss 
green.  It  is  the  only  stone  that  so  changes.  The 
finest  specimens  of  alexandrite  are  nearly  as  valuable  as 
diamonds. 

Almandine.     A  common  maroon-red  variety  of  garnet. 

Amethyst.  A  variety  of  crystallized  quartz,  of  a 
purple  or  bluish  violet  color,  of  different  shades.  It 
is  much  used  as  a  jeweler's  stone.  The  lighter  colored 
ones  come  from  Brazil;  the  deep  purple  ones  come  from 
Siberia.     In  value  they  are  about  the  same  as  the  garnet. 

Aquamarine.  A  transparent,  sea-green  variety  of 
beryl,  used  as  a  gem. 

Aventtirine.  A  variety  of  translucent  quartz  spangled 
throughout  with  scales  of  yellow  mica. 

Beryl.  A  very  hard  mineral  of  much  beauty  when 
transparent.  It  occurs  in  hexagonal  prisms,  commonly 
of  a  green  or  bluish  green  color,  but  also  yellow,  pink, 
and  white.  It  is  a  silicate  of  aluminum  and  glucinum. 
Beryls  are  very  rich  in  colors.  Their  value  is  about  four 
dollars  per  caret. 

Cameo.  A  figure  cut  in  stone  or  shell  that  is  com- 
posed of  different  colored  layers.  The  value  depends  on 
the  artistic  merit  of  the  engraved  figure. 

Bloodstone.  A  green  siliceous  stone  sprinkled  with  red 
jasper,  whence  the  name. 

Carbuncle.  A  beautiful  gem  of  a  deep  red  color 
(with  a  mixture  of  scarlet),  found  in  the  East  Indies. 
When  held  up  to  the  sun,  it  loses  its  deep  tinge,  and  be- 
comes of  the  color  of  a  burning  coal.  The  carbuncle  of 
the  ancients  is  believed  to  have  been  a  garnet.  The 
name  is  now  given  also  to  the  ruby  sapphire  and  the 
red  spinel.  The  ordinary  carbuncle  is  a  garnet  cut  en 
cabochon,  and  is  worth  about  one  dollar  a  caret. 

Carnelian.  A  variety  of  chalcedony,  of  a  clear,  deep 
red,  flesh-red,  or  reddish  white  color.  It  is  moderately 
hard,  capable  of  a  good  polish,  and  often  used  for  seals. 
It  is  now  used  but  little. 

Cat's-eye.  A  variety  of  quartz  or  chalcedony  exhibiting 
opalescent  reflections  from  within,  like  the  eye  of  a  cat. 
Tne  name  is  given  to  other  gems  affording  like  effects, 
especially  the  chrysoberyl.  A  fine  specimen  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  across  would  be  worth  from  two 
to  three  hundred  dollars. 

Chalcedony.  A  crytocrystalline,  translucent  variety 
of  quartz,  having  usually  a  whitish  color,  and  a  luster 
nearly  like  wax. 

Chrysolite.  A  mineral,  composed  of  silica,  magnesia, 
and  iron,  of  a  yellow  to  green  color.     It  is  little  used. 

Chrysoprase.  An  apple-green  variety  of  chalcedony. 
Its  color  is  due  to  nickel  contained  in  its  composition. 

Dendrite.  A  stone  or  mineral  in  which  are  branching 
figures,  resembling  shrubs  or  trees,  produced  by  a 
foreign  mineral,  usually  by  an  oxide  of  manganese;  as 
in  the  moss  agate. 

Diamond.  A  precious  stone  or  gem  excelling  in  bril- 
liancy and  beautiful  play  of  prismatic  colors,  and  remark- 
able for  extreme  hardness.  It  is  found  in  many  hues  — 
green,  rose,  straw,  yellow,  etc.;  but  the  straw-colored 
ones  are  the  most  common.  The  diamond  is  a  native 
carbon  occurring  in  isometric  crystals,  often  octahed- 
rons, with  rounded  edges.     It  is  the  hardest  substance 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


761 


known.  Diamonds  are  said  to  be  of  the  first  water 
when  very  transparent,  and  of  the  second  and  third 
water  as  the  transparency  decreases. 

Diopstde.  A  crystallized  variety  of  pyroxene  (a  sili- 
cate of  lime  and  magnesia),  of  a  clear,  grayish  green 
color;  also  called  mussite. 

Emerald.  A  precious  stone  of  a  rich  green  color;  it 
is  the  most  valuable  variety  of  beryl.     See  Beryl. 

.  Epidote.  A  mineral,  commonly  of  a  yellowish  green 
color,  occurring  granular,  massive,  columnar,  and  in 
crystals.  It  is  a  silicate  of  alumnia,  lime,  and  oxide  of 
iron,  or  manganese. 

Essonite.  Cinnamon  stone.  A  variety  of  garnet.  It 
is  not  much  used. 

Fire  Opal.     See  Opal. 

Fluonte.  Calcium  fluoride,  a  mineral  of  many  dif- 
ferent colors,  white,  yellow,  purple,  red,  etc.,  often  very 
beautiful.  When  crystallized  it  is  commonly  in  cubes 
with  perfect  octahedral  cleavage.  Some  varieties  are 
used  for  ornamental  vessels.  Also  called  fluorspar,  or 
simply  fiuor.  The  colored  varieties  are  often  called 
false  ruby,  false  emerald,  false  topaz,  false  sapphire,  and 
false  amethyst.  For  jewelry  purposes  the  chief  value  of 
the  stone  is  the  expense  of  cutting  and  mounting. 

Flint.  A  massive,  somewhat  impure  variety  of 
quartz,  in  color  usually  of  a  gray  to  brown  or  nearly 
black,  breaking  with  a  conchoidal  fracture  and  a  sharp 
edge. 

Fluorspar.     Same  as  Fluouite. 

Garnet.  A  mineral  having  many  varieties  differing 
in  color  and  in  their  constituents,  but  with  the  same 
general  chemical  formula.  The  commonest  color  is  red; 
the  luster  is  vitreous,  or  glassy;  and  the  hardness  is 
greater  than  that  of  quartz,  about  half  as  hard  as  the 
diamond. 

The  common  crystal  forms  are  the  dodecahedron  and 
trapezohedron.  Besides  the  red  varieties  there  are  also 
white,  green,  yellow,  brown,  and  black  ones. 

The  garnet  is  a  silicate  with  various  bases  such  as 
alumina-lime  (grossularite  essonite  or  cinnamonstone), 
alumina-magnesia  (pyrope),  alumina-manganese  (spes- 
sartite),  and  chromium-lime  (ouvarovite,  color  emerald 
green).  The  transparent  red  varieties  are  used  as  gems. 
The  garnet  was  the  carbuncle  of  the  ancients.  Garnet 
is  a  very  common  mineral  in  gneiss  and  mica  slate. 

The  finest  specimens  of  red  garnets  come  from  Arizona 
and  a  single  caret  stone  is  worth  about  two  dollars. 
A  green  variety  that  comes  from  Russia  is  worth  about 
half  as  much  as  the  diamond. 

Golden  Beryl.     See  Bkryl. 

Heliotrope  or  Bloodstone.  A  green  siliceous  stone 
sprinkled  with  jasper,  as  if  with  blood,  whence  the  name. 

Hematite.  An  important  ore  of  iron,  the  sesquioxide, 
so  called  because  of  its  red  color  when  in  the  form  of 
powder.  It  occurs  in  splendent  rhombohedral  crystals, 
and  in  massive  and  earthy  forms,  the  last  being  called 
red  ochre.     It  is  now  seldom  used  in  jewelry. 

Hyacinth.  A  red  variety  of  zircon,  sometimes  used 
as  a  gem.  It  resembles  closely  a  dark  Spanish  topaz, 
and  is  worth  a  little  more  than  the  garnet. 

Idiocrase.  A  mineral  occurring  in  tetragonal  crystals 
and  also  massive,  of  a  brown  to  green  color,  rarely 
sulphur  yellow  or  blue.  It  is  a  silicate  of  alumina  and 
lime,  with  some  iron  and  magnesia.  It  is  common  at 
Mt.  Vesuvius.     It  is  little  used. 

IndicolUe.  A  variety  of  tourmaline  of  an  indigo-blue 
color. 

lolUe.  A  silicate  of  alumina,  iron,  and  magnesia, 
having  a  bright  blue  color  and  a  vitreous  or  glassy 
luster.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  dichroism,  and  is  also 
called  dichroite. 

Jacinth.     Same  as  Hyacinth. 

Jade:  A  stone  commonly  of  a  pale  to  dark  green 
color,  but  sometimes  whitish.  It  is  hard  and  very 
tough,  capable  of  a  fine  polish,  and  is  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes  and  for  implements,  especially  in 
Eastern  countries  and  among  many  primitive  peoples. 

Jasper.  An  opaque,  impure  variety  of  quartz,  of 
red,  yellow,  and  other  dull  colors,  breaking  with  a 
smooth  surface. 

Kyanite.  A  mineral  occurring  in  thin-bladed  crystals 
and  crystalline  aggregates,  of  a  sky-blue  color.  It  is  a 
silicate  of  aluminum.     It  is  little  used  for  jewelry. 

Labradoriie.  A  kind  of  felspar,  commonly  showing 
a  beautiful  play  of  bluish-gray  colors,  and,  hence,  much 
used  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  finest  specimens 
come  from  Labrador. 

Lapis-lazuli  or  Lazuli.  A  mineral  of  a  fine  azure-blue 
color,  usually  occurring  in  small  rounded  masses.  It  is 
essentially  a  silicate  of  alumina,  lime,  and  soda,  with 
some  sodium  sulphide.  It  is  often  marked  by  yellow 
spots  or  veins  of  sulphide  of  iron,  and  is  much  valued 
for  ornamental  work. 


Moonstone,  A  nearly  pellucid  variety  of  felspar, 
showing  pearly  or  opaline  reflections  from  within.  The 
best  specimens  come  from  Ceylon.  Their  value  is  not 
much  more  than  the  expense  of  cutting. 

Nephrite.  A  hard,  compact  mineral,  of  a  dark  green 
color,  formerly  worn  as  remedy  for  diseases  of  the  kid- 
neys, whence  its  name  kidneystone. 

Obsidian.  A  kind  of  glass  produced  by  volcanoes.  It  is 
usually  of  a  black  color  and  opaque,  except  in  thin  splinters. 

Olivine.  A  common  name  of  the  yellowish  green 
mineral  chrysolite,  especially  of  the  variety  occurring  in 
eruptive  rocks.     See  Chrysolite. 

Onyx.  Chalcedony  in  parallel  layers  of  different 
shades  of  color.  It  is  used  for  making  cameos,  the 
figure  being  cut  in  one  layer  with  the  next  layer  as  a 
background  (see  Cameo).  It  is  stained  black  and  used 
to  make  mourning  jewelry. 

Opal.  A  mineral  consisting,  like  quartz,  of  silica, 
but  inferior  to  quartz  in  hardness  and  specific  gravity. 
The  precious  opal  shows  a  peculiar  play  of  colors  of 
delicate  tints  and  it  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  gem.  One 
kind,  with  a  varied  play  of  color  in  a  reddish  ground,  is 
called  harlequin  opal.  The  fire  opal  (which  comes  from 
Mexico)  has  colors -like  the  red  and  yellow  of  flame. 
This  is  not  the  cheap  variety  commonly  called  "  Mexican 
opal."  A  spherical  opal  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  or  an  oval  flat  opal  about  half  an  inch  long, 
would  be  worth  about  sixty  dollars.  A  "  Mexican  opal  " 
of  the  same  size  would  be  worth  about  fifteen  dollars. 

Pearl.  A  shelly  concretion,  usually  rounded,  having 
a  brilliant  luster,  with  varying  tints,  formed  in  the 
mantle,  or  between  the  mantle  and  shell,  of  certain 
bivalve  mollusks  (especially  in  the  pearl  oysters  and 
river  mussels)  and  sometimes  in  certain  univalves.  Its 
substance  is  the  same  as  nacre,  or  mother-of  pearl. 
Pearls  which  are  round,  or  nearly  round,  and  of  fine 
luster,  are  highly  prized  as  jewels.  They  are  sold  by 
carat  grains,  instead  of  carats. 

Pyrope.  A  variety  of  garnet  of  a  poppy-red  or  blood- 
red  color,  frequently  with  a  tint  of  orange.  It  is  used 
as  a  gem. 

Rhodonite.  Manganese  spar,  or  silicate  of  manganese, 
a  mineral  occurring  crystallized  and  in  rose-red  masses. 
It  is  almost  entirely  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  in 
slabs,  blocks,  etc. 

Rock  Crystal  or  Mountain  Crystal.  Any  transparent 
crystal  of  quartz,  particularly  of  limpid  or  colorless 
quartz.  A  sphere  of  rock  crystal  of  absolutely  perfect 
clearness,  about  five  inches  in  diameter,  is  worth  at 
least  twenty  thousand  dollars. 

Rose  Quartz.    A  variety  of  quartz  which  is  pinkish  red. 

Rubellite.  A  variety  of  tourmaline  varying  in  color 
from  a  pale  rose  red,  to  a  deep  ruby,  and  containing 
lithium.     It  is  a  little  more  valuable  than  the  garnet. 

Ruby.  A  precious  stone  of  a  carmine-red  color,  some- 
times verging  to  violet,  or  intermediate  between  carmine 
and  hyacinth  red.  It  is  a  crystallized  variety  of  CQrun- 
dum.  The  ruby  from  Siam  is  of  a  dark  color  and  is 
called  ox-blood  ruby.  It  has  about  the  same  value  as 
the  diamond.  The  ruby  from  Burmah,  called  the  pigeon- 
blood  ruby,  is  of  a  lighter  color  and  several  times  more 
valuable  than  the  ox-blood  ruby.  A  fine  pigeon-blood 
ruby  of  two  carats  would  be  worth  upwards  of  six 
thousand  dollars. 

Ridile.  A  mineral,  usually  of  a  reddish-brown  color 
and  briUiant,  metallic,  adamantine  luster,  occurring  in 
tetragonal  crystals. 

Sapphire.  A  variety  of  native  corundum  or  alumi- 
num sesquioxide.  As  the  name  of  a  gem  the  term  is 
restricted  to  the  transparent  varieties  of  blue,  pink, 
yellow,  and  other  colors.  The  best  specimens  of  the 
blue  variety  are  nearly  as  valuable  as  the  diamond. 
The  sapphire  is  next  to  the  diamond  in  hardness. 

Sard.  A  variety  of  carnelian,  of  a  reddish-yellow  or 
brownish  color. 

Sardonyx.  A  variety  of  onyx  consisting  of  sard  and 
white  chalcedony  in  alternate  layers.     See  Onyx. 

Spinel.  A  mineral  occurring  in  octahedrons  of  great 
hardness  and  various  colors,  as  red,  green,  blue,  brown, 
and  black,  the  red  variety  being  the  gem  spinel  ruby. 
It  consists  essentially  of  aluminum  magnesium,  but 
commonly  contains  iron  and  sometimes  also  chromium. 
The  fine  specimens  of  spinel  ruby  are  worth  rather  more 
than  half  as  much  as  the  diamond. 

Sunstone.     Aventurine  felspar;  aventurine. 

Topaz.  A  mineral  occurring  in  rhombio.  prisms,  gen- 
erally yellowish  and  pellucid,  also  colorless,  and  of 
greenish,  bluish,  or  brownish  shades.  It  sometimes 
occurs  massive  and  opaque.  It  is  fluosilicate  of  alumi- 
num, and  is  used  as  a  gem.  It  is  but  little  more  valuable 
than  the  garnet,  except  occasionally  unusual  fine  speci- 
mens. 


762 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Tourmaline.  A  mineral  occurring  in  three-sided 
prisms.  Black  tourmaline  is  the  most  common  variety, 
but  there  are  also  other  varieties,  as  the  blue  {indi- 
colUe),  red  (rubellite) ;  also  green,  brown,  and  white.  The 
red  and  green  varieties,  when  transparent,  are  valued  as 
jewels.  The  finest  ones  come  from  Maine,  and  are  worth 
four  or  five  times  as  much  as  garnets. 

Turquoise.  A  hydrous  phosphate  of  alumina  con- 
taining a  little  copper.  It  has  a  blue,  or  bluish-green 
color,  and  usually  occurs  in  kidney-shaped  masses  with 
a  nodular  surface,  like  that  of  a  bunch  of  grapes.  The 
fine  specimens  are  worth  nearly  half  as  much  as  diamonds. 

Unio-pearl.     A  single  large  pearl. 

Uralian  Emerald.  A  precious  stone  of  a  rich  green 
color,  a  variety  of  beryl. 

Verd  antique  (dn-tek')-  A  mottled-green,  serpentine 
marble.  Also  a  green  porphyry,  which  is  called  Oriental 
verd  antique. 

Zircon.  A  mineral  occurring  in  tetragonal  crystals, 
usually  of  a  brown  or  gray  color.  It  consists  of  silicon 
and  zirconium,  and  is  harder  than  the  garnet.  The 
transparent  varieties  are  used  as  gems.  The  red  variety 
is  called  Hyacinth;  a  colorless,  pale  yellow,  or  smoky- 
brown  variety  from  Ceylon  is  called  jargon. 

Prickly  Pear,  otherwise  called  Indian  fig, 
is  a  fleshy  and  succulent  plant,  destitute  of 
leaves,  covered  with  clusters  of  spines,  and  con- 
sisting of  flattened  joints  inserted  upon  each 
other.  The  fruit  is  purplish  in  color,  covered 
with  fine  prickles,  and  edible.  The  flower  is 
large  and  yellow.  It  is  a  native  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  America,  whence  it  has  been  introduced 
into  Europe,  Mauritius,  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
China.  It  is  easily  propagated,  and  in  some 
countries  is  used  as  a  hedge-plant.  It  attains 
a  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet. 

Primrose.  A  genus  of  beautiful  low  Al- 
pine plants.  Some  are  among  the  earliest  flow- 
ers in  spring,  as  the  common  primrose,  the  ox- 
lip,  and  cowslip;  and  several  Japanese  and 
other  varieties  are  cultivated  in  gardens  as  orna- 
mental plants.  Their  roots  are  perennial;  the 
leaves  almost  always  radical;  and  the  flowers 
supported  on  a  naked  stem,  and  usually  dis- 
posed in  a  sort  of  umbel.  The  varieties  of  the 
common  primrose  which  have  arisen  from  culti- 
vation are  very  numerous. 

Puma  or  Cougar.  A  carnivorous  ani- 
mal peculiar  to  America,  where  it  ranks  next  to 
the  jaguar  in  importance  as  a  destructive  or 
dangerous  creature.  It  is  known  as  the  Amer- 
ican lion,  probably  from  its  resemblance  in  build 
and  color  to  the  lioness;  but  it  is  considerably 
less  in  size,  and  lacks  a  mane.  Its  length  is  about 
forty  inches,  exclusive  of  a  tail  of  twenty-six 
inches;  its  height  is  about  two  feet.  The  geo- 
graphical range  of  the  puma  is  very  extensive, 
though  it  is  less  abundant  in  North  than  in 
South  America,  where  it  haunts  a  variety  of 
situations,  seeming  to  be  equally  at  home  in  the 
dense  forests,  the  open  plains,  and  the  elevations 
of  the  Andes  to  at  least  10,000  feet.  It  is  of  a 
cowardly  nature,  and  is  not  regarded  with  fear 
by  man.  Unlike  most  of  the  larger  members 
of  the  cat  family,  it  is  remarkably  silent. 

Pytiion.  A  genus  and  family  of  serpents 
allied  to  the  family  of  boas.  They  are  not  ven- 
omous, but  kill  their  prey  by  compression.  The 
pythons  belong  exclusively  to  the  Old  World, 
and  are  of  enormous  size,  sometimes  attaining 
a  length  of  thirty  feet.  They  are  found  in  India 
and  in  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
in  Africa  and  in  Australia.  A  rudimentary  pel- 
vis and  traces  of  hinder  limbs  exist  in  the  py- 
thons, these  structures  terminating  externally ' 


in  a  kind  of  hooked  claw.  The  head  exceeds 
the  neck  in  thickness,  and  the  mouth  is  ex- 
tremely large.  Aided  by  their  prehensile  tails 
and  rudimentary  hinder  limbs,  the  pythons  sus- 
pend themselves  from  the  branches  of  trees 
and  lie  in  wait  near  water  for  animals  which 
come  to  drink.  The  genus  python  contains 
various  species,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the 
West  African  python,  common  in  menageries. 

Quail.  The  Virginia  quail  is  common 
throughout  North  America,  and  extends  as  far 
south  as  Honduras.  It  is  larger  than  the  Euro- 
pean quail,  and  is  better  eating.  The  California 
crested  quail  is  another  American  species.  The 
quail,  genus  Coturnix,  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  visiting  Europe 
in  early  summer  and  returning  soutn  in  the 
autumn,  when  immense  numbers  are  caught 
and  fattened  for  the  market.  Length  about 
seven  inches,  general  color  reddish-brown,  with 
buff  streaks  on  the  upper  surface;  throat  rufous; 
head,  dark  brown  above,  striped  with  ocherous 
white;  sides,  reddish-brown,  lower  parts  pale 
buff,  fading  into  white  on  belly.  Color  less 
bright  in  the  hen  bird,  and  the  rufous  tinge 
absent  from  the  throat.  They  nest  on  the 
ground,  laying  from  nine  to  fifteen  pyrifbrm, 
yellowish-white  eggs,  blotched  with  dark-brown. 
The  males  are  polygamous  and  extremely  pug- 
nacious. 

Raccoon.  A  small  family  of  plantigrade 
carnivorous  mammals,  bear-like  in  appearance 
and  of  small  size.  The  raccoons  are  peculiar  to 
America,  where  they  range  from  British  Colum- 
bia and  Canada  to  Paraguay.  The  common 
raccoon  is  a  pretty  animal,  about  the  size  of  a 
cat,  but  much  stouter;  it  has  a  long  brown  or 
grizzled  coat,  a  ringed  and  bushy  tail,  and  a 
turned-up  nose.  Its  legs  are  short,  and  are 
armed  with  strong  claws,  useful  for  digging  or 
climbing.  In  its  attitudes  it  is  somewhat  mon- 
key-like, and  usually  sits  upon  its  haunches 
when  feeding,  holding  its  food  in  its  fore-paws. 
It  has  a  curious  habit,  too,  of  washing  articles 
given  to  it,  and  of  soaking  any  food  of  a  dry 
nature  in  water  before  eating  it.  Its  skin  is 
highly  valued  as  a  fur,  and  is  consequently  much 
sought  after  in  North  America,  where  the  animal 
is  widely  distributed. 

Redbreast.  A  bird  of  the  family  Syl- 
viadcE,  familiarly  known  in  the  United  States 
and  the  British  Islands  and  throughout  most 
parts  of  Europe.  It  is  generally  designated  as 
the  "robin  redbreast,"  or  more  briefly  "a,  robin," 
and  has  similar  appellations  in  continental  Eu- 
rope significant  of  the  kindly  regard  entertained 
for  it.  Its  utmost  length  is  about  five  and  three- 
fourths  inches,  but  it  is  of  a  rounder  and  fuller 
form  than  many  of  the  Sylviadce,  the  slender- 
ness  of  its  legs  rather  strikingly  contrasting 
with  the  form  of  the  body.  The  wings  are  rather 
short,  the  fifth  quill  the  longest.  The  tail  is 
scarcely  forked.  The  bill  is  rather  broad  and 
depressed  at  the  base,  narrower  and  slightly 
compressed  at  the  point,  the  upper  mandible 
bent  down  and  notched.  The  general  color  is 
olive-brown,  and  the  reddish  orange-breast  is  a 
conspicuous  characteristic,  particularly  of  the 
male.  The  name  robin  is  improperly  given  in 
the  United  States  to  a  species  of  thrush. 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


763 


Redwood.  The  name  of  various  sorts  of 
wood  of  a  red  color,  as  the  wood  of  the  redwood 
of  Jamaica;  of  Andaman  wood;  of  the  red- 
wood of  the  Bahamas;  and  of  a  coniferous  tree 
of  California,  the  redwood  of  the  timber  trade. 
Redwood  of  California  is  found  only  in  that 
State,  and  in  but  a  comparatively  contracted 
area  even  there.  The  available  redwood  is  now 
confined  to  about  318  miles  of  coast.  The  annual 
product  in  this  region  is  about  320,000,000  feet, 
and  it  is  estimated,  at  the  present  rate  of  con- 
sumption, that  enough  standing  timber  exists 
to  last  for  150  years.  The  lumber  is  becoming 
more  in  demand  for  decorative  purposes.  Its 
color,  a  light  salmon  when  first  cut,  afterwards 
turns  to  a  deep  red.  When  thoroughly  dried 
there  is  no  shrinkage  and  it  readily  yields  to  the 
chisel  of  the  carver.  Piano  cases  made  from 
the  wood  are  said  to  give  increased  resonance 
to  the  instrument.  Large  quantities  are  con- 
sumed for  interior  finishing  with  gratifying 
effects.  In  addition  to  other  fine  qualities  the 
wood  takes  on.  a  beautiful  polish  and  even  the 
stumpage,  till  recently  considered  worthless, 
is  found  to  possess  valuable  qualities.  The 
roots  and  woody  excrescences  at  the  base  of  the 
tree  give  fine  effects  in  wavy  outlines,  and  when 
polished  the  material  is  much  valued  for  decora- 
tive purposes. 

Reptiles.  A  class  of  vertebrate  animals, 
which  comprises  the  tortoises,  crocodiles,  snakes, 
lizards,  etc.  Reptiles  are  more  closely  related 
to  birds  than  any  other  group  of  animals;  and 
in  some  recent  classifications  birds  and  reptiles 
together  are  made  to  constitute  the  great  di- 
vision Sauropsida  of  the  sub-kingdom  verte- 
brata.  Reptiles  agree  with  birds  and  differ  from 
all  other  vertebrates  in  the  following  characters : 
The  skull  articulates  with  the  spinal  column 
by  a  single  condyle;  the  lower  jaw  articulates 
with  the  skull  by  the  intervention  of  a  peculiar 
bone,  termed  the  os  quadratum,  or  quadrate  bone, 
and  each  half  of  the  lower  jaw  consists  of  several 
pieces;  at  no  period  of  their  existence  are  bran- 
chial or  water-breathing  respiratory  organs  de- 
veloped. The  heart  in  reptiles  consists  of  three 
chambers  —  two  auricles  and  a  ventricle,  the 
latter  being  divided  into  two  portions  only  by 
a  partition  which  is  generally  incomplete,  and 
allows  the  arterial  and  venous  blood  to  mix,  so 
that  the  blood  is  never  so  perfectly  aerated  as 
in  the  higher  animals.  The  blood  is  conse- 
quently much  colder  than  that  of  birds  and  all 
the  more  highly  organized  animals,  where  the 
oxygen  obtains  a  freer  access  to  its  particles. 
In  the  crocodiles  the  heart  has  a  complete 
septum,  but  there  is  an  intermixture  of  the 
venous  and  arterial  blood  outside  the  heart. 
In  consequence  of  this  organization  of  the  cir- 
culatory system,  the  whole  character  of  reptiles 
differs  from  that  of  the  higher  animals.  The 
cavity  of  the  thorax,  or  chest,  in  reptiles  is  not 
shut  off  from  the  abdomen  by  a  complete  mus- 
cular partition  or  diaphragm,  though  traces  of  it 
are  found  in  crocodiles.  The  lungs  are  usually 
less  cellular  than  in  birds  and  mammals ;  but  are 
often  of  large  size,  extending  into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  In  snakes  there  is  usually  only  one 
active  lung,  the  other  being  rudimentary  or 
completely  atrophied.     The  rectum  opens  in  a 


common  cavity,  or  cloaca,  which  receives  both 
excrementitious  matters  and  the  products  of  the 
generative  organs.  Reptiles  are  often  provided 
with  an  exo-skeleton,  or  hardened  skin,  consist- 
ing of  horny  plates  or  scales.  The  strong  and 
conspicuous  outer  shell  of  the  body  of  tortoises 
and  turtles  is  formed  by  this  exo-skeleton  unit- 
ing with  the  true  endo-skeleton.  Ribs  are 
always  present,  but  differ  much  in  form.  Teeth 
are  generally  present,  but  are  not  sunk  in  dis- 
tinct sockets,  except  in  crocodiles.  In  tortoises 
and  turtles  the  jaws  are  sheathed  in  horn  like 
the  beak  of  a  bird.  The  young  of  reptiles  are 
produced  from  eggs,  mostly  hatched  after  being 
laid,  but  in  some  cases  the  eggs  are  hatched 
within  the  body. 

Rhinoceros.  The  name  of  a  family  of 
mammals,  represented  by  nine  living  species, 
characteristic  of  Africa  to  the  south  of  the  Sa- 
hara, India,  Borneo,  and  Java.  They  have 
large  unwieldy  bodies ;  short  thick  legs,  terminat- 
ing in  large  pads,  with  hoof-bearing  toes;  large 
elongated  heads,  with  a  long  horn  or  horns 
springing  from  the  snout  in  existing  forms ;  small 
eyes  and  ears;  and  short  tails.  Their  hide  is 
extremely  thick,  but  is  not  bullet-proof,  as  is 
popularly  supposed.  The  Asiatic  species  differ 
from  the  African  in  some  dental  characters,  but 
resemble  the  latter  in  other  respects.  Five 
species  belong  to  Africa,  all  possessing  two  horns. 
Of  these,  the  white  rhinoceros  is  the  largest, 
attaining  to  a  length  of  over  twelve  feet  and  a 
height  of  nearly  six  feet;  but  the  black  or  com- 
mon rhinoceros  is  the  best  known  species.  The 
Asiatic  species  are  four  in  number,  distinguished 
by  the  possession  of  incisors,  or  front  teeth, 
which  are  entirely  absent  in  the  African  ones, 
and  the  hide  has  much  the  appearance  of  armor- 
plates.  They  are  also  smaller  in  size,  and  two 
of  the  species  possess  double  horns,  and  two  a 
single  one.  The  Indian  rhinoceros,  a  one-horned 
species,  is  the  one  usually  seen  in  menageries 
in  this  country.  It  leads  a  tranquil,  indolent 
life,  wallowing  on  the  marshy  borders  of  lakes 
and  rivers.  Owing  to  the  keenness  of  its  smell 
and  hearing,  the  rhinoceros  cannot  be  easily 
attacked;  but,  when  brought  to  bay,  it  charges 
with  great  fury  and  impetuosity. 

Rose.  A  large  genus  of  plants  found  chiefly 
in.  north  temperate  regions.  They  are  usually 
erect  thorny  shrubs,  with  compound  leaves,  and 
flowers  of  all  shades  of  white,  pink,  or  yellow. 
The  calyx  consists  of  five  sepals,  united  in  the 
lower  part  to  form  a  fleshy  tube,  which  encloses 
the  fruits.  There  are  normally  five  petals,  but 
under  cultivation  the  number  is  often  much 
increased  at  the  expense  of  the  stamens,  which 
are  indefinite  in  number.  Numerous  species  of 
rose  are  indigenous  to  Great  Britain,  the  most 
familiar  one  being  the  Dog  Rose,  which  is  com- 
mon almost  everywhere.  The  fruit  is  pulpy, 
astringent,  and  antiseptic;  the  young  leaves 
are  infused  a^  tea;  and  the  root  was  formerly 
in  repute  as  a  specific  against  hydrophobia, 
whence  the  name  "Dog  Rose."  The  stems 
frequently  present  mossy  galls  termed  Robin 
Pincushion,  caused  by  the  punctures  of  an  insect. 
Innumerable  varieties  of  the  different  species 
of  rose  are  produced  under '  cultivation  —  the 
tea  rose,  musk  rose,  moss  rose,  and  cabbage  rose. 


764 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


being  well-known  examples.  The  rose  of  Prov- 
ence yields  honey  of  roses  and  conserve  of  roses. 
Rose  water  is  obtained  by  distilling  the  petals 
of  a  number  of  species  with  water. 

Sable.  A  carnivorous  mammal,  nearly  allied 
to  the  common  marten  and  pine  marten,  found 
chiefly  in  Siberia  and  Kamtcnatka,  and  hunted 
for  its  fur.  Its  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  is 
about  eighteen  inches.  Its  fur,  which  is  ex- 
tremely lustrous,  and  hence  of  the  very  highest 
value,  is  generally  brown,  grayish-yellow  on  the 
throat,  and  with  small  grayish-yellow  spots  scat- 
tered on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  It  is  densest  dur- 
ing winter,  and  owing  to  the  mode  of  attachment 
of  the  hairs  to  the  skin  it  may  be  pressed  or 
smoothed  in  any  direction.  Two  other  species 
of  sable  are  enumerated,  the  Japanese  sable  and 
a  North  American  species.  The  Tartar  sable  is 
the  name  given  to  a  species  of  the  weasel  genus 
found  in  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  the 
pekan  of  North  America  is  sometimes  known  as 
the  Hudson's  Bay  sable.  The  skins  of  all  these 
varieties  are  frequently  dyed  and  otherwise 
manipulated  to  imitate  the  true  Russian  sable. 
Sable  hair  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
artist's  pencils.  Sable  fur  has  been  of  great 
value  from  very  early  times. 

Sago.  A  starchy  product  obtained  from  the 
trunk  of  several  species  of  a  genus  of  palms. 
The  one  from  which  the  finest  sago  is  prepared, 
forms  immense  forests  on  nearly  all  the  Moluccas, 
each  stem  yielding  from  100  to  800  pounds  of 
sago.  The  tree  is  about  thirty  feet  high,  and 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  cut  down  at  maturity,  the  medullary  part 
extracted  and  reduced  to  powder  like  sawdust. 
The  filaments  are  next  separated  by  washing,  and 
the  meal  laid  to  dry.  For  exportation  the  finest 
sago  meal  is  mixed  with  water,  and  then  rubbed 
into  small  grains  of  the  size  and  form  of  coriander 
seeds.  The  Malays  have  a  process  for  refining 
sago,  and  giving  it  a  fine  pearly  luster,  the  method 
of  which  is  not  known  to  Europeans;  but  there 
are  strong  reasons  to  believe  that  heat  is  employed, 
because  the  starch  is  partially  transformed 
into  gum.  The  sago  so  cured  is  in  the  highest 
estimation  in  all  the  European  markets.  Sago 
forms  a  light,  wholesome,  nutritious  food,  and 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  all  cases  where  a 
farinaceous  diet  is  required.  It  is  also  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soluble  cocoas,  and 
for  adulterating  the  common  sorts  of  arrowroot. 

Salmon.  A  well-known  fish,  forming  the 
type  of  the  family  Salmonidse.  The  salmon 
inhabits  both  salt  and  fresh  waters,  and  ranks 
prominent  among  the  food-fishes  of  the  United 
States  and  other  countries.  It  generally  at- 
tains a  length  of  from  three  to  four  feet,  and  an 
average  weight  of  from  twelve  to  thirty  pounds, 
but  these  limits  of  size  and  weight  are  frequently 
exceeded.  The  typical  color  of  the  adult  fish  is 
a  steel-blue  on  the  back  and  head,  becoming 
lighter  on  the  sides  and  belly.  It  usually  con- 
tinues in  the  shallows  of  its  native  stream  for 
two  years  after  hatching,  and  during  this  period 
it  attains  a  length  of  eight  inches.  When  the 
season  of  its  migration  arrives,  generally  between 
March  and  June,  the  fins  have  become  darker 
and  the  fish  has 'assumed  a  silvery  hue.  It  is 
now   known   as   a   smolt   or   salmon   fry.     The 


smolts  now  congregate  into  shoals  and  proceed 
leisurely  seaward.  On  reaching  the  estuary 
they  remain  in  its  brackish  water  for  a  short 
time  and  then  make  for  the  open  sea.  Leaving 
its  native  river  as  a  fish,  weighing  it  may  be  not 
more  than  two  ounces,  the  smolt,  after  three 
months'  absence,  may  return  to  fresh  water  as  a 
grilse,  weighing  four  or  five  pounds.  In  the 
grilse  stage  or  salmon  feel,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  the  fish  is  capable  of  depositing  eggs. 
After  spawning  in  the  fresh  water  the  grilse 
again  seeks  the  sea  in  the  autumn,  and  when  its 
second  stay  in  the  ocean  is  over  it  returns  after 
a  few  months'  absence  as  the  adult  salmon, 
weighing  from  eight  to  ten  pounds.  The  salmon 
returns  as  a  rule  to  the  river  in  which  it  passed 
its  earlier  existence.  The  fertility  of  the  fish  is 
enormous.  Salmon  are  caught  by  the  rod,  and 
by  means  of  nets.  For  purposes  of  commercial 
supply  they  are  taken  in  nets  of  special  con- 
struction and  of  various  forms,  the  fishings  being 
regulated  by  law  not  only  as  to  their  seasons  and 
times,  but  also  as  to  the  forms  and  dispositions 
of  the  machines  for  the  capture  of  the  fishes. 
There  are  important  fisheries  in  some  European 
and  North  American  rivers.  In  Europe  the  fish 
is  found  between  the  latitudes  of  45°  and  75°, 
in  North  America  in  corresponding  latitudes. 
The  flesh  of  the  salmon  when  fresh  is  of  a  bright 
orange  color,  and  is  of  highest  flavor  when  taken 
from  the  sea-feeding  fish.  In  the  waters  of 
Northwestern  America  are  several  salmon  be- 
longing to  a  distinct  genus,  including  the  quinnat 
or  king-salmon,  blue-back  salmon  or  red-fish, 
silver  salmon,  dog  salmon,  and  humpback  salmon. 
The  quinnat  has  an  average  weight  of  twenty- 
two  pounds,  but  sometimes  reaches  100  pounds. 
Both  it  and  the  blue-back  salmon  are  caught  in 
immense  numbers  in  the  Columbia,  Sacramento, 
and  Frazer  (especially  in  spring),  and  are  pre- 
served by  canning. 

Salt,  Common.  A  substance  in  common 
use  as  a  seasoner  and  preserver  of  food  from  the 
earliest  ages.  It  exists  in  immense  quantities 
dissolved  in  sea-water,  and  also  in  the  waters  of 
salt  springs,  and  in  solid  deposits,  sometimes  on 
the  surface,  sometimes  at  greater  or  less  depths, 
in  almost  every  geological  series.  Rock-salt, 
that  is  salt  in  the  crystalline  or  solid  form,  is 
found  in  great  abundance  in  England.  It  is  also 
found  in  abundance  in  nearly  every  country  of 
Europe.  The  supply  in  other  continents  is 
equally  great.  The  basin  of  the  Indus  and 
other  parts  of  India  possess  extensive  salt  plains. 
In  China  deep  salt  wells  abound.  The  Sahara 
and  Central  and  Southern  Africa  afford  inex- 
haustible supplies.  Most  of  the  South  American 
Republics,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  United 
States  also  have  large  natural  supplies.  Salt 
manufactured  from  sea-water  is  produced  exten- 
sively along  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic 
sea-boards  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  America.  It 
is  chiefly  made  by  natural  drying  in  shallow 
reservoirs,  but  also  by  boiling.  Sun-dried  salt 
is  the  purest.  Salt  from  sea-water  is  usually 
known  as  hay-salt.  Most  salt,  however,  is  pro- 
duced from  rock-salt  or  from  brine  springs,  the 
latter  being  due  to  the  melting  of  rock-salt  by 
water.  The  salt-mines  of  Wielicza  in  Galicia 
were  worked  in  the  Twelfth  Century,  and  are  the 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


765 


most  celebrated  in  the  world.  The  chief  manu- 
facturing centers  in  England  are  in  Cheshire 
and  Worcestershire;  Yorkshire  has  recently 
begun  the  manufacture.  Cheshire  yields  the 
greater  bulk,  the  chief  supply  being  found  in 
the  basin  of  the  Weaver ;  Norwich  is  the  central 
point.  The  salt  deposits  of  the  United  States 
extend  widely  through  the  geological  strata. 
The  most  important  salt  yielding  States  are 
Michigan  and  New  York,  whose  deposits  are  of 
remarkable  richness.  The  wells,  which  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  Saginaw  Bay,  seem  inexhaustible 
in  supply.  Some  are  over  1,900  feet  in  depth. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  salt  springs  and 
wells  are  numerous.  In  Louisiana,  on  an  island 
near  New  Iberia,  is  an  immense  deposit  of  rock 
salt  of  unusual  purity.  On  Virgin  River,  Ne- 
vada, there  is  a  bed  of  rock  salt,  extending  as  a 
bluff  along  the  river,  for  over  twenty-five  miles; 
more  than  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  cliff  is  salt  of 
great  purity.  California  has  abundant  salt 
springs  and  saline  marshes. 

Scorpion.  Scorpions  have  an  elongated 
body,  suddenly  terminated  by  a  long  slender  tail 
formed  of  six  joints,  the  last  of  which  terminates 
in  an  arcuated  and  very  acute  sting,  which 
effuses  a  venomous  liquid.  This  sting  gives  rise 
to  excruciating  pain,  but  is  usually  unattended 
either  with  redness  or  swelling,  except  in  the 
glands  of  the  arm-pit  or  groin.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  fatal  to  man.  The  animal  has  four 
pairs  of  limbs  borne  by  the  thorax  or  chest- 
segments,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  (organs  of 
touch  belonging  to  the  maxillae  or  lesser  jaws) 
are  largely  developed,  and  constitute  a  formid- 
able pair  of  nipping  claws.  With  these  claws 
they  seize  their  insect  prey,  which  is  afterwards 
killed  by  the  sting.  The  eyes,  which  are  of  the 
simple  kind,  number  six,  eight,  or  twelve.  The 
female  scorpions  are  said  to  exhibit  great  care 
for  their  young,  and  carry  them  on  their  backs 
for  several  days  after  being  hatched,  whilst  they 
tend  them  carefully  for  about  a  month,  when 
they  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  Scorpions 
generally  live  in  dark  places,  and  under  stones. 
They  are  found  in  the  South  of  Europe,  in  Africa, 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  in  South  America.  The 
rock  scorpion  of  Africa,  is  one  of  the  most  famil- 
iar species. 

Seal.  The  name  given  to  the  species  of  the 
family  Phocidce.  The  true  seals  are  earless ;  and 
this,  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  construction 
of  their  limbs  does  not  permit  of  their  using 
those  organs  on  land,  at  once  distinguishes 
them  from  the  allied  family  of  Eared  Seals,  or 
Sea  Lions.  The  fore  limbs  are  short,  and  are  so 
attached  as  to  leave  little  free  but  the  hand ;  in 
the  hind  limbs  the  thigh  bones  are  very  short, 
the  leg  bones  relatively  long  and  directed  back- 
wards in  a  line  with  the  spine,  and  closely  at- 
tached by  membrane  to  the  inconspicuous  tail 
as  far  as  the  heel,  a  construction  which  prevents 
the  leg  being  thrown  forwards.  The  head  is 
very  round,  and  the  eyes  are  large  and  expressive. 
In  swimming  they  seldom  use  their  fore  feet, 
while  the  Eared  Seals  use  them  as  powerful 
sweeps.  In  their  distribution  the  twenty-one 
species  are  pretty  equally  divided  between  the 
Northern  and  the  Southern  Hemispheres,  in- 
habiting   temperate    and    cold     regions.     The 


Alaskan  seal  fisheries  are  among  the  most  promi- 
nent in  the  world.  The  members  of  this  family 
are  of  considerable  commercial  importance  on 
account  of  the  oil  they  yield,  for  the  sake  of 
which  great  numbers  are  slaughtered.  To  the 
inhabitants  of  the  polar  regions  they  afford  food, 
clothing,  and  fire. 

Sea- wolf .  A  genus  of  fishes  known  as  blen- 
nies  and  also  by  the  names  "sea-cat"  and 
"swine-fish."  The  mouth  is  armed  with  sharp 
strong  teeth  of  large  size,  and  when  captured  it 
is  said  to  bite  the  nets  and  even  attack  the 
fishermen.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  blennies. 
Around  the  coast  of  Britain  it  attains  a  length 
of  six  or  seven  feet,  but  in  more  southern  seas 
it  is  said  to  grow  to  a  still  larger  size.  The  flesh 
is  palatable,  and  is  largely  eaten  in  Iceland, 
whilst  the  skin  is  durable,  and  is  manufactured 
into  a  kind  of  shagreen,  used  for  making  pouches 
and  like  articles. 

Sequoia.  A  genus  of  conifers,  otherwise 
called  Wellingtonia  or  Washingtonia,  consisting 
of  two  species  only  —  the  redwood  of  the  timber 
trade,  and  the  Wellingtonia  of  British  gardens 
and  shrubberies,  the  big  or  mammoth  tree  of  the 
Americans.  They  are  both  natives  of  Western 
America,  the  latter  having  been  discovered  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  1852.  One  specimen  in 
Calaveras  County,  Cal.,  has  a  height  of  325  feet, 
and  a  girth  six  feet  from  the  ground  or  forty-five 
feet.  The  Mariposa  Grove,  sixteen  miles  south 
of  the  Yosemite  Valley,  contains  upwards  of 
100  trees  over  forty  feet  in  circumference,  and 
one  over  ninety-three  feet  at  the  ground,  and 
sixty-four  feet  at  eleven  feet  higher.  This  grove 
is  government  property.  This  tree  has  been 
successfully  introduced  into  England,  where 
some  of  them  have  already  attained  a  good 
height.  Some  of  these  trees  indicate  an  age  of 
over  2,000  years. 

Siiad,  a  name  of  several  fishes,  of  the  family 
Clupeidse  or  herrings,  and  including  two  species, 
the  common  or  allice  shad,  and  the  twaite  shad. 
The  common  shad  inhabits  the  sea  near  the 
mouths  of  large  rivers,  and  in  the  spring  ascends 
them  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  spawn. 
The  form  of  the  shad  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
other  herrings,  but  it  is  of  larger  size,  and  in 
some  places  receives  the  name  of  "  herring  king." 
Its  color  is  a  dark  blue  above,  with  brown  and 
greenish  lusters,  the  under  parts  being  white. 
The  twaite  shad  is  about  a  half  less  than  the 
common  species,  and  weighs  on  an  average  about 
two  pounds.  An  American  species  of  shad 
varying  in  weight  from  four  to  twelve  pounds, 
is  highly  esteemed  for  food,  and  is  consumed  in 
great  quantities  in  the  fresh  state.  They  are 
found  all  along  the  coast  from  New  England  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  have  been  successfully 
introduced  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Stiarlc,  the  general  name  for  a  group  of 
fishes,  celebrated  for  the  size  and  voracity  of 
many  of  the  species.  The  form  of  the  body  is 
elongated,  and  the  tail  thick  and  fleshy.  The 
mouth  is  large,  and  armed  with  several  rows  of 
compressed,  sharp-edged,  and  sometimes  ser- 
rated teeth.  The  skin  is  usually  very  rough, 
covered  with  a  multitude  of  little  osseous  tuber- 
cles or  placoid  scales.  They  are  the  most 
formidable  and  voracious  of  all  fishes,  pursue 


766 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  GF   FACTS 


other  marine  animals,  and  seem  to  care  little 
whether  their  prey  be  living  or  dead.  They 
often  follow  vessels  for  the  sake  of  picking  up 
any  offal  which  may  be  thrown  overboard,  and 
man  himself  often  becomes  a  victim  to  their 
rapacity.  The  sharks  are  now  divided  into 
several  families,  as  the  Carcharidse,  or  white 
sharks;  Lamindse,  or  basking  sharks;  Scym- 
nidae,  including  the  Greenland  shark;  Scyllidse, 
or  dog-fishes;  etc.  The  basking  shark  is  by  far 
the  largest  species,  sometimes  attaining  the 
length  of  forty  feet,  but  it  has  none  of  the  ferocity 
of  the  others.  The  white  shark  is  one  of  the 
most  formidable  and  voracious  of  the  species. 
It  is  rare  on  the  British  coasts,  but  common  in 
many  of  the  warmer  seas,  reaching  a  length  of 
over  thirty  feet.  The  hammer-headed  sharks 
which  are  chiefly  found  in  tropical  seas,  are  very 
voracious,  and  often  attack  man.  They  are 
noteworthy  for  the  remarkable  shape  of  their 
head,  which  resembles  somewhat  a  double- 
headed  hammer,  the  eyes  being  at  the  extremi- 
ties. Gther  forms  are  the  porbeagle,  blue  shark, 
fox  shark,  sea-fox,  sea-ape,  or  thresher,  and 
Greenland  or  northern  shark. 

Sheep,  the  common  name  of  the  genus  Ovis, 
belonging  to  the  hollow-horned  ruminant  family. 
Naturalists  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  what 
was  the  original  breed  of  this  invaluable  animal, 
which  is  in  modern  farming  almost  equally 
important  for  furnishing  the  farm  with  a  dressing 
of  manure,  and  the  community  at  large  with 
mutton,  clothing  and  other  necessaries  of  life. 
The  leading  fact  in  the  geographical  history  of 
this  genus  is  that  it  occurs  both  in  the  New  and 
the  Old  World,  whereas  the  goat  tribe  are  nat- 
urally unknown  in  America.  It  is  usually  re- 
garded by  naturalists  as  being  not  only  specifi- 
cally, but  generically,  distinguished  from  the 
goat  tribe;  but  some  authorities,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  generic 
separation  is  founded  chiefly  on  characters  which 
have  arisen  from  the  influential  power  of  man. 
In  a  state  of  nature,  the  sheep  is  scarcely  less 
active  or  energetic  than  the  goat;  its  dimensions 
are  greater,  its  muscular  strength  at  least  equal 
both  in  force  and  duration.  It  is  also  an  Alpine 
animal,  and  among  its  native  fastnesses  bounds 
from  rock  to  rock  with  almost  inconceivable 
swiftness  and  agility.  The  four  unsubdued 
races  of  sheep  are  as  follows :  The  Musmon,  the 
bearded  sheep  of  Africa;  the  Argali,  or  wild 
sheep  of  Asia;  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  sheep 
of  the  United  States.  The  latter  is  larger  than 
the  largest  varieties  of  domestic  breeds.  The 
horns  of  the  male  are  of  great  dimensions, 
arising  a  short  way  above  the  eyes,  and  occu- 
pying almost  the  entire  space  between  the  ears, 
but  without  touching  each  other  at  their  bases. 
The  hair  in  this  species  resembles  that  of  a  deer, 
and  is  short,  dry,  and  flexible  in  its  autumn 
growth;  but  becomes  coarse,  dry,  and  brittle  as 
the  winter  advances.  The  most  important 
breed  of  sheep  as  regards  the  texture  of  the  wool 
is  the  Merino,  in  modern  times  brought  to  the 
greatest  perfection  in  Spain,  through  their 
originals  probably  formed  the  flocks  of  the  patri- 
archs thousands  of  years  ago,  and  have  been  the 
stock  of  all  the  fine-wooled  sheep.  They  readily 
form  cross  breeds,  called  demi-merinos,  which 


have  been  brought  to  great  perfection  in  France, 
whence,  as  well  as  from  Spain,  they  have  been 
imported  into  the  United  States. 

Silkworm,  a  term  applied  to  the  larvse,  or 
caterpillars,  of  numerous  species  of  moths.  The 
common  silkworm  moth  is  the  most  important 
of  the  silk-producing  moths,  and  is  a  nativis  of 
China,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  from  a  remote 
period.  The  caterpillar  {silkworm)  is  of  yellow- 
ish-grey color,  and  when  full-grown  is  about 
three  inches  in  length,  with  a  horn-like  projection 
on  the  last  joint  of  the  body.  It  feeds  upon  the 
white  mulberry,  and  will  also  eat  the  black 
mulberry  and  lettuce,  but  the  silk  produced  by 
larvse  fed  on  the  latter  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 
The  silk  is  produced  in  a  pair  of  specially-con- 
structed vessels  which  contain  a  gelatinous  sub- 
stance, and  become  much  enlarged  at  the  time 
when  the  animal  is  about  to  spin.  These  silk- 
organs  unite  at  the  mouth  to  form  a  common 
duct  termed  the  spinneret;  and  through  this  tube 
the  aemi-fluid  substance  is  ejected,  and  on  coming 
in  contact  with  the  air  hardens  into  the  soft 
fiber  which  is  so  largely  used  in  commerce.  The 
caterpillar  employs  the  silk  in  constructing  a 
cocoon  in  which  it  assumes  the  pupa  state.  The 
pupa  is  usually  killed  by  plunging  the  cocoon 
into  hot  water,  because  the  natural  exit  of  the 
moth  is  injurious  to  the  silk.  The  color  of  the 
silk  varies  from  a  bright  orange  to  almost  white. 
In  Euope  some  moths  produce  one  generation, 
others  two  generations  annually;  but  the  cater- 
pillars from  the  former  class  produce  the  best 
silk.  In  India  some  forms  produce  eggs  monthly 
while  three  or  four  generations  annually  are  not 
uncommon  in  that  country.  A  valued  variety 
is  the  Novi  race  of  Italy,  which  spins  a  large 
white  oval  cocoon.  The  Japanese  race  produces 
a  cocoon  having  a  divided  appearance  in  the 
center.  The  Japanese  oak-feeding  silk-moth, 
produces  a  green  cocoon,  the  silk  of  which  is 
much  used  for  embroidery.  Another  species 
inhabits  Northern  China  and  is  also  an  oak- 
feeder.  Its  cocoon  is  large  and  grayish-brown 
in  color.  The  B.  Cynthia  of  China  and  North 
Asia  manufactures  a  gray  cocoon,  from  which 
the  Chinese  nianufacture  a  silk  recognized  by  its 
soft  texture.  From  the  cocoon  of  the  Indian  or 
"tussur  moth,"  the  natives  manufacture  the 
Tussur  silk  fabric.  Bombyx  textor  of  Bengal 
makes  a  pure  white  silk  used  by  the  natives. 
There  are  several  other  varieties  of  silk-pro- 
ducing moths,  but  they  are  less  notable  and  com- 
mercially unimportant. 

Silver,  a  brilliant  white  metal  which  was 
known  to  the  ancients.  It  crystallizes  in  cubes. 
It  melts  at  a  heat  estimated  at  about  1,000°. 
When  melted,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  just  before 
solidifying  it  evolves  it  with  effervescence, 
causing  spiriting  and  projection  of  the  metal. 
It  is  the  best  known  conductor  of  electricity  and 
heat;  is  extremely  malleable  and  ductile,  and 
has  great  tenacity;  it  is  not  oxidized  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  and  is  imaffected  by  any 
atmospheric  agent,  except  sulphur  compounds 
which  are  sometimes  present.  It  is  found  either 
in  the  native  state  or  as  sulphide  or  chloride.  It 
also  occurs  in  small  quantities  in  galena,  gray 
copper  ore,  pyrites,  and  other  minerals,  and 
frequently   in    sufficient    quantity   to   pay   for 


BITTERN        ^^^  y^^ 


WOODCOCK 


BUSTARD 


AMERICAN 
MAGPIEf 


CARDINAL  "\c 
GROSBEAK 


QUAIL 


PASSENGER 
PI.GEON 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


767 


extraction.  It  is  usually  produced  on  the  large 
scale  by  fusing  its  ore  with  a  lead  compound, 
and  then  cupelling,  or  by  amalgamation  with 
mercury.  Silver  is  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  earth;  but  it  is  in  the  center  of  the  Andes, 
in  situations  which,  though  exposed  to  the  per- 
pendicular rays  of  the  sun,  are  constantly  covered 
with  snow,  that  nature  has  most  abundantly  dis- 
tributed this  metal.  The  silver-mines  of  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  the  United  States,  far  exceed  in  value 
the  whole  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  mines. 

Snail,  a  term  popularly  applied  to  the  mol- 
luscous animals  of  the  family  Helicidce,  belong- 
ing to  the  class  Gasteropoda.  The  snails  have 
a  well-developed,  spirally-conical  shell,  into 
which  the  animal  retires  at  the  approach  of 
winter,  closing  the  aperture  by  an  epiphragm 
(which  is  a  hardened  layer  of  mucus).  The 
body  is  spiral,  and  distinct  from  the  foot, 
with  a  short  retractile  head  bearing  four  retrac- 
tile tentacles,  on  the  upper  pair  of  which  the  eyes 
are  carried.  The  mouth  is  armed  with  strong 
horny  crescent-shaped  lips,  and  is  occupied  by  a 
well-developed  odontophore  —  that  is,  a  tongue- 
like organ,  covered  with  an  immense  number  of 
miiiute  teeth,  forming  a  sort  of  rasp.  Snails  lay 
round  semi-transparent  eggs,  which  are  either 
deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  buried 
beneath  it.  The  large  Garden  Snail  is  abun- 
dant in  England.  This  species,  together  with 
some  of  the  smaHer  species,  has  been  naturalized 
in  the  most  remote  colonies.  Helix  pomatia 
is  the  well-known  Edible  Snail,  or  Roman  Snail. 
It  was  considered  a  great  luxury  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  region  is  still 
valued  as  an  article  of  food,  being  fed  in  some 
parts  in  large  numbers  in  places  specially 
constructed  for  the  purpose. 

Sparrow,  a  well-known  bird  of  the  finch 
family  which  inhabits  the  British  Islands  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  and  has  been  introduced 
into  North  America  and  Australia.  Their  amaz- 
ing fecundity,  their  strong  attachment  to  their 
young,  their  familiarity,  not  to  say  impudence, 
and  their  voracity,  are  familiar  to  all.  They 
often  do  great  injury  in  cornfields  and  gardens, 
but  they  also  do  great  service  in  destroying 
grubs,  caterpillars,  etc.  The  tree  sparrow  is  also 
very  widely  distributed.  It  very  closely  resem- 
bles the  common  sparrow,  but  is  of  smaller  size. 
Certain  members  of  buntings  are  called  "spar- 
rows" in  America. 

Sparrow-hawk,  the  common  name  of 
several  hawks,  one  of  which  is  well-known  in 
Britain,  about  twelve  inches  in  length.  The 
male  is  colored  dark  brown  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  on  the  upper  aspect  of  the  body  and 
wings.  The  under  parts  are  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  marked  with  narrow  bands  of  darker  tint. 
The  female  bird  is  of  a  duller  brown  hue  on  the 
back  and  head ;  and  her  plumage  is  diversified  by 
numerous  white  spots.  It  is  a  bold,  active  bird, 
very  destructive  to  pigeons  and  small  birds. 
The  sparrow-hawk  of  Australia  is  marked  by  a 
collar  of  numerous  bars  of  white.  Its  habits  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  European  sparrow- 
hawk.  The  American  sparrow-hawk  is  similar 
in  size  to  the  European  sparrow-hawk,  but 
rather  allied  to  the  kestrel.  It  often  preys  on 
the  chickens  in  poultry-yards. 


Spider,  the  common  name  of  insect-like 
animals,  constituting  a  section  of  the  class 
Arachnida.  The  head  and  chest  are  united  to 
form  one  segment  known  as  a  cephalothorax ; 
no  wings  are  developed,  and  breathing  is  effected 
by  means  of  pulmonary  or  lung  sacs.  The 
abdomen  is  furnished  with  from  four  to  six 
cylindrical  or  conical  mammillse  or  processes, 
with  fleshy  extremities,  which  are  perforated 
with  numberless  small  orifices  for  the  passage  of 
silky  filaments  of  extreme  tenuity,  with  which 
they  form  webs,  and  which  proceed  from  inter- 
nal reservoirs.  The  spider's  web  is  usually 
intended  to  entangle  their  prey  (chiefly  flies), 
but  spiders  also  spin  webs  to  make  their  abodes, 
and  for  other  purposes.  The  legs  number  four 
pairs,  and  no  antennae  are  developed.  Their 
mandibles  are  terminated  by  a  movable  hook, 
flexed  inferiorly,  underneath  which,  and  near 
its  extremity,  is  a  little  opening  that  allows  a 
passage  to  a  venomous  fluid  contained  in  a  gland 
of  the  preceding  joint.  After  wounding  their 
prey  with  their  hooked  mandibles  they  inject 
this  poison  into  the  wound,  which  suddenly 
destroys  the  victim.  The  common  garden  or 
cross  spider,  with  its  geometrical  web,  is  a  very 
familiar  species.  The  great  crab  spider  and  the 
Surinam  spider,  alleged  to  feed  on  small  birds, 
are  notable  forms.  To  this  family  also  belong 
the  trap-door  spiders,  which  excavate  a  nest  in 
the  ground,  and  fit  to  the  aperture  a  curious  little 
door  or  lid.  The  tarantula  is  regarded  in  Italy 
as  capable  of  producing  a  kind  of  dancing  mad- 
ness by  its  bite.  The  English  hunting  or  zebra 
spider  is  a  pretty  little  arachnidan.  The  Clotho 
durandii,  inhabiting  Spain  and  North  Africa,  is 
remarkable  as  constructing  a  kind  of  little  tent, 
in  the  interior  of  which  the  eggs,  inclosed  in  little 
pouches,  are  contained.  The  interesting  water- 
spiders,  denizens  of  fresh-water  pools,  lead  a 
subaqueous  life,  and  construct  their  nests  some- 
what in  the  form  of  diving-bells  with  the  mouth 
opening  downwards,  together  with  thin  webs  in 
which  their  prey  is  captured. 

Sponge.  A  term  properly  applied  to  the 
organisms  which  constitute  the  order  Spongida, 
of  the  sub-kingdom  Protozoa,  but  popularly  ap- 
plied to  the  dead  skeleton  only  which  is  sold 
under  that  name.  The  true  nature  of  sponges 
has  long  been  a  matter  of  doubt,  but  they  are 
now  almost  universally  regarded  as  animals. 
They  are  compound  bodies,  and  the  living  part 
of  the  sponge  appears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  soft 
and  gelatinous  substance,  which,  however,  is 
seen  by  microscopic  investigation  to  consist  of 
an  aggregation  of  extremely  simple  animals  like 
amceba:,  some  of  which  are  furnished  with  long 
cilia.  This  living  portion  is  supported  on  a  skele- 
ton, which,  in  ordinary  sponges,  is  composed  of 
horny  elastic  fibers  which  interlace  in  every  di- 
rection, and  pierced  by  numerous  apertures, 
constituting  the  "sponge"  of  commerce.  The 
horny  skeleton  is  composed  of  a  substance  called 
keratode,  and  is  usually  strengthened  by  spiculae 
of  lime  or  flint.  Of  the  apertures  which  pene- 
trate the  sponge  in  every  direction,  some  are 
large  (the  exhalent  apertures),  whilst  others  are 
much  smaller  and  more  numerous  (the  pores, 
or  inhalent  apertures).  In  the  living  sponge  a 
constant  current  of  water  circulates  through  the 


768 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


canals  with  which  these  apertures  communicate. 
Sponges  are  of  almost  universal  occurrence  and 
are  almost  exclusively  marine,  being  generally 
found  attached  to  the  under-side  of  projecting 
rocks,  or  clinging  to  the  roofs  of  submarine 
caverns.  The  sponges  of  commerce  are  mostly 
obtained  from  the  Grecian  Archipelago  and  the 
Bahamas. 

Spruce.  The  name  given  to  several  species 
of  trees  of  the  genus  Abies.  The  Norway  spruce- 
fir  is  Abies  excelsa,  which  yields  the  valuable 
timber  known  under  the  name  of  white  or  Chris- 
tiania  deal.  It  is  a  native  of  great  part  of  North- 
ern Europe  and  is  a  noble  tree  of  conical  habit 
of  growth,  reaching  sometimes  the  height  of  150 
feet.  The  white  spruce  is  Abies  alba,  the  black 
spruce-fir  is  Abies  nigra,  both  natives  of  North 
America.  The  latter  attains  the  height  of  sev- 
enty or  eighty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  inches.  Its  timber  is  of  great 
value  on  account  of  its  strength,  lightness,  and 
elasticity,  and  is  often  employed  for  the  yards 
of  ships  and  the  ^ides  of  ladders.  From  the 
young  shoots  is  extracted  the  essence  of  spruce, 
a  decoction  used  in  making  spruce  beer.  The 
hemlock  spruce-fir  is  the  Abies  Canadensis,  a  noble 
species,  rising  to  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty 
feet,  and  measuring  from  two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  It  grows  abundantly  over  great  part 
of  Canada  and  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
wood  is  employed  for  laths,  fences,  coarse  indoor 
work,  etc.  The  bark  is  exceedingly  valuable 
for  tanning.  Douglas's  spruce  or  fir,  the  Abies 
Douglasii  of  Northwestern  America,  reaches  a 
height  of  100  to  180  feet  in  its  native  forests,  and 
has  been  introduced  into  Britain  as  an  ornamen- 
tal tree. 

Squirrel.  A  small  rodent  mammal  of  the 
family  Sciuridce,  the  type  of  which  is  the  genus 
Sciurus,  or  true  squirrels.  This  family  compre- 
hends three  groups —  the  true  squirrels  (SciUrus), 
the  ground-squirrels  (Tamias),  and  the  flying- 
squirrels  {Pterdmys  and  Sciuroptl^rus).  The 
true  squirrels  are  distinguished  by  their  strongly 
compressed  inferior  incisors  and  by  their  long 
bushy  tail.  They  have  four  toes  before  and  five 
behind.  The  thumb  of  the  fore-foot  is  some- 
times marked  by  a  tubercle.  They  have  in  all 
four  grinders,  variously  tuberculated,  and  a 
very  small  additional  one  above  in  front,  which 
very  soon  falls.  In  color  they  are  usually  of  a 
rich  ruddy  brown  on  the  upper  parts,  merging 
into  reddish  or  grayish-white  on  the  under  parts 
of  the  body,  but  the  fur  varies  with  the  season 
and  climate  so  that  in  winter  it  may  be  of  a  gray 
appearance.  The  head  is  large,  and  the  eyes  pro- 
jecting and  lively.  Several  species  are  enumer- 
ated, as  the  common  squirrel,  which  inhabits 
Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia;  while  the  cat- 
squirrel,  gray-squirrel,  black  squirrel,  red  squir- 
rel, and  the  great-tailed  squirrel  are  American 
species.  The  common  British  squirrel,  and 
several  other  species  are  remarkably  nimble, 
running  up  trees  and  leaping  from  branch  to 
branch  with  surprising  agility.  They  subsist 
on  nuts,  acorns,  seeds,  etc.,  of  which  they  lay  up 
a  store  for  winter,  some  of  them  in  hollow  trees, 
others  in  the  earth.  Their  nest,  which  consists 
of  woody  fiber,  leaves,  and  moss,  is  usually  situ- 
ated in  a  fork  of  a  tree,  and  the  young,  of  which 


there  are  three  or  four,  are  bom  in  June.  When 
engaged  in  eating  they  sit  on  their  haunches 
with  their  tail  thrown  upwards  on  the  back, 
grasp  the  eatables  with  their  fore-paws  and 
gnaw  with  their  powerful  teeth.  The  fur  of 
some  of  the  American  species  is  an  article  of 
commerce. 

Star -fishes.  A  term  in  its  widest  applica- 
tion embracing  all  the  echinoderms  comprised 
in  the  orders  Ophiuroidea  and  Asteroidea,  but 
more  commonly  restricted  to  the  members  of  the 
latter  order,  of  which  the  common  genus  Asterias 
may  be  taken  as  the  type.  The  star-fishes  proper 
are  covered  with  a  tough  leathery  skin  beset 
with  prickles,  and  have  the  form  of  a  star,  with 
five  or  more  rays  radiating  from  a  central  disc. 
In  the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the  disc 
is  situated  the  mouth,  opening  into  a  digestive 
system  which  sends  prolongations  into  each 
ray.  If  the  prickly  skin  be  removed  it  will  be 
seen  to  be  supported  by  a  series  of  plates  beauti- 
fully jointed  together.  On  the  under  surface 
of  each  ray  the  plates  exhibit  a  series  of  perfora- 
tions, through  which,  in  the  living  state,  the  am- 
bulacra or  tubular  feet  can  be  protruded  so  as  to 
effect  locomotion.  Star-fishes  are  found  in  "al- 
most all  tropical,  European  and  American  seas, 
and  some  species  are  found  as  far  north  as  Green- 
land. 

Stork.  A  family  of  birds,  whose  members 
are  chiefly  confined  to  the  old  world.  The  true 
storks  are  contained  in  the  genus  Ciconia,  and 
number  six  species,  ranging  over  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  found  also  in  South  America. 
In  form  they  resemble  the  herons,  but  are  more 
robust,  and  have  larger  bills,  shorter  toes,  with 
a  non-serrated  claw  on  the  middle  toe.  They 
inhabit  the  vicinity  of  marshes  and  rivers,  where 
they  find  an  abundant  supply  of  food,  consisting 
of  frogs,  lizards,  fishes,  and  even  young  birds. 
They  are  migratory  birds,  arriving  from  the 
south  at  their  breeding  haunts  in  the  early  spring, 
and  departing  again  in  the  autumn.  The  White 
Stork,  which  is  common  in  many  countries  of 
Europe,  constructs  a  large  nest,  most  frequently 
on  the  chimney  of  a  cottage ;  it  is  a  casual  visitor 
to  Britain  during  the  period  of  migration.  "  In 
plumage  it  is  white,  with  black  wings. 

Sugar-cane,  a  plant  from  which  great 
part  of  the  sugar  of  commerce  is  obtained.  It 
is  nowhere  found  in  a  wild  state,  but  is  probably 
a  native  of  tropical  Asia.  It  grows  to  the  height 
of  seven  or  eight  feet  or  more,  and  has  broad 
ribbed  leaves,  and  smooth  shining  stems.  It 
is  now  cultivated  in  all  the  warm  parts  of  the 
globe,  such  as  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  Java, 
Louisiana,  etc.,  but  varies  in  growth  according 
to  the  situation,  the  season,  or  the  weather. 
The  sugar-cane  flowers  only  after  the  lapse  of  an 
entire  year,  and  a  plantation  lasts  from  six  to  ten 
years.  The  juice  of  the  cane  is  very  palatable 
and  nutritive. 

Swallow,  any  one  of  the  numerous  passerine 
birds.  In  the  United  States  the  best  known 
species  are  the  barn  swallow ;  the  cliff,  eaves,  or 
chimney  swallow ;  the  white  bellied  or  tree  swal- 
low, and  the  bank  swallow.  The  species  usually 
described  by  naturalists  as  the  type  of  the  fannly 
is  Hirundo  rustica,  a  well-known  European 
visitor,  whose  arrival  from  Africa  (usually  about 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


769 


the  middle  of  April)  is  eagerly  looked  for  as  a 
sign  of  approaching  summer.  Swallows  usually 
arrive  in  pairs — a  male  and  a  fema'le  —  though 
several  pairs  often  form  a  small  flight;  but  if  a 
single  bird  is  seen  to  arrive,  there  is  a  strong 
presumption  that  it  has  lost  its  mate.  They 
return  with  unfailing  regularity  to  their  old 
haunts,  and  in  May  commence  building  their 
nests,  which  are  in  shape  somewhat  like  a  flat- 
tened cup,  divided  perpendicularly;  they  are 
made  of  clay,  mud,  and  straw,  lined  with  horse- 
hair or  feathers,  and  the  eggs,  which  are  from 
four  to  six  in  number,  are  white,  spotted  with 
a  purply-red. 

Swan,  a  genus  of  swimming  birds,  distin- 
guished as  a  group  by  the  bill  being  of  equal 
length  with  the  head,  and  broad  throughout  its 
length ;  by  the  cere  being  soft ;  by  the  front  toes 
being  strongly  webbed,  whilst  the  hinder  toe  is 
not  webbed,  and  has  no  lobe  or  underskin.  The 
species  which  inhabit  or  visit  Britain  are  the 
mute  or  tame  swan,  the  whooper,  whistling,  or 
wild  swan,  and  Bewick's  swan.  The  mute  or 
tame  swan,  so  named  from  having  little  or  no 
voice,  is  the  only  species  which  is  permanently 
resident  in  Britain.  The  nest  is  constructed  of 
reeds  and  grasses,  and  is  generally  situated  near 
the  edge  of  the  water  on  some  islet.  The  young 
("cygnets")  when  hatched  are  of  a  light  bluish- 
gray  color.  The  food  consists  of  vegetable  mat- 
ters, smaller  fishes,  worms,  etc.,  and  fish-spawn. 
The  wild  swan  and  Bewick's  swan  pass  the  win- 
ter in  Great  Britain,  flying  northward  in  the 
spring.  The  first  is  a  native  of  Iceland,  eastern 
Lapland,  and  northern  Russia;  the  second  has 
its  home  farther  east.  They  have  their  repre- 
sentatives in  North  America  in  the  trumpeter 
swan.  South  America  produces  one  very  dis- 
tinct species,  the  beautiful  black-necked  swan. 
The  black  swan  of  Australia,  like  the  white  swan, 
is  frequently  kept  as  an  ornament  in  parks  or 
pleasure  grounds. 

Tea.  A  small  tree,  reaching  the  height 
sometimes  of  thirty  feet,  whose  leaves  when 
properly  handled  become  the  tea  of  commerce. 
To  increase  the  leaf  production,  the  tree  is 
pruned  to  the  form  of  a  much  branching  shrub 
from  two  to  four  feet  high.  It  is  propagated 
from  seed  sown  in  the  fall  in  shaded  seed  beds, 
and  after  a  year  is  transferred  to  the  field.  The 
full  crop  is  established  about  five  years  after  ^_._^__ 
planting  and  the  yield  continues  for  a  lifetime.^.villagi 
Japan,  including  Formosa,  produces  the  most 
tea;  China  ranks  second  in  production,  and 
India  and  Ceylon  third.  Some  tea  is  now  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  South  Carolina.  The  differ- 
ence between  green  and  black  tea  is  due  to  a 
difference  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  Cer- 
tain oxidizing  elements  are  allowed  to  ferment 
before  the  leaves  are  subjected  to  a  firing  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  black  tea.  In  making 
green  tea  these  elements  are  roasted  out  of  the 
leaves  as  soon  as  gathered.  The  tea  is  an  ever- 
green tree.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  work  of 
manufacturing  tea  was  done  by  hand  but  in 
more  recent  times  the  use  of  machinery  has 
greatly  increased,  avoiding  personal  contact  and 
reducing  expense. 

Thrush.  A  genus  of  birds  having  a  bill  of 
moderate    size,    straight,    the    upper    mandible 


convex,  its  point  compressed,  notched,  and 
slightly  curved  downward,  the  gape  furnished 
with  a  few  hairs;  the  nostrils  near  the  base  of 
the  bill  oval,  partly  closed  by  a  naked  membrane ; 
the  first  feather  of  the  wing  very  short,  the 
third  and  fourth  longest;  the  tarsus  longer  than 
the  middle  toe,  the  outer  toe  connected  with 
the  middle  toe  at  the  base.  The  common  spe- 
cies are  the  blackbird,  fieldfare,  redwing,  ouzel, 
song  thrush,  and  missel  thrush.  The  song 
thrush  or  throstle,  the  mavis  of  the  Scotch, 
is  smaller  than  the  blackbird,  its  whole  length 
being  not  quite  nine  inches.  Its  plumage  is 
brown,  of  various  finely  mingled  shades;  the 
throat,  sides  of  the  neck,  breast,  and  flanks 
yellowish,  spotted  with  dark  brown,  the  belly 
nearly  white,  with  a  few  spots  of  dark  brown; 
a  dark  brown  streak,  with  a  lighter  brown 
streak  over  it,  passing  from  the  bill  to  the  eye. 
The  latter  is  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  but 
deserts  some  of  the  northern  parts  in  winter, 
being  thus  partially  a  bird  of  passage. 

Tiger.  The  largest  and  most  dangerous  of 
the  Felidae;  exceeding  the  lion  slightly  in  size, 
and  far  surpassing  him  in  destructiveness.  It 
is  purely  Asiatic  in  its  habitat,  but  is  not  by  any 
means  confined  to  the  hot  plains  of  India,  though 
there  it  reaches  its  highest  development,  both 
of  size  and  coloration.  According  to  Fayrer, 
the  full-grown  male  Indian  tiger  is  from  nine  to 
twelve,  and  the  tigress  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  from 
thirty-six  to  forty-two  inches  high  at  the  shoul- 
der. The  ground  color  of  the  skin  is  rufous  or 
tawny  yellow,  shaded  with  white  on  the  ventral 
surface.  This  is  varied  with  vertical  black 
stripes  or  elongated  ovals  and  brindlings.  On 
the  face  and  posterior  surface  of  the  ears  the 
white  markings  are  peculiarly  well  developed. 
The  depth  of  the  ground  color  and  the  intensity 
of  the  black  markings  vary,  according  to  the  age 
and  condition  of  the  animal.  In  old  tigers  the 
ground  becomes  more  tawny,  of  a  lighter  shade, 
and  the  black  markings  better  defined.  The 
ground  coloring  is  more  dusky  in  young  animals. 
Though  possessed  of  immense  strength  and 
ferocity,  the  tiger  rarely  attacks  armed  men,  un- 
less provoked,  though  often  carrying  off  women 
and  children.  When  pressed  by  hunger  or  en- 
feebled by  age  and  incapable  of  dealing  with 
larger  prey,  like  buffaloes,  the  tiger  prowls  around 
jes,  and,  having  once  tasted  human  flesh,  be- 
comes a  confirmed  man  eater.  In  a  government 
report  it  is  stated  that  "one  tigress  caused  the 
desertion  of  thirteen  villages,  and  250  square 
miles  of  country  were  thrown  out  of  cultiva- 
tion." The  jaguar  is  sometimes  called  the 
American  tiger. 

Toad.  The  popular  name  of  any  species 
of  the  family  BufonidiB,  which  is  almost  uni- 
versally distributed,  but  is  rare  in  the  Austra- 
lian region,  one  species  being  found  in  Celebes 
and  one  in  Australia.  Three  species  are  Euro- 
pean. The  common  American  species  is  more 
active  than  the  European  species,  moving  prin- 
cipally by  leaping.  The  body  is  swollen  and 
heavy-looking,  covered  with  a  warty  skin,  head 
large,  flat,  and  toothless,  with  a  rounded,  blunt 
muzzle.  There  is  a  swelling  above  the  eyes 
covered  with  pores,  and  the  parotids  are  large. 


770 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


thick,  and  prominent,  and  secrete  an  acrid 
fluid;  when  nandled  or  irritated,  these  animals 
can  eject  a  watery  fluid  from  the  vent.  But 
neither  the  secretion  from  the  parotids  nor  the 
ejected  fluid  is  harmful  to  man,  and  there  is 
little  doubt  but  that  its  effects  on  the  lower 
animals  have  been  much  exaggerated.  The 
toad  has  four  fingers  and  five  partially  webbed 
toes.  Toads  are  terrestrial,  hiding  in  damp, 
dark  places  during  the  day,  and  crawling  with 
the  head  near  the  ground.  They  are  extremely 
tenacious  of  life,  and  can  exist  a  long  time 
without  food. 

Tobacco.  A  plant  of  the  Solanaceae  or 
night-side  family,  to  which  belong  the  potato 
and  tomato.  It  grows  from  four  to  six  feet 
high,  with  broad  leaves  and  purple  blossoms. 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  unknown.  The 
generic  word  nicotine  is  from  Jean  Nicot,  who 
introduced  it  into  France.  The  world's  annual 
production  exceeds  two  billion  pounds,  the 
United  States  leading  with  over  eight  hundred 
million  pounds.  The  central  southern  States 
rank  first  in  production,  though  the  yield  per  acre 
is  greatest  in  New  England,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Wisconsin.  Cuba  produces  the 
best  cigar  tobacco,  though  most  Havana  cigars 
are  made  in  Florida  by  Cubans  from  the  raw 
material  imported  from  the  island.  The  United 
States  annually  produces  over  seven  billion 
cigars,  three  and  a  half  billion  cigarettes,  three 
hundred  million  pounds  of  manufactured 
tobacco,  and  twenty  million  pounds  of  snuff. 
The  duty  on  tobacco  annually  equals  about 
one-half  of  the  internal  revenue.  The  use  of 
tobacco  is  now  common  in  every  country  on  the 
globe;  both  sexes  smoke  in  China,  Persia, 
India,  and  the  Philippines. 

Tomato.  A  common  garden  vegetable, 
native  to  South  America.  It  was  formerly 
called  the  love-apple,  and  was  considered  poi- 
sonous. It  is  now  widely  cultivated  in  the 
temperate  regions.  The  plants  are  usually 
supported  by  stakes  to  keep  the  fruit  off  the 
ground.  They  are  used  largely  for  canning  in 
this  country.  An  acre  of  tomatoes  will  yield 
five  to  twenty  tons  of  fruit,  and  a  ton  of  fruit 
will  produce  almost  four  hundred  three-pound 
cans.  Over  five  and  a  half  million  cases  of 
twenty-four  cans  each  are  packed  annually. 
Maryland  and  New  Jersey  produce  about  one- 
half  of  the  entire  crop.  The  popular  tomatoes 
are  the  large,  smooth,  red  kind.  The  fruit 
varies  in  color  from  dark  red  to  yellow,  and  in 
size  from  a  currant  to  the  globular  form  two  to 
four  inches  in  diameter. 

Turtle.  The  popular  name  for  any  species 
of  the  Cheloniidse.  They  may  be  distinguished 
by  their  long,  compressed,  fin-shaped,  non-re- 
tractile feet,  with  the  toes  inclosed  in  a  common 
skin,  from  which  only  one  or  two  claws  project. 
The  carapace  is  broad  and  much  depressed,  so 
that  when  these  animals  are  on  shore,  and  are 
turned  over  on  their  backs,  they  cannot  regain 
the  natural  position.  Turtles  are  marine  ani- 
mals; their  pinnate  feet  and  light  shell  render 
them  excellent  swimmers.  They  sometimes 
live  at  a  great  distance  from  land,  to  which  they 
periodically  return  to  deposit  their  soft-shelled 
eggs  (from  100  to  250  in  number)  in  the  sand. 


They  are  found  in  all  the  inter-tropical  seas, 
and  sometimes  travel  into  the  temperate  zones. 
The  flesh  and  eggs  of  all  the  species  are  edible, 
though  the  Indian  turtles  are  less  valuable  in 
this  respect  than  those  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
most  highly  valued  of  the  family  is  the  green 
turtle  (Chelonia  viridis),  from  which  turtle  soup 
is  made.  It  attains  a  large  size,  sometimes 
from  six  to  seven  feet  long,  with  a  weight  of 
from  700  to  800  pounds.  The  popular  name 
has  no  reference  to  the  color  of  the  carapace, 
which  is  dark  olive,  passing  into  dingy  white, 
but  the  green  fat  so  highly  prized  by  epicures. 
The  edible  turtle  of  the  East  Indies  is  also 
highly  prized. 

Walrus.  A  marine  carnivorous  mammal, 
closely  related  to  seals  and  sea  lions.  It  is  known 
by  its  enormous  down-turned  tusks,  or  canine 
teeth,  projecting  from  the  upper  jaw.  They 
sometimes  reach  a  length  of  sixteen  inches  be- 
yond the  sockets.  Walruses  have  a  thick  clumsy 
body,  deepest  at  the  shoulders,  and  their  feet, 
which  are  adapted  for  swimming,  are  also  fur- 
rowed so  as  to  hold  on  to  smooth  surfaces.  They 
reach  a  length  of  twelve  feet  or  more  and  a  weight 
of  2,200  pounds.  There  are  two  living  species, 
one  found  in  the  Atlantic  and  one  in  the  Pacific. 
The  Atlantic  form  is  still  found  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador  and  Hudson  Bay,  but  formerly  ex- 
tended further  south.  The  Pacific  form  is  more 
northern,  being  rarely  found  on  the  mainland. 
They  feed  largely  on  clams  and  other  mollusks, 
which  they  dig  from  the  sea  bottom  with  their 
tusks.  They  visit  islands  and  ice  floes,  and  con- 
gregate in  considerable  numbers  during  the 
breeding  period.  They  are  hunted  for  their 
hides  and  oil. 

Wasp.  Any  one  of  a  considerable  group  of 
insects,  forming,  with  bees  and  ants,  the  highest 
order  of  insects  (Hymenoptera).  These  well- 
known  insects  show  some  variation  in  form, 
sometimes  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  con- 
nected by  a  slender  thread ;  in  other  forms  these 
parts  of  the  body  merge  into  one  another.  The 
social  wasps,  like  the  hornet,  or  yellow  jacket, 
are  the  best  known.  They  build  nests  of  paper 
attached  to  bushes,  trees,  roofs,  and  eaves  of 
buildings.  The  paper  is  manufactured  from 
wood  fiber  obtained  from  posts  and  unpainted 
boards.  This  is  chewed  in  the  jaws  and  united 
into  sheets,  often  of  considerable  extent.  The 
nests  are  often  top-shaped  or  balloon-shaped, 
with  layers  of  cells  inside  resembling  honey- 
comb, all  inclosed  in  a  spherical  paper  envelop 
with  a  hole  at  the  bottom  for  entrance  and  exit. 
These  nests  in  tropical  countries  are  sometimes 
six  feet  long.  Other  species  of  social  wasps 
make  nests  in  the  grovmd,  forming  a  more  fragile 
sort  of  paper  from  decayed  wood.  The  colonies 
include  three  forms,  males,  females,  and  workers. 
The  males  and  workers  die  on  the  arrival  of  cold 
weather,  but  the  females  live  over  the  winter  in 
sheltered  places,  and  start  a  new  colony  in  the 
spring.  The  workers  only  have  stings.  The 
solitary  wasps  form  another  division  of  these 
insects  which  include  miners,  mud-daubers,  and 
carpenters.  The  mason  wasps,  or  mud-daubers, 
are  the  most  familiar,  as  their  mud  nests  are 
commonly  seen  on  beams  and  walls.  The  car- 
penters cut  tubular  nests  in   wood  and  divide 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


771 


them  by  mud  partitions.  The  miners  dig  tun- 
nels in  the  earth.  Wasps  are  endowed  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  intelligence. 

Water  Lily  is  found  in  all  temperate 
climates,  and  attains  great  size  in  the  tropics. 
The  white  water  lily  is  the  familiar  flower  of 
ponds  and  placid  streams  throughout  North 
America,  its  large  and  chaste  flowers  claiming 
precedence  for  beauty  among  the  indigenous 
flora.  The  lotus  has  similar  flowers,  but  tinted 
with  pink,  and  has  strongly  toothed  floating 
leaves;  it  is  the  white  lotus  of  the  Nile.  The 
blue  lotus  has  fragrant  blue  flowers.  Several 
species  and  numerous  varieties  are  in  cultiva- 
tion as  ornamental  plants.  The  Victoria  Regia 
is  the  name  given  in  honor  of  Queen  Victoria  to 
the  most  magnificent  genus  of  the  order.  There 
is  only  one  species  recognized  by  botanists,  a 
native  of  the  Amazonian  region  of  South  Amer- 
ica, where  it  was  first  observed  by  the  unfor- 
tunate botanical  traveler  Hsenke,  in  1801,  and 
said  to  have  been  met  with  by  the  French 
naturalist  D'Orbigny,  in  1827,  but  not  made 
known  to  European  horticulturists  till  after  its 
discovery  in  British  Guiana,  ten  years  later. 
This  noble  water  lily  has  floating  leaves  of  a 
bright  green  above,  and  a  deep  purple  or  violet 
on  the  lower  surface,  measuring  as  much  as 
seven  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter,  with  a 
uniformly  turned-up  margin  of  about  three 
inches,  thus  resembling  huge  shallow  trays. 
The  flowers,  which  are  proportionately  as 
large  —  some  measuring  fourteen  inches  in 
diameter  — •  are  of  all  shades  from  white  to 
pink,  and  are  delightfully  fragrant. 

Whale.  The  popular  name  of  the  larger 
cetaceans,  particularly  of  all  those  belonging 
to  the  families  Balcenidoe  and  Physeteridm  or 
Catodontidcc.  In  the  Balcenidoe  the  head  is  of 
enormous  size,  but  is  entirely  destitute  of  teeth, 
instead  of  which  the  palate  is  furnished  with  an 
apparatus  of  baleen,  or  whalebone,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  straining  out  of  the  water  the  small 
crustaceans,  which  form  the  food  of  these 
whales.  The  fibrous  structure  of  baleen,  or 
whalebone,  its  elasticity,  and  its  heaviness,  are 
well  known.  The  plates  of  it  in  the  mouth  of 
a  whale  are  very  numerous,  several  hundreds 
on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  and  they  are  very 
closely  placed  together,  so  that  the  mouth  is 
filled  with  them.  The  head  of  whales  usually 
occupies  from  a  third  to  a  fourth  of  the  whole 
length.  The  lower  surface  of  the  true  skin 
extends  into  a  thick  layer  of  blubber,  an  open 
net-work  of  fibers,  in  which  fat  is  held.  The 
blubber  is  from  one  foot  to  two  feet  in  thickness, 
the  whole  mass  in  a  large  whale  sometimes 
weighing  more  than  thirty  tons.  The  most 
important  species  is  that  known  as  the  Right 
whale  or  Greenland  whale.  It  inhabits  the  seas 
of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  and  abounds 
chiefly  in  the  arctic  regions.  It  commonly 
attains  a  size  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in  length. 
The  main  physical  characteristics  of  the  whale 
are  its  distorted  jaws,  with  upward  directed 
nostrils,  its  great  bulk,  and  rudimentary  limbs. 
The  huge  bulk  of  the  creature  is  driven  forward 
by  the  flexible  caudal  fin,  and  while  the  body 
is  rigid  in  front  it  exhibits  great  mobility 
behind.     The  blow-holes  are  placed  on  the  top 


of  the  head,  and  the  animal  can  only  respire 
when  these  are  above  water.  The  larger  whales 
travel  at  the  rate  of  about  four  miles  an  hour, 
but  when  pursuing  their  prey  or  goaded  by 
pain  they  rush  through  the  water  at  a  much 
greater  pace.  They  are  aided  in  this  by  the 
broad  and  powerful  tail,  which  is  their  chief 
organ  of  locomotion.  Instead  of  being  vertical, 
as  in  the  fishes,  this  is  horizontal,  and  the 
larger  species  can  command  immense  driving 
power.  The  tail  is  also  used  as  an  offensive 
and  defensive  weapon.  The  smooth,  shining 
skin  is  immediately  underlaid  by  a  thick  coating 
of  blubber,  the  great  object  of  the  whalers. 
This  is  at  once  dense  and  elastic,  and  while  it 
preserves  the  animal  heat  it  also  serves  to  re- 
duce the  mighty  bulk  of  the  whale  and  to  bring 
it  nearer  to  the  specific  gravity  of  the  element 
in  which  it  spends  its  existence.  It  might  be 
thought  that  the  whale,  with  its  vast  bulk, 
would  need  sea  creatures  of  a  high  organization 
to  nourish  it ;  but  this  is  not  so.  Its  chief  food 
consists  of  minute  mollusks,  and  with  these  its 
immense  pasture-grounds  in  the  north  seas 
abound. 

Whip-poor-will.  A  bird  widely  known 
on  account  of  its  oft-repeated  cry  of  whip-poor- 
will.  It  is  not  often  seen,  although  it  is  abundant 
in  damp  woods  of  the  eastern  United  States. 
It  usually  rests  on  the  ground  during  the  day 
and  is  active  at  twilight  and  early  nightfall, 
sending  forth  its  cry,  and  also  coursing  low  over 
the  grass  in  search  of  insects.  It  is  about  ten 
inches  long  and  of  plain  colors,  being  grayish, 
much  variegated  with  black  and  buff.  Its  bill 
is  very  broad,  its  mouth  large  and  provided 
with  a  tuft  of  long  bristles.  It  builds  no  nest, 
but  deposits  its  eggs  on  leaves  or  a  slight  de- 
pression in  the  ground.  To  the  same  family 
belong  the  chuck-will's-widow  and  the  night- 
hawk. 

W^illow.  A  class  of  trees  of  the  same  family 
as  the  poplar.  Willows  vary  in  size  from  those 
of  the  Alps,  which  are  an  inch  or  two  high,  to 
trees  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet.  They  are 
found  in  most  countries,  with  the  exception  of 
Australia,  and  they  grow  rapidly.  They  have 
many  and  large  roots,  which  grow  a  long  dis- 
tance through  moist  soil,  and  bind  it  with  a 
network  of  fibers,  thus  preventing  the  banks  of 
streams  from  being  worn  away.  The  bark  is 
tough  and  bitter;  it  is  used  in  making  fish  nets, 
ropes,  etc.;  for  tan-bark,  and  sometimes  in 
Norway  and  Sweden  for  mixing  with  oatmeal. 
The  wood  is  used  in  houses,  vessels,  farm  tools, 
casks,  etc. ;  as  fuel  and  for  charcoal.  The  twigs 
and  young  shoots  are  used  in  making  baskets 
and  light  furniture.  There  are  some  sixty  North 
American  willows,  ten  of  which  are  not  found 
elsewhere.  The  most  important  of  all  kinds  is 
the  white  willow,  common  throughout  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America.  It  sometimes  reaches 
the  height  of  eighty  feet.  It  is  very  useful  on 
the  prairies,  as  it  is  a  fast  grower,  and  also  pro- 
tects other  trees  from  the  wind.  Other  kinds 
are  the  golden,  blue,  brittle,  varnished,  and  green 
willows.  The  weeping  willow,  a  native  of  Asia 
and  North  Africa,  has  been  introduced  into 
America.  It  is  a  large  tree,  and  one  of  the  first 
to  leaf  out  in  the  spring. 


772 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Wistaria.  A  genus  of  plants  having  pinnate 
leaves  and  flowers,  in  terminal  recemes,  the  pod 
leathery.  The  species  were  formerly  included  in 
the  genus  Glycine.  Some  of  them  are  among 
the  most  magnificent  ornamental  climbers. 
Wistaria  frutescens,  a  native  of  Virginia,  Illinois, 
and  other  parts  of  North  America  of  similar  cli- 
mate, found  chiefly  in  marshy  grounds,  attains 
the  length  of  thirty  feet,  and  has  beautiful 
recemes  of  fragrant  bluish-purple  flowers. 

"Wolf.  The  name  applied  to  several  species 
of  carnivorous  animals,  belonging  to  the  Dog 
family.  The  common  wolf  is  about  five  feet  in 
length  including  the  tail,  which  is  twenty  inches, 
and  about  thirty-two  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulders.  The  muzzle  much  resembles  that  of 
a  sheep-dog;  the  ears  are  upright  and  pointed, 
and  the  eyes  are  set  obliquely.  The  coat  is 
subject  to  variation  in  tint,  depending  much 
upon  the  country  the  animal  inhabits.  Per- 
haps the  most  usual  tint  is  a  yellowish-grey; 
but  it  is  sometimes  almost  black.  In  Europe 
the  animal  is  still  found  in  Lapland,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  Hungary,  some  dis- 
tricts of  Gejrmany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Greece.  In  Britain,  the  last  wolf  was  slain  in 
1680,  but  in  Ireland  the  species  lingered  until 
1710.  The  wolf  of  India  is  considered  a  dis- 
tinct species,  and  has  a  dingy  reddish-white  fur. 
The  North  American  wolf  has  a  wide  range, 
extending  from  Greenland  to  Mexico,  and  is 
closely  similar  to  tht>  European  race. 

Woodcocli.  A  famous  game  bird  belong- 
ing to  the  snipe  family,  and  found  in  northern 
parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  The 
American  woodcock  is  about  eleven  inches  long, 
variegated  in  black,  brown,  gray,  and  rusty 
colors.  The  bill  is  very  long  and  flexible  at  the 
end.  It  is  thrust  into  the  soft  ground,  in  search 
of  earthworms,  and  the  presence  of  woodcocks 
can  often  be  detected  by  a  cluster  of  these  holes. 
The  European  bird  is  larger.  It  is  a  winter 
resident  in  England,  breeding  in  summer  in 
North  Scotland. 

Woodpeclter  is  the  popular  name  of  the 
old  Linnaean  genus  Picus,  now  greatly  divided. 
Woodpeckers  have  a  slender  body,  powerful 
beak,  and  protrusile  tongue,  which  is  sharp, 
barbed,  and  pointed,  and  covered  with  a  glu- 
tinous secretion  derived  from  glands  in  the 
throat,  this  coating  being  renewed  every  time 
the  tongue  is  drawn  within  the  bill.  The  tail 
is  stiff  and  serves  as  a  support  when  the  birds 
are  clinging  to  the  branches  or  stems  of  trees. 
Woodpeckers  are  very  widely  distributed,  but 
abound  chiefly  in  warm  climates.  They  are 
solitary  in  habit,  and  live  in  the  depths  of 
forests.  Fruits,  seeds,  and  insects  constitute 
their  food,  and  in  pursuit  of  the  latter  they 


exhibit  wonderful  dexterity,  climbing  with  as- 
tonishing quickness  on  the  trunks  and  branches 
of  trees,  and  when,  by  tapping  with  their  bills, 
a  rotten  place  has  been  discovered,  they  dig 
vigorously  in  search  of  the  grubs  or  larvae  be- 
neath the  bark. 

Wren.  A  genus  of  birds  having  a  slender, 
slightly  curved,  and  pointed  bill;  the  wings 
very  short  and  rounded;  the  tail  short,  and 
carried  erect;  the  legs  slender,  and  rather  long. 
Their  plumage  is  generally  dull.  They  live  on 
or  near  the  ground,  seeking  for  insects  and 
worms  among  low  brushes,  and  in  other  similar 
situations.  The  common  or  European  wren  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Morocco 
and  Algeria,  and  in  Asia  Minor  and  Northern 
Persia.  The  common  wren  is  more  abundant 
in  the  north  than  in  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  Europe.  It  frequents  gardens,  hedges, 
and  thickets.  Its  flight  is  not  long  sustained; 
it  merely  flits  from  bush  to  bush,  or  from  one 
stone  to  another,  with  very  rapid  motion  of 
the  wings.  It  sometimes  ascends  trees,  nearly 
in  the  manner  of  creepers.  The  North  American 
species  of  wren  are  numerous;  but  many  of 
them  are  ranked  under  different  genera.  The 
house  wren  is  larger  than  the  European  wren, 
being  about  five  inches  long.  It  is  abundant  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
less  shy  than  the  European  wren,  and  often 
builds  its  nest  near  houses,  and  in  boxes  pre- 
pared for  it.  The  nests  are  made  to  fill  the 
boxes;  and  to  effect  this  a  large  mass  of  heter- 
ogeneous materials  is  sometimes  collected.  The 
song  of  the  house  wren  is  very  sweet.  The 
male  is  a  very  bold,  pugnacious  bird,  readily 
attacking  birds  far  larger  than  itself,  as  the 
bluebird  and  swallows,  and  taking  possession 
of  the  boxes"  which  they  have  appropriated  for 
their  nests.  It  even  attacks  cats  when  they 
approach  its  nest. 

Zebra.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  all  the 
striped  Equida;,  all  of  which  are  natives  of 
South  Africa;  but  also,  in  a  more  restricted 
use,  designating  a  single  species,  Equus  or 
Asinus  Zebra,  a  native  of  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  South  Africa.  In  the  whole  group 
the  characters  more  resemble  those  of  the  ass 
than  the  horse.  The  zebra  is  about  twelve 
hands  high  at  the  shoulder.  It  is  of  a  light, 
graceful  form,  with  slender  limbs  and  narrow 
hoofs;  the  head  light,  the  ears  rather  lon^  and 
open;  the  ground  color  white  or  slightly  tmged 
with  yellow;  the  head,  neck,  body,  and  legs 
striped  with  black;  the  neck  and  body  trans- 
versely, but  not  regularly;  the  head  with  bands 
in  various  directions,  the  legs  wilh  irregular 
cross  stripes.  The  zebra  lives  in  small  herds, 
inhabiting  the  most  secluded  spots. 


o 

Q 

I— I 

p 


MISCELLANY 


Animals,  Symbolism  of. 


Ant.   Frugality  and    prevision. 

Ape.    Uncleanness. 

Ass.   Stupidity. 

Bantam  Cock.  Pluckiness,  prig- 
gishness. 

Bat.   Blindness. 

Bear.   Ill-temper,  uncouthness. 

Bee.    Industry. 

Beetle.   Blindness. 

Bull.    Straightforwardness. 

Bull  Dog.    Pertinacity. 

Butterfly.  Sportiveness,  living 
in  pleasure. 

Cat.   Slyness,  deceit. 

Calf.   Lumpishness. 

Cicada.   Gift  of  poetry. 

Cock.  Vigilance,  overbearing  in- 
solence. 

Crow,   Longevity. 

Crocodile.    Hypocrisy. 

Cuckoo.   Cuckoldom. 

Dog.   Fidelity,  dirty  habits. 

Dove.   Innocence,  harmlessness. 

Duck.   Canard. 

Eagle.   Majesty,  inspiration. 


Elephant.  Sagacity,  ponderosity. 
Fly.    Feebleness,  insignificance. 
Fox.   Cunning,  artifice. 
Frog  and  Toad.    Inspiration. 
Goat.    Lasciviousness. 
Goose.   Conceit,  folly. 
Gull.   Gullibility. 
Grasshopper.   Old  age. 
Hare.    Timidity. 
Hawk.   Penetration. 
Hen.   Maternal  care. 
Horse.   Speed,  grace. 
Jackdaw.      Vain      assumption, 

empty  conceit. 
Jay.   Senseless  chatter. 
Kitten.    Playfulness. 
Lamb.   Innocence,  sacrifice. 
Lark.   Cheerfulness. 
Lion.   Noble  courage. 
Lynx.   Suspicious  vigilance. 
Magpie.   Garrulity. 
Mole.   Obtuseness. 
Monkey.   Tricks. 
Mule.   Obstinacy. 
Nightingale.   Forlornness. 


Ostrich.   Stupidity. 

Ox.   Patience,  strength. 

Owl.   Wisdom. 

Parrot.    Mocking  verbosity. 

Peacock.   Pride. 

Pigeon.   Cowardice. 

Pig.   Obstinacy,  dirtiness. 

Puppy.   Empty-headed  conceit. 

Rabbit.   Timidity. 

Raven.   Ill  luck. 

Robin       Redbreast.      Confiding 

trust. 
Serpent.    Wisdom. 
Sheep.   Silliness,  timidity. 
Sparrow.   Litigiousness, 
Spider.   Wiliness. 
Stag.   Cuckoldom. 
Swallow.   A  sunshine  friend. 
Swan.   Grace. 
Tiger.   Ferocity. 
Tortoise.   Chastity. 
Turkey  Cock.   Official  insolence. 
Turtle-dove.   Conjugal  fidelity. 
Vulture.    Rapine. 
Wolf.   Cruelty. 


April  Fool's  Day.  The  modern  custom 
of  sending  one  upon  a  bootless  errand  on  the 
first  day  of  April  is  of  uncertain  origin.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  it  may  be  a  relic  of  some 
old  heathen  festival.  The  custom,  whatever  its 
origin,  of  playing  little  tricks  on  this  day, 
whereby  ridicule  may  be  fixed  upon  unguarded 
individuals,  appears  to  be  general  throughout 
Europe,  and  of  almost  universal  scope.  In 
France,  one    thus   imposed    upon    is  called  un 

iwisson  d'Avril,  "an  April  fish."  In  Eng- 
and  and  the  tjnited  States  such  a  person  is 
called  an  "April  fool";  in  Scotland,  a  "gowk." 
The  favorite  jest  is  to  send  one  upon  an  errand 
for  something  grossly  nonsensical,  or  to  make 
appointments  which  are  not  to  be  kept,  or  to 
call  to  a  passer-by  that  his  latchet  is  unloosed,  or 
that  there  is  a  spot  of  mud  upon  his  face.  It  is 
curious  that  the  Hindus  practise  precisely  similar 
tricks  during  the  Holi  Festival  which  takes  place 
about  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox. 

Arms  and  Armor.  The  former  term  is 
applied  to  weapons  of  offense,  the  latter  to  the 
various  articles  of  defensive  covering  used  in 
war  and  military  exercises,  especially  before 
the  introduction  of  gunpowder.  Weapons  of 
offense  are  divisible  into  two  distinct  sections  — 
firearms,  and  arms  used  without  gunpowder  or 
other  explosive  substance.  The  first  arms  of 
offense  would  probably  be  wooden  clubs,  then 
would  follow  wooden  weapons  made  more  deadly 
by  means  of  stone  or  bone,  stone  axes,  slings, 
bows  and  arrows  with  heads  of  flint  or  bone,  and 
afterwards  various  weapons  of  bronze.  Subse- 
quently a  variety  of  arms  of  iron  and  steel  were 
introduced,  which  comprised  the  sword,  javelin. 


pike,  spear,  or  lance,  dagger,  axe,  mace,  chariot 
scythe,  etc.,  with  a  rude  artillery  consisting  of 
catapults,  ballistse,  and  battering-rams.  From 
the  descriptions  of  Homer  we  know  that  almost 
all  the  Grecian  armor,  defensive  and  offensive, 
in  his  time  was  of  bronze;  though  iron  was 
sometimes  used.  The  lance,  spear,  and  javelin 
were  the  principal  weapons  of  this  age  among  the 
Greeks.  The  bow  is  not  often  mentioned. 
Among  ancient  nations  the  Egyptians  seem  to 
have  been  most  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the 
bow,  which  was  the  principal  weapon  of  the 
Egyptian  infantry.  Peculiar  to  the  Egyptians 
was  a  defensive  weapon  intended  to  catch  and 
break  the  sword  of  the  enemy.  With  the 
Assyrians  the  bow  was  a  favorite  weapon;  but 
with  them  lances,  spears,  and  javelins  were  in 
more  common  use  than  with  the  Egyptians. 
Most  of  the  large  engines  of  war,  chariots  with 
scythes  projecting  at  each  side  from  the  axle, 
catapults,  and  ballistae,  seem  to  have  been  of 
Assyrian  origin.  During  the  historical  age  of 
Greece  the  characteristic  weapon  was  a  heavy 
spear  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  feet  in 
length.  The  sword  used  by  the  Greeks  was 
short,  and  was  worn  on  the  right  side.  The 
Roman  sword  was  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
four  inches  in  length,  straight,  two-edged,  and 
obtusely  pointed,  and,  as  by  the  Greeks,  was  worn 
on  the  right  side.  It  was  used  principally  as  a 
stabbing  weapon.  It  was  originally  of  bronze. 
The  most  characteristic  weapon  of  the  Roman 
legionary  soldier,  however,  was  the  pilum,  which 
was  a  kind  of  pike  or  javelin,  some  six  feet  or 
more  in  length.  The  pilum  was  sometimes  used 
at  close-quarters,  but  more  commonly  it  was 


776 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


thrown.  The  favorite  weapons  of  the  ancient 
Germanic  races  were  the  battle-axe,  the  lance 
or  dart,  and  the  sword.  The  weapons  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  were  spears,  axes,  swords,  knives, 
and  maces  or  clubs.  The  Normans  had  similar 
weapons,  and  were  well  furnished  with  archers 
and  cavalry.  The  cross-bow  was  a  comparatively 
late  invention  introduced  by  the  Normans. 
Gunpowder  was  not  used  in  Europe  to  discharge 
projectiles  till  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century.  Cannon  are  first  mentioned  in  Eng- 
land in  1338,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  they  were  used  by  the  English  at  the  siege 
of  Cambrai,  in  1339.  The  projectiles  first  used 
for  cannon  were  of  stone.  Hand  firearms  date 
from  the  Fifteenth  Century.  At  first  they 
required  two  men  to  serve  them,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  rest  the  muzzle  on  a  stand  in  aiming 
and  firing.  The  first  improvement  was  the 
invention  of  the  match-lock,  about  1476  ;  this 
was  followed  by  the  wheel-lock,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  by  the  flint- 
lock, which  was  in  universal  use  until  it  was 
superseded  by  the  percussion-lock,  the  invention 
of  a  Scotch  clergyman  early  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  The  needle-gun  dates  from  1827. 
The  only  important  weapon  not  a  firearm  that 
has  been  invented  since  the  introduction  of  gun- 
powder is  the  bayonet,  which  is  believed  to  have 
been  invented  about  1650.  Some  kind  of  defen- 
sive covering  was  probably  of  almost  as  early 
invention  as  weapons  of  offense.  The  principal 
pieces  of  defensive  armor  used  by  the  ancients 
were  shields,  helmets,  cuirasses,  and  greaves. 
In  the  earliest  ages  of  Greece  the  shield  is  de- 
scribed as  of  immense  size,  but  in  the  time  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (about  B.  C.  420)  it  was 
mucn  smaller.  The  Romans  had  two  sorts  of 
shields;  the  scutum,  a  large  oblong  rectangular 
highly  convex  shield,  carried  by  the  legionaries ; 
and  the  parma,  a  small  round  or  oval  flat  shield, 
carried  by  the  light-armed  troops  and  the  cavalry. 
In  the  declining  days  of  Rome  the  shields  became 
larger  and  more  varied  in  form.  The  helmet 
was  a  characteristic  piece  of  armor  among  the 
Assyrians,  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans. 
Like  all  other  body  armor  it  was  usually  made 
of  bronze.  The  helmet  of  the  historical  age  of 
Greece  was  distinguished  by  its  lofty  crest.  The 
Roman  helmet  in  the  time  of  the  early  emperors 
fitted  close  to  the  head,  and  had  a  neck-guard 
and  hinged  cheek-pieces  fastened  under  the  chin, 
and  a  small  bar  across  the  face  for  a  visor.  Both 
Greeks  and  Romans  wore  cuirasses,  at  one  time 
of  bronze,  but  latterly  of  flexible  materials. 
Greaves  for  the  legs  were  worn  by  both,  but 
among  the  Romans  usually  on  one  leg.  The 
ancient  Germans  had  large  shields  of  plaited 
osier  covered  with  leather,  afterwards  their 
shields  were  small,  bound  with  iron,  and  studded 
with  bosses.  The  Anglo-Saxons  had  roimd  or 
oval  shields  of  wood,  covered  with  leather,  and 
having  a  boss  in  the  center;  and  they  also  had 
corselets,  or  coats  of  mail,  strengthened  with 
iron  rings.  The  Normans  were  well  protected 
by  mail ;  their  shields  were  somewhat  triangular 
in  shape,  their  helmets  conical.  Great  variety 
is  found  in  the  pattern  of  the  armor,  and  in  some 
cases  small  pieces  of  metal  were  used  instead  of 
rings,   formmg  what  is  called  scale-armor.     A 


suit  of  armor  consisting  of  larger  pieces  of  metal, 
called  plate-armor,  was  now  introduced,  and  the 
whole  body  came  to  be  incased  in  a  heavy  metal 
covering.  The  various  forms  of  ring  or  scale 
armor  were  gradually  superseded  by  the  plate- 
armor,  which  continued  to  be  worn  until  long 
after  the  introduction  of  firearms  and  field- 
artillery.  A  complete  suit  of  armor  was  an 
elaborate  and  costly  equipment,  consisting  of  a 
number  of  different  pieces,  each  with  its  distinc- 
tive name.  In  modern  European  armies  the 
metal  cuirass  is  still  to  some  extent  in  use,  the 
cuirassiers  being  heavy  cavalry;  and  it  is  said 
that  this  piece  of  armor  proves  a  useful  defense 
against  rifle  bullets.  During  all  the  tirtie  that 
the  use  of  heavy  armor  prevailed,  the  horsemen, 
who  alone  were  fully  armed,  formed  the  principal 
strength  of  armies;  and  infantry  were  generally 
regarded  as  of  hardly  any  account.  England 
was,  however,  an  exception,  as  the  English 
archers  were  almost  at  all  times,  before  the  inven- 
tion of  gunpowder,  an  important  and  sometimes 
the  chief  force  in  the  army.  The  bow  {long- 
bow) of  the  English  archers  was  from  five  to  six 
feet  in  length,  and  the  arrow  discharged  from 
it  was  itself  a  yard  long.  The  long-bow  con- 
tinued in  general  use  in  England  till  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  even  as  late 
as  1627  there  was  a  body  of  English  archers 
in  the  pay  of  Richelieu  at  the  siege  of  La 
Rochelle. 

Armies  of  the  World. 


Avail- 

Total 

Avail- 

Countries 

able  FOR 
Active 

Re- 
serves 

War 

Strength 

able  for 
Duty 

Service 

Unoro. 

Germany,  .    . 

613,000 

1,227,000 

1,840,000 

5,500,000 

France,  .    .    . 

529,000 

761,000  1,290,000 

3,500,000 

Russia,  .    .    . 

1,100,000 

700,000 

1,800,000 

9.600.000 

Austria-Hun- 

gary, .    .    . 

409,000 

381,000 

790,000 

4,700,000 

Italy 

240,000 

390,000 

630,000 

3,000,000 

GreatBritain, 

263,000 

487,000 

750,000 

4,000,000 

Japan,    .    .    . 

220,000 

380,000 

600,000 

5,000,000 

Spain,     .    .    . 

130,000 

180,000 

310,000 

1,850,000 

Belgium,    .    . 

49,700 

93,300 

143,000 

700,000 

Netherlands, . 

34,540 

6,510 

126,055 

500,000 

Denmark,  .    . 

14,000 

36,000 

50,000 

270,000 

Sweden, .    . 

62,536 

278,295 

340,831 

260,000 

Norway,     .    . 

30,000 

125,000 

155,000 

100,000 

Portugal, .  .    . 

40,000 

84,000 

124,000 

475,000 

Bulgaria,    .    . 

52,500 

312,500 

365,000 

125,000 

Servia 

27,000 

198,000 

225,000 

80,000 

Rumania,  .    . 

136,000 

34,000 

170,000 

550,000 

Switzerland,  . 

143,000 

135,000 

278,000 

125,000 

Turkey,  .    .    . 

350,000 

495,000 

845,000 

2,000,000 

Greece,   .    .    . 

25,000 

25,000 

50,000 

230,000 

China,     .    .    . 

60,000 

500,000 

560,000 

Mexico,  .    .    . 

26,595 

82,000 

108,595 

1,500,660 

Brazil,    .    .    . 

25,000 

75,000 

100,000 

2,000,000 

Argentine, .    . 

18,000 

482,000 

500,000 

Chile,  .... 

15,000 

50,000 

65,000 

Peru 

4,000 

10,000 

14,000 

Venezuela, .    . 

.  9,600 

20,000 

29,600 

Bolivia 

2,430 

176,158 

178,588 

Colombia,  .    . 

5.000 

200,000 

205,000 

Costa  Rica,    . 

1,000 

5,000 

6,000 

Ecuador,    .    . 

4,379 

90,000 

94,379 

Salvador,    .    . 

3,000 

18,000 

21,000 

Nicaragua,     . 

4,000 

36,000 

40,000 

Uruguay,    .    . 

5,800 

35,000 

40,800 

Hayti,     .    .    . 

7,000 

7,000 

United  States, 

102.000 

iio'ooo 

212,000 

14,900,660 

Barber's  Pole.  Anciently  the  functions 
of  barber  and  surgeon  were  united  in  one  person. 
The  barber-surgeon  was  formerly  known  by  his 


MISCELLANY 


777 


Eole  at  the  door.  The  pole  was  used  by  the 
arber-surgeon  for  the  patient  to  grasp  in  blood- 
letting, a  fillet  or  bandage  being  used  for  tying 
his  arm.  When  the  pole  was  not  in  use,  the  tape 
was  tied  to  it  and  twisted  round  it,  and  thus  both 
were  hung  up  as  a  sign.  At  length,  instead  of 
the  hanging  of  the  actual  pole  used  in  the  opera- 
tion, a  pole  was  painted  with  stripes^around  it, 
in  imitation  of  the  real  pole  and  its  bandages; 
hence  the  barber's  pole. 
Bells,  Weight  of.  p^^^^s 

Kremlin,  Moscow, 440,000 

Kioto 165,000 

Pekin 130,000 

St.  Ivan's,  Moscow 127,800 

Novgorod •   .  62,000 

Sacred  Heart,  Paris, 55,000 

Sens 43,000 

Vienna 40,200 

Olmutz,  Bohemia 40,000 

Rouen, 40,000 

St.  Paul's 38,000 

Erfurt 30,800 

Westminster,  "  Big  Ben," 30,300 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 28,600 

Montreal 28,500 

Cologne, >....:.  25,000 

Citv  Hall,  N.  Y 22,500 

St.  Peter's 18,600 

Black  Friday.  (1)  December  0,  1745, 
the  day  on  which  the  news  arrived  in  England 
that  the  Pretender  had  landed.  (2)  May  11, 
1866,  the  culmination  of  the  commercial  panic 
in  London,  when  Overend,  Gurney  &  Co.  stopped 
payment.  (3)  Particularly  September  24,  1869, 
in  Wall  Street,  New  York,  when  a  group  of  specu- 
lators forced  the  price  of  gold  to  162|,  creating 
a  serious  crisis.  (4)  A  similar  panic  occurred 
September  18,  1873. 

Black  Mole.  An  appellation  familiarly 
given  to  a  dungeon  or  dark  cell  in  a  prison,  and 
which  is  associated  in  the  public  mind  with  a 
horrible  catastrophe  in  the  history  of  British 
India;  viz,  the  cruel  confinement  of  a  party  of 
English  in  an  apartment  called  the  "  Black  Hole 
of  Calcutta,"  on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  June, 
1756.  The  garrison  of  the  fort  connected  with 
the  English  factory  at  Calcutta  having  been 
captured  by  the  Nabob  Suraja  Dowlah,  he 
caused  the  prisoners,  one  hundred  and  forty-six  in 
number,  to  be  confined  in  an  apartment  twenty 
feet  square.  This  cell  had  only  two  small  win- 
dows, obstructed  by  a  veranda,  and  after  a 
night  of  excruciating  agony  from  pressure,  heat, 
thirst,  and  want  of  air,  there  were  in  the  morning 
only  twenty-three  survivors. 

Black  Maria.  Everybody  knows  that 
the  Black  Maria  is  the  vehicle  used  to  convey 
prisoners  and  disorderly  persons  to  a  police 
station  or  prison.  Probably  few  are  aware  how 
its  name  originated.  During  the  old  colonial 
days,  Maria  Lee,  a  negress,  kept  a  sailors'  boarding 
house  in  Boston.  She  was  a  woman  of  gigantic 
stature  and  prodigious  strength,  and  was  of  great 
assistance  to  the  authorities  in  keeping  the  peace, 
as  the  entire  lawless  element  of  that  locality  stood 
in  awe  of  her.  Whenever  an  unusually  trouble- 
some person  was  to  be  taken  to  the  station  house, 
the  services  of  Black  Maria  were  likely  to  be  re- 
quired. It  is  said  that  she  took  at  one  time,  and 
without  assistance,  three  riotous  sailors  to  the 
lock-up.  So  frequently  was  her  help  required 
that  the  expression,  "Send  for  Black  Maria,"  came 
to  mean  "take  the  disorderly  person  to  jail." 


Blarney  Stone.  This  relic  of  the  ancient 
castle  of  Blarney,  in  Ireland,  is  a  triangular  stone 
suspended  from  the  north  angle  of  the  castle 
about  twenty  feet  from  the  top,  and  bearing  the 
inscription:  "Cormack  MacCarthy  fortis  me 
fieri  fecit,  A.  D.,  1446"  (Built  in  1446  A.  D., 
by  Cormack  MacCarthy).  According  to  a  tradi- 
tion of  the  country  the  castle  was  besieged  by 
the  English  under  Carew,  Earl  of  Totness,  who, 
having  concluded  an  armistice  with  the  com- 
mander of  the  castle  on  condition  of  its  surrender, 
waited  long  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  terms,  but 
was  put  off  from  day  to  day,  with  soft  speeches 
instead,  until  he  became  the  jest  of  Elizabeth's 
ministers  and  the  dupe  of  the  Lord  of  Blarney. 
From  that  day  "kissing  the  Blarney  Stone"  has 
been  synonymous  with  flattery  and  smooth, 
deceitful  words. 

Bloody  Shirt.  The  origin  of  this  phrase 
was  given  by  Roscoe  Conkling,  in  a  speech  made' 
in  New  York,  September  17,  1880.  Referring  to 
the  "bloody  shirt,"  he  said:  "It  is  a  relief  to 
remember  that  this  phrase,  with  the  thing  it 
means,  is  no  invention  of  our  politics.  It  dates 
back  to  Scotland,  three  centuries  ago.  After  a 
massacre  in  Glenfruin,  not  so  savage  as  that 
which  has  stained  our  annals,  two. hundred  and 
twenty  widows  rode  on  white  palfreys  to  Stirling 
Tower,  bearing  each  on  a  spear  her  husband's 
bloody  shirt.  The  appeal  waked  Scotland's 
slumbering  sword,  and  outlawry  and  the  block 
made  the  name  of  Glenfruin  terrible  to  victo- 
rious Clan  Alpine,  even  to  the  third  and  fourth 
generation." 

Blue  Stocking  means,  figuratively,  a 
female  pedant.  In  1400,  a  society  of  ladies  and 
gentlemen  was  formed  at  Venice,  distinguished 
by  the  color  of  their  stockings,  and  addicted  to 
literary  pursuits.  Similar  societies  sprang  up 
throughout  Europe  generally.  In  England,  they 
did  not  become  extinct  till  1840,  when  the 
Countess  of  Cork,  who,  as  Miss  Monctdn,  was 
the  last  of  the  clique,  died. 

Bohemian.  A  term  of  mild  reproach 
bestowed  on  persons  of  unconventional  habits. 
But  a  "Bohemian,"  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word, 
is  a  person,  man  or  woman,  who  does  not  go  into 
"society;"  who  is  happy-go-lucky,  unconven- 
tional, now  "flush,"  now  "short"  of  money; 
who,  having  money,  spends  it  freely,  enjoying 
it,  and  having  none,  hopes  for  it  in  the  future; 
who  makes  the  best  of  everything,  and  takes  life 
as  it  comes.  Your  true  Bohemian  is  a  philoso- 
pher, and  in  spite  of  his  unconventionality  he  is 
at  least  as  apt  to  be  respectable  as  a  leader  in 
conventional  society. 

Boycott.  The  word  "boycott"  originated 
in  this  way:  Lord  Erne,  an  Irish  land-owner, 
had  for  his  agent.  Captain  Boycott,  Lough  Mask, 
Connemara,  who  treated  the  tenants  with  such 
severity  that  they  petitioned  for  his  removal. 
As  Lord  Erne  ignored  their  complaints,  they  and 
their  sympathizers  retaliated  in  the  autumn  of 
1880,  by  refusing  to  work  for  Boycott  and  pre- 
venting any  one  else  from  doing  so.  Tha  agent 
would  have  been  ruined  had  not  certain  Ulster 
men,  protected  by  an  armed  force,  come  to  his 
relief  and  husbanded  the  crops.  Boycott, 
meaning  "a  combination  that  refuses  to  hold 
any  relations,  either  public  or  private,  business 


778 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


or  social,  with  any  person  or  persons,  on  account 
of  political  or  other  differences,"  was  first  used 
by  the  Irish  Land  Leaguers,  and  the  word 
thence  passed  into  popular  use. 

Bridges.  The  earliest  bridges  were  no  doubt 
trunks  of  trees.  The  arch  seems  to  have  been 
unknown  amongst  most  of  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. Even  the  Greeks  had  not  sufficient 
acquaintance  with  it  to  apply  it  to  bridge  build- 
ing. The  Romans  were  the  first  to  employ  the 
principle  of  the  arch  in  this  direction,  and  after 
the  construction  of  such  a  work  as  the  great 
arched  sewer  at  Rome,  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  a 
bridge  over  the  Tiber  would  be  of  comparatively 
easy  execution.  One  of  the  finest  examples  of 
the  Roman  bridge  was  the  bridge  built  by  Au- 
gustus over  the  Nera  at  Narni,  the  vestiges  of 
which  still  remain.  It  consisted  of  four  arches, 
the  longest  of  142  feet  span.  The  most  cele- 
brated bridges  of  ancient  Rome  were  not  gen- 
erally, however,  distinguished  by  the  extraor- 
dinary size  of  their  arches,  nor  by  the  lightness 
of  their  piers,  but  by  their  excellence  and  dura- 
bility. The  span  of  their  arches  seldom  exceeded 
seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  they  were  mostly 
semicircular,  or  nearly  so.  The  Romans  built 
bridges  wherever  their  conquests  extended,  and 
in  Britain  there  are  still  a  number  of  bridges 
dating  from  Roman  times.  One  of  the  most 
ancient  post-Roman  bridges  in  England  is  the 
Gothic  triangular  bridge  at  Croyland,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, said  to  have  been  built  in  860,  having 
three  archways  meeting  in  a  common  center  at 
their  apex,  and  three  roadways.  The  longest 
old  bridge  in  England  was  that  over  the  Trent 
at  Burton,  in  Staffordshire,  built  in  the  Twelfth 
Century,  of  squared  freestone,  and  recently 
pulled  down.  It  consisted  of  thirty-six  arches, 
and  was  1,545  feet  long.  Old  London  bridge 
was  commenced  in  1176,  and  finished  in  1209. 
It  had  houses  on  each  side  like  a  regular  street 
till  1756-58.  In  1831,  it  was  altogether  removed, 
the  new  bridge,  which  had  been  begun  in  1824, 
having  then  been  finished.  The  art  of  bridge- 
building  made  no  progress  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  Empire  till  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury, when  the  French  architects  began  to  intro- 
duce improvements,  and  the  constructions  of 
Perronet  (Nogent-sur-Seine;  Neuilly;  I^ouis 
XVI.  bridge  at  Paris)  are  masterpieces.  Within 
the  last  half  century  or  so  the  use  of  steam  and 
iron,  the  immense  developments  of  all  mechani- 
cal contrivances,  and  the  great  demand  for  rail- 
way bridges  and  viaducts  have  given  a  great 
stimulus  to  invention  in  this  department.  Stone 
bridges  consist  of  an  arch  or  series  of  arches, 
and  in  building  them  the  properties  of  the  arch, 
the  nature  of  the  materials,  and  many  other  mat- 
ters have  to  be  carefully  considered.  It  has  been 
found  that  in  the  construction  of  an  arch  the 
slipping  of  the  stones  upon  one  another  is  pre- 
vented by  their  mutual  pressure  and  the  friction 
of  their  surfaces;  the  use  of  cement  is  thus 
subordinate  to  the  principle  of  construction  in 
contributing  to  the  strength  and  maintenance  of 
the  fabric.  The  masonry  or  rock  which  receives 
the  lateral  thrust  of  an  arch  is  called  the  abut- 
ment, the  perpendicular  supports  are  the  piers. 
The  width  of  an  arch  is  its  s-pan;  the  greatest  span 
in  any  stone  bridge  is  about  250  feet.     A  one- 


span  bridge  has,  of  course,  no  piers.  In  con- 
structing a  bridge  across  a  deep  stream  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  smallest  possible  number 
of  points  of  support.  Piers  in  the  waterway  are 
not  only  expensive  to  form,  but  obstruct  the 
navigation  of  the  river,  and  by  the  very  extent 
of  resisting  surface  they  expose  the  structure  to 
shocks  and  the  wearing  action  of  the  water.  In 
building  ah  arch,  a  timber  framework  is  used 
called  the  center,  or  centering.  The  centering 
has  to  keep  the  stones  or  voussoirs  in  position  till 
they  are  keyed  in,  that  is,  all  fixed  in  their  places 
by  the  insertion  of  the  keystone.  The  fii-st  iron 
bridges  were  erected  from  about  1777  to  1790. 
The  same  general  principles  apply  to  the  con- 
struction of  iron  as  of  stone  bridges,  but  the 
greater  cohesion  and  adaptability  of  the  material 
give  more  liberty  to  the  architect,  and  much 
greater  width  of  span  is  possible.  At  first,  iron 
bridges  were  erected  in  the  form  of  arches,  and 
the  material  employed  was  cast  iron;  but  the 
arch  has  now  been  generally  superseded  by  the 
beam  or  girder,  with  its  numerous  modifications ; 
and  wrought  iron  or  steel  is  likewise  found  to  be 
much  better  adapted  for  resisting  a  great  tensile 
strain  than  cast  metal.  Numerous  modifications 
exist  of  the  beam  or  girder,  as  the  lattice-girder, 
bow-string-girder,  etc. ;  but  of  these  none  is  more 
interesting  than  the  tubular  or  hollow  girder, 
first  rendered  famous  from  its  employment  by 
Robert  Stephenson  in  the  construction  of  the  rail- 
way bridge  across  the  Menai  Strait,  and  connect- 
ing Anglesey  with  the  mainland  of  North  Wales. 
Tms  is  known  as  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge. 
The  tubes  are  of  a  rectangular  form,  and  con- 
structed of  riveted  plates  of  wrought  iron,  with 
rows  of  rectangular  tubes  or  cells  for  the  floor  and 
roof  respectively.  The  bridge  consists  of  two 
of  these  enormous  tubes  or  hollow  beams  laid 
side  by  side,  one  for  the  up  and  the  other  for  the 
down  traffic  of  the  railway,  and  extending  each 
to  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.  Other 
tubular  bridges  of  importance  are  the  Conway 
Bridge,  over  the  River  Conway,  an  erection  iden- 
tical in  principle  with  the  Britannia  Bridge,  but 
on  a  smaller  scale;  the  Brotherton  Bridge  over 
the  river  Aire;  the  tubular  railway  bridge  across 
the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  which  has  this 
peculiarity,  that  the  roadway  is  carried  above 
instead  of  through  the  tubes;  and  the  Victoria 
Bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  Canada.  In 
many  respects  this  structure  was  even  more  re- 
markable than  the  Britannia  Bridge,  being  sup- 
ported by  twenty-four  piers,  and  nearly  two 
miles  in  length,  or  about  five  and  a  half  times 
that  of  the  bridge  across  the  Menai  Strait. 
The  bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth,  at  Queens- 
ferry,  a  notable  structure,  has  two  chief  spans 
of  1,710  feet,  two  others  of  680  feet,  fifteen  of 
168  feet,  and  seven  small  arches,  and  will  give 
a  clear  headway  for  navigation  purposes  of  150 
feet  above  high-water  of  spring-tides.  The 
great  spans  consist  of  a  cantilever  at  either  end, 
680  feet  long,  and  a  central  girder  of  350  feet. 
A  girder  railway  bridge  across  the  Firth  of  Tay 
at  Dundee  was  opened  in  1887,  being  the  second 
built  at  the  same  place,  after  the  first  had  given 
way  in  a  great  storm.  It  is  two  miles  seventy- 
three  yards  long,  has  eighty-five  spans,  is  seven- 
ty-seven feet  high  and  carries  two  lines  of  rails. 


MISCELLANY 


779 


Both  bridges  were  built  to  carry  the  lines  of 
the  North  British  Railway.  The  Crumlin  Rail- 
way Viaduct,  South  Wales,  having  lattice- 
girders  supported  ori  open-work  piers  is  more 
remarkable  for  height  than  length,  being  200 
feet  high.  Suspension  bridges,  being  entirely 
independent  of  central  supports,  do  not  interfere 
with  the  river,  and  may  be  erected  where  it  is 
impracticable  to  build  bridges  of  any  other  kind. 
The  entire  weight  of  a  suspension  bridge  rests 
upon  the  piers  at  either  end  from  which  it  is 
suspended,  all  the  weight  being  below  the  points 
of  support.  Such  bridges  always  swing  a  little, 
giving  a  vibratory  movement  which  imparts  a 
peculiar  sensation  to  the  passenger.  The  modes 
of  constructing  these  bridges  are  various.  The 
roadway  is  suspended  either  from  chains  or 
from  wire-ropes,  the  ends  of  which  require 
to  be  anchored,  that  is  attached  to  the  solid 
rock  or  masses  of  masonry  or  iron.  One  of 
the  earlier  of  the  great  suspension  bridges 
is  that  constructed  by  Telford  over  the  Menai 
Strait  near  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge, 
finished  in  1825;  the  opening  between  the 
points  of  suspension  is  580  feet.  The  Hammer- 
smith Chain-bridge,  the  Union  Suspension 
bridge  near  Berwick,  and  the  suspension  bridge 
over  the  Avon  at  Clifton  are  other  British 
examples.  On  the  European  Continent,  the 
Fribourg  Suspension  bridge  in  Switzerland, 
span  870  feet,  erected  1834,  is  a  celebrated 
work;  as  is  that  over  the  Danube  connect- 
ing Buda  with  Pesth.  In  America  the  lower 
suspension  bridge  over  the  Niagara,  two 
miles  below  the  falls,  now  replaced  by  a  steel 
arch  bridge,  was  821  feet  long;  it  had  two 
roadways  connected  together  but  fifteen  feet 
apart,  the  lower  serying  for  ordinary  traffic, 
the  upper  carrying  three  lines  of  rails,  245 
feet  above  the  river.  Another  bridge,  close 
to  the  falls,  has  a  span  of  1,268  feet.  The 
Cincinnati  bridge  over  the  Ohio  has  a  length  of 
2,720  feet.  A  suspension  bridge  of  great  mag- 
nitude, connecting  the  city  of  New  York  with 
Brooklyn,  was  opened  in  1883.  The  central 
or  main  span  is  1,595^  feet  from  tower  to 
tower,  and  the  land  spans  between  the  towers 
and  the  anchorages  930  feet  each;  the  ap- 
proach on  the  New  York  side  is  2,492  feet 
long,  and  that  on  the  Brooklyn  side,  1,901 
feet;  total  length  of  bridge  5,989  feet.  The 
height  of  the  platform  at  the  center  is  135 
feet  above  high  water,  and  at  the  ends  119 
feet.  The  roadway  is  eighty-five  feet  broad, 
and  is  divided  into  five  sections,  the  two  out- 
side for  vehicles,  the  two  inner  for  trolley- 
cars,  the  middle  one,  twelve  feet  above  the 
rest,  for  foot-passengers.  Cost  over  $15,000,- 
000.  Though  the  oldest  bridges  on  record 
were  built  of  wood,  like  the  Sublician  Bridge 
at  Rome,  or  that  thrown  by  Csesar  across  the 
Rhine,  it  is  only  in  certain  places  and  for 
certain  purposes  that  wood  is  much  used  at 
present.  In  modern  times  Germany  has  been 
the  school  for  wooden  bridges.  Perhaps  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  wooden  bridges  was 
that  which  spanned  the  Rhine  at  Schaffhausen 
in  Switzerland.  This  was  364  feet  in  length 
and  eighteen  feet  broad.  It  was  designed 
and  executed  by  Ulric   Grubenman,   a  village 


carpenter,  in  1758,  and  was  destroyed  by  the 
French,  in  1799.  In  the  United  States,  where 
timber  is. still  in  common  use,  we  have  some  fine 
examples,  the  Trenton  Bridge  over  the  Delaware, 
erected  in  1804;  the  bridge  over  the  Susque- 
hanna,  etc. 

Some  of  the  most  notable  developments  in 
the  art  of  bridge  construction  are  to  be  found 
in  North  America,  where  an  enormous  railway 
system,  traversing  a  country  of  great  rivers  and 
ravines,  has  given  an  exceptional  stimulus  to 
the  art.  The  main  characteristics  of  American 
bridges  are  simplicity  and  boldness  of  design, 
the  reduction  of  the  number  of  members  to  a 
minimum  by  the  use  of  open  trusses  composed 
of  simple  systems  rather  than  the  plate, 
tubular,  or  closely-latticed  girders  of  European 
engineers,  thus  offering  less  resistance  to  wind 
pressure. 

NOTABLE   BRIDGES 

Albany  (over  the  Hudson).  Iron;  length  of  draw,  400 
feet. 

Arcueull  Aqueduct.  Stone;  length,  1,279  feet;  semi- 
circular arch. 

Barentin  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  1,545  feet;  semi- 
circular arch. 

Blscari  Aqueduct.     Stone;   length,    1,222  feet;  ogival. 

Bombay  (Madras).     Length,  3,730  feet. 

Boyne.     Wrought  iron;    length,  1,760  feet;    lattice. 

Brighton  Viaduct.  Brick;  length,  960  feet;  semi- 
circular arch. 

Britannia.     Wrought  iron;   length,  1,488  feet;  tubular. 

Brooltlyn  (East  River).  Length,  5,989  feet;  suspen- 
sion. 

Carpentras  Aqueduct.  Stone;  length,  1,687  feet; 
semi-circular  arch. 

Chaumont  Viaduct.  Length,  1,968  feet;  semi-cir- 
cular arch. 

Cincinnati  and  Covington  (over  the  Ohio).  Built, 
1867;  reconstructed,  1897;  length,  2,720  feet;  sus- 
pension. 

Cleveland  Viaduct.  Length,  3,211  feet;  width,  64 
feet;  contains  a  drawbridge  332  feet  in  length,  46  feet 
wide,  and  68  feet  above  the  ordinary  water  mark. 

Clifton,  now  known  as  the  Upper  Arch  (over  Niagara 
River).     Length,  1,268  feet. 

Congleton  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  2,870  feet;  arch, 
segment. 

Crumlin  Viaduct.     Iron;  length,  1,050  feet;  truss-gird. 

Danube  (near  Stadlan,  Austria).  Iron;  length,  2,520 
feet. 

Dee  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  1,388  feet;  semi-circular 
arch. 

Dinting  Vale  Viaduct.  Timber;  length,  1,452  feet; 
arch,  segment. 

Dubuque  (over  the  Mississippi).  Iron;  length,  1,758 
feet. 

Florence  (over  the  Arno).  Built  1569;  marble;  length, 
322  feet;    elliptical  arch. 

Forth  Bridge.  Over  the  Firth  of  Forth,  Scotland; 
cantilever;  iron  and  steel;  length,  nearly  two  miles, 
including  approaches.     Opened  March  4,  1890. 

Franzdorf  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  1,916  feet;  semi- 
circular arch. 

Godavery  Irrigation  Aqueduct.  Stone;  length, 
2,356  feet;  arch,  segment. 

Goeltzschthal  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  1,900  feet; 
elliptical  arch. 

Harlem  River  Aqueduct  (High  Bridge).  Stone; 
length,  1,450  feet;  semi-circular  arch. 

Indre  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  2,463  feet;  semi-cir- 
cular arch. 

Kinzua  Viaduct  (R.-  R.  ).  On  Bradford  branch  of 
New  York,  Lake  E'rie,  and  Western  R.  R.,  near  Brad- 
ford, Pa.,  iron;    height,  301  feet;    length,  2,052  feet. 

Lisbon  Aqueduct.     Stone;    length,  3,805  feet;  ogival. 

London  Bridge.  The  present  3tone  bridge  is  920  feet 
long,  56  feet  wide  and  65  feet  high,  with  a  central 
span  of  150  feet. 

Louisville,  Ky.  (over  the  Ohio).     Length,  5,310  feet. 

Maintenon  Aqueduct.  Stone;  length,  16,367  feet; 
semi-circular  arch. 

Minneapolis  Suspension  Bridge.  Completed,  1876; 
length,  with  approaches,  one  mile. 

Montpellier  Aqueduct.  Stone;  length,  3,214  feet; 
semi-circular  arch. 


780 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


New  Tay  Bridge.  Across  the  Firth  of  Tay  near 
Dundee,  Scotland,  is  a  steel  triiss  bridge,  10,780  feet 
long. 

Niagara  Cantilever.  Steel  bridge  over  the  Niagara 
River;  length,  910  feet. 

Niagara  Suspension.  (Now  replaced  by  steel  and 
known  as  the  Lower  Arch.)  Total  length,  about  2,220 
feet;  width  of  span,  821  feet;  height  above  river,  245  feet. 

Nogent-sur-Marne  Viaduct.  Stone;  length,  2,722 
feet;  semi-circular  arch. 

Omalia  (over  the  Missouri).     Length,  2,800  feet. 

Pa  via.     Stone;    length,  620  feet;  ogival. 

Poughkeepsle.     Iron;  cantilever;   length,  6,767  feet. 

Quincy  (over  the  Mississippi).     Iron;  length,  3,200  feet. 

Rochester  (new).  Cast  iron;  length,  498  feet;  arch, 
segment. 

Rockville  Bridge.  Near  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  is  the  largest 
four-track  stone  railway  bridge  in  the  world.  Length, 
3,810  feet.  It  contains  forty-eight  70-foat  stone 
arches,  and  cost  $1,000,000. 

Royal  Border  Bridge  (Berwick).  Stone;  length, 
2,160  feet;  semi-circular  arch. 

Schuylkill.     Timber;    length,  1,000  feet;    frame  truss. 

St.  Anne's.     Wrought  iron ;  length,  1,350  feet;  tubular. 

St.  Charles  (Mo.).     Iron;  length,  6,536  feet. 

St.  Louis  facross  the  Mississippi).  Minnesota  and  North 
Western  R.  R.;  iron;  1,825  feet  long,  draw  jjpan  412 
feet  long,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  largest  and 
heaviest  in  the  world. 

Trenton  (Delaware).  Timber;  length,  960  feet;  frame 
truss. 

Victoria  (St.  Lawrence).  Wrought  iron;  length,  9,437 
feet;  tubular. 

Washington  Bridge  (across  Harlem  River  valley, 
N.  Y.);  two  steel  arches  of  510  feet  span;  roadway, 
80  feet  wide;  length,  2,375  feet;  height  above  the 
Harlem  River,  133  feet. 

Williamsburg.  Across  East  River,  connecting  Man- 
hattan and  Brooklyn.  Total  length,  7,275  feet; 
main  span,  1,600  feet;  width,  118  feet;  height  above 
mean  high  water,  135  feet;  cost  $12,000,000,  exclusive 
of  real  estate.. 

British  Lion.  This  term  symbolizes  the 
spirit  of  pugnacity  of  the  British  nation,  as 
opposed  to  "John  Bull,"  which  symbolizes  the 
substantiality, .  obstinacy,  and  solidity  of  the 
British  nation,  with  all  its  prejudices  and 
national  peculiarities.  To  rouse  John  Bull  is 
to  tread  on  his  corns;  to  rouse  the  British  Lion 
is  to  blow  the  war-trumpet  in  his  ears. 

Brother  Jonathan  is  a  collective  per- 
sonification of  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
When  General  Washington,  after  being  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  army  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  came  to  Massachusetts  to  organize 
it  and  make  preparations  for  the  defense  of  the 
country,  he  found  a  great  want  of  ammunition 
and  other  means  necessary  to  meet  the  powerful 
foe  he  had  to  contend  with,  and  great  difficulty 
to  obtain  them.  If  attacked  in  such  condition, 
the  cause  at  once  might  be  hopeless.  On  one 
occasion,  at  that  anxious  period,  a  consultation 
of  the  officers  and  others  was  had,  when  it 
seemed  no  way  could  be  devised  to  make  such 
preparation  as  was  necessar^.  His  Excellency, 
Jonathan  Trumbull,  the  elder,  was  then  governor 
of  the  State  of  Connecticut,  on  whose  judgment 
and  aid  the  General  placed  the  greatest  reliance, 
and  remarked:  "We  must  consult  'Brother 
Jonathan '  on  the  subject."  •  He  did  so,  and  the 
governor  was  successful  in  supplying  many  of 
the  wants  of  the  army.  When  difficulties  after- 
wards arose,  and  the  army  was  spread  over  the 
country,  it  became  a  byword,  "We  must  consult 
Brother  Jonathan." 

Burial  is  applied  to  the  prevalent  method 
among  civilized  nations  of  disposing  of  the 
dead  by  hiding  them  in  the  earth.  The  general 
tendency  of  mankind  has  been  to  bury  the 
dead  out  of  sight  of   the   living;   and   various 


as  the  methods  of  accomplishing  this  end  have 
been,  they  have  resolved  themselves  into  three 
great  classifications :  (1)  The  simple  closing  up 
of  the  body  in  wood  or  stone.  (2)  The  burning 
of  the  body  and  the  entombing  of  the  ashes. 
(3)  The  embalming  of  the  body.  The  first  of 
these  seems  to  be  the  earliest  form  of  which  we 
have  any  record,  and  it  is  the  form  most  amply 
sanctioned  by  the  existing  practice  of  the  civil- 
ized world.  It  is  the  method  referred  to  in  the 
earliest  Scriptures;  and  all  are  familiar  with  the 
touching  scene  in  which  Abraham  buries  Sarah 
in  the  cave  in  the  land  of  Canaan  which  be- 
longed to  Ephron,  but  was,  after  a  solemn  and 
courteous  negotiation,  secured  to  Abraham 
for  a  possession  in  which  to  bury  his  dead. 
There  is  frequent  allusion  in  the  later  Scriptures, 
and  especially  in  the  New  Testament,  to  the 
embalming  of  the  body  in  antiseptics  and 
fragrant  substances.  The  Israelites  may  have 
learned  the  practice  of  embalming  from  the 
Egyptians,  among  whom  it  was  an  art  so  greatly 
cultivated  and  extensively  practiced  that 
Egyptian  corpses,  as  inoffensive  as  any  article 
of  wood  or  stone,  are  scattered  over  Europe  in 
museums,  and  are  even  to  be  found  as  curiosities 
in  private  houses.  The  soil  and  climate  of 
Upper  Egypt  seem  to  have  afforded  facilities  for 
embalming  unmatched  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world;  and  in  other  places  the  vestiges  of  the 
practice  are  comparatively  rare,  though  it  is 
usual  even  yet  to  embalm  royal  corpses,  and  in 
some  places  to  preserve  a  series  of  mummies, 
as  in  the  vault  of  the  monastery  of  Kreuzberg,  at 
Bonn,  where  the  monks  have  been  successively 
preserved  in  their  costume  for  centuries.  The 
practice  of  incremation,  of  the  burning  of  the 
body  and  the  entombing  of  the  ashes,  deserves 
more  inquiry  than  it  has  yet  obtained.  In 
Greece,  in  Etruria  —  both  before  and  after  it 
came  under  the  Romans  —  and  in  the  North  of 
Europe,  the  simple  burial  of  the  body,  and  its 
prior  reduction  to  ashes,  were  both  practiced, 
and  sometimes  contemporaneously.  The  tombs 
of  Etruria  are  rich  in  art,  much  of  it  going  to  the 
adornment  of  the  urns  of  baked  clay  in  which 
the  ashes  of  the  dead  are  kept.  Vessels  of  terra 
cotta,  or  cooked  earth,  containing  human  re- 
mains, have  been  found,  often  so  large  that  they 
appear  to  have  served  as  coffins  for  containing 
the  whole  body.  When  human  remains  are  con- 
nected with  barrows,  cromlechs,  or  the  large, 
shapeless  pillars  commonly  called  Druidical,  it 
is  often  very  questionable  whether  the  monu- 
ment was  made  to  receive  such  remains.  It  is 
certainly  ascertained  to  have  been  a  practice  in 
ancient  times  to  bury  bodies  in  tombs  which 
were  themselves  ancient  when  they  received 
their  inmates.  Some  of  the  grandest  buildings 
in  the  world  have  been  tombs;  such  are  the 
pyramids,  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  the  tomb 
of  Cecilia  Metella,  and  many  temples  scattered 
over  Hindustan.  Thus,  the  respect  paid  by  the 
living  to  the  dead  has  preserved  for  the  world 
many  magnificent  fruits  of  architectural  genius 
and  labor.  A  notion  that  the  dead  may  require 
the  things  they  have  been  fond  of  in  life  has 
also  preserved  to  the  existing  world  many  relics 
of  the  customs  of  past  ages.  The  tombs  of 
Egypt  have  supplied  an   immense  quantity  of 


MISCELLANY 


781 


them,  which  have  taught  the  present  age  more 
of  the  manners  of  ancient  nations  than  all  the 
learned  books  that  have  been  written.  It  is  an 
awful  remembrance,  at  the  same  time,  that 
inanimate  things  were  not  all  that  the  dead  were 
expected  to  take  with  them.  Herodotus  tells 
us  of  favorite  horses  and  slaves  sacrificed  at  the 
holocaust  of  the  dead  chief.  The  same  thing 
has  been  done  in  our  own  day  in  Ashantee. 
In  many  countries  the  wives  had  the  doom,  or 
privilege,  as  it  was  thought,  of  departing  with 
their  husbands;  and  dowTi  to  the  present  gener- 
ation the  practice  has  lived  in  full  vigor  in  the 
Hindu  suttee.  Among  the  Jews,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  and  many  ancient  nations  the  dead 
were  buried  beyond  the  towns.  In  Christian 
countries,  if  the  remains  of  the  saint  to  whom  a 
church  was  dedicated  could  be  obtained  —  or 
anything  passing  for  the  remains  —  they  were 
buried  near  the  altar  in  the  choir.  It  became  a 
prevalent  desire  to  be  buried  near  these  saints, 
and  the  bodies  of  men  eminent  for  their  piety,  or 
high  in  rank,  came  thus  to  be  buried  in  churches. 

Candlemas,  in  its  ecclesiastical  meaning, 
is  the  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  is  observed  on  the  2d  of  February.  This 
festival  is  very  strictly  kept  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  there  being  a  procession  with 
many  lighted  candles,  and  those  required  for  the 
service  of  the  ensuing  year  being  also  on  that 
occasion  consecrated;  hence  the  name  Candle- 
mas Day.  In  Scotland,  this  day  became  one  of 
four  term-days  appointed  for  periodical  annual 
payments  of  money,  interest,  taxes,  etc.,  and  of 
entry  to  the  premises. 

An  old  document,  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII., 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  London,  concerning  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  in  the  English  Church,  speaks  thus 
of  the  custom  of  carrying  candles :  "On  Candle- 
mas Daye  it  shall  be  declared  that  the  bearyinge 
of  candels  is  done  in  memorie  of  Christe,  the 
spirituall  lyghte  whom  Simeon  dyd  prophecye 
['  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles '],  as  it  is  redde  in 
the  churche  that  daye."  But  an  older  and 
heathen  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  practice.  The 
Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  burning  candles  on 
this  day  to  the  goddess  Februa,  the  mother  of 
Mars.  There  is  a  tradition  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  which  extends  also  to  the  United  States, 
to  the  effect  that  a  fine  Candlemas  portends  a 
severe  winter.  In  Scotland,  the  prognostication 
is  expressed  in  the  following  distich : 
"If  Candlemas  is  fair  and  clear, 
There'll  be  twa  winters  in  the  year." 

Carpet-baggers.  Corrupt  and  often 
ignorant  politicians  —  mostly  from  the  North 
—  who  flocked  to  the  South  during  the  era  of 
Reconstruction.  They  were  uniformly  "on  the 
make,"  and  were  responsible  for  much  of  the 
venality  and  rascality  that  disgraced  that  period 
of  the  history  of  the  South. 

Castle  Garden.  Popularly  referred  to  as 
the  landing  place  for  European  emigrants.  It  is  a 
circular  building  situated  on  the  Battery,  New 
York,  and  from  1855  to  1891  served  the  above 
named  purpose.  It  is  now  used  as  an  aquarium. 
It  was  built  in  1805,  as  a  fort,  was  granted  to 
the  State  in  1822,  and  was  for  some  years  used 
as  an  opera  house  and  for  civic  receptions. 


Catacombs.  Subterraneous  chambers  and 
passages  formed  generally  in  a  rock,  which  is 
soft  and  easily  excavated,  such  as  tuja.  Cata- 
combs are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  country 
where  such  rocks  exist,  and,  in  most  cases, 
probably  originated  in  mere  quarries,  which 
afterward  came  to  be  used  either  as  places  of 
sepulture  for  the  dead  or  as  hiding-places  for 
the  living.  The  most  celebrated  catacombs  in 
existence,  and  those  which  are  generally  under- 
stood when  catacombs  are  spoken  of,  are  those 
on  the  Via  Appia,  at  a  short  distance  from 
Rome.  To  these  dreary  crypts  it  is  beheved 
that  the  early  Christians  were  in  the  habit  of 
retiring,  in  order  to  celebrate  their  new  worship 
in  times  of  persecution,  and  in  them  were  buried 
many  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  of  the  primitive 
Church.  They  consist  of  long,  narrow  galleries, 
usually  alaput  eight  feet  high  and  five  feet  wide, 
which  twist  and  turn  in  all  directions,  very  much 
resembling  mines.  The  graves  were  constructed 
by  hollowing  out  a  portion  of  the  rock,  at  the 
side  of  the  gallery,  large  enough  to  contain  the 
body.  The  entrance  was  then  built  up  with 
stones,  on  which  usually  the  letters  D.  M.  (Deo 
Maximo),  or  XP,  the  first  two  letters  of  the 
Greek  name  of  Christ,  were  inscribed.  Other 
inscriptions  and  marks,  such  as  the  cross,  are 
also  found.  Though  latterly  devoted  to  pur- 
poses of  Christian  interment  exclusively,  it  is 
believed  that  the  catacombs  were  at  one  time 
used  as  burying-places  by  pagans  also.  At 
irregular  intervals  these  galleries  expand  into 
wide  and  lofty  vaulted  chambers,  in  which  the 
service  of  the  Church  was  no  doubt  celebrated, 
and  which  still  have  the  appearance  of  churches. 
The  original  extent  of  the  catacombs  is  uncer- 
tain, the  guides  maintaining  that  they  have  a 
length  of  twenty  miles,  whereas  about  six  only 
can  now  be  ascertained  to  exist,  and  of  these 
many  portions  have  either  fallen  in  or  become 
dangerous.  When  Rome  was  besieged  by  the 
Lombards  in  the  Eighth  Century,  many  of  the 
catacombs  were  destroyed,  and  the  popes  after- 
ward caused  the  remains  of  many  of  the  saints 
and  martyrs  to  be  removed  and  buried  in  the 
churches.  Art  found  its  way  into  the  catacombs 
at  an  early  period,  and  many  remains  of  fres- 
coes are  still  found  in  them.  Belzoni,  in  1815 
and  1818,  explored  many  Egyptian  catacombs 
built  3,000  years  ago,  and  brought  to  England 
the  Sarcophagus  of  Psammetichus,  formed  of 
Oriental  alabaster  exquisitely  sculptured.  In 
the  Parisian  catacombs,  formerly  stone  quarries, 
human  remains  from  the  Cemetery  of  the  Inno- 
cents were  deposited  in  1785,  and  many  of  the 
victims  of  the  Revolution  of  1792-94  are  in- 
terred in  them. 

Catching  a  Tartar  means  to  be  outdone 
or  outwitted.  An  Irish  soldier  in  a  battle 
against  the  Turks  shouted  to  his  commanding 
officer  that  he  had  caught  a  "Tartar."  "Bring 
him  along,  then,"  said  the  general.  "But  he 
won't  come."  "Then  come  along  yourself." 
"Bedad,  and  so  I  would,  but  he  won't  let  me," 
answered  Pat. 

Center  of  Area  and  Population  of 
the  XJ.  S.  The  center  of  area  of  the  United 
States,  excluding  Alaska  and  Hawaii  and  other 
recent   accessions,    is   in   northern    Kansas,    in 


782 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


approximate  latitude  39°  55',  and  approximate 
longitude  98°  50'.  The  center  of  population,  in- 
dicated below,  is,  therefore,  about  three-fourths 
of  a  degree  south  and  more  than  thirteen  degrees 
east  of  the  center  of  area. 


Date 


1790 
1800 
1810 

1820 
1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 
1870 

1880 

1890 
1900 


Center  ok  Population, 

Approximate  Location  by 

Important  Towns 


23  miles  east  of  Baltimore,  Md.,.  .    . 

18  miles  west  of  Baltimore,  Md.^  .    . 
40  miles  northwest  by  west  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C, 

16  miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va.,    . 

19  miles  VV.  S.  W.  of  Moorfield,  in  the 
present  State  of  W.  Va.,     .... 

16  miles  south  of  Clarksburg,  in  the 
present  State  of  W.  Va.,     .... 

23  miles  S.  E.  of  Parkersburg,  in  the 
present  State  of  W.  Va.,         ... 

20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  . 
48  miles  east  by  north  of  Cincinnati, 

Ohio 

8  miles  west  by  south  of  Cincinnati, 

Ohio 

20  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Ind.,  .  . 
6  miles  southeast  of  Columbus,  Ind., 


Total. 


Westward 
Movement 

During 
Preceding 

Decade, 
Miles 


41 

36 
50 

39 

55 

55 
81 

42 

58 
48 
14 


519 


Chemical     Substances,    Common 
Names  of. 

Common  Names  Chemical  Names 

Alum Sulphate  of  aluminum  and  potas- 
sium. 

Aqua  fortis Nitric  acid. 

Aqua  regia Nitro-hydrochloric  acid. 

Calomel, Mercurous  chloride. 

Carbolic  acid Phenol. 

Caustic  potash,  .   .    ,    .  Potassium  hydrate. 

Caustic  soda, Sodium  hydrate. 

Chalk, Calcium  carbonate. 

Copperas Sulphate  of  iron. 

Corrosive  sublimate,     .  Mercuric  chloride. 

Cream  of  tartar,    .    .    .  Bitartrate  of  potassium. 

Epsom  salts Magnesium  sulphate. 

Fire  damp Light  carbureted  hydrogen,  me- 
thane. 

Glauber's  salt Sodium  sulphate. 

Goulard  water,  ....  Basic  acetate  of  lead. 

Grape  sugar, Glucose. 

Iron  pyrites, Sulphide  of  iron. 

Jewelers'  putty,     .    .    .  Oxide  of  tin. 

Laughing  gas Nitrous  oxide. 

Lime Calcium  oxide. 

Lunar  caustic,    ....  Silver  nitrate. 

Mosaic  gold Bisulphide  of  tin. 

Muriatic  acid,    ....  Hydrochloric  acid. 

Plaster  of  Paris,    .    .    .  Calcium  sulphate. 

Realgar, Sulphide  of  arsenic. 

Red  lead Oxide  of  lead. 

Rochelle  salts,   ....  Sodium  potassium  tartrate. 

Sal  ammoniac,  ....  Ammonium  chloride. 

Salt,  common Sodium  chloride. 

Salt  of  tartar  (potash).  Potassium  carbonate. 

Saltpetre Potassium  nitrate. 

Salts  of  lemon,  ....  Oxalic  acid. 

Slaked  lime Calcium  hydrate. 

Soda,   . Sodium  carbonate. 

Soda,  baking Sodium  bicarbonate. 


Soda,  washing. 
Spirits  of  hartshorn. 
Spirits  of  salts,  .    . 
Sugar  of  lead,    .    . 
Tartar  emetic,   .    . 
Verdigris, 


Sodium  carbonate. 

Ammonia,  solution  of. 

Hydrochloric  acid. 

Lead  acetate. 

Potassium  antimony  tartrate. 

Basic  acetate  of  copper. 


Vermilion Sulphide  of  mercury. 

Vinegar Dilute  acetic  acid. 

Vitriol,  blue,  .....  Copper  sulphate. 

Vitriol,  green Ferrous  sulphate. 

Vitriol,  oil  of,     ....  Sulphuric  acid. 

Vitriol,  white,    ....  Zinc  sulphate. 

Volatile  alkali,  ....  Ammonia. 

Chivalry,  a  term  which  indicates  strictly 
the  organization  of  knighthood  as  it  existed  in 
the   Middle  Ages,  and   in  a  general  sense  the 


spirit  and  aims  which  distinguished  the  knights 
of  those  times.  The  chief  characteristics  of  the 
chivalric  ages  were  a  warlike  spirit,  a  lofty  de- 
votion to  the  female  sex,  a  love  of  adventure, 
and  an  undefinable  thirst  for  glory.  The  Cru- 
sades gave  for  a  time  a  religious  turn  to  the 
spirit  of  chivalry,  and  various  religious  orders  of 
knighthood  arose,  such  as  the  Knights  of  St. 
John,  the  Templars,  the  Teutonic  Knights,  etc. 
The  education  of  a  knight  in  the  days  of  chivalry 
was  as  follows :  In  his  twelfth  year  he  was  sent 
to  the  court  of  some  baron  or  noble  knight, 
where  he  spent  his  time  chiefly  in  attending  on 
the  ladies,  and  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  arms, 
in  riding,  etc.  When  advancing  age  and  experi- 
ence in  the  use  of  arms  had  qualified  the  page  for 
war,  he  became  an  esquire,  or  squire.  This  word 
is  from  Latin  scutum,  a  shield,  it  being  among 
other  offices  the  squire's  business  to  carry  the 
shield  of  the  knight  whom  he  served.  The  third 
and  highest  rank  of  chivalry  was  that  of  knight- 
hood, which  was  not  conferred  before  the  twenty- 
first  year,  except  in  the  case  of  distinguished 
birth  or  great  achievements.  The  individual 
prepared  himself  by  confessing,  fasting,  etc.; 
religious  rites  were  performed;  and  then,  after 
promising  to  be  faithful,  to  protect  ladies  and 
orphans,  never  to  lie  nor  utter  slander,  to  live 
in  harmony  with  his  equals,  etc.,  he  received 
the  accolade,  a  slight  blow  on  the  neck  with 
the  flat  of  the  sword  from  the  person  who 
dubbed  him  a  knight.  This  was  often  done 
on  the  eve  of  battle,  to  stimulate  the  new 
knight  to  deeds  of  valor ;  or  after  the  com- 
bat, to  reward  signal  bravery.  Though  chiv- 
alry had  its  defects,  chief  amongst  which, 
pefhaps,  we  may  note  a  tendency  to  certain 
affectations  and  exaggerations  of  sentiment 
and  profession,  yef  it  is  to  be  regarded  as 
tempering  in  a  very  beneficial  manner  the 
natural  rudeness  of  feudal  society.  It  taught 
the  best  ideals  which  the  times  could  under- 
stand. 

Christmas  Tree.  The  Christmas  Tree, 
which  has  become  an  almost  universal  symbol, 
and  is  by  most  persons  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  Germany,  had  its  origin  in  Egypt  at  a 
period  long  before  the.  Christmas  era.  The 
palm-tree  is  known  to  put  forth  a  branch  every 
month,  and  a  spray  of  this  tree,  with  twelve 
shoots  on  it,  was  used  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of 
the  winter  solstice,  as  a  symbol  of  the  year 
completed. 

Cigar.  The  word,  of  course,  is  Spanish,  and 
is  derived  from  cigarra,  the  Spanish  name  for 
grasshopper.  When  the  Spaniards  first  intro- 
duced tobacco  into  Spain  from  the  island  of 
Cuba,  they  cultivated  the  plant  in  their  gardens, 
which  in  Spanish  are  called  cigarrals.  Each 
grew  his  tobacco  in  his  cigarral.  When  one 
offered  a  smoke  to  a  friend,  he  would  say:  "Es 
de  mi  cigarral,"  that  is,  "  it  is  from  my  garden." 
Soon  the  expression  came  to  be:  "Este  cigarro 
es  de  mi  cigarral,"  this  cigar  is  from  my  garden. 
The  grasshopper  (cigarra)  was  very  common  in 
Spain,  and  cigarral  meant  the  place  where  the 
cigarra  sings. 

Cities,  Popular  Names  of. 

Aberdeen.     Granite  City. 
Athens.     City  of  the  Violet  Crown. 


MISCELLANY 


783 


Bagdad.     Oity  of  Peace. 

Baltimore.     Monumental   City,    from   the   number   of 

monuments  it  contains. 
Birmingham.     The  Midland  Capital. 
Boston.     City  of  Notions,  from  the  amount  of  "  Yankee 

notions,"  so  called,  manufactured  there;    Hub  of  the 

Universe,  so  called  by  Dr.   Oliver  Wendell  Holmes; 

Tri-Mountain  City,  from  the  three  hills  on  which  it 

was  originally  built. 
Brighton.     Queen     of     Watering     Places,     "London- 

super-Mare." 
Broolilyn.     City   of    Churches,    from    the    number    of 

churches  it  contains. 
Buffalo.     Queen  City  of  the  Lakes. 
Chicago.     Garden  City,   from  the  number  and  beauty 

of  its  private  gardens;    Windy  City,  from  the  constant 

winds  blowing  from  the  lakes. 
Cincinnati.     Queen   City,   so   called  when   it   was  the 

commercial  metropolis  of  the  Middle  West. 
Cleveiand.     Forest  City,  from  the  number  of  trees  on 

Columbus,  Ohio.     The  Arch  City. 

Constantinople.     City  of  the  Golden  Horn. 

Detroit.     City  of  the  Straits,  from  its  location  on  the 

strait  connecting  Lake  St.  Clair  and  Lake  Erie. 
Edinbui^h.     Modern  Athens. 
Hannibal,  Mo.     Bluff  City,  from  its   location   on  the 

bluffs  of  the  Missouri  River. 
Indianapolis.     Railroad  City,  from  its  being   a   great 

railroad  center. 
Jerusalem.     Holy  City;  City  of  David;  City  of  Peace. 
Keokuk,  la.     Gate  City,  from  its  situation  at  the  foot 

of  the  Mississippi  Rapids. 
Liverpool.     The  Modern  Tyre. 
Louisville,  Ky.     Falls  City,  from  the  falls  of  the  Ohio 

River,  here  located. 
Lowell,  Mass,     City  of  Spindles,  from  its  large  manu- 
facturing interests. 
Manchester.     Cottonopolis. 
Minneapolis.     Flour  City. 
Nashville,    Tenn.     City    of    Rocks,    from    its    natural 

surroundings. 
New  Haven.     City  of  Elms,  from  the  great  number  of 

these  trees  it  contains. 
New  Orleans.     Crescent  City,  from  its  position  on  a 

curve  of  the  Mississippi. 
New  York.     Empire  City,  from  its  being  the  chief  city 

of  the  United  States. 
Paris.     City  of  the  Lily,  or  City  of  Louis. 
Philadelphia.     City  of     Brotherly     Love,     from     the 

meaning  of  the  name. 
Pittsburg,  Pa.     Iron  City,  from  the  extent  of  its  iron 

manufactures;     and    Smoky    City,    from    the    smoke 

which  overhangs  it. 
Portland,  Me.     Forest  City,  from  the  number  of  trees 

in  its  streets. 
Rochester,   N.   Y.     Flower  City,   from  the   profusion 

of  flowers  and  extensive  nurseries  there. 
Rome.     City  of  the  Seven  Hills. 
St.    Louis.     Mound   City,    from   the   artificial   mounds 

found  there. 
San  Francisco.     City  of  the  Golden  Gate. 
Springfield,    Mass.     City  of  Homes,  from  the  many 

people  who  own  their  own  homes. 
Springfield,  O.     Flower  City,  from  the  beauty  of  its 

surroundings. 
Venice.     City  of  St.  Mark,  City  of  the  Seventy  Isles. 
Washington.     City  of  Magnificent  Distances,  from  its 

being  laid  out  on  a  large  and  regular  scale. 
Worcester,  Mass.     The  Faithful  City,  so  called  from 

its  motto:     Floreat  Semper  Civitas  Fidelis. 

Columns,     Spires,     and      Towers, 
Height  of.  Feet 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris 984 

Washington  Monument,  Washington,  D.  C,  .    .    .  .555 

Ulm  Cathedral 529 

Cologne  Cathedral, 512 

Strasburg, 468 

St.  Stephen's,  Vienna, 465 

Pyramid  of  Cheops, 451 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 448 

Cathedral,  Salisbury 406 

Cathedral,  Antwerp, 400 

Cathedral,  Cremona, 397 

Cathedral,  Florence 387 

St.  Paul's,  London 364 

Milan  Cathedral 355 

Hotel  des  Invalides,  Paris, 344 

Bunker  Hill  Monument,  Charlestown,  Mass.,  .   .    .  221 

Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa, 179 

Alexander  Column,  St.  Petersburg, 155 


Confidence  Man.  One  who  by  plausi- 
ble stories  and  falsehoods  or  by  assurance  ob- 
tains the  confidence  of  kind-nearted  people. 
This  well-known  phrase  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated thus:  A  few  years  ago,  a  man  in  New 
York,  well  dressed  and  of  exceedingly  genteel 
manners,  went  about  saying,  in  a  very  winning 
manner,  to  almost  every  gentleman  he  met, 
"Have  you  confidence  enough  in  me,  an  entire 
stranger,  to  lend  me  five  dollars  for  an  hour  or 
two  ?  "  In  this  way  he  got  a  good  deal  of  money, 
and  came  to  be  generally  known  in  the  courts 
and  elsewhere  as  "  the  confidence  man." 

Copperheads.  A  popular  nickname 
which  originated  during  the  Civil  War  in  the 
United  States,  and  was  applied  to  a  faction  in 
the  North  which  was  very  generally  considered 
to  be  in  secret  sympathy  with  the  Rebellion, 
giving  it  aid  and  comfort  by  attempting  to 
thwart  the  measures  of  the  Government.  The 
name  is  derived  from  a  poisonous  serpent  called 
the  copperhead,  whose  bite  is  considered  as 
deadly  as  that  of  the  rattlesnake.  The  copper- 
head, unlike  the  rattlesnake,  gives  no  warning 
of  its  attack,  and  is,  therefore,  the  type  of  a 
concealed  foe. 

Crystal  Palace.  The  name  "Crvstal 
Palace"  was  applied  by  Douglas  Jerrold,  in 
"  Punch,"  to  the  building  in  Hyde  Park,  London, 
in  which  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  was  held. 
After  its  close,  the  materials  of  which  it  was 
composed  were  sold  to  a  company,  for  £70,000, 
and  removed  to  the  present  site  at  Sydenham. 
It  was  designed  by  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  and  is 
used  for  popular  concerts  and  other  entertain- 
ments, as  well  as  for  a  permanent  exhibition  of 
the  art  and  culture  of  various  nations. 

Dangerous  Trades.  The  expression 
"dangerous  trades  "  is  especially  applied  to  those 
trades  in  which  some  form  of  poison  or  disease 
is  incidental  to  the  trade  itself  as  at  present 
carried  on.  It  is  not  generally  used  with  refer- 
ence to  those  trades  in  which  sudden  injury  and 
death  are  caused  by  dangerous  machinery  or 
unguarded  perils,  but  rather  refers  to  those 
slower  acting  causes  which,  while  not  so  sensa- 
tional in  their  horrors,  are  even  more  frightful  in 
their  results. 

American  legislation  has  been  much  more 
unresponsive  in  safe-guarding  workers  in  these 
trades  than  that  of  England  and  Europe  gener- 
ally. The  following  is  a  classified  list  of  those 
trades  which  have  been  considered  dangerous 
in  acts  of  the  British  Parliament. 

1.  Trades  in  which  lead  is  a  poisonous  ele- 
ment :  —  The  manufacture  of  earthenware  and 
china,  file  cutting,  the  manufacture  of  white 
lead,  lead  smelting,  the  use  of  lead  in  print  or  dye 
works,  the  manufacture  of  red,  orange,  or  yellow 
lead,  glass  polishing,  enameling  of  iron  plates, 
enameling  and  tinning  of  hollow  metal  ware  and 
cooking  utensils,  processes  in  which  yellow 
chromate  of  lead  is  made,  or  in  which  goods  dyed 
with  it  undergo  the  process  of  building,  winding, 
weaving,  etc. 

2.  Trades  which  produce  other  chemical 
poisons : —  Manufacture  of  paint  and  colors, 
extraction  of  arsenic,  dry  cleaning,  paper  stain- 
ing, coloring  and  enameling,  hatters'  and  furriers' 
work,   the   manufacture   of  matches,   chemical 


784 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


works,  bronzing  and  metallochrome  powder  in 
lithographic  works,  India  rubber  works,  dying 
with  certain  dyes,  mixing  and  casting  of  brass, 
gun  metal,  bell  metal,  white  metal,  phosphor- 
bronze  and  manila  mixture. 

3.  Trades  in  which  anthrax  or  lockjaw  is  an 
incident: — Wool  sorting,  the  handling  of  hides 
and  skins,  hair  factories,  brush-making,  bone 
factories,  fellmongers'  works,  furriers'  works, 
tanneries,  wool  combing,  blanket  stoving  and 
tentering,  warp  dressing,  carbonizing  and  grind- 
ing of  rags,  flock  making,  feather  cleaning. 

4.  Trades  in  which  the  danger  arises  from 
injurious  particles  in  the  air  or  from  dust: — 
Basic  slag  works,  manufacture  of  silicate  of  cot- 
ton, file  cutting,  flour  mills,  trades  which  use 
grindstones  or  emery  wheels,  china  scouring, 
silk  combing,  flax  scutching. 

5.  Trades  in  which  sudden  accidents  are  so 
frequent  as  to  demand  special  legislation: — 
Metal  works  which  use  converters,  electrical 
generating  works,  bottling  and  bottle  testing, 
quarries,  manufacture  of  salt. 

6.  Processes  which  require  a  sudden  change 
from  great  heat  to  cold  and  vice  versa,  such  as 
lacquering  and  japanning,  galvanizing  of  iron 
and  the  work  carried  on  in  furnaces  and  found- 
ries. 

7.  Processes  that  require  artificial  humidity: 
—  Cotton  spinning,  weaving,  etc.,  flax  spinning, 
weaving,  etc.,  wool  spinning,  silk  spinning. 

This  list  shows  a  wide  prevalence  of  trades  in 
which  special  dangers  exist,  and  calls  for  the 
utmost  remedial  precaution  on  the  part  of  both 
the  public  and  all  workers  immediately  con- 
cerned. 

Dark  Horse.  A  frequent  phrase  in  sport- 
ing and  political  parlance,  and  indicating  one 
who,  up  to  a  certain  time  kept  in  the  background, 
suddenly  comes  to  the  front,  and  snatches  vic- 
tory from  the  hands  of  others.  The  phrase 
was  used  by  Thackeray  in  his  "Adventures  of 
Philip."  Said  Philip,  referring  to  some  talk 
about  a  candidate  for  parliament:  "Well,  bless 
my  soul,  he  can't  mean  me.  Who  is  the  dark 
horse  he  has  in  his  stable?" 

Days  of  Grace.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
the  day  first  mentioned  in  each  tenn  of  court  was 
called  "essoign  day,"  because  the  court  then 
took  the  essoigns  or  excuses  of  those  who  did  not 
appear  according  to  the  summons  of  the  writs. 
But  as  —  by  a  custom  traced  by  Blackstone  to 
the  Germans  of  the  days  of  Tacitus  —  three 
days  of  grace  were  allowed  to  every  defendant 
within  which  to  appear,  the  courts  did  not  sit 
for  the  despatch  of  business  until  the  fourth 
day  after  that  time.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
continued  to  sit  till  the  fourth  day  after  the  last 
return.  The  rule  allowing  days  of  grace  in  the 
United  States  was  adopted  from  the  English 
law. 

^  Dead  Letter  Office,  in  the  United 
States  postal  department,  is  the  place  where 
unclaimed  letters  are  sent.  After  remaining 
a  month  in  the  office  to  which  they  are 
directed,  the  unclaimed  or  "dead"  letters  are 
sent  to  Washington,  and  opened  in  the  dead 
letter  office.  If  the  writer's  address  can  be 
found,  the  letter  is  returned  to  him;  if  not, 
it  is  destroyed.     In  one  year  nearly  7,000,000 


pieces  of  mail  matter  were  received  —  many 
had  no  state  on  the  address,  3,000  had  no 
address  at  all ;  $92,000  in  cash  and  more  than 
$3,000,000  in  drafts  were  found  in  the  letters. 
Thousands    of    magazines,    illustrated    papers, 

Eicture  cards,  and  valentines  were  sent  to 
ospitals. 

Death  Warrant  of  Jesus  Christ. 
In  1810,  some  workmen,  while  excavating  in 
the  ancient  city  of  Amiternum  (now  AquilaO,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  found  an  antique  marble 
vase  in  which  lay  concealed  a  copper  plate, 
bearing  on  the  obverse  side  a  long  inscription  in 
the  Hebrew  tongue.  This,  when  translated, 
proved  to  be  the  death-warrant  of  Jesus  Christ. 
On  the  reverse  side  of  the  plate  were  found 
the  words:  "A  similar  plate  is  sent  to  each 
tribe."  After  its  excavation,  it  was  enclosed  in 
an  ebony  box,  and  preserved  in  the  sacristy  of 
the  Carthusians.  Tnis  relic,  if  genuine,  is  to 
Christians  the  most  impressive  and  interesting 
legal  document  in  existence.  It  has  been  faith- 
fully transcribed,  and  reads  as  follows: 

Sentence  rendered  by  Pontius  Pilate,  acting 
Governor  of  Lower  Galilee,  stating  that  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  shall  suffer  death  on  the  cross. 

In  the  year  seventeen  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
Caesar,  and  the  27th  day  of  March,  the  city  of 
the  holy  Jerusalem  —  Annas  and  Caiaphas  being 
priests,  sacrificators  of  the  people  of  God,— 
Pontius  Pilate,  Governor  of  Lower  Galilee, 
sitting  in  the  presidential  chair  of  the  prsetory, 
condemns  Jesus  of  Nazareth  to  die  on  the  cross 
between  two  thieves,  the  great  and  notorious 
evidence  of  the  people  saying: 

1.  Jesus  is  a  seducer. 

2.  He  is  seditious, 

3.  He  is  the  enemy  of  the  law. 

4.  He  calls  himself  falsely  the  Son  of  God. 

5.  He  calls  himself  falsely  the  King  of  Israel. 

6.  He  entered  into  the  temple,  followed  by 
a  multitude  bearing  palm-branches  in  their 
hands. 

Orders  the  first  centurion,  Quilius  Cornelius, 
to  lead  him  to  the  place  of  execution.  Forbids 
any  person,  whomsoever,  either  poor  or  rich,  to 
oppose  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ. 

The  witnesses  who  signed  the  condemnation 
of  Jesus  are: 

1.  Daniel  Robani,  a  Pharisee. 

2.  Joannus  Robani. 

3.  Raphael  Robani. 

4.  Capet,  a  citizen. 

Jesus  shall  go  out  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  gate  of  Struenus. 

Decoration  Day,  or  Memorial  Day,  is 
a  day  designated  as  a  legal  holiday  in  all  the 
States,  except  Idaho  and  Texas,  for  the  purpo-e 
of  commemorating  the  soldiers  who  fell  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  decorating  their  graves.  The 
day  thus  set  apart  is  May  30th,  in  all  the  North- 
ern and  Western  States  and  in  Virginia.  In  the 
latter  State,  as  in  all  the  Southern  States,  the 
name  adopted  is  "  Confederate  Memorial  Day." 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Florida 
observe  April  26th;  North  Carolina  and  South 
Carolina,  May  10th;  Tennessee,  the  second  Fri- 
day in  May;  and  Louisiana,  June  3d  —  Jeffer- 
son Davis's  birthday,  which  is  also  observed  in  a 
number  of  other  Southern  States. 


MISCELLANY 


785 


DIAMONDS  OF   NOTE 


Carats 

Carats 

(uncut) 

(cut) 

3,0251 

■  i  516i 
"1  309i 

1680(7) 

Never  cut 

787i 

367/5 

194i 

139i 

242i 

150 

i38< 

410 

1.361 

254 

127 

186i 

106i\, 
86 
781 

89i 

288i 

150 

112 

67  i 

83 

52i 

49 

83. 

46i 

88- 

44i 

49i 

40 

28 

Name 


Discov- 
ered 


Possessor 


Cullinan  I,    .    .    . 
Cullinan  II,  .    .    . 

Braganza 

Rajah  of  Mattan, 

Orloff, 

Florentine,    .    .    . 
Tavernier,  .  .    .    . 


Pitt  or  Regent,     .    . 
Star  of  the  South,    . 

Koh-i-nur 

Shah, 

Nassac,      

Light  Yellow,    .    .    . 
Porter  Rhodes,     .    . 

Bliie 

Sancy 

Pigott,   ...... 

Star  of  South  Africa, 

Dudley, 

Hope 

Pacha  of  Egypt,  .    . 
Charles  the  Bold,     . 


1905 
1905 
1741 
1756 


1668 
1775 
1702 
1853 
B.C.  56 


1872 

15th  Cent. 

'i867' 


King  George  V. 

Among  Portuguese  royal  jewels. 

Rajah  of  Mattan  (Borneo). 

Czar  of  Russia  (scepter). 

Emperor  of  Austria. 

Stolen  in  1792. 

Among  Portuguese  royal  jewels. 

King  of  Prussia. 

Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  India. 

Queen  of  England. 

Czar  of  Russia. 

Lord  (Marquis  of)  Westminster. 

Stewart  (diamond). 

Found  in  South  Africa. 

Czar  of  Russia. 

Bought  by  Messrs.  Rundell  and  Bridge. 

Earl  of  Dudley. 

Mr.  Henry  Hope's  family. 

Khedive  of  Egypt. 


Dixie.  Popularly  applied  to  the  States 
south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  the  former 
boundary  of  slavedom.  Also,  in  folklore,  a 
fabulous  realm  of  peace,  plenty,  and  indolence, 
whose  charms  form  the  burden  of  many  a  negro 
melody.  Brewer  says  that  a  Mr.  Dixie  was  a 
slaveholder  of  Manhattan  Island,  compelled  by 
public  opinion  to  remove  his  human  chattels  to 
the  South.  In  their  new  abode  they  had  to  toil 
ceaselessly,  and  often  sighed  for  their  old  home 
at  the  North,  which  lapse  of  time  and  distance 
invested  with  a  halo  of  paradisaic  pleasures. 
This  "Dixie  Land"  became  to  the  entire  colored 
race  in  the  South  a  species  of  Utopia,  similar  to 
the  Scottish  "Land  o'  the  Leal"  or  the  Fortu- 
nate Islands  of  the  ancients. 

Dollar  Mark,  $.  Writers  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  derivation  of  this  sign  to  represent  dol- 
lars. Some  say  it  comes  from  the  letters  U.  S., 
which  after  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution, were  prefixed  to  the  federal  currency, 
and  which  afterwards,  in  the  hurry  of  writing, 
were  run  into  one  another,  the  U  being  made 
first  and  the  S  over  it.  The  more  probable  ex- 
planation is  that  it  is  a  modification  of  the 
figure  8,  and  denotes  a  piece  of  eight  reals,  or, 
the  dollar  which  was  formerly  divided  into 
eight  parts.  It  was  then  designated  by  the 
figures  f . 

Domes  of  the  World,  Great. 

Diameter  Height 

feet  feet 

Pantheon,  Rome, 142  143 

Duomo,  Florence 139  310 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 139  330 

Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C. 135i  287i 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople, 115  201 

Baths  of  Caracalla  (ancient),  Rome,    .    .      112  116 

St.  Paul's,  London 112  215 

Duel.  A  premeditated  and  prearranged 
combat  between  two  persons,  with  deadly 
weapons,  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  some  pri- 
vate difference  or  quarrel.  The  combat  gener- 
ally takes  place  in  the  presence  of  witnesses 
called  seconds,  who  make  arrangements  as  to 
the  mode  of  fighting,  place  the  weapons  in  the 
hands  of  the  combatants,  and  see  that  the  laws 
they  have  laid  down  are  carried  out.     The  origin 


of  the  practice  of  duelling  is  referred  to  the  trial 
by  "wager  of  battle,"  which  obtained  in  early 
ages.  This  form  of  duel  arose  among  the  Ger- 
manic peoples,  and  a  judicial  combat  of  the  kind 
was  authorized  by  Gundebald,  King  of  the  Bur- 
gundians,  as  early  as  501  A.  D.  When  the 
judicial  combat  declined  the  modern  duel  arose, 
being  probably  to  some  extent  an  independent 
outcome  of  the  spirit  and  institutions  of  chiv- 
alry. France  was  the  country  in  which  it  arose, 
the  Sixteenth  Century  being  the  time  at  which 
it  first  became  common.  Upon  every  insult  or 
injury  wliich  seemed  to  touch  his  honor,  a  gen- 
tleman thought  himself  entitled  to  draw  his 
sword,  and  to  call  on  his  adversary  to  give  him 
satisfaction,  and  it  is  calculated  that  6,000  per- 
sons fell  in  duels  during  ten  years  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  IV.  His  minister,  Sully,  remonstrated 
against  the  practice;  but  the  King  connived  at 
it,  supposing  that  it  tended  to  maintain  a  mili- 
tary spirit  among  his  people.  In  1602,  however, 
he  issued  a  decree  against  it,  and  declared  it  to 
be  punishable  with  death.  Many  subsequent 
prohibitions  were  issued,  but  they  were  all 
powerless  to  stop  the  practice.  During  the 
minority  of  Louis  XIV.  more  than  4,000  nobles 
are  said  to  have  lost  their  lives  in  duels.  The 
practice  of  duelling  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  France  in  the  reign  of  James  I.;  but 
it  was  never  so  common  as  in  the  latter  country. 
Cromwell  was  an  enemy  of  the  duel,  and  during 
the  protectorate  there  was  a  cessation  of  the 
practice.  It  came  again  into  vogue,  however, 
after  the  Restoration,  thanks  chiefly  to  the 
French  ideas  that  then  inundated  the  court. 
As  society  became  more  polished  duels  became 
more  frequent,  and  they  were  never  more  num- 
erous than  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  Among 
the  principals  in  the  fatal  duels  of  this  period 
were  Charles  James  Fox,  Sheridan,  Pitt,  Can- 
ning, Castlereagh,  the  Duke  of  York,  the  Duke 
of  Richmond,  and  Lord  Camelford.  The  last- 
mentioned  was  the  most  notorious  duellist  of  his 
time,  and  was  himself  killed  in  a  duel  in  1804. 
A  duel  was  fought  between  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton and  Lord  Winchelsea  in  1829,  but  the  prac- 
tice was  dying  out.     It  lasted  longest  in  the 


786 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


army.  By  English  law  fatal  duelling  is  con- 
sidered murder,  no  matter  how  fair  the  combat 
may  have  been,  and  the  seconds  are  liable  to 
the  same  penalty  as  the  principals.  In  1813,  the 
principal  and  seconds  in  a  fatal  duel  were  sen- 
tenced to  death,  though  afterwards  pardoned. 
An  officer  in  the  army  having  anything  to  do 
with  a  duel  renders  himself  liable  to  be  cashiered. 
In  France  duelling  still  prevails  to  a  certain 
extent ;  but  the  combats  are  usually  very  blood- 
less and  ridiculous  affairs.  In  the  German  army 
it  is  common,  and  is  recognized  by  law.  The 
duels  of  German  students,  so  often  spoken  of, 
seldom  cause  serious  bloodshed.  In  the  United 
States  duels  are  now  uncommon.  In  some  of 
the  States  the  killing  of  a  man  in  a  duel  is  pun- 
ishable by  death  or  by  forfeiture  of  political 
rights,  and  in  a  large  number  the  sending  of  a 
challenge  is  a  felony.  In  the  army  and  navy  it 
is  forbidden.  During  the  Revolution  there  were 
a  number  of  duels:  Charles  Lee  was  wounded 
by  John  Laurens ;  Gwinnett,  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration,  was  killed  by  Gen.  Mcintosh; 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  slain  by  Aaron  Burr. 
Decatur  was  killed  and  Barron  wounded  fight- 
ing a  dueh  Andrew  Jackson  killed  Dickinson, 
and  fought  several  other  duels.  Col.  Benton 
killed  Lucas,  and  had  other  encounters.  Henry 
Clay  and  Johii  Randolph  fought  in  1826.  De 
Witt  Clinton  was  a  duellist. 

Dun.  The  word  "  dun  "  is  by  some  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  French  donnez.  The 
"British  Apollo"  of  1780,  says,  however,  that 
the  word  owes  its  origin  to  a  Joe  Dun,  a  famous 
bailiff  of  Lincoln,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VII. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  so  very  successful  in  the 
collection  of  debts  that  his  name  became  pro- 
verbial, and  whenever  it  seemed  almost  impos- 
sible to  make  a  man  pay,  people  would  say, 
"Why  don't  you  Dun  him?" 

Dwarf.  A  term  applied  to  any  animal  or 
plant  greatly  below  the  usual  size  of  its  kind, 
particularly  to  a  human  being  of  small  dimen- 
sions. Accounts  of  dwarf  tribes  have  been  com- 
mon from  early  times,  such  tribes  being  located 
especially  in  Africa;  and  it  would  appear  from 
the  accounts  of  Du  Chaillu,  Schweinfurth,  and 
other  travelers  that  there  are  several  dwarfish 
tribes  throughout  this  continent.  The  Obongo, 
a  race  of  dwarfs,  are  described  as  living  in 
woods  near  the  Okanda  River,  in  wretched 
huts  made  of  branches.  Other  races  are  the  Ma- 
bongo,  and  the  Akka  dwarfs  of  Central  Africa; 
and  a  race  is  said  to  exist  in  the  Congo  State, 
not  as  a  distinct  conmaunity,  however,  but 
mixed  with  other  tribes.  Individual  dwarfs  oc- 
cur in  all  races,  and  were  formerly  a  fashionable 
appendage  to  the  courts  of  princes  and  the  fam- 
ihes  of  nobles.  Jeffery  Hudson,  the  favorite 
dwarf  of  Charles  I.,  at  the  age  of  thirty  is  said  to 
have  been  only  eighteen  inches  high,  though  he 
afterwards  grew  to  three  feet  and  nine  inches. 
B6b6,  the  celebrated  dwarf  of  Stanislas  of  Po- 
land, was  thirty-three  inches;  Wybrand  Lolkes, 
a  Dutch  dwarf,  when  sixty  years  of  age  was  only 
twenty-seven  inches;  Charles  H.  Stratton,  "  Gen- 
eral Tom  Thumb,"  was  thirty-one  inches  high 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five ;  Francis  Flyim,  "  Gen- 
eral Mite,"  was  only  twenty-one  inches  at  six- 
teen. 


Dying  Gaul,  The.  This  celebrated 
antique  statue  of  the  Pergamene  school,  form- 
erly known  as  "The  Dying  Gladiator,"  may  be 
seen  in  the  Capitoline  Museum,  Rome.  The 
warrior  nude,  sits  on  the  ground  with  bowed 
head,  supporting  himself  with  his  right  arm. 
The  statue  is  especially  fine  in  the  mastery  of 
anatomy  displayed,  and  in  its  characterization 
of  the  racial  type. 

earthquakes.  A  shaking  of  certain  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface,  produced  by  causes  not 
perceivable  by  our  senses.  This  motion  occurs 
in  very  different  ways,  having  sometimes  a  per- 
pendicular, sometimes  a  horizontal  undulating, 
and  sometimes  a  whirling  motion.  It  also  va- 
ries much  in  degrees  of  violence,  from  a  shock 
which  is  hardly  perceptible  to  one  which  bursts 
open  chasms  and  changes  the  appearance  of  the 
ground  itself.  During  these  shocks  sometimes 
smoke  and  flames,  but  more  frequently  stones 
and  torrents  of  water  are  discharged.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  earthquakes  and  volcanic  erup- 
tions are  kindred  phenomena,  the  latter  differing 
from  the  former  principally  in  proceeding  from 
a  permanent  crater.  All  observations  go  to 
prove  that  both  are  due  to  disruptions  produced 
by  internal  heat  at  a  great  depth  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  Of  the  particular  way  in 
which  this  force  works,  however,  there  are  vari- 
ous theories.  It  has  been  thought  by  some 
that  the  center  of  earthquakes  and  volcanic  dis- 
turbances is  always  near  the  sea  or  other  large 
supplies  of  water,  and  that  the  disturbances  are 
directly  caused  by  the  filtration  of  the  water 
down  to  igneous  matter,  and  the  consequent 
generation  of  vast  quantities  of  steam  which 
frees  itself  by  explosion.  Others  have  sought 
to  explain  earthquakes  as  part  of  the  phenomena 
of  a  planet  cooling  at  the  surface.  The  parts 
of  the  world  most  frequented  by  earthquakes 
are  exhibited  in  the  following  table: 


Area 


Scandinavia, 

British  Isles 

France, 

Spain  and  Portugal 

Switzerland 

Italy 

Holland  and  North  Germany, 

Sicily 

Greece 

Russia 

Asia  Minor 

India •  .    .    .    . 

Japan 

Africa, 

Atlantic  Islands 

United  States,  Pacific  Coast, 

Atlantic  Coast, 

Mexico, 

Central  America 

West  Indies 

South  America, 

Java, 

Australia  and  Tasmania,    .    . 
New  Zealand 


Earth- 
quakes 


646 
1,139 
2,793 
2,656 
3,895 
27,673 
2,326 
4,332 
10,306 

258 
4,451 

813 
27,562 

179 
1.704 
4,467 

937 
5,586 
2,739 
2,561 
8,081 
2,155 
83 
1,925 


The  most  remarkable  earthquakes  of  history 
are  the  following: 

B.  C. 

One  which  made  Eubcea  an  island 426 

Ellice  and  Bula,  in  Peloponnesus,  swallowed  up, .    .     372 
One  at  Rome,  when,  in  obediance  to  an  oracle,  M. 
Curtius,  armed  and  mounted  on  a  stately  horse, 
leaped   into  the  dreadful   chasm  it  occasioned 
{Liw) 368 


MISCELLANY 


787 


B.C. 
Duras,  in  Greece,  buried,  with  all  its  inhabitants; 

and  twelve  cities  in  Campania  also  buried,  .    .    .     345 
Lysimachia  and  its  inhabitants  totally  buried,    .    .     283 

A.  D. 

Ephesus  and  other  cities  overturned, 17 

One  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius;   the 

cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  buried, ...        79 
Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  and  two  in  Galatia 

overturned, 107 

Antioch  destroyed, 115 

Nicomedia,  Casarea,  and  Nictea  overturned,   .    .    .      126 
In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia,   150  cities  and 
towns  damaged,    ..............     357 

Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its  inhabitants 

buried  in  its  ruins 358 

One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world 543 

At  Constantinople;  its^edifices  destroyed,  and  thou- 
sands perished 557 

In  Africa;  many  cities  overturned 560 

Awful  one  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Asia;  more  than 
500  towns  were  destroyed,  and  the  loss  of  life 

surpassed  all  calculations, 742 

In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 801 

Constantinople  overturned ;  all  Greece  shaken,  .    .     936 

One  felt  throughout  England 1089 

One  at  Antioch;    many  towns  destroyed,  among 

them  Mariseum  and  Mamistria, 1114 

Catania,  in  Sicily,  overturned,  and  15,000  persons 

buried  in  the  ruins 1137 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln,  .    .    .    ...    .    ■    .    .    1142 

At  Calabria;   one  of  its  cities  and  all  its  inhabitants 

overwhelmed  in  the  Adriatic  Sea 1186 

One  again  felt  throughout  England;    Glastonbury 

destroyed 1274 

In  England;  the  greatest  known  there, 1318 

At  Naples ;  40,000  persons  perished 1456 

At  Lisbon;  1,500  houses  and  30,000  persons  buried 
in  the  ruins;    several  neighboring  towns  ingulfed 

with  their  inhabitants, 1531 

One  felt  in  London;    part  of  St.  Paul's  and  the 

Temple  churches  fell 1580 

In  Japan;   several  cities  made  ruins,  and  thousands 

perished, 1596 

Awful  one  at  Calabria 1638 

One  in  China,  when  300,000  persons  were  buried  in 

Pekin  alone, 1662 

One  severely  felt  in  Ireland 1690 

One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroyed  Port  Royal, 
whose  houses  were  ingulfed  forty  fathoms  deep, 

and  300  persons  perished 1692 

One  in  Sicily,  which  overturned  fifty-four  cities  and 
towns,  and  300  villages.  Of  Catania  and  its 
18,000  inhabitants   not  a  trace  remained;    more 

than  100,000  lives  were  lost 1693 

Palermo  nearly  destroyed ;  6,000  lives  lost 1726 

Again  in  China;   and  100,000  people  swallowed  up 

at  Pekin 1731 

In  Hungary;  a  mountain  turned  round, 1736 

One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up  a  convent; 

but  the  monks  escaped, 1740 

Lima  and  Callao  demolished ;   18,000  persons  buried 

in  the  ruins 1746 

In   London,   a   slight   shock,    February  8th;     but 

severer  shock,  March  8th, 1750 

Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed 1752 

At  Grand  Cairo ;  half  of  the  houses  and  40,000  per- 
sons swallowed  up 1754 

Quito  destroyed 1755 

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.  In  about  eight  min- 
utes most  of  the  houses  and  upward  of  50,000 
inhabitants  were  swallowed  up,  and  whole  streets 
buried.  The  cities  of  Coimbra,  Oporto,  and 
Braga  suffered  dreadfully,  and  St.  Ubes  was 
wholly  overturned.  In  Spain,  a  large  part  of 
Malaga  became  ruins.  One-half  of  Fez,  in  Mo- 
rocco, was  destroyed,  and  more  than  12,000 
Arabs  perished  there.  Above  half  of  the  island 
of  Madeira  became  waste;  and  2,000  houses  in 
the  island  of  Mytilene,  in  the  Archipelago,  were 
overthrown.     This  awful   earthquake   extended  . 

5,000  miles;  even  to  Scotland 1755 

In  Syria,  extended  over  10,000  square  miles;   Baal- 

bec  destroyed 1759 

At  Martinico,  1,600  persons  lost  their  lives,      .    .    .    1767 
At  Guatemala,  which,  with  8,000  inhabitants,  was 

swallowed  up, 1773 

A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna, 1778 

At  Tauris;  15,000  houses  thrown  down,  and  multi- 
tudes buried, ....    1780 

Messina  and  other  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily  over- 
thrown; 40,000  persons  perished 1783 


A.  D. 

Archindschan  wholly  destroyed,  and  12,000  per- 
sons buried  in  its  ruins 1784 

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro;   many  houses  and  1,000 

persons  swallowed  up,  .    .    .' 1789 

Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily 1791 

In    Naples:     Vesuvius   overwhelmed    the    city   of 

Torre  del  Greco 1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in  three  towns,  10,000  persons 

lost  their  lives, 1794 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  F^  and  Panama 
destroyed,  including  Cusco  and  Quito;    40,000 

people  buried  in  one  second 1797 

At  Constantinople,  which  destroyed  the  royal 
palace  and  an  immensity  of  buildings,  and  ex- 
tended into  Romania  and  Wallachia, 1 800 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland 1804 

At  Frosolone,  Naples;  6,000  lives  lost 1805 

At  the  Azores;  a  village  of  St.  Michael's  sunk,  and 
a  lake  of  boiling  water  appeared  in  its  place,  .    .    1810 

Awful  one  at  Caraccas  (which  see.) 1812 

Several  throughout  India;   district  of  Kutch  sunk; 

2,000  persons  buried, 1819 

Genoa,   Palermo,   Rome,'  and   many  other  towns 

greatly  damaged;  thousands  perish, 1819 

One  in  Calabria  and  Sicily 1826 

In  Spain;  Mercia  and  numerous  villages  devas- 
tated ;  6,000  persons  perish 1829 

In  the  Duchy  of  Parma;  no  less  than  forty  shocks 
were  experienced  at  Borgotaro;  and  at  Pontre- 
moli  many  houses  were  thrown  down,  and  not  a 

chimney  was  left  standing, 1834 

In  Calabria,  Cosenza  and  villages  destroyed;    1,000 

persons  buried 1835 

In  Calabria;   1,000  buried  at  Rossano,  etc.,  ....    1836 
In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by  which  hun- 
dreds of  houses  were  thrown  down,  and  thou- 
sands of  lives  lost, 1836 

At  Martinique;  nearly  half  of  Port  Royal  de- 
stroyed;    nearly    700    persons    killed,    and    the 

whole  island  damaged 1839 

At  Ternate ;  the  island  made  a  waste,  and  thousands 

of  lives  lost 1840 

Awful  and  destructive  earthquake  at  Mount  Ararat, 
in  one  of  the  districts  of  Armenia;  3,137  houses 
were  overthrown,  and  several  hundred  persons 

perished 1840 

Great  earthquake  at  Zante,  where  many  persons 

perished, 1840 

At  Cape  Haytien,  St.  Domingo,  which  destroyed 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  town;    between  4,000 

and  5,000  lives  were  lost, 1842 

At  Point  i  Pitre,  Guadaloupe,  which  was  entirely 

destroyed, 1843 

At  Rhodes  and  Macri,  when  a  mountain  fell  in  at 
the  latter  place,  crushing  a  village,  and  destroy- 
ing 600  persons, 1851 

At  Valparaiso,  where  more  than  400  houses  were 

destroyed 1851 

In  South  Italy;    Melfi  almost  laid  in  ruins;    14,000 

lives  lost, 1851 

At  Philippine  Isles;   Manila  nearly  destroyed,     .    .    1852 

In  Northwest  of  England,  slight 1852 

Thebes,  in  Greece,  nearly  destroyed 1853 

St.  Salvador,  South  America,  destroyed,^ 1854 

Amasca,  in  Japan,  and  Simoda,  in  Niphon,  de- 
stroyed; Jeddo  much  injured, 1854 

Broussa,  in  Turkey,  nearly  destroyed, 1855 

Several  villages  in  Central  Europe  destroyed,  .    .    .    1855 

•Jeddo  nearly  destroyed 1855 

At  the  island  of  Great  Sanger,  one  of  the  Moluccas, 
volcanic  eruption  and  earthquake;    nearly  3,000 

lives  lost, 1856 

In  the  Mediterranean;    at  Candia,  500  lives  lost; 

Rhodes,  100;   and  other  islands,  150 1856 

In  Calabria,  Montemurro  and  many  other  towns 
destroyed,  and  about  22,000  lives  lost  in  a  few 

seconds, 1857 

Corinth  nearly  destroyed,    . 1858 

At  Quito;  about  5,000  persons  killed,  and  an  im- 
mense amount  of  property  destroyed, 1859 

At  Erzeroura,  Asia  Minor;  above  1,000  persons  said 

to  have  perished 1859 

At  San  Salvador;    many  buildings  destroyed,   no 

lives  lost 1859 

In  Cornwall,  slight, 1859-1860 

At  Perugia,  Italy;  several  lives  lost 1861 

At  Mendoza,  South  America;    about  two-thirds  of 

the  city  and  7,000  hves  lost 1861 

In  Greece;   North  Morea,  Corinth,  and  other  places 

injured, 1861 

Guatemala;  150  buildings  and  fourteen  churches 
destroyed 1862 


788 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


AD. 

Rhodes;  thirteen  villages  destroyed,  about  300 
persons  perished,  and  much  cattle  and  property 

lost 1863 

Manila,  Philippine  Isles;  immense  destruction  of 
property;  about  10,000  persons  perished,     .    .    .    1863 

Central,  West,  and  Northwest  of  England 1863 

At  Macchia,  Bendinella,  etc.,  Sicily;    200  houses 

destroyed,  sixty-four  persons  killed, 1865 

In  San  Francisco,  California,  great  damage,  .  .  .  1865 
On  the  Hawaiian  (Sandwich)  Islands,  accompanied 
by  an  eruption  of  Mauno  Loa.  During  a  period 
of  fifteen  days  over  two  thousand  shocks  were 
experienced.  The  eruption  of  lava  was  profuse, 
causing  much  destruction  of  life  and  property,  .  .  1868 
Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Chile  were  largely  devastated 
by  a  violent  earthquake,  which  destroyed  several 
large  cities  along  the  coast.  It  is  reported  that 
between  30,000  and  60,000  people  lost  their  lives,  1868 

Island  of  Ischia, 1884 

Charleston,  South  Carolina, 1886 

Mentone  and  the  Riviera  of  Italy, 1887 

Japan,  4,000  killed;  50,000  houses  destroyed,  .  .  1891 
Greece,  200  lives  lost  and  many  buildings  destroyed,  1894 
Constantinople  and  along  the  Dardanelles, ....  1894 
Valparaiso,  Chile,  great  loss  of  life  and  property,  .  1906 
San  Francisco,  1,000  lives  lost  and  $400,000,000  in 

property  destroyed 1906 

Sicily  and  Calabria.  Greatest  earthquake  of 
modern  times,  if  not  of  all  time,  resulting  in 
the  destruction  of  Messina,  Reggio,  and  many 
smaller  towns  and  villages,  including  upward  of 
200,000  hves 1908 

East  India  Company.  The  name  of 
various  mercantile  associations  formed  in  dif- 
ferent countries  in  the  Seventeenth  and  Eight- 
eenth Centuries  for  the  purpose  of  conducting 
under  the  auspices  of  the  government  a  monopoly 
of  the  trade  of  their  respective  countries  witn 
the  East  Indies.  The  greatest  of  these  was  the 
British  East  India  Company. 

Education,  Cost  of,  In  Various 
Countries.  The  figures  given  in  the  tables  of 
the  cost  of  higher  education  in  various  countries 
are  from  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, and  are  intended  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
approximate  amounts  paid  for  higher  education 
ill  the  principal  countries  of  the  world.  Educa- 
tional systems  differ  greatly  in  different  countries, 
and  it  is  possible  to  make  fair  comparisons  of  cost 
only  where  it  is  possible  to  make  fair  comparisons 
of  the  systems  employed.  In  Germany  a  great 
deal  of  such  work  as  is  done  in  higher  educational 
institutions  in  this  country  is  carried  on  in  the 
secondary  schools,  or  gymnasia.  In  a  number  of 
countries  which  might  have  place  in  these  tables 
it  was  impossible  to  obtain  data,  according  to  the 
Commissioner's  report,  and  no  safe  figures  can  be 
given.  In  other  cases  census  figures  had  to  be 
used,  though  dating  back  several  years  previous 
to  the  time  of  the  report.  The  data  for  Greece 
was  obtained  shortly  after  the  war  with  Turkey, 
and  are  much  lower  than  might  be  expected. 

The  cost  of  higher  education  in  the  United 
States  can  be  approximated  only,  as  the  expenses 
are  met  by  so  many  different  methods.  For  the 
sarne  reason  only  an  approximation  of  the  per 
capita  can  be  given. 


CODNTBY 


Algeria,  . 

Argentine, 

Australia, 

Austria,  . 

Belgium, 

Bulgaria, 

Canada,  . 


Expenditure 

Per 

FOR  Higher 

Capita 

Education 

(Cents) 

S  128,535 

2.9 

250,000 

6.0 

614,140 

15.2 

2,692,370 

11.3 

748,267 

11.4 

75,498 

2.3 

1,014,254 

19.5 

Country 


Denmark, 

France 

Germany, 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

Greece 

Hungary 

Italy 

Liberia 

Netherlands 

Norway, 

Portugal 

Rumania,   .    .    .    .    i    .    . 
Russia  (and  Siberia),    .    . 

Servia, 

Spain, 

Sweden 

Switzerland, 

United  States 


Expenditure 
FOR  Higher 

Education 


299,686 

4,391,012 

7,450,366 

8,353,655 

103,636 

1,240,246 

2,198,833 

102,434 

767,229 

166,717 

253,268 

426,324 

4,740,709 

63,690 

487,892 

653,209 

672,505 

40,705,120 


Per 
Capita 

(Cents) 


13.7 

11.4 

14.3 

21.7 

4.3 

7.1 

7.0 

1.8 

15.3 

8.3 

5.0 

7.3 

3.7 

2.8 

2.8 

13.0 

21.8 

50.0 


Esperanto.  This  artificial  international 
language,  which  has  recently  received  consider- 
able impetus,  was  invented  by  Dr.  Zamenhof, 
an  oculist  of  Warsaw,  in  1887.  His  brochure 
was  published  under  the  pseudonym,  Dr.  Esper- 
anto; hence  the  name.  Simple  in  grammar, 
and  forming  its  words  by  tlie  addition  of  prefixes 
and  suffixes  to  root  words,  it  is  akin  to  English 
in  syntax,  to  French  in  vocabulary,  to  Spanish 
or  Italian  in  sound,  to  German  in  the  abundance 
of  prefixes  and  suffixes,  to  Greek  in  correlative 
pronouns  and  the  formation  of  participles  and 
compound  tenses,  and  to  the  Slavonic  languages 
in  the  want  of  the  indefinite  article. 

The  grammar,  which  is  absolutely  regular  and 
without  any  exceptions,  has  been  reduced  to  the 
utmost  extent,  having  due  regard  to  the  neces- 
sary qualities  of  clearness,  precision,  and  flexi- 
bility. There  are  only  sixteen  rules,  and  the 
reading,  it  is  stated,  can  be  learned  in  one  hour. 
The  noun  is  indicated  by  the  terminal  "o,"  to 
which  "j"  is  added  to  indicate  the  plural. 
Adjectives  terminate  in  "a,"  adverbs  in  "e," 
and  the  infinitive  in  "  i." 

The  principle  adopted  in  the  formation  of  the 
vocabulary  is  the  selection  of  those  root-words 
which  are  common  to  all  the  principal  European 
languages,  then  those  which  are  common  to  all 
but  one,  to  all  but  two,  and  so  forth.  For 
connective  words  (conjunctions,  prepositions) 
Latin  and  Greek,  too,  have  been  used  some- 
times. By  means  of  an  elaborate  system  of 
clearly  defined  prefixes  and  suffixes  the  dic- 
tionary is  simplified  and  augmerited  to  an 
almost  unlimited  degree:  e.  g.  mal  is  the  prefix 
denoting  contrary  notion,  thus  bona=good, 
malbona=bad,  fermi=to  close,  malfermi=to 
open;  in  is  the  suffix  for  the  feminine,  thus 
knabo=boy,  knabino=girl;  et  is  the  suffix  for 
diminutives,  thus  knabeto= little  boy,  knabine- 
tino= little  girl;  knabinetinigi  would  mean  to 
behave  like  a  little  girl,  and  so  forth.  The 
syntax  of  Esperanto  is  free,  the  order  of  words 
suffering  very  little  constraint.  Its  pronuncia- 
tion is  phonetic,  every  letter  having  always  the 
same  sound  and  being  pronounced  where  written. 
Numerous  works  have  been  published  in  Esper- 
anto, including  a  number  of  scientific  works,  to 
show  the  adaptability  of  the  tongue  to  all  pur- 
poses. 

In  1906,  the  English  Chamber  of  Commerce 


MISCELLANY 


789 


put  Esperanto  on  the  examination  list  for 
applicants  for  positions.  It  is  an  elective 
branch  of  study  in  many  schools  to-day,  especi- 
ally in  France.  Recently  it  has  been  made  an 
elective  in  several  prominent  American  uni- 
versities. In  Frankfort,  Germany,  an  Inter- 
national Commercial  Esperanto  Society  was 
founded  in  1906.  American  officers  and  magis- 
trates in  the  Philippines  find  the  language  useful. 
There  are  yearly  international  congresses  of 
Esperantists,  and  the  study  of  the  language 
extends  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  There  are 
about  thirty  journals  and  papers  advocating  the 
cause.  The  English  organ  is  The  British  Esper- 
antist.  The  headquarters  of  the  American 
Esperanto  Association  is  in  Boston,  Mass. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  language, 
which  shows  how  readily  it  can  be  understood 
by  an  English-speaking  individual :  "  Esperanto 
estas  helpa  lingvo  internacia,  eksterordinare 
facila;  estas  tre  bonsona,  kaj  egale  bona  por  la 
komerco,  la  scienco,  la  literaturo  kaj  la  poezio." 

The  favorite  grammar  of  Esperanto  for  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  is  O'Connor's  Complete 
Textbook. 

Flag,  United  States.  On  June  14, 1777, 
the  United  States  Congress  passed  a  resolution 
declaring  "that  the  flag  of  the  thirteen  United 
States  be  stripes  alternate  red  and  white;  that 
the  union  be  thirteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field, 
representing  the  new  constellation."  In  1794, 
Congress  decreed  that  after  May  1,  1795,  "the 
flag  of  the  United  States  be  fifteen  stripes,  alter- 
nate red  and  white,  and  that  the  union  be 
fifteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field."  This 
change  was  made  to  mark  the  admission  of  Ver- 
mont and  Kentucky  into  the  Union.  The  stars 
and  stripes  were  then  equal  and  a  star  and  stripe 
were  to  be  added  with  the  admission  of  each  new 
State..    It  was  realized,  however,  that  the  addi- 


tion of  a  stripe  for  each  new  State  would  soon 
render  the  flag  too  large,  and  a  resolution  was 
accordingly  passed  by  Congress,  April  4,  1818, 
reducing  the  number  of  stripes  to  thirteen  — 
representing  the  original  Union  —  and  making 
the  stars  twenty  in  number.  It  was,  further- 
more, enacted  that  a  new  star  should  be  added 
for  each  new  State  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  flag  now  contains  forty-six  stars,  corre- 
sponding to  the  forty-six  States. 

According  to  tradition  the  first  flag,  known  as 
the  "Stars  and  Stripes,"  was  made  by  Mrs. 
Betsy  Ross  of  Philadelphia,  about  whom  suc- 
ceeding years  have  thrown  a  glamor  of  patriotic 
romance. 

Fool,  Court,  or  Jester.  Among  the  more 
celebrated  of  French  court-fools  were  Triboulet 
of  the  court  of  Francis  I.;  Chicot,  the  jester  of 
Charles  IX.;  and  Angely,  the  cynical  buffoon 
of  Louis  XIII.,  and  the  last  of  his  order  in  that 
country.  England  had  also  her  special  repre- 
sentatives in  this  .field  of  Momus ;  the  court-fool 
of  Henry  VIII.,  with  their  retinue  of  giants  and 
Xit,  the  dwarf,  and  Archie  Armstrong,  James 
I.'s  licensed  joker,  being  the  most  celebrated. 
Court-fools  in  all  European  countries  save  Rus- 
sia were  discontinued  soon  after  the  first  quarter 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Peter  the  Great 
and  the  Empress  Anne,  however,  kept  up  the 
practice  much  later. 

Freemasonry.  The  name  of  a  secret 
brotherhood  which  claims  a  very  remote  origin, 
and  seems  to  have  descended  to  us  directly  from 
the  craft  guilds  of  the  mediaeval  period.  Modern 
Masonry  arose  in  England  in  tlie  early  part  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  and  has  no  connection 
with  the  builder's  craft.  It  was  first  estabhshed 
in  the  United  States  in  1723.  There  are  now 
in  the  United  States  and  British  America  a  total 
of  about  1,289,000  members. 


DEGREES   IN    FREEMASONRY 


Yqrk  Rite 


Scottish  Rite 


Lodge 

1.  Entered  Apprentice. 

2.  Fellow  Craftsman. 

3.  Master  Mason. 

Chapter 

4.  Mark  Master. 

5.  Past  Master. 

6.  Most  Excellent  Master. 

7.  Royal  Arch  Mason. 

Council 

8.  Royal  Master. 

9.  Select  Master. 

10.  Super  Excellent  Master. 

Commandery. 

11.  Red  Cross  Knight. 

12.  Knight  Templar. 

13.  Knight  of  Malta. 


Lodge  of  Perfection 

4.  Secret  Master. 

5.  Perfect  Master. 

6.  Intimate  Secretary. 

7.  Provost  and  Judge. 

8.  Intendant  of  the  Build- 

ing. 

9.  Elect  of  Nine. 

10.  Elect  of  Fifteen. 

11.  Sublime  Knight  Elect. 

12.  Grand    Master    Archi- 

tect. 

13.  Knight   of   the   Ninth 

Arch. 

14.  Grand    Elect     Perfect 

and  Sublime  Mason. 

Councils  of  Princes  of 
Jerusalem 

15.  Knight  of  the  East  or 

Sword. 


Councils  of  Princes  of 
Jerusalem  {Continued) 

16.  Prince  of  Jerusalem. 

Chapters  of  Rose  Croix 

17.  Knight  of  the  East  and 

West. 

18.  Knight    of    the    Rose 

Croix  de  H.  R.  D.  M. 

Consistories  of  Sublime 

Princes  of  the  Royal 

Secret 

19.  Grand  Pontiff. 

20.  Master  Ad  Vitam. 

21.  Patriarch  Noachite. 

22.  Prince  of  Libanus. 

23.  Chief    of    the    Taber- 

nacle. 

24.  Prince   of   the  Taber- 

nacle. 


Consistories  of  Sublime 
Princes  of  the  Royal 
Secret  {Continued) 

25.  Knight   of  the   Brazen 

Serpent. 

26.  Prince  of  Mercy. 

27.  Commander      of      the 

Temple. 

28.  Knight  of  the  Sun. 

29.  Knight  of  St.  Andrew. 

30.  Grand    Elect    Knight. 

K.  H.,  or  Knight  of 
the  Black  and  White 
Eagle. 

31.  Grand     Inspector     In- 

quisitor Commander. 

32.  Sublime  Prince  of   the 

Royal  Secret. 

33.  Sovereign    G,rand     In- 

spector-General of 
the  33d  and  Last 
Degree. 


Gardens  of  the  World.  Garden  of 
Eden.  First  abode  of  man,  supposed  to 
be  located  near  the  city  of  Babylon. 

Garden  of  England.  Worcestershire  and 
Kent.     Both  so  called. 

Garden  of  Erin.     Carlow,  in  Leinster. 

Garden  of  Europe.  Italy  and  Belgium. 
Both  so  called. 


Garden  of  France.      Amboise,  in  the  department 

of  Indre-et-Loire. 
Garden  of  Gethsemane.     East  of  Jerusalem,  near 

the  Brook  Kedron. 
Garden  of  Helvetia.     Name   given   to  Thurgau, 

Switzerland. 
Garden  of  Hesperides.     In   the  western   part  of 

the  mythological  world. 


790 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Garden  of  India.     Oude. 

Garden  of  Italy.     Sicily. 

Garden  of  South  Wales.  The  southern  divis- 
ion of  Glamorganshire. 

Garden  of  Spain.     Andalusia. 

Garden  of  the  Argentine.  Turcunian,  a 
province  of  Argentinia. 

Garden  of  the  East.  Ceylon  and  Burmah. 
Both  so  called.  Ceylon  is  also  called 
"  The  Resplendent  " ;  the  "Jewel  of  the 
Eastern  Sea";  the  "Gem  of  Paradise." 
Its  climate  and  productions  are  quite 
unrivaled. 

Garden  of  the  West.  Illinois  and  Kansas. 
Both  so  called. 

Garden  of  the  World.  The  region  of  the 
Mississippi. 
Giants.  The  following  are  among  authen- 
tic instances  of  persons  who  attained  to  the 
stature  of  giants:  The  Roman  Emperor  Maxi- 
min,  a  Thracian,  nearly  9  feet  high;  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Flemish  porter,  7  feet  6  inches;  C. 
Munster,  a  yeoman  of  the  guard  in  Hanover, 
who  died  in  1676,  8  feet  6  inches  high;  Cajanus, 
a  Swedish  giant,  about  9  feet  high,  exhibited  in 
London  in  1742;  C.  Byrne,  who  died  in  1783, 
attained  the  height  of  8  feet  4  inches;  Patrick 
Cotter  O'Brien,  who  lived  about  the  same  time, 
was  8  feet  7 J  inches;  a  Swede  in  the  celebrated 
grenadier  guard  of  Frederick  'VYilham  I.  of 
Prussia  stood  8^  feet.  In  1844,  died  Pauline 
Wedde  (called  Marian),  over  8  feet  2  inches  at 
the  age  of  18.  The  following  are  still  or  were 
quite  recently  exhibiting :  Anna  Swan,  a  native 
of  Nova  Scotia,  above  8  feet  high ;  her  husband, 
Captain  Bates,  a  native  of  Kentucky,  of  the  same 
height ;  Chang-wu-gon,  the  Chinese  giant,  7  feet 
9  inches  high. 

Gypsies.  Popularly  supposed  to  be  Egyp- 
tians. In  Italian  they  are  known  as  Zingaro; 
Spanish,  Zingaro;  French,  Bohemien;  Danish, 
Tater,  etc.  They  are  a  peculiar  vagabond  race 
which  appeared  in  England  for  the  first  time 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
and  in  eastern  Europe  at  least  two  centuries 
earlier,  and  now  found  in  every  country  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  The  Gypsies  are  distinguishable  from 
the  peoples  among  whom  they  rove  by  their 
bodily  appearance  and  by  their  language.  Their 
forms  are  generally  light,  lithe,  and  agile;  skin 
of  a  tawny  color;  eyes  large,  black,  and  brilliant ; 
hair  long,  coal  black,  and  often  ringleted ;  mouth 
well  shaped,  and  teeth  very  white. 

Hall  of  Fame.  A  hall  erected  on  Univer- 
sity Heights,  New  York,  in  1900,  in  commemo- 
ration of  great  Americans.  It  is  a  semi-circular 
colonnade  connecting  two  of  the  buildings  of 
New  York  University,  with  a  ground  floor  under- 
neath containing  a  long  hall  and  six  rooms  to  be 
used  as  a  museum  to  contain  memorials  of  those 
honored.  Space  is  provided  within  the  colon- 
nade for  150  panels,  which  are  to  contain  bronze 
tablets  bearing  the  names  (with  busts  or  statues 
of  bronze  or  parapets  just  above)  of  such 
Americans  as  shall  be  judged  most  famous  in 
their  respective  fields  by  an  electorate  of  eminent 
Anierican  citizens  appointed  by  the  senate  of  the 
University. 

Only  persons  who  shall  have  been  dead  ten  or 


more  years  are  eligible  to  be  chosen.  Fifteen 
classes  of  citizens  were  particularly  recommended 
for  consideration,  to- wit :  Authors  and  editors, 
business  men,  educators,  inventors,  missionaries 
and  explorers,  philanthropists  and  reformers, 
preachers  and  theologians,  scientists,  engineers 
and  architects,  lawyers  and  judges,  musicians, 
painters  and  sculptors,  physicians  and  surgeons, 
rulers  and  statesmen,  soldiers  and  sailors,  distin- 
guished men  and  women  outside  the  above 
classes.  Fifty  names  were  to  be  inscribed  on  the 
tablets  at  the  beginning,  and  five  additional 
names  every  fifth  year  thereafter,  until  the  year 
2,000,  when  the  150  inscriptions  will  be  completed. 
In  case  of  failure  to  fill  all  the  panels  allotted, 
the  vacancies  are  to  be  filled  in  a  following  year." 

In  February,  1904,  the  plan  was  announced 
of  an  additional  structure  in  the  form  of  a  loggia 
joining  the  colonnade  on  the  north,  having 
thirty  panels  for  foreign  born  Americans,  six  to 
be  filled  in  1905,  and  beyond  this  of  a  Hall  of 
Fame  for  Women,  about  30  by  60  feet,  with  a 
museum  on  the  ground  floor  and  a  main  story 
above  of  twenty-eight  columns  supporting  a 
pedimented  roof,  with  places  for  sixty  tablets, 
ten  to  be  filled  in  1905. 

The  rules  prescribed  that  the  Council  should 
invite  nominations  from  the  public.  Every 
nomination  seconded  by  a  member  of  the  Uni- 
versity Senate  should  be  submitted  to  an  electo- 
rate of  one  hundred  eminent  citizens  selected  by 
the  Council. 

In  October,  1900,  the  University  Senate  re- 
ceived the  ballots  of  the  electors.  Of  the  one 
hundred  judges  selected,  ninety-seven  voted. 
The  number  of  names  which  had  been  submitted 
to  them  was  252.  Of  these  each  judge  returned 
a  vote  for  fifty.  The  rule  required  that  no  can- 
didate receiving  less  than  fifty-one  votes  could 
be  accepted.  The  returns  showed  that  but 
twenty-nine  candidates  received  the  required 
number  and  were  chosen.  These  were  as  fol- 
lows: George  Wasliington,  Abraham  Lincoln, 
Daniel  Webster,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Ulysses  S. 
Grant,  John  Marshall,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  Henry  W.  Longfellow,  Robert 
Fulton,  Washington  Irving,  Jonathan  Edwards, 
Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  David  G.  Farragut,  Henry 
Clay,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  George  Peabody, 
Robert  E.  Lee,  Peter  Cooper,  Eli  Whitney,  John 
J.  Audubon,  Horace  Mann,  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
James  Kent,  Joseph  Story,  John  Adams,  William 
E.  Channing,  Gilbert  Stuart,  Asa  Gray. 

In  October,  1905,  under  the  rules  named  above, 
the  senate  received  the  ballots  of  ninety-five 
Electors  out  of  101  appointed,  of  whom  only 
eighty-five  undertook  to  consider  the  names  of 
women.  A  majority  of  fifty-one  was  demanded, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  names  of  women,  a  majority 
of  only  forty-seven.  The  following  persons  were 
found  to  be  duly  chosen :  John  Quincy  Adams, 
fifty-nine;  James  Russell  Lowell,  fifty-eight; 
William  Tecumseh  Sherman,  fifty-eight;  Janies 
Madison,  fifty-six;  John  Greenleaf  Whittier 
fifty-three;  Alexander  Hamilton,  eighty-eight; 
Louis  Agassiz,  eighty-three;  John  Paul  Jones, 
fifty-four;  Mary  Lyon,  fifty-eight;  Emma 
Willard,  fifty;  Maria  Mitchell,  forty-eight. 

The  third  election  was  held  in  1910,  the  total 
number  of  ballots  cast  being  ninety-seven,  and 


MISCELLANY 


791 


the  number  required  for  a  choice  fifty-one. 
Eleven  new  members  were  elected,  as  follows: 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  seventy-four;  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes,  sixty-nine;  Edgar  Allan  Poe, 
sLxty-nine;  Roger  Williams,  sixty-four;  James 
Fenimore  Cooper,  sixty-two;  Phillips  Brooks, 
sixty;  William Cullen  Bryant, fifty-nine ;  Frances 
E.  Willard,  fifty-six;  Andrew  Jackson,  fifty- 
three;  George  Bancroft,  fifty-three;  John 
Lothrop  Motley,  fifty-one. 

The  Hall  of  Fame,  as  it  is  now  constituted,- 
includes  thirteen  authors,  eleven  statesmen,  five 
soldiers  and  sailors,  five  preachers,  four  teachers, 
three  scientists,  three  inventors,  three  jurists, 
two  philanthropists,  one  artist,  and  one  reformer. 
Among  these  there  are  five  women,  and  four 
Americans  of  foreign  birth,  of  whom,  however, 
three  were  born  before  America  became  a  nation. 

Hartford  Convention.  A  political  as- 
sembly which  met  at  Hartford,  December  15, 
1814,  and  January  5,  1815.  It  was  composed  of 
twelve  delegates  from  Massachusetts  (including 
its  president,  George  Cabot),  seven  from  Con- 
necticut, and  four  from  Rhode  Island  (appointed 
by  the  legislatures  of  those  States),  and  two 
from  New  Hampshire,  and  one  from  Vermont 
(appointed  by  counties),  all  Federalists.  It 
published  a  report  protesting  against  the  war 
with  England  and  against  the  action  of  the 
United  States  Government  in  refusing  to  pay 
the  expenses  of  defending  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut  because  those  States  refused  to 
place  their  militias  under  the  control  of  the 
Federal  Government,  and  recommended,  among 
other  things,  the  restriction  of  the  powers  of 
Congress  pertaining  to  war  and  to  the  laying  of 
embargos.  Its  proceedings  were  carried  on  in 
secret,  and  the  convention  was  suspected  at  the 
time  of  treason. 

Hobson's  Choice.  Tobias  Hobson  was 
the  first  man  in  England  that  let  out  hacking 
horses.  When  a  man  came  for  a  horse  he  was 
led  into  the  stables  where  there  was  a  great 
choice;  but  he  obliged  him  to  take  the  horse 
which  stood  next  to  the  stable  door;  so  that 
every  customer  was  alike  well  served  according 
to  his  chance.  Hence,  when  something  which 
ought  to  be  one's  own  election  is  forced  upon 
him,  we  say  he  took  Hobson's  choice. 

Holidays  in  tlie  United  States. 

January  1st.  New  Year's  Day:  In  all  the 
States  (including  the  District  of  Columbia, 
Arizona,  and  New  Mexico),  except  Massachu- 
setts, Mississippi,  and  New  Hampshire. 

January  8th.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of 
New  Orleans:     In  Louisiana. 

January  19th.  Lee's  Birthday  :  In  Florida, 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia, Alabama,  and  Arkansas. 

February.  Mardi-Gras:  In  Alabama  and 
the  parish  of  Orleans,  Louisiana. 

February  12th.  Lincoln's  Birthday:  In 
Colorado,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Illinois,  Kan- 
sas, Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Nevada,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania, 
Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

February  22d.  Washington's  Birthddy:  In 
all  the  States,  District  of  Columbia,  and  Arizona, 
except  Mississippi.  It  is  observed,  however,  in 
the  public  schools  of  the  latter  State. 


March  2d.  Anniversary  of  Texan  Independ- 
ence :     In  Texas. 

April.  In  Oregon,  the  forty-fifth  day  preced- 
ing general  State  Election,  primary  nomi- 
nating election  held.  Every  day  on  which  an 
election  is  held  throughout  Oregon  is  a  legal 
holiday. 

Good  Friday:  In  Alabama,  Connecticut, 
Delaware,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Minne- 
sota, New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee. 

April  19th.  Patriots'  Day:  In  Maine  and 
Massachusetts. 

April  21st.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  San 
Jacinto :     In  Texas. 

April  26th.  Confederate  Memorial  Day :  In 
Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi. 

May  10th.  Confederate  Memorial  Day :  In 
North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

May  (Second  Friday)  Confederate  Day:  In 
Tennessee. 

May  20th.  Anniversary  of  the  Signing  of  the 
Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Independence:  In 
North  Carolina. 

May  (last  Friday).  Pioneers'  Day  :^  In  Montana, 
observed  in  public  schools. 

May  30th.  DecQration  Day:  In  all  the 
States  and  Territories  (and  District  of  Columbia), 
except  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Louis- 
iana, Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Texas,  and  Louisiana.  In  Virginia, 
known  as  "  Confederate  Memorial  Day,"  as  also 
in  certain  other  Southern  States. 

June  3d.  Jefferson  Davis's  Birthday:  In 
Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Tennessee, 
Texas,  and  South  Carolina.  In  Louisiana, 
known -as  "Confederate  Memorial  Day."  In 
Virginia,  in  public  schools. 

June  (first  Monday),  even  years.  General  State 
election  in  Oregon. 

July  4th.  Independence  Day :  In  all  the 
States,  District  of  Columbia,  and  Territories. 

July  24th.     Pioneers'.  Day:     In  Utah. 

August  16th.  Bennington  Battle  Day:  In 
Vermont. 

September  (first  Monday).  Labor  Day :  In 
all  the  States  and  Territories  (and  District  of 
Columbia),  except  North  Dakota.  In  Louisiana, 
observed  in  Orleans  Parish.  In  Wyoming,  by 
proclamation  of  the  governor. 

September  (first  Tuesday).  Primary  Election 
Day :     In  Wisconsin. 

September  9th.  Admission  Day:  In  Cali- 
fornia. 

September  12th.  "  Old  Defenders' Day  " :  In 
Baltimore,  Md. 

October  31st.    Admission  Day :    In  Nevada. 

November  1st.  All  Saints'  Day:  In  Louisi- 
ana. 

November.  General  Election  Day :  In  Arizona, 
California,  Colorado,  Delaware,  Florida,  Idaho, 
Illinois  (in  Chicago,  Springfield  and  East  St. 
Louis  only),  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  Maryland,  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio  (from 
5.30  A.  M.  to  9  A.  M.  only),  Oklahoma,  Oregon 
(vote  for  presidential  elections  only),  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  South 
1  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  West  Virginia,  Wash- 


792 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


ington,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming,  in  the  years 
when  elections  are  held  therein. 

November.  Thanksgiving^  Day  (last  Thursday 
in  November) :  Is  observed  in  all  the  States,  and 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  though  in  some  States  it  is  not  a 
statutory  holiday. 

December  25th.  Christmas  Day:  In  all  the 
States,  District  of  Columbia,  and  Territories. 

Sundays  and  Fast  Days  are  legal  holidays  in  all  the 
States  which  designate  them  as  such. 

There  are  no  statutory  holidays  in  Mississippi,  but 
by  common  consent  the  Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving, 
and  Christmas  are  observed.  In  New  Mexico,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday,  Decoration  Day,  Labor  Day,  Flag- 
Day  (June  14),  and  Arbor  Day  are  holidays  when  so 
designated  by  the  governor.  In  South  Carolina,  Thurs- 
day of  Fair  Week  is  a  legal  holiday. 

Arbor  Day  is  a  legal  holiday  in  Arizona,  Maine, 
Maryland,  New  Mexico,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming,  the 
day  being  set  by  the  governor;  in  Texas,  February  22d; 
Nebraska,  April  22d;  Utah,  April  15th;  Rhode  Island, 
second  Friday  in  May;  Montana,  second  Tuesday  in 
May;  Georgia,  first  Friday  in  December;  Colorado 
(school  holiday  only),  third  Friday  in  April;  in  Okla- 
homa, the  Friday  following  the  second  Monday  in 
March;    in  Arkansas,  first  Saturday  in  March. 

Every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  is  a  legal  holi- 
day in  California  in  public  offices,  Illinois  (in  cities  of 
200,000  or  more  inhabitants),  Maryland,  Michigan,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island, 
Virginia,  the  District  of  Columbia  (for  banking  pur- 
poses), and  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  and  Charleston,  S.  C; 
in  Louisiana  and  Missouri  in  cities  of  100,000  or  more 
inhabitants ;  in  Tennessee,  for  State  and  county  officers, 
and  in  Colorado  during  June,  July,  and  August;  in 
Indiana,  first  Saturday  in  June  to  last  Saturday  in 
October,  inclusive,  for  all  public  offices  in  counties  hav- 
ing a  county-seat  of  100,000  population  or  more. 

There  is  no  national  holiday,  not  even  the  Fourth 
of  July.  Ojngress  has  at  various  times  appointed 
special  holidays.  In  the  second  session  of  the  Fifty- 
third  Congress  it  passed  an  act  making  Labor  Day  a 
public  holiday  in  the  District  of  Colurnbia,  and  it  has 
recognized  the  existence  of  certain  days  as  holidays  for 
commercial  purposes,  but,  with  the  exception  named, 
there  is  no  general  statute  on  the  subject.  The  procla- 
mation of  the  president  designating  a  day  of  Thanks- 
giving only  makes  it  a  legal  holiday  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  the  Territories. 

CHURCH  DAYS 

Ember  and  Rogation  Days  are  certain  periods 
of  the  year  devoted  to  prayer  and  fasting. 
Ember  Days  (twelve  annually)  are  the  Wednes- 
day, Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday 
in  Lent,  after  the  feast  of  Pentecost  (Whit  Sun- 
day), after  the  festival  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
after  the  festival  of  St.  Lucia.  Ember  Weeks 
are  the  weeks  in  which  the  Ember  Days  ap- 
pear. 

Rogation  Days  are  the  three  days  immediately 
preceding  Holy  Thursday  or  Ascension  Day. 

Easter,  the  Christian  passover  and  festival  of 
the  resurrection  of  Christ.  The  English  name 
is  probably  derived  from  that  of  the  Teutonic 
goddess  of  spring,  Ostera  or  Eostre,  whose  festi- 
val occurred  about  the  same  time  as  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter.  Those  of  the  early  (Christians 
who  believe  the  Christian  passover  to  be  a 
commemoration  of  Christ's  death  adhered  to  the 
custom  of  holding  the  Easter  festivity  on  the  day 
prescribed  for  the  Jewish  pasch,  the  14th  day  of 
the  first  month,  that  is,  the  lunar  month  of  which 
the  14th  day  either  falls  on  or  next  follows  the 
day  of  the  vernal  equinox.  But  most  of  the 
Christian  Churches,  attaching  greatest  impor- 
tance to  the  day  of  Christ's  resurrection,  held  to 
Easter's  being  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  which 


followed  the  14th  day  of  the  moon  of  March, 
the  day  on  which  Christ  suffered.  This  question 
was  the  cause  of  a  serious  difference  in  the* 
Church  as  early  as  the  Second  Century,  and  was 
not  finally  settled  until  the  Council  of  Nice  in  325. 
The  rule  was  then  adopted  which  makes  Easter 
day  to  be  always  the  first  Sunday  after  tlie  full 
moon  which  happens  upon  or  next  after  March 
21st;  and  if  the  full  moon  happens  on  a  Sunday, 
Easter  day  is  the  Sunday  after.  By  this  arrange- 
ment Easter  may  come  as  early  as  March  22d, 
or  as  late  as  April  25th.  This  sacred  festival  is 
celebrated  in  every  part  of  the  Christian  world 
with  great  solemnity  and  devotion,  and  generally 
also  with  proper  sports  and  observances.  Among 
the  best  known  of  the  latter  is  the  custom  of 
making  presents  of  colored  eggs,  called  pasch  or 
pace  eggs.  This  custom  originated  from  the 
old  German  legend  of  a  white  hare  stealing  into 
the  house  on  Easter  eve  and  secreting  a  number 
of  beautifully  colored  eggs  in  odd  corners  for 
good  little  children.  In  America,  where  the 
hare  is  practically  unknown,  the  custom  has 
been  transferred  to  the  rabbit,  its  near  relation. 
Hence,  the  colored  Easter  eggs  are  popularly 
referred  to  as  "rabbit's  eggs." 

OLD   ENGLISH   HOLIDAYS 

These  holidays,  with  their  names,  had  their 
origin  in  mediaeval  England  when  the  state 
religion  was  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
they  are  still  observed  generally  or  in  some 
parts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 

January  6th.  Twelfth  Day,  or  Twelfth-tide, 
sometimes  called  Old  Christmas  Day,  the  same 
as  Epiphany.  The  previous  evening  is  Twelfth 
Night,  with  which  many  social  rites  have  long 
been  connectecl. 

February  2d.  Candlemas:  Festival  of  the 
Purification  of  the  Virgin.  Consecration  of  the 
lighted  candles  to  be  used  in  the  church  during 
the  year. 

February  14th.  Old  Candlemas:  St.  Val- 
entine's Day. 

March  25th.  Lady  Day:  Annunciation  of 
the  Virgin.     April  6th  is  old  Lady  Day. 

June  24th.  Midsummer  Day:  Feast  of  the 
Nativity  of  John  the  Baptist.  July  7th  is  old 
Midsummer  Day. 

July  15th.  St.  Swithin's  Day.  There  was 
an  old  superstition  that  if  rain  fell  on  this  day 
it  would  continue  forty  days. 

August  1st.  Lammas  Day:  Originally  in 
England  the  festival  of  the  wheat  harvest.  In 
the  Church  the  festival  of  St.  Peter's  miraculous 
deliverance  from  prison.  Old  Lammas  Day  is 
August  13th. 

September  29th.  Michaelmas :  Feast  of  St. 
Michael,  the  Archangel.  Old  Michaelmas  is 
October  11th. 

November  1st.  Allhallowmas :  Allhallows 
or  All  Saints'  Day.  The  previous  evening  is 
AUhalloween,  observed  by  home  gatherings  and 
old-time  festive  rites. 

November  2d.  All  Souls'  Day:  Day  of 
prayer  for  the  souls  of  the  dead. 

November  11th.  Martinmas:  Feast  of  St. 
Martin.     Old  Martinmas  is  November  23d. 

December  28th.  Childermas:  Holy  Inno- 
cents' Day. 


MISCELLANY 


793 


Lady  Day,  Midsummer  Day,  Michaelmas,  and 
Christmas  are  quarter  (rent)  days  in  England, 
and  Whitsunday,  Martinmas,  Candlemas,  and 
Lammas  Day,  in  Scotland. 

Shrove  Tuesday,  the  day  before  Ash  Wednes- 
day, and  Maundy  Thursday,  the  day  before 
Good  Friday,  are  observed  by  the  Church. 
Mothering  Sunday  is  Mid-Lent  Sunday,  in  which 
the  old  rural  custom  obtains  of  visiting  one's 
parents  and  making  them  presents. 

Honeymoon.  "Honeymoon"  is  a  word 
left  us,  while  the  custom  giving  it  name  is  a 
thing  of  the  past.  It  had  its  origin  among  the 
ancient  Germans,  whose  newly-married  couples 
drank  mead  mingled  with  honey  for  thirty  days 
after  the  wedding. 

Honor,  Legion  of.  An  order  of  merit 
instituted  under  the  French  Republic  in  1802, 
by  the  First  Consul,  as  a  recompense  for  military 
and  civil  services.  The  order  originally  com- 
prised three  classes  —  grand  officers,  command- 
ers, and  legionaries.  The  class  of  grand  officers 
was,  on  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  I.,  divided 
into  knights  of  the  grand  eagle  (the  highest 
class)  and  grand  officers.  On  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons  the  legion  was  retained,  but  re- 
modeled so  as  to  lose  much  of  its  original  char- 
acter. The  decoration  was  a  star  of  five  rays, 
white  enamel,  surrounded  with  oak  and  laurel 
branches.  In  the  center  of  the  star  was  the 
figure  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  On  one  side  was 
the  legend  Honneur  et  Patrie,  and  the  device 
was  an  eagle  holding  thunderbolts.  It  was  sus- 
pended to  a  red-watered  ribbon.  Remodeled 
by  Napoleon  III.  (January  22,  1853). 

Badge  for  a  Chevalier,  a  bow  of  red  ribbon 
in  the  buttonhole  of  the  coat,  with  medal  at- 
tached. 

Badge  for  an  Officer,  a  rosette  of  red  ribbon  in 
the  buttonhole  of  the  coat,  with  medal  at- 
tached. 

Badge  for  a  Commander,  a  collar-ribbon. 

Badge  for  a  Grand  Officer,  a  broad  ribbon 
under  the  waistcoat, 

Badge  for  a  Grand  Cross,  a  broad  ribbon  with 
a  star  on  the  breast,  and  jewel  cross  pendant. 

Horoscope.  In  astrology,  an  observa- 
tion of  the  aspect  of  the  heavens  at  the 
moment  of  a  person's  birth,  by  which  the 
astrologer  claimed  to  foretell  the  future.  A 
scheme  or  figure  of  the  12  houses  or  12  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  in  which  is  marked  the  disposition 
of  the  heavens  at  a  given  time,  and  by  which 
astrologers  formerly  told  the  fortunes  of  persons, 
according  to  the  position  of  the  stars  at  the  time 
of  their  birth.  A  kind  of  planisphere  invented 
by  John  of  Padua.  A  table  of  the  length  of  the 
days  and  nights  at  all  places. 

Immigration    to    United    States. 


Period 


Period 


Year  ending  September  30 

1820 

1821,  . 

1822 

'  1823 

1824, 

1825, 


Immigrants 
Arrived 


8,385 
9,127 
6,911 
6,354 
7,912 
10,199 


1826 

1827, 

1828 

1829 

1830, 

1831 

October  1,  1831,  to  December  31,  1831, 
Year  ending  December  31  — 

1833 

1834, 

1835 

1836,  . 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840 

1841, 

1842, 

January  1st  to  September  30,  1843,  .  . 
Year  ending  September  30  — 

1844 

1845 

1846, 

1847 

1848 

1849, 

1850 

October  Ist  to  December  31,  1850,  .  . 
Year  ending  December  31st — 

1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

January  1st  to  June  30,  1857,  .  .  .  . 
Year  ending  June  30th — 

1858 

1859 

1860, 

1861, 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868, 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 • 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880, 

1881, 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887, 

1888, 

1889 

1890, 

1891 

1892 

1893 ■ 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906, 

1907 

1908 


Immigrants 
Arrived 


10,837 
18,875 
27,382 
22,520 
23,322 
22,633 
60,482 

58,640 
65,365 
45,374 
76,242 
79,340 
38,914 
68,069 
84,066 
80,289 
104,565 
52,496 

78,615 
114,371 
154,416 
234,968 
226,527 
297,024 
310,004 

59,978 

379,466 
371,603 
368,645 
427,833 
200,877 
195,857 
112,123 

191,942 
129,571 
133,143 
142,877 
72,183 
132,925 
191,114 
180,339 
332,577 
303,104 
282,189 
352,768 
387,203 
321,350 
404,806 
459,803 
313,339 
227,498 
169,986 
141,857 
138,469 
177,826 
457,257 
669,431 
788,992 
603,322 
518,592 
395,346 
334,203 
490,109 
546,889 
444,427 
455,302 
560,319 
579,663 
439,730 
285,631 
258,536 
343,267 
230,832 
229,299 
311,715 
448,572 
487,918 
648,743 
857,046 
812,870 
1,027,421 
1,100,735 
1,285,349 
782,870 


794 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Inauguration  Day..  The  present  date 
of  the  inauguration  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  March  4th.  Washington's  first 
inauguration  took  place  on  April  30,  1789. 
March  4th,  was  chosen  for  this  purpose  rather  by 
accident  than  design.  A  committee  appointed 
by  the  Constitutional  Convention  chose  the  first 
Wednesday  in  March,  1789,  as  the  date  for  the 
first  Congress  under  the  Constitution  to  meet. 
This  date  happened  to  be  March  4th,  which  has 
since  then  been  used  as  the  date  of  presidential 
inauguration.  Twenty-one  presidents  have  been 
inaugurated  on  March  4th,  viz :  George  Wash- 
ington, in  1793;  John  Adams,  in  1797;  Thomas 
Jefferson,  in  1801  and  1805;  James  Madison,  in 
1809  and  1813;  James  Monroe,  in  1817;  John 
Quincy  Adams,  in  1825;  Andrew  Jackson,  in 
1829  and  1833;  Martin  Van  Buren,  in  1837; 
William  Henry  Harrison,  in  1841;  James  K. 
Polk,  in  1845;  Frankhn  Pierce,  in  1853;  James 
Buchanan,  in  1857;  Abraham  Lincoln,  in  1861 
and  1865;  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  in  1869  and  1873; 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  in,  1877;  James  A.  Gar- 
field, in  1881;  Grover  Cleveland,  in  1885  and 
1893;  Benjamin  Harrison,  in  1889;  William 
McKinley,  in  1897  and  1901;  Theodore  Roose- 
velt, in  1905,  and  William  H.Taft,  in  1909.  George 
Washington  was  inaugurated  on  April  30,  1789, 
because  the  bad  weather  had  prevented  Congress 
from  assembling  and  organizing.  James  Monroe 
and  Zachary  Taylor  were  inaugurated  on  March 
5,  1821  and  1849,  respectively,  because  March 
4th,  in  those  years  fell  on  Sunday.  John  Tyler 
was  inaugurated  April  6,  1841;  President  Har- 
rison died  on  April  4th,  and  Tyler  could  not 
reach  Washington  sooner.  Millard  Fillmore 
took  the  oath  on  July  9,  1850,  the  same  day  that 
General  Taylor  died.  Andrew  Johnson  was 
sworn  in  on  April  15,  1865,  a  few  hours  after 
Lincoln  expired.  Chester  A.  Arthur  took  the 
oath  late  on  Monday  night,  September  19,  1881, 
about  an  hour  after  Garfield  died,  and  Theodore 
Roosevelt  took  the  oath  of  office  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  on  September  14,  1901,  shortly  after  the 
death  of  President  McKinlej^. 

John  Bull.  A  collective  nickname  for  the 
English  people,  first  used  in  Arbuthnot's  ludi- 
crous "History  of  Europe."  It  is  now  also 
applied  to  characteristic  English  traits. 

Kitchen  Cabinet.  This  name  was  sport- 
ively given  in  the  United  States  to  Francis  P. 
Blair,  Amos  Kendall  and  others,  by  the  opponents 
of  President  Jackson's  administration.  Blair  was 
the  editor  of  the  "Globe,"  the  organ  of  the 
president,  and  Kendall  was  one  of  the  principal 
contributors  to  the  paper.  As  it  was  necessary 
for  Jackson  to  consult  frequently  with  these 
gentlemen,  in  order  to  avoid  observation,  they 
were  accustomed,  when  they  called  upon  him, 
to  go  in  by  a  back  door.  The  Whig  party  styled 
them,  in  derision,  therefore,  the  "Kitchen 
Cabinet,"  alleging  that  it  was  by  their  advice 
that  the  president  removed  so  many  Whigs 
from  office  and  put  Democrats  in  their  places. 
During  the  Roosevelt  administration  a  similar 
group  of  the  president's  intimates  was  styled  the 
"Tennis  Cabinet,"  because  they  usually  met  at 
the  tennis  court. 

Ku-Klux*Klan.  The  name  of  a  secret 
society    in    the    Southern    States    bitterly   op- 


posed to  the  exercise  of  the  electoral  franchise 
by  the  negroes.  Early  in  1868,  this  society 
issued  lists  of  proscribed  persons,  who,  if  they 
did  not  quit  the  country  after  warning,  became 
liable  to  assassination.  General  Grant  endeav- 
ored to  suppress  the  society.  Its  repression 
by  the  militia  in  Arkansas  was  ordered  Novem- 
ber, 1868,  and  it  became  the  subject  of  leg- 
islation at  Washington,  June,  1871,  under 
which  many  persons  were  tried  and  convicted 
for  lawless  outrages  and  murders.  The  Ku- 
Klux  outrages  were  generally  committed  at 
night,  the  men  being  masked  and  even  their 
horses  being  disguised.  The  vigorous  prosecu- 
tion of  Ku-Klux  offenders  speedily  destroyed 
the  organization. 

Liberty  Bell.  The  famous  Liberty  Bell, 
weighing  about  2,000  pounds,  was  made  in  Lon- 
don in  1752,  and  was  ordered  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Assembly  for  the  State  House,  then  located 
in  Philadelphia.  It  was  put  in  place  the  fol- 
lowing year,  but  on  account  of  a  defect  in  sound, 
it  was  recast  in  Philadelphia,  and,  in  June,  1753, 
was  again  placed  in  the  State  House  belfry. 

When  the  Continental  Congress,  on  July  4, 
1776,  declared  the  independence  of  the  American 
colonies  from  Great  Britain,  the  old  bellman, 
in  his  enthusiasm  and  ecstacy,  according  to  the 
story,  rang  the  bell  for  two  hours.  In  1777, 
when  the  British  threatened  Philadelphia,  the 
bell  was  taken  down,  and  carried  to  AUentown, 
Pa.,  but  a  new  steeple  was  built  for  it,  and  it  was 
again  returned  to  the  State  House,  in  1778. 
In  1835,  it  cracked  under  a  stroke  of  the 
hammer,  and  has  remained  impaired  ever  since. 
It  has  been  transported  to  a  number  of  exposi- 
tions, and  the  utmost  caution  taken  to  preserve 
it  as  one  of  our  most  hallowed  national  relics. 
The  bell  contains  the  following  inscriptions: 
"By  order  of  the  Assembly  of  the  Province  of 
Pennsylvania,  for  the  State  House,  in  the  City  of 
Philadelphia,  1752 ; "  beneath  is  inscribed, 
"  Proclaim  liberty  throughout  all  the  land  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof  —  Levit.  XXV.',  10." 

Logf.  A  contrivance  used  to  measure  the 
rate  of  a  ship's  velocity  through  the  water.  For 
this  purpose  there  are  several  inventions,  but  the 
one  most  generally  used  is  the  following,  called 
the  common  log.  It  is  a  piece  of  thin  board, 
forming  the  quadrant  of  a  circle  of  about  six 
inches  radius,  and  balanced  by  a  small  plate  of 
lead  nailed  on  the  circular  part,  so  as  to  swim 
perpendicularly  in  the  water,  with  the  greater 
part  immersed.  One  end  of  a  line,  called  the 
log-line,  is  fastened  to  the  log,  while  the  other 
is  wound  round  a  reel.  When  the  log  is  thrown 
out  of  the  ship  while  sailing,  as  soon  as  it  touches 
the  water  it  ceases  to  partake  of  the  ship's  mo- 
tion, so  that  the  ship  goes  on  and  leaves  it  be- 
hind, while  the  line  is  unwound  from  the  reel, 
so  that  the  length  of  line  unwound  in  a  given 
time  gives  the  rate  of  the  ship's  sailing.  .  This 
is  calculated  by  knots  made  on  the  line  at  cer- 
tain distances,  while  the  time  is  measured  by  a 
sandglass  running  a  certain  number  of  seconds. 
The  length  between  the  knots  is  so  proportioned 
to  the  time  of  the  glass  that  the  number  of  knots 
unwound  while  the  glass  runs  down  shows  the 
number  of  nautical  miles  the  ship  is  sailing  p>er 
hour.     Thus,  if  the  glass  be  a  half-minute  one. 


MISCELLANY 


795 


it  will  run  down  120  times  in  an  hour.  Now, 
since  a  nautical  mile  contains  about  6,076  feet, 
the  120th  part  of  this  is  about  50^  feet;  so  that 
if  the  spaces  between  the  knots  be  50f  feet,  the 
number  of  knots  and  parts  of  a  knot  unwound 
from  the  reel  in  half  a  minute  is  the  number  of 
miles  and  parts  of  a  mile  the  ship  runs  in  one  hour. 
Mines,  Deepest.  1.  Ashton  Moss  Col- 
liery, near  Manchester,  England,  2,850  feet. 

2.  Adalbert  Silver-lead  Mine,  at  Przibram, 
Bohemia,  3,432  feet. 

3.  Calumet  Copper  Mine,  near  Lake  Superior, 
in  Michigan,  3,900  feet. 

The  deepest  mine  in  the  world  is  the  rock-salt 
bore  hole  at  Spesenberg,  near  Berlin,  which  is 
4,175  feet  in  depth.  It  is  not,  however,  quite 
perpendicular.  The  deepest  British  mine  is 
Uunhill  Colliery,  near  Wigan,  which  is  2,824 
feet.  The  deepest  boring  in  the  world  is  the 
artesian  well  at  Potsdam,  Missouri,  which  is 
5,500  feet,  or  220  feet  beyond  a  mile. 

Mortality.  In  an  extended  sense,  the  con- 
dition of  all  organized  bodies  —  of  being  subject 
to  the  cessation  of  life.  In  the  sense  in  which 
it  is  most  frequently  employed,-  the  death  rate, 
i.  e.,  the  proportional  quantity  of  individuals 
who,  in  a  certain  population,  die  in  a  given  time. 
If  we  assume  the  population  of  the  earth  to  be 
one  thousand  millions,  and  a  generation  to  last 
thirty-three  years;  in  that  space  of  time,  the 
one  thousand  millions  must  all  die,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  number  of  deaths  will  be,  by  ap- 
proximation : 

Each  year, 30,000,000 

Each  day, 82,107 

Each  hour, 3,421 

Each  second,   ....  1  nearly. 

One-qiiarter  of  the  population  die  at  or  before 
the  age  of  7 ;  the  half  part  of  it  die  at  or  before 
the  age  of  17.  One  in  100,000  persons  reaches 
the  age  of  100  years;  one  in  500  reaches  the  age 
of  90;  one  in  100,  the  age  of  60. 

DEATH  RATES  FROM  CERTAIN  CAUSES  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 


DEATH   RATE   IN   VARIOUS   OCCUPATIONS 


Cadbe 


Pneumonia 

Consumption,'  .... 
Heart  disease,'.    .    .    . 
Diarrhoea!  diseases,' 
Diseasesof  the  kidneys,* 

Apoplexy 

Cancer 

Old  age 

Bronchitis 

Cholera  infantum,     .    . 

Debility  and  atrophy,  . 

Inflammation     of     the 

brain  and  meningitis, 

Diptheria, 

Typhoid  fever 

Influenza . 

Diseases  of  the  brain,  . 

Croup 

Malarial  fever 


Death  Rate 
PER  100,000 


1900 


191.9 
190.5 
134.0 
85.1 
83.7 
66.6 
60.0 
54.0 
48.3 
47.8 
45.5 

41.8 
35.4 
33.8 
23.9 
18.6 
9.8 
8.8 


1890 


186.9 

245.4 

121.8 

104.1 

59.7 

49.0 

47.9 

44.9 

74.4 

79.7 

88.6 

49.1 
70.1 
46.3 
6.2 
30.9 
27.6 
19.2 


Increase  or 
Decrease  in 
Death  Rate, 
1890  to  1900 


In-  De- 

crease   crease 


5.0 

12.2 

24!6 

17.6 

12.1 

9.1 


54.9 

igio 


26.1 
31.9 
43.1 

7.3 
34.7 
12.5 

i2!3 
17.8 
10.4 


Occupation 


Basis  of 
Estimate 


Death  Rate 


1900 


•  Including  general  tuberculosis.  '  Including  pericar- 
ditis. '  Including  cholera  morbus,  colitis  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  and  enteritis.     *  Including  Bright's  disease. 


Males.     All  occupations,    . 

Professional, 

Architects,     artists,     and 

teachers  of  art,  etc.,  . 

Clergymen, 

Engineers  and  surv'rs,    . 

•Journalists, 

Lawyers, 

Musicians  and    teachers 

of  music, 

Physicians  and  surgeons. 
Teachers  (school),  .  .  . 
Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

Clerical  and  official,  .  .  . 
Bookkeepers,  clerks,  and 

copyists, 

Bankers,     brokers,    and 

officials  of  companies, . 
Collectors,     auctioneers, 

and  agents 

Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

Mercantile  and  trading, .    . 
Apothecaries,      pharma- 
cists, etc., 

Corhmercial  travelers,  . 
Merchants  and  dealers,  . 
Hucksters  and  peddlers. 
Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

Public  entertainment,  .  . 
Hotel  and  boarding-house 

keepers 

Saloon  and  restaurant,    . 

Personal  service,  police,  and 
military, 

Barbers  and  hairdressers. 

Janitors  and  sextons, .    . 

Policemen,  watchmen, 
and  detectives,    .    .    . 

Soldiers,  sailors,  and  ma- 
rines (United  States), 

Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

Laboring  and  servant,    .    . 

Labor  (not  agricultural). 

Servants, 

Manufacturing  and  mechan- 
ical industry,   ..... 

Bakers  and  confectioners. 

Blacksmiths 

Boot  and  shoe  makers,  . 

Brewers,  distillers,  and 
rectifiers, 

Butchers 

Cabinetmakers  and  up- 
holsterers,    •  .  •.  •    •    • 

Carpenters  and  joiners,  . 

Cigarmakers  and  tobacco 
workers,    ...... 

Compositors,  printers,  and 
pressmen, 

Coopers, 

Engineers  and  firemen 
(not  locomotive),    .    . 

Glass  blowers  and  glass 
workers, 

Hat  and  cap  makers,  .   . 

Iron  and  steel  workers. 

Leather  makers,  .... 

Leather  workers,     .    .    . 

Machinists, 

Marble  and  stone  cutters. 

Masons  (brick  and  stone), 

Mill  and  factory  opera- 
tives (textile) 

Millers  (flour  and  grist),. 

Painters,  glaziers,  and 
varnishers, 

Plasterers  and  white- 
washers,    

Plumbers  and  gas  and 
steamfitters, 

Tailors 


5,575,745 


203,104 

23,485 
19,587 
36,539 
9,021 
28,597 

16,008 
29,622 
20,135 
20,110 


424,781 

278,137 

43,430 

73,958 
29,256 


493,994 

14,728 
25,989 

228,899 
33,482 

190,896 


15.0 


15.3 

23.5 
11.7 
8.2 
15.0 
17.2 

15.2 
19.9 
12.2 
16.0 


13.5 

13.6 

11.8 

13.1 
15.1 


12.1 

18.3 

5.7 

16.4 

12.0 

7.4 


87,888 

19,969 
67,919 


149,164 
40,007 
19,493 

43,145 

14,851 
31,668 


800,983 

719,647 

81,336 

1,796,928 
39,181 
56,840 
96,662 

6,840 
38,228 

24,787 
180,110 

25,581 

54,374 
11,020 

71.388 

10,219 
12,763 
69,851 
16,697 
12,320 
116,918 
26,272 
56,117 

150,783 
6,044 

108,992 

8,603 

48,634 
83.856 


15.4 


22.3 
13.3 


12.9 
10.4 
16.6 

15.4 

12.1 
10.9 


20.2 
20.7 
15.5 

13.8- 

12.3 

18.3 

9.4 

19.7 
16.1 

18.0 
17.2 

18.7 

12.1 
23.8 

15.7 

10.8 
17.9 
10.7 
12.3 
17.5 
10.5 
14.9 
19.9 

8.8 
26.6 

16.2 

17.0 

9.1 

11.8 


8.1 
17.3 


13.0 
17.3 


9.7 
16.5 


796 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Occupation 

-Basis  of 

Estimate 

Death  Rate 

1900 

1890 

Tinners     and      tinware 

makers, 

19,708 

14.5 

12.2 

Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

446,140 

13.9 

Agriculture,  transportation 

and  other  outdoor,  .    . 

1,528,241 

15.8 

12.1 

Boatmen  and  canalmen. 

8.178 

18.8 

20.1 

Draymen,      hackmen. 

teamsters,  etc 

185,552 

11.0 

12.1 

Farmers,    planters,    and 

farm  laborers 

958,778 

17.6 

11.9 

Gardeners,   florists,   nur- 

serymen, vmeKrowers, 

34,296 

17.2 

14.8 

Livery  stable  keepers  and 

hostlers 

32,529 

12.1 

12.0 

Lumbermen,  raftsmen,  . 

13,078 

16.5 

13.1 

Miners  and  quarrymen,  . 

38,890 

9.6 

7.8 

Sailors,  pilots,  fishermen. 

and  oystermen,    .    .    . 

47,747 

27.7 

22.0 

Steam  R.  R.  employees, 

129,472 

10.8 

9.0 

Stockraisers,  herders,  and 

drovers 

966 

32.1 

19.4 

Others  of  this  class,    .    . 

78,755 

9.9 

All  other  occupations,    .    . 

90,662 

6.5 

Females.     All  occupations. 

1,587,874 

8.3 

10.5 

Musicians  and  teachers  of 

16,566 
91,964 

'5.0 
5.9 

2.4 

Teachers  in  schools,    .    .    . 

4.3 

Stenographers    and    type- 

writers  

33,780 

2.7 

1.8 

Bookkeepers,    clerks,    and 

copyists 

72,713 

5.6 

3.2 

Hotel  and   boarding-house 

keepers 

Laundresses 

19,755 

4.5 

3.5 

59,300 

5.1 

6.7 

Nurses  and  midwives,    .    . 

41,912 

9.5 

11.2 

Servants 

403,801 

17.1 

18.2 

Artificial  flower  and  paper- 

box  makers 

12,624 

1.3 

3.5 

Cigarmakers    and    tobacco 

workers 

12,838 

4.1 

3.4 

Mill  and  factory  operatives 

(textile), 

162,392 

4.0 

5.3 

Milliners 

29.122 

5.9 

j4.4 

Dressmakers,  seamstresses. 

195,176 

5.2 

Telegraph    and    telephone 

operators 

7,801 

5.4 

4.1 

All  other  occupations,    .    . 

428,130 

5.7 

DEATH   RATE   IN   CITIES 

p™_  De.ath8  per 

^"^  1,000  Inhabitants 

Algiers, 30.08 

Allegheny.  Pa , 18.4 

Amsterdam 26.07 

Antwerp 24.69 

Atlanta,  Ga 19.3 

Baltimore 21.0 

Basel 23.34 

Berlin 21.81 

Birmingham 25.28 

Bologna 35.13 

Bombay 24.31 

Bordeaux, 26.71 

Boston 20 . 1 

Brooklyn 24.0 

Brussels 29 .  06 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 14.8 

Cadiz 28.23 

Calcutta. 25.82 

Charleston,  S.  C, 31.9 

Chicago 16.2 

Christiania. 21.53 

Cincinnati 19.1 

Cleveland,  Ohio 17.1 

Columbus 15.8 

Denver 18.6 

Detroit 17.1 

Dresden 34.82 

Edinburgh,     . 21^97 

Fall  River 22.4 

Frankfort-on-the-Main 20  08 

Genoa 36.75 

Glasgow, 28.92 


Qj^PY  Deaths  per 

1,000  Inhabitants 

The  Hague 26.05 

Halifax 23.39 

Havana, 37.70 

Honolulu, 110.35 

Indianapolis 16.7 

Jacksonville,  Fla 28.4 

Jersey  City, 20.7 

Kansas  City 17.4 

Lausanne, 24.32 

Leghorn 31.37 

Leicester 23.74 

Leipsic 26.08 

Liverpool 25.81 

London 22.83 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 18.1 

Louisville,  Ky 20.0 

Manchester, -.  28.29 

Mayence 29.40 

Memphis,  Tenn., 25.1 

Messina 28.91 

Mexico 30.94 

Milan, 34.19 

Milwaukee,  Wis 15.9 

Minneapolis 10.8 

Mobile,  Ala 24.4 

Montreal 30.02 

Munich 45.48 

Nashville,  Tenn 23.3 

Newark,  N.  J 19.8 

Newcastle 29.76 

New  Haven,  Conn 18.5 

New  Orleans 28 . 9 

New  York 20.4 

Nice 34.89 

Nottingham 21.18 

Palermo 28.46 

Paris 22.04 

Paterson,  N.  J 19.0 

Pesth 49.23 

Philadelphia 21.2 

Pittsburg,  Pa 20.0 

Providence,  R.  1 19.9 

Quebec 22.97 

Richmond,  Va *27.6 

Rochester,  N.  Y 15.0 

Rome 34.14 

Rotterdam 31.48 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 20.4 

San  Francisco 20.5 

Savannah,  Ga 32.6 

Scranton,  Pa 20.7 

St.  Joseph 9.1 

St.  Louis 17.9 

Stockholm 30.45 

St.  Paul 9.7 

Stuttgart 25.68 

Sunderland,    .^ 22.42 

Syracuse,  N.  Y., 13.8 

Toledo 16.0 

Turin 26.07 

Valparaiso 64.58 

Venice 36.26 

Vienna 35.28 

Wolverhampton -. 24.65 

Worcester,  Mass 15.5 

Zurich 25.59 

Washington,  D.  C 22.8 

Mourning.  The  colors  used  as  badges  of 
grief  or  bereavement  in  different  countries.  In 
this  country,  as  in  Europe,  the  ordinary  color 
for  mourning  is  black;  in  China,  as  with  the 
ancient  Spartan  and  Roman  ladies,  it  is  white; 
in  Turkey,  it  is  blue  or  violet;  in  Egypt,  yellow; 
in  Ethiopia,  gray.  Some  have  attempted  to 
trace  the  associations  which  caused  the  adoption 
of  the  various  colors  to  natural  causes.  Thus 
black,  which  is  the  privation  of  light,  is  sujjposed 
very  appropriately  to  denote  the  privation  of 
life;  white  is  an  emblem  of  purity;  yellow  is 
the  color  of  leaves  when  they  fall,  and  represents 
that  death  is  the  end  of  all  human  hopes,  etc. 
In  the  East,  to  cut  the  hair  was  considered  a 
sign  of  mourning;  among  the  Romans,  on  the 
contrary,  it  was  deemed  a  mark  of  sorrow  to  let 
it  grow. 


MISCELLANY 


797 


NAMES  AND  NAME  ORIGINS 

GEOGRAPHICAL,,  PERSONAL,  CURIOUS,  AND    OTHERWISE 

KEY   TO   THE   VOWEL   SOUNDS 

d,  as  in  farm,  father;  d,  as  in  ask,  fast;  d,  as  in  at,  fat;  a,  as  in  day,  fate;  d,  as  in  rare,  fare;  ?,  as 
in  met,  set;  e,  as  in  me,  see;  e,  as  in  her,  ermine;  t,  as  in  pin,  sin;  i,  as  in  pine,  line;  d,  as  in  not,  got; 
6,  as  in  note,  old;  d,  as  in  for,  fought;  5,  as  in  sole,  only;  6,  as  in  fog,  orange;  o,  sound  cannot  be 
exactly  represented  in  English.  Tlio  English  sound  of  u  in  hum  and  burnt  is  perhaps  the  nearest 
equivalent  to  6;  ob,  as  in  cook,  look;  6b,  as  in  coon,  moon;  u,  as  in  cup,  duck;  u,  as  in  use,  amuse; 
il,  as  in  fur,  urge;  iX  sound  cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  English.  The  Englisli  sound  of  u  in  luke 
and  duke  resembles  the  ^original  sound  of  u.  The  letter  n  represents  the  nasal  tone  of  the  preceding 
vowel,  as  in  encore  (aN-kor'). 

ABBREVIATIONS 

Arab.,  Arabic  or  Arabian;  A.  S.,  Anglo  Saxon;  Boh.,  Bohemian;  Enq.,  English;  Fr.,  French;  Gael., 
Gaelic;  Ger.,  German;  Gr.,  Greek;  Heh.,  Hebrew;  Hind.,  Hindustani;  Hung.,  Hungarian;  Ind.,  Indian; 
It.,  Italian;  Lat.,  Latin;  M.  H.  G.,  Middle  High  German;  N.  H.  G.,  North  High  German;  Nor.,  Nor- 
wegian; O.  E.,  Old  English;  O.  F.  or  O.  Fr.,  Old  French;  O.  G.,  Old  German;  O.  H.  G.,  Old  High 
German;  Pers.,  Persian;  Port.,  Portuguese;  Russ.,  Russian;  Sp.,  Spanish;  Sw.,  Swedish;  Teut., 
Teutonic;  Turk.,  Turkish. 

Aachen  (d'-kSn).     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aaron  {dr'-un  or  a'-run).  From  the  Hebrew 
'Aharon,  perhaps  the  same  as  hdron,  "a  moun- 
taineer"; Arabic,  Haroon  or  Harun;  Fr.,  Aaron; 
Ger.,  Aaron  or  Aron;  It.,  Aronne;  Lat.,  Aaron; 
Port.,  Aarao;  Sp.,  Aron. 

Abel  (d'-bl).  From  the  Hebrew  Hebhel,  which 
St.  Jerome  translates  "vanity  or  vapor."  Gesenius 
renders  the  name  "breath,"  and  says  the  son  of 
Adam  was  probably  so  called  from  the  shortness  of 
his  life.  Arabic,  iiaheel  or  Habil;  i^'r.,  Abel;  Lat., 
Abel. 

Aberdeen  {&b-er-den').  The  ancient  and  correct 
orthography  of  this  name  was  "Aberdon,"  from 
Aber,  the  mouth  of  a  river,  and  Don,  the  name  of 
the  river  upon  whose  banks  the  city  is  built. 

Abolitionists.  A  term  denoting  the  Anti-Slavery 
party  in  the  United  States,  which  appeared  soon 
after  the  founding  of  "The  Liberator  by  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  in  1831;  Garrison,  Wendell 
Phillips,  John  Brown,  E.  P.  Lovejoy,  Joshua  R. 
Giddings,  John  P.  Hale,  Salmon  P.  Chase,  and 
Charles  Sumner  were  avowed  Abolitionists. 

Abraham  (a' -brd-hdm) .  From  the  Hebrew 
Ahhraham,  according  to  some  a  Hebrew-Arab  com- 
pound signifying  "father  of  a  multitude,"  from 
Hebrew  ahh,  "father,"  and  Arabian,  raham. 
Others  translate  the  name  "lofty  father  of  a  multi- 
tude," or  "father  who  shall  see  the  people."  Ara- 
bic, Ibraheem  or  Ibrahim;  Danish,  Abraham; 
Dutch,  Abraham  or  Abram;  Fr.,  Abraham;  Ger., 
Abraham;  It.,  Abramo;  Lat.,  Abrahamus;  Russ., 
Avraam,  or  Abramii;  Sp.,  Abrahan;  Sw.,  Abra- 
ham. 

Abram.     Derived  from  same  root  as  Abraham. 

Absalom  {&b' -sd-lom) .  From  the  Hebrew  Ab- 
shaLom,  signifying  "father  of  peace";  from  abh, 
"father,  and  shalom.     Fr.,  Absalon. 

Abyssinia  {ab-ls-sin' -l-d) .  Named  from  the  rivers 
Abia  and  Wabash,  or,  according  to  Bruce,  from 
habish,  "mixed,"  i.  e.,  "the  country  of  the  mixed 
races";  others  derive  it  from  the  land  of  the 
Abassins,  or  "mixed  races." 

Acadia  (d-kd' -di-d) ,  or  Acadie  (d-kd-de').  The 
name  originally  given  to  Nova  Scotia,  but  now 
only  the  poetical  designation.  It  was  granted  by 
Henry  IV.,  of  France,  November  8,  1603,  to  De 
Monts,  a  Frenchman,  and  a  company  of  Jesuits, 
who  were  finally  expelled  from  the  country  by  the 
English  governor  and  colonists  of  Virginia,  who 
claimed  all  that  coast  by  virtue  of  its  prior  dis- 
covery by  the  Cabots  in  1497.  In  1621,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Alexander,  a  Scotchman,  applied  to  and  ob- 
tained of  James  I.  a  grant  of  the  whole  peninsula, 
which  he  renamed  Nova  Scotia,  in  honor  of  his 
native  land. 

Acquia  Creek,  Va.  Indian  equiun,  "between," 
Qr  akki,  "earth";  i.  e.,  "earthy  or  muddy  creek." 

Acropolis  {d-krdp'-d4ls).  From  the  Greek 
akropoHs,  "the  upper  city."     Once  a  general  name 


for  the  citadel  of  any  ancient  Greek  city,  but  es- 
pecially appropriated  to  that  of  Athens,  famous  for 
the  placing  on  its  summit  in  the  Fifth  Century, 
B.  C,  of  the  highest  achievements  of  Greek  art,  the 
Parthenon  and  the  Erechtheum,  with  the  sculp- 
tures which  adorned  them  without  and  within,  and 
the  Propylaea,  or  monumental  gate,  inside  of  the 
walls  at  the  west  end.  At  first  Acropolis  was  the 
only  name  of  the  city,  which  was  so  called  from 
Acrops,  the  founder.  Afterwards,  when  the  city 
extended  over  the  adjoining  plains,  the  name 
Acropolis  was  confined  to  the  citadel  and  the  hilly 
ground  adjoining. 

Ada  (d'-dd).  According  to  some,  this  name  has 
been  corrupted  from  Adatna,  feminine  of  Adam. 
Others  derive  it  from  the  name  Ead,  which  is  from 
A.  S.  ead,  "happy";  or  from  the  name  Eadith. 
Littleton  gives  "Eada"  (Saxon),  Auda,  Ada,  and 
Idonea,  which  he  translates,  "fit,  meet,  proper"; 
also  "pious,  honest,  rich." 

Adam  (dd'-am).  From  the  Hebrew  Adham, 
signifying  "man";  literally,  "earthy,  red  earth." 
Rudolph,  however,  says  the  name  in  Ethiopia 
means  "to  be  fair,  beautiful."  Arabic,  Adam; 
Danish,  Adam;  Dutch,  Adam;  Fr.,  Adam;  Ger., 
Adam;  It.,  Adamo;  Lat.,  Adamus;  Port.,  Adao; 
Sp.,  Adan. 

Adela  (dd'-e-ld).  A  female  name  Latinized  from 
Old  German  edel,  "noble,  noble  descent  or  lineage." 

Adelaide  {dd'-e4dd).  From  the  Old  German 
male  name  Adalheid  (in  Middle  High  German  Adal- 
hait.  North  Higli  German  Adelheid),  signifying  "a 
noble  person";  from  edel,  "noble,"  and  heit, 
"cheer." 

Adelaide  Island.  In  honor  of  the  queen  of  Wil- 
liam IV. 

Adeline  (dd'-e4ln),  Adellna  (dd-e-il'nd).  Dimin- 
utives of  Adela.  Danish,  Adeline;  Dutch,  Ade- 
lina;  Fr.,  Adeline;  Ger.,  Adeline;  It.,  Adelina; 
Lat.,  Adelina. 

Adirondack.  Mountains  in  New  York  and  vil- 
lage in  Warren  County,  of  the  same  State.  Indian 
word  compounded  from  dor  an,*"  a  people  who  eat 
bark,"  and  dak.,  "trees,"  with  the  French  article 
la  prefixed.  This  section  was  called  by  the  natives 
Cou^hsarage,  "the  dismal  wilderness." 

Adolphus  (d-ddl'-fus).  The  same  as  the  Old 
Gern^an  name  Atalphus,  which  Wachter  renders 
"helper  of  happiness,"  from  od  "happiness,"  and 
hulf,  "help  or  helper."  It  is  commonly  defined  as 
"noble  wolf."  Danish,  Adolf;  Dutch,  Adolf;  Fr., 
Adolphe;  Ger.,  Adolf  or  Adolph;.7i.,  Adolfo;  Lat., 
Adolphus;  Sp.,  Adolfo;  Sw.,  Adolf. 

Adrian  {d'-drl-dn),  or  Hadrian  (hd'-drl-dn). 
From  the  German  name  Adrias,  so  called  from  the 
capital  of  the  Prsetutii,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
where  the  family  of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  according 
to  his  own  account,  had  its  rise.  Danish,  Adrian; 
Dutch,  Adriaan;  Fr.,  Adrien;  It..  Adriano;  Lat., 
Adrianua:  Port. »  Adriano;  Sp.,  Adrian. 


798 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Adriatic  {a-dre-dtf-lk,  dd-re-dt'-lk)  Sea.  Indicates 
the  Sea  of  Adrian  or  Hadrian. 

Afghanistan  {af-gan-ls-tan').  The  country  of 
the  Afghans. 

Africa  (&f'-rl-kd).  Origin  traced  to  the  Pheni- 
cian  afer  (pi.  afri),  "a  black  man,"  whence  Lat. 
Africa,  and  Gr.  Aphrike. 

Agatha  {&g' -d-tliA) .  A  female  name  derived 
from  the  Greek  agathos,  "good."  Danish,  Agathe; 
Dutch,  Agatha;  Fr.,  Agathe;  Ger.,  Agathe;  Gr., 
Agathe;  It.,  Agata;  Lot.,  Agatha;  Sp.,  Agata; 
Sw.,  Agata. 

Agnes  {ag'-nis  or  &g'-nez).  From  the  German 
agnos,  "chaste."  Danish,  Agnes,  or  Agnete; 
Dutch,  Agnes;  Fr.,  Agnes;  Ger.,  Agnes;  It.,  Agncse; 
Lat.,  Agnes. 

Agra  (ii'-grd),  or  Akberabad.  Founded  by 
Akber.  Abad,  a  dwelling  or  town,  generally  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  its  founder;  hence,  "town 
of  Akber." 

Ailean  or  Aileen  (a-len').  An  Irish  female  name. 
Some  translate  it  "light."  If  so,  it  may  be  a  form 
of  Helen;  but  it  is  more  probably  from  the  Erse 
ail,  "noble,  beautiful";  or  from  aille,  "handsome, 
fair";  or  corrupted  from  ailgean,  "noble  offspring." 

Aix-ia-Chapelle  (dks4u-shu-pH'),  or  Aachen. 
Celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs,  and  for  the 
chapel  erected  over  the  tomb  of  Charlemagne.  To 
distinguish  it  from  other  places  named  Aix,  it  was 
so  called  from  tlie  domed  basilica  erected  by 
Charlemagne. 

Akron  (dk'-rdn).  City  in  Summit  County,  Ohio, 
which  occupies  the  higiiest  ground  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  and  several  other  places  named 
for  the  same  reason.  A  Greek  word,  meaning  "the 
summit  or  peak." 

Alabama  (dl-d-bd'-md).  State  of  the  Union  and 
a  river  of  that  State,  named  from  an  Indian  tribe. 
There  are  several  explanations  of  the  meaning  of 
the  word.  Gatchet  gives  "burnt  clearing."  Others 
say  it  means  "here  we  rest."  Haines,  in  his  Ameri- 
can Indian,  gives  "thicket  clearers." 

Alameda  {dl-d-md' -da) .  County  and  city  in 
California,  town  in  Bernalillo  County,  New  Mexico, 
and  post-office  in  Clarke  County,  Alabama,  named 
from  the  Cottonwood  trees  growing  in  the  vicinity. 
A  Spanish  word  meaning  "grove  of  poplar  trees." 

Alamo  (d'-ld-mo).  Post-office  in  Contra  Costa 
County,  California,  and  many  other  places  named 
from  the  old  fort  in  Texas,  which  was  so  called 
from  a  grove  of  cottonwood  trees.  A  Spanish 
word  meaning  "poplar  or  cottonwood." 

Alan  (dl'-an).  Some  derive  this  name  from 
Old  French  alan,  allan,  "a  hunting  dog,"  origin- 
ally from  the  country  of  the  Alani  or  Alauni,  a 
warlike  people  of  European  Sarmanatia. 

Alaric  (dV-dr-lk).  From  the  Gothic  Alareiks, 
"noble  ruler";  Danish,  Alarick;  Fr.,  Alaric;  Ger., 
Alarich;   It.,  Alarico;    Lat.,  Alaricus;    Sp.,  Alarico. 

Alaska  (a4ds'-kd).  Territory  of  the  United 
States.  An  Indian  word  meaning  "great  country," 
"continent,"  or  "great  land."  It  was  encountered 
by  Russian  explorers  as  Al-ay-es-ka,  the  name 
having  since  changed  through  Aliaska,  Alaksa, 
Alashka,  to  its  present  form.  When  purchased  by 
the  United  States,  the  names  of  Walrussia,  Ameri- 
can Siberia,  Zero  Islands,  and  Polario  were  sug- 
gested, but  Alaska  was  adopted  in  accordance  with 
a  proposition  of  Charles  Sumner. 

Albany  {6l'-bd-nl).  County  and  city  in  New 
York,  named  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York  (from 
his  second  title,  Albany),  afterwards  James  II.,  of 
England;  Albany,  derived  from  his  Scotch  title, 
originally  the  same  as  Albyn,  the  Celtic  name  of 
Scotland. 

Albemarle  (dl'-be-mdrl)  Sound,  N.  C.  After  the 
Duke  of  Albemarle  (Captain-General  George  Monk), 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Charter  Com- 
pany. 

Albert  (M'-bert).     The  same  with  the  Old  High 


German  names,  Albrecht,  Ailbracht,  and  the  North 
High  German,  Albrecht;  from  all-brecht,  "very 
distinguished."  Danish,  Albrecht;  Dutch,  Alber- 
tus,  or  Albert;  Fr.,  Albert;  Ger.,  Albrecht;  It., 
Alberto;   Lat.,  Albertus;  Sp.,  Alberto;  Sw.,  Albert. 

Albino  {dl-bl'-no).  Albino  is  a  term  originally 
applied  to  the  white  negro  of  .  the  African  coast 
(albus,  white),  by  the  Portuguese.  The  characteris- 
tics are  extreme  whiteness  of  the  skin,  white  or  very 
pale  flaxen  hair,  and  pink  eyes.  The  wool  of  the 
negro  Albino  is  generally  perfectly  white.  Albinos 
are  also  found  among  white  people.  It  is  now 
known  that  these  characteristics  are  the  result  of  a 
peculiar  disease,  to  which  some  animals,  as  the 
domestic  rabbit,  are  also  liable. 

Albuquerque  (Sp.,  id-boo-kdr' -kd) ,  New  Mexico. 
Named  by  the  Spaniards,  from  Albuquerque,  a 
town  in  Spain,  near  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  which 
took  its  name  from  Alphonso  d' Albuquerque,  the 
"Portuguese  Mars." 

Alcazar  (dl-kdz'-dr).  From  the  Arabic,  al  gasr, 
"the  palace."  The  palace  of  the  Moorish  kings  and 
later  of  Spanish  royalty  at  Seville.  A  large  part  of 
it  is  of  the  original  Alhambresque  architecture,  and 
extremely  beautiful,  though  restored  and  too 
highly  colored. 

Aleutian  {d-lii' -shl-dn) .  Islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  A  derivation  of  the  Russian  word  aleaut, 
meaning  "bald  rock,"  later  appearing  in  the 
name  applied  to  the  river  Olutora  on  the  coast 
of  Kamchatka,  the  people  near  the  mouth  of  the 
stream  being  called  Olutorsky.  The  Russians 
when  first  viewing  the  Alaskan  natives  applied  the 
name  Olutorsky.  The  initial  O  of  the  Russian 
invariably  broadens  into  a  sound  almost  equivalent 
to  a  in  father,  accounting  for  the  transition  from 
Olutorsky  to  Aleutsky,  and  then  to  Aleutian. 

Alexander.  From  the  Greek  name  Alexandras, 
"helper  of  men."  Dutch,  Alexander;  Fr.,  Alex- 
andre; Ger.,  Alexander;  It.,  Alessandro;  Lat., 
Alexander;   Sp.,  Alejandro,  or  Alexandro. 

Alexandria,  an  Egyptian  city  named  after  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  In  reading  or  speaking  in  Latin, 
tliis  name  is  pronounced  Alexan-dri'a,  but  it  is 
properly  Alex-an'dria,  the  accent  being  placed  on 
the  third  syllable. 

Alexis  (d-lSx'-ls).  From  the  Greek  name  Alexis, 
"help,"  defense; "   i^r.,  Alexis;   Russ. ,  A\exei. 

Alfred.  This  name  is  usually  translated  "all 
peace."  Neidinger  derives  the  first  syllable  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  name  Alfred,  Aelfred,  from  the  word 
alp,  alf,  df,  "strong,"  "powerful."  The  name  is 
rather  from  alf-rad,  "help  in  counsel."  Danish, 
Alfred;  Dutch,  Alfred;  Fr.,  Alfred;  Ger.,  Alfred; 
It.,  Alfredo;  Lai.,  Alfredus;  Sp.,  Alfredo. 

Algernon  (dl' -jer-nUn) .  From  als  (aux)  gernons, 
was  originally  given  in  the  Twelfth  Century  to 
those  who,  contrary  to  the  fashion  of  the  time,  wore 
their  whiskers.  Roquefort  renders  the  Old  French, 
gernon,  grenon,  gnernon,  ghernon,  "poll  de  la  barbe, 
moustache  " ;  from  Med.  L.  granus,  greno;  the  latter 
is  no  doubt  from  L.  crinis,  "hair  of  the  head." 

Algiers  (dl-jerz').  From  the  Arabic,  Al-jazirah, 
"the  peninsula." 

Alhambra  (dl-hdm'-brd).  From  the  Arabic, 
al-hamrd,  "red."  A  great  citadel  and  palace 
founded  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  above  the  city 
of  Granada,  Spain,  by  the  Moorish  kings. 

Alice  {dl'-ls).  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"noble"  or  "noble  cheer."  Danish,  Else;  Dutch, 
Elsje;   Fr.,  Alice;   Lot.,  Alicia;   Sw.,  Elsa. 

Alison  {dl'-l-s6n).  A  Scottish  female  name, 
which  in  old  parish  registers  is  spelled  Alisone  It 
is  of  French  origin,  and  the  same  as  Alizon.  Roque- 
fort gives  Alizon,  Alieite,  Ailexe,  Aileye,  Auly,  as 
female  diminutives  of  Alexis. 

Aiiee  Verte  (dl-ld'  vdrt).  French,  "green  walk." 
A  double  avenue  of  limes  beginning  at  the  western 
end  of  the  Boulevard  d'Anvers  in  Brussels  and 
extending  along  the  bank  of  the  Willebroeck  Canal. 


MISCELLANY 


799 


Alleghany  (pl'-e-ga-nl),  or  Allegheny,  also  Alle- 
gany. County,  city,  and  river  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  mountains  in  eastern  United  States.  An 
Indian  word  variously  spelled,  the  origin  of  which 
is  in  dispute.  The  most  generally  accepted  deri- 
vation is  from  welhikhanna,  "the  best"  or  "the 
fairest  river." 

Allen.  According  to  some,  this  is  the  same  name 
as  Allan  and  Alan.  Lower  shows  that  it  is  found 
written  Allayne.  It  is  a  probable  corruption  of  the 
name  Alwine. 

AUentown.  City  in  Lehigh  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  borough  in  Monmouth  County,  New 
Jersey,  named  for  William  Allen,  of  Pennsylvania, 
at  one  time  chief  justice  of  the  province. 

All  Saints'  Bay.  Because  discovered  by  Ves- 
pucci on  the  Feast  of    All  Saints  in  the  year  1503. 

Ahna  (dl'-md).  At  the  time  of  the  war  between 
England  and  Russia  this  name  was  introduced  in 
the  west  of  England,  so  clflristened  after  the  Battle 
of  the  Alma. 

Ahnack's  {6l'-m&ks).  This  well-known  place  of 
assembly  in  King  Street,  St.  James's,  London, 
was  built  by  one  MacCall,  a  tavern-keeper,  in  1759. 
He  was  originally  a  poor  Highlander,  who,  having 
made  his  way  to  London,  inverted  the  syllables  of 
his  name  to  disguise  his  northern  origin.  As 
Almack  he  opened  the  tavern  and  the  celebrated 
rooms  which  were  known  as  Almack's  for  the 
greater  part  of  a  century.  They  were  afterwards 
called  "Willis's  Rooms." 

Alonzo  (d-ldn'-zo),  or  Alonso.     See  Alphonso. 

Alphonso  (Sl-fdn'-so,  &L-f5n'-zo),  or  Alonzo. 
From  the  Teutonic,  meaning  "battle  eager." 
Danish,  Alfons;  Fr.,  Alphonse;  It.,  Alfonso;  Lat., 
Alphonsus;  Por^.,  Affonso;  iSp.,  Alfonso,  or  Alonso. 

Alps.  The  word  Alp,  or  Alb,  is  Keltic,  and 
signifies  "white."  Its  application  to  the  white 
tops  of  the  mountains  of  the  Alps  is  a  natural  one, 
and  it  is  singular  that  the  names  of  nearly  all  the 
great  mountains  of  the  earth  have  some  reference 
to  their  snow-covered  summits. 

Altai  (dl-tl').  A  mountain  range  in  central  Asia, 
rich  in  the  precious  metals,  is  now  called  in  Mongo- 
lian Altain  ula,  "mountain  of  gold,"  from  ula, 
"mountain,"  and  altain,  genitive  of  alta,  "gold." 
Al-tai  (for  Altagh)  is  the  Tartaric  form  of  the 
name.  Hence  the  name  Altaie  which  is  applied 
to  languages  of  the  Mongol-Turkic  class. 

Altoona  {&l-t6d' -nd) .  City  in  Blair  County,  Penn- 
sylvania, so  named  because  of  its  high  situation  in 
the  Allegheny  Mountains,  and  town  in  Polk  County, 
Iowa,  situated  on  the  highest  point  between  the 
Des  Moines  and  Mississippi  Rivers.  A  derivative 
of  the  Latin  word  altus,  "high." 

Alvin  {al'-vln),  or  Alwin  (dl'-win).  Means  "win- 
ning all."  Dutch,  Alewijn;  Fr.,  Aluin;  Ger., 
Alwin;   It.,  Alvino;    Lat.,  Alwinus;   Sp.,  Aluino. 

Amadeus  {dm-d-de' -us) .  Translated,  a  "lover  of 
God."  i^r.,  Amadee;  Ger.,  Amadeus;  /<.,  Amedeo, 
or  Amadeo;  Lat.,  Amadeus;  Sp.,  Amadeo. 

Amanda  {d-m&n'-dd).  A  female  name  from  the 
Latin  Aiimnda,  "to  be  loved,"  i.  e.,  "worthy  of 
being  loved."  It  is  also  found  as  a  male  name  in 
the  parish  registers  of  Nottingham,  England. 

Ambrose  {dm'-broz).  From  the  Latin  name 
Ambrosius;  meaning  "immortal,  divine,  godlike." 
Danish,  Ambrosius;  Dutch,  Ambrosius;  Fr.,  Am- 
broise;  Ger.,  Ambrosius,  or  Ambros;  /<.,  Ambrogio; 
Sp.,  Ambrosio. 

Amelia  (d-me'-li-d).  From  Aemylia,  name  of  a 
noble  family  in  Rome,  also  the  name  of  a  vestal 
who  rekindled  the  fire  of  Vesta,  which  had  been 
extinguished  by  putting  her  veil  over  it.  The 
name  means  "gentle,  engaging,  courteous."  Dan- 
ish, Amalie;  Fr.,  Am^lie;  Ger.,  Amalie;  Sp., 
Amelia. 

America.  From  Amerigo  Vespucci,  sometimes 
spelled  Vespucius,  who  landed  on  the  Western 
Continent  south  of  the  equator  in  1497.      His  name 


was  given  to  this  country  by  a  German  geographer 
Martin  Waldseemuller,  who  published  an  account 
of  the  four  voyages  of  Vespucci  at  Frankfort,  Ger- 
many, in  1507. 

Amherst  {dm'-erst).  County  in  Virginia,  and 
towns  in  Hillsboro  County,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Hampshire  County,  Massachusetts,  named  for 
Lord  Jeffrey  Amherst. 

Amos  (d'-mds).  From  the  Hebrew,  signifying  a 
"burden."     Fr.,  Amos. 

Amy  (d'-mi).  Some  derive  this  name  from  the 
French  aimee,  "beloved";  others  from  amie,  "a 
friend."  It  is  found  Latinized  both  Amata  and 
Amicia.     Danish,  Amalie;   Fr.,  Aim^e;   It.,  Amata. 

Anabella.  A  female  name  formed  from  Han- 
nibal, i.  e.,  Annibal,  the  Carthaginian  name.  In 
Phenician  it  is  found  written  ChanbaaZ,  "favor  of 
Baal." 

Andalusia  (dn-dd-ldo'-sM-d).  Now  a  captaincy- 
general  in  southern  Spain,  comprising  the  modern 
provinces  Almeria,  Jaen,  Granada,  Cordova,  Malaga, 
Seville,  Cadiz,  and  Huelva.  It  was  called  by  the 
Moors  Belad-al-Andalus,  the  "land  of  the  Andalus," 
Andalus  being  probably  a  corruption  of  the  Latin 
Valdalos,  "the  Vandals." 

Andes  (dn'-dez).  Properly  "Cordilleras  de  los 
Andes,"  the  "chain  of  the  Andes,"  is  a  name  of 
uncertain  meaning.  Garcilasso  de  'la  Vega  says 
that  it  was  derived  from  the  Anti  tribe  near  Cuzco. 
It  has  also  been  referred  to  a  Peruvian  word  anta, 
"copper."  Another  proposed  etymology  is  from 
anta,  a  "tapir,"  of  which  the  Portuguese  plural 
would  be  antas,  so  that  the  Cordilleras  de  los 
Antas  would  mean  the  "mountains  of  the  tapirs." 

Andrew.  From  the  Greek  Andreas,  meaning 
"manly,  brave,  courageous."  Danish,  Andreas; 
Dutch,  Andries;  Fr.,  Andre;  Ger.,  Andreas;  It., 
Andrea;  La<.,  Andreas;  Pori.,  Andre;  Sp  ,  Andres. 

Androscoggin  (dn-drds-kdg'-gin).  River  in  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  county  in  Maine.  As  a 
compliment  to  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  name  was 
changed  from  the  Indian  name  first  given  to  the 
river,  from  the  tribe  Amasagunticook,  that  former- 
ly lived  on  its  banks,  and  variously  spelled  from 
pronunciations,  Ammoncongan,  Ammoscoggin, 
Amariscoggen.  The  authorities  give  the  meaning 
"a  fishing  place  for  alewives,"  or  "fish  spearing.' 

Angela  (dn'-je-ld).  A  female  name  of  Italian 
origin,  derived  from  angelo,  "an  angel." 

Angelica  (dn-jel'-i-kd).  Translated  "angelic." 
Fr.,  Angelique;   Ger.,  Angelica;   It.,  Angelica. 

Angelo,  Sant'  {dn'-je-lo).  Castle  of.  The  remod- 
eled mausoleum  of  Hadrian  in  Rome.  It  is  a  huge 
circular  tower  about  230  feet  in  diameter  on  a 
basement  about  300  feet  square,  with  medieval 
chambers  and  casemates  excavated  in  its  solid  con- 
crete, and  three  Renaissance  stories  added  on  its 
summit  to  serve  the  purposes  of  a  citadel. 

Anna  or  Anne.  Same  origin  as  Hannah.  \Dan., 
Anna;  Dutch,  Anna;  Fr.,  Anne;  Ger.,  Anne;  It., 
Anna;  Lat.,  Anna.  *. 

Anselm  (dn'-selm).  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"divine  helmet,"  hence  "a  defender."  Dutch,  An- 
selmus;  Fr.,  Anselme;  Ger.,  Anselm;  It.,  Anselmo; 
Lat.,  Anselmus;  Sp.,  Anselmo. 

Antarctic  Ocean.  Denotes  the  ocean  anti, 
"against"  or  "opposite  to"  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Antony  (dn'-to-ne),  Anthony.  From  Latin  Anto- 
nius,  meaning  "inestimable."  According  to  Lit- 
tleton, the  Antonian  family  were  descended  from 
Antius,  son  of  Hercules.  Danish,  Anton;  Dutch, 
Anton,  or  Antoon,  or  Antonius;  Fr.,  Antoine; 
Ger.,  Anton;  It.,  Antonio;  Port.,  Antonio;  Sp., 
Antonio;  Sw.,  Anton. 

Antwerp  (dntf-werp).  From  Andoverpum,  "at 
the  wharf";  werf,  a  dam  or  wharf;  literally, 
"what  is  thrown  up," — werf  en. 

Apennines  (dp'-en-lnz).  Now  used  as  the  name 
of  the  central  mountain  chain  of  Italy.  The  Roman 
terra  Mons  Apenninus  originally  denoted  the  Marl- 


800 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


time  Alps  near  Genoa,  the  Mons  Peninus  signifying 
the  Dauphiny  Alps,  more  especially  the  part  near 
the  Great  St.  Bernard.  The  Romans  explained 
the  Mons  Peninus  or  Pennine  chain  as  the  Poenine 
or  Punic  Mountains,  most  likely  because  Hannibal 
crossed  them  when  he  invaded  Italy.  But  the 
name  Mons  Peninus  doubtless  contains  the  Celtic 
word  pen,  "head,  summit,  mountain,"  and  the 
Mons  Peninus  can  hardly  be  separated  from  the 
neigliboring  Mons  Apenninus,  which  is  probably  the 
same  word  with  a  prefixed  article  or  preposition. 

Appalachian  {&p-pd-ldch'-i-&n,  &p-pd-ld'-chl-dn) 
Mountains.  From  the  Appalachicola  River,  or  the 
ancient  town  called  Apalache,  found  by  DeSoto  in 
Florida. 

Appalacliicola  {&p-pd4&ch-i-kd'-ld)  Biver,  Fla. 
From  an  Indian  town  Apalatichiokli,  "those  on  the 
other  side";  another  source  notes  it  ApalatchuMa, 
"old  town,"  a  former  Indian  settlement  on  its  banks. 

Appalachie  (&p-pd4dch' -e)  Bay,  Fia.  Variously 
spelled  Apahlahche,  Apeolatei,  Palaxy,  Palatcy;  the 
prefix  is  supposed  to  be  Spanish,  the  word  in  full 
said  to  mean  "the  men."       (See  Appalachicola.) 

Appian  Way.  The  Via  Appia  of  ancient  Rome, 
most  famous  of  Roman  highways.  It  ran  from 
Rome  to  Brundisium  (Brindisi)  and  is  probably 
the  first  great  Roman  road  which  was  formally 
undertaken  as  a  public  work.  It  was  begun  in 
312  B.  C,  by  Appius  Claudius  Csecus,  the  censor, 
and  was  ultimately  extended  to  Brundisium  when 
a  Roman  colony  was  inaugurated  there.  At 
present  the  Appian  Way,  for  a  long  distance  after 
it  leaves  Rome,  forms  one  of  the  most  notable 
memorials  of  antiquity  in  or  near  the  Eternal  City, 
bordered  as  it  is  by  tombs  and  the  ruins  of  monu- 
mental buildings. 

Appomattox  {dp-pd-m&t' -6ks) .  River  and  county 
in  Virginia.  An  Indian  word,  meaning  "a  tobacco- 
plant  country." 

April.  From  aperio,  "to  open,"  this  being  the 
month  in  which  the  buds  shoot  forth. 

Arabella  (dr-d-bel'-ld).  Corrupted  from  the  old 
name  Oragd,  Oragele,  meaning  a  "fair  altar." 
Dutch,  Arabella;  Fr.,  Arabelle;  Ger.,  Arabelle;  It., 
Arabella;  Lat.,  Arabella. 

Arabia  {d-rd'-bl-d).  The  country  of  the  Arabs, 
"men  of  the  desert." 

Arc  de  Triomplie  de  I'Etoiie  {ark  du  tre-dNf  du 
Id-twdl').  Meaning,  "triumphal  arch  of  the  star." 
The  largest  triumphal  arch  in  existence,  at  the 
head  of  the  Champs  Elys6es,  Paris. 

Arcli  of  Constantine  {k6n' -st&n-tln) .  An  arch  in 
Rome  built  312  A.  D.,  in  honor  of  Constantino's 
triumph  over  Maxentius. 

Arch  of  Septimius  Severus.  An  arch  in  the  Ro- 
man Forum,  dedicated  203  A.  D.,  in  commemora- 
tion of  victories  over  the  Parthians. 

Arch  of  Titus.  An  arch  in  Rome,  built  in  com- 
memoration of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem. 

Arch  of  Trajan.  Arch  over  the  Appian  Way  at 
Benevento,  Italy',  dedicated  A.  D.  114,  and  one  of 
the  finest  of  ancient  arches. 

Archangel  (ark-dn'-jSl).  City  of  Russia,  named 
in  honor  of  the  archangel,  Michael. 

Archibald  (ar-'chl-bald).  From  the  Old  Gre- 
man  name  Ercheneals,  Erchanpald;  from  erchan- 
bald,  "bold  in  work  or  activity."  Fr.,  Archam- 
baud;   Lat.,  Archibaldus. 

Arctic.  The  word  "arctic"  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  name  for  the  constellation  of  the  Bear, 
Arctos,  and  means  "near  Arctos, "  i.  e.,  "in  the 
extreme  north." 

Areopagus  {dr-e-6p'-d-gixs).  From  the  Greek 
Areios  pagos,  "Martial  hill,"  i.  e.,  "Hill  of  Mars." 
A  low,  rocky  hill  at  Athens  continuing  westward 
the  line  of  the  Acropolis,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  depression  of  ground. 

Argentina  (dr-j&n-te'-nd).  Now  the  Argentine 
Republic,  "silver  republic,"  which  owes  its  name 
to  the  silvery  reflection  of  its  rivers. 


Arizona  (dr-l-zo'-nd).  Territory  of  the  United 
States.  Generally  accepted  that  the  name  is  derived 
from  the  Indian  word  meaning  "arid  zone  or 
desert";  but  Mowry  claims  that  the  name  is 
Aztec,  from  Arizuma,  signifying  "silver  bearing." 

Arliansas  (ar'-kdn-s6,  or  nr-kdn'-.ids).  River, 
State,  county,  and  town  in  said  State,  and  city  in 
Cowley  County,  Kansas.  Marquette  and  other 
French  explorers  wrote  the  word  Alkansas  and 
Akamsca,  from  the  Indian  tribe.  The  usual  ety- 
mology derives  the  name  from  the  French  arc,  "a 
bow,"  and  Kansas,  "smoky  water,"  while  another 
theory  makes  the  prefix  a  Dakota  word  meaning 
"people";  hence,  "people  of  the  smoky  water. 
Schoolcraft  says  there  is  a  species  of  acacia  found 
in  Arkansas  from  which  the  Indians  made'  bows. 
This  is  thought  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the 
name  of  the  Arc  or  Bow  Indians. 

Aries  (drlz.  Fr.,  drl).*  A  city  in  the  department 
of  Bourches-du-Rhone,  France,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Rhone  near  its 
mouth.  It  was  anciently  known  as  Are-late  or 
Arelatum,  "by  the  marsh"  or  "on  the  clay." 

Arlington  House.  A  mansion  on  the  heights 
opposite  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  the 
midst  of  the  national  cemetery.  It  was  once  the 
property  of  General  Washington  and  the  home  of 
General  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Arnold.  Bailey  says  this  name  in  Saxon,  arn- 
hold,  signifies  "faithful  to  his  honor";  Lower  says 
the  surname  Arnulfe  is  the  same  as  Arnold,  in 
medieval  records  sometimes  Latinized  ErnuLphus, 
wliich  might  translate  both  "help  in  war"  and 
"helping  lord,"  all  doubtless  from  ern-walt,  "power- 
ful lord."  i^r.,  Arnaud;  Ger.,  Arnold;  /<.,  Arnaldo; 
Lat.,  Arnoldus  or  Arnaldus. 

Aroostook  (d-rdos'-todk.  River  and  county  in 
Maine.  An  Indian  word,  meaning  "good  riVer," 
or  "clear  of  ob.struction." 

Arthabasca  (dr-tM-bds'-kd)  Lake,  Me.  Indian 
word,  :neaning  "swampy." 

Artliur.  Armstrong  derives  this  name  from 
Gael,  ard,  "an  eminent  person";  literally,  "high, 
lofty,  exalted,  noble,  eminent,  excellent,  proud"; 
others  derive  it  from  arth,  "a  bear."  Fr.,  Arthur, 
or  Artus;    It.,  Arturo;  Lat.,  Arthurus. 

Asakasa  (d-sd-kd'-sd).  Pagoda.  A  picturesque 
Buddhist  tower  in  Tokio,  Japan. 

Ascension  Island.  Was  so  named  because  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  on  Ascension  Day,  1501. 

Ashley  River,  S.  C.  From  Sir  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  afterward  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  named  in 
the  original  charter.  Indian  name  of  the  stream, 
Kiauah. 

Asia  (d'shl-d).  From  the  Sanskrit  ushas,  signify- 
ing "land  of  the  dawn." 

Asia  Minor.     Lesser  Asia. 

Astoria  (ds-to'-rl-d).  City  in  Clapsop  County, 
Oregon,  named  for  the  founder,  John  Jacob  Astor, 
who  established  a  fur-trading  station  there  in  early 
days. 

Atchafalaya  (dch-d-fd-li'-d)  River,  La.  Choctaw 
Indian  Achafalaya,  "long  river";  i.  e.,  hucha, 
"river,"  falaya,  "long." 

Athens  (dth'-inz).  A  name  of  doubtful  ety- 
mology, cannot  be  separated  from  that  of  Athene, 
the  tutelary  goddess  of  the  city.  Athens  is  either 
the  city  of  Athene,  as  the  Athenians  believed,  or 
Athene  may  be  the  goddess  of  Athens,  or  both 
names  may  be  independent  formations  from  the 
same  root. 

Athol  {dth'-dl).  Town  in  Worcester  County, 
Massachusetts,  said  to  have  been  named  for  James 
Murray,  second  Duke  of  Athol. 

Atlanta  {dt-ldn' -td) ,  Ga.  Originally,  Marthas- 
ville.  Atlanta  was  suggested  by  the  late  Edgar 
Thomson  of  Philadelphia,  owing  to  its  geographi- 
cal position,  immediately  on  the  dividing  ridge, 
separating  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  waters. 

Atlantic  Ocean.     Was  known  to  the  Greeks  by 


MISCELLANY 


801 


the  name  of  Atlantikos  pelagos,  from  the  Isle  of 
Atlantes,  which  both  Plato  and  Homer  imagined 
to  be  situated  beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

Aubrey  {6'-brl).  A  name  derived  from  the 
Old  German  name  Amalric,  signifying  "powerful 
without  a  blot,"  or  "rich  in  chastity."  Anialaric 
has  been  corrupted  to  Alberic,  wlrcnce  Aubrey. 

Audrey,  or  Audric  {o'-drl).  A  female  name  cor- 
rupted from  Etheldrcda. 

August.  Named  by  Augustus  Caesar  after  him- 
self, because  in  this  month  he  celebrated  three 
distinct  triumphs,  reduced  Egypt  to  subjection, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars.  Before  this  the 
month  was  known  in  Rome  as  sextilis.  In  Gallia, 
however,  and  in  other  remote  parts  of  the  empire, 
the  ancient  name  for  this  month  was  Eaust,  or 
Aust,  1.  e.,  "harvest." 

Augusta  (u-gus'-td).  The  female  form  of  Au- 
gustus, meaning  "venerable."  Danish,  Auguste; 
Dutch,  Auguste;  Fr.,  Auguste;  Ger.,  Auguste  or 
Augusta;  It.,  Augusta;  Lat.,  Augusta. 

Augusta,  Maine.  Given  in  1737,  after  the  name 
of  the  English  Princess  Augusta  Charlotte,  eldest 
granddaughter  of  George  II.  The  Indian  name  of 
the  locality  was  Cushnoc. 

Augustin.     See  Augustine. 

Augustine  (d-gus'-tln,  d'-giis-tm).  From  the 
Latin  augustus,  "venerable."  Dutch,  Augustinus, 
or  Augustijn;  i^r.,  Augustin;  7^,  Augustino;  Lat., 
Augustinus;   Port.,  Agostinho;   Sp.,  Augustin. 

Aurella  (6-re'-li-d).  A  female  name  derived 
from  that  of  Aurelia,  mother  of  Cffisar,  formed  from 
Aurelius,  name  of  a  Roman  emperor. 

Aurora  (o-ro'-rd).  A  female  name  from  Latin 
aurora,  "the  dawn." 

Austerlitz  {ows'-ter-Zits).  The  east  town  of  the 
River  Littawa;  est,  "the  east." 

Austin.     Corrupted  down  from  Augustin. 

Austin.  County  and  city  in  Travis  Countj', 
Texas,  and  town  in  Lonoke  County,  Arkansas, 
named  for  Stephen  Fuller  Austin,  the  first  man  to 
establish  a  permanent  American  colony  in  Texas 
(1844). 

Australasia  {ds-tr&l-a'-sh'i-d).  Meaning,  "South- 
ern Asia,"  derived  from  the  Latin  australis,  "south- 
ern." 

Australia  (6s-trd'-li-d).  Meaning,  "the  South." 
The  first  indication  of  Australia  on  any  map  is  in  a 
small  map  of  the  world  which  forms  the  vignette  to 
a  Dutch  work,  Journael  vande  Nassauche  Vloot, 
under  Admiral  v'Hermitte,  in  1623-4-5-6.  The 
place  indicated  is  to  the  west  of  Cape  Carpentaria 
of  the  present  map,  and  is  marked  "Land  eend- 
racht." 

Austria  {6s' -tri-d) .  From  the  German,  Oster- 
reich,  "the  Eastern  Empire,'''  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Western  Empire  founded  by  Charlemagne. 

Aventlne  (&v'-en-tln)  Hill.  One  of  the  seven  hills 
of  ancient  Rome,  rising  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
south  of  the  Palatine.  Below  it  to  the  northeast 
lay  the  Circus  Maximus,  and  to  the  east  the  Baths 
of  Caracalla. 

Aztec  (az'-tek).  Village  in  San  Juan  County, 
New  Mexico,  named  for  one  of  the  native  tribes  of 
Mexico.  The  word  is  said  to  mean  "place  of  the 
heron."  Other  interpretations  give  "white"  or 
"shallow  land  where  vapors  arise."  Humboldt 
gives  "land  of  flamingoes."  The  word  azcatl 
means  "ant,"  but  Bushmann  says  that  this  word 
has  no  connection  with  the  name  of  the  tribe. 

Baalbec  (bdl'-bek,  bdl-bek'),  Baalbek,  Baalbak. 
An  ancient  city  of  Syria,  situated  on  the  slope  of 
Anti-Libanus,  thirty-four  miles  northwest  of 
Damascus.  It  is  the  Greek  Heliopolis  "city  of  the 
sun,"  famous  for  its  ruins. 

Baffin  (bdf'-fin)  Land.  Named  for  the  famous 
Arctic  navigator  who  discovered  it. 

Baldwin.  From  the  Teutonic,  probably  meaning 
a  "bold  winner,"  or  "powerful  warrior"  ;  by  other 
authorities,    "prince    friend";     Danish,    Balduin; 


Dutch,  Boudewijn;    Fr.,  Baudouin;    Ger.,  Balduin; 
It.,  lialdovino;  Lat.,  Balduinus. 

Balearic  (bdl-e-ar'-lk)  Islands.  From  the  Greek 
ballein,  "to  throw  ,  so  called  because  their  inhab- 
itants were  skillful  in  the  use  of  the  sling. 

Balkan  {b6l'-kdn,  bdl-kdn').  From  Turk.,  balkh, 
"high  ridge,"  "high  town";  also  called  Mount 
Hfcmus,  meaning  "the  snowy  mount";  from 
Sanskrit  hitna,  "snow." 

Ballston  Spa  (bol'-stiin  spd).  Village  in  Saratoga 
County,  New  York.  Named  for  Rev.  Eliphalet 
Ball,  an  early  settler,  the  "spa"  being  added  in 
reference  to  tlie  medicinal  springs  resembling  the 
celebrated  watering  place  in  Belgium. 

Balthasar  (bdl'-td-zdr).  The  Greek  form  of 
Belshazzar,  "king  protector";  Fr.,  Balthazar  or 
Balthasar;  It.,  Baldassare;  Lat.,  Balthasar;  Sp., 
Baltasar. 

Baltic  Sea.  Denotes,  in  accordance  with  the 
Swedish  bait,  a  "strait,  a  sea  full  of  belts,  or  straits." 

Baltimore  ibdl' -tl-mor) .  County  and  city  in 
Maryland,  and  town  in  Windsor  County,  Vermont, 
named  for  the  proprietor  of  a  large  tract  of  land  in 
Maryland,  Cecil  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  who 
settled  the  provfnce  in  1635. 

Banbury  (Jbdn' -ber-i) .  A  town  in  Oxfordshire, 
England,  situated  on  the  Cherwell  twenty-two  miles 
north  of  Oxford.    O.  E.,  Berenburig,  "Bera's  fort." 

Bangor  {bdn'-gSr),  Maine.  By  Rev.  Seth  Noble, 
from  a  well-known  psalm  tune  of  that  name.  Pre- 
viously the  section  was  known  as  Sunbury;  the 
Indian  name,  Con,  or  Kenduskeag. 

Banks  Land.  So  called  in  compliment  to  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  the  eminent  naturalist  and  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain. 

Baptist.  From  the  Greek,  meaning  a  "bap- 
tizer";  Fr.,  Baptiste;  Ger.,  Baptist;  It.,  Battista; 
Lat.,  Baptista;  Port.,  Baptista;  Sp.,  Bautista. 

Barbadoes  (bdr-bd'-^dz).  From  the  Latin  barba, 
"a  beard,"  in  allusion  to  the  beardlike  streamers  of 
moss  always  hanging  from  the  branches  of  the  trees. 

Barbara  (bdr' -bd-rd) .  From  the  Greek,  meaning 
"foreign,  stranger";  Dutch,  Barbara;  Fr.,  Barbe; 
Ger.,  Barbara;  It.,  Barbara;  Lat.,  Barbara. 

Barbary  {bdr'-bd-ri).     The  land  of  the  Berbers. 

Barberlnl  (bdr-bd-re'-ne).  Palace.  A  palace  in 
Rome,  near  the  Quirinal,  begun  by  Urban  VIII., 
whose  name  was  Carlo  Barberini,  and  finished  in 
1640.     It  is  noted  for  its  art  treasures. 

Barcelona  (bdr-se-ld'-nd).  Named  from  Hamil- 
car  Barca,  who  founded  it. 

Bar  Harbor.  A  village  in  Hancock  County, 
Mount  Desert  Island,  Maine,  so  named  from  a 
sandy  bar,  visible  only  at  low  tide. 

Baring  {bd'-ring,  b&r'-lng).  Island.  Discovered 
by  Captain  Penny,  received  the  name  of  Sir  Francis 
Baring,  First  Lord  of  the  British  Admiralty. 

Barnabas  (bdr'-na-bas),  or  Barnaby  (b'dr'-na-bl). 
From  the  Hebrew  Bar  Nebah,  which  some  translate 
"son  of  exhortation,"  or  "son  of  consolation."  It 
rather  means  "son  of  prophecy,"  from  bar-nebuah. 
Danish,  Hamahas ;  Dutch,  Hamahas ;  i^r. ,  Barnabe; 
Ger.,  Barnabas;  It.,  Barnaba;  Lat.,  Barnabas;  Sp., 
Bernabe. 

Barrow  Island.  Discovered  by  Captain  Penny, 
in  1850,  received  the  name  of  John  Barrow,  son  of 
Sir  John  Barrow,  the  eminent  British  statesman. 

Barrow's  Strait.  So  called  by  Captain  Penny, 
in  compliment  to  John  Barrow,  the  son  of  Sir  John 
Barrow,  the  traveler  and  statesman. 

Bartholomew  (bdr-thol'-o-mu).  From  the  He- 
brew Bartolomai,  which,  according  to  some,  means 
"son  of  Ptolemy,"  but  it  translates  rather  "son  of 
Tolmai."  Danish,  Bartholomaeus ;  Dutch,  Bar- 
tholomeus;  Fr.,  Barthelemi;  Ger.,  Bartholomaus; 
It.,  Bartolommeo;  Lat.,  Bartholomaeus;  Port., 
Bartholomeu;  Russ.,  Varfolomei;  Sp.,  Bartolome; 
Sw.,  Bartholomaus. 
I  Basil  (bd'-sll).  From  the  Greek,  Basileios,  mean- 
ing "kingly."     Danish,  Basilius;    Dutch,  Basilius; 


802 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Fr.,  Basile;  Ger.,  Basilius;  It.,  Basilio;  Lat.,  Bas- 
ilius;  Russ.,  Vasilii;  Sw.,  Basilius. 

Basque  (bdsk)  Provinces.  The  provinces  of 
Vizcaya,  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava,  in  Spain,  united  to 
Castile  in  the  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Centuries. 
From  bassoco,  "a  mountaineer";  or,  according  to 
Humboldt,  from  basoa,  "a  forest." 

Bastille  (Jbds-teV),  The.  A  celebrated  state  prison 
in  Paris.  Probably  from  the  Latin,  hostile,  "a 
tower,  fortress." 

Bath  (b&th),  Maine.  From  Bath  in  England, 
adopted  February  17,  1781. 

Baths  of  Caracalla  (kdr-d-ktU'-d).  Baths  in 
ancient  Rome,  begun  by  Severus,  206  A.  D.  Named 
for  the  Emperor  "Caracalla,"  a  nickname  for 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. 

Baton  Rouge  (b&t'-vn  roozh).  City  in  lEast  Baton 
Rouge  Parish,  Louisiana.  It  is  a  French  name, 
meaning  "red  staff"  or  "stick,"  given  because 
of  a  tall  cypress  tree  which  stood  upon  the  spot 
where  it  was  first  settled.  Some  authorities  say 
that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  name  of  an 
Indian  chief,  whose  name  translated  into  French 
was  "Baton  Rouge."  Still  another  theory  ascribes 
the  name  to  the  fact  that  a  massacre  by  the  Indians 
took  place  upon  the  spot  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
first  settlers. 

Bavaria.  The  country  of  the  Boarii,  a  tribe 
related  to  the  Boii. 

Bayeux  {bd-yo').  Named  from  the  Bajoccas,  a 
Keltic  tribe  name,  meaning  "great  conquerors." 

Bayeux  Tapestry.  A  strip  of  linen  231  feet  long 
and  twenty  inches  wide,  preserved  in  the  Library 
at  Bayeux,  France,  embroidered  with  episodes  of 
the  Norman  conquest  of  England  from  the  visit  of 
Harold  to  the  Norman  court  until  his  death  at 
Senlac,  each  with  its  title  in  Latin.  The  work  is 
of  great  archaeological  interest  from  its  details  of 
costume  and  arms.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
made  by  Matilda,  queen  of  William  the  Conqueror. 

Bayreuth  (bi'-ruth.  German,  bl'-roit),  Balreuth. 
A  former  German  burgraviate  and  principality, 
now  in  the  northern  part  of  Bavaria. 

Bayreuth  Festival.  A  musical  festival  held  at 
Bayreuth,  for  the  representation  of  the  German 
composer's  Wagner,  works.  The  National  Theater, 
in  which  it  is  held,  was  opened  bj''  Wagner  in  1876. 

Beacon  Hill.  An  eminence  in  Boston,  Mass., 
which  has  become  famous  in  history.  The  old 
beacon,  shown  in  all  the  early  plans  of  the  town, 
and  which  gave  the  name  to  Beacon  Hill,  was 
erected  in  1634-1635,  to  alarm  the  country  in  case 
of  invasion.  It  stood  near  the  present  State  House, 
the  exact  spot  being  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
reservoir  formerly  standing  on  Temple  Street. 
It  was  a  tall  mast,  standing  on  cross  timbers  placed 
upon  a  stone  foundation,  supported  by  braces,  and 
was  ascended  by  treenails  driven  into  it;  and, 
sixty-five  feet  from  the  base,  projected  a  crane  of 
iron,  from  which  an  iron  skeleton  frame  was  sus- 
pended, to  receive  a  barrel  of  tar  or  other  combus- 
tibles. When  fired,  this  could  be  seen  for  a  great 
distance  inland.  It  was  newly  erected  in  1768, 
having  fallen  from  some  cause  unknown;  and  in 
1789  it  was  blown  down.  The  next  year. a  monu- 
ment of  brick,  sixty  feet  high  and  four  in  diameter, 
was  erected  on  its  site  to  the  memory  of  those  who 
fell  at  Bunker  Hill;  and  in  1811  this  was  taken 
down,  the  mound  being  leveled.  , 

Beacon  Street.  A  street  in  Boston,  Mass.,  which 
extends  from  Tremont  Street  along  the  north  side 
of  the  Common  and  Public  Gardens  westward. 
It  is  noted  as  a  street  of  residence  and  its  name  is  a 
synonym  for  the  wealth  and  culture  of  the  city. 

Beatrice  (Jae'-d-trls.  French,  bd-a-tres'),  Beatrix 
(Jbe'-d-trlks).  Female  names  formed  from  Latin 
beatus,  "blessed,  happy."  Danish,  Beatrix;  Dutch, 
Beatrix;  Fr.,  Beatrice;  Ger.,  Beatrix,  or  Beatrice; 
It.,  Beatrice;  Lat.,  Beatrix;  Sp.,  Beatriz;  Sw., 
Beatrix. 


Beaufort  (bU'-furt),  S.  C.  In  honor  of  Henri, 
Duke  of  Beaufort. 

Behrlng  (bd'-rihg,  or  be'-rhig)  Strait,  Alaska. 
Named  by  Captain  Cook,  in  memory  of  Ivan  Ivan- 
vitch  or  Vite  Behring  (who  wrote  it  Bering  or 
Bereng;  Behring,  a  German  corruption),  a  Russian 
navigator,  its  discoverer,  in  1728.  On  some  "olde 
mappes"  (1566)  the  waters  are  noted  as  "Stret  de 
Anian." 

Belgium  (JbW-ft-um).  Literally,  the  land  of  the 
Belgae. 

Belinda.  A  female  name.  It  may  be  from 
Italian  Bella  Linda,  or  corrupted  from  bellino,  a 
diminutive  of  bello,  "beautiful." 

Bella.  An  abbreviation  of  both  Isabella  and 
Arabella. 

Belleisle  (bU-W).     French  for  "beautiful  island."' 

Belle  vue  (bSl-vU').  A  noted  castle  near  Cassel  in 
Germany.  It  contains  a  fine  picture  gallery. 
Among  its  masterpieces  are  specimens  of  Holbein, 
Rembrandt,  Vandyck,  Rubens,  Teniers,  Wouver- 
man,  Titian,  Guido  Reni,  etc. 

Beloochlstan  (bil-oo-chis-tdn'),  or  Baluchistan. 
From  the  Persian,  meaning  "the  country  of  the 
Belooches,  or  Baluches," 

Belvedere  Q>H-ve-der').  A  portion  of  the  Vatican 
Palace  at  Rome.  The  word  is  from  the  Italian, 
meaning  "fair  view." 

Benedict  (bSn'-e-dlkt),  or  Bennet  (b&n'-nSt). 
From  the  Latin  Benedictus,  "blessed";  Danish, 
Benedict;  Dutch,  Benedictus;  Fr.,  Benoit;  Ger., 
Benedict;  It.,  Benedetto;  Sp.,  Benito,  or  Bene- 
dicto;  Sw.,  Bengt. 

Benjamin.  From  the  Hebrew,  Binyamiyn, 
which,  according  to  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  • 
means  "son  of  days";  i.  e.,  "son  of  old  age." 
Fuerstius  translates  it  "lucky  son."  The  name 
means,  literally,  "son  of  the  right  hand";  figura- 
tively, "son  of  good  fortune."  Danish,  Benjamin; 
Fr.,  Benjamin;  Ger.,  Benjamin;  It.,  Beniamino; 
Lot.,  Benjaminus. 

Bennet.     See  Benedict. 

Bennett.  This  occurs  frequently  as  a  female 
name  in  the  registers  of  Kent,  England.  It  is 
sometimes  varied  to  Bennetta  and  Benett. 

Bennington.  Town  in  Hillsboro  County,  New 
Hampshire,  and  county,  township,  and  town  in 
Vermont,  named  for  Governor  Benning  Wentworth, 
of  New  Hampshire,  who  gave  grants  for  the  original 
town,  in  1748. 

Berenice  (6gr-€-nl'-se),  or  Bernice  Qaer-nl' -se) . 
From  the  Latin,  "bringing  victory."  Gr.,  Berenike; 
It.,  Berenice. 

Beriah  {be-rl'-d).  The  Hebrew  B'riyah,  which 
Simonis  translates  "in  calamitate,"  i.  e.,  "born  in 
calamity";  Jones,  "a  calamity  in  his  house";  and 
Tragelles,  "gift." 

Berkshire  {berk' -shir) .  This  is  derived  from 
barruc,  "a  polled  or  poHard  oak,"  and  scyre,  "a 
shire";  from  the  Shirmotes  of  that  county  being 
anciently  held  in  the  shade  of  a  large  polled  oak- 
tree. 

Berkshire.  County  in  Massachusetts,  named  for 
Berkshire,  England.  Several  towns  in  the  county 
are  named  from  the  same. 

Berlin  {ber'-lin.  German,  bSr-len').  The  capital 
of  Prussia,  is  a  name  the  meaning  of  which  has  been 
much  discussed.  The  name  is  probably  Wendish, 
either  from  berle,  "uncultivated  ground,"  or,  as 
Krebs  thinks,  from  barlin,  a  "shelter,"  or  "place  of 
refuge";  or,  according  to  Kloden,  an  "enclosure  or 
field";  while  Vilovski  suggests  brljina,  "a  pool," 
which  conforms  to  the  local  conditions. 

Bermudas  (ber-mU'-dds).  Named  for  the  dis- 
coverer, Juan  Bermudez,  in  1522. 

Bern  (bern.  German,  bSrn).  A  Swiss  canton 
which  takes  its  name  from  its  chief  town,  which 
grew  up  round  a  castle  built  in  1192,  by  Duke 
Berchtold  V.  of  Zahringen.  The  name  Berne 
appears  in  1224  on  a  seal  of  the  town.      Not  im- 


MISCELLANY 


803 


probably,  Berchtold  gave  the  place  the  name  of 
Berne  in  memory  of  Dietrich  of  Berne  (Verona),  a 
favorite  hero  of  Alamannic  poetry.  According 
to  the  local  legend,  the  town  was  named  from  a  bear, 
the  first  animal  killed  in  a  hunting  expedition  in  an 
oak  forest  on  the  site  of  the  town.  Hence  a  bear 
rampant  on  a  gold  field  has  been  taken  as  the 
heraldic  shield  of  the  city,  and  a  tame^bear  is 
always  kept  in  a  cave,  like  the  wolf  at  Rome. 

Bernard  {her'-nard).  From  the  Old  German 
Bernhard,  from  hern-hart,  "strong  or  hardy"; 
Danish,  Bernhard;  Dutch,  Bernhardus,  or  Barend; 
Fr.,  Bernard;  Ger.,  Bernhard;  It.,  Bernardo;  Lat., 
Bernardus;  Siv.,  Bernhard. 

Bernese  Oberland  {her-ne^,  or  ber-nez'  o'-ber- 
lant).  A  mountainous  region  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  famous  for  its 
picturesque  scenery. 

Bertha  (ber'-thA).  From  the  Old  German  name, 
Berta,  "bright  or  famous";  Dutch,  Bertha;  Fr. 
Berthe;  Ger.,  Bertha;  /<.,  Berta;  Lat.,  bertha;  Sw., 
Bertha. 

Bertram  {her' -tram).  The  Old  German  name, 
from  hrecht-ram,  "renowned  for  strength."  Fr., 
Bertrand;  Ger.,  Bertram. 

Berwick  (her' -Ik).  This  is  a  contraction  of  Aber- 
wick,  the  meaning  of  which  is  a  town  (wick),  at 
the  mouth  (aber)  of  a  river. 

Bessie.     Corrupted  from  Elizabeth. 

Blbllotheque  Nationale  (be-ble-o-tak'  nas-y6i^- 
nal').  That  is,  "National  Library,"  the  great 
French  library,  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Big  Sandy  River,  Ky.  From  its  extensive  sand 
bars,  the  Indian  names  Tatteroi,  Chatteroi,  and 
Chatterwha  being  from  a  similar  application. 
Known  to  the  Miamis  as  Wepepoconecepewe,  by  the 
Delawares  as  Sikeacepe,  "Salt  River." 

Binnenhof  (bin' -nen-hof) .  Originally,  the  palace 
of  Count  William  bf  Holland,  at  The  Hague.  It  is 
an  irregular  agglomeration  of  buildings,  in  part 
medieval,  inclosing  a  court  in  which  stands  the 
Hall  of  the  Knights,  a  brick,  chapel-like,  gabled 
structure  with  turrets,  now  used  as  a  depository 
for  archives. 

Birmingham  (ber'-ming-um).  Probably  a  patro- 
nymic from  the  Boerings;  ham,  a  home  or  family 
residence,  literally  "a  place  of  shelter,"  from 
heiinan,  "to  cover."  Hence,  originally,  "Boering's 
home." 

Biscay.  Takes  its  name  from  the  Spanish 
province  of  Biscaya  or  Viscaya,  meaning  the  land 
of  the  Basques  or  Vasks. 

Blsmarclf  (hlz'-mark).  City  in  St.  Frangois 
County,  Missouri,  city  in  Burleigh  County,  North 
Dakota  (capital  of  State),  and  many  other  places, 
named  for  Prince  Otto  von  Bismarck  of  Germany. 

Black  Sea.  Probably  because  it  abounds  with 
black  rocks.  Another  explanation  is  that  it  is  so 
called  from  its  frequent  storms  and  fogs.  The 
Greeks  called  it  Euxine,  from  euxinos,  "hospitable,' 
disliking  its  original  name,  Axinos,  "inhospitable." 

Blackstone  River,  R.  I.  In  memory  of  William 
Blackstone,  an  Episcopal  minister,  the  first  white 
settler  of  Rhode  Island.  Indian  name  of  stream 
Kehetuck,  "great  river,"  changed  afterwards  to 
Pawtucket,  meaning  "the  forks,"  from  Pochatuck, 
"a  branch." 

Blaise  (bldz).  In  France  the  name  of  the  saint 
is  found  written  Blaise,  and  in  Germany  Blaes. 
In  Latin  it  occurs  as  Blasius  and  Blavius.  It  seems 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Roman  name  Blaesus, 
which  Statius  renders  "lisper."  Danish,  Blasius; 
Dutch,  Blasius;  Fr.,  Blaise;  Ger.,  Blasius;  It., 
Biagio;   Lat.,  Blasius;   Sp.,  Bias;   Sw.,  Blasius. 

Blenheim  (blen'-tm)  Palace.  A  mansion  at 
Woodstock,  Oxfordshire,  England,  built  by  Van- 
brugh  at  national  cost,  1705-lG,  for  the  first  Duke 
of  Marlborough. 

Blue  Grotto.  A  celebrated  cavern  on  the  shore 
of  Capri  in  Italy. 


Bodleian  (bod-ie'-Hn),  Library.  A  library 
of  Oxford  University,  England,  which  was  origi- 
nally established  in  1445,  formally  opened  in 
1488,  and  reestablished  by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley 
in  1597-1602. 

Boer  (boor.)  Applied  to  Dutch  inhabitants  of 
the  country  districts  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is 
the  German  name  for  farmers  and  agriculturists. 
The  English  word  "boor"  originally  had  the  same 
sigpificance. 

Bohemia  (hd-he'-ml-d).  The  country  of  the  Boii. 
The  inhabitants  were  called  by  Tacitus  Bohemi,  or 
Boemanni. 

Bois  de  Boulogne  {bwii  du  hdd-l6n'-yu).  A  park  in 
Paris  reached  by  the  Champs  Elys^es,  the  avenue  of 
the  Grande  Armee,  or  the  avenue  of  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne.  '"  It  literally  means  "Boulogne  wood." 

Bois  de  Vincennes  (bwd  du  v&i^-sSn').  A  public 
park  in  Paris  larger  than  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  It 
contains  a  farm  for  agricultural  experiments,  a 
drill-ground,  a  race-course^  etc.  Literally,  "wood 
of  Vincennes." 

Boise  (boi'-za).  City,  Idaho.  From  the  river  on 
which  it  was  located,  the  latter  named  by  the 
French  Riviere  Boise,  "woody  river,"  its  banks 
being  thickly  lined  with  woods. 

Bokhara  (bo-ka'-rd).  The  treasury  of  sciences, 
or  "town  of  learning";  the  chief  town  in  a  State 
of  the  same  name. 

Bolivia  (bo-llv'-l-d.  Spanish,  bo-le'-ve-d).  To 
perpetusrte  the  memory  of  General  Simon  Bolivar, 
"the  liberator  of  Peru." 

Bologna  (bo-lon' -yd) ,  and  Bologne.  Named  from 
the  Boii,  originally  Bononia. 

Bombay  (hdm-bd').  Named  after  an  Indian 
goddess  Bamhd,  but  translated  by  the  Portuguese 
into  Bux)n-bahia,  "good  bay." 

Boniface  {bdn' -e-fds) .  From  the  Latin  Boni- 
facius,  name  of  several  popes;  this,  in  turn,  from 
benefacio,  "to  do  good,"  hence,  a  "well-doer." 
Danish,  Bonifacius;  Dutch,  Bonifacius;  Fr.,  Boni- 
face; Ger.,  Bonifaz,  or  Bonifacius;  It.,  Bonifacio; 
Lat.,  Bonifacius;   Sw.,  Bonifacius. 

Bordeaux  {bSr-do').  Literally  means  "the  dwel- 
ling on  the  water";   horda,  "a  dwelling." 

Borghese  (fidr-gd'-zd)  Palace.  A  famous  Roman 
palace,  seat  of  the  Borghese  family,  and  noted  for 
its  art  collections.  It  was  built  toward  the  end  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century  by  Martino  Lunghi  and 
Flaminio  Ponzio. 

Borgne  (born'?/')  Lake,  La.  French  word,  mean- 
ing "blind  of  one  ej'^e,"  or  "one-eyed,"  application 
never  been  explained;  tlie  legendary  derivation  is 
that  some  peculiar  modern  cyclops  was  encountered 
on  its  shores.  The  word  also  bears  the  translation 
of  "dingy,"  which  no  doubt  is  the  cause  of  the  use 
of  the  word,  given  from  a  local  first  impression. 

Borneo  (bor'-ne-o).  Comes  from  the  Malay 
Brunei,  once  the  name  of  the  largest  city  on  the 
island,  and  changed  by  the  Portuguese  to  Borneo. 

Bosnia  (bdz'-nl-d).  The  country  traversed  by 
the  river  Borna. 

Bosporus  (bds'-pd-rus).  A  Greek  term  com- 
posed of  bous,  "an  ox,"  and  poros,  "a  ford," 
alluding  to  the  legend  that  when  lo  was  transformed 
into  a  cow  she  forded  this  strait.  Hence  the  popu- 
lar meaning,  "The  passage  of  the  ox." 

Boston  {bos'-tdn,  bds'-tun).  City  in  Massachu- 
setts. By  some  authorities  the  name  is  said  to 
have  been  given  in  honor  of  John  Cotton,  vicar  of 
St.  Bodolph's  church  in  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land, and  one  of  the  ^rst  clergymen  in  the  American 
Boston.  Others  say  it  was  named  before  the 
arrival  of  John  Cotton,  for  three  prominent  colo- 
nists from  Boston,  England.  The  tracing  for  the 
word  Boston  elicits  that  in  the  Seventh  Century  a 
pious  monk  known  as  St.  Botolph  or  bot-hopl 
(boat-help)  founded  a  church  in  what  is  now  Lin- 
colnshire, in  England.  A  town  grew  up  around  it, 
which  was  called  Botolph's  Town.     This  was  con- 


804 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


tracted  into  Botoljihston,  Bot-os-ton,  finally  Boston. 
Boston,  Mass.,  owing  to  its  hills,  was  called  by  the 
English  Trimountaine  or  Tremont,  "three  hills" 
(Beacon,  Kopp,  and  Fort  Hills) ;  at  a  court  held  in 
Charleistown,  September^  17  (N.  S.),  1630,  "It  is 
ordered  that  Tnmountain  shall  be  called  Boston." 
Indian  name  of  locality  Shawmid,  an  abbreviation 
of  Mushancoonmuk,  variously  translated  as  "living 
fountains,"  "free  lands  or  unclaimed  lands." 

Botany  Bay.  So  called  by  Captain  Cook  from 
the  great  variety  of  plants  which  he  found  growing 
on  its  shores  when  exploring  it  in  the  year  1770. 

Bramapootra  (brd-md-pod'-trd).  River  of  India, 
of  Sanskrit  origin,  meaning  "the  offspring  of 
Brahma,"  or  "Brahma's  son. 

Brandenburg  (bran'-dSri-bodrg).  A  former  mar- 
gravate  and  electorate  of  the  German  Empire,  the 
nucleus  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  The  name 
means  "forest  fortress." 

Brandywlne  Blver,  Penn.  Called  by  the  first 
settlers,  the  Swedes,  Fish-kiln,  "fish  creek."  Its 
present  name  is  ascribed  by  tradition  to  the  loss 
of  a  Dutch  vessel  laden  with  brandy,  or  hrand-wijn. 
Other  authorities  derive  it  from  Andrew  Braind- 
wine,  who  owned  lands  near  its  mouth,  in  early 
days.  A  third  theory  is  that  the  slough  near 
Downington  discharged  its  muddy  waters  into  the 
creek,  tinging  it  the  color  of  brandy.  A  celebrated 
battle  was  fought  there,  which  accounts  for  the 
name  being  given  to  pight  places  in  the  country. 

Brasenose  (braz'-noz),  College.  The  term  brazen- 
nose  or  brasenose  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  brasen- 
house,  or  "brewing  house. 

Brazil  {brd-zW).  Named  from  the  color  of  its 
dye-woods,  braza,  "a  live  coal." 

Brazos  {br&'-zos)  Klver,  Tex.  As  named  by 
the  Spaniards  Brazos  de  Dios,"arm  of  God."  The 
Spaniards  established  a  mission  on  its  banks  some 
thirty  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  San  Saba,  and" 
the  guard  having  been  called  away,  the  Indians 
descended  on  the  mission,  completely  destroying 
it.  When  the  soldiery  returned  their  loss  was 
quickly  discovered,  and  searching  for  a  solution 
they  found  in  the  river  many  of  the  dead  bodies  of 
the  depredators,  still  floating  in  its  eddies;  as  they 
could  discern  no  marks  of  violence  they  pronounced 
it  a  retributive  miracle  done  by  the  "arm  of  God." 
The  river  then  received  its  name  of  Brazos  de  Dios. 

Brenner  (brSn'-ner)  Pass.  The  lowest  pass  over 
the  main  chain  of  the  Alps.  It  is  situated  in  the 
Tyrol  about  twenty-five  miles  south  of  Innsbruck; 
has  been  used  since  Roman  times ;  is  traversed  by  a 
railway  (since  1867),  and  is  the  main  line  of  travel 
between  Italy  and  Germany.      Height,  4,485  feet. 

Breton  (bret'-un)  Cape.  Discovered  by  maxiners 
from  Brittany. 

Brian  (bri'-an)  or  Briant.  Names  derived  from 
the  Irish  name  Brian,  which  has  been  rendered 
"warrior  of  great  strength"  (bri-an).  According 
to  some  it  has  been  Anglicised  to  Bernard. 

Bridget  (brlfSt).  Mr.  Arthur  derives  this  female 
name  from  Gaelic  brighid,  "fiery  dart"  or  "shining 
bright,"  and  he  says  the  Gaelic  word  signifies 
also  a  hostage;  Armstrong  renders  brighide  "a 
hostage."  Danish,  Birgitte;  Dutch,  Brigetta;  Fr., 
Brigitte;  Ger.,  Brigitta;  It.,  Brigida,  or  Brigita; 
Lat.,  Brigida;  Sp.,  Brigida. 

Brighton  (brl'-tun).  Formerly  Brighthelmston, 
from  a  personal  name.  A  city  and  watering-place 
in  Sussex,  England,  situated  on  the  English  Chan- 
nel. It  is  the  leading  seaside  resort  in  Great 
Britain. 

Bristol,  R.  I.  From  the  town  of  same  name  in 
England.  Derived  from  Anglo-Saxon  words  bris, 
"bright,"  stol,  "place." 

Britain  (brU'-&n  or  brU'-n).  From  brith,  meaning 
"to  paint."  The  British  poets  called  it  7ms  gwyn, 
"white  island,"  which  answers  to  the  Roman  name 
Albion.  It  is  said  that  it  was  known  to  the  Pheni- 
cians  as  Barat-Anac,  or  "the  land  of  tin,"  as  far  back 


as  the  year  1037  B.  C.  Some  five  hundred  years 
afterwards  the  island  was  alluded  to  by  the  Romans 
under  the  name  of  Britannia,  which  subsequently 
became  shortened  into  Britain. 

British  Columbia.  The  only  portion  of  North 
America  that  retains  the  name  of  the  discoverer  of 
tlie  New  World,  with  the  exception  of  the  District 
of  ColiMubia. 

Britisli  Museum.  A  celebrated  museum  at 
Great  Russell  Street,  Bloomsbury,  London,  founded 
in  1753. 

Brittany  (brW-td-nl).  In  French,  Bretagne,  com- 
prised the  land  appropriated  by  the  kings  of  Britain, 
and  was  originally  called  Artnorica,  a  Celtic  name 
meaning  the  land  "by  the  sea." 

Broad  River,  S.  C.  The  Indian  name  given  by 
the  Catawbas  was  Eswan  Huppeday,  or  "Line 
River,"  because  it  was  the  established  line  between 
the  Cherokees  and  Catawba  tribes. 

Broadway.  Tlie  principal  business  street  of 
New  York,  extending  from  Bowling  Green  north- 
ward to  Central  Park  for  about  six  miles. 

Brocken  (brdk'-en),  or  Biocksberg  (bldks'-berg). 
The  chief  summit  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  and  the 
highest  mountain  in  northern  Germany,  situated 
in  the  province  of  Saxony,  Prussia.  It  is  the 
Roman  Mons  Bructerus. 

Bronxville.  Village  in  Westchester  County,  New 
York.  Named  for  Jonas  or  Jacob  Bronck,  an 
early  settler. 

Brooklyn.  City  in  New  York,  corruption  of  the 
Dutch  name  Breuckelen,  from  a  village  in  the 
province  of  Utrecht,  Holland.  The  name  signifies 
"broken  up  land,  or  marshy  land." 

Bruges  (bru'~jez.  French,  briizh).  In  Belgium, 
"a  city  with  man}'  bridges  " ;   brucke,  "a  bridge." 

Brussels  (Jbrixs' -s&lz) ,  or  Bruxelles.  Meaning,  "the 
seat  or  site  on  the  marsh" ;  broek,  '.'a  marsh,"  and 
scli,  "a  house." 

Bryan.     Same  as  Brian. 

Bucharest  (bU-kd-rist').  From  an  Albanian 
word,  bucurie,  "pleasure,  joy,"  hence,  "the  city 
of  enjoyment." 

Buckingliam  (bii,k' -Ing-um) .  A  tribe  name,  or 
"the  dwelling  among  beeches";  buche,  "the  beech 
tree";   ham,  "  a  home  or  family  dwelling." 

Buckingliam  Palace.  The  London  residence  of 
the  sovereign,  situated  at  the  western  end  of  St. 
James's  Park. 

Buda  (boo'-dd).  In  Hungary,  took  its  name  from 
Buda,  the  brother  of  Attila,  as  well  as  Bud-var  and 
Bud-falva,  meaning  "buda's  fort  and  village," 
buda,  "a  hut  or  dwelling." 

Buenos  Ayres  (bo' -nils  d'-rlz  or  drz).  Meaning 
"good  breezes,"  buen,  "good." 

Buffalo.  A  city  in  New  York,  named  from  the 
stream  "Buffalo  Creek,  on  which  it  is  located,  the 
stream  receiving  its  name  from  the  frequent  visits 
of  the  American  bison  to  a  salt  spring  which  welled 
up  about  three  miles  from  its  mouth,  'where  the 
buffalo  drinks.' "  Indian  name  of  the  locality 
Teosahwa  or  Teshuway,  "the  place  of  the  bas.swood," 
also  sisilichanne,  "waters  sought  by  the  buffaloes." 
The  name  has  been  given  to  counties  in  Nebraska, 
South  Dakota,  and  Wisconsin,  numerous  creeks, 
rivers,  towns,  and  villages. 

Bulgaria  (bdol-gd'-ri-d).  A  corruption  of  Vol- 
garia,  meaning  the  "country  peopled  by  the  Volsci." 
The  Greeks  called  these  people  Bidgars,  hence  the 
name. 

Burlington  House,  Old.  A  house  standing  be- 
tween Bond  Street  and  Sackville  Street,  London, 
named  for  Lord  Burlington,  by  whom  it  was 
built. 

Butte  (Jbat).  City  in  Montana,  named  from  a 
bare  butte  overlooking  the  place.  The  word  is 
French,  meaning  "small  knoll  or  hill." 

Buzzard's  Bay,  Mass.  Waters  discovered  by 
Gosnold,  May  21,  1602,  and  by  him  named  'Bay 
of  Hope."     Indian  name  Manomet. 


MISCELLANY 


805 


Cadillac  {k&d'-U-<ik.  French,  kd-del-ydk').  City 
in  Wexford  County,  Michigan,  named  for  La  Motte 
(or  La  Mothe)  Cadillac,  who  established  a  fort  on 
the  Detroit  River  in  1701. 

Cadiz  (kd'-dlz.  Spanish,  ka'-theth).-  From  Gadr, 
meaning  "an  enclosure,  a  city,  or  fortified  place," 
and  kir,  "a  wall." 

Caesar  (se'-zdr).  Some  translate  this  name 
"hairy";  Schlegel  says  from  Sanskrit  kesa, 
"adorned  with  hair."  It  is  more  probable,  how- 
ever, of  Persian  origin,  and  comes  from  the  I'ersian 
sar,  "head,  highest,  greatest,  chief."  Danish, 
Caesar;  Fr.,  C^sar;  Ger.,  Casar  or  Csesar;  It., 
Cesare;  Lot..  Csesar;  Sp.,  Cesar. 

Cairo  (kl-ro),  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic  Al- 
kdhirah,  "the  victorious,"  so  called  because  Kahir 
(Mars),  the  planet  of  victory,  was  visible  on  the 
night  when  the  city  was  founded.  _ 

Cairo  (kd'-ro).  111.  A  local  fancied  adoption  from 
the  Egyptian  city  Cairo,  in  its  being  a  sister  loca- 
tion, namely,  at  the  mouth  of  a  large  river. 

Calcutta  (kdl-kut'-td).  Called  Kalkatta  in  early 
annals.  Is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Indian 
name  Kali-Kata,  the  "dwelling  or  sacred  place  of 
Kali,"  the  wife  of  Siva.  The  Kalikuti  were  "the 
ghauts  or  passes  leading  to  the  temple  of  the  god- 
dess Kali";   ghdt,  "an  opening  or  passage." 

Caleb.     From  the  Hebrew  Kalebh,  "a  dog." 

California.  Most  authorities  derive  it  from  the 
two  Spanish  words,  caliente  fornalia,  i.  e.,  "hot 
furnace,"  given  by  Cortez  in  the  year  1535  to  the 
peninsula  now  known  as  Old  or  Lower  California, 
of  which  he  was  the  discoverer,  on  account  of  its 
hot  climate.  H.  H.  Bancroft,  in  his  History  of 
California,  says  the  name  was  first  given  to  the 
Gulf,  then  to  Lower  California. 

California,  Gulf  of.  Variously  called  Mar  de 
Cortez  and  Mar  Bermejo  by  the  Spaniards,  the 
former  in  honor  of  Hernando  Cortez,  the  latter, 
meaning  "bright  reddish  color,"  literally,  "Red 
Sea, "  through  its  resemblance  in  color  to  the  Red 
Sea.  The  French  applied  their  translation  of 
Bermejo,  namely  Vermeille,  from  which  the  English 
adaptation,  Vermillian  Sea.     (See  also  California.) 

Calton  {kdl'-ton)  Hill.  A  height  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Edinburgh. 

Calumet  (kdl'-u-met).  River  in  Illinois  and 
Indiana,  county  and  village  in  Wisconsin,  and 
seven  other  places  in  the  country.  A  Canadian 
corruption  of  the  French  Chalemel,  which  literally 
means  "little  reed,"  but  which,  in  its  corrupted 
form,  refers  to  the  "pipe  of  peace"  used  by  the 
Indians  to  ratify  treaties.  ,  Haines  derives  the 
word  from  calamo,  "honey  wood." 

Cambria  (k&m'-brl-d).  The  original  name  for 
Wales,  so  called  on  account  of  the  Cmyri,  or  Kimri, 
who  peopled  it. 

Cambridge  (kdm'-bri]).  City  in  Middlesex 
County,  Massachusetts,  so  named  for  the  English 
university  town,  after  the  general  court  decided  to 
establish  a  college  there.  Twentj^-two  other  places 
bear  the  name  of  the  English  town,  two  having  the 
sufTix  "port"  and  one  "springs."  The  English 
name  is  usually  supposed  to  mean  "the  bridge  over 
the  river  Cam,"  the  real  name  of  which  is  the 
Granta. 

Camden,  N.  J.  In  honor  of  the  distinguished 
English  statesman.  Earl  of  Camden  (Cambden). 

Camilla  (kd-mW-ld).  The  feminine  of  Camillus. 
Fr.,  Camille;   It.,  Camilla;   Lat.,  Camilla. 

Camillus  (kd-mil'-lus).  Some  translate  this 
name  "attendant  at  a  sacrifice."  The  Roman  name 
was  probably  corrupted  from  the  Arabic,  Kasen-El, 
signifying  "oracle  of  God." 

Campagna  dl  Roma  (kdm-pdn'-yd  de  ro'-md). 
A  large  plain  in  Italy,  surrounding  Rome,  lying 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Sabine  and 
Alban  mountains. 

Campanile  {kdm-pd-ne'-ld)  of  Giotto.  A  famous 
tower  near  the  Duomo,  at  Florence,  Italy,  begun  by 


the  architect,  Giotto,  in  13.34,  and  after  his  death, 
in  1337,  continued  by  Andrea  Pisano. 

Canaan  (kd'-n&n).  The  "Land  of  Canaan"  is 
interpreted  to  mean  "lowland,"  from  Semitic  kana, 
"to  humble,"  "subdue,"  generally  denoting  in  the 
Old  Testament  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan  and 
the  Dead  Sea  extending  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Originally,  it  comprised  only  the  strip  of  land,  from 
ten  to  fifteen  miles  in  breadth  and  150  in  length, 
shut  in  between  the  Lebanon  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  extending  from  the  Bay  of  Antioch  to 
the  promontory  of  the  Cermal,  i.  e.,  southern 
Phenicia.  Later,  the  name  was  extended  to  the 
whole  territory  west  of  the  Jordan. 

Canada  (Jc&n'-d-dd).  Called  La  Nouvelle  France 
by  the  French  settlers,  is  probably  the  native  word 
Kanata,  which  means  "a  collection  of  huts  or  wig- 
wams." 

Canandaigua  (kdn-an-dd'-gwd).  fLake  town  in 
Ontario  County,  New  York,  and  village  in  Lenawee 
County,  Michigan.  An  Indian  word,  the  derivation 
of  which  is  in  dispute.  Morgan  defines  it  as  "a 
place  selected  for  settlement,"  a  "chosen  spot"; 
Haines,  "a  town  set  off."  Others  have  thought 
the  word  to  be  derived  from  Cahnandahgwah, 
"sleeping  beauty,"  while  another  theory  is  that  it 
is  corrupted  from  the  Seneca  Indian,  Genundewah- 
guah,  "great  hill  people,"  so  called  from  a  large  hill 
near  the  lake. 

Canaveral  Qcd-n&v' -er-dl)  Cape,  Fla.  Named  by 
the  Spaniards;  a  Spanish  word  meaning  "the  land 
of  the  rose  tree." 

Candia  {kdn'-dl-d).  From  the  Arabic  Khandae, 
"the  island  of  trenches." 

Canterbury  {kan' -ter-her-f) .  A  corruption  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Cantwarahyrig,  "the  forts  or  strong- 
holds of  the  Cantwere,  or  men  of  Cant"  (Kent). 

Cape  Colony.  A  British  colony  in  South  Africa 
is  so  called  after  the  parent  settlement  at  Cape 
Town,  which  dates  from  the  year  1826. 

Cape  Fear  River,  N.  C.  Was  originally  named 
by  the  English  Charles  River.  Afterward  the  name 
of  Cape  Fair  River  was  adopted  from  the  Atlantic 
cape  of  that  name,  the  stream  being  located  by 
navigators  as  "coming  in  back  of  Cape  Fair." 
Subsequently  corrupted  to  Fear. 

Cape  Horn.  The  most  southern  point  of  South 
America  was  called  Cape  Hoorn  by  Schonten,  who 
first  rounded  it  in  1616,  after  Hoorn,  his  native 
place  in  North  Holland. 

Cape  May,  Va.  Was  so  named  by  the  Dutch 
commander.  Captain  Cornelius  Jacobse  May. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Discovered  by  Bartholo- 
mew de  Diaz  in  1487,  was  so  named  (Cabo  de  Bon 
Esperance)  by  John  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  who, 
finding  that  Diaz  had  reached  the  extremity  of 
Africa,  regarded  it  as  a  favorable  augury  for  future 
maritime  enterprises. 

Capitoline  (kdp'-it-ol-ln)  Hill,  The.  One  of  the 
seven  hills  of  ancient  Rome,  northwest  of  the 
Palatine,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  on  which 
the  Capitol  was  erected.  After  the  construction  of 
the  Servian  wall  it  constituted  the  citadel  of  the 
city.  On  its  southwestern  summit  was  the  famed 
Tarpeian  Rock;  on  its  northeastern  summit  rose 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  modern 
Capitol  stands  between  the  two  summits.  From 
the  Capitoline  the  Forum  Romanum  extends  its 
long,  narrow  area  toward  the  southeast,  skirting  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Palatine. 

Capitoline  Museum.  A  famous  museum  of 
antiquities  in  Rome.  It  was  founded  in  1471  by 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  presented  the  papal  collections  to 
the  Roman  people,  and  designated  the  Capitol  as 
the  place  where  the  art-treasures  of  Rome  should  be 
preserved. 

Capri  (kd'-pre).  Signifies  "the  i-sland  of  goats," 
being  derived  from  the  Latin  caper,  a  he-goat. 

Caribbean  (kdr-lb-be'-dn)  Sea.  Washes  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Caribbs,  whose  name  means  "  cruel  men." 


806 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Camatlc.     From  Sanskrit,  Kamaia,  S.  India  tribe. 

Carolina  (kdr-6-li'-nd).  Name  given  to  two 
States,  North  and  South  Carolina.  Near  the 
middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  Jean  Ribault 
visited  the  region  and  named  it  Carolina  in  honor  of 
his  king,  Charles  IX.  of  France,  but  the  name  never 
came  into  general  use  and  soon  disappeared.  About 
1628,  this  name  was  applied  definitely  to  that  part 
of  the  country  lying  between  Virginia  and  Florida, 
having  been  given  in  honor  of  Charles  I.  of  England. 
In  an  old  manuscript,  now  in  London,  the  following 
may  be  found ;  "  1629-30,  Feb.  10.  The  Attorney- 
General  is  prayed  to  grant  by  Patent  2  Degrees  in 
Carolina,"  etc.  In  1663,  the  name  was  definitely 
applied  to  the  province  granted  to  proprietors  by 
Charles  II.  of  England.  This  province  was  named 
in  honor  of  the  reigning  king,  and  thus  the  old 
name  given  in  honor  of  Charles  I.  was  retained. 

Caroline  (Mr'-o-Zln  or  lln).  From  Carolus,  from 
root  of  Charles.  Danish,  Caroline;  Dutch,  Caro- 
lina; Fr.,  Caroline;  Ger.,  Caroline  or  Karoline; 
It.,  Carolina;  Lot.,  Carolina;  Sw.,  Karolina. 

Caroline  Islands.  Discovered  by  Lopez  de 
Villalobos  in  1543,  and  named  after  Charles  V., 
Emperor  of  Germany  and  first  kiiig  of  Spain. 

Carpathians  Qcar-pa' -thl-dn) .  The  range  of 
mountains  north  of  Hungary,  is  a  name  derived 
from  Krapat  or  Karpa,  the  local  name  of  the  main 
chain,  which  is  explained  by  the  Slavonic  root 
chrb,  signifying  a  "ridge"  or  "range  of  hills." 

Carrara  (fca-rd'-rd).  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Massa-e-Carrara,  Italy.  It  is  famous  for  the 
neighboring  quarries  of  marble. 

Carrie,  Carry.  Female  names  corrupted  from 
Caroline. 

Carson  City,  Nevada.  In  honor  of  Christopher 
Carson;  or,  as  more  widely  known,  "Kit"  Carson, 
the  noted  frontiersman  and  hunter. 

Carthage.  From  Kartha-hadtha,  "the  new  city," 
in  opposition  to  Utica,  "the  old." 

Casa  d'oro  (ka'-sa  do'-ro).  A  noted  palace  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century.  It  has  been  marred  by 
restoration.  It  has  three  stories,  divided  vertically 
into  two  divisions.  The  left-hand  division  has  in 
the  lowest  story  five  open  arches,  the  middle  one 
round,  and  in  the  two  upper  ones  most  rich  and 
graceful  foliated  arcades  set  between  larger  arches. 
The  right-hand  division  consists  of  ornamented 
paneling,  also  set  between  decorated  arches.  Above 
there  is  a  picturesque  cresting  in  marble.  To 
beauty  of  form  this  fagade  adds  great  and  diversified 
charm  of  color  in  its  incrusted  and  inlaid  marbles. 

Casco  Bay,  Me.  From  an  Italian  word,  meaning 
"crane."     Hence  "Crane  Bay." 

Casper.     See  Jasper. 

Caspian  (kds'-pl-an).  The  European  name  of 
the  great  inland  sea  of  Asia,  was  so  called  by  the 
Greeks  from  the  Caspii,  a  tribe  who,  in  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  dwelt  on  its  western  shore,  probably  in 
the  district'  of  Jasp,  which  is  supposed  to  preserve 
their  name. 

Cassandra  {kas-s&n' -dr&) .  Mr.  Arthur  translates 
this  name  "inflaming  one  with  love."  It  is  feminine 
of  the  Greek  Kassandros.  Fr.,  Cassandre;  It., 
Cassandra;  Lat.,  Cassandra. 

Catawba  River,  N.  C.  So  named  from  the 
"Catawbaws,"  a  tribe  of  Indians. 

Catawissa  (k&t-d-wls'-sd)  River,  Pa.  From  the 
Delaware  Indian  word  Gattawissa,   "getting  fat." 

Catharine  (k&th'-d-rln).  The  real  name  of 
Catharine  of  Alexandria,  the  patron  saint  of 
girls  and  virgins,  was  Dorothea.  St.  Jerome  says 
she  had  the  name  of  Catharine  from  the  Syriac 
kethar  or  kather,  "a  crown,"  because  she  wore  the 
triple  crown  of  martyrdom,  virginity,  and  wisdom. 
The  proper  derivation  of  the  word  is  from  the 
Greek  Katharos,  "pure";  and,  therefore,  the  cor- 
rect spelling  of  the  name  is  Catharine  or  Katharine. 
Danish,  Catharine;  Dutch,  Catharina;  Fr.,  Cather- 
ine;  Ger.,   Katharine;    Gr.,   Katharine;    It.,  Cate- 


rina;  Lat.,  Catharina;  Russ.,  Ekaterina.  or  Yeka- 
terina;  Sp.,  Catalina;  Sw.,  Katarina. 

Catskill  Mountains,  N.  Y.  Name  originally 
applied  to  the  river  (Kill)  by  the  Dutch,  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  mountains,  Katskill,  "panther 
creek,"  from  the  numerous  panthers  or  lynxes  (cat- 
like animals)  formerly  infesting  the  hills.  The 
mountains  were  called  Katsbergs  by  the  Dutch. 

Cattaraugus  Qc&t-td-rd'-gus)  River,  N.  Y.  From 
an  Iroquois  Indian  word,  which  may  be  translated, 
"bad  spelling  shore." 

Cavaliers.  The  adherents  of  Charles  I.  and 
Charles  II.  during  the  civil  war;  also  called  Royal- 
ists. 

Cayuga  (ka-yoo'-gd).  County,  village,  and  lake  in 
New  York.  Indian  word,  the  derivation  erf  which 
is  in  dispute.  The  generally  accepted  theory  is 
that  it  means  "long  lake,"  having  been  originally 
applied  to  the  lake,  which  is  thirty-eight  miles  long 
and  from  one  to  three  and  one-half  miles  wide. 
Morgan  derives  it  from  Gweugweh,  "the  mucky 
land,"  while  others  say  that  it  signifies  "canoes 
pulled  out  of  the  water."  One  of  the  six  nations 
of  Indians  was  so  called.  Six  small  places  in  the 
country  bear  this  name. 

Cazenovia  {k&z-e-no' -vH-A) .  Lake  and  town  in 
Madison  County,  New  York,  named  by  its  founder, 
Col.  John  Linkhaen,  for  Theophilus  Cazenove, 
general  agent  of  the  Holland  Land  Company. 

Cec\\{se'-sU,sls'-U,ses'-U).  A  male  name  derived 
from  the  Latin  Cecilus  or  CcecUius,  a  diminutive 
of  ccecus,  "blind,"  or  "dim-sighted."  Cecil  is  also 
found  as  a  female  name.  Dutch,  Cecilius;  Fr., 
Cecile;  Lat.,  Caecilius. 

Cecilia  (.se-sM'-t-d).  A  baptismal  name  derived 
from  Csecilia,  feminine  of  Caecilus.  See  Cecil. 
Dutch,  Cecilia;  Fr.,  Cecile;  It.,  Cecilia;  Lat., 
Caecilia. 

Celestial  Empire.  Applied  to  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire, because  its  legendary  rulers  were  all  celestial 
deities. 

Central  Park.  The  principal  park  in  New  York, 
extending  from  59th  Street  to  110th  Street,  and 
from  Fifth  Avenue  to  Eighth  Avenue.  It  was 
designed  by  Olmsted  and  Vaux,  and  contains 
besides  numerous  drives,  the  Mall,  the  Croton 
Reservoirs,  Cleopatra's  Needle  (the  Obelisk),  the 
Metropolitan  Art  Museum,  etc.  Length  two  and 
one-half  miles;  area,  about  840  acres. 

Ccrtosa  (chSr-to'-sa).  A  former  Carthusian  mon- 
astery, at  Pavia,  Italy,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
splendid  existing. 

Ceylon  (se-ldn').  Hindustani  Silan  is  derived 
from  Pali  Sihalana  (Sanskrit  Sinhala),  "the  land  of 
lions,"  from  sinha,  "a  lion."  Its  Aryan  inhabit- 
ants were  called  Sinhalas.  The  old  Sanskrit  name 
of  Ceylon  is  Lanka.  Marco  Polo  calls  it  Seilan, 
whence  the  Portuguese  forms  Cilan  and  Ceilao,  from 
the  last  of  which  Comes  the  English  term  Ceylon. 

Champ  de  Mars  {shaN-du-mars').  In  early 
French  institutional  history,  an  annual  political 
and  military  assembly,  held  in  March.  The  time 
of  meeting  was  changed  to  May  in  the  Eighth 
Century,  and  thereafter  these  assemblies  were 
called  "Champs  de  Mai." 

Champlain  {sham-plan'.  French,  shays-pl&N'), 
Lake,  N.  Y.  By  its  discoverer  Samuel  de  Cham- 
plain,  in  1609.  Indian  name  Canaderi-Guarante, 
"mouth  or  door  of  the  country."  Allusion  to  the 
north  entrance  of  the  lake.  In  the  Abenaqui 
tongue,  called  Petawa-bouque,  "alternate  land  and 
water,"  alluding  to  its  nvfmerous  islands.  Iroquois 
name  Andiatora. 

Champs-Elysees  (shim-zd4e-za').  An  avenue, 
and  the  gardens  surrounding  it,  in  Paris,  extending 
from  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  one  and  one-fourth 
miles  to  the  Place  de  I'Etoile,  celebrated  as  a  place 
of  public  resort.  It  was  acquired  by  the  crown  in 
1616,  and  ceded  to  the  city  in  1828. 

Charing    Cross    {chdr'-lna    krds).     A    cross    in 


MISCELLANY 


807 


memory  of  Queen  Eleanor,  erected  by  Edward  I., 
one  and  one-fourth  miles  west-southwest  of  St. 
Paul's,  London.  It  was  demolished  by  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  1647,  and  restored  by  the  South 
Eastern  Railway  Company,  in  1865. 

Charles.  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning  "manly" 
or  "noble  spirited."  Danish,  Carl;  Dutch,  Karel; 
Fr.,  Charles;  Ger.,  Karl;  It.,  Carlo;  Lat.,  Carolus; 
Sp.,  Carlos;  Sw.,  Karl. 

Charles  Cape,  Va.  So  named  in  April,  1607,  by 
Admiral  Newport,  in  honor  of  "  baby '  Charles,  son 
of  James  I.,  afterward  King  Charles  I.,  of  England. 

Charleston,  S.  C.  In  honor  of  Charles  II.  of 
England,  original  settlement  being  called  Charles 
Fort.     The  name  of  Charleston  substituted  in  1783. 

Charleston,  W.  Va.  Originally  known  as 
"Clendman's  Settlement"  and  "The  Town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Elk."  December  19,  1794,  the  name 
of  Charlestown  was  fixed  by  the  Virginia  Legisla- 
ture, but  from  some  cause  unknown,  through  com- 
mon consent  it  was  changed  to  Charleston.  The 
name  Charlestown  was  given  by  George  Clendman, 
its  founder,  in  honor  of  his  father  Charles. 

Charlotte  (shdr'-ldt).  From  the  Teutonic,  mean- 
ing "noble-spirited."  Danish,  Charlotte;  Dutch, 
Charlotta;  Fr.,  Charlotte;  Ger.,  Charlotte;  It., 
Carlotta;  Lat.,  Caroletta;   Sp.,  Carlota;   Charlotta. 

Charlotte,  N.  C.  A  compliment  to  Princess 
Charlotte  of  Mecklenburg. 

Charlottenburg  {shar-ldf -ten-hoorg) .  A  city  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  named  from  a 
palace  built  for  Charlotte,  wife  of  Frederick  I.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Spree,  three  miles  west  of  Berlin. 
It  is  a  municipality,  practically  a  part  of  Berlin, 
and  contains  a  royal  palace,  the  tombs  of  the 
Hohenzollerns,  a  magnificent  technical  school,  and 
royal  porcelain  factory. 

Charlottesville.  City  in  Virginia,  named  for 
Charlotte  Augusta,  Princess  of  Wales. 

Charterhouse.  The  name  of  the  Charterhouse, 
a  famous  school  in  London,  is  a  corruption  of  the 
word  Chartreuse,  that  is,  "Carthusian."  The  Char- 
terhouse was  originally  a  Carthusian  monastery 
founded  in  1371,  but  was  seized  by  Henry  VIII. 
The  present  charity  was  founded  by  Thomas  Sutton, 
November  8,  1611,  who  died  December  12th  of  the 
same  year. 

Chartists  (chdr'-ti.sts).  A  body  of  political 
reformers,  chiefly  working  men,  that  sprang  up  in 
England  about  the  year  1838.  They  disappeared 
as  a  party  after  1849. 

Chateau  de  Meillant  (sloa-to'  de  md-ydN').  Noted 
chiefly  on  account  of  its  architecture,  is  now  the  seat 
of  the  Due  de  Mortemart  at  St.  Amand  Montrond, 
France.  It  received  its  present  great  development 
in  the  florid  pointed  style  at  the  end  of  the  Fifteenth 
and  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

Chatsworth  (chats' -werth).  A  celebrated  man- 
sion of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  in  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land. The  interior  is  lavishly  adorned  with  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  and  contains  a  splendid  collection 
of  drawings  by  the  old  masters,  some  fine  old  and 
modern  paintings,  a  Venus  by  Thorwaldsen,  and 
Canova's  Napoleon,  Madame  Letitia,  and  E]ndy- 
mion.  The  formal  gardens  are  famous.  They  con- 
tain elaborate  fountains  and  fine  conservatories. 

Chattahoochee  {chat-td-hob' -che)  River.  Trans- 
lated "figured  or  painted  stone,"  from  the  Indian 
Chatehoche,  chateo,  "stone,"  hoche,  "marked  or 
figured." 

Chattanooga  (chdt-td-nod'-gd).  City  in  Hamilton 
County,  Tennessee,  and  creek  in  Georgia.  From 
the  Cherokee  Indian  word,  meaning  "crow's  nest" 
or  "eagle's  nest." 

Chaucer's  Inn,  the  "  Tabard."  This  old  London 
tavern,  immortalized  by  Chaucer  as  the  "Tabard," 
was  burnt  down  in  the  great  fire  of  1676.  Upon  its 
restoration  the  name  was  changed  to  the  "Talbot," 
or  Dog,  which  name  it  retained  until  about  1873, 
when  it  was  demolished. 


Chautauqua  (shd-td'-kwa).  A  village  and  sum- 
mer resort  situated  on  Chautauqua  Lake,  in  western 
New  York;  noted  as  the  seat,  since  1874,  of  the 
Chautauqua  Assembly.  An  Indian  word  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  Webster 
says  it  is  a  corruption  of  a  word  which  means 
"foggy  place."  Another  derivation  gives  the 
meaning  as  "bag  tied  in  the  middle,"  referring  to 
the  shape  of  the  lake.  It  is  also  said  to  mean 
"place  where  a  child  was  washed  away."  Dr. 
Peter  Wilson,  an  educated  Seneca,  says  it  is  literally 
"where  the  fish  was  taken  out."  Other  meanings 
given  are  "place  of  easy  death,"  "place  where  one 
was  lost." 

Cheapside  (clwp'-sld).  The  central>  east-and- 
west  thoroughfare  of  the  city  of  London,  originally 
a  large  open  common.  Formerly  the  road  which 
skirted  the  West  Cheap,  or  market  place,  was  dis- 
tinguished from  the  East  Cheap.  The  West  Cheap 
was  a  spacious  open  area  from  which  there  branched 
streets  of  booths  and  shops  of  the  type  made 
familiar  by  revivals  of  Old  London.  Cheapside,  of 
course,  ran  by  the  side  of  the  market-place. 

Cheboygan  (she-boi'-gdn).  River,  county,  and 
city  in  Michigan.  An  Indian  word,  variously  inter- 
preted. Haines  says  it  is  composed  of  two  words, 
che,  "great,"  and  poygan,  "pipe."  Another  deriva- 
tion gives  the  meaning,  "the  river  that  comes 
out  of  the  ground."  The  Michigan  Historical 
Society  gives  Chabwegan,  "a  place  of  ore." 

Chemung  {she-mung')  River.  Indian  word,  sig- 
nifying "big  horn,"  or  "  horn-in-the-water " ; 
called  by  the  Delawares  conongue,  a  similar  signi- 
fication to  the  Iroquois. 

Chenango  {she-n&ng' -go)  River,  N.  Y.  From  an 
Iroquois  word,  ochenung,  "bull  thistles." 

Chepstow  (chSp'-sto).  A  town  in  Monmouth- 
shire, England,  situated  on  the  Wye,  thirteen  miles 
northwest  of  Bristol.  It  contains  the  ruins  of 
Chepstow  Castle,  a  fortress  of  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries,  with  high  walls  and  massive 
cylindrical  towers. 

Chesapeake  (ch^s'-d-pek).  Bay  in  Maryland 
which  gives  name  to  several  places  in  the  country. 
An  Indian  name  variously  explained.  Heckewelder 
says  it  is  corrupted  from  T schischwapeki,  which  is 
compounded  of  kitshi,  "highly  salted,"  and  peek, 
"a  body  of  standing  water,  a  pond,  a  bay."  Others 
give  che,  "great,"  and  sepi,  "waters."  Bosman 
interprets  it  as  "mother  of  waters."  W.  W.  Tooker 
says  that  the  early  form  was  Chesopiooc,  from 
k'che-sepi-ack,  "country  on  a  great  river."  The 
waters  were  called  by  the  English,  Bay  of  St.' Mary. 

Chester,  Caster,  Cester.  Places  whose  names 
terminate  with  any  of  these  words  were  sites  of 
castles  built  by  the  Romans  in  Great  Britain. 

Chesuncook  Lake,  Me.  Indian,  meaning  "the 
goose  place."  Chesunk,  "a  goose,"  auke,  "a  place." 
Chesunk  or  Schunk  being  the  sound  made  by  a  wild 
goose  when  flying. 

Cheyenne  (shi-en').  Counties  in  Colorado,  Kan- 
sas, and  Nebraska,  mountain  in  Colorado,  rivers  in 
Nebraska  and  South  Dakota,  city  in  Laramie 
County,  Wyoming,  and  several  small  places 
named  for  the  Indian  tribe.  The  word  is  probably 
a  corruption  of  the  French  chien,  "  dog,'  applied 
by  some  neighboring  tribes  to  those  at  present 
known  as  Cheyennes.  It  was  the  custom  for 
Indians  to  call  themselves  by  the  name  which 
signified  "men"  and  to  call  neighboring  tribes  by 
some  opprobrious  epithet.  The  word  was  doubt- 
less introduced  by  the  early  French  traders. 

Chianti  {ke-dn'-te).  A  group  of  mountains  near 
Siena,  Italy,  in  Tuscany.  It  gives  name  to  cele- 
brated wines. 

Clilcago  (shi-k6'-g6).  City  and  river  in  Illinois. 
The  origin  of  the  word  is  from  the  Indian,  being  a 
derivation  by  elision  and  I'rench  annotation  from 
the  word  Chickaugong.  Col.  Samuel  A.  Starrow 
used  the  name  in  a  letter  to  Gen.  Jacob  Brown,  in 


808 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


1816,  as  follows:  "The  river  Chicago  (or  in  Eng- 
lish. 'Wild  Onion  River')."  Schoolcraft  in  1820 
said:  "Its  banks  produce  abundantly  the  wild 
species  of  cepa  or  leek."  Bishop  Baraga  gives: 
'T^roin  Chicag,  or  Sikag,  'skunk,'  a  kind  of  wild 
cat."  John  Turner  defines  skunk  as  she-gahg; 
onion,  she-gau-za-winzhe,  "skunk  weed."  When 
the  word  first  appeared  the  country  was  inliabited 
by  a  tribe  of  Miamis,  in  whose  dialect  the  word  for 
skunk  was  "  se-kaw-kwaw."  Father  Ferhorst  gives 
the  origin  as  che-cag-wau,  a  "place  where  skunks 
abound." 

Chickahomljiy  (chik-d-hdm'-l-nl).  River  in  Vir- 
ginia, which,  according  to  De  Vere,  is  named  from 
the  Indian  word,  Checahaminend,  "land  of  much 
grain,"  so'  called  because  it  flows  through  fertile 
lowlands.  Heckewelder,  however,  says  that  it  is 
corrupted  from  T schikene-mahoni,  "a  lick  fre- 
quented by  turkeys." 

Chlckamauga  {chlk-A-md'-gA)  River,  Tenn.  From 
a  Cherokee  Indian  word,  meaning  "river  of  death." 

Chlcopee  (chlk'-o-pe),  Mass.  An  Indian  word, 
meaning    "the   birch-bark   place,"    or   "the   cedar 

Chill  (chU'-i)  or  Chile  (chW-^).  A  Peruvian 
name  denoting  "land  of  snow." 

Chilllcothe  (chU-l-kdth'-e).  Cities  in  Ohio  and 
Illinois,  and  towns  in  Wapello  County,  Iowa,  and 
Livingston  County,  Missouri,  named  from  an 
Indian  tribe.  The  word  is  said  to  mean  "town" 
or  "city." 

Chillon  {shU'-dn.  French,  she-yda').  A  castle 
in  Vaud,  Switzerland,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Lake 
Geneva.  It  covers  an  isolated  rock  on  the  edge  of 
the  lake,  and  is  a  very  picturesque  combination  of 
semicircular  and  square  towers  and  machicolated 
curtains  grouped  about  a  higher  central  tower.  It 
is  famous  in  literature  and  song,  especially  as  the 
prison  of  Bonnivard,  a  defender  of  Swiss  liberties 
against  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century. 

Chiltern  (chU'-tern)  Hundreds.  The  Chiltern 
Hills  are  a  range  of  chalk  eminences,  in  England, 
separating  the  counties  of  Bedford  and  Hertford, 
and  passing  through  the  middle  of  Bucks,  to 
Henley  in  Oxfordshire.  They  comprise  the  Hun- 
dreds of  Bumham,  Desborough,  and  Stoke.  They 
were  once  infested  by  robbers.  To  protect  the 
inhabitants  from  these  marauders,  an  officer  of  the 
Crown  was  appointed,  under  the  name  of  the  "Stew- 
ard of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds."  The  duties  have 
long  ceased,  but  the  office  —  a  sinecure  with  a 
nominal  pay  —  is  still  retained. 

China.  Is  a  Western  corruption  of  Tsina,  so 
called  in  honor  of  Tsin,  the  founder  of  the  great 
dynasty  which  commenced  in  the  Third  Century 
B.  C,  when  a  knowledge  of  this  country  was  first 
conveyed  to  the  Western  nations.  It  was  this 
Tsin  who  bviilt  the  great  wall  of  China  (or  Tsin) 
to  keep  out  the  Barbarians. 

Chippewa  (chip'-pe-ivd,  cMp'-pe-wd).  River  in 
Michigan  and  counties  in  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and 
Wisconsin,  named  from  an  Indian  tribe.  The 
word  ojibwa,  according  to  some  authorities,  means 
"puckered  mocassins."  Other  explanali^ions  are 
"he  overcomes,"  or  "he  surmounts  obstacles." 

Chloe  (klo'-e).  A  female  name  derived  from  the 
Greek,  signifying  a  "green  bud  or  germ,"  hence  a 
"young  shoot,"  "blooming,"  etc.  The  name,  says 
Lempriere,  is  supposed  to  bear  the  same  signification 
as  Flava,  so  often  applied  to  the  goddess  of  corn, 
and  fronx  its  signification  has  generally  been  applied 
to  women  pos.sessed  of  beauty  and  .simplicity.  Fr., 
Chlo6;  Gr.,  Ciiloe;  Lat.,  Ch]6e. 

Chrlstabel  {krls'-td-bel).  Not  an  uncommon 
female  name.  It  would  seem  to  be  derived  from 
Cristobal,  the  Spanish  form  of  Christopher. 

Christian  {krls'-chan).  A  male  and  female  name, 
signifying  a  member  of  Christ.  The  disciples  were 
called  Christians  first  at  Antioch. 


Cliristiana  (kris-chdn'-d  or  kris-cht^n'-d,  kris-tt- 
dn'-d).     Named  after  Christian  IV.  of  Sweden. 

Christina  {kris-te'-nd).  A  female  name;  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  Spanish  name  Cristina, 
from  root  of  Christian.  Dutch,  Christina;  Fr., 
Christine;   Ger.,  Christiana;   It.,  Cristina. 

Christmas  Island.  So  named  because  Captain 
Cook  set  foot  upon  it  on  Christmas  Day,  1777. 

Christopher  (krls'-td-fer).  From  the  Greek  name 
Christophoros,  signifying  Christ's  bearer  or  carrier. 
As  a  Christian  name,  this  is  usually  given  to  one 
born  on  Good  Friday.  Danish,  Christoffer;  Dutch, 
Christophorus ;  Fr.,  Christophe;  Ger.,  Christoph; 
Gr.,  Christophoros;  It.,  Christoforo;  Lat.,  Christo- 
phoruS';  Port.,  Christovao;  Sp.,  Christoval;  Sw., 
Kristofer. 

Cimarron  (se-7ndr-r6n')  River,  Okla.  Of  Spanish 
derivation,  meaning  "wild,"  "unruly." 

Cincinnati  (sln-sln-nd'-tl).  City  in  Ohio,  laid 
out  and  named  by  Col.  Israel  Ludlow,  in  honor  of 
an  organization  of  officers  formed  after  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  and  named  in  honor  of  Cincinnatus, 
the  Roman  patriot.  The  original  settlement  was 
called  Losantiville,  which  was  a  composite  name. 
French,  viUe,  "town,"  Latin  os,  "mouth,"  anti, 
"before,"  with  L  (initial  letter  of  the  Licking  River), 
that  is,  "the  town  before  or  opposite  the  mouth  of 
Licking  River." 

Clntra  (sen'-tra).  A  town  in  the  district  of  Lis- 
bon, Portugal,  fifteen  miles  northwest  of  Lisbon. 
It  contains  the  Cork  Convent,  a  Moorish  Castle, 
the  Palace  of  the  Pena  and  the  Royal  Palace. 

Clrcassla  (ser-k&sh'-l-d).  Named  from  the  coun- 
try of  the  Tcherkes,  a  Tartar  tribe  who  settled  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  river  Terek. 

Clrclevllle,  Ohio.  From  its  original  location 
within  one  of  the  Indian  mounds  bearing  the  shape 
of  a  circle. 

Circus  Maxlmus  (sSr'-kus  m&k'-si-Tniis).  An- 
ciently occupied  the  hollow  between  the.  Palatine 
and  the  Aventine  hills.  According  to  tradition,  the 
site  was  already  used  for  athletic  exhibitions  and 
provided  with  wooden  seats  under  Tarquinius 
Priscus.  Under  Caesar  and  Augustus  it  was  first 
largely  built  of  stone,  and  splendidly  adorned.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  Nero,  and  again  by  Domitian  and 
Trajan,  and  in  its  final  form  is  said  to  have  accom- 
modated 385,000  spectators. 

Circus  of  Romulus  or  Maxentlus.  A  Roman 
circus  built  in  311  A.  D.,  the  most  perfect  ancient 
circus  surviving. 

Clara  (klar'-d).  A  modern  form  of  Clare.  Dan- 
ish, Clara;  Dutch,  Clara;  Fr.,  Clara;  Ger.,  Klara; 
//.,  Clara;  Lat.,  Clara;  Sw.,  Klara. 

Clare.  A  name  probably  derived  from  St.  Clare, 
a  popular  saint  in  England,  a  friend  of  St.  Francis, 
and  foundress  of  all  the  Poor  Clares.  The  name 
occurs  in  many  medieval  calendars.  It  is  probably 
derived  from  Latin  clarus,  "bright,  fair.'' 

Clarissa  (Jcld-rls' -sd) .  From  the  French  name 
Clarisse  {It.,  Clarice),  from  root  of  Clare. 

Clarksvllle,  Tenn.  As  an  honor  to  Gen.  Geo. 
Rogers  Clark,  a  distinguished  Revolutionary 
soldier. 

Claude  (kldd).  From  the  Roman  name  Claudius, 
another  form  of  Clodius,  Latinized  from  Clodio; 
from  Old  German,  laut,  "celebrated,  distinguished, 
illustrious." 

Claudia  (kld'-dl-d).  Feminine  of  Claudius. 
Dutch,  Claudia;  Fr.,  Claudie;  It.,  Claudia;  Lat., 
Claudia;  Sw.,  Klaudia. 

Clement  (kKm'-int).  Like  the  classical  name 
Clemens,  derived  from  the  Latin  clemens,  "mild, 
calm,  gentle."  Danish,  Clemens;  Fr.,  Cl(5ment; 
Ger.,  Clemens;  It.,  Clemente;  Lot.,  Clemens; 
Sp.,  Clemente. 

dementia  (kle-m^n'-shl-d).  A  female  name 
formed  from  Clement. 

Cleopatra  {kle-o-pa'-trd).  Found  as  a  female 
name  in  the  parish  registers  of  Nottingham,  Eng- 


MISCELLANY 


809 


land.  So  called  from  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt. 
It  is  derived  from  kleos,  "glory,  renown,  fame," 
and  patra,  "one's  native  country,"  hence,  "fame  of 
her  fatherland." 

Cleopatra's  Needles.  A  pair  of  Egyptian 
obelisks  of  pink  granite  which  were  transported 
from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandria  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  Augustus.  One  of  them  was  taken  to  Lon- 
don and  set  up  on  the  Tliamcs  Embankment,  in 
1878,  and  tlie  other  was  soon  after  brought  to  New 
York  and  erected  in  Central  Park. 

Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  honor  of  General  Moses 
Cleaveland  of  Connecticut,  who  had  charge  of  the 
surveying  of  this  region,  acting  as  general  agent 
for  the  Connecticut  Land  Company.  No  authority 
for  present  spelling. 

•  Cloaca  Maxima  {klo-a'-kd  m&k'-sim-d).  The  chief 
drain  of  ancient  Rome,  built  by  Tarquinius  Priscus 
about  600  B.  C,  and  still  serving  its  purpose.  The 
outlet  on  the  Tiber  is  an  arch  twelve  feet  high. 

Clotilda  (klo-tU'-dd).  From  the  Old  German 
Clothildis,,  name  of  a  queen  of  France,  signifying 
"distinguished  and  noble,"  or  "illustrious  noble" 
(laut-hild) . 

Cluny  {klu-ne'\  Hotel  de.  A  former  palace  of  the 
abbots  of  Cluny,  situated  on  the  Boulevard  St. 
Michel,  Paris. 

Cochituate  {ko-chit'-u-at),  Mass.  Indian  word, 
meaning  "land  on  or  near  falls, "^or  "rapid  streams." 

Cod,  Cape,  Mass.  From  the  fish  its  name  im- 
plies, discovered  and  named  by  Bartholomew  Gos- 
nold.  May  15,  1602.  This  was  the  first  land  in  the 
United  States  trod  by  an  Englishman.  Tamwock, 
its  Indian  name,  means  "codfisli." 

Coeur  d'Alene  (kSr  da-ldn').  Lake  and  town  in 
Kootenai  County,  Idaho;  named  from  a  tribe  of 
Indians.  French  name,  meaning  "needle  hearts" 
or  "awl  hearts."  Some  authorities  say  that  this 
name  was  given  to  these  Indians  because  the  ex- 
pression was  used  by  a  chief  of  the  tribe  to  denote 
his  opinion  of  the  Canadian  trappers'  meanness. 
Rev.  M.  Eells  says  that  the  name  was  given  to  the 
tribe  by  members  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
because  of  their  sharpness  in  trade. 

Cohasset  (ko-h&s'-sSt),  Mass.  Indian  word,  mean- 
ing "place  of  pines." 

Cohoes  {ko-hoz'),  N.  T.  Corruption  of  the  Iro- 
quois word  gahaoose,  "shipwrecked  oanoe,"  hav- 
ing reference  to  the  falls  in  the  Mohawk  at  this 
place. 

Colin  (kdl'-in).  From  Nicolin,  a  diminutive  of 
Nicol,  from  Nicolas  or  Nicholas. 

Colorado  (kdl-o-rd'-do).  From  the  river,  a 
Spanish  word  meaning  "ruddy  or  red,"  the  waters 
of  the  stream  usually  quite  limpid  and  pure,  but 
when  swollen  by  heavy  rains,  tliey  sweep  down 
immense  volumes  of  red  sand,  mud,  and  silicious 
pebbles.     Indian  name,  Pashahona. 

Colorado  River,  Texas.  Spanish  word,  meaning 
"red,"  applied  through  color  of  its  waters;  when  so 
named  it  must  have  been  at  high  water,  as  at  other 
times  the  water  is  clear;  the  name  more  appro- 
priately applied  to  the  Brazos,  whose  waters  are 
always  red  or  muddy. 

Colosseum  (kal-ds-se'-um)  or  Flavian  Amphi- 
theater. Probably  so  named  from  the  colossal 
statue  of  Nero, which  stood  near  it  in  the  Via  Sacra. 
An  amphitheater  in  Rome,  begun  by  Vespasian 
(T.  Flavius  Sabinus)  in  72  A.  D.,  and  for  400  years 
the  seat  of  gladiatorial  shows. 

Colossus  of  Bliodes.  A  gigantic  statue  in  com- 
memoration of  the  successful  defense  of  Rhodes 
against  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in  304  B.  C.  It 
required  twelve  years  for  its  completion,  and  cost 
$470,000.  It  represented  the  Rhodian  sun-god, 
Helios;  was  over  105  feet  high,  and  was  considered 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  Old  World. 

Columbia.  So  named  in  honor  of  Christopher 
Columbus.  Applied  through  poetical  justice  to 
Columbus,  and  first  used  by  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight 


(1752-1818)    in    a   popular   song    written    by   him 
which  began; 

"Colunxbia,  Columbia,  to  glory  arise. 
The  queen  of  the  world  and  the  child  of 
the  skies." 
Now  applied  to  the  District  containing  the  national 
capital,  to  counties  in  Arkansas,  P^lorida,  Georgia, 
New  York,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Washington,  and 
Wisconsin,  and  rivers  in  Oregon  and  Washington. 
The  river  was  named  by  Captain  Gray  for  the 
vessel  in  which  he  entered  its  mouth. 

Columbus,  Ohio.  A  tribute  to  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus; the  ground  when  originally  selected  in  1812 
was  for  the  purpose  of  locating  homes  for  Cana- 
dians and  Nova  Scotian  refugees,  and  the  commit- 
tee, through  a  sentimental  simile  selected  the  name 
Columbus,  "as  to  liim  we  are  primarily  indebted 
in  being  able  to  offer  the  refugees  a  resting  place." 

Conception  (kdn-sP^p'-shun)  Cape,  Cal.  Named 
from  one  of  the  vessels  belonging  to  Cortez's  expe- 
dition. 

Concord  (kdng'-kurd).  Town  in  Middlesex 
County,  Massachusetts,  so  called  either  from  the 
Christian  concord  among  the  first  company,  or 
from  the  peaceful  manner  of  its  acquisition,  having 
been  purchased  from  the  Indians. 

Concord,  N.  H.  Indian  name  of  the  land,  Pen- 
nacook,  of  the  stream  Musketicook,  "dead  stream." 
Early  English  settlers  named  it  Rumford,  after  a 
Benjamin  Rumford;  changed  to  Concord  to  com- 
memorate an  expression  of  unanimity  in  a  land 
controversy. 

Conemaugh  (kdn-e-md')  River,  Penn.  Indian 
word,  meaning  "otter  creek." 

Coney  (ko'-ni).  Island  at  the  extremity  of  Long 
Island,  New  York,  which  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  so  named  because  of  the  numbers  of  rabbits 
there.  Another  theory  ascribes  it  to  the  winds 
having  driven  the  sand  into  truncated  cones.  It 
appears,  however,  to  have  been  originally  called 
Congu,  which  may  suggest  another  derivation. 

Connecticut  {kdn-nef -l-kut) .  River  and  State. 
An  Indian  name  derived  from  Quonoktacut,  meaning, 
according  to  some  authorities,  "a  river  whose 
water  is  driven  in  waves  by  tides  or  winds."  Haines 
says,  "land  on  the  long  tidal  river."  Other  inter- 
pretations are,  "on  long  river,"  "long  river,"  and 
"the  long,  or  without  end  river."  It  was  called  by 
the  Dutch  Versche  River,  "Fresh  River." 

Conrad  (kdn'-rdd).  From  the  Old  German  name 
Cunrad,  which  Wachter  translates  "quick  in 
counsel."  Others  render  the  name  "gifted  in 
council."  Danish,  Conrad;  Dutch,  Konraad;  Fr., 
Conrad;  Ger.,  Conrad;  It.,  Corrado,  or  Curado; 
Lat.,  Conradus;  Sw.,  Konrad. 

Constance  (kdn'-st&nss).  From  the  Latin  name 
Constantia,  a  feminine  of  Constantius,  "constancy, 
steadfastness."  Dute/i,  Constantia ;  i^r.,  Constance; 
It.,  Costanza;   Lat.,  Constantia;   Sp.,  Constancia. 

Constantine  (kdn'-stdn-tln).  From  the  Latin 
Constantinus,  "firm,  resolute."  Danish,  Constan- 
tin;  Dutch,  Konstantijn;  Fr.,  Constantin;  Gr., 
Konstantinos ;  It.,  Constantino. 

Constantinople  (kdn-stdn-ti-no'-pl).  The  Angli- 
cised form  of  Constantinopolis,  "the  city  of  Con- 
stantine," the  name  given  by  Constantine  to 
Byzantium  when  he  made  it  the  Eastern  capital  of 
the  Empire.  Stamboul,  or  Istambul,  "at  the  city," 
is  the  modern  Turkish  name. 

Cooper  River,  S.  C.  In  honor  of  Sir  Anthony 
Ashley  Cooper,  afterward  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  one 
of  the  original  charterers.  The  Cooper  and  Ashley 
uniting  form  the  peninsula  on  which  Charleston  is 
situated. 

Cooperstown.  Village  in  Otsego  County,  New 
York,  named  for  the  father  of  James  Fenimore 
Cooper,  the  novelist. 

Copenhagen  (kd-pen-hd'-gen).  In  Danish,  K]o- 
benhavn,  the  capital  of  Denmark,  is  first  mentioned 
in  1027,  by  the  name  Hofn,  "the  haven,"  and  in 


810 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


1043  it  was  still  a  mere  fishing  village.  Owing  to 
its  position  it  became  a  great  resort  for  merchants, 
and  to  distinguish  it  from  other  havens  was  called 
Kaupmanna  ho/ii  or  Kjobmannshaim,  names  trans- 
lated by  Saxo  Grammaticiis  in  the  Twelfth  Century 
as  Portus  Mercatorum,  the  "haven  of  the  mer- 
chants." 

Cora.     PVom  the  Greek  Korc,  "a  girl,  damsel." 

Cordelia  {kdr-de'-li-d  or  kdr-del'-yd).  According 
to  Rev.  Edward  Davies,  from  the  Keltic, 
Creirdyddlydd,  "jewel  of  the  sea."     Fr.,  Cordelie. 

Cornelia  (k&r-ne' -ll-d  or  kor-nel'-yd).  A  female 
name  formed  from  Cornelius. 

Cornelius  {k6r-ne'-li-us  or  kdr-nel'-yus).  Latin 
name,  translated  by  some,  "horn."  Danish, 
Cornelius ;  Dutch,  Kornelis  or  Cornells ;  Fr..  Corneille ; 
It.,  Cornelio;  Lot.,  Cornelius;  Sp.,  Cornelio. 

Corniche  (kdr-nesh').  The.  A  celebrated  coast- 
road  along  the  Riviera  of  France  and  Italy  from 
Nice  to  Genoa. 

Cornwall.  The  ancient  British  name  of  this 
country  was  Cernyw,  a  name  probably  received 
from  the  Latin  cornu,  "a  horn."  The  Romans,  who 
traded  here  for  tin,  called  it  Cornubia,  which  name 
it  bore  until  the  Saxons  imposed  the  name  of 
WecUes  upon  the  British  who  retreated  into  the 
fastnesses  west  of  the  Severn  and  the  Dee.  The 
latter  portion  of  the  name  Cornubia  was  then 
dropped,  and  the  word  Wales  substituted,  forming 
the  name  "Corn-Wales,"  of  which  the  present 
Cornwall  is  a  corruption. 

Corsica  (kdr'-sl-kd).  A  Phenician  word  denoting 
"the  wooded  island." 

Corse  {k&r'-sd).  One  of  the  principal  streets  of 
Rome.  It  extends  for  nearly  a  mile  from  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo,  and  is  the  chief  scene  of  the 
annual  carnival. 

Coshocton  (ko-shdk'-tun).  County  and  village  in 
Ohio,  named  from  the  Indian  town  of  Goshocking. 
The  word  means,  according  to  some  authorities, 
"habitation  of  owls."  Heckewelder  gives  "forks 
of  the  Muskingum,  or  union  of  waters."  Others 
say  "finished  small  harbor." 

Cosmo  (kdz'-mo).  A  name  originating  in  Italy, 
where  it  became  famous  in  Milan  and  Florence, 
from  being  borne  by  the  family  of  the  Medici 
(Cosmo  di  Medici).  From  the  Greek  Kosmos, 
"order,"  "the  world";  so  called  from  its  regularity 
and  beauty. 

Costa  Rica  {kds'-ta  re'-ka).  Literally,  Spanish 
for  "rich  coast." 

Cotswold  {k5ts'-w6ld)  Hills.  So  named  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  cote  and  wold,  as  meaning  a  place 
where  there  are  no  growing  woods. 

Council  Bluffs.  City  in  Pottawattamie  County, 
Iowa,  so  called  from  a  council  held  near  there  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke  with  the  Indians. 

Covent  Garden  Theater.  A  theater  in  Bow 
Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  built  by  John  Rich, 
the  famous  harlequin  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Theater,  in 
1731. 

Coventry  (kuv'-J^n-trt).  The  name  of  this  city  is 
not  derived  from  "convent,"  as  some  suppose,  but 
from  Cune,  or  Coven,  the  name  of  the  stream  on 
which  it  is  built. 

Cracow  {kra'-ko).  The  town  of  Krak,  Duke  of 
Poland.  , 

Creole  (kre'-ol).  A  Creole  is  a  person  bom  in  the 
West  Indies  or  South  America  of  European  parents. 
The  name  is  often  erroneously  applied  to  persons  of 
mixed  white  and  black  parentage.  There  are 
distinct  names  for  each  degree  of  admixture. 

Crimea  (krl-me'-d).  Named  from  a  small 
town  established  in  the  peninsula  by  the  Kimri, 
or  Cymri,  and  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  as 
Kimmerikon. 

Crlpplegate  (krlp'-l-gat)  or  CrepelgatS.  An  old 
London  gate.  It  was  the  fourth  from  the  western 
end  of  the  wall.  The  original  gate  was  probably 
built  by  King  Alfred  when  he  restored  the  walls. 


886  A.  D.  Stow  says  that  in  1010,  when  the  body 
of  Edmund  the  Martyr,  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
was  borne  through  this  gate,  many  lame  person 
who  were  congregated  there  to  beg  rose  upright  and 
were  cured  by  its  miraculous  influence. 

Crls  Klngle  (Arris'  king' -I).  Also  variously 
spelled  Kriss  Kingle,  and  Kriss  Kringle,  has  been 
corrupted  from  the  German  word,  Christ-Kindel, 
meaning  the  "little  Christ-child."  Later  uses, 
especially  among  German  peoples,  have  identified 
the  name  with  that  of  Santa  Claus  and  Saint 
Nicholas. 

Crown  Point,  N.  Y.  Alleged  to  be  so  named 
because  scalping  ("crown")  parties  were  sent  out 
from  this  place  by  the  French  and  Indians.  The 
proper  adaptation  is  no  doubt  an  allusion  to  royalty, 
namely,  "land  belonging  to  the  crown." 

Cuba  (kU'-bd.  Spanish,  kod'-bii).  The  largest 
island  of  the  West  Indies,  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1492,  on  his  first  voyage.  The  word  Cuba  seems 
to  have  been  a  general  term  meaning  "district," 
since  we  learn  from  Las  Casas  that  the  district  was 
called  Cuba  nacan,  the  "central  province,"  from 
Cuba,  a  "territory,"  or  "province,"  and  nacan, 
"middle." 

Cumberland  Mountains  and  River.  Named  by 
the  English  (1748)  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, at  that  time  prime  minister  of  England,  name 
applied  by  Dr.  Thomas  Walker,  an  explorer.  From 
Anglo-Saxon,  comb,  "a  valley  or  low  place,"  a  land 
of  hollows.  The  North  Carolina  section  of  the 
mountains,  known  to  the  Indians  as  Wasioto.  The 
river  known  as  the  Shawanee  and  Gelisipi. 

Currituck  Sound,  N.  C.  A  tribe  of  Indians  of 
that  name,  who  lived  on  its  shores. 

Cuzco  (kooz'-ko).  A  department  of  Peru.  It  is 
from  a  native  term,  meaning  the  "navel,"  so  called 
from  its  central  position  in  the  realm  of  the  Incas. 

Cynthia  {sln'-thl-d).  From  Cynthia,  a  name  of 
Diana;  so  called  from  Mount  Cynthus,  where  she 
was. born. 

Cyprian  {sip' -ri-an) .  From  the  Latin  Cypria- 
nws,  "of  Cyprus."  Z)?zicfe,  Cypriaan;  2^r.,  Cyprien; 
Ger.,  Cyprian;  It.,  Cipriano;  Port.,  Cypriano;  Sp:, 
Cipriano.  / 

Cyprus  {sl'-prus).  Perhaps  named  from  the  herb 
kupros,  with  which  it  abounded;  called  by  the 
Greeks  Cerastes,  "the  horned." 

Cyril,  Cyrlll  (slr'-U).  From  the  Latin  name 
Cyrillus,  a  diminutive  of  Cyrus,  meaning  "little 
Cyrus."  Danish,  Cyrillus;  Dutch,  Cyrillus;  Fr., 
Crilley;  It.,  Cirillo;  Lot.,  Cyrillus. 

Cyrus  (sl'-rws).  From  Greek  kHros,  "the  su- 
preme power."  According  to  others  it  has  the 
same  signification  as  Carshena,  "illustrious."  Fr., 
Cyrus;  Ger.,  Cyrus;  Gr.,  Kul'os;  It.,  Giro;  Lat., 
Cyrus;  Sp.,  Ciro. 

Dahlonega  (da46-ne'-gd),  Ga.  From  the 
Indian,  taulawneca,  ."yellow  wampum,"  from  the 
discovery  of  gold  at  this  place.  The  Government 
established  a  mint  here  at  one  time. 

Daisy.  A  female  name,  derived  from  the  flower, 
whose  name  in  Anglo-Saxon  signifies  "day's  eye." 

Dakota  (dd-ko'-td).  Two  States  —  North-  and 
South  Dakota  —  counties  in  Nebraska  and  Minne- 
soto,  and  several  small  places,  named  for  the  Indian 
tribe.  The  name  was  originallv  spelled  Dahkota  or 
Dacorta,  which  means  "friend,''  "ally,"  "beleagued 
or  united  people,"  or  "allied  nation,"  the  common 
name  of  the  confederate  Sioux  tribes. 

Dakota  River,  Dak.  Named  originally  from  the 
territory.  The  stream  was  called  by  the  Dakotaa 
chaussnsan,  meaning  "tumbling." 

Dalilah.     Another  spelling  of  Delilah. 

Daniel  {d&n'-yU).  From  the  Hebrew,  Daniyyel, 
which  has  been  variously  translated  "judge  of  God," 
"God's  judge,"  one  who  delivers  judgment  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord.  Danish,  Daniel;  Dutch,  Daniel; 
Fr.,  Daniel;  Ger.,  Daniel;  It.,  Daniele;  Lot., 
Danielj  Sp.,  Daniel. 


MISCELLANY 


811 


Dantzlc  (d&nt'-slk.  German,  dant'-slch).  Usu- 
ally supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Dansk-vik, 
"Dane's  town,  or  "Danish  fort." 

Danube  (ddji'-ub).  The  English  name  of  the 
great  river  which  the  Germans  call  the  Donau  is 
derived  from  the  Roman  name  Danuhius  or  Danu- 
vius. 

Dardanelles  {dar-dd-nelz') .  The  modern  name 
of  the  Hellespont,  is  derived  from  two  Turkish 
forts  guarding  the  passage,  called  by  the  Italians, 
Dardanelli,  a  name  derived  from  the  old  Greek  city 
of  Dardanus  in  the  Troad. 

Dauphin  (dd'-fin.  French,  do-f&N').  A  title 
formerly  borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  kings  of 
France.  In  1349,  Humbert,  the  last  of  the  princes 
of  Dauphine,  having  no  issue,  left  his  dominions  to 
the  King  of  France  on  condition  that  the  king's 
eldest  son  should  be  styled  the  Dauphin.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  the  title  was  abolished. 

David  (dd'-vid).  From  the  Hebrew  Daviydh, 
signifying  "beloved."  Danish,  David;  Dutch, 
David;  Fr.,  David;  Ger.,  David;  It.,  Davide,  or 
Davidde;   Lot.,  David. 

Death  Valley.  A  desert  region  in  Inyo  County, 
eastern  California,  near  the  Nevada  frontier,  lying 
about  160  feet  below  the  sea-level. 

Deborah  {deh'-o-rd).  From  the  Hebrew,  D'bho- 
rah,  .which  Jerome  translates  "a  bee,  or  eloquence." 
Dutch,  Debora;  Fr.,  Debora;  It.,  Debora;  Lat., 
Debora. 

December,  the  twelfth  month,  from  the  Latin, 
decern,  ten.     Tenth  month  of  the  Romans. 

Delaware  (del'-d-wdr)  River  and  Bay.  The 
name  Delaware,  first  given  to  the  bay  by  Capt. 
Samuel  Argall,  afterward  Deputy  Governor  of 
Virginia,  who  came  to  this  country  in  company 
with  Lord  de  la  Ware.  After  landing  in  Virginia 
he  was  sent  out  of  the  Chesapeake,  June  19,  1610, 
for  provisions,  and  "caste  anchor  in  a  verie  greate 
baaye,"  August  27th,  on  which  date  he  christened 
its  waters.  The  bay  being  a  widened  mouth  of  the 
stream  the  name  was  afterward  adopted  to  its 
source.  It  was  also  called  by  the  English  Charles 
River,  in  honor  of  the  king. 

Delft  (delft).  This  name  for  earthenware  is 
derived  from  Delft,  a  town  in  Holland,  where  exten- 
sive potteries  existed  from  A.  D.  1300. 

Dellil  (del' -he)  or  Dehii  (dd'-le).  From  the  San- 
skrit, dahal,  "a  quagmire,"  or  from  the  Hind,  word 
dil,  an  "eminence." 

Delilah  (de-il'4d).  From  the  Hebrew  D'liylah, 
signifying  "weak,  delicate." 

Demetrius  (de-me' -trl-us) .  From  the  Greek, 
Demetrios,  "sprung  from  the  earth,"  or  "from 
Ceres";  Fr.,  Demetrius;  It.,  Demetrio;  Lot., 
Demetrius;  Russ.,  Dmitri. 

Denis  (d^n'-ls)  or  Dionysius  (dl-o-nlsh' -i-us) . 
From  the  Greek,  "belonging  to  the  god  of  wine." 
Danish,  Dionysius;  Dutch,  Dionysius;  Fr.,  Denis 
or  Deriys;  Ger.,  Dionys;  Gr.,  Dionysios;  It., 
Dionigio;  Lat.,  Dionysius;  Sp.,  Dionisio. 

Denmarlt  (den'-mdrk).  Called  Dan-mork  in  the 
Sagas.  In  old  Norse  mork  means  a  "forest,"  and,  as 
forests  commonly  formed  the  boundaries  of  tribes, 
we  obtain  such  words  as  mearc  in  Anglo-Saxon  and 
marca  in  Old  High  German,  meaning  a  "marsh 
land"  or  "boundary."  But  marca  in  Old  Saxon 
means  a  district,  and  in  Modern  Danish  mark  means 
a  "field,"  "plain,"  or  "open  country."  Hence, 
Denmark  probably  means  the  "forest  of  the  Danes," 
a  name  parallel  to  that  of  Holstein,  which  also  was 
densely  wooded. 

Denver,  Colo.  After  James  W.  Denver,  ex- 
Governor  of  Kansas.  The  name  adopted  upon  the 
consoUdation  in  1860  of  the  towns  of  St.  Charles 
and  Aurora. 

Derrieli  or  Dircli.  A  name  corrupted  from 
Theodoric. 

Des  Moines  (de-moin').  River,  county,  and  city 
in  Iowa.     This  name  is  thought  to  have  been  de- 


rived from  the  Indian  word,  mikonang,  meaning 
"the  road."  This  name  was  applied  by  the  Indians 
to  a  place  in  the  form  of  Moingona,  which  the  French 
shortened  into  Main,  calling  the  river  "riviere  des 
Moins."  Finallj',  the  name  became  associated  with 
the  Trappist  monks,  and  the  river  by  a.  spurious 
etymology  was  called  "la  rividre  des  moines,"  "the 
river  of  the  monks." 

Detroit  (de-troit'),  Mich.  From  the  river  or  strait 
on  which  the  city  is  built.  Derived  from  two 
French  words,  detroit,  "the  narrows." 

Deuteronomy  (du-tir-dn'-d-mi).  From  two  Greek 
words  meaning  second  and  law.  The  fifth  book  of 
Moses  is  so  named  from  its  being  mainly  a  repetition 
or  second  edition  of  laws  previously  enunciated. 

Devil.  Many  philologists  declare  that  the  name 
of  God  is  derived  from  Good  Spirit,  shortened  by 
long  use  to  "good"  or  "god."  In  the  Anglo-Saxon 
the  word  "god"  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "good"  as 
well  as  to  designate  the  Almighty,  and  it  is  only 
known  by  the  context  which  is  intended.  By  a 
similar  process,  Satan  may  have  been  known  as  the 
Evil  Spirit,  which  shortened  by  usage  would  be- 
come the  Evil,  or  th'evil,  easily  corrupted  into  Demi. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  the  word  yfd,  "evil,"  is  suggestive 
of  deofvl,  "the  devil."  The  common  synonyms  of 
this  word.  Old  Nick,  Old  Scratch,  and  Old  Harry  are 
all  derived  from  Norse  sources.  "Old  Nick"  is  from 
the  Finnish  Naeki,  or  North-German  Nickel,  both 
meaning  a  demon.  "Old  Scratch"  is  from  Scrat  or 
Schrat,  a  Scandinavian  wood  demon;  and  "Old 
Harry"  is  from  Hari,  or  Herra,  Scandinavian  terms 
identical  with  Baal  or  Beel  in  Beelzebub.  The 
common  pictorial  representations  of  the  devil  are 
entirely  copied  or  derived  from  Greek  and  Roman 
mythology.  The  pitchfork  is  the  two-pronged 
scepter  of  Pluto,  the  King  of  Hades.  The  black- 
ness is  also  from  Pluto,  who  was  named  Jupiter 
Niger,  the  black  Jupiter.  The  horn,  tail,  and 
cloven  feet  are  from  the  Greek  satyrs. 

Dewy  or  Dewey.     A  Cornish  form  of  David. 

Diana  (dl-&n'-d)  or  Dian  (dl'-dn).  So  called 
after  Diana,  goddess  of  hunting.  Some  derive  her 
name  from  dia,  i.  e.,  dea,  and  lana.  According  to 
Varro,  the  same  as  Luna,  "the  moon."  Danish, 
Diana;  Fr.,  Diane;  Ger.,  Diana;  Gr.,  Artemis;  It., 
Diana;  Lat.,  Diana. 

Dinah.  From  the  Hebrew  Diynah,  signifying 
"judged";   i.  e.,  "acquitted,  vindicated." 

District  of  Columbia.     See  Columbia. 

Dnieper  (ne'-per).  From  Don-ieper,  "upper 
river."     Scythian,  Danapris. 

Dniester  (nes'-ter).  From  Don-iester,  "lower, 
river  Don."  Originally  from  the  Scythian, 
Danaster,  "southern  river." 

Doge's  (ddj)  Palace.  Formerly  the  palace  of  the 
doges  of  Venice,  and  now  one  of  its  most  interesting 
architectural  monuments.  The  present  building 
was  begun  by  Marino  Falierno  in  1354,  but  only  the 
south  and  west  fagades  retain  their  characteristic 
pointed  architecture. 

Dolores  (dd-ld'-rSs).  Derived  from  the  Spanish 
name,  Dolore.s,  signifying  "sorrows,"  in  allusion  to 
the  Seven  Sorrows  of  Mary. 

Dominic  (ddm'-i-nlk).  From  the  Latin,  domini- 
cus,  "of  or  belonging  to  a  lord  or  niaster."  It 
might  also  translate  "little  lord."  Danish,  Do- 
minicus;  Dutch,  Dominicus;  Fr.,  Dominique;  It., 
Domenico;  Port.,  Domingos;  Sp.,  Domingo;  Sw., 
Dominicus. 

Dominica  (ddm-t-ne'-kd).  "Sunday  Island,"  in- 
dicative of  its  discovery  by  Columbus,  namely 
Sunday,  November  2,  1493. 

Donald.  An  English  form  of  Donghal,  ."brown 
stranger." 

Dora.  A  female  name  abbreviated  from  Theo- 
dora. 

Dorcas.  From  the  Greek  name,  dorkas,  signi- 
fying "a  wild  goat,  antelope,  gazelle." 

Dorothy    (ddr'u-thl).       From    the    Greek    name 


812 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Dorothea,  signif3nng  "the  gift  of  God."  Danish, 
Dorothea;  Dutch,  Dorothea;  Fr.,  Doroth^e;  Ger., 
Dorothea;  It.,  Dorotea;  Lat.,  Dorothea;  Sp., 
Dorotea;  Sw.,  Dorothea. 

Dougall.     An  English  form  of  Dughall. 

Douglas  (dug'-lds).  From  Gaelic  dubh-ghlas, 
"dark  grey." 

Dover,  Del.  From  the  town  in  England  of  that 
name.     The  Anglo-Saxon  word  means  "ferry." 

Dowager  (dow'-d-jBr).  Strictly  speaking,  a  dowa- 
ger is  an  endowed  widow;  i.  e.,  one  who  has  a 
"dower"  from  her  late  husband,  or  who  has  prop- 
erty brought  by  her  to  her  husband  on  marriage 
("dowry '0  and  settled  on  herself  after  his  decea.se. 
In  practice  the  name  "dowager"  is  applied  to  any 
widowed  lady  of  titte,  to  distinguish  her  from  the 
wife  of  the  present  holder  of  the  title. 

Downing  Street,  London.  So  named  after  Sir 
George  Downing,  who,  according  to  Wood,  was 
"a  sider  with  all  times  and  changes,  skilled  in  the 
common  cant,  and  a  preacher  occasionally."  The 
street  contains  the  Treasury  Building  and  the 
Foreign  Office,  hence  the  name  Downing  Street 
has  come  to  be  used  for  the  British  Administration. 

Drury  Lane.  A  street  in  London,  near  the 
Strand,  with  which  it  communicates  through 
Wych  Street.  It  is  one  of  the  great  arteries  of  the 
parish  of  St.  Clement  Danes,  an  aristocratic  part 
of  London  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts.  It  takes 
the  name  from  Drury  House,  built  by  Sir  William 
Drury,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Near  the 
entrance  of  Drury  Lane  from  the  Strand,  on  the 
left,  an  old  house,  now  a  Mission  House,  still  exists, 
which  stood  in  the  Lane  with  the  old  house  of  the 
Drurys,  before  the  street  was  built. 

Drury  Lane  Theater.  This  famous  London 
theater  was  originally  a  cockpit,  which  was  con- 
verted into  a  theater  in  the  time  of  James  I.  It 
was  pulled  down  and  rebuilt  in  1662,  burned  in 
1672,  and  a  new  one  built  by  Wren  in  1674.  The 
interior    was    rebuilt    in    1775.     In    1791,    it    was 

fulled  down  and  rebuilt,  being  opened  in  1794. 
t  was  burned- down  February,  1809,  and  replaced 
by  a  building,  which  was  opened  October  10,  1812. 
The  latter  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  early  part 
of  1908,  and  replaced  by  the  present  structure. 

Drusllla  (droo-sll'-ld).  A  female  name  derived 
from  the  Greek  name  Drousille,  which  Bailey 
translates  "dewy  eyes."  The  word  signifies  "dew, 
moisture,  pure  water";  and,  figuratively,  what  is 
tender,  delicate,  young.  Fr.,  Drusille;  Ger.  Drusille; 
It.,  Drusilla;  Lot.,  Drusilla. 

Dryburgh  (dfl'-bvr-u)  Abbey.  An  ancient  abbey, 
now  in  ruins,  four*  miles  southeast  of  Melrose, 
Scotland,  whose  fragments  exhibit  excellent  Nor- 
man and  Early  English  architectural  details.  In 
the  SQuth  aisle  is  the  tomb  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Dublin.  In  the  Irish  language  this  is  Dubh-linn, 
the  meaning  of  which  is  "black  pool."  The  name 
has  reference  to  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  site  of  the  city  was  formerly  a  black,  slimy 
expanse  of  mud,  through  which  the  River  Liffey 
flowed  sluggishly  to  the  sea. 

Dubuque  (ddb-buk').  County  and  city  in  Iowa, 
named  for  a  French  trader,  Julien  Dubuque. 

Dugald.     An  English  form  of  Dughall. 

Duluth,  Minn.  In  honor  of  the  French  explorer, 
Daniel  Greysolon  du  Lhut,  who  visited  this  section 
in  1679. 

Duncan.  A  Scottish  surname.  Some  render 
it  "powerful  chieftain";  others  derive  it  from  the 
English  form  of  Donncha. 

Dunstan.  Derived  from  a  locality  signifying, 
"the  stone  hill,"  or  "the  strong  fortress"  (dun- 
stan), but  the  Saxon  compound  is  no  doubt  used 
figuratively. 

Duquesne  (dii-kdn').  Borough  in  Allegheny 
County,  Pennsylvania,  named  from  old  Fort  Du- 
quesne,  which  was  named  for  a  distinguished 
French  officer,  the  Marquis  Abraham  Duquesne. 


Easter  Island.  Named  by  Jacob  Roggevin  in 
consequence  of  his  visit  to  its  fertile  shores  on 
Easter  Sunday,  1722;  the  island  having  been  pre- 
viously discovered  by  Captain  Davis  in  1686. 

East  River.  Name  applied  to  the  body  of  water 
at  New  York,  more  properly  a  strait,  connecting 
Long  Island  Sound  with  New  York  Bay;  called  a 
river  no  doubt  from  the  river-like  action  of  its 
tides;  the  name  is  used  to  distinguish  it  from 
North  River,  i.  e.,  the  Hudson.  As  the  Dutch  had 
the  South  and  North  Rivers  to  designate  their  ter- 
ritory limits,  it  was  consistent  that  the  stream  east 
of  tlieir  city  of  New  Amsterdam  should  be  indi- 
cated as  Oost  Rivier. 

Ebenezer  (SbS-ne'-zer).  From  the  Hebrew  Eb- 
henezer,  signifying  "stone  of  help,"  name  of  the 
stone  which  Samuel  set  up  near  Mispeh,  in  wit- 
ness of  the  Divine  assistance  obtained  against  the 
Philistines. 

Ecuador  {ik-wa-dor'.  Spanish,  d-kwd-dor') .  Span- 
ish for  Equator,  so  called  by  virtue  of  its  geograph- 
ical position. 

Edcnton,  N.  C.  In  honor  of  Charles  Eden,  royal 
governor  in  1720. 

Edgar.  From  the  Anglo-Saxon  name  Eadgar. 
Watcher  derives  it  from  ead-gar,  "author  of  hap- 
piness." 

Edinburgh  (ed'-in-bur-o).  Formerly  Edwines- 
burg,  means  ostensibly  the  fortress  of  Eadwine, 
the  Northumbrian  king,  who  was  converted  by 
Paulinus.  He  extended  the  Anglican  dominion  as 
far  as  the  Forth,  and  may  probably  have  erected 
a  frontier  fortress  on  the  commanding  rock  on  which 
Edinburgh  Castle  stands. 

Edith.  Formerly  Eadith;  from  Anglo-Saxon 
eadig,  "happy,  rich." 

Edmund  (M'-mund).  From  Anglo-Saxon  ead- 
mund,  "guardian  or  defender  of  happiness."  Danish, 
Edmund;  Fr.,  Edmond;  Ger.,  Edmund;  It.,  Ed- 
mondo;  Lot.,  Edmundus;  Sp.,  Edmondo,  or  Ed- 
mundo. 

Edward  (M'-ward).  From  Anglo-Saxon  ead- 
weard,  "guardian  of  happiness."  Danish,  Eduard; 
Dutch,  Eduard;  Fr.,  Edouard;  Ger.,  Eduard;  It., 
Eduardo,  or  Edoardo;  Lat.,  Edvardus,  or  Edoardus; 
Port.,  Duarte;  Sp.,  Eduardo;  Sw.,  Eduard. 

Edwin  {td'-wln).  From  the  Anglo-Saxon  name 
Eadwin,  from  ead-winn,  "happy  conqueror." 
Danish,  Edwin;  Lat.,  Edwinus. 

Eel  River,  Ind.  From  the  translation  of  the 
Indian  name,  shoat?iague,  "slippery  fish"  (the  eel). 

Effle.     A  Scottish  corruption  of  Euphemia. 

Egbert  (eg'-bert).  Ferguson  translates  this  name 
"edge-bright."  It  rather  means,  "distinguished 
in  battle,"  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  meaning  "an 
edge,  sword,  war,  battle."     Lat.,  Egbertus. 

Egypt.  Is  the  Greek  and  not  the  native  name 
of  the  country  which  on  the  monuments  is  called 
Kem  (Ham),  "the  black,"  probably  from  the  dark 
alluvial  soil.  The  meaning  of  the  Greek  name 
yEgyptos  has  been  much  disputed.  It  has  been 
explained  as  the  "land"  (aia)  of  the  "vulture" 
(guptos),  or  rather  of  the  sacred  kite  of  Horus, 
which  is  the  most  conspicuous  animal  in  the  country. 
Another  etymology  derives  it  from  the  Coptic  or 
from  the  town  of  Koptos,  the  seat  of  the  earliest 
dynasties,  where  the  caravan  route  from  the  Red 
Sea  reaches  the  Nile,  and  hence  the  place  that 
would  first  become  known  to  strangers  from  the 
East.  Another  derivation  is  that  it  expresses  the 
Hebrew  for  "the  land  of  oppression." 

Egyptian  Expedition,  The.  An  expedition  un- 
dertaken by  the  French  against  Egypt  in  1798-1801, 
with  the  ultimate  object  of  attacking  the  British 
Empire  in  India.  It  was  commanded  by  Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

Egyptian  Hall.  The  Egyptian  Hall  in  the 
Mansion  House  of  the  City  of  London  was  so  called 
because  of  its  exact  correspondence  with  the 
Egyptian  Hall  described  by  Vitruvius. 


MISCELLANY 


813 


Elba  {W-ha).  An  island  belonging  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Leghorn,  Italy,  situated  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, east  of  Corsica,  and  about  five  and  one-half 
miles  from  Tuscany.  Napoleon  I.  lived  here  in  exile 
from  May  4,  18J.4,  to  February  26,  1815. 

Eldred  (Sl'-dred).  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"all  dread,"  hence  "terrible."     Lat.,  Eldredus. 

Eleanor  (eZ'-e-d-nor,  W-en-6r).  Derived  from 
Helen.  Danish,  Eleonore;  Dutch,  Leonora;  Fr., 
Eleonore;  Ger.,  Eleonore;  It.,  Eleonora;  Lat., 
Eleanora;  (Sp.,  Leanor. 

Electoral  Commission,  The.  In  the  United 
States  History,  a  board  of  commissioners  created 
by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  January  29,  1877,  for 
the  purpose  of  deciding  disputed  cases  in  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1876. 

Elephanta  {U-e-fan' -to) .  An  island  six  miles 
from  Bombay,  is  locally,  called  Gharipuri,  the 
"place  of  caves."  The  Portuguese  name  Elephanta 
is  derived  from  the  colossal  figure  of  an  elephant 
carved  on  the  rock,  guarding  the  entrance  to  a 
magnificent  cave-temple,  which  dates  from  the 
Eighth  Century. 

Elephantine  {el^-fan-te' -no) .  The  Greek  name 
of  the  island  of  PhilEC  at  the  first  cataract  of  the 
Nile,  so  called  because  it  was  the  mart  to  which  the 
Nubians  brought  their  ivory  for  sale. 

Elgin  {U'-gln)  Marbles.  A  collection  of  Greek 
sculptures  comprising  the  bulk  of  the  surviving 
plastic  decorations  of  the  Parthenon,  and  a  caryatid 
and  column  from  the  Erechtheum,  and  recognized 
as  containing  the  finest  existing  productions  of 
sculpture. 

Ellas  (e-Zi'-as).  From  the  Greek  form  of  Elijah, 
meaning  "God  the  Lord."  Danish,  Elias;  Fr., 
Elie;  Ger.,  Elias;  It.,  Elia;  Lat.,  Elias. 

Elihu  {e-Ll'-hu  or  U'-l-hu).  A  name  derived  from 
EUas. 

Elijah.     See  EHas. 

Elisabeth.     See  EUzabeth. 

EUsha  (e-ll'-shd).  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning 
"the  salvation  of  God."  Fr.,  Elisee;  It.,  Eliseo; 
Lat.,  Elisaeus;  Port.,  Eliseu;  Sp.,  Eliseo. 

Eliza  (e-ll'-zd).  Corrupted  from  Elisabeth. 
Danish,  Elisa;  Dutch,  Ehsa;  Fr.,  Elise;  Ger., 
Elisa;  Lat.,  Eliza,  or  Elisa. 

Elizabeth  {e4iz'-d-beth).  From  the  Hebrew 
Eliyshebha,  which  St.  Jerome  translates  "oath  of 
my  God";  Simonis,  "oath  of  God";  Tregelles,  "to 
whom  God  is  the  oath,  who  swears  by  God,"  i.  e., 
worshipper  of  God;  and  Jones,  "God  of  the  seventh 
oath  of  my  God,  of  God  is  her  oath";  {rom  El 
"God,"  shebha,  "seven";  also  an  oath.  Danish, 
Elisabeth;  Dutch,  EHzabeth;  Fr.,  EHsabeth;  Ger., 
Elisabeth;  It.,  Elisabetta;  Lat.,  Elizabetha;  Sp., 
Isabel. 

Elizabeth,  N.  J.  Named  for  Elizabeth  Carteret, 
wife  of  Sir  George  Carteret. 

Ellen.  Some  consider  this  the  same  as  Helen, 
and,  indeed,  in  Spanish  Helen  and  Ellen  are  both 
represented  by  Elena.  A  correspondent  of  "Notes 
and  Queries"  says  the  name  Ellen  has  no  possible 
connection  with  Helen,  which  is  older  by  a  thousand 
years  at  least,  and  that  Ellen  is  the  feminine  of 
Alain,  Alan,  or  Allan.  It  may,  however,  be  the 
same  as  Ailean. 

Ellis  Island.  Variously  called  Oyster,  Bucket, 
and  Gibbett  Island. 

Elma.  A  female  name  abbreviated  from  Guili- 
elma,  a  feminine  formed  from  Gulielmus,  from  root 
of  William. 

Elmira.  City  in  Chemung  County,  New  York, 
said  to  have  been  named  for  Elmira  Teall,  daughter 
of  Nathan  Teal,  a  tavern  keeper. 

Elmo,  Castle  of  Saint.  A  castle  at  Naples  and  a 
fort  at  Malta,  said  to  be  so  named  from  Ermo,  an 
Italianized  corruption  of  Erasmus,  a  Syrian  martyr 
of  the  Third  Century. 

Else  or  Elsa.     See  Alice. 

Elsie.     A  name  corrupted  from  Elizabeth. 


.Elvira  (cl-vi'-rd).  There  are  several  suggestions 
as  to  the  origin  of  this  name,  which  is  also  found  in 
the  Italian.  According  to  some  it  has  been  cor- 
rupted from  the  name  Geloyra  or  Geluira,  but 
there  is  no  suggestion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  latter 
name.  Others  think  it  another  spelling  of  the 
Moorish  name  Elmira,  a  tiame  said  to  be  derived 
from  emir.  Miss  Yonge  seems  to  think  it  of  Spanish 
origin. 

Elysee  (d-ie-za').  Palace  of.  The  official  resi- 
dence of  the  President  of  France,  in  Paris.  It  was 
built  in  1718,  and,  since  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  has 
been  the  property  of  the  state.  It  was  used  as  a 
private  residence  by  Napoleon  I.  and  Napoleon  III., 
to  escape  the  publicity  of  the  Tuileries.  During  the 
republic  of  1848  it  became  the  official  residence  of 
the  president. 

Emerald  Isle.  The  author  of  this  epithet  was 
Dr.  William  Drennan,  of  Belfast,  who  died  1820. 
It  occurs  in  a  poem  entitled  "Erin,"  of  which  the 
fourth  stanza  runs  thus; 

"Arm  of  Erin !  prove  strong,  but  be  gentle  as  brave, 
And,  uplifting  to  strike,  still  be  ready  to  save, 
Not  one  feeling  of  vengeance  presume  to  defile 
The  cause,  or  the  men  of  the  Emerald  Isle." 

Emery  (em'-e-ri).  A  name  derived  from  the  old 
name  Amalaric,  signifying  "powerful  without  a 
blot,"  or  "rich  in  chastity."  Danish,  Almerik; 
Dutch,  Almerik;  Fr.,  Emeric,  or  Emeri;  Lat., 
Almericus;  Sw.,  Emmerik. 

Emilia  (e-mW-i-d),  or  Emily  (Sm'-I4l).  A  name 
corrupted  from  Amelia.  Fr.,  Emilie;  Ger.,  Emilie, 
or  Emilia;  It.,  Emilia. 

Emily.     See  Emilia. 

Emma.  Some  derive  this  name  from  Greek 
amme,  "a  nurse";  others  from  the  Latin,  Amata, 
signifying  "loved,"  name  of  the  wife  of  King 
Latinus  and  mother  of  Lavinia.  Fr.,  Emma;  It., 
Emma;  Lat.,  Emma. 

Emmanuel  {em-m&n'-u-el),  or  Immanucl.  From 
the  Hebrew,  meaning  "God  with  us";  Fr.,  Em- 
manuel; Ger.,  Emanuel,  or  Immanuel;  It.,  Eman- 
uele;  Lat.,  Emmanuel;  Port.,  Manoel;  Sp.,  Manuel. 

Enaid  or  Enid.  A  Welsh  female  name  signifying 
"soul,  life." 

Encyclopedists,  or  EncyclopaBdlsts  (Sn-sl-klo- 
pe'-dists).  The  collaborators  in  the  encyclopedia 
of  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  (1751-65).  The 
Encyclopedists  as  a  body  were  the  exponents  of  the 
French  skepticism  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

Engadine  {in-ga-den').  A  valley  in  the  canton  of 
Grisons,  Switzerland,  traversed  by  the  Inn,  noted 
for  its  health-resorts  and  high  elevation.  It  is 
divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Engadine,  and 
is  surrounded  by  mountains. 

England  (lng'4&nd).  When  Egbert,  King  of  the 
West-Saxons,  in  829,  had  subjugated  the  other  six 
Saxon  kingdoms,  he  summoned  a  general  council 
at  Winchester,  at  which  it  was  declared  that  hence- 
forth Britain  should  be  called  England,  its  people 
Englishmen,  and  himself  King  of  England.  Origi- 
nally the  name  was  Englaland,  the  land  of  the 
Engles,  or  Angles,  who  came  over  from  Sleswick, 
a  province  of  Jutland.  Engd  (variously  spelled), 
is  an  old  Teutonic  word,  meaning  "angel." 

Enid  (e'-nld).     Another  form  of  Enaid,  which  see. 

Enoch  (e'-ndk).  Derived  from  the  Hebrew 
Hhanokh,  which  Simonis  renders  "initiated,  dedi- 
cated—  i.  e.,  to  God";  and  St.  Jerome,  "dedi- 
cated," simply.  Fr.,  Enoch  or  Henoch;  Lat., 
Enochus,  or  Henochus. 

Ephralm  {e'-frd-lm).  From  the  Hebrew  Ephra- 
yini,  which  Tragelles  translates  "double-land,  twin- 
land";  others  "two-fold  increase,  very  fruitful"; 
from  p'riy,  "fruit  of  the  earth,"  hence  "fruitful." 
Fr.,  Ephraim;  Lat.,  Ephraimus. 

Epsom  {ep'-sHni).  A  market-town  in  the  county 
of  Surrey,  fifteen  miles  southwest  of  London, 
chiefly  celebrated  now  as  the  place  near  which  the 
Oaks  and  Derby  races  are  run.     The  Epsom  races 


814 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


are  held  on  Efjsom  Downs,  in  the  month  of  May 
(once  in  a  while  June).  The  Derby  is  a  sweep- 
stake for  three-year-old  entire  colts  and  fillies.  On 
the  subsequent  day  the  Oaks,  for  fillies  only,  is 
run. 

Erasmus  {e-r&z'-mus).  The  Latin  name,  from 
Greek  Erasmos,  "desirable,  pleasant."  Danish, 
Erasmus;  Fr.,  Erasme;  Ger.,  Erasmus;  Gr., 
Erasmos;  It.,  Erasmo;  Lat.,  Erasmus;  Sp., 
Erasmo. 

Erastus  (e-r&s' -tiis) .  Means,  "beloved."  Fr., 
Eraste;  Gr.,  Erastos;  Lot.,  Erastus. 

Erechtheum  (Sr-ik-the'-iim).  An  Ionic  temple 
in  Athens  dating  from  the  end  of  the  Fifth  Century 
B.  C,  remarkable  for  its  complex  plan  and  architect- 
ural variety,  as  well  as  for  its  technical  perfec- 
tion. 

Erie  (Sr'-lk,  e'-rlk).  The  same  as  the  old  Ericus, 
name  of  several  Danish  kings.  Wachter  says  it 
should  be  written  Errich,  which  he  translates, 
"powerful  in  war." 

Erie.  The  name  of  one  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
drained  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  an  Indian  word, 
which,  in  theformof  "Erige"  or  "Erilke,  "  was  the 
name  of  a  now  extinct  Indian  tribe  of  the  Hurons, 
exterminated  by  the  Iroquois.  The  word  signifies 
"cat"  or  "wild-cat";  another  authority  gives  the 
meaning  as  "mad." 

Ermlnla  (er-mln'-i-d).  A  female  name  derived 
from  the  Roman  Herminius.  Latinized  from 
Hermann,  an  Old  German  compound  signifying 
"war-man,  warrior."  It  seems  to  have  been  in  use 
in  early  times  in  Italy,  and  occurs  in  Tasso. 

Ernest  (er'-nSst).  From  Old  German  ernst, 
"ardent  and  vehement  desire  for  study."  Danish, 
Ernst;  Dutch,  Ernestus;  Fr.,  Ernest;  Ger.,  Ernst; 
It.,  Ernesto;  Lat.,  Ernestus;  Sw.,  Ernst. 

Ernestine.     A  female  name  formed  from  Ernest. 

Erzeroom  (erz-room').  From  Arz-er-Room,  "the 
fortress  of  the  Romans." 

Esau  (e'-s<5).  From  the  Hebrew,  signifying 
"hairy,  covered  with  hair."  Fr.,  Esau;  Lot., 
Esavus. 

Escorial  (Ss-ko'-rl-dl.  Spanish,  Ss-ko-re-al').  A 
celebrated  building  in  Spain,  situated  twenty- 
seven  miles  northwest  of  Madrid,  containing  a 
monastery,  palace,  church,  and  mausoleum  of  the 
Spanish  sovereign.  Derives  its  name  from  the 
neighboring  village  El  Escorial,  from  the  scoria  or 
cinders  of  some  abandoned  iron  works. 

Espiritu  Santo  (ds-pe'-re-toO  san'-to)  Bay,  Texas. 
Spanish  application,  meaning  "Bay  of  the  holy 
Spirit." 

Essie  (gs'-sl).  A  female  name  derived  from 
Esther  or  Hester. 

Estelle.  A  French  name  derived  from  Spanish 
estella,  from  Latin  stella,  a  "star." 

Esther  (Ss'-ter).  From  the  Persian  sitarah, 
"star";  also  "fortune,  felicity."  Dutch,  Hester; 
Fr.,  Esther;  Ger.,  Esther;  It.,  Ester;  Lat.,  Esthera; 
Sp.,  Ester. 

Estremadura  {as-trd-nui-d6d'  -ra) .  From  Esy- 
tema-Durii,  the  extreme  limits  of  the  River 
Douro. 

Ethel  C^th'Sl).  From  the  Anglo-Saxon,  signi- 
fying "noble." 

Ethelbert  (eth'-&l-bert).  From  the  Teutonic, 
meaning  "nobly  bright."  Danish,  Adelbert;  Dutch, 
Adelbert;  Fr.,  Adalbert,  or  Adelbert;  Ger.,  Adel- 
bert;  Lai.,  Ethelbertus,  or  Adalbertus. 

Ethiopia,  or  Ethiopia  (e^thl-o'-pl-d).  The  "land 
of  the  blacks,"  according  to  the  two  Greek  words, 
aithein,  "to  burn,"  and  ops,  "the  face." 

Etna  {U'-na).  The  chief  mountain  in  Sicily,  and 
the  highest  volcano  in  Europe.  The  Greek  name 
was  Aitna,  "burning  mountain." 

Eugene  (u-jen').  A  name  derived  from  the 
Latin,  Eugenius,  "nobly  descended."  Dutch, 
Eugenius;  Fr.,  EugAne;  Ger.,  Eugen;  Gr.,  Euge- 
nics; It.,  Eugenio;  Sp.,  Eugenic. 


Eugenia  {u-je'^-nl-d).  Feminine  of  the  Latin 
name  Eugenius.     Fr.,  Eugenie;  Gr.,  Eugenia. 

Eunice  (u'-nls,  u-nl'-si).  A  female  name  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  name,  Eunike,  "happy  vic- 
tory."    Lat.,  Eunice.  ' 

Euphemia  (u-fe'-ml-d).  From  the  Greek,  Eu- 
phemia,  "words  of  good  omen,  or  good  report." 

Euphrates  (u-frd-tez).  A  name  which  has  a  long 
history.  Euphrates  is  merely  a  Greek  adaptation 
of  the  Persian  name  Hufrat  or  Ufratu.  The  latter 
Persian  form,  Phrat,  or  Frata,  has  again  been  con- 
verted by  the  Arabs  into  Farat,  the  "sweet  water," 
so  as  to  make  the  name  significant  in  Arabic.  The 
upper  course  of  the  Euphrates  is  still  called  the 
Frat. 

Eurasian  (H-rd'-shdn).  This  word,  which  is 
often  met  with  in  Indian  newspapers,  is  ap- 
plied to  persons  born'  of  European  fathers  and 
native  mothers.  The  word  is  a  contracted  com- 
bination of  the  two  words,  "European"  and 
"Asian." 

Europe  {u'-rup).  From  the  Greek  eurus,  "broad," 
and  op,  "to  see,"  or  ops,  "the  face,"  in  allusion  to 
"the  broad  face  of  the  earth." 

Eusebius  {u-se'-bl-us).  From  the  Greek,  Euse- 
bes,  "pious,"  or  "religious."  Fr.,  Eusebe;  Gr., 
Eusebios;  It.,  Eusebio;  Lat.,  Eusebius;  Sp., 
Eusebio. 

Eustace  (Us'-tds).  From  the  Latin  name, 
Eustathius,  "standing  fast,  firm,  constant."  Dutch, 
Eustatius;  Fr.,  Eustache;  It.,  Eustachio;  Lat., 
Eustachius;  Sp.,  Eustaquio. 

Euxine  (uks'-ln).  Greek,  meaning  "the  hos- 
pitable"; formerly  axinos,  "the  inhospitable 
sea." 

Evan  (?j;'-an).  A  Welsh  name.  Evan,  or  rather 
Evans,  is  merely  another  spelling  of  Jones,  which 
has  been  corrupted  from  the  Greek  original  of 
John. 

Eve.  From  the  Hebrew  haovah,  "life,  or  causing 
life."  Arabic,  Hawa,  or  Heva;  Danish,  Eva; 
Dtitch,  Eva,;  Fr.,  Eve;  Ger.,  Eva;  Gr.,  Eua,  or  Eva; 
It.,  Eva;  Lat.,  Eva;   Sp.,  Eva;  Sw.,  Eva. 

Evelina  (Sv-e-li'-nd),  Eveline  {(&v'-e-lln).  Female 
names  derived  from  Evelyn.  Also  considered 
diminutives  of  Eve. 

Evelyn  (Sv'-e-lln).  From  the  Latin,  meaning 
"hazel  nut."  Lower  says  the  surname  Evelyn  is 
probably  an  ancient  personal  name,  corresponding 
with  the  German  Aveling  or  Abeling,  the  ing  being 
patronymic. 

Everard  (Sv'Sr-ard).  Same  as  the  German 
names  Eberhard,  Eberhardt.  From  eberhart, 
"strong  as  a  wild  boar";  perhaps,  figuratively, 
strong  man.  Danish,  Eberhard;  Dutch,  Everard; 
Ger.,  Eberhard. 

Ezekiel  {e-ze'-kl-U).  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning 
"strength  of  God."     Dutch,  Ezechiel;  Fr.,  Ezechiel. 

Ezra  (&z'-rd).  From  the  Hebrew,  Ezra,  mean- 
ing "a  helper."  Fr.,  Esdras;  Lat.,  Ezra  or 
Ezdras. 

Fabian  (Jd'-bl-an).  A  name  derived  from  the 
Roman  Fabius,  which,  in  turn,  is  derived  from 
faba,  a  bean.  Danish,  Favian;  Dutch,  Fabiaan; 
Fr.,  Fabien;  It.,  Fabiano;  Lot.,  Fabianus. 

Fanny.     A  female  name  corrupted  from  Frances. 

Famese  (Jdr-nez'.  Italian,  fdr-nd'-zd)  Palace. 
A  celebrated  palace  of  the  Farnese  in  Rome, 
founded  in  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of  Leo  X.  It 
was  begun  by  Sangallo  the  younger,  was  continued 
by  Michael  Angelo,  and  was  completed  by  Giacomo 
della  Porta.  It  is  adorned  with  frescoes  by  Anni- 
bale  Caracci. 

Fear  Cape,  N.  C.  Is  said  to  have  been  named 
Cape  of  Fear,  owing  to  its  tempestuous  coast  at  the 
time  Raleigh's  fleet  was  trying  to  find  an  entrance, 
June  20,  1585.     See  Cape  Fear  River. 

February  (fSb'-ru-d-rl).  From  the  Latin  word, 
febru,  "to  purify,"  because  the  purification  of 
women  took  place  in  this  month. 


MISCELLANY 


815 


Federalist  {fed'-er-al-lst),  The.  A  collection  of 
essaj^s  in  favor  and  in  explanation  of  the  United 
States  Constitution,  first  issued  in  serial  form, 
October,  1787,-April,  1788,  in  the  "Independent 
Journal"  of  New  York,  where  they  were  collected 
in  book  form  with  the  title  "The  Federalist." 
Many  editions  have  since  been  issued. 

Felicia.     A  female  name  formed  from  Felix. 

Felix  {/e'4ix).  A  Latin  name  meaning  "happy." 
Danish,  Felix;  Dutch,  Felix;  Fr.,  Felix;  Ger., 
Felix;  It.,  FeUce;  Sp.,  Felix. 

Ferdinand  (Jer'-di-n&nd).  One  authority  de- 
rives this  name  from  the  North  High  German  name 
Ferdinand,  or  Fcrt-nand,  translated,  figuratively, 
"one  quick  of  comprehension,"  or  "man  of  rare 
abilities."  Another  translates  it  "pure  peace." 
Dutch,  Ferdinand;  Fr.,  Ferdinand;  Ger.,  Ferdi- 
nand; It.,  Ferdinando;  Lat.,  Ferdinandus;  Port., 
Fernando,  or  Fernao;  Sp.,  Fernando. 

Fergus.     An  English  form  of  Frederick. 

Femandina  (Jer-nan-de'-nd),  Fla.  Given  by  the 
Spaniards  in  honor  of  their  King  Ferdinand. 

Fiesole  (Je-es'-o-ie).  An  old  Etruscan  city  in  the 
province  of  Florence,  Italy,  four  miles  northeast  of 
Florence;  the  ancient  Faesulse.  It  was  the  head- 
quarters of  Catiline  63-62  B.  C,  and  was  the  scene 
of  victory  of  Stilicho  over  the  Teutonic  invaders 
under  Radagais  about  406. 

Fiftli  Avenue.  The  principal  residence  street  of 
New  York,  extending  from  Washington  Square  to 
Harlem  River,  a  distance  of  about  six  and  one-half 
miles.  The  lower  part  of  the  avenue  is  now  largely 
devoted  to  business. 

Finland.  Properly  Fenland,  meaning  "the  land 
of  marches." 

Fltchburg.  City  in  Worcester  County,  Mass., 
named  for  John  Fitch,  one  of  the  committee  that 
procured  the  act  of  incorporation. 

Fltzedward.  A  baptismal  name,  son  of  Edward. 
Norman  fitz,  for  filius. 

Fltzwilliam  Museum.  A  museum  at  Cambridge 
University,  England,  founded  by  Richard,  seventh 
and  last  Viscount  Fitzwilliam,  who  bequeathed  to 
the  university  (1816)  his  collection  of  books, 
paintings,  illuminated  manuscripts,  engravings,  etc., 
with  the  dividends  of  £100,000  South  Sea  annuities 
for  the  erection  of  a  building,  which  was  begun  in 
1837.  The  collection  of  ancient  prints  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  in  existence. 

Flaminian  (fld-mln'-l-an)  Way.  One  of  the 
oldest  and  most  famous  highways  of  ancient  Rome. 
It  extends  in  a  direct  line  from  Rome  to  Ariminum 
(Rimini)  and  was  built  by  the  censor  Caius  Fla- 
minius  in  220  B.  C.  Its  superintendence  was  held 
to  be  so  honorable  an  office  that  Augustus  himself 
assumed  it  in  27  B.  C,  as  Julius  Csesar  had  been 
curator  of  the  Appian  Way.  Augustus  restored  it 
through  its  entire  extent,  in  commemoration  of 
which  triumphal  arches  were  erected  to  him  over 
the  road  at  Ariminum  and  at  Rome.. 

Fleet  Street.  A  London  street  running  from 
Ludgate  Circus  to  the  Strand  and  the  West  End. 
It  is  named  from  the  Fleet  brook.  In  the  early 
chronicles  of  London  many  allusions  are  made  to 
the  deeds  of  violence  done  in  this  street.  By  the 
time  of  Elizabeth  the  street  had  become  a  favorite 
spot  for  shows  of  all  descriptions.  It  is  now  the 
chief  center  of  British  journalism. 

Flint,  Mich.  From  the  river  on  which  it  is 
located,  the  name  derived  from  translation  of  the 
Indian  name  Pewonigo,  "river  of  flint."  The  place 
first  bore  the  name  of  Flint  River  Settlement. 

Flora  (flo'-rd).  A  female  name  derived  from 
Flora,  goddess  of  flowers  and  gardens,  the  same  as 
the  Chloris  of  the  Greeks.  Dutch,  Flora;  Fr., 
Flore;  It.,  Flora;  Lat.,  Flora. 

Florence  (fldr'-ens).  A  female  name,  said  to 
have  been  Anglicised  from  Finin  or  Fineen,  an  Irish 
name  used  by  men,  meaning  "flourishing."  The 
English  version  is  probably  derived  from  Flora,  the 


goddess  of  flowers.  It  might  also  mean  "white," 
or  "fair."  Danish,  Florenz;  Dutch,  Florentia; 
Fr.,  Florence;  Ger.,  Florenz;  It.,  Fiorenza;  Lat., 
Florentia;  Sp.,  Florencia;  Sw.,  Florenz. 

Florence,  Italy.  This  is  the  French  form  adopted 
for  the  city  whose  Italian  name,  formerly  Fiorenza, 
is  now  Firenze,  meaning,  as  the  Romans  seem  to 
have  thought,  "the  city  of  flowers." 

Florida.  So  named  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spanish 
navigator,  in  honor  of  his  discovery  of  the  land  on 
Easter  Sunday,  March  27,  1513,  which  is  called  by 
Spaniards  Pascua  Florida,  "Holy  day  of  Flowers. 
He  chose  this  name  for  two  reasons:  First,  be- 
cause the  country  presented  a  pleasant  aspect; 
and,  second,  because  he  landed  on  the  festival 
referred  to.  The  second  reason  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  have  more  weight. 

Fond  du  Lac  (Jdn-du-ldk'),  Wis.  French  adapta- 
tion "bottom  of  the  lake";  that  is,  "lower  end, 
the  foot." 

Fontainebleau  (JdN-tan-blo').  Originally  a  hunt- 
ing-seat called  Fons  Bleaudi,  but  now  a  town  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Marne,  France,  thirty- 
seven  miles  south-southeast  of  ]?aris.  The  palace 
was  from  the  Middle  Ages  one  of  the  chief  resi- 
dences of  the  kings  of  France. 

Formosa  (for-md'-sd).  Portuguese  for  "beauti- 
ful." 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  Named  (1794)  in  honor  of 
"Mad"  Anthony  Wayne,  a  Revolutionary  general. 

Fountains  Abbey.  A  Cistercian  monastery  of  the 
Fourteenth  Century,  near  Ripon,  England,  now 
the  largest  and  most  picturesque  of  English  eccle- 
siastical ruins. 

Fox  Islands,  Lake  Michigan.  From  translation 
of  the  Indian  name  Annemosine,  "place  of  the 
young  fox";  annemose,  "a  young  fox";  ink,  "a 
place." 

Fox  River,  III.  Application  of  its  Indian  name 
Meshdeke  Wakpa,  "river  of  the  foxes." 

France  (Jr&ns.  French,  frans).  Country  of  the 
Franks,  or,  as  the  Germans  call  it,  Frankreich,  i.  e., 
"Kingdom  of  the  Franks."  All  western  nations 
were  styled  Franks  by  the  Turks  and  Orientals,  and 
anything  brought  to  them  from  the  west  invariably 
merited  a  prenomen  descriptive  of  its  origin,  as,  for 
example,  frankincense,  by  which  was  meant  incense 
brought  from  the  country  of  the  Franks. 

Frances.  Female  name  formed  from  Francis, 
"free."  Danish,  Francisca;  Dutch,  Francisca;  Fr., 
Francoise;  Ger.,  Francisca;  It.,  Francesca;  Lat., 
Francesca,  or  Francisca;   Sw.,  Franciska. 

Francis  (fr&n'-sls).  From  the  Latin  Franciscus, 
which  has  been  rendered,  "one  who  had  visited  the 
Franks";  also,  "free."  Danish,  Frants,  or  Fran- 
ciscus; Dutch.  Franciscus;  Fr.,  Frangois;  Ger., 
Franz;  It.,  Francesco;  Port.,  Francisco;  Sp., 
Francisco;  Sw.,  Frans. 

Franconia  (Jr&ng-ko' -nl-d) .  German  province 
inhabited  by  the  Franks,  so  called  from  the  franca, 
a  kind  of  javelin  which  they  carried. 

Franli.  A  baptismal  name  corrupted  from 
Francis. 

Frankfort,  Ky.  Its  cpunty,  Franklin,  was 
named  in  honor  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  when 
its  capital  was  created,  a  composite  word  further 
commemorating  the  honor  was  adopted,  Frank, 
diminutive  of  Franklin;  fort,  meaning  "town"; 
"town  of  Franklin." 

Frascati  (Jras-ka'-te).  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Rome,  Italy,  twelve  miles  southeast  of  Rome, 
celebrated  for  its  villas.  There  are  remains  of  a 
Roman  amphitheater,  and  of  a  small  but  very 
perfect  Roman  theater,  in  which  much  of  the  stage- 
structure  survives. 

Frederick  (frcd'-er-lk).  The  same  as  the  Old 
German  name  Friderich,  Fridorich,  Fridurih. 
Junius  translates  the  two  latter  "rich  or  powerful 
in  peace."  The  more  probable  etymology  is  from 
frid-reich,    "powerful    protector."     Danish,    Fred- 


816 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


erik;  Dutch,  Frederik;  Fr.,  Frederic;  Ger.,  Fried- 
rich;  It.,  Frederico,  or  Federigo;  Lat.,  Fredericus; 
Port.,  Frederico;  Sp.,  Frederico;  Sw.,  Frederick. 

Fredericksburg,  Va.  Name  adopted  1727,  in 
honor  of  Prince  Frederick,  father  of  George  III. 

French  Broad.  River  in  North  Carolina,  so 
named  because  the  country  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
was  held  by  the  French,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties. Others  hold  that  the  river  was  named  by  a 
party  of  hunters  for  their  captain,  whose  name  was 
P'rench.  The  latter  part  of  the  name  is  used 
descriptively. 

Friday.  So  named  because  alloted  to  Frigga, 
the  wife  of  Odin,  and  the  goddess  of  marriage. 

Friendly  Islands.  So  named  on  account  of  the 
friendly  disposition  of  the  natives. 

Fuji-yama  (foo'-je-ya'-md).  An  extinct  volcano 
and  the  highest  mountain  of  Japan,  situated  seventy 
miles  west-southwest  of  Tokio,  and  meaning  "great 
mountain."  There  has  been  no  eruption  since  1707. 
It  is  a  resort  of  pilgrims,  and  figures  largely  in 
Japanese  art  and  legend. 

Fumess  (Jer'-n&s)  Abbey.  The  extensive  ruins 
of  Furness  Abbey  are  among  the  most  picturesque 
of  English  medieval  remains.  A  large  part  of  the 
fine  church  survives  almost  complete  except  the 
vaulting,  and  there  is  a  beautiful  early  English 
chapter-house.  The  entrance  to  the  ivy-draped 
cloisters  is  by  three  superb  deeply  recessed  Norman 
arches. 

Gabriel  (gd'-brK-Sl).  From  the  Hebrew,  Gab- 
riyel,  "man  of  God,"  "strength  of  God,"  or,  ac- 
cording to  some,  the  "hero  of  God."  Arabic, 
Jabrayil,  or  Jabrail;  i'V.,  Gabriel;  Ger.,  Gabriel;  It., 
Gabriele;  Lat.,  Gabriel;  Sw.,  Gabriel. 

Galena  {gd-le'-nd),  lU.  Name  inherited  from  its 
mines  of  lead.     Latin,  galena,  "lead  ore." 

Galilee  {gSl'-i4e).  In  the  Roman  period,  the 
northernmost  division  of  Palestine.  It  now  be- 
longs to  Turkey.  The  name  means  the  "circuit" 
or  "district  of  the  Gentiles,"  so  called  by  the 
Hebrews  because  largely  inhabited  by  Sidonians. 

Galveston  (gSl'-ves-tun).  County  and  city  in 
Texas,  named  for  Don  Jose  Galvez,  Spanish  viceroy 
of  Texas,  who,^  in  1779,  established  a  colony  on  this 
island,  and,  in  1797,  was  proclaimed  king  by  the 
people  of  Mexico. 

Gamaliel  (gd-nid'-ll-^l).  From  the  Hebrew, 
Gamliyel,  "the  gift,  or  benefit  of  God." 

Gambler  (gdni'-ber).  Village  in  Knox  County, 
Ohio,  named  for  Lord  James  Gambler,  a  British 
admiral,  who  was  a  benefactor  of  Kenyon  College, 
located  at  this  place. 

Ganges  (g&n'-jez).  The  Greek  transformation  of 
the  name  of  the  great  Indian  river.  Handed  on  to 
the  Romans  and  then  to  the  Portuguese,  it  has 
been  generally  adopted  throughout  Europe  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Indian  name  Ganga,  which  signi- 
fies a  "stream"  or  "flowing  water." 

Garden  of  the  Gods.  Locality  near  Pike's  Peak, 
Colorado.  Lewis  N.  Tappan  and  three  others  went 
from  Denver  to  select  a  site  for  a  town.  They 
stood  upon  a  rocky  prominence  and  exclaimed, 
"A  fit  garden  for  the  gods,"  hence  the  name. 

Gasconade  (g&s-ko-ildd')  River,  Mo.  Adopted 
by  settlers  as  a  memento  of  their  Gasconade  of 
France.     The  word  translated  means  "a  boaster." 

Gaston.  A  name  of  French  origin,  probably 
from  the  French  gaston,  "baton." 

Gaul.  The  name  by  which  France  was  known 
to  the  Romans.  It  was  .known  to  the  Greeks  as 
Galaiia,  from  which  the  Romans  derived  Gallia, 
"the  land  of  the  Galli,"  or  Gauls.  {Keltic,  Gael- 
tachd;    O.  Fr.,  Gaule.) 

Genoa  ijen'-o-d).  The  English  form  of  the 
Italian  Genova,  probably  from  the  same  roots  as 
Geneva,  from  the  Celtic  genava,  "mouth  "  or  "jaw." 

Geoffrey  (j^f'-rl),  or  Geffrey.  Sometimes  trans- 
lated "God's  peace  or  joyful  peace."  The  name 
has  been  corrupted  from  Galfrid  for  Waif  rid;   from 


Old  German  walt-frid,  "powerful  protector.** 
Danish,  Galfred;  Dutch,  Godfried;  Fr.,  Geoffroy; 
It.,  Gioffreddo;   Lat.,  Galfridus. 

George.  From  the  Latin  name,  Georgius,  "  a 
tiller  of  the  ground,  a  husbandman,  a  vine- 
dresser." Danish,  Georg;  Dutch,  Georg;  Fr., 
George  or  Georges;  Ger.,  Georg;  Gr.,  Georgios; 
It.,  Giorgio;  Lat.,  Georgius;  Port.,  Jorge;  Sp., 
Jorge;  Sw.,  Georg. 

George,  Lake,  N.  Y.  So  named  in  honor  of  Eng- 
land's king. 

Georgeanna,  Georgiana,  Georgina.  Female 
names  derived  from  George. 

Georgetown.  Formerly  a  city,  now  a  part  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  named  for  George  Boone,  an 
Englishman,  who  purchased  several  tracts  of  land 
in  the  neighborhood. 

Georgia.  Named  in  honor  of  George  II.  of  Eng- 
land, who  here  established  a  colony  in  1732. 

Gerard  (jSr'-ard.  French,  zhd-rdr').  From  the 
Old  German  name  Gerhard,  Gerart;  from  gerhart, 
"very  strong."  Sometimes  corrupted  to  Gar'ret 
and  Ger'rit,  i.  e.,  "firm  spear."  Danish,  Gerhard; 
DutQh,  Gerard;  Fr.,  Gerard;  Ger.,  Gerhard;  It., 
Gerardo;  Lat.,  Gerardus;  Sw.,  Gerhard. 

German  Ocean.  Indicative  of  its  geographical 
position. 

Germany.  Known  in  ancient  times  as  Tronges, 
the  country  of  the  Tjingri,  a  Latin  word  .signifying 
"speakers";  but  the  Romans  afterward  gave  it 
the  name  of  Germanus,  meaning  "neighbors," 
originally  bestowed  by  the  Gauls. 

Gertrude  (ger'-trHd).  From  the  Old  German 
name  Gertrude;  from  gerdraut,  which  translates 
either  "very  faithfvil,"  or  "very  dear  or  beloved." 
Another  meaning  is  given  as  "true  spear."  Dutch, 
Geertruida;  Fr.,  Gertrude;  Ger.,  Gertraud,  or  Ger- 
trud;  It.,  Gertruda;  Lat.,  Gertruda,  Sw.,  Gertrud. 

Gibraltar  (jlb-rdl'-tdr).  Derived  from  Gibel  d 
Tarik,  ""the  mountain  of  Tarik."  Tarik  was  the 
leader  of  the  Saracens  when  they  entered  Spain  in 
711,  and  he  first  fortified  the  hill  as  a  base  of 
operations  and  a  ready  point  of  access  from  the 
Barbary  coast. 

Gideon  (gid'-e-on).  From  the  Hebrew  Gidhon, 
which  Tregelles  renders  "cutter  down,"  i.  e.,  "brave 
soldier."   .Fr.,  Gedeon;  It.,  Gedeone;  Laf.,  Gideon. 

Gila  (he'4d)  River,  Ariz.  Corruption  of  the 
Spanish  word  Guija,  meaning  "pebbly  or  pebble 
stone,"  applied  by  them  owing  to  this  local  charac- 
teristic in  its  waters. 

Gilbert  (gW-bert).  From  the  Teutonic,  Giselbert, 
"bright,"  or  "bright  as  gold."  Danish,  Gilbert; 
Dutch,  Gilbert;  Fr.,  Gilbert;  Ger.,  Gilbert;  Lot., 
Gilbertus;  Sw.,  Gilbertus. 

Giles  (plz).  Probably  derived  from  ^Egidus, 
from  Greek,  aigidios,  "a  goatskin."  Fr.,  GlUes; 
Ger.,  .lEgidius;  It.,  Egidio;  Lot.,  .^gidius;  Sp.,  Gil. 

Giorgio.     See  George. 

Giovanni.     See  John. 

Giulia.     See  Julia. 

Giuseppe.     See  Joseph. 

Gladys.  Most  probablv  a  Welsh  form  of 
Claudia.  It  is  derived  irom  the  Welsh  gwlad, 
which  now  means  "of  country,"  but  formerly 
signified  "a  prince,  a  sovereign,'  a  meaning  which 
still  survives  in  several  of  its  derivations. 

Glasgow  (glds'-go).  The  second  city  in  the 
British  Isles  was  called  Glas-gu  in  1301.  Numerous 
etymologies  have  been  proposed,  such  as  dais-dhu. 
the  "black  ravine,"  glaise-dhu,  "the  black  brook,' 
or  glas-coed,  the  "gray  wood,"  but  the  most  probable 
is  that  given  by  Professor  Rhys,  who  holds  that  the 
name  is  from  one  of  the  Gaelic  pet-names  of  St. 
Kentigern,  or  St.  "Mungo,"  around  whose  cell  the 
place  grew  up. 

Glastonbury  (glds'-tun-ber-i).  A  town  in  Somer- 
set, England,  twenty-one  miles  south  of  Bristol. 
Its  abbey,  founded  in  Roman  times,  was  refounded 
under  Ine  in  the  Eighth  Century.     Glastonbury  is 


MISCELLANY 


817 


associated  in  legend  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
who  is  said  to  have  visited  it,  and,  in  sign  of  pos- 
session, planted  his  staff,  which  took  root  and 
became  the  famous  Glastonbury  thorn  that  bursts 
into  leaf  on  Christmas  eve.  The  Isle  of  Avalon, 
where  King  Arthur  was  buried,  is  also  here. 

Godfrey  {g6d'-frl).  P>om  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"God's  peace."  Danish,  Gottfried;  Dutch,  God- 
fried;  Fr.,  Godefroi;  Ger.,  Gottfried;  It.,  Goffredo; 
Lat.,  Godfridus. 

Godwin  (gdd'-win) .  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"divine  friend,"  or  "victorious  in  God."  Dutch, 
Godewijn;  Lat.,  Godwinus. 

Golconda  (gdl-kdn'-dd).  A  place  in  India,  seven 
miles  northwest  of  Hyderabad.  It  is  noted  for  its 
fort,  for  the  mausoleums  of  the  ancient  kings,  and 
for  the  diamonds  which  were  cut  and  polished  here. 
It  was  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  from  1512  until 
its  overthrow  by  Aurungzebe  in  1687. 

Gold  Coast.  That  portion  of  Guinea  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  where  gold  is  found. 

Golden  Gate,  California.  Bay  in  California, 
named  by  Colonel  Fremont,  before  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  the  country,  because  of  the  brilliant 
effect  of  the  setting  sun  on  the  cliffs  and  hills. 

Golden  Gate,  Constantinople.  A  gate  in  the  wall 
of  Theodosius,  now  walled  up  because  of  a  Turkish 
tradition  that  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople  is 
destined  to  enter  through  it.  It  consists  of  three 
arches  between  two  huge  towers  of  white  marble. 
The  great  central  arch  was  reserved  for  the  passage 
of  the  emperor. 

Golden  House.  Palace  of  the  Emperor  Nero  in 
ancient  Rome,  which  occupied  the  valley  between 
the  Palatine  and  the  Esquiline,  and'  connected  the 
palaces  of  the  Caesars  with  the  gardens  of  Maecenas. 
It  was  built  after  the  great  fire  of  64  A.  D.,  and 
was  so  large  that  it  contained  porticos  2,800  feet 
long  and  inclosed  a  lake  where  the  Colosseum  now 
stands.  The  forecourt  contained  a  colossus  of 
Nero  120  feet  high. 

Gotliam  (go'-thdm).  At  one  time  the  term  was 
applied  to  a  parish  of  Nottingham,  England.  The 
people  here  were  famed  for  their  stupidity  and 
simplicity;  which  obtained  for  them  the  satirical 
appellation  of  the  "wise  men  of  Gotham."  Many 
nations  have  designated  some  particular  locality 
as  the  paradise  of  fools;  for  example,  Phrygia  was 
the  fools'  home  in  Asia,  Abdera  of  the  Thracians, 
Boeotia  of  the  Greeks,  Swabia  of  the  modern  Ger- 
mans, etc.  To  Americans  it  is  chiefly  significant 
as  a  colloquial  term  for  the  city  of  New  York. 
Thus  applied,  it  first  appeared  in  "Salmagundi,"  by 
Washington  Irving  and  James  K.  Paulding,  and  is 
supposed  to  hint  sarcastically  at  the  worldly  wis- 
dom of  its  inhabitants. 

Gothland  {gdth' -land) .  Indicated  a  settlement 
of  the  Goths. 

Gottlieb.     See  Theophilus. 

Governor's  Island.  From  its  former  Dutch 
owner.  Governor  Van  Twiller;  previously  called 
Nutten  Island,  Indian  name  Paggauck. 

Grace.  A  feminine  form  of  the  Roman  Gratius; 
from  gratia,  "grace,  favor,  good-will,  kindness." 
Dutch,  Gratia;  Fr.,  Grace;  It.,  Grazia;  Lot., 
Gratia. 

Graham  {gra'-dm,  gram).  From  the  Gaelic 
gruama,  "surly,  stern,  morose,  dark,  gloomy." 

Granada  (grd-na'-dd).  The  capital  of  the 
province  of  Granada,  Spain,  situated  on  the  Jenil, 
on  spurs  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  famous  for 
the  Alhambra  (which  see).  The  name  is  from  the 
Spanish,  Grronada,  "pomegranate,"  because  the  city 
is  built  on  four  hills  divided  somewhat  like  the 
divisions  of  a  pomegranate. 

Grand  Canal.  The  principal  canal  of  Venice.  It 
runs  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S  through  the  center 
of  the  city,  from  the  railway  station  to  Santa  Maria 
del  Salute. 

Grand  Manan  Islands,  Me.     A  compound  word 


meaning  "great  island."  English,  grand;  Indian, 
munnohan,  "the  island."     Also  spelled  Menan. 

Grand  Prix  (grdN  pre'),  Tlie.  The  great  horse- 
race at  Longchamps,  Paris,  established  by  Napo- 
leon III.  (prize  20,000  francs),  run  by  three-year- 
olds.  Longchamps  is  a  very  good  course  situated 
in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  first  used  for  racing  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XVI.  Races  have  been  run  here 
since  1859.  The  Grand  Prix  is  run  on  the  Sunday 
of  Ascot  week. 

Grand  Prix  de  Rome  (gran  pre'  du  rom).  A  prize 
given  by  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris  to  the 
most  successful  competitor  in  painting,  sculpture, 
engraving,  architecture,  or  music.  The  examina- 
tions are  held  annually^  and  the  successful  candi- 
dates become  pensioners,  of  the  government  for  four 
years.  They  are  sent  to  reside  at  Rome,  where 
Louis  XVI:  founded  the  Academic  de  France  in 
1666. 

Grasmere.  One  of  the  group  of  English  Lakes, 
meaning  "the  lake  of  swine." 

Great  Barrington.  Town  in  Berkshire,  Mas- 
sachusetts, named  for  William,  Lord  Barrington. 

Great  Bear  Lake.  So  called  owing  to  its  north- 
ern situation,  and  on  account  of  the  northern  con- 
stellation of  the  Great  and  Little  Bear. 

Great  Mogul.  An  extinct  title  borne  by  the 
chief  of  the  Moguls  of  the  empire  founded  in  Hin- 
dustan by  Baber,  Fifteenth  Century. 

Great  Salt  Lake.  Received  its  name  on  account 
of  the  saline  character  of  its  waters. 

Great  Tom.  A  bell,  weighing  about  17,000 
pounds,  in  the  tower  of  the  Tom  Gate  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  Every  night  at  ten  minutes  past 
nine  (closing  time)  it  is  tolled. 

Great  Wall  of  China.  A  wall  begun  by  the 
Emperor  Tsin  Chi-hwangti  214  B.  C,  and  finished 
204  B.  C  as  a  defense  against  northern  tribes.  It 
extends  from  Shanhaikwan  along  the  northern 
frontiers  of  Chihli,  Shansi,  Shensi,  and  Kansu. 
Length  about  1,500  miles. 

Greece.  The  modern  form  of  the  Latin  Grcecia, 
from  the  Greek  Graikoi,  a  name  originally  bestowed 
upon  the  inhabitants  of  Hellas. 

Greeley.  City  in  Colorado,  county  and  city  in 
Kansas,  and  county  in  Nebraska,  named  for  Horace 
Greeley. 

Green  Bay,  Wis.  Located  on  its  shores  were  a 
tribe  of  Indians,  whose  mode  of  life  was  so  filthy, 
when  first  met  by  the  French,  they  designated 
them  as  the  Puans  (puans,  "stinkards").  To  the 
bay  they  gave  the  name  of  Baye  de  Puans,  and 
transposition  through  pronunciation  carried  it  to 
Grand  Bay  and  Grun  Bay  to  Green  Bay. 

Greenland.  The  name  given  by  Eric  the  Red 
in  983  to  the  sheltered  nook  where  he  founded  his 
colony  from  Iceland,  thinking  that  "much  people 
will  go  thither  if  the  land  has  a  pleasant  name." 
The  name  is  not  altogether  unsuitable,  as  the  place 
chosen  by  Eric  for  the  settlement  which  he  named 
Greenland  is  the  pleasantest  spot  in  the  country, 
a  smooth  grassy  plain  at  the  head  of  Igaliko  fiord, 
near  the  modern  Julianshaab.  The  name  was 
afterwards  inappropriately  extended  to  the  whole 
ice-clad  country. 

Green  Mountains,  Vt.  Translation  of  the 
adaptation  of  the  French  name  "vert-monts." 

Green  River,  Ky.  In  honor  of  General  Nathaniel 
Greene  of  the  Revolution.  The  letter  e  was  origi- 
nally added  to  the  name  of  the  river. 

Greensboro,  N.  C.  Compliment  to  General 
Nathaniel  Greene,  he  having  had  a  victorious 
skirmish  at  this  locality,  during  his  famous  retreat 
in  1781. 

Green  Sea.  Otherwise  the  Persian  Gulf,  owing 
to  a  peculiar  strip  of  green  always  discernible  along 
the  Arabian  shore. 

Gregory  (grSg'-o-rl).  From  the  Latin  name 
Gregorius,  from  the  Greek  Gregorios,  "to  watch." 
The    name    means    "watchful."     Danish,    Gregor; 


818 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Dutch,  Gregorius;  Fr.,  Gregoire;  Ger.,  Gregor; 
Gr.,  Gregorios;  It.,  Gregorio;  Lat.,  Gregorius;  Sp., 
Gregorio;  Sw.,  Gregorius. 

Griffith.  The  English  form  of  the  Welsh  name 
Gryffydd.  Danish,  Griffith;  Dutch,  Rufinus;  LcU.., 
Griffithius;  Sw.,  Rufin. 

Grisons  (gre-zdn').  From  the  German  Grau- 
bunden,  "the  gray  league,"  so  called  from  the  dress 
worn  by  the  Unionists  in  1424. 

Grosvenoi>  {grov'-ner)  Gallery.  A  gallery  for 
the  exhibition  of  paintings  of  the  modern  a;sthetic 
school,  established  by  Lord  Grosvenor  in  New 
Bond  Street,  in  1876.  Pictures  were  received 
only  by  invitation.  The  exhibitions  have  been 
for  some  time  discontinued. 

Grosvenor  Square.  A  fashionable  square  in  Lon- 
don, east  of  Hyde  Park.  It  was  laid,  out  before 
1716  and  has  been  the  residence  of  many  famous 
men.  There  is  great  variety  of  styles  in  its  archi- 
tecture, and  it  is  noted  for  the  old  ironwork  and 
flambeau  extinguishers  before  many  of  the  doors. 

Guatemala  {g6-te-ma'4a.  Spanish,  gwa-ta-ma'- 
la).  Is  a  European  rendering  of  the  Mexican  quah- 
temali,  signifying  "a  decayed  log  of  wood";  so 
called  by  the  Mexican  Indians  who  accompanied 
Alvarado  into  this  region,  because  they  found  an 
old  worm-eaten  tree  near  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
kings,  or  Kachiquel,  which  was  thought  to  be  the 
center  of  the  country. 

Guglielmo  {g^l-yU' -mo) .     See  William. 

Guide  {give' -do).     See  Guy. 

Guildhall  (gUd'-hdl).  The  council  hall  of  the 
city  of  London,  founded  in  1411,  and  restored  after 
the  fire  of  1666.  The  great  hall  measures  153  by 
48  feet,  and  is  55  feet  high;  it  has  a  handsqme 
open-framed  roof,  modern  colored  glass  windows, 
and  the  two  legendary  colossal  wooden  figures  of 
Gog  and  Magog.  Along  the  walls  are  placed 
statues  of  famous  men.  The  crypt,  with  its 
cloistered  columns,  is  of  the  original  construction 
and  is  interesting. 

Guillaume  (ge-yom').     See  William. 

Guinea  (gin'-e).  A  native  West  African  term, 
meaning  "abounding  in  gold." 

Guinea,  English.  The  English  guinea  was  first 
coined  in  1673.  It  derived  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  gold  of  which  it  was  first  composed  came 
from  Guinea. 

Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  This  gulf  preserves  the 
memory  of  a  Dutch  captain  named  Carpenter,  who 
discovered  it  in  161G. 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Was  first  explored,  and  the 
navigation  of  the  long  river  of  the  same  name 
commenced,  on  the  Feast  of  St.  Lawrence,  1500. 

Gustavus  (g&s-td'-vus).  From  the  Swedish 
name  Gustaf,  which  some  translate  "Goth's  staff"; 
others  derive  it  from  the  Su-Goth  God,  "God"  or 
"good,"  and  staf,  "staff."  Gustaf  is  more  probably 
corrupted  from  Augustus.  Dutch,  Gustavus;  Fr., 
Gustave;  Ger.,  Gustav;  Lat.,  Gustavus;  Sw.,  Gus- 
taf. 

Guy  (gl).  Probably  derived  from  French  gui, 
"mistletoe,"  or  from  Guillaume  (William),  whence 
the  diminutives,  Guyot  and  Guion.  Danish,  Guido ; 
Dutch,  Guido;  Fr.,  Guy;  Ger.,  Veit;  It.,  Guido; 
Lat.,  Guido;  Sw.,  Guido. 

Gwendolen  igwen'-d64&n).  A  Welsh  female  name. 
Sometimes  translated  "the  lady  of  the  bow"; 
others  translate  the  name  "white-browed." 

Hackensack,  N.  J.  From  the  river  of  same 
name,  which  is  a  corruption  of  its  Indian  name 
haucquansauk,  "hook  mouth,"  from  its  shape  near 
the  mouth,  from  its  many  windings  before  it  empties 
into  Newark  Bay. 

Hadrian's  (ha'-dri-an)  Villa.  Now  simply  an 
assemblage  of  ruins,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Rome, 
near  Tivoli,  perhaps  the  most  impressive  in  Italy. 
It  included  the  Greek  and  Latin  theaters,  so  callecl, 
an  odeum,  thermae,  a  stadium,  a  palace,  several 
temples,  spacious  structures  for  guards  and  attend- 


ants, and  many  subsidiary  buildings  and  devices. 
Of  most  of  these  there  are  extensive  remains;  and 
here  were  found  many  of  the  fine  statues  now  in 
Roman  museums. 

Hadrian's  Wall.  One  of  the  most  noted  Roman 
antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  constructed  by  Hadrian 
between  the  Solway  Firth  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne,  for  purposes  of  defense.  The  work  has  been 
ascribed  to  Severus  and  others,  "but  after  a  long 
debate  the  opinion  now  prevails  that  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  defense  bears  the  impress  of  a  single  mind, 
and  that  the  wall  and  its  parallel  earth-works,  its 
camps,  roads,  and  stations,  were  designed  and 
constructed  by  Hadrian  alone." 

Hagar  {ha' -gar).  From  the  Hebrew  Haghar, 
which  some  translate  "flight";  others  render  the 
name  "stranger,"  from  gur,  "to  tarry,  to  be  a 
sojourner."  Arabic,  Hajar,  or  Hagar;  Fr.,  Agar; 
Lot.,  Hagar. 

Haidee  {hi-de').  A  female  name  which  Ste- 
phanus  renders  "sempiternus,"  i.  e.,  "perpetual, 
eternal." 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  Named  for  the  Earl  of 
Halifax. 

Hamlet.  From  the  Old  German  amal4aut,  "dis- 
tinguished for  spotlessness."  According  to  some 
the  name  in  Hamlet's  country  was  pronounced 
Amlet,  and  signified  "madman,"  but  no  etymology 
has  been  suggested  for  such  rendering. 

Hampden.  County  and  town  in  Massachusetts 
and  a  town  in  Penobscot  County,  Maine,  named  for 
the  English  patriot,  John  Hampden. 

Hampton  {h&mp'-tun)  Court.  A  royal  palace  on 
the  Thames  twelve  miles  from  Charing  Cross,  built 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Hampton  Court  is  most 
intimately  associated  with  James  I.  and  William 
III.,  and  was  a  place  of  imprisonment  of  Charles  I. 

Hampton  Roads.  A  channel  connecting  the 
estuary  of  James  River  with  Chesapeake  Bay, 
situated  south  of  Fort  Monroe,  Virginia.  Here, 
March  8,  1862,  the  Confederate  ironclad  "Vir- 
ginia" ("Merrimac")  destroyed  the  Federal  frig- 
ates "Cumberland"  and  "Congress";  and  the 
following  day  there  was  a  contest  between  the 
"Virginia"  and  the  ironclad  "Monitor,"  the  former 
retiring.  This  was  the  first  engagement  between 
ironclads  in  our  history. 

Hannah  {hdn'-nd).  From  the  Hebrew  Hannah, 
which  Simonis  translates  "gratuitous  gift,"  i.  e., 
"grace,  mercy."  Danish,  Hanne  or  Hanna; 
Dutch,  Hanna;  Fr.,  Anna;  Lat.,  Hanna;  Sw., 
Hanna. 

Hannibal  {hdn'-nl-bal).  From  the  Punic,  mean- 
ing "grace  of  Baal,"  or,  more  freely,  a  "gracious 
lord."   Fr.,  Hannibal;  It.,  Annibale;  Lat.,  Hannibal. 

Hanover  Island.  In  honor  of  the  house  of  Han- 
over. 

Hanover  {hdn'-o-ver)  Square.  A  sauare  in  the 
West  End  of  London,  south  of  Oxford  Street  and 
west  of  Regent  Street.  It  received  its  name  in  the 
days  of  the  early  popularity  of  George  I.  St. 
George's,  Hanover  Square,  is  noted  as  a  fashionable 
church  for  marriages  in  London.  The  square  was 
built  about  1731,  when  the  place  for  executions 
was  removed  from  Tyburn,  lest  the  inhabitants 
of  the  "new  square"  should  be  annoyed  by  them. 
It  contains  a  bronze  statue  of  William  Pitt  by 
Chantrey. 

Hans.     See  John. 

Hapsburg  {h&ps'-burg),  or  Habsburg.  In  Canton 
Aargau,  the  stamm-schloss  of  the  Austrian  dynasty, 
appears  in  an  Eleventh  Century  document  as  Ha- 
bechisburc,  "hawk's  castle."  According  to  the 
well-known  legend,  Radbot,  an  ancestor  of  Rudolf 
of  Hapsburg,  while  hunting  in  the  Aargau  lost  his 
favorite  hawk,  and  found  it  sitting  on  the  ridge  of 
the  Wulpelsberg.  He  was  so  delighted  with  the 
view  from  the  spot  that  he  chose  the  site  for  the 
erection  of  a  castle,  which  he  built  about  1020  and 
called  Habichtsburg. 


MISCELLANY 


819 


Hapsburg  Castle.     See  Hapsburg. 

Harlem  or  Haarlem.  In- Holland,  called  Hara- 
lem  in  a  Ninth  Century  document,  is  a  name  of 
doubtful  meaning.  In  Old  Saxon  we  have  lemo, 
"clay"  or  "mud,"  and  hara,  "an  estuary,"  and  the 
dialect-word  har  or  haar  denotes  a  rising  ground 
or  small  eminence.  Harlem,  now  a  suburb  of  New 
York,  stands  on  the  Harlem  River,  a  tidal  channel. 
With  Brooklyn  and  Hoboken  it  is  one  of  the  few 
names  surviving  from  the  time  of  the  Dutch  occu- 
pancy. 

Harold  (h&r'-uld).  The  same  with  the  Middle 
High  German  names  Ariold,  Harhold,  etc.,  which 
Wac  liter  translates  "powerful  in  battle,"  "a 
champion."  Danish,  Harald;  Dutch,  Herold; 
Fr.,  Harold;   It.,  Araldo;  Lat.,  Haroldus. 

Harper's  Ferry,  Va.  Robert  Harper  of  Oxford, 
.  England,  an  architect,  en  route  to  Winchester,  saw 
this  pass,  bought  land  here  and  formed  a  settle- 
ment in  1734.  Later  he  established  a  ferry  at  this 
point,  known  as  "Harper's  Ferry." 

Harriet  {h&r' -rl-et) .  From  the  German  Hen- 
riette,  "head  of  the  house."  Danish,  Henriette; 
Dutch,  Henrietta;  Fr.,  Henriette;  It.,  Enrichetta; 
Sp.,  Enriqueta;  Sw.,  Henrietta. 

Harrlsburg,  Pa.  From  its  first  settler,  John 
Harris  of  Yorkshire,  England,  founded  in  1785, 
subsequently  changed  to  Louisbourg;  in  1791, 
changed  back  to  Harrisburg. 

Hartford.  Name  transferred  from  Hertford, 
England,  to  many  places  in  the  United  States,  the 
capital  of  Connecticut  being  one  of  these. 

Harvey.  A  masculine  name,  from  Old  German 
her-wig,  "noble,"  "noble  soldier  or  warrior." 

Harz  (harts)  or  Hartz  Mountains.  In  Germian 
Harzgebirge,  were  called  in  the  Eighth  Century 
Hart  (Old  Saxon  hard.  Old  High  German  hart, 
"wood"  or  "forest").  The  present  spelling,  Harz, 
is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  folk  etymology  which  has 
made  the  name  into  Harzwald,  the  "forest  of 
resin"  (harz).  The  Hardt,  a  wooded  range  of  hills 
near  Carlsruhe,  is  the  "wood." 

Hatteras,  Cape,  N.  C.  Application  to  the  head- 
land made  by  early  English  navigators,  from  a 
tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  its  shores,  the  Hatterask 
or  ash. 

Havana  (hd-van'-d).  Capital  city  of  Cuba,  city 
in  Mason  County,  Illinois,  named  for  former.  The 
word  is  Spanish,  meaning  "harbor." 

Havre  (hd'-ver).  The  "haven"  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Seine  was,  before  1515,  merely  a  fishing  village 
with  a  chapel  dedicated  to  Notre  Dame  de  Grace, 
whence  the  official  name  Le  Havre  de  Grace.  The 
French  havre,  "a  harbor,"  is  descended  from  the 
Old  French  havle,  originally  hable,  which  is  derived 
from  the  Low-Latin  habuluin,  a  word  of  Teutonic 
origin  related  to  the  English  haven. 

Hawarden  {har' -den).  A  town  in  Flintshire, 
North  Wales,  sixteen  miles  south  of  Liverpool. 
Near  it  is  Hawarden  Castle,  once  the  residence  of 
Gladstone,  the  British  statesman. 

Hawthorn  den  {ho' -thorn-den) .  A  picturesque 
glen  or  valley  in  Edinburghshire,  Scotland,  eight 
miles  south  of  Edinburgh.  The  estate  of  Haw- 
thornden  was  the  property  of  the  poet  William 
Drummond. 

Haymarket,  The.  A  London  market,  estab- 
lished in  1644  on  the  site  now  partly  covered  by 
the  Criterion  restaurant  and  theater  and  Lower 
Regent  Street.  It  was  aboHshed  in  1830.  The 
place  is  called  Haymarket  Square,  or  the  Haymarket. 

Hayti  {hd'-ti.  French,  d-e-te').  A  native  name, 
meaning  "mountainous  country." 

Hebe  (he' -be).  A  female  name,  derived  from 
Hebe,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  or  of  Juno 
only ;  and  who,  being  fair  and  always  in  the  bloom 
of  youth,  was  called  "the  goddess  of  youth." 

Hebrides  {heb'-ri-dez).  Anciently  referred  to  by 
Ptolemy  as  the  Ebvdce,  and  by  Pliny  as  the  Heb- 
udes,  denoting  the  "Western  Isles." 


Hector  {hek'-tdr).  From  the  Greek  name  Hektor. 
The  name  signifies  "anchor,"  literally,  "what 
holds";  also  translated  a  "defender."  Fr., 
Hector;  It.,  Ettore;  Lat.,  Hector. 

Heinrich  {hln'-rlch).     See  Henry. 

Helen  {hel'-en),  or  Helena  {hel'-e-nd).  From  the 
Greek  Helene,  signifying  "a  lamp,  a  torch,"  hence 
"brightness."  '  Danish,  Helena;  Dutch,  Helena; 
Fr.,  H616ne;  Ger.,  Helene;  It.,  Elena;  Lat., 
Helena;  Sp.,  Elena. 

Helena  {hel'-e-nd),  Mont.  From  the  Latinized 
Greek  woVd  Helen.  John  Sommerville  suggested 
it  at  a  meeting  of  several  hundred  miners,  in  1864, 
as  a  name  for  the  settlement.  Opinions  differ, 
however,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  name,  for  by  some 
it  is  supposed  to  be  named  for  Helen  of  Troy.  The 
Helena  Historical  Directory  of  1879  says  it  was 
named  by  John  Somerville,  of  Minnesota,  St. 
Helena,  from  the  resemblance  in  its  location  to  that 
of  the  original  St.  Helena.  It  was  then  voted  to 
drop  the  prefix  Saint,  and  that  was  done. 

Heligoland  {hW -l-go-land) .  Now  a  German 
island,  expresses  the  Danish  for  "holy  land  settle- 
ment." 

Helsingfors  {hSl-sing-fdrs'),  in  Finland.  From 
the  tribal  name  of  the  Helsings,  and  fors,  "a  water- 
fall." We  have  cognate  names  Helsingland  and 
Helsingborg  in  Sweden,  and  Helsingor  in  Denmark. 

Helvetia  {hel-ve'-shi-d).  The  old  Latin  name  of 
Switzerland ;  often  used  as  a  poetical  appellation  in 
modern  literature.  The  country  is  often  mentioned 
as  the  "Helvetian  Republic,"  and  that  is  still  the 
official  name. 

Henderson,  Ky.  After  the  county,  which  re- 
ceived its  name  in  honor  of  Col.  Richard  Henderson. 

Heniopen  {h&n-ld'-pen).  Cape,  Del.  From  a 
Dutch  expression,  en  lofen,  meaning  "to  run  in,"  as 
indicating  the  place  of  entrance  to  a  bay.  Pre- 
viously named  Cornelius  by  the  Dutch  commander, 
Mey,  after  his  Christian  name. 

Henri  {dn-re').     The  French  form  of  Henry. 

Henrietta  {hen-ri-et'-td).  A  name  formed  from 
Henry. 

Henry.  Usually  rendered  "home-ruler,"  or 
"chief  of  the  house."  The  Gothic  name  is  Heinric, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Henric  and  Cynric,  and  the  North 
High  German,  Heinrich;  but  all  these  names  are 
the  same  as  the  old  Hunoricus,  from  kunreich, 
"illustrious  for  strength."  The  English  name 
Henry,  formerly  also  Henrie,  Henri,  Herry,  now 
Harry,  is  derived  from  the  Old  French  and  French 
Henri.  Danish,  Hendrik;  Dutch,  Hendrik;  Ger., 
Heinrich;  It.,  Enrico,  or  Errico;  Lat.,  Henricus; 
Port.  Henrique;  Sp.,  Enrique;  Sw.,  Henrik. 

Henry,  Cape,  Va.  Named  by  Adniiral  Newport 
in  April,  1607,  in  honor  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales, 
son  of  James  I.  of  England. 

Herat  (her-df).  Anciently  Aria-Civitas,  the 
town  on  the  Arius,  now  the  River  Heri. 

Herbert  {her'-bert).  A  name  derived  from  the 
Alemannic  Heribert,  Heribret,  Heripreht,  Old  Ger- 
man Aribert,  which  Wachter  derives  from  aerbert, 
"illustrious  lord."     Lat.,  Herbertus;   Sw.,  Herbert. 

Herculaneum  {her-kU-ld'-ne-um).  An  ancient 
city  of  Campania,  Italy,  near  the  coast,  six  miles 
southeast  of  Naples,  directly  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Vesuvius.  The  ancient  Greek  name  was  Herak- 
leion,  "city  of  Hercules." 

Hercules  {her' -kU-lez) .  From  the  Greek  Hera 
and  Kleos,  "glory  or  fame";  hence  the  "glory  of 
Hera."  Fr.,  Hercule;  Ger.,  Hercules;  Gr.,  Her- 
akles;  It.,  Ercole;  Lat.,  Hercules. 

Herman  {her' -man).  From  the  Teutonic,  mean- 
ing the  "leader  of  an  army."  Danish,  Hermann; 
Dutch,  Herman;  Fr.,  Armand  or  Armant;  Ger., 
Hermann;  Lat.,  Arminius;  It.,  Ermanno;  Sw., 
Herman. 

Hermione  {her-mi'-o-ne).  A  name  derived  from 
Herniione,  a  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  and  who 
married  Cadrtfus. 


820 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Hermitage,  The.  A  palace  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia,  founded  by  Catharine  II.,  originally  in  the 
form  of  a  pavilion  of  moderate  size,  but  rebuilt  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century  in  a  neo-Greek  style  of 
excellent  effect,  and  forming  one  of  the  best-designed 
museums  existing.  Also  the  name  of  the  home  of 
President  Jackson,  near  Nashville,  Term. 

Hero.  Female  name,  so  called  after  the  cele- 
brated Greek  name  Hero,  "one  raised  or  elevated." 

Herold.     See  Harold. 

Hester.     See  Esther. 

Hetty,  Hettey.  Female  names  derived  from 
Henrietta;  perhaps  also  from  Harriet. 

Hezekiah  (hez-e-kl'-d).  P'rom  the  Hebrew 
Hhizkeyyah,  from  hhezek-Yah,  "the  strength  of 
Jehovah,"  or  "cleaving  to  the  Lord."  Dutch, 
Hiskia;  Lat.,  Hezekias. 

Hleronymus  Qil-e-rdn'-l-miis).     See  Jerome. 

Highlands,  The.  A  district  in  northern  and 
western  Scotland,  of  vague  limits.  It  includes  the 
Hebrides,  the  counties*  of  Argyll,  Inverness,  Ross 
and  Cromarty,  Sutherland  and  Caithness,  and 
parts  of  Nairn,  Elgin,  Banff,  Aberdeen,  Kincardine, 
Forfar,  Perth,  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  and  Bute. 
The  inhabitants  are  mainly  of  Keltic  stock.  The 
Highlands  are  celebrated  for  romantic  scenery; 
they  contain  the  highest  mountains  in  Great 
Britain. 

Highlands  of  the  Hudson.  A  range  of  hills  and 
low  mountains  in  eastern  New  York,  in  Orange, 
Putnam,  Dutchess,  and  Rockland  counties.  Prom- 
inent points  are  Fishkill  Mountain,  Storm  King, 
Crow's  Nest,  Donderberg,  Anthony's  Nose,  and 
West  Point. 

Hilary  (hW-A-rl).  Derived  from  the  Latin  name 
Hilarius,  signifying  "pleasant,  cheerful,  merry." 
Danish,  Hilarius;  Dutch,  Hilarius;  Fr.,  Hilaire; 
It.,  Ilario;  Lat.,  Hilarius;  Sw.,  Hilarius. 

Hilda.  A  female  name  abbreviated  from  Ever- 
hilda;  or  derived  from  the  Lombardian  word  hild, 
"noble." 

Hilde brand  (hW -de-br&nd) .  The  same  as  Teu- 
tonic names  Hildehrand  and  Hiltiprant.  Translated 
"very  fervent,"  "hero,"  "leader,"  etc.  Watcher 
claims  the  name  to  be  the  same  as  Childebrand, 
from  child-brand,  which  might  be  translated  either 
"distinguished  youth,"  or  "distinguished  warrior." 

Himalaya  (hl-ma'-ld-yd).  From  the  Sanskrit, 
hima,  "snow,"  and  alaya,  "abode,  dwelling." 
Hence,  "the  abode  of  snow." 

Hindustan  {hln-do-stan' ,  hin-dd-st&n').  A  Per- 
sian term  signifying  the  country  or  place  of  the 
Hindus  or  Indians.  Hindu  is  the  Persian  form  of 
the  Sanskrit  Sindhu,  "a  dweller  on  the  Indus," 
which  means  the  river. 

Hoang-Ho'  Qio-ang-ho').  In  China,  this  is  the 
"yellow  river,"  which  borders  Ho-Nan,  the  province 
"south  of  the  river,"  and  flows  into  the  Hoang-Hai, 
or  "yellow  sea,"  so  called  because  discolored  by  the 
yellow  mud  brought  down  by  the  Hoang-Ho. 

Hoboken  (ho' -bo-kin) .  In  New  Jersey,  opposite 
New  York,  often  said  to  be  a  native  name  meaning 
"the  smoked  pipe,"  marking  the  spot  where  the 
first  colonists  smoked  the  pipe  of  peace  with  the 
Indian  chiefs.  It  is  more  likely,  however,  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  Dutch  village  of  Hoboken,  three 
miles  from  Antwerp. 

Hohenzollem  {ho' -en-tsdl-irn)  Castle.  A  castle 
situated  in  the  Swabian  Alp,  near  Hechingen, 
southern  Germany,  belonging  to  the  present  Prus- 
sian royal  family.  It  is  the  ancestral  home  of 
Emperor  Wilhelm  II.  of  Germany. 

Holland.  Supposed  to  be  derived  from  ollant, 
or  holtland,  "marshy  ground."  Taylor  gives  the 
translation  of  holtland  as  "woodland,"  that  is, 
the  forest  around  Dordrecht. 

Holyoke  {hol'-yok).  City  in  Hampden  County, 
Mass.,  and  mountain  in  same  county,  named  for 
Rev.  Edward  Holyoke,  an  early  president  of  Har- 
vard College.  . 


Holyrood  (hol'-i-rood)  Palace.  An  ancient  royal 
palace  of  Scotland,  situated  in  Edinburgh.  It  was 
originally  an  abbey,  founded  in  1128;  was  several 
times  burned  and  was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of 
Rizzio,  1566.  It  was  once  the  place  of  residence 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Homer.  An  English  baptismal  name  at  the 
present  time.  From  the  classical  name,  in  Greek, 
Homeros,  signifying  a  "pledge,  security,  hostage." 

Hondxu'as  (hdn-doo'-rds).  Spanish  for  "deep 
water." 

Hong  Kong  (hdng'-kdng').  The  place  of  fragrant 
streams. 

Honora.  An  Irish  female  name  derived  from  the 
Latin  name  Honor. 

Honoria.  A  female  name  derived  from  the 
Roman  name  Honoria,  the  feminine  of  Honorius; 
from  root  of  Honor. 

Hoc  sac.  River  in  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
and  Vermont.  Derived  from  the  Mohican  Indian 
luudjoo,  meaning  "a  mountain,"  and  abic,  "a  rock." 
Spelled  also  Hoosic  and  Hoosick. 

Hopatcong  (hd-p&t'-kdng).  Lake  in  New  Jersey. 
An  Indian  name,  meaning  "stone  over  water," 
because  of  an  artificial  causeway  of  stone  which 
connected  an  island  of  the  lake  with  the  shore. 

Hope.  Found  frequently  as  a  female  name. 
From  the  Anglo-Saxon,  meaning  "expectation." 

Horace.  From  the  classical  name,  Horatius, 
which  Littleton  translates,  "worthy  to  be  looked 
upon,  or  becoming  in  appearance."  Danish, 
Horats;  Dutch,  Horatius;  Fr.,  Horace;  Ger., 
Horaz;  It.,  Orazio;  Lat.,  Horatius;  Port.,  Horacio; 
Sp.,  Horacio. 

Horatio  (ho-ra'-shl-o).     From  the  root  of  Horace. 

Horatius  Qio-ra' -shl-iis) .     See  Horace. 

Horse  Latitudes.  So  called  because  situated 
between  the  trade  winds  and  the  westerly  winds  of 
higher  latitudes,  and  distinguished  for  tedious 
calms.  It  received  this  name  because  it  was  in 
this  portion  of  the  Atlantic  the  old  navigators 
often  threw  overboard  the  horses  which  they  had 
undertaken  to  transport  to  the  West  Indies. 

Hotel  des  Invalides  {o-tM'-da  z&n-vd-led').  Freely 
translated,  "Soldiers'  Home."  A  great  establish- 
ment founded  in  1670  at  Paris  for  disabled  and 
infirm  soldiers.  The  interior  possesses  halls  adorned 
with  interesting  military  paintings,  and  contains 
the  Musee  d'Artillerie,  which  includes  a  remarkable 
collection  of  medieval  and  Renaissance  armor.  It 
contains  also  the  tomb  of  Napoleon  I. 

Hotel  de  Ville  {o-tW-du  vel),  Paris.  A  celebrated 
building  of  great  size,  burned  by  the  French  Com- 
mune in  1871,  but  carefully  restored  and  much 
enlarged.  The  exterior  is  richly  adorned  with 
sculpture.  The  rooms  of  state  display  splendid 
sculptures  and  wall-paintings  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished contemporary  artists. 

Hottentot.  The  early  Dutch  settlers  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  were  much  struck  with  the  dick 
which  forms  such  a  distinct  feature  of  the  Caffre 
languages,  and  which  sounded  to  them  like  a  per- 
petual repetition  of  the  syllables  hot  and  tot.  From 
these  sounds  they  gave  the  natives  the  name  of 
Hott-en-tot;  en  in  the  Dutch  language  meaning 
"and." 

Housatonic  (hod-sd-tHn'-lk).  River  of  Massachu- 
setts and  Connecticut.  From  the  Indian  words 
wussi,  "beyond,"  and  adene,  "mountain,"  meaning 
"beyond  the  mountain."  According  to  other 
authorities  from  the  Indian  words  wassa,  "proud," 
aton,  "stream,"  and  ick,  from  azhubic,  meaning 
"rocks,"  the  whole  meaning  "proud  river  flowing 
through  the  rocks." 

Houston  (hUs'-tdn),  Texas.  In  honor  of  General 
Samuel  Houston,  the  first  president  of  the  Texan 
Republic.  This  name  is  borne  by  many  places  in 
the  United  States,  generally  given  in  honor  of  Gen. 
Houston,  among  them  being  counties  in  Minnesota, 
Tennessee,  and  Texas;  city  in  Chickasaw  County, 


MISCELLANY 


821 


Mississippi,  and  the  city  in  Texas  County,  Mis- 
souri. 

Hubert  (hu'-bert).  From  the  German  name 
Hugobert,  which  Wacliter  derives  from  hug-bert, 
"distinguished  for  memory  or  prudence."  Danish, 
Hubertus;  Dutch,  Hubert  us;  Fr.,  Hubert;  Lat., 
Hubertus;  Sw.,  Hubertus. 

Hudson  River,  N.  Y.  Named  in  honor  of  Henry 
Hudson,  an  English  navigator  in  the  Dutch  service 
who  ascended  the  river  in  1607.  He  called  it  "the 
Great  River,"  or  "Great  River  of  the  Mountains," 
from  the  extraordinary  circumstance  of  such  a 
body  of  water  flowing  through  the  mountains  with- 
out a  cataract.  The  Dutch  gave  the  name  of 
Mmiritus  River,  in  honor  of  Prince  Maurice,  to  the 
section  above  New  York  Island. 

Hudson's  Bay  and  Hudson's  Strait.  So 
named  after  their  rediscovery  by  Captain  Henry 
Hudson,  while  searching  for  the  northweist  passage 
in  1610.  Prior  to  this  date  the  Bay  and  the  Strait 
had  not  been  navigated  since  their  original  dis- 
covery by  Cabot  in  1512. 

Hugh  (hii).  Derived  from  the  Teutonic  hoog, 
or  hugr,  "high,  tall,  elevated";  also  translated  as 
"mind,"  "thought."  Daiiish,  liugo;  Dutch,  Hugo ; 
Fr.,  Hugues;  It.,  Ugo;  Lat.,  Hugo;  Sw.,  Hugo. 

Hulda.  A  female  name,  from  the  Hebrew 
Hhuldah,  signifying  "a  mole  or  weasel." 

Humboldt  (hUm'-bdlt.  German,  hdbm'-bolt) 
River,  Nev.  Named  by  General  John  C.  Fremont 
in  honor  of  Baron  von  Humboldt,  prior  to  which 
it  was  known  as  "Mary's  River,"  also  "Ogden 
River." 

Humphrey  (Jium'-frl).  The  same  as  Cundfrid, 
which  Wachter  translates  "illustrious  protector," 
or  "support  of  peace."  Dutch,  Humfried;  Fr., 
Onfroi;  It.,  Onofredo;  Lat.,  Humphredus  or 
Onuphrius;  Sw.,  Humfrid. 

Hungary  (hUng'-gd-ri).  Because  originally  in- 
habited by  the  Huns,  who  were  first  heard  of  in 
China,  in  the  Third  Century  B.  C,  as  Hiong-nu, 
"giants." 

Huron  (hu'-rdn).  One  of  the  Great  Lakes  of 
North  America.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  name,  whether  French  or  Indian,  and 
to  its  meaning.  According  to  some  authorities  it 
is  a  corruption  of  the  name  "Hure,"  given  a  tribe 
of  Indians  by  the  French,  the  word  meaning  "head 
of  a  wild  boar,"  applicable  on  account  of  their 
unkempt  appearance ;  another  authority  says  it  is 
derived  from  the  Indian  words  Ohkwe  honwe,  "true 
man";  by  others  to  have  been  corrupted  by  the 
French  from  the  Indian  Irri  roron,  "cat-tribe." 

Hyde  Park.  A  park  in  Westminster,  London, 
situated  two  and  one-fourth  miles  south  by  west  of 
St.  Paul's.  This  was  originallj'  the  manor  of  Hyde, 
belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  Westminster.  It  became 
Crown  property  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monas- 
teries in  1539.     It  contains  about  400  acres. 

Iceland.  Was  called  Snaland,  the  "land  of 
snow,"  by  the  Viking,  Naddodd,  who  discovered  it 
in  868.  On  account  of  the  ice-floes  which  then 
beset  the  northern  coast,  Floki,  who  followed  him, 
called  it  Island,  of  which  Iceland  is  the  English 
translation 

Ichabod  {ik'-d-b5d).  From  the  Hebrew  lykha- 
bhodh,  which  Simonis  renders  "inglorious." 

Idaho.  From  the  Indian  words  Edah  hoe,  de- 
scriptive of  the  sheen  on  the  mountains,  occasioned 
by  the  light  on  the  snowy  summits,  expressed  in 
English  "gem  of  the  mountains,"  or,  literally, 
the  first  appearance  of  the  sun  after  sunrise  on  the 
mountain  tops. 

Iddo.  Male  name  from  the  Hebrew'  Iddo,  signi- 
fying "love  of  Him,"  i.  e.,  of  the  Lord. 

Ignatius  {tg-naf-shl-us).  From  the  Greek  Igna- 
h'os,  "ardent,  fiery."  Dwte/i,  Ignatius;  i^r.,  Ignace; 
Ger.,  Ignaz,  or  Ignatius;  Gr.,  Ignatios;  It.,  Ignacio; 
Lot.,  Ignatius;  <Sp.,  Ignacio,  or  Inigo. 

He    de    France   {el-du-frans') ,    "Isle  of  France." 


An  ancient  government  of  France.  It  was  the  por- 
tion of  the  country  about  Paris  that  was  most 
completely  under  the  control  of  the  kings,  i.  e.,  the 
royal  domain. 

Ilium  {U'-t-um).  In  ancient  geography,  a  place 
in  Mysia,  Asia  Minor,  identified  by  the  Greeks  with 
the  legendary  Troy.  It  was  frequently  destroyed 
in  prehistoric  times;  was  rebuilt  by  Greek  colonists 
in  the  Sixth  Century  B.  C,  and  continued  (as  New 
Ilium)  to  late  Roman  times.  Its  site  has  been 
identified  by  Schliemann  at  Hissarlik,  about  100 
miles  north  by  west  of  Smyrna. 

Illinois  {U-Lln-oi',  U-tln-oiz').  State  of  the  United 
States.  One  authority  gives  it  as  a  combination 
of  the  Indian  word  Illini,  meaning  "men,"  and  the 
French  suffix  ois,  meaning  "tribe,"  "band  of  men." 

India.  Means  the  country  traversed  by  the 
Indus,  or  rather  the  Hindu,  which  name  is  a  Per- 
sianized  form  of  the  Sanskrit  Sindhu,  "a  great 
river,"  rendered  Hindos  in  the  Greek. 

Indiana.  From  the  word  Indian,  first  applied 
in  1768  to  a  grant  of  land  north  of  and  near  the 
Ohio  River,  which  was  obtained  that  year  by  a 
company  of  traders  from  the  Indians. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  Literally,  the  City  of  Indiana, 
from  Indiana  and  polis,  "city."  This  name  was 
proposed  by  Judge  Jeremiah  Sullivan  of  Jefferson 
County,  Ind.,  being  preferred  to  Tecumseh  and 
Suwarrow,  which  were  suggested. 

Indian  Ocean.  Indicative  of  its  geographical 
position. 

Inigo  (%n'-v-go).  Another  spelling  of  Innigo  or 
Enneco,  and  derived  probably  from  Ignatius,  or 
corrupted  from  Heinrich. 

Innocent  {In' -no-sent).  From  the  Latin,  meaning 
"harmless."  Dutch,  Innocentius;  Fr.,  Innocent; 
Ger.,  Innocenz,  or  Innocentius;  It.,  Innocente; 
Lat.,  Innocentius;  <Sp.  Inocencio. 

Innsbruck  (Ins'-prdbk).  Means  "at  the  bridge," 
on  the  River  Inn. 

Inns  of  Court.  Legal  societies  in  London  which 
have  the  exclusive  privilege  of  calling  candidates 
to  the  bar,  and  maintain  instruction  and  examina- 
tion for  that  purpose;  also  the  precincts  or  premises 
occupied  by  these  societies  respectively. 

Iowa.  A  French  form  of  the  Indian  word 
Ayuhba,  signifying  "the  drowsy  or  the.sleepy  ones." 
Written  at  first  Aioues,  and  applied  to  a  tribe  of 
Indians,  would  seem  to  be  simply  Ajawa,  "across, 
beyond,"  as  if  to  say,  "the  tribe  beyond  the  river." 

Ira  (j^'-ra).  A  male  name,  from  the  Hebrew,  Ira, 
"watchful." 

Ireland.  Was  the  Roman  Hibernia,  the  Greek 
lerne,  and  the  Keltic  Erin.  The  usual  explanation 
of  the  name  is  from  the  Keltic  iar,  "behind,"  and 
hence  "to  the  west,"  or  "western  isle." 

Irene  (l-re'-ne,  or  l-ren').  A  female  name. 
From  the  Greek  Eirene,  "goddess  of  peace,"  liter- 
ally, peace.     Fr.,  Irfene;  Ger.,  Irene;  It.,  Irene. 

Irish  Sea.  So  named  from  its  geographical 
position. 

Irmgard  or  Ermgard  {irm'-gdrd).  Anglicised 
form  of  the  Teutonic  Ermengarde  or  Irmgarde, 
meaning  a  "public  benefactor." 
■  Isaac  (I'-zdk).  From  the  Hebrew  Yitschhak, 
which  some  translate  "laughing";  others  "sport- 
ing." Arabic,  Ishak;  Danish,  Isak;  Dutch, 
Izaak;  Fr.,  Isaac;  Ger.,  Isaak;  Hungarian,  Izsak; 
It.,  Isacco;  Lat.,  Isaacus;  Polish,  Izaak;  Sw.,  Isak. 

Isabel  (iz'-d-bel),  Isabella  (iz-d-bel' -la) .  Accord- 
ing to  some  this  name  is  the  sarhe  as  Jezebel,  which 
Tregelles  thinks  may  mean  "without  cohabita- 
tion," i.  e.,  "chaste,"  "modest."  Another  deriva- 
tion is  that  it  is  the  same  as  Elizabeth;  but  Isabella 
is  rather  from  Isabel,  the  Spanish  rendering  of 
Elizabeth.  Dutch,  Isabelle;  Fr.,  Isabelle;  Ger., 
Isabelle;  It.,  Isabella;  Lat.,  Isabella;  Sj).,  Isabel; 
Sw.,  Isabella. 

Isaiah  {i-za'-yd).  From  the  Hebrew  Y'sha- 
yahu;  from  yesha-Yahu,  "the  salvation  of  Jehovah." 


822 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Danish,  Isaias;  Dutch,  Jezajas;  Fr.,  Isaie;  Ger., 
Esaias;  It.,  Isaia;  Lat.,  Esaias;  Port.,  Isaias;  Sp., 
Isaias. 

Ischl  (ish'l).  A  famous  watering-place  in  Upper 
Austria,  situated  at  tlie  junction  of  the  rivers  Ischl 
and  Traun,  twenty-seven  miles  east  by  south  of 
Salzburg.  It  is  the  favorite  resort  of  the  Austrian 
royal  family  and  nobility,  and  contains  salt  and 
other  baths.  It  is  the  central  point  in  the  Salzkam- 
mergut. 

Ishmael  (Ish'-ma-^).  Hebrew  for  "God  hath 
heard."  Arabic,  Ismaeel,  or  Ismail;  Fr.,  Ismael; 
It.,  Ismaele;  Lat.,  Ishmael. 

Isidore  (Iz'-i-dor).  from  the  Latin,  Isidarus, 
which  some  translate  "strong  gift."  The  name 
signifies  "gift  of  Isis."  Dutch,  Isidorus;  Fr., 
Isidore;    Gr.,  Isodoras;  It.,  Isidoro;   Lat.,  Isidorus. 

Island  of  Desolation.  Was  so  designated  by 
Captain  Cook  owing  to  the  absence  of  all  signs  of 
life. 

Isle  of  Bourbon  {boor'-biin.  Fr.  boor-bon').  When 
settled  by  the  French,  it  was  so  named  for  the 
Bourbon  family. 

Isle  of  Man.  Is  the  modem  designatkin  of 
Mona  Island,  by  which  was  meant,  agreeably  to 
the  Keltic  maen,  "a  stone,"  rocky  island. 

Isle  of  St.  Helena  (hel'-e-nd).  Discovered  on  the 
Feast  of  St.  Helena,  1502. 

Isle  of  Wight  (unt).  It  originally  denoted  the 
island  of  the  Wyts,  or  Jutes. 

Israel  (Iz'-ra-el).  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning 
"prevailing  with  God."  Fr.,  Israel;  Ger.,  Israel; 
Lat.,  Israel. 

Italy.  Was  so  called  after  Italus,  one  of  the 
early  kings  of  the  country. 

Itasca.  County  and  Lake  in  Minnesota,  into 
which  flows  the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
named  on  this  account,  Itasca,  from  the  two  Latin 
words  Veritas  caput,  "the  true  head."  Schoolcraft 
notes  derivation  from  ia,  "to  be,"  and  totosh,  "the 
female  breast,"  signifying  source  of  the  river. 

Ithaca  (Uh'-d-kd).  City  in  Tompkins  County, 
New  York,  and  village  in  Gratiot  County,  Michigan, 
named  for  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  supposed  to  be 
the  one  celebrated  in  the  Homeric  poems  as  the 
Kingdom  of  Ulysses. 

Ivan  (e-ron').     See  John. 

Jabez.  I'rom  the  Hebrew  Yabets,  which  Simonis 
renders,  "he  will  cause  pain,"  i.  e.,  to  his  mother. 

Jackson,  Miss.  So  named  in  honor  of  General 
Andrew  Jackson. 

Jacksonville,  F!a.  In  honor  of  President  An- 
drew Jackson,  named  in  1822. 

Jacob  Qd'-kdb).  From  the  Hebrew,  Yaakob, 
which  Tregelles  translates, " taking  hold  of  the  heel, 
supplanter,  layer  of  snares."  Arabic,  Yakoob,  or 
Ya'kub;  Danish,  Jakob;  Dutch,  Jacob,  or  Jakob; 
Fr.,  Jacob;  Ger.,  Jakob;  Hungarian,  Jakob;  It., 
Giacobbe ;  Lat.,  Jacobus,  or  Jacob ;  Polish,  Jakob ; 
Sw.,  Jakob. 

Jaffa  {j&f'-fd,  yaf'-fa)  or  Joppa  (j8p'-pd).  From 
the  Semetic,  Yapho,  "beauty." 

Jamaica  Q'd-md'-kd).  A  corruption  of  Xaymaco, 
a  native  West  Indian  name  signifying  "the  country 
abounding  in  springs." 

James.  A  name  corrupted  from  Jacobus. 
Danish,  Jakob;  Dutch,  Jacobus;  Fr.,  Jacques; 
Ger.,  Jakob;  Hungarian,  Jakab;  It.,  Giacomo; 
Lat.,  Jacobus;  Polish,  Jakub;  Port.,  Diogo,  or 
Jacobo;  Russ.,  Yakof;  (Sp.,  Jaime;  Sw.,  Jakob 
See  Jacob. 

James'  Bay.  Named  in  honor  of  the  memory 
of  James  I.,  in  whose  reign  it  was  completely 
explored. 

James  Kiver,  Va.  In  honor  of  James  I.  of 
England,  prior  to  which  it  was  named  the  River  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Indian  name  was  pawathanne, 
"river  of  pregnancy."  To  this  stream  Captain  John 
Smith  gave  the  spelling  of  "Powhattan,"  stating 
the  chief  took  his  name  from  the  stream. 


Jamestown.  Town  in  James  City  County,  Vir- 
ginia, named  for  King  James  I.,  and  the  first 
English  settlement  in  America. 

Jan  (Dutch,  ydn).  An  Anglo-Norman  form  of 
John. 

Jane.  From  the  French  name  Jeanne,  from 
root  of  John.  Dutch,  Hanna;  Fr.,  Jeanne;  Ger., 
Johanna;  It.,  Giovanna;  Lat.,  Johanna,  or  Joan- 
etta;  Sp.,  Juana;  Sw.,  Johanna. 

Janesville.  Town  in  Lassen  County,  California, 
and  city  in  Rock  County,  Wisconsin,  named  for 
Henry  F.  Janes. 

Janet  {jdn'-it,  or  fd-nW).    A  diminutive  of  Jane. 

Janiculum  {jdn-W-yU-liim),  or  Mens  Janiculus 
(mom  ja-nik'-u-ius).  Highest  of  the  hills  of  Rome; 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  extends 
south  from  the  Vatican,  and  is  opposite  the-Capi- 
toline  and  the  Aventine. 

January.  In  honor  of  Janus,  a  deity  who  pre- 
sided over  the  beginning  of  everything. 

Japan.  A  European  modification,  brought 
about  through  the  Portuguese  Gepuen,  or  Japao,  of 
the  native  Nippon,  or  Niphon,  compounded  of  ni, 
"sun,  fire,"  and  pon,  "land,"  literally  "sun-land," 
or  "land  of  the  rising  sun,"  and  signifying  "the 
fountain  of  light." 

Jaqueline  {j&k'-we-lln).  The  feminine  of  James. 
Fr.,  Jacqueline  {zhdk4en');  Ger.,  Jakobine;  It., 
Giacomina,  or  Giacobba. 

Jasper  (j&s'-per).  A  male  name  derived  from  the 
Arabic  yashm,  or  Persian  yashb,  the  precious  stone 
jasper;  hence,  "treasure  master."  Danish,  Jes- 
per;  Dutch,  Jasper,  or  Kasper;  Fr.,  Gaspard;  Ger., 
Caspar,  or  Kaspar;  It.,  Gasparo;  Lat.,  Gaspar; 
Port.,  Gaspar;  Sp.,  Gaspar;  Sw.,  Kasper. 

Java.  A  native  Malay  word  signifying  "the 
land  of  nutmegs." 

Jean.  A  female  name  derived  from  the  French 
name  Jeanne,  the  feminine  form  of  Jean;  from 
root  of  John. 

Jeanne.     See  Jane. 

Jeannette  {je-net').     See  Jenet. 

Jedidiah  {jM-e-dl' -d) .  The  Hebrew  Y'dhiyd- 
hyah,  from  yadhaydh,  "beloved  of  Jehovah." 

Jefferson  City,  Mo.  In  honor  of  President 
Thomas  Jefferson. 

Jenet  Q'e-nit').  The  diminutive  of  Jane.  Fr., 
Jeannette;  It.,  Giovannetta;  Lat.,  Joanetta. 

Jephthah  Q'Sf'-thd).  From  the  Hebrew,  mean- 
ing, a  "discoverer."     Fr.,  Jepht6;    Lat.,  Jephtha. 

Jeremiah  (jer-e-ml'-d),  or  Jeremy  (jer'-e-ml). 
From  the  Hebrew  Yirm-Yah,  which  Simonis  renders 
"elevated  of  the  Lord."  Danis/i,  Jeremias;  Dutch, 
Jeremias;  Fr.,  Jer6mie;  Ger.,  Jeremias;  It., 
Geremia;  Lat.,  Jeremias;  Sw.,  Jeremias. 

Jerome  Q'Sr'-dm  or  je-rom').  A  name  cor- ' 
rupted  from  Hieronymus,  "holy  law,"  or  "sa- 
cred name."  Danish,  Jeronymus;  Dutch,  Hier- 
onymus; Fr.,  Jerome;  Ger.,  Hieronymus;  It., 
Geronimo,  or  Girolamo;  Lat.,  Hieronymus; 
Port.,  Hieronimo;  .Sp.,  Geronimo;  Sw.,  Hierony- 
mus. 

Jerry.     A  male  name,  corrupted  from  Jeremiah. 

Jersey.  Was  originally  Czar-ey,  meaning 
"Caesar's  Island,"  so  called  by  the  Romans  in 
honor  of  Julius  Csesar. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.  Originally  incorporated,  1829, 
and  named  after  the  State  as  the  "City  of  Jersey." 
In  1851,  under  a  new  charter,  the  name  was  trans- 
posed. 

Jerusalem  (je-rv/ -sd-l^m) .  This  name  means, 
"foundation  of  peace."  It  is  derived  from  the 
Hebrew,  yarah,  "a  foundation,"  and  shalaim,  or 
shalem,  "peace,  perfect,  whole." 

Jesse  (fSs'-se).  From  the  Hebrew  Yishay,  from 
yesh,  "wealth."  Others  render  the  name  "graft." 
If  so,  it  comes  from  yash,  "being,  existence." 

Jessica.  A  female  name,  probably  a  diminutive 
of  Jessie. 

Jessie.     A     female     name.     Like     the     French 


MISCELLANY 


823 


masculine    name    Joan,     formerly    from    root    of 
John. 

Job  (job).  From  the  Hebrew  lyyobh,  "the  per- 
secuted" (man),  hence,  "sorrowing."  Arabic, 
Aiyoob,  or  Ayyub ;  JPr.,  Job;  Ger.,  Hiob;  Gr.,  lob; 
It.,  Giobbe;  Lat.,  Job,  or  Jobus;  Sw.,  Job. 

Joel  {jo' -el).  Means,  "acquiescing."  Fr.,  Joel; 
Lat.,  Joel. 

Johanna.     A  female  name  derived  from  John. 

John.  From  the  Hebrew,  Y'hohhanan,  variously 
translated,  "the  Lord  gave  graciously";  "whom 
Jehovah  gave";  "whom  Jehovah  bestowed." 
Danish,  Johann,  or  Hans;  Dutch,  Jan;  Fr.,  Jean; 
Ger.,  Johann  (familiarly  Hans,  a  contraction  of 
Johannes);  Gr.,  loannes;  Hungarian,  Janos;  It., 
Giovanni;  Lat.,  Joannes,  or  Johannes;  Pol.,  Jan; 
Port.,  Joao;  Russ.,  Ivan;  Sp.,  Juan;  Sw.,  Johan, 
or  Hans. 

Johnstown,  Pa.  City  and  borough  in  Cambria 
County,  Pennsylvania,  named  for  an  early  settler, 
Joseph  Jahns  or  Yahns. 

Johnstown,  N.  T.  City  in  Fulton  County,  New 
York,  named  for  its  founder.  Sir  William  Johnson. 

Joliet  {jd'4i-€t).  111.  Named  after  the  French 
explorer,  Louis  Joliet. 

Jonah  {jo'-nA),  or  Jonas  (jo'-nas).  From  the 
Hebrew  Yonah,  "a  dove"  ;  perhaps  given  as  a  term 
of  endearment.  Fr^,  Jonas;  Ger.,  Jonas;  Lat., 
Jonas. 

Jonathan  (jon'-d-than).  From  the  Hebrew 
Y'honathan,  "  the  Lord  gave,  or  given  by  Jehovah." 
Fr.,  Jonathan;  Lat.,  Jonathan. 

Jordan.  The  Hebrew  name  is  yarden,  which 
Robinson  translates  "the  flowing,"  "the  river," 
like  the  German,  Rhein,  from  rinnen. 

Joseph  (jo'-sef).  From  the  Hebrew  Yosheph, 
signifj'ing  "he  shall  add."  Fr.,  Joseph;  Ger., 
Joseph;  Hungarian,  Jozsef;  It.,  Giuseppe;  Lat., 
Josephus;_  Polish,  Jozef;  Port.,3os6;  Sp.,  Jos6; 
Arabic,  Yusuf. 

Josephine  (jd'-zef-ln).  The  feminine  of  Joseph. 
Fr.,  Josephe,  or  Josephine;  Ger.,  Josephe,  or 
Josephine;  It.,  Giuseppa,  or  Giuseppina;  Lat., 
Josepha. 

Joshua  ijosh'-u-d).  From  the  Hebrew  Y'hoshua, 
"whose  help  or  salvation  is  Jehovah,"  hence,  a 
"saviour."  Dutch,  Josua;  Fr.,  Josu6;  Ger., 
Josua;  It.,  Giosue;  Lat.,  Josua;  Sw.,  Josua. 

Josiah  (yo-sl'-d),  or  Josias  (jo-sl'-as).  From  the 
Hebrew  Y'shiyyahu,  "whom  the  Lord  gives." 
Danish,  Josias;  Dutch,  Jozias;  Fr.,  Josias;  It., 
Giosiade;  Lat.,  Josias. 

Juan  {ju-an' .     Spanish,  hoo-an').     See  John. 

Juan  de  Fuca  (jw'-dn  defu'-kd),  Strait  of ,  Wash. 
After  Juan  de  Fuca,  an  old  Greek  sailor  who  navi- 
gated its  waters  in  1592;  name  applied  by  Apostu- 
lus  Valerianos. 

Juan  Fernandez  {ju'-an  fer-n&n'-dez.  Spanish, 
hoo-an' -fer-nan'-deth).  Also  known  as  Selkirk's 
Island,  after  Alexander  Selkirk,  its  solitary  inhabit- 
ant from  September,  1704,  to  February,  1707; 
perpetuates  the  name  of  its  discoverer  in  the  year 
1567. 

Judah  (ju'-dd),  Judas  {ju'-das),  Jude  {]ud). 
Hebrew,  meaning  "confession."  Fr.,  Juda,  or 
Jude;  Ger.,  Judas;  Hungarian,  Juda;  It.,  Giuda; 
Lat.,  Judas;  Polish,  Judas;  Sw.,  Judas. 

Judith  iju'-dlth).  From  the  Hebrew  Y'hudhiyth, 
"in  the  Jewish  tongue,"  also,  "praising."  It., 
Giuditta;  Lat.,  Juditha. 

Julia  (]u'-li-d  or  jul'-yd).  The  feminine  of  Julius. 
Dutch,  Julia;  Fr.,  Julie;  Ger.,  Juhe;  It,  Giulia; 
Lat.,  Julia;  Sp.,  Juha;  Sw.,  Juha. 

Julian'  {ju'-ll-an  or  jul'-y&n) .  A  name  derived  from 
the  Latin  Julianus,  formed  from  Julius.  Julian 
is  a  feminine  as  well  as  a  masculine  name.  Dutch, 
JuUanus;  Fr.,  JuUen;  Ger.,  Julian;  It.,  Giuliano; 
Lat.,  Julianus;  Port.,  JuHao;  Sp.,  Julian,  or  Juhano; 
Sw.,  Julian. 

Juliana    (ju,-li-dn'-d).     A  female   name   derived 


from  Julian.  Dutch,  Juliana;  Fr.,  Julienne;  Ger., 
Juliane;  /^,  Giuliana;  La<.,  Juliana;  Por^,  Juliana; 
Sp.,  Juliana;  Sw.,  Juliana.  , 

Jullen.     See  Julian. 

Julienne.     See  Julia. 

Juliet  Q'u'41-et).  A  diminutive  formed  from 
Julia. 

Julius  (ja'-ll-us).  The  Roman  name,  said  to  be 
derived  from  Julius  or  lulus,  "sprung  from  lulus." 
Dutch,  Julius;  Fr.,  Jules;  Ger.,  Juhus;  It.,  Giulio; 
Lat.,  Julius;  Port.,  Julio;  Sp.,  Julio. 

July.  The  name  given  to  this  month  by  Marc 
Antony  in  honor  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  was  born  in  it. 

June.     From  Juno,  the  queen  goddess. 

Jungfrau  {yobng'-frow)  Mountain.  A  noted  Al- 
pine peak,  "the  maiden,  or  the  fair  one,"  so  called 
from  its  spotless  white. 

Juniata  (iH-ni-dt'-d)  River,  Penn.  Named  from 
a  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  its  banks,  extinguished 
by  the  Iroquois.  The  root  of  the  word  means  "a 
stone."  Onajutta-haga,  "the  Juniata  people,"  is 
the  name  found  on  early  maps. 

Justin  (jus' -tin).  A  masculine  name  derived 
from  the  Roman,  Justinus,  formed  from  Justus. 

Justina  ijus-tl' -nd) .  A  feminine  name  formed 
from  Justin. 

Jutland.     Means  the  land  of  the  Jutes. 

Kaaba,  or  Caaba  ika'-d-bd).  A  cube-shaped, 
flat-roofed  building  in  the  center  of  the  Great 
Mosque  at  Mecca:  the  most  sacred  shrine  of  the 
Mohammedans. 

Kaffraria  (Jcdf-fra' -^l-^d) .  Country  of  the  Kaffirs, 
or  "unbelievers." 

Kalamazoo  {k&l-d-md-zod') .  City,  river,  and 
county  in  Michigan.  According  to  one  authority, 
derived  from  the  Indian  word  Negikanamazo, 
meaning,  "otter-tail";  "beautiful  water"  and 
"boiling  water"  are  other  versions. 

Kanawha  {kd-nd'-wd)  River,  W.  Va.  From  a 
tribe  of  Indians  (branch  of  the  Nanticokes),  evolut- 
ing  in  its  spelling  through  Conoys,  Conoise,  Cana- 
wese,  Cohnawas,  Canaways,  to  Kanawha.  The 
stream  is  called  "the  Great  Conoway  or  Wood's 
River"  in  Wyman's  map  of  the  British  Empire, 
1770. 

Kansas.  From  its  principal  river,  adopted  in 
1854.  The  river  named  from  a  tribe  of  Indians, 
formerly  in  that  locality,  known  as  the  Konsos  or 
Kows,  the  word  meaning  "smoky  water." 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  The  name  given  in  the  spring 
of  1839,  at  a  meeting  of  the  "Town  Company,"  an 
organization  for  starting  towns  and  locating  steam- 
boat landings  on  the  Missouri  River;  the  name  for 
adoption  was  considered  in  connection  with  the 
Kaws  or  Kansas  tribe  of  Indians.  When  first 
adopted  the  name  was  City  of  Kansas. 

Karnak  (kar'-ndk).  A  village  in  Egypt,  on  the 
eastern  bank,  of  the  Nile,  on  the  site  of  Thebes, 
famous  for  its  remains  of  antiquity. 

Katahdin  Qca-ta' -din) .  Mountain  in  Maine. 
An  Indian  word,  Ktaadn  or  Katahdu,  meaning, 
according  to  different  authorities,  "highest  land," 
"big  mountain,"  "greatest  or  chief  mountain." 

Kathleen  {k&th-len').  An  Irish  diminutive  of 
Catharine. 

Kearsarge  {ker'-siXrj),  Mt.  Corruption  of  the 
Indian  keas,  "high,"  auke,  "a  place,"  "a  high 
place";  another  derivation  traces  it  from  the 
Indian  Koowassadchu,  "pine  or  peaked  mountain." 
Kenllworth  {Mn' -U-werth) .  A  town  in  Warwick- 
shire, England,  five  miles  north  of  Warwick.  The 
castle  is  one  of  the  most  admired  of  English  feudal 
monuments,  and  was  long  of  note  as  a  royal  resi- 
dence. It  has  been  immortalized  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott. 

Kennebec  (ken-e-bek')  River,  Me.  From  the 
Indian  quinninippiohke,  "long  place  of  water." 
This  was  the  Indian  name  of  Moosehead  Lake. 

Kennebunk  {ken-e-hUnk') ,  Me.  Similar  to  Ken- 
nebec, an  adaptation  of  another  pronunciation. 


824 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Kenneth  (kin'-nith).  The  English  forni  of  the 
GaeHc  name  Coinneach;  perhaps  from  caoin-neach, 
a  "kind,  gentle,  or  mild  man." 

Kenosha  (ke-no'-skd),  Wis.  Algonquin  deriva- 
tion from  kenose,  "long,"  meaning  "a  long  fish" 
(the  pike). 

Kensington  (kSn'-slng-tiin).  The  town  of  the 
Kensings,  the  old  form  of  which  was  the  proper 
name  Cynesige. 

Kent.  This  is  probably  derived  from  the 
ancient  British  word  chent  or  cant,  "a  corner," 
because,  says  Camden,  "England  at  this  point 
stretched  itself  out  in  a  corner  to  the  northeast." 
The  Roman  name  was  Cantium. 

Kentuclcy.  From  its  principal  river,  adopted  in 
1782.  Derived  from  an  Indian  word,  Kain-tuk-ee, 
"at  the  head  of  the  river." 

Keolculc  {ke'-o-kuk).  City  and  county  in  Iowa, 
named  for  an  Indian  chief,  the  word  meaning 
"running  or  watchful  fox." 

Kew  (Jiu).  The  name  of  this  place  has  under- 
gone many  transitions.  In  a  court  roll  of  the 
manor  of  Richmond,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
it  is  written  Kayhough,  and  in  subsequent  entries 
it  is  varied  to  Kayhowe,  Kayhoo,  Keyhowe,  Keye, 
Kayo,  and  Kewe.  The  name  is  probably  derived 
from  the  word  quay,  a  landing  place. 

Keweenaw  (ke'-we-nS)  Point,  Mich.  So  named 
from  a  portage  called  by  the  Indians  Keivauenau, 
meaning  the  "place  where  we  cross  by  land  carrying 
the  canoe." 

Kew  Observatory.  The-  central  meteorological 
observatory  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  at  Old  Rich- 
mond Park,  between  Kew  and  Richmond,  and  was 
built'  by  George  III.  for  the  observation  of  the 
transit  of  Venus  in  1769,  and  called  the  "King's 
Observatory."  In  1842,  it  was  handed  over  to  the 
British  Association,  under  the  name  of  "Kew 
Observ^atory."  In  1871,  it  became  the  central 
station  of  the  British  meteorological  office. 

Key  West.  City  in  Monroe  County,  Florida. 
A  corruption  of  Cayo  Hueso,  a  Spanish  word, 
meaning  "a  bone  reef  or  island";  the  place  was 
so  named  because  of  the  number  of  bones  found 
upon  the  reef. 

Keziah  {ke-zl'-A).  A  feminine  name  derived 
from  Kezia,  daughter  of  Job,  from  the  Hebrew, 
Kt'siya,  signifying  "cassia,"  a  bark  similar  to 
cinnamon. 

Khedive  (kd-dei/).  This  word,  from  the  Persian 
Khidiw,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  means 
"Prince." 

Kiskiminetas  {kls-ke-mXn'-e-tas)  Kiver,  Pa.  From 
an  Indian  phrase,  Kithanne,  translated, "place  of  the 
largest  stream." 

Kittatinny  {kU'-ta-fin^nl)  Mountains,  Pa.  The 
Indian  word  Kitadini,  that  is,  "largest  mountain." 

Kittery  (kW-ter-H)  Point,  Me.  From  the  small 
hamlet  of  Kittery,  England.  Kittery  Point  was 
settled  in  1623,  and  it  is  claimed  was  the  first  set- 
tled and  the  oldest  town  in  the  State. 

Knoxviiie,  Tenn.  After  Gen.  Henry  Knox  of 
Massachusetts,  secretary  of  war  during  Washing- 
ton's administration.  First  applied  as  Fort  Knox, 
subsequently  to  the  settlement. 

Kokomo  Qco'-ko-mo),  Ind.  An  Indian  word 
meaning  "a  young  grandmother." 

Konrad.     See  Conrad. 

Kremlin  (kr^m'-lin).  A  citadel  of  Moscow, 
Russia.  A  highly  picturesque  and  interesting 
inclosure,  about  one  and  one-half  miles  in  circuit, 
fortified  with  battlemented  walls  from  which  pro- 
ject cylindrical  and  square  towers,  many  of  them 
terminating  in  spires  behind  which  rise  the  multi- 
form domes  and  belfries  of  the  churches,  brilliant 
with  gold  and  colors.     It  was  walled  in  1492. 

Kiirdistan,  or  Koordistan  {koor-dis-tdn').  Means 
the  country  of  the  Koords. 

Kyrlc  (kerl).  A  masculine  name  derived  from 
Karl  or  Carl,  from  root  of  Charles. 


Laban  (Id'-ban).  A  masculine  name,  from  the 
Hebrew  Labhan,  signifying  "white." 

Labrador  (l&b-rd-ddr').  Bears  a  name  which  is 
believed  to  testify  to  the  early  maritime  enterprise 
of  the  Portuguese.  Hence  the  country  seems  to 
have  acquired  the  name  of  Terra  de  Lam-adores,  the 
"land  of  the  laborers."  According  to  another 
explanation,  Bradore  Bay,  formerly  called  Labrador 
Bay,  acquired  that  name  from  the  visit  of  a  Basque 
whaler  called  the  Labrador,  the  name  of  the  bay 
being  subsequently  extended  to  the  whole  coast. 

Labyrinth  {l&b'-l-rinth).  From  the  Greek  laby- 
rinthos,  "a  maze  of  intricate  passages";  especially, 
a  subterranean  structure  having  many  intricate 
passages.  Several  such  mazes  were  famous  in 
antiquity.  The  greatest  was  that  which  lay  near 
Lake  Moeris,  in  the  Fayum,  Eg3^t,  and  was  proba- 
bly built  by  Amenemhat  III.,  about  2300  B.  C. 
According  to  Herodotus,  it  had  3,000  halls  and 
chambers,  half  of  them  above  ground  and  half 
below,  and  twelve  covered  courts. 

Lackawanna  {l&k-d-w6n' -nd}  Creek,  Pa.  From 
the  Delaware  Indian  words  lechau-hanne,  "the 
stream  that  forks." 

La  Crosse  {Id  krds').  City  and  county  in  Wis- 
consin. A  JVench  name  given  to  the  town  because 
before   its  settlement   the  ground   was   a  favorite 

Clace  for  ball  playing  with  the  Indians,  the  game 
eing  called  by  the  French  "la  crosse." 

Ladrone  (Id-dron')  Islands.  So  designated  from 
the  circumstance  that  when  Magellan  touched  upon 
one  of  the  lesser  isles  of  the  group,  in  1520,  the 
natives  stole  some  of  his  goods;  whereupon  he 
called  the  islands  the  Ladrones,  which  is  Spanish 
for  "thieves." 

Lake  District,  English.  A  region  in  Westmore- 
land and  Cumberland,  England,  which  abounds  in 
lakes  inclosed  by  mountains.  The  district  is  a 
celebrated  tourist  center,  and  is  associated  with  the 
poetry  of  Wordsworth.  The  lakes  include  Winder- 
mere, Ullswater,  Derwentwater,  and  Bassenthwaite 
Water;  and  Skiddaw,  Helvellyn,  and  Scafell  Pike 
are  the  principal  mountains. 

Lake  Huron.     See  Huron. 

Lake  Micliigan.     See  Michigan. 

Lake  of  the  Woods.  Lake  in  Minnesota.  Origi- 
nally named  Lac  des  Bois  by  the  French,  "lake  of 
the  woods,"  because  of  the  heavily  wooded  islands 
in  the  lake. 

Lake  Ontario.     See  Ontario. 

Lake  Superior.  Denotes  the  uppermost  and 
chief  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Lake  Winnipeg.     See  Winnipeg. 

Lambert  {l&m'-bert).  Corrupted  from  the  Old 
German  name  Lamdbert,  Lantprecht;  from  land- 
brecht,  "one  distinguished  among  the  people." 
Dutch,  Lambert,  or  Lambertus;  Fr.,  Lambert; 
Ger.,  Lambert;  Lat.,  Lambertus. 

Lambeth  (l&m'-beth)  Palace.  The  London  resi- 
dence of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  situated  in 
Lambeth,  near  the  Thames,  one  and  one-half  miles 
southwest  of  St.  Paul's.  It  was  acquired  by  the 
archbishops  in  1197.  The  present  building  was 
commenced  in  the  Thirteenth  Century.  It  contains 
a  valuable  library. 

La  Moilie  (Id  moil')  Kiver,  Vt.  Discovered  and 
named  by  Champlain  as  la  mouette,  "the  mew  or 
gull,"  they  having  been  seen  in  great  numbers  on 
its  waters.  The  present  spelling,  a  corruption 
easily  traceable  to  not  crossing  the  t's  and  absence 
of  a  perfect  e. 

Lancelot  (l&n'se-ldt).  Sometimes  rendered  "ser- 
vant," or  "little  lance":  if  so,  the  bearer  was  so 
called  from  carrying  a  lance  or  pike.  The  name 
seems  to  be  a  diminutive  formed  from  Latin 
lancea,  "a  lance,  javelin,"  a  word  which  Varro 
thinks  of  Spanish  origin.  Fr.,  Lancelot;  Lai., 
Lancelottus. 

Languedoc  (Idn'-gwe-ddk.  French,  Id^'-gii-dSk). 
An    ancient  government  of    southern  France.     It 


MISCELLANY 


825 


was  named  from  the  language  of  the  South  of 
France ;    the  langue  d'oc,  or  Provencal. 

Lansing  {Ian' -sing) ,  Mich.  In  honor  of  Abram 
Jacob  Lansing  of  Rensselaer  County,  New  York,  a 
large  landholder  of  this  section.  Originally  called 
Michigan. 

Laporte  (Id-port').  County  in  Indiana.  A  French 
word  meaning  "door"  or  "opening"  between  two 
stretches  of  forest  connecting  two  prairies. 

Las  Vegas  {las  va'-gds).  City  in  San  Miguel 
County,  New  Mexico.  A  Spanish  name  meaning 
"the  plains,"  or  the  "meadows,"  and  given  this 
city  on  account  of  its  situation  in  the  midst  of  a 
fertile  meadow. 

Lateran  {l&t'-er-dn),  The.  Now  an  ecclesiastical 
palace  in  the  eastern  part  of  Rome.  The  present 
edifice  dates  from  the  Sixteenth  to  Eighteenth 
Centuries.  The  palace  was  originally  named  from 
the  Roman  family,  Lateranus,  to  which,  until  the 
time  of  Nero,  it  belonged.  Nero  put  the  last  owner, 
Plautius  Lateranus,  to  death,  and  appropriated  the 
palace.  It  was  given  by  Constantine  (who  also 
built  a  church  in  its  precincts)  to  the  Bishop  of 
Rome. 

Latltudinarians.  '  The  name  applied  by  con- 
temporaries to  a  school  of  theologians  within  the 
English  Church  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  It  grew  out  of  the  earlier  movement  in 
favor  of  a  more  liberal  constitution  for  the  Church. 

Laiineelot.     Another  spelling  of  Lancelot. 

Laura  {Id'-rd).  A  feminine  name  derived  from 
Latin  laurus,  "a  laurel  or  baytree,"  dedicated  to 
Apollo,  used  in  triumphs,  and  worn  by  emperors 
and  poets  in  garlands.  Laura  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  name  Daphne. 

Laurence,  Lawrence.  From  the  Latin  name 
Laurentius,  formed  from  laureo,  "to  crown  with 
laurel."  Danish,  Lorenz;  Dutch,  Laurens;  Fr., 
Laurent;  Ger.,  Laurenz,  Lorenz,  and  Laurentius; 
It.,  Lorenzo. 

Lauterbrunnen  {lou'-ter-broon-n^n).  A  valley  and 
parish  in  the  Bernese  Oberland,  Switzerland, 
thirty-three  miles  southeast  of  Bern.  It  is  noted 
for  the  Staubbach,  Trummelbach,  and  other  falls. 

Lavinla  {Id-mn'-l-d).  Formed  as  a  feminine 
name  from  Latinus,  mythical  Roman  King. 

Lawrence.     See  Laurence. 

Lazarus  {l&z'-d-rus).  From  the  Hebrew  El- 
azar,  "God  aids,"  i.  e.,  whom  God  aids.  Fr., 
Lazare;  Gr.,  Lazaros;  It.,  Lazzaro;  Lat.,  Laza- 
rus. 

Leadenhall  Street,  London.  Leadenhall  is  a 
corruption  of  Leather  Hall,  from  a  large  market 
for  leather  which  formerly  existed  there.  There 
are  still  some  remains  of  the  leather  market. 

Leah  {le'-d).  From  the  Hebrew  Leah,  signify- 
ing "wearied." 

Leander  {le-an'-der).  From  the  Greek  Leiandros, 
translated  "man  of  renown." 

Leavenworth,  Kan.  In  1820,  a  fort  was  estab- 
lished at  this  place  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment under  the  charge  of  Col.  Henry  H.  Leaven- 
worth of  the  3d  U.  S.  Regiment,  and  named  Fort 
Leavenworth,  about  which  a  town  formed  and  the 
fort's  name  was  applied. 

Leech  Lake,  3Ilnn.  Applied  from  the  meaning 
of  its  Indian  name  gahsuhgusgwah,  chemakang, 
"the  place  of  leeches." 

Lehigh  River,  Pa.  Corruption  of  the  Delaware 
word  lechau,  "a  fork,"  a  reference  to  this  stream 
being  one  of  the  forks  of  the  Delaware ;  also  trace- 
able as  applied  to  the  forked  piece  of  land  over 
which  the  Indians  made  a  portage  when  coming 
down  the  river. 

Lemuel  {leni'-u-el).  From  the  Hebrew  L'mud, 
from  Vmu-El,  "by  God,"  i.  e.,  created  by  God. 

Leo  {le'-d),  or  Leon  {le'-dn).  Latin,  "a  lion." 
Fr.,  L6on;   It.,  Leone;  Lat.,  Leo. 

Leonard  {len'-ard).  From  the  Old  German  name 
Leonhard,  "as  strong  as  a  lion."     Dutch,  Leonard; 


Fr.,  Leonard;  Ger.,  Leonhard;  It.,  Leonardo,  o. 
Lionardo;  Lat.,  Leonardus. 

Leonora.     See  Eleanor. 

Leopold  {le'-o-pdld).  Wachter  renders  this  name 
"bold  as  a  lion."  It  is  doubtless  the  same  name  as 
the  Old  German  Leopold,  Leupold,  Leodpold, 
LuitpoJd.  Fr.,  Leopold;  Ger.,  Leopold;  It.,  Leo- 
poldo;  Lat.,  Leopoldus. 

Letltia  {le-tlsh'-l-d  or  le-tish'-d),  or  Lettlce  (let'-tls). 
A  feminine  name  derived  from  Latin,  Icetitia,  "joy, 
gladness,  mirth."  Danish,  Lsetitia;  Dutch,  Lsetitia; 
Old  Fr.,  Letice;  Lot.,  Laititia. 

Levant  {le-vdnt').  Levant  means  simply  "the 
east,"  though  it  is  generally  confined  in  its  use 
to  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  the 
coasts  of  Egypt,'  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.  The  word 
is  Italian,  and  signifies  rising,  alluding  to  the  sun 
rising  in  the  east. 

Lewellln  (le-wd'^in) .  Means  "like  a  lion." 
Lat.,  Leolinus. 

Lewis  or  Louis  {loo' -Is).  Like  the  French 
name,  Louis,  corrupted  from  Ludovicus,  from  the 
Old  German  name  Ludung,  "illustrious  warrior," 
or  the  "fortress  or  defence  of  the  people."  Dutch, 
Lodewijk;  Fr.,  Louis;  Ger.,  Ludwig;  It.,  Luigi  or 
Lodovico,  or  Ludo  ico;  Lat.,  Ludovicus;  Sp., 
Luis;  Sw.,  Ludwig. 

Liberia  {ll-be'-ri-d).  Means  "the  country  of  the 
free."     It  was  colonized  by  emancipated  slaves. 

Llclilng,  Ky.  An  application  of  the  translation 
of  its  Indian  name  mahonink,  "the  place  of  the  lick," 
referring  to  buffalo  licks  on  its  banks,  now  the 
noted  Blue  Lick  Springs. 

Light  Brigade,  Charge  of  the.  A  celebrated 
charge  made  by  the  Light  Brigade  of  670  men, 
under  Lord  Cardigan,  the  British  commander,  on  a 
Russian  battery  at  Balaklava,  October  25,  1854. 

Lillian.  A  feminine  name,  from  the  Latin 
lilium,  "a  lily." 

Lima  {ll'-md.  Spanish,  le'-md).  Probably  from 
Lomnech,  "a  barren  spot."  Taylor  says  it  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Rimac,  the  Indian  name  of  the  plain  on 
which  the  city  stands. 

Limoges  {le-mozh').  From  Lemovicum,  "the 
dwelling  of  the  Lemovici,"  or  "dwellers  among  the 
elms." 

Lina.  A  feminine  name  derived  from  some  name 
ending  in  Una,  as  Carolina,  Catalina,  Paulina;  and 
perhaps  sometimes  from  the  Italian  name  Madalena, 
or  the  Spanish  Madelena. 

Lincoln,  Neb.  At  the  time  it  was  made  the 
capital  city  it  received  the  name  Lincoln  as  a  com- 
pliment to  President  Abraham  Lincoln,  having 
been  previously  named  Lancaster. 

Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  The  largest  square  in 
London.  It  is  near  the  junction  of  High  Holborn 
and  Chancery  Lane,  and  is  surrounded  by  lawyers' 
offices,  Lincoln's  Inn,  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  the  Soane  Museum.  It  was  laid  out  by  Inigo 
Jones,  the  celebrated  architect. 

Linda.  A  feminine  name  —  abbreviated  from 
Belinda. 

Lionardo.     Same  as  Leonardo.     See  Leonard. 

Lionel  {li'-o-nel).  A  name  formed  from  a  word, 
leonellus,  a  diminutive  of  the  Latin  leo,  "a  lion." 

Lion  of  Lucerne  (Ido-sern').  A  famous  piece  of 
sculpture,  by  Thorwaldsen,  commemorating  the 
heroism  and  devotion  of  nearly  800  Swiss  guards 
v/ho  died'to  save  Louis  XVI.,  in  the  attack  on  the 
Tuileries,  August  10,  1792.  The  colossal  figure  of 
the  crouching  lion,  transfixed  and  dying  but  still 
faithfully  defending  the  lilied  shield  of  France,  is 
carved  in  the  round  in  a  recess  in  the  face  of  an 
upright,  vine-draped  rock,  in  a  little  park  in  Lucerne, 
Switzerland. 

Lisbon  {Hz' -bun).  In  Portuguese,  Lisboa,  is 
derived  from  the  old  name  Olisipo,  supposed  to 
contain  the  Phenician  word  hippo,  a  "fortress," 
or  "walled  town." 

Little  Rock,  Ark.     A  local  application  from  the 


826 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


town  occupying  the  top  of  a  rocky  cliff,  which  is 
much  more  conspicuous  than  the  other  cliffs  of  the 
river  bank;  also  said  to  be  traceable  from  an  igneous 
slate  rock  in  the  river  bed  at  this  point,  visible  only 
at  low  stages  of  the  water. 

Livia  (llv'-l-d).  From  the  Roman  Livia.  Fr., 
Livie;  It.,  Livia;  Lat.,  Livia. 

Llano  Estacado  (la'-no  as-ta-ka'-do).  An  ele- 
vated plateau  in  northwest  Texas  and  New  Mexico. 
Spanish  words  meaning  "staked  plain,"  applied  to 
this  plateau  on  account  of  the  stake-like  boles  of  the 
yucca  plant  which  grows  there. 

Llewellyn  (lu-il'-lln).  From  the  Keltic,  mean- 
ing   "lightning." 

Lloyd's  (loidz).  A  London  Underwriters'  Asso- 
ciation for  the  furtherance  of  commerce,  especially 
for  marine  insurance  and  the  publication  of  shipping 
news.  It  originated  in  meetings  at  Lloyd's  Coffee 
House  about  1688. 

Lodovico  or  Lodovic.     See  Lewis. 

Lombard  (Idrn'-bard)  Street.  The  name  of  a 
street  in  the  city  of  London,  often  used  figuratively 
to  mean  the  banking  or  financial  world.  It  is  the 
quarter  wherein  the  money-lenders  from  Lombardy 
settled.  The  Lombards  were  an  eminently  com- 
mercial and  financial  people,  and  competed  with  the 
Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  capitalists  and  pawn- 
brokers. 

Lombardy  (I6m'-bar-dl).  The  country  of  the 
Longobardi,  so  called  from  a  kind  of  weapon  which 
they  used. 

London.  The  origin  of  this  name  cannot  be 
ascertained  with  any  certainty.  Its  most  probable 
derivation  is  from  Llyn-Din,  the  "town  on  the  lake." 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Essex, 
and  was  known  in  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy  as 
Lundenceaster. 

Long  Island,  N.  T.  Name  applied  by  the  Dutch 
in  reference  to  its  long  and  narrow  conformation, 
"Lange  Eylandt."  During  Governor  Fletcher's 
administration,  by  act  of  General  Assembly  of  New 
York,  1693,  the  name  of  Nassau  was  decreed  as  a 
Dutch  compliment  to  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau. 
It  was  not  favorably  received  by  the  settlers  and 
by  common  consent  they  used  Long  Island. 

Long  Island  Sound.     From  Long  Island. 

Lookout,  Cape,  N.  C.  Traceable  to  coast  cap- 
tains, that  when  this  land  was  seen,  to  be  on  the 
"look-out"  for  the  stormy  Cape  Hatteras  and  its 
long  shoals. 

Lora.  A  form  of  Laura,  which  occurs  as  early 
as  1208. 

Lorenz  or  Lorenzo.     See  Laurence. 
■  Loretta.     A  diminutive  of  Lora. 

Los  Angeles  (Ids  dn'-jSlSz.  Spanish,  Ids  ang'- 
hM-Hs).  Originally  called  by  the  Spaniards  Pueblo 
de  la  Reina  de  los  Angeles  (The  town  of  the  Queen 
of  the  Angels),  hence  Los  Angeles,  "the  angels." 

Lotty.  A  feminine  name  corrupted  from  Char- 
lotte. 

Louis.     See  Lewis. 

Louisa  {lob-e.'-zd).  A  comparatively  modern 
name  formed  from  Lewis.  Fr.,  Louise;  Ger., 
Luise;  It.,  Luigia;  Lat.,  Luisa;  Sp.,  Luisa;  Sw., 
Ludovika. 

Louise  (loo-ez').  A  French  name  formed  from 
Louis. 

Louisiana  (loo-e-ze-a'-nd,  loo-e-ze-dn'-d).  Named 
by  La  Salle  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France. 

Louisville  (loo'-l-vU,  loo'-is-vU),  Ky.  Name  given 
by  act  of  the  Virginian  Legislature  in  1780,  in  honor 
of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  then  assisting  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  in  their  revolutionary  struggle. 

Louvre  (loo'-vru).  A  castle,  in  Paris,  of  the  kings 
of  France  from  or  before  the  Thirteenth  Century, 
and  the  chief  royal  palace  until  Louis  XIV.  built 
Versailles.  The  existing  palace  was  begun  by 
Francis  I.  in  1541,  and  has  been  greatly  extended 
until  it  now  forms  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
historically    interesting    buildings    in    the    world. 


A  great  part  of  the  interior  has  been  occupied  since 
1793  by  the  famous  museum,  and  successive  gov- 
ernments have  employed  the  best  artists  at  their 
command  for  its  decoration. 

Lowell  (lo'-il),  Mass.  From  Francis  Cabot 
Lowell  of  Boston,  who  was  distinguished  by  his 
successful  efforts  in  introducing  the  cotton  manu- 
facture into  the  States.  Indian  name  of  locality, 
Wamasit. 

Lucerne  (looser n').  Named  from  a  lighthouse  or 
beacon,  lucerna,  formerly  placed  on  a  tower  in  the 
middle  of  the  River  Rheus. 

Lucian  (lu'-shl-an  or  lu'-shan).  From  the  Latin, 
meaning  "light."  Fr.,  Lucien;  It.,  Luciano;  Lat., 
Lucianus. 

Lucile  (lu-sel').  A  feminine  name  formed  from 
Lucilius,  name  of  the  celebrated  Roman  satirist; 
derived   no  doubt,  from  Lucius. 

Lucius  (lu'-shi-iis).  The  Roman  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  lux,  lucis,  "light."  Fr.,  Luce  or 
Lucius;  Ger.,  Lucious;  It.,  Lucio;  Lat.,  Lucius. 

Lucknow  (luk'-now.  Pop.,  luk'-no).  From  the 
native  name  Laksneanauti,  "the  fortunate." 

Lucretia  (lu-kre'-shl-d),  or  Lucrece  (lu'-kres). 
A  name  derived  from  Lucretia,  a  celebrated  Roman 
lady,  daughter  of  Lucretius,  and  wife  of  Tarquinius 
Collatinus;  a  feminine  form  of  Lucretius,  derived 
from  lucrum,  "gain,  profit,  advantage."  Fr., 
Lucrece;  Ger.,  Lucretia;  It.,  Lucrezia;  Lat., 
Lucretia;  Sp.,  Lucrecia. 

Lucy  or  Lucie  (lu'-sl).  The  feminine  of  Lucius. 
Dutch,  Lucie;  Fr.,  Lucie;  Ger.,  Lucie;  It.,  Lucia; 
Lat.,  Lucia;  Sp.,  Lucia. 

Ludovico  or  Ludivicus.     See  Lewis. 

Ludwig.     See  Lewis. 

Luigi.     See  Lewis. 

Luise.     See  Louisa. 

Luke.  From  the  Latin  name  Lucas,  meaning  a 
"light."  Some  maintain  that  the  original  name 
was  Lucius.  Danish,  Lucas;  Dutch,  Lucas;  Fr., 
Luc;  Ger.,  Lucas;  Hungarian,  Lucats;  It.,  Luca; 
Lat.,  Lucas;  Siv.,  Lucas. 

Luxembourg  (Inks' Sm-bilrg;  Dutch,  liiks'Sm-burg), 
Palace  of  the.  A  palace  in  Paris,  built  by  De- 
brosse  (1615-20)  for  Maria  de'  Medici.  Since  the 
Revolution  this  former  royal  palace  has  served  as 
the  House  of  Peers  or  of  the  Senate,  and  has  long 
contained  a  museum  of  art. 

Luxor  (Inks' -6r,  looks' -&r).  From  El-Kasur, 
"the  palaces."  A  village  in  Upper  Egypt,  situated 
on  the  Nile,  on  part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Thebes. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  antiquities. 

Lycoming  (ll-k5m'-lng)  River,  Pa.  Adaptation 
of  the  Indian  name  legaui-hanne,  i.  e.,  "sandy 
stream." 

Lydia  (lld'-l-d).  A  Latin  name  mentioned  in 
Horace;  so  called  as  coming  from  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Danish,  Lydia;  Dutch,  Lydia;  Fr.,  Lydie; 
Gr.,  Ludia;  It.,  Lidia;  Lat.,  Lydia. 

Lynchburg,  Va.  From  the  original  patentee, 
John  Lynch,  brother  of  Charles  Lynch,  the  reputed 
originator  of  what  is  known  as  "Lynch  Law.' 

Lynch  Law.  The  practice  of  punishing  men  for 
crimes  or  offences  by  private,  unauthorized  persons, 
without  a  legal  trial.  The  term  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  a  Virginia  planter  named  Lynch,  who 
thus  took  the  law  into  his  own  hands. 

Lynn,  Mass.  From  an  English  town  of  the  same 
name.  The  Anglo-Saxon  meant,  originally,  "deep 
pool." 

Mabel,  Mabell  (ma'-bU).  A  feminine  name 
derived  from  Mabilia,  Latinized  from  Amabel,  a 
corruption  of  the  French  aimable,  "  lovely." 
Lat.,  Mabilia,  or  Amabilis. 

Macao  (ma-kd'-o,  ma-kow').  A  Portuguese  city 
in  China.  Anciently  there  was  a  temple  here 
sacred  to  an  idol  named  Ama.  The  Portuguese 
made  it  Amagoa,  the  bay  of  Ama,  corrupted  first  to 
Amacao  and  then  to  Macao. 

Mackinac.     County   in   Michigan   and   town   in 


MISCELLANY 


827 


same  county.  Derived  from  the  Indian  word 
" michilimackinac,"  meaning  "island  of  tlie  great 
turtle,"  or  in  other  dialects,  "island  of  the  giant 
fairies." 

Mackinaw  Straits,  Mich.  Derived  from  the 
same  origin  as  Mackinac. 

3Iacon  (md'-kun),  Ga.  In  honor  of  Hon.  Na- 
thaniel Macon  of  North  Carolina. 

3Iadagascar.  Properly  Malagasy,  the  Island  of 
the  Malagese,  because  the  natives  belong  to  the 
Malay  race. 

Madeira  (md-de'-rd.  Portuguese,  ma-da' -e-rci).  A 
Portuguese  term  signifying  "timber"  ;  the  inference 
being  that  this  island  was  formerly  covered  by  an 
immense  forest. 

Madeline.  A  feminine  name  softened  down  from 
Magdalen. 

Madge.  A  feminine  baptismal  name  derived 
from  Margaret. 

3Iadrid  {nid-drtd'.  Spanish,  md-dreth').  Capital 
of  Spain  since  1560.  The  name  is  usually  explained 
from  the  Arabic  madarat,  a  "town."  But  the  early 
form  Mazerit  or  Magcrit,  given  in  the  Chronicle  of 
Sampiro,  points  to  materita,  a  "small  wood"  or 
"copse,"  a.  diminutive  of  materia,  as  the  true 
etymology. 

3Iaelstrom  (mal' -strum).  A  celebrated  whirlpool 
or  violent  current  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  near  the 
western  coast  of  Norway,  between  the  islands 
Moskenaso  and  Varo,  formerly  supposed  to  suck  in 
and  destroy  anytliing  that  approached  it  at  any 
time,  but  now  known  not  to  be  dangerous  except 
under  certain  conditions.  Etymologically  it  is  the 
"grinding  stream,"  from  the  Norwegian,  male,  "to 
grind." 

Magdalen  (mdg'-dd-len),  or  Magdalene.  A  name 
derived  from  Mary  Magdalen,  meaning  "of  Mag- 
dala,"  a  place  in  Palestine.  Dutch,  Magdalena; 
Fr.,  Madeleine  or  Madelene;  Gcr.,  Magdalena;  It., 
Maddalena  or  Madalena;  Lat.,  Magdalena;  Sp., 
Magdalena. 

Magna  Charta,  or  Magna  Carta  {m&g'-nd  kar'-td. 
Pop.,  char'-td).  The  great  charter  of  the  liberties 
(Magna  Charta  Libertatum)  of  England,  granted 
and  sealed  by  King  John  in  a  conference  between 
him  and  his  barons  at  Runnymede,  June  15,  1215. 

Mahony  (md-ho'-ni),  or  Mahoning  Blver,  Pa. 
Derived  from  the  Delaware  Indian  word,  Mahonink, 
"at  the  lick." 

Maiden  Lane.  A  street  in  London,  between 
Covent  Garden  and  the  Strand.  Andrew  Marvell, 
Turner,  the  landscape  painter,  and  Voltaire  lived 
here  at  different  times.  The  name  is  said  to  have 
been  given  from  an  image  of  the  Virgin  which  once 
stood  there. 

Maine.  A  State  in  the  Union  said  to  be  named 
for  the  private  estate  of  Henrietta  Maria,  in  Maine, 
a  province  of  France;  or,  according  to  another 
authority,  so  called  because  the  fishermen  of  the 
islands  along  the  coast  referred  to  the  mainland 
as  the  "main,"  and  in  some  early  documents  it  was 
spelled  "Mayn." 

Malakoff  (md-ld-kof) .  The  Malakoff,  near  Se- 
bastopol,  which  was  so  hotly  contested  in  the 
Crimean  War,  was  so  called  from  the  name  of  an 
innkeeper  who  built  a  liquor  shop  on  the  hill,  in 
1831.  His  house  was  "Malakoff's  Inn,"  and  the 
suburb  which  arose  also  received  the  name,  which 
has  since  become  historical. 

Malcolm  (imU'-kum).  Derived  from  the  Gaelic 
Maol-Cholum,  "the  servant  of  Columba.".  Maol 
signifies  literally,  "the  brow  of  a  rock,  a  bald 
head";  then  "a  shorn  head,  a  monk." 

Malta  (m6l'-td.  Italian,  mdl'-ta).  Was  an- 
ciently Melita,  "the  place  of  refuge." 

Malvina  {mal-m' -no) .  A  feminine  name  derived 
from  Malmhin,  name  of  the  daughter  of  Toscar; 
from  maol-mhin,  "smooth  brow." 

Mamaroneck  (md-mdr'-o-nek),  N.  Y.  From  the 
name  of  an  Indian  chief  called  Mamaronock. 


Manayunk  (man-d-yungk') ,  Pa.  From  the  Dela- 
ware Indian  m.eneiunk,  "place  of  drinking  liquor," 
which  was  also  the  Indian  name  of  the  Schuylkill 
River. 

Manchester  (m&n'-cMs-ter).  This  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Celtic  maen,  "a  stone  or  rock,"  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon  ceastre  or  Chester,  "a  castle  or 
fortification."  The  name  signifies  "the  fortified 
rock." 

Manchester,  N.  H.  From  a  manufacturing  town 
of  the  same  name  in  England. 

Manchuria  {m,an-chob' -rl-d) .  The  European 
name  of  the  region  inhabited  by  the  Manchua,  a 
Tungusic  tribe,  who  furnished  the  dynasty  which 
has  ruled  China  for  the  last  three  centuries.  Ac- 
cording to  Prof.  Douglas,  Manchu  means  "pure,"  a 
name  chosen  by  the  founder  as  a  suitable  designa- 
tion for  his  family.  The  Mantzu,  a  wild  race  on  the 
Upper  Kiang,  bear  a  Chinese  name  meaning,  ac- 
cording to  Colonel  Yule,  "sons  of  the  barbarians." 

Mandalay  (man'-dd-ld)  or  Mandale.  The  capital 
of  Upper  Burma,  founded  in  18G0.  The  usual 
etymology  is  from  the  Pali  m,andala,  a  "flat  plain," 
but,  according  to  Colonel  Yule,  the  name  was  that 
of  an  isolated  conical  hill,  rising  high  above  the 
alluvial  plain  of  the  Irawadi,  and  crowned  by  a 
gilt  pagoda.  The  name  of  the  hill  represents,  he 
thinks,  that  of  the  sacred  mountain  called  Man- 
dara,  which  in  the  Hindu  mythology  served  the 
gods  as  a  churning-staff  at  the  churning  of  the  sea. 

Manhattan.  An  island  in  New  York.  An 
Indian  word,  said  by  some  authorities  to  mean 
"little  island";  by  others,  "the  people  of  the 
whirlpool,"  referring  to  Hell  Gate;  another  au- 
thority gives  its  origin  from  the  word  Manna-ha-ta, 
"place  of  drunkenness,"  Henry  Hudson,  as  the 
story  goes,  in  1609,  having  taken  some  chiefs  into 
his  cabin  and  made  them  drunk. 

Manila  (jnd-nW-d.  Spanish,  md-ne'-la).  The 
capital  of  the  Philippines,  was  founded  in  1571,  by 
Legaspi,  the  site  of  a  native  village  of  the  same 
name,  which  is  derived  from  a  shrub  called  nila, 
Manila  thus  meaning,  "Nila  is,"  or  "here  is  Nila." 

Manitoba  {man-l-td-ha' ,  nidn-l-to'-bd).  Tlie  cen- 
tral province  of  the  Canadian  Dominion,  formerly 
called  the  Red  River  Settlement,  takes  its  name 
from  Lake  Manitoba,  whose  islands  were  believed 
by  the  natives  to  be  the  habitation  of  the  Manito 
or  great  spirit.  In  the  Algonquin  language,  manito, 
manitu,  or  Manitou,  means  a  "spirit,  a  ghost,  or 
anything  supernatural."  The  last  syllable  of 
Manito-ba  is  a  fragment  of  the  Cree  word,  waban,  a 
"strait." 

Manitou  (m&n'-l-too).  County  in  Michigan, 
river  in  Wisconsin,  and  town  in  El  Paso  County, 
Colorado.  An  Indian  name  given  to  any  object  of 
religious  reference.  It  signifies  "spirit."  (See 
Manitoba.) 

Mankato  (man-kd'-to)  River,  »Unn.  A  Sioux 
Indian  word  signifying  "green  earth." 

Mansfield.  City  in  Richland  County,  Ohio, 
named  for  Col.  Jared  Mansfield,  at  one  time  sur- 
veyor-general of  the  United  States. 

Marathon  (m&r'-d-thdn).  A  place  abounding  in 
fennel,  m,arathos. 

Marc.     See  Mark. 

Marcellus  {m,dr-sel' -lus) .  From  the  Latin,  mean- 
ing "of  Mars."  Fr.,  Marcellus;  It.,  Marcello; 
Lat.,  Marcellus. 

March.     Named  after  Mars,  the  god  of  War. 

Marcus.     See  Mark. 

Marcy,  Mount,  N.  Y.  Compliment  to  Governor 
W.  L.  Marcy  of  New  York.  The  Indian  name  is 
Tahawas,  "he  splits  the  sky,"  an  allusion  to  its 
great  height,  compared  with  its  neighbors. 

Margaret  (mdr'-gd-ret).  From  the  Greek,  mean- 
ing "a  pearl."  Dutch,  Margaretha;  Fr.,  Mar- 
guerite; Ger.,  Margarethe;  Gr.,  Margarites;  It., 
Margarita;  Lat.,  Margarita. 

Margaretta.     Formed  from  Margaret. 


828 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Margery.     A  baptismal  name  from  Margaret. 

Maria.  A  name  derived  from  one  of  the  Greek 
forms  of  Miriam.  Maria  is  found  as  a  masculine 
name  as  well  as  a  feminine  name. 

Marian  (md'-rl-dn).     A  diminutive  of  Mary. 

Marianne  (md-rl-4n').  Sometimes  corrupted 
from  Marian;  at  other  times  from  Mary  Anne. 

Marie  (md-re').     The  French  form  of  Mary. 

Marietta  {ma-rl-&t'-td),  Ohio.  A  composite  word, 
from  Marie  Antoinette,  queen  of  Louis  XVI.  of 
France,  in  whose  honor  it  was  named. 

Marion  {m&r' -l-5n) .     A  masculine  form  of  Mary. 

Marl£.  Derived  from  Mars,  meaning  "of  Mars." 
Danish,  Marcus;  Dutch,  Marcus;  Fr.,  Marc;  Ger., 
Marcus;  Gr.,  Markos;  Hungarian,  Mark;  It., 
Marco;    Lat.,  Marcus;    Sp.,  Marcos;    Sw.,  Markus. 

Mark,  St.,  Basilica  of.  A  famous  basilica  of 
Venice,  founded  in  830  to  receive  the  relics  of  the 
evangelist  brought  from  Alexandria,  rebuilt  in  976, 
and  given  its  definite  form  in  1052.  It  is  the  most 
famed  Byzantine  structure  of  western  Europe. 

Marmaduke.  From  Anglo-Saxon  mara-mihtig, 
"very  mighty  or  powerful." 

Marmora  {mdr  -mo-ra),  Sea  of.  Named  from  an 
adjacent  island  celebrated  for  its  marble,  marmor. 

Martlia  (mdr'-thd).  Littleton  derives  this  name 
from  a  Syriac  word  signifying  "lady"  (domina). 
Dutch,  Martha;  Fr.,  Marthe;  Ger.,  Martha;  Gr., 
Martha;  It.,  Marta;  Lat.,  Martha;  Sp.,  Marta; 
Sw.,  Martha. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.  Named  by  Bartholo- 
mew Gosnold,  on  one  of  his  voyages,  but  for  whose 
particular  honor  it  is  not  known.  The  Indian  name 
was  Capawac. 

Martin  (mdr'-tin).  From  the  Latin  name,  Mar- 
tinus;  from  Martius;  from  Mars,  "warlike." 
Dutch,  Martinus;  Fr.,  Martin;  Ger.,  Martin;  It., 
Martino;  Lat.,  Martinus;  Sp.,  Martin;  Sw.,  Martin. 

9Iartinez  (tndr-te'-nSth).  Spanish,  meaning  "the 
son  of  Martin." 

Martlnsburg.  Town  in  Berkeley  County,  West 
Virginia,  named  for  Col.  Tom  Martin,  a  nephew  of 
Lord  Fairfax,  a  wealthy  landowner. 

Mary.  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning  "bitter." 
Danish,  Marie;  Dutch,  Maria;  Fr.,  Marie;  Ger., 
Maria  or  Marie;-  Gr.,  Maria;  Hungarian,  Maria; 
It.,  Maria;  Lat.,  Maria;  Polish,  Marya;  Port., 
Maria;  Sp.,  Maria;  Sw.,  Maria. 

Maryland.  It  was  intended  that  the  country 
granted  by  the  charter  of  Charles  I.  in  his  patent  to 
Lord  Baltimore,  June  30,  1632,  should  be  called 
"Crescentia,"  but  when  presented  to  the  king  for 
signature,  in  conformity  to  his  wishes,  the  name  of 
the  province  was  changed  to  that  of  Terra  Mariae, 
"Mary's  land,"  in  honor  of  his  queen,  Henrietta 
Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

Massacliusetts.  Natick  Indian  word  Masasusct, 
contraction  of  il/assa,  "great,"  adchu,  "mountain," 
et,  "near,"  "the  place  of  the  great  hills"  (reference 
to  the  Blue  Hills).  Roger  Williams  writes  "I  have 
learned  the  Massachusetts  were  so  called  from  the 
Blue  Hills." 

Matanzas  {ma-t&n'-zas.  Spanish,  md-tdn'-thds) 
Inlet,  Fla.  From  the  Spanish,  meaning,  "mas- 
sacre," applied  by  Menendes  to  commemorate  his 
destruction  of  Ribaut  and  his  followers. 

Mathilde  (md-teld').      A  French  form  of  Matilda. 

Matilda  (md-tU'-dd),  or  3Iaud.  From  the  Old 
German  magd-hUd,  "noble  virgin  or  maid."  Danish, 
Mathilde;  Dutch,  Mathilda;  Fr.,  Mathilde;  It., 
Matilda;  Lat.,  Mathilda;  Sp.,  Matilde;  Sw.,  Ma- 
tilda. 

Matterhom.  The  most  precipitous  peak  in  the 
Alps,  derives  its  lowly  name  from  the  meadow 
{matt)  at  its  base,  on  which  the  village  of  Zermatt, 
"at  the  meadow,"  is  situated.  The  Piedmontese 
name,  Mont  Cervin,  is  due  to  its  resemblance  to  a 
stag's  horn. 

Matthew  (m&th'-u).  From  the  Hebrew  mattah- 
Yah,  "the  gift  of  Jehovah."     Danish,  Matthaeus; 


Dutch,  Mattheus;  Fr.,  Mathieu;  Gr.,  Matthaios; 
Hungarian,  Mate;  It.,  Matteo;  Lat.,  Matthaeus; 
Polish,  Mateusz;  Sp.,  Mateo;  Sw.,  Matthaus. 

Matthias  (mdth-l'-&s).  Originally  the  same  as 
Matthew.  Dutch,  Matthijs;  Fr.,  Matthias;  Ger., 
Mathias;  It.,  Mattia;  Lat.,  Matthias;  Sp.,  Matias. 

Mauch  Chunk  {indk  chUngk').  Borough  and  river 
in  Carbon  County,  Pennsylvania.  An  Indian  word, 
meaning,  according  to  different  authorities,  "on  the 
mountain,"  or  "bear's  cave." 

Maud,  Maude.     Corrupted  from  Matilda. 

Maurice  (m.6'-rls.  French,  mo-res').  Some 
derive  this  name  from  Amalric,  others  from  Mauri- 
ties,  but  it  is  rather  the  reverse,  for  the  island  had 
its  name  from  Prince  Maurice.  The  name  is 
probably  from  French  du  mar ais,"  from  the  marsh." 
Danish,  Moritz;  Dutch,  Maurits  or  Mauritius;  Fr., 
Maurice;  Ger.,  Moritz;  It.,  Maurizio  or  Maurisio; 
Lat.,  Mauritius  or  Mauricius;  Sp.,  Mauricio;  Sw., 
Moritz. 

Mauritius  (md-rlsh'-l-us).  Named  for  Maurice, 
Prince  of  Orange. 

3Iaximllian  {m&ks-l-mW-y&n,  m&ks-\-mW-K-&n). 
A  name  said  to  be  compounded  of  maximus,  "great- 
est," and  the  name  JDmilianus.  Dutch,  Maximili- 
anus;  Fr.,  Maximilien;  Ger.,  Maximilian;  It., 
Massimiliano  ;La<.,  Maximilianus;  Sp.,  Maxiniiliano ; 
Sw.,  Maximilian. 

Maximus  (mfifc'-si-mtis).  Latin,  meaning  "great- 
est." Fr.,  Maxime;  It.,  Massimo;  Lat.,  Maximus; 
Sp.,  Maximo. 

May.  After  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  to 
whom  sacrifices  were  offered  on  the  first  day  of  this 
month. 

Mayfair  (md'-f&r).  A  fashionable  locality  in 
London,  east  of  Hyde  Park.  All  streets  north  of 
Piccadilly  now  lead  into  the  district  of  Mayfair, 
which  takes  its  name  from  a  fair  which  used  to  be 
held  in  Shepherd's  Market  and  its  surrounding 
streets. 

Medina  (md-de'-nd).  A  city  in  Hedjaz,  Arabia, 
the  second  holy  city  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  is 
celebrated  as  the  place  where  Mohammed  took 
refuge  at  the  flight,  622  A.  D.,  and  where  he  died 
and  was  buried.  The  Great  Mosque  contains  Mo- 
hammed's tomb. 

Mediterranean  Sea.  Expresses  the  Latin  medius, 
"midiUe,"  and  terra,  "earth,"  for  the  sea  between 
two  continents,  viz,  Europe  and  Africa. 

Melbourne  {mW-biirn).  Named  after  Lord  Mel- 
bourne in  1837. 

Memphis  (mUm'-fis).  In  ancient  geography,  the 
early  capital  of  Egypt.  It  was  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Cairo.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Menes.  From  Ma-m-Phthah,  "the 
place  of  the  Egyptian  god  Phthah." 

Memphis,  Tenn.  An  adoption  from  the  ancient 
name  of  Memphis;  not  from  any  local  similar- 
ity. 

Memphremagog  (jrH&m-fre-md'-gSg),  Lake,  Vt.  An 
application  of  the  Algonquin  name  mem-plow- 
bouque,  "a  large  expanse  of  water." 

Menasha,  Wis.  An  Indian  word  meaning  "a 
thorn." 

Mendocino  {nitn-do-se'-no).  Cape,  Cal.  So  named 
by  Cabrillo  in  1542  (Cabo  Mendocino),  in  honor  of 
the  Viceroy  of  Spain,  who  had  employed  him. 

Mendota  {mln-do' -td) ,  Minn.  From  a  tribe  of 
Indians,  m,endota,  meaning  "the  mouth,"  alluding 
to  their  dwelling  at  the  mouth  of  the  Minnesota 
River. 

Menominee  (Tue-ndrn'-l-ne)  River,  Wis.  From 
an  Indian  tribe,  the  Malominees  or  Menominees, 
their  derivative  name  being  Monomonick,  "wild 
rice,"  or  Monomoniking,  "in  the  place  of  wild  rice." 
The  early  French  called  the  tribe  Folles  Avoines, 
"wild  oats,"  from  the  Indian  derivative. 

Meredith  {mir'-e-dlth).  The  English  form  of  the 
Welsh  name  Meredydd. 

Merlin    {m^r'-lin).     The    English    form    of    the 


MISCELLANY 


829 


British  name  Merddhin.  Probably  derived  through 
the  French.  , 

Merrimack  (mer'-H-m&k).  River,  county,  and 
town  in  Hillsboro  County,  New  Hampshire.  From 
the  Indian,  meaning  "sturgeon,"  or  "swift  water." 

Merthyr-Tydvil  {mer'-ther  tld'-vU).  Named  after 
the  daughter  of  an  ancient  British  king. 

Methuselah  {me-thu' -se-ld) .  Hebrew,  "driving 
away  death."   Fr.,  Mathusalem;  Lat.,  Methusela. 

Metz.     Named  from  the  Meomatrici,  a  tribe. 

Mexico.  The  modern  Spanisli  spelling  is  Mejico. 
It  took  its  name  from  a  temple  of  Mexitl,  the  Aztec 
war-god. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of.  From  the  name  of  the  Aztec 
god'  of  war,  Mexitl. 

Miami  {ml-a'-ml,  nil-drn'-l).  Counties  in  Indiana, 
Kansas,  and  Ohio,  cities  in  Dade  County,  Florida, 
and  Saline  County,  Missouri,  town  in  Ottawa  Reser- 
vation, Indian  Territory,  and  rivers  in  Florida  and 
Ohio.  The  French  orthography  of  the  Indian  word 
"Maumee,"  meaning  "mother";  or,  according  to 
another  authority,  "pigeon." 

Michael  (ml'-kel,  ml'-ka-el).  From  the  Hebrew, 
Miykhael,  from  miy-k'-El,  "who  is  like  God."  Fr., 
Michel;  Ger.,  Michael;  Hungarian,  Mihaly;  It., 
Michele;  Lat.,  Michael;  Polish,  Michal;  Port., 
Miguel;  Russ.,  Mikhail;  Sp.,  Miguel. 

Michigan  (jnlsh' -i-gan) .  .From  the  lake  on  its 
western  border,  the  Indian  word,  signifying  "a 
weir  of  fish,"  given  the  lake  from  its  fancied  re- 
semblance to  a  fish-trapj  In  the  Ottawa  dialect  is 
the  word  Mitchikan,  originally  given  to  Mackinac, 
and  meaning  "fences,"  as  if  the  island  were  lying 
fence-like  before  the  upper  lake. 

Milan  (mU'-dn,  mil-dn').  The  French  and  Eng- 
lish form  of  the  Italian  Milano,  called  Mailand  in 
German,  is  a  corruption  of  the  Celto-Roman  name 
Mediolanum,  the  capital  of  the  Insubrian  Gauls, 
which  signified  the  town  in  the  "middle  of  the 
plain,"  lanum  being  the  equivalent  of  the  Latin 
planum. 

Mildred  (mtl'-dred).  A  female  name,  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  mild-red,  "mild  in  counsel."     Lat.,  Mildreda. 

Miles.  From  Milesius,  Latinized  from  the  Irish 
mile,  ■  milead,  "a  soldier,  a  champion."  Gaelic, 
milidh,  "a  hero,  a  renowned  person." 

Millcent.  A  feminine  name,  which  in  Latin  is 
found  written  Melicentia,  Melissa,  and  Mellitta. 
It  comes  from  the  Greek,  which  signifies  both  a 
"bee"  and  "honey." 

MlUedgevllle,  Georgia.  After  Governor  Milledge, 
a  soldier  of  the  Revolution. 

Milwaukee  {mU-w6'-ke),  Wis.  From  the  river, 
called  by  the  Algonquins  Minnwaukee,  or  Me-ne- 
wau-kee,  "good  earth,  good  country,  rich  or  beau- 
tiful country."  The  name  is  also  said  to  be  derived 
from  Man-a-wau-kee,  the  Indian  name  of  the 
medicinal  root  mannoan  growing  on  the  river  banks. 

Mina.  Abbreviated  from  Wilhelmina,  or  from 
the  English  form,  Williamina. 

Mincing  Lane.  A  street  in  London  connecting 
Fenchurch  Street  with  Great  Tower  Street;  the 
center  of  colonial  (wholesale)  trade.  It  received 
its  name  from  the  "minchens"  (nuns)  of  St.  Helen's, 
a  part  of  who.se  domain  it  once  was. 

Minerva  {ml-ner' -vd) .  So  named  from  Minerva, 
goddess  of  wisdom,  war,  and  all  the  liberal  arts. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  Dakota  Indian  words, 
Minni,  "water,"  ha,  "curling,"  and  the  Greek  word 
polls,  "a  city,"  namely  "city  of  the  curling  water," 
alluding  to  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

Minnehaha  (min-ne-ha'-ha)  River,  Minn.  A  Da- 
kota Indian  compound  word  Minne,  "water,"  rara, 
"to  laugh,"  Minnerara.  Hennepin,  in  1680,  from 
a  false  pronunciation,  gave  the  present  ending, 
"haha." 

Minnesota  (min-ne-so'-td).  From  the  St.  Peter's 
River,  the  Indian  name  of  which  was  Mihnisotah, 
minni,  "water,"  sotah,  "muddy  or  slightly  tur- 
bid." 


Minorca  (ml-ndr'-kd)  Island.  In  accordance 
with  the  Latin  minor,  the  Lesser  Island. 

Mira.     See  Myra. 

Miriam  (mir'-i-am).  From  the  Hebrew  Mir  yam, 
the  etymology  of  which  is  doubtful. 

Mississippi.  State  of  the  Union,  counties  in 
Arkansas  and  Missouri,  and  river,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  United  States.  An  Indian  word,  meaning 
"great  water,"  or  "gathering  in  of  all  the  waters," 
and  "an  almost  endless  river  spread  out." 

Missoula  {mi-z6o'4d).  County,  river,  and  city  in 
Montana.  The  name  is  said  to  mean  the  same  as 
Missouri,  "muddy  water." 

Missouri  (mls-sdo'-rl,  mlz-zoo'-ri.  Pop.,  m.lz-od'- 
rd).  _  From  river  of  the  same  name.  Mis- 
souri, compound  word,  from  two  very  different 
languages  —  mis  (Algonquin),  "great,"  sowri  (Da- 
kota, commonly  called  Sioux),  meaning  "muddy"; 
in  best  English,  "big  muddy." 

Mobile  {md-beV).  A  town  in  Alabama  from 
which  Mobile  Bay  takes  its  name.  When,  in  1539, 
Fernando  de  Soto  landed  in  Florida,  and  made  his 
wonderful  march  to  the  Mississippi,  he  had  a 
desperate  fight  with  the  Creek  Indians  at  a  palisaded 
village  called  Mauvila  or  Maubila  (probably  the 
name  of  the  tribe),  at  the  junction  of  the  Tombigbee 
and  Alabama  rivers.  From  this  village  the  united 
stream  acquired  the  name  which  in  French  became 
the  River  Mobile,  at  whose  mouth  the  town  of 
Mobile  was  built. 

Mohawk.  River,  township,  and  village  in  Herki- 
mer County,  New  York,  said  by  one  authority  to 
have  been  named  for  a  tribe'  of  Indians,  the  word 
meaning  "eats  what  lives,"  indicating  that  they 
were  cannibals;  but  another  authority  states  that 
it  is  a  corruption  of  Maquaas,  "muskrat." 

Mohegan  {mo-he' -gan)  Lake,  N.  Y.  From  a  tribe  of 
Indians  whose  name  was  from  maingan,  "a  wolf." 

Moldavia  (mdl-dd'-m-d).  The  country  traversed 
by  the  Moldau. 

Molly.     A  baptismal  name  derived  from  Mary. 

Monadnock  {mo-n&d'-ndk).  A  mountain  in  New 
Hampshire.  An  Indian  word,  meaning  "spirit 
place,"  or,  possibly,  "bad,"  as  signifying  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  ascent.  Another  authority  gives  the 
interpretation  "at  the  silver  mountain." 

Monday.  Means  the  "day  of  the  moon."  It 
was  so  called  from  its  Latin  name,  dies  lunae. 

Money.  The  first  silver  money  was  coined  at 
Rome,  A.  U.  C.  482.  The  mint  was  in  the  temple 
of  June  Moneta,  and  this  circumstance  occasioned 
the  origin  of  our  word  "money." 

Monica  {mdn'-e-kd)  A  feminine  name.  It  may 
be  from  Italian  m,onaca,  "a  nun,"  or  a  feminine 
formed  from  its  root,  Latin,  nionachus,  "a  monk." 

Monocacy  (rno-n6k' -d-^)  River,  Md.  From  the 
Indian  name  menagassi,  "creek  of  many  bends." 

Monongahela  (rno-non-gd-he' -Id)  River,  Pa.  From 
the  Indian  name  menavmgihella,  "falling-in  bank," 
"a  river  without  islands." 

Montana  (mdn-ta'-nd).  Spanish.  Montana,  "a 
mountain,"  literally  a  hilly  country.  Name  pre- 
sented to  Hon.  James  M.  Ashley  in  1864,  who  was 
chairman  of  the  Committee'  on  Territories  —  sug- 
gested to  the  proposer  owing  to  the  territory 
embracing  such  a  large  portion  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  its  spurs. 

Montauk  (mdn-tok')  Point,  N.  T.  From  the 
Indian  m,anati-auke,  manati,  "country,"  auke, 
"island,"  "the  island  country." 

Mont  Blanc  {m6n  blaJ^').  Means,  "white  moun- 
tain." The  highest  mountain  of  the  Alps,  situated 
on  the  frontiers  of  France  and  Italy,  eternally 
covered  with  snow. 

Monterey  {m5n-te-ra'),  Cal.  An  honor  by 
Vizcaino,  in  1603,  to  Monte  Rey,  viceroy  of  Spain, 
who  had  dispatched  the  expedition  under  Vizcaino. 

Monte  Rosa  (m,dn'-t&  ro'-sa).  Meaning  "rosy 
mountain."  The  highest  mountain  of  the  Alps, 
next  to  Mont  Blanc. 


830 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Montgomery  (mdiit-gmn'-er-t),  Ala.  After  Gen- 
eral Richard  Montgomery,  who  was  killed  at 
Quebec,  Canada,  1775. 

Montpeller  (mdnt-pe'4i-cr),  Vt.  From  the  French, 
translated  a  "little  or  lesser  mountain,"  probably 
suggested  from  Montpellicr,  a  town  in  France. 

Montreal  {in6nt-re-6l') .  In  1535,  Jacques  Cartier, 
on  his  second  voyage,  ascended  the  St.  Law- 
rence as  far  as  Quebec,  where  he  left  his  ship, 
and  reached  an  Iroquois  village  called  Hochelaga, 
perched  on  an  eminence,  which  from  its  splendid 
position  he  called  Mont  Royal,  the  "royal  mount," 
now  Montreal. 

Moosehead  Lake,  Me.  Indian  name  Kennebec, 
meaning  "long  lake,"  also  Seboomook,  meaning 
"shape  of  the  moose's  head." 

Moravia  (mo-rd'-m-d).  The  country  traversed 
by  the  Morava. 

Mordecal  (m&r'-de-ka).  From  the  Hebrew,  Mord'~ 
khay,  which  Tregelles  derived  from  the  Persian, 
meaning  "little  man,"  or  from  Merodach,  "wor- 
shiper of  Mars." 

Morgan.  Some  translate  this  name  "by  the 
sea,"  or  "sea-dweller,"  or  "seaman";  doubtless 
from  Welsh  inor,  "the  sea,"  gan,  "bringing  forth." 

Moritz.     See  Maurice. 

Morocco  (mo-rdk'-ko).  More  correctly  Marocco. 
The  European  name  of  the  North  African  Sultanate 
called  by  the  natives  Maghrib  el  Aksa,  "the  furthest 
west,"  or  El  Gharb,  "the  west." 

Moscow  (mds'-ko).  Derived  from  Muscovea  or 
Muscovy,  an  old  name  for  Russia,  now  called  in 
Russian  Moskva,  from  the  small  River  Moskva  on 
which  it  stands.  The  name  of  the  river  is  probably 
Finnic,  signifying  a  "place  for  washing." 

Moses  (mo'-zez).  From  the  Greek  Mosheh,  "out- 
drawer,  deliverer."  Salmasius  derives  the  name 
from  the  Coptic  moousi,  moou,  "water,"  si,  "from," 
or  "to  take  or  draw."  Hones  translates  the  name 
from  the  Egyptian  moo,  "water,"  and  ouie, 
"taken  or  saved  out  of."  Arabic,  Moosa  or  Musa; 
Dutch,  Moses;  Fr.,  Moise;  Gr.,  Moses;  Hungarian, 
Mozes;  It.,  Moise;  Lat.,  Moses;  Polish,  Moyzesz; 
Sp.,  Moyses;  Sw.,  Moses. 

Mosquito  (mds-ke'-td)  Coast,  Nicaragua.  Owes 
its  name  to  the  troublesome  insects  (Spanish  mosca), 
from  the  Latin  musca,  "a  fly,"  which  infest  this 
neighborhood. 

Mount  Desert  (jnownt  de-zert')  Island,  Me.  Named 
by  Champlain  Isle  de  Monts  Deserts,  owing  to  bar- 
renness of  its  craggy  heights.  The  Indians  called 
it  Pemetig,  "head,  or  the  place  which  is  at  the  head." 

Mount  Vernon.  Residence  of  Gen.  George  Wash- 
ington, and  city  in  Lawrence  County,  Missouri, 
named  for  the  foregoing,  which  was  originally 
built  by  Lawrence  Washington  for  Admiral  Vernon, 
for  whom  it  was  named. 

Mount  Zion  (zl'-dn),  or  Slon  (si'-dn).  A  hill  on 
which  was  situated  the  old  city  of  Jerusalem;  the 
"city  of  David."  The  name  has  been  applied  to 
Jerusalem  as  a  whole,  and  symbolically  to  the 
Christian  church  and  heaven. 

Muncy,  Pa.  From  the  creek  on  which  it  is  lo- 
cated, the  water  taking  the  name  from  the  Minsi 
Indians.     Minsink,  "dwelling  place  of  the  Minsi." 

Munich  {mU'-nlk).  The  English  name  of  the 
capital  of  Bavaria,  which  is  called  Miinchen  in  Ger- 
man. Both  forms  have  been  independently 
obtained  from  the  old  name  Munichen,  found  in 
1058,  which  is  from  Old  High  German  munich, 
"a  monk,"  the  town  having  been  built  on  lands  be- 
longing to  the  monks  of  the  convent  of  Schaftlarn. 

Murfreesboro  {miXr' -frez-bur-6) .  City  in  Ruther- 
ford County,  Tennessee,  and  town  in  Hertford 
County,  North  Carolina,  named  for  Col.  Hardy 
Murfree,  an  officer  of  the  Revolution. 

Muriel,  Meriel.  From  the  Greek  Myron, 
"myrrh." 

Muskegon  {mus-ke'-gun)  River,  Micii.  From  the 
Indian  name,  meaning  "plenty  of  fish." 


Muskingum  (mUs-Mng'-giim).  River  and  county 
in  Ohio.  An  Indian  word  meaning  "moose-eye 
river,"  so  called  because  of  the  number  of  moose 
and  elk  which  inhabited  the  country. 

Myies.     Another  spelling  of  Miles. 

Myra  (ml'-rd).  A  feminine  name.  The  termi- 
nation of  some  other  Christian  name;  or  from  the 
Greek,  Myron,  "myrrh." 

Nahant  (nd-hdnt',  nd-h&nt).  Town  and  watering- 
place  in  Essex  County,  Massachusetts.  According 
to  different  authorities  an  Indian  word  meaning 
"at  the  point,"  or  "two  things  united,"  the  latter 
meaning  given  because  the  town  is  formed  of  two 
islands  connected  by  a  beach. 

"S a.nc y  (n&n' -si.  French,  nan-se')-  Name  formed 
from  Nan  for  Ann. 

Nantucket.  Island  and  county  in  Massachusetts. 
This  name  appeared  upon  the  maps  in  1630,  as 
Natocko,  and  some  authorities  state  that  it  is 
derived  from  an  Indian  word  meaning  "far  away"  ; 
others  that  its  present  form  is  a  direct  derivation  of 
the  Indian  Nantiick,  which  means  that  the  sandy, 
sterile  soil  tempted  no  one. 

Naomi  (na-o'-mi,  na'-d-mV),  From  the  Hebrew 
Naomi,  signifying  "my  pleasantness." 

Naples  (nd'-plz).  A  French  corruption  of  the 
Italian  Napoli,  which  preserves,  with  little  change, 
the  old  Greek  name  Neapolis,  "the  new  city," 
which  in  spite  of  its  name  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  Italy,  having  been  founded  by  colonists  from  the 
still  older  settlement  at  Cumse. 

Napoleon  (n&-pd'-le-dn.  French,  nd-pd-ld-6n') . 
From  the  French  name  Napoleone,  which  has  been 
translated  "of  the  new  city." 

Narcissus  {ndr-sW -us) .  From  the  Greek,  mean- 
ing a  "daffodil."  Fr.,  Narcisse;  It.,  Narcisso; 
Lat.,  Narcissus. 

Narragansett  (ndr-rd-gdn'-set).  Summer  resort 
in  Wa.shington  Co\mty,  Rhode  Island.  An  angli- 
cization  of  the  Indian  name  of  a  tribe,  Naiagansett, 
which  in  their  language  means  "people  of  the 
point." 

Nashua  (ndsh'-u-d),  N.  H.  From  the  river,  its 
Indian  name  meaning  "between." 

Nashville,  Tenn.  First  named,  as  a  settlement, 
Nashborough,  in  honor  of  Francis  Nash  of  North 
Carolina,  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Continental 
Army.     In  June,  1784,  changed  to  Nashville. 

Natal  {nd-taV).  Received  its  name  from  Vasco 
da  Gama,  because  he  discovered  it  on  the  Feast  of 
the  Nativity. 

Natchez  {ndch'-^z).  City  in  Adams  County, 
Mississippi,  named  for  the  Indian  tribe,  the  word 
meaning  "hurrying  men,"  or  "one  running  to  war." 

Nathan  (nd'-than).  From  the  Hebrew  Nathan, 
signifying  "given."  Fr.,  Nathan;  Ger.,  Nathan; 
Lat.,  Nathan;  Sp.,  Natan. 

Nathanael  or  Nathaniel  {nd-thdn' -d-el  or  nd-thdn'- 
ISl).  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning  the  "gift  of 
God."  Dutch,  Nathaniel;  Fr.,  Nathaniel;  Ger., 
Nathaniel;    Lat.,  Nathanael;  Sp.,  Natanael. 

Naugatuck  (no'-gd-tuk),  Conn.  Indian  word 
expressive  of  "form  of  the  rivers,"  "point  between 
two  rivers."  Another  source  gives  the  word  as 
neguttugk,  meaning  "one  tree." 

Nauvoo  {n6-v6d').  City  in  Hancock  County, 
Illinois,  named  in  obedience  to  a  "revelation" 
made  to  Joseph  Smith,  one  of  its  Mormon  founders. 

Nebraska.  State  and  river  in  the  United  States. 
An  Indian  word  meaning  "shallow,  or  broad 
water." 

Nehemiah  (nS-he-mi'-d).  From  the  Hebrew 
N'hhemyah,  from  n'hhem-yah,  "whom  Jehovah 
comforts"  —  that  is,  "aids."  Danish,  Nehemias; 
It.,  Neemia;  Lat.,  Nehemias;  Sp.,  Nehemias. 

Nellie,  Nelly.  Names  derived  from  Ellen,  and 
sometimes  from  Helen. 

Netherland.s.  Which  means  "low  lands,"  is  the 
English  name  of  the  Dutch  Kingdom  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhine  which  the  French  call  Les  Pays  Bas. 


MISCELLANY 


831 


Koniiigrijk  der  Nederlanden  is  the  official  Dutch 
name  of  tlie  kingdom  as  constituted  after  the  war 
of  1830,  when  the  Belgians  acquired  their  independ- 
ence. 

Nevada  (7ie-vd' -dd).  State  of  the  Union,  coun- 
ties in  Arkansas  and  California.  From  the  moun- 
tain range  running  through  the  division,  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  Spanish  words  Serrado,  "serrated  or 
saw-toothed,"  Nevada,  "snowy,"  i.  e.,  "snowy 
mountains,"  the  application  to  the  mountains  taken 
from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  of  Granada. 

Neverslnk  Highlands,  N.  J.  So  called  by  the 
sailors  of  outgoing  craft,  from  the  circumstance  of 
their  being  the  highest  seashore  elevations.  They 
remain  above  the  horizon  of  their  vision  a  long  time 
after  the  other  shores  have  disappeared,  hence  the 
query,  "Will  it  never  sink?"  and  the  consequent 
application. 

Neverslnk  River,  N.  Y.  From  the  Indian  Ne- 
wa-sink,  "mad  river,"  also  stated  to  be  a  local 
application,  because  the  stream  is  less  affected  by 
drought  than  others. 

Nevskii  Prospekt  (n^f'-skl-l  prds-pekt') .  The 
finest  and  most  important  street  in  St.  Petersburg, 
noted  for  its  fine  buildings.  Length,  about  three 
and  one-half  miles. 

Newark  (nu'-erk),  N.  J.  Suggested  by  the  settle- 
ment's first  minister,  Rev.  Abraham  Pierson,  from 
Newark-on-Trent,  England,  where  he  was  "Episco- 
pally  ordained."  Previously  called  Milford,  this 
being  given  in  1G66,  by  a  band  of  Puritans  from 
Milford,  Connecticut. 

New  Bedford.  City  in  Bristol  County,  Massa- 
chusetts. The  name  of  the  owner  of  the  town  site 
being  Russell,  the  family  name  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford. 

New  Berne,  or  Newbern,  N.  C.  From  Berne, 
Switzerland,  the  native  place  of  Christopher,  Baron 
de  Graafewidt,  who  in  1720  emigrated  to  and 
settled  near  this  place. 

New  Brunswick  (brilnz'-wlk).  Received  its  name 
in  compliment  to  the  House  of  Brunswick. 

New  England.  "  That  part  of  America  in  the 
ocean  sea  opposite  Nova  Albion  in  the  South  Sea, 
discovered  by  the  ever-memorable  Sir  Francis 
Drake  in  his  voyage  about  the  world,  in  regard 
whereof  this  is  styled  New  England,  being  in  the 
same  latitude." 

Newfoundland  (nu'-filnd-ldnd).  The  earliest  of 
the  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain.  The 
name  originally  applied  to  the  regions  discovered 
by  the  two  Cabots,  and  included  a  great  portion 
of  the  North  American  coast.  The  island  to 
which  the  name  is  now  restricted  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  Island  of  St.  John,  so  called  because 
discovered  by  John  Cabot  On  St.  John's  Day,  June 
24,  1497. 

New  Hampshire.  Name  given  to  the  State,  in 
1629,  by  John  Mason,  in  compliment  to  his  native 
county  in  England. 

New  Harmony.  Town  in  Posey  County,  Indiana, 
settled  by  the  "Harmonists,"  and  named  for  their 
sect. 

New  Haven.  County  and  town  in  same  county, 
in  Connecticut,  settled  by  parties  from  Boston,  who 
called  it  a  "new  haven."  Originally  Quinnippac, 
from  the  Indian  name  of  the  river  Quinnepyooghq, 
"long  water  place."  The  present  name  substi- 
tuted "by  the  court,"  September  5,  1640. 

New  Holland.  The  name  given  to  Austraha 
previous  to  its  settlement  by  the  British. 

New  Jersey.  In  compliment  to  Cartaret,  who 
had  defended  the  Isle  of  Jersey  (Csesarea,  one  of  the 
Channel  Islands,)  against  the  long  parUament. 
Originally  called  New  Sweden  (when  a  Dutch  pos- 
session) . 

New  London.  City  and  county  in  Connecticut, 
and  town  in  Stanly  County,  North  Carolina,  named 
for  the  city  in  England. 

New  Mexico.     A  distinguishing  name  from  "old" 


Mexico,  it  having  been  a  former  pos.sc.ssion  of  Mexico; 
Mexico  from  the  Aztec  god,  "Mexitli."  The  terri- 
tory was  called  Nova  Mexicana  by  Antonio  de 
Espejo  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Santa  F6. 

New  Orleans  {nu  dr'-le-d,nz).  La.  Translation 
of  the  French  name  Nouvelle  Orleans,  given  by 
them  in  honor  of  the  Due  d' Orleans,  then  Regent 
of  France. 

Newport,  R.  I.  In  honor  of  the  English  admiral 
Christopher  Newport  (under  James  I.). 

News.  This  word  is  made  up  of  the  first  letter 
of  each  point  of  the  compass:  North,  East,  West, 
South.  This,  therefore,  is  usually  given  as  the 
origin  of  the  term  news,  which  comes  from  all 
points  of  the  compass. 

New  York  (State).  Denominated  in  honor  of 
James,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II. 

New  York  City.  Named  from  the  State.  The 
island  on  which  the  city  is  mainly  located,  known 
as  Manhattan  Island.     (See  Manhattan.) 

New  Zealand  (ze'-land).  Name  given  by  Dutch 
navigators,  the  word  Zeeland  denoting  "sea-land," 
being  significant  of  the  low  countries. 

Niagara  (ni-dg'-d-rd).  From,  the  Indian  word 
Neagara,  meaning  "across  the  neck,"  an  allusion 
to  a  strip  of  land  between  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 
The  name  has  passed  through  many  changes  in 
spelling  in  the  last  two  hundred  years.  Another 
derivation  given  is  from  Oniawgarah,  "the  thun- 
der of  waters." 

Nice  (nes).  A  town  on  the  Riviera,  is  the  French 
form  of  the  Italian  Nizza. 

Nicholas  (nlk'-o-las).  From  the  Latin  name, 
Nicolaus,  signifying  "conqueror  of  the  people." 
Dutch,  Nicolaas  (more  frequently  Klaas) ;  Fr., 
Nicolas;  Ger.,  Nicolaus;  Gr.,  Nikolaos;  Hun., 
Miklos;  It.,  Niccolo  or  Nicolo;  Lat.,  Nicolaus; 
Port.,  Nicolao;  Russ.,  Nikolai  or  Nikolas;  Sp., 
Nicolas;  Sw.,  Nils. 

Nicodemus  {nik-o-de' -mils) .  From  the  Greek, 
meaning,  "victory  of  the  people,"  or  the  "con- 
queror of  the  people."  Fr.,  Nicod6me;  Gr.,  Niko- 
demos;  Lat.,  Nicociemus. 

Niel  {nel).     An  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  Nigel. 

Nigel  {ni'-gU).  K  name  derived  from  the  Latin 
nigellus,  "somewhat  black";  a  diminutive  of 
niger,  "black." 

Nile.  Called  in  Old  Egyptian  either  Hapi  or 
P-iero,  "the  river,"  of  which  Nehar  Misraim,  "the 
river  of  Egypt,"  or  simply  Nahal,  "the  valley"  or 
"stream,"  were  Semitic  translations.  The  Greek 
name  Nilus  was  probably  a  corruption  of  the 
Phenician  name  Nahal.  The  Arabs  now  call  it 
Bahr,  "the  sea,"  the  two  Niles  being  distinguished 
as  Bahr-el-Azrak,  "the  turbid"  or  Blue  Nile,  and 
Bahr-el-Abyad,  the  "clear"  or  White  Nile.  The 
Nile  was  also  called  Sihor,  the  "blue"  or  "dark" 
river,  of  which  Nilus  might  conceivably  be  an 
Aryan  translation,  like  the  Nilab  or  "blue  water" 
in  the  Punjab. 

Niobrara  (nl-o-bra'-rd)  River,  Neb.  From  the 
Indian  ni,  "water,"  abrara,  "wide,"  "the  broad 
water." 

Nita  (ne'-td).  A  feminine  name  derived  from 
Annita,  a  diminutive  of  Ann. 

Noah  {nd'-d).  From  the  Hebrew,  Noah,  signi- 
fying "rest."  ^robic,  Nooh  or  Null ;  Dutch, 'Noach 
or  Noak;  Fr.,  No6;  Ger.,  Noah;  Gr.,  Noe;  Sw., 
Noa. 

Noel  (no' -el).  From  the  French  name,  Noel,  so 
named  from  Noel,  "Christmas,"  from  being  born  on 
the  day  of  that  festival.  Fr.,  Noel;  Lat.,  Natalis 
or  Noelius. 

Nora,  Norah  (no'-rd).  Irish  feminine  names 
corrupted  from  Onora,  from  the  English  name 
Honora.  As  an  English  name  Nora  may  some- 
times be  an  abbreviation  of  Leonora. 

Norfolk,  Va.  From  the  county  in  England  of 
that  name.      (Anglo-Saxon,  north  "fork.") 

Norman     (nor' -man).      Means     "born    in    Nor- 


832 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


mandy,"  or  "of  Norman  extraction."  Lat.,  Nor- 
mannus. 

Normandy  (n6r'-mdn-di).  Called  Normandie  in 
French.  The  province  was  occupied  early  in  the 
Tenth  Century  by  the  Northmen,  whose  name  on 
French  soil  gradually  changed  to  Normans.  A 
former  government  of  France. 

North  Carolina  {kdr-64l'-nd).  North  and  South 
Carolina  were  originally  Carolina.  The  name  was 
given  in  1564,  at  the  time  of  the  first  colonization 
by  the  Huguenots  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  of 
France.  The  English  later  preserved  the  name  in 
honor  of  Charles  II.  of  England. 

North  Sea.  Indicative  of  its  position  geographi- 
cally. 

Norwalk,  Conn.  From  the  Indian  nayaug,  "the 
middle  land,"  "a  tract  between  two  rivers." 

Nova  Scotia  {no'-vd  sko'-shl-d)  or  "New 
Scotland,"  was  the  pedantic  name  given  by  James 
I.  to  the  French  colony  of  Acadia,  when  he  granted 
it  by  patent  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  a  Scotch- 
man, on  the  pretext  of  its  having  been  discovered 
by  Cabot  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Nova  Zembla  (no'-vd  z^m'-bld).  A  mixture  of  the 
Latin  and  Slavonic,  literally  "new  land." 

November.  The  ninth  month  in  the  Roman  cal- 
endar.    From  the  Latin  novern,  nine. 

Obadiah  {o-bd-di'-d).  From  the  Hebrew  Obha- 
dhyah,  "servant  or  worshiper  of  Jehovah." 

Oberlin  (d'-ber4ln).  Village  in  Lorain  County, 
Ohio,  named  for  Jean  Frederick  Oberlin,  a  philan- 
thropist. 

Ocklawaha  (dk4d-wd'-ha)  River,  Fla.  The 
Seminole  Indian    name,  meaning  "muddy  place." 

Ocklockonee  (6k4dk'-d-ne)  River,  Fla.  From  the 
Indian  (Seminole),  meaning  "yellow  water." 

Ocmulgee  (6k-mul'-ge)  River,  Ga.  From  the 
Creek  Indian  name,  Oko-mvlgi,  "the  turbulent 
stream." 

Oconee  (o-ko'-ne)  River,  Ga.  From  the  Semi- 
nole Indian  word  eknoni,  "a  water  course,"  "a 
small  river." 

Octave.     See  Octavius. 

Octavla  (dk-td'-vl-d).  Feminine  of  Octavius. 
Fr.,  Octavie;'  It.,  Octavia;   Lat.,  Octavia. 

Octavius  (dk-td'-vi-us).  Latin  name,  signifying 
"the  eighth,"  i.  e.,  the  eighth  son  in  order  of  birth. 
Fr.,  Octave;  It.,  Octavio;  Lat.,  Octavius;  Sp.,  Oc- 
tavio. 

October.  Means  "the  eighth  month."  From 
the  Latin  octo,  eight. 

Odd  Fellows.  A  fanciful  name  assumed  by  the 
original  founders  of  the  society. 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.  Named  from  Samuel  Ogden, 
the  first  proprietor. 

Ohio.  State  in  the  Union,  river  and  counties  in 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  West  Virginia.  An  Indian 
word  meaning  "the  beautiful  river." 

Okeechobee  (o-ke-cho'-be)  Lake,  Fla.  Seminole 
Indian  word  meaning  "grassy  lake,"  also  spelled 
Okitchobi. 

Okeflnokee  (d-ke-fin-o'-ke)  Swamp,  Ga.  A 
Choctaw  word,  okefinocau  "quivering  water." 

Oklahoma  (6k-ld-hd'-md).  A  Choctaw  word 
signifying  "red  people,"  okla,  "people,"  homa, 
"red."-  Another  word  is  given  meaning  "home 
for  all  Indians." 

Old  Bailey,  The.  The  principal  criminal  court 
of  England,  situated  on  the  street  named  Old 
Bailey,  which  runs  from  Newgate  to  Ludgate  Hill, 
not  far  from  St.  Paul's,  London.  It  was  the  site 
of  the  Roman  vallum,  forming  part  of  the  city's 
fortifications  external  to  the  Wall,  hence  Ballium 
and  Bailey.  A  vallum  was  a  rampart  of  palisades, 
so  called  from  vallus,  a  stake,  and  was  planted  on 
the  top  of  the  agger,  or  mound,  thrown  up  for  the 
purposes  of  defense. 

Old  Dominion  (do-mln'-yun).  A  name  popularly 
given  to  the  State  of  Virginia.  Its  origin  is  vari- 
ously explained.     Perhaps  the  best  account  is  that 


Captain  John  Smith  called  Virginia  "Old  Virginia" 
to  distinguish  it  from  "New  Virginia,"  as  the  New 
England  colony  was  called.  The  colony  of  Vir- 
ginia was  alluded  to  in  documents  as  "the  colonj' 
and  dominion  of  Virginia";  hence  the  phrase, 
"the  Old  Dominion." 

Old  Jewry.  One  of  the  localities  allotted  in  olden 
times  as  a  residence  for  the  Jews.  The  terminal  ry 
is  the  Old  English  ru  or  ra,  having  a  collective  sig- 
nification, as  in  rookery,  eyry  (eggery),  poultry,  etc. 

Old  Point  Comfort.  Town  in  l^lizabeth  County, 
Virginia,  so  named  by  Capt.  Christopher  Newport, 
because  he  found  it  a  safe  haven  after  a  severe 
storm;  the  "Old"  added  to  distinguish  it  from 
New  Point  Comfort  a  few  miles  away. 

Olive.  Derived,  perhaps,  through  the  French, 
from  the  Latin  olivia,  the  "olive  tree,"  an  emblem 
of  peace. 

Oliver  {8l'-l-ver).  From  French  olivier,  an  olive- 
tree,  from  the  Latin  olivia.  Dutch,  Olivier;  Fr., 
Olivier;  It.,  Oliviero  or  Uliviero;  Lat.,  Olivarus  or 
Olivarius;  Sp.,  Oliverio;  Sw.,  Olivier. 

Olivia  {6-liv'-l-d).  The  feminine  of  Oliver. 
Danish,  Olivia;  Dutch,  Olivia;  Fr.,  Olivie;  Ger., 
Olivia;  Sw.^  Olivia. 

Olympla  (o-llm'-pl-d).  In  ancient  geography,  a 
valley  in  Elis,  Peloponnesus,  Greece,  situated  on 
the  Alpheus.  It  is  famous  as  the  seat  of  a  cele- 
brated sanctuary  of  Zeus  and  the  Olympic  Games, 
the  most  important  of  the  great  public  games  of 
classical  antiquity. 

Olympla  (o-llm'-pl-d),  or  Olymplas  (d4lm'-pl-as). 
From  the  Greek,  meaning  "belonging  to  Olympus," 
"divine."  Fr.,  Olvmpe;  Gr.,  Olympias;  Lat., 
Olympias  or  Olympia. 

Omaha  (d'-md-hd).  City  in  Douglas  County, 
Nebraska.  An  Indian  word,  meaning  "up-stream," 
also  the  name  of  a  tribe  designated  as  "upstream 
people." 

Oneida  (o-ni'-dd)  Lake,  N.  Y.  The  name  of  an 
Indian  tribe,  the  word  signifying  "the  people  of 
the  beacon  stone,"  so  named  from  a  tradition  con- 
cerning a  certain  stone  which  followed  them  in 
their  wanderings,  finally  resting  on  the  summit  of 
one  of  their  highest  hills,  fro:n  which  their  beacon 
fires  could  be  seen  the  greatest  distance,  and  upon 
which  they  afterwards  assembled  to  hold  council 
or  prepare  for  war. 

Onondaga  (dn-dn-d6'-gd)  Lake,  N.  Y.  From  a 
tribe  of  Indians,  the  On-ti-ah-an-taque,  the  word 
meaning  "the  place  of  the  hills,"  also  translated 
as  "the  marsh  at  the  foot  of  the  hill." 

Ontario  (dn-td'-rl-o).  One  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
county  in  New  York,  and  a  village  in  Vernon 
County,  Wisconsin.  An  Indian  word,  said  by  one 
authority  to  mean  "beautiful  lake";  by  another, 
"beautiful  prospect  of  rocks,  hills,  and  water." 
Still  another  derives  the  word  from  the  native 
Onontac,  "the  village  on  the  mountain,"  and  chief 
seat  of  the  Onandagas. 

Opellka  (dp-e-il'-kd),  Ala.  Taken  from  the 
swamp's  name,  the  Seminole  name  of  which  was 
opilualaikata,  "a  large  swamp." 

Ophelia  {6-fe'4i-d,  o-fel'-yd).  From  the  Greek, 
meaning  "help,"  "usefulness."  Fr.,  Oph^lie;  Gr., 
Ophelia;  Lat.,  Ophelia. 

Orange  Free  State.  So  called  because  the  origi- 
nal settlers  were  emigrants  from  the  principality  of 
Orange,  in  Holland.  Now  called  Orange  River 
Colony. 

Orangemen  (6r'-Sn]'-mSn).  Irish  Protestants. 
The  name  was  given  about  the  end  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  by  Roman  Catholics  to  the 
Protestants  of  Ireland,  on  account  of  their  support 
of  the  cause  of  William  III.  of  England,  prince  of 
Orange. 

Oregon  (dr'-e-gdn).  State  of  the  Union,  and  a 
county  in  Missouri.  The  name  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  Origanum,  a  species  of  wild  sage 
found  along  the  coast  in  the  State, .  but  another 


MISCELLANY 


833 


authority  states  that  it  is  derived  from  the  Spanish 
Oregones,  which  name  was  given  the  Indian  tribes 
inhabiting  that  region,  by  a  Jesuit  priest,  the  word 
meaning  "big-eared  men." 

Origen  {dr'-i-jen).  Meaning,  "descended  from 
Horus,"  an  Egyptian  deity.  Fr.,  Origene;  Gr., 
Origenes;  Lat.,  Origenes. 

Orkney  (ork'-ne)  Isles.  Expresses  the  Gaelic  for 
the  "isles  of  whales,  or  porpoises." 

Orlando  (dr4an'-dd).  A  form  of  Roland.  It., 
Orlando;  Lat.,  Orlandus. 

Orleans  {6r'-le-dnz.  French,  6r-la-ati') .  Means 
"Aurelian's  city,"  from  Aurelianum,  named  after 
the  Emperor  Aurelian. 

Orson.  A  masculine  name,  derived,  like  the 
Italian  Orso,  from  the  Latin  ursus,  "a  bear." 

Osage  {d-sdf,  o'-saj)  River,  Mo.  From  the 
Indian,  translated  "the  strong." 

Osawattoniie  (ds-d-wdt'-O-me),  Kan.  A  composite 
word,  Osa  and  Wottoinie,  formed  from  the  names  of 
the  rivers  Osage  and  Pottawottomie. 

Oscar.  From  the  Old  German  name  Oskar, 
"very  renowned." 

Oskaloosa  {6s-kd4oo' -sd)  Kan.  A  compound 
word,  Oska,  name  of  an  Indian  chief,  Loosa,  his 
wife. 

Osmund.  Some  translate  this  name  "house- 
peace."  Wachter  renders  it  "excellent,  gallant, 
brave  man." 

Oswald  (dz'wald).  From  Old  German  os-walt, 
"illustrious  magistrate,  prefect  or  administrator." 

Oswego  (ds-we'-go),  N.  Y.  From  the  river,  the 
Iroquois  name  being  oswageh,  "flowing  out." 

Otho  (o'-tho),  or  Otto  {6t'-td).  Some  translate 
Otho  "happy,"  and  Otto  "rich,"  but  they  would 
seem  to  be  the  same  name.  It  comes  from  Old 
German  od,  "excelling,  happv,  fortunate."  Dutch, 
Otto;  Fr.,  Othon;  Gcr.,  Otto;  It.,  Ottone;  Lat., 
Otho;  Sp.,  Otonio;  Sw.,  Otto. 

Ottawa  (pt'-d-wd).  The  capital  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  stands  on  the  River  Ottawa,  which  pre- 
serves the  name  of  the  Ottawa  or  Otaua  tribe,  an 
Algonquin  term  meaning  "traders,"  literally,  "he 
trades." 

Ottoman  {ot'-to-man)  Empire.  The  official  title 
of  the  realm  subject  to  the  Sultan,  takes  its  name 
from  Othman,  the  Emir  under  whom  the  Turks 
first  advanced  into  Europe.  Othman  is  the  Tartar 
word  ataman,  which  we  have  in  the  title  of  the 
Hetman  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and  means  a  "com- 
mander of  horse,"  at,  "a  horse." 

OxiA  {6v' -uL) .  From  the  Latin,  meaning  "goat," 
or  "sheep,"  or  both.  Dutch,  Ovidius;  Fr.,  Ovide; 
Ger.,  Ovidius;  It.,  Ovidio;  Lat.,  Ovidius. 

Owego  (o-we'-go),  N.  T.  Delaware  Indian  word, 
ahwaga,  "where  the  valley  widens." 

Owen.  Probably  from  the  Irish  name  Eogan, 
signifying  "youth." 

Oxford.  Anglo-Saxon  Oxnaford,  the  "ford  of  the 
oxen,"  is  a  name  of  the  same  class  as  Shefford,  the 
"sheep  ford,"  Hertford  and  Swinford  in  England, 
or  Ochsenfurt  and  Schweinfurt  in  Germany. 

Ozark  {6-zark').  County  and  city  in  Christian 
County,  Missouri,  and  village  in  Dale  County, 
Alabama.  A  corruption  of  the  French  name 
auxarcs,  meaning  "with  bows,"  a  term  descriptive 
of  the  Indians  who  inhabited  the  country.  It  is 
also  claimed,  especially  for  the  mountains,  that  the 
name  is  a  provincial  composite  of  the  river  Osage 
and  Arkansas,  lying  between  the  Oz  and  Ark,  i.  e., 
osark. 

Pacific  Ocean.  Is  the  English  translation  of 
Mar  Pacifico,  or  Oceano  Pacifico,  the  somewhat 
inappropriate  name  bestowed  by  Magellan,  in 
1521,  on  the  great  ocean  which  he  was  the  first  to 
traverse. 

Paducah  (pd-du'-kd),  Ky.  From  the  name  of 
an  Indian  chief,  "Paducah." 

Palestine  (pdl'Ss-tln).  From  the  Greek  Palas- 
tina,  a  name  indicating  that  the  Greek  mariners 


first  knew  Canaan  as  the  land  of  the  Philistines 
inhabiting  the  coast.  The  latter  arrived,  probably 
from  Cyprus,  after  the  Hebrew  conquest  and  before 
the  time  of  Rameses  III.,  on  whose  monuments 
they  appear  as  Pidista. 

Palisades  (p&l-i-sddz'),  The.  A  basaltic  bluff 
extending  along  the  western  shore  of  the  Hudson 
in  the  States  of  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  It 
commences  opposite  the  northern  part  of  New 
York  City,  and  continues  northward  about  eighteen 
miles.     Height,  200-500  feet. 

Pall  Mall  {pU-mW).  A  fine  street  in  London, 
leading  from  Trafalgar  Square  to  the  Green  Park. 
Its  name  is  a  modern  spelling  of  paille  maille,  the 
title  of  a  French  game  of  ball  somewhat  similar  to 
croquet,  first  played  in  this  London  thoroughfare 
about  1621. 

Palo  Alto  {pa' -Id  al'-to).  Town  in  Santa  Clara 
County,  California.  A  Spanish  phrase  meaning 
"high  stick." 

Pamlico  {p&m' -Llk-o)  Sound,  N.  C.  From  a  tribe 
of  Indians  called  the  Pamlicoes. 

Pamphlet.  This  word  is  derived  from  the 
name  of  a  Greek  authoress,  Pamphylia,  who  com- 
piled a  history  of  the  world  in  thirty-five  little 
books. 

Panama  (p&n-d-md'.  Spanish,  pd-nd-maf) .  Was 
the  native  name  of  a  village  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
the  Gulf  and  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Here,  in  1518, 
Davila  founded  the  oldest  existing  city  in  America. 
Panama  is  believed  to  be  a  Guarani  word  meaning 
a  "butterfly,"  and  also,  according  to  Wullerstorf, 
signifying  a  "mudfish,"  perhaps  because  the  flaps 
of  the  mudfish  resemble  the  wings  of  a  butterfly. 
From  the  town  of  Panama  the  name  was  extended 
to  the  Isthmus  and  Gulf. 

Panama  Bay.     The  bay  of  "mudfish.", 

Paolo.     See  Paul. 

Papua  {pd'-p6b-d).  A  Portuguese  term  for 
"frizzled,"  in  alluding  to  the  enormous  frizzled 
heads  of  hair  worn  by  the  natives. 

Paraguay  (par'-d-gwa).  River  and  republic  of 
South  America,  meaning  "the  river  of  waters," 
referring  to  its  numerous  tributaries. 

Paris  (pdr'-is.  French,  pd-re').  From  the 
name  of  the  Keltic  tribe  Parisii.  It  was  called  by 
the  Romans  Lutetia  Parisiorum,  the  "bright  city  of 
the  Parisii,"  from  the  white  stone  used  in  building. 

Parkersburg.  City  in  Wood  County,  West  Vir- 
ginia, named  for  Alexander  Parker  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Pamell  {par'-ruU).  A  feminine  name  corrupted 
from  Petronilla. 

Parry  Islands.  Named  for  the  famous  Arctic 
navigator.  Sir  W.  E.  Parry,  to  whom  their  discovery 
was  due. 

Pasadena  (p&s-d-de'-nd).  City  in  Los  Angeles 
County,  California.  An  Indian  word  meaning 
"crown  of  the  valley." 

Paschal  (p&s'-k&l.  French,  pds-kdV).  Means 
"belonging  to  Easter,"  or  "born  at  Easter."  Gr., 
Pascal;  It.,  Pasquale;  Lat.,  Paschalis;  Sw.,  Pas- 
cual. 

Passaic  {p&s-sa' -Ik) .  County,  city,  and  river  in 
New  Jersey;  derived  either  from  the  Indian  word 
Passaic  or  Passajeek,  "a  valley,"  or  from  the 
Indian  equivalent  of  "peace." 

Passamaquoddy  (j>&s-sd-md-kw6d'-dl).  Bay  on 
coast  of  Maine.  An  Indian  word  meaning  "pollock 
ground,"  or  "pollock-plenty  space." 

Passumpsic  (pds-sump'-slk)  River,  Vt.  Indian 
word  meaning  "much  clear  river." 

Patagonia  {pdt-d-go' -nl-d) .  So  styled  by  Ma- 
gellan in  accordance  with  the  Spanish  word  patagon, 
meaning  a  "large,  clumsy  foot."  It  was  from  the 
fact  of  seeing  the  impressions  of  the  large  shoes  of 
the  aborigines  that  he  at  once  concluded  the  coun- 
try must  be  inhabited  by  giants. 

Patapsco  (pd-tdps'-ko)  River,  Md.  From  the 
Indian  name  patapsqui,  "black  water." 


834 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


Paternoster  Row  (pd'-ter  nds'-ter  ro).  A  street 
ill  London,  iiortli  of  St.  Paul's,  long  famous  as  a 
center  of  book  publishing.  It  is  said  to  be  so 
named  from  the  prayer  books  or  rosaries  sold  in  it. 

Paterson.  City  in  Passaic  County,  New  Jersey, 
named  for  William  Patterson,  an  early  governor. 

Patience.  Found  as  a  masculine  as  well  as  a 
feminine  name.     The  name  explains  itself. 

Patrick  (pdt'-rik).  From  the  Latin  Patricius, 
meaning  "patrician,"  "noble."  Dutch,  Patricius; 
Ft.,  Patrice;  It.,  Patrizio;  Lat.,  Patricius;  Sp., 
Patricio. 

Paul  {p6l.  French,  pol.  German,  powl).  A 
name  derived  from  the  Hebrew,  signifying  "small 
in  stature."  Danish,  Paul  or  Paulus;  Dutch, 
Paulus;  Fr.,  Paul;  Ger.,  Paul;  Gr.,  Paulos;  Hun- 
garian, Pal;  It.,  Paolo;  Lat.,  Paulus;  Polish, 
Pawel;  Port.,  Paulo;  Russ.,  Pavel;  Sp.,  Pablo; 
Sw.,  Paul. 

Paulina  (p64e'-nd,  p6-ll'-nd).  The  feminine  of 
Paul.  Fr.,  Pauline;  Ger.,  Pauline;  It.,  Paolina; 
Lot.,  Paulina. 

Pauline  {p6-len'.  French,  po-len').  A  French 
name  derived  from  the  Roman  name  Paulina. 

Payette  (pd-Sf)  River,  Idaho.  Named  by  a 
French  trapper,  Jose  Payette. 

Peabody  Institute.  An  institute  at  Baltimore, 
founded  by  George  Peabody,  and  containing  a 
library,  conservatory  of  music,  art  gallery,  etc. 

Pearl  River,  Miss.  The  Indian  name  was 
Tallahatchie,  signifying  "river  of  pearls,"  of  river 
stones,  obtained  from  a  peculiar  shell  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  canoes;  supposed  to  be  a  kind 
of  oyster. 

Pecos  ipd'-kos)  River,  Tex.  Named  by  the 
Spaniards,  from  pecoso,  "freckled,"  a  local  sug- 
gestion in  the  appearance  of  its  waters. 

Pedro.     See  Peter. 

PeeksklU.  Village  in  Westchester  County,  New 
York,  named  for  Jan  Peek,  a  Dutch  mariner  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century. 

Pekln  ipe-kln'),  or  Peking  (pe-fcin^'),  Chinese, Pc^- 
king.  The  "north  court"  or  "northern  capital," 
has  been  so  called  since  1421,  when  the  third  Ming 
Emperor  transferred  hither  the  residence  of  the 
court  from  Nanking,  the  "southern  court." 

Pembina  (^pSm'-be-nd),  Dak.  Contraction  of 
Ojibway  Indian  word  anepeminan,  a  red  berry 
growing  in  that  vicinity,  which  Michaux  regards  as 
a  variety  of  the  cranberry  of  the  East. 

Pend  Oreille  (pend-d-rel')  Lake,  Idaho.  From  the 
French,  meaning  "ear-ring,"  suggested  by  its 
shape. 

Penelope  {pe-nW -o-pe) .  The  Greek  name  which 
some  render  "female  weaver";  others  define  it 
"a  web,"  and  "a  garment,"  because  the  wife  of 
Ulysses  was  the  best  weaveress.  Fr.,  P6ndlope; 
Gr.,  Penelope;  Lat.,  Penelope. 

Pennsylvania.  William  Penn  originally  de- 
signed calling  the  territory  "New  Wales,"  but 
afterward  suggested  the  word  Sylvania,  as  suitable 
for  a  land  covered  with  forests.  The  King  of 
England,  in  1681,  prefixed  the  word  "Penn"  in 
honor  of  William  Penn;  literal  translation,  "Penn's 
woods." 

Pennsylvania  Ave.  The  principal  avenue  of 
Washington,  D.  C.  Its  most  important  section 
lies  between  the  capitol  and  the  treasury. 

Penobscot  (pe-n6b'-sk6t).  Derived  from  the 
Indian  word  penobskeag,  meaning  "rocky  place," 
or  "river  of  rocks."  Also  said  to  be  the  name  of 
an  Indian  tribe. 

Pensacola  {p^n-sa-ko' -Id) .  Bay  and  city  in 
Escambia  County,  Florida.  Said  to  be  derived 
from  the  Indian  word  Pan-sha-okla,  meaning  "hair 
people."  The  French  gave  to  the  bay  the  name 
of  Port-de-Aucloss,  also  Bai  de  St.  Mari'ette. 

Peoria  (pe-o'-ri-d).  County  and  city  in  Illinois 
and  nation  in  Indian  Territory.  An  Indian  word 
meaning  "place  where  there  are  fat  beasts." 


Pcrclval  (per'-si-val).  An  old  masculine  bap- 
tismal name,  derived  from  a  local  name  in  Nor- 
mandy. It  probably  means  "companion  of  tlie 
chalice." 

Percy.  A  name  derived  from  Perci,  a  i)arish  and 
canton  near  St.  Lo,  in  Normandy. 

Peregrine  (per'-e-grhi).  From  the  Latin,  mean- 
ing "foreign,"  "pilgrim,"  "traveler."  Danish, 
Peregrinus;  Dutch,  Peregrinus;  It.,  Peregrino; 
Lat.,  Peregrinus;  -Sw;.,  Peregrinus. 

P«re-la-Chalse  or  Pere  Lachalse  (pdr  la-shdz'). 
The  Persian  cemetery  so  named  is  the  site  of  a 
great  monastery  founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  of  which 
Pere  la  Chaise,  a  favorite  confessor  of  that  luxuri- 
ous monarch,  was  the  first  superior.  He  died  in 
1709.  After  the  Revolution,  the  grounds  were  laid 
out  for  a  cemetery. 

Pernambuco  (pSr-ndm-bod'-ko).  An  important 
city  of  Brazil.  Means  "the  mouth  of  hell,"-  in 
allusion  to  the  violent  surf  always  distinguished 
at  the  mouth  of  its  chief  river,  the  Ama- 
zon. 

Persepolls  (per-sSp'-d-lls).  In  ancient  geography, 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  Persian  Empire,  situated 
not  far  from  the  Kur,  about  thirty-five  miles  north- 
east of  the  modern  Shiraz. 

Persia  {per'-shl-d,  per'-shd,  per'-zhd).  Name 
given  by  the  Greeks  to  the  region,  the  capital  of 
which  was  Persepolis,  originally  overrun  by  a  wild 
branch  of  the  Ayrian  race  called  the  Parsa,  meaning 
in  the  native  tongue  "the  tigers."  The  Persian 
name  for  the  country  is  Iran. 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.  One  of  its  landed  proprie- 
tors was  James  Drummond,  the  Earl  of  Perth,  who 
named  the  original  settlement  Towne  of  Perth ;  the 
point  of  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan  was 
known  as  Ambo  Point,  and  early  attachment  or 
consolidation  gave  its  present  name. 

Peru  {pe-rob').  Received  its  name  from  its 
principal  river,  the  Rio  Paro,  upon  which  stands 
the  ancient  city  of  Paruru.  The  Brazilian  term 
Para,  however  modified,  is  at  all  times  suggestive 
of  a  river. 

Peter  (pe'-ter).  From  the  Greek,  signifying  a 
"rock,"  properly,  a  "stone."  Danish,  Peder; 
Dutch,  Fieter;  Fr.,  Tierre;  Ger.,  Peter;  Gr.,  Petros; 
Hungarian,  Peter;  It.,  Pietro;  Lat.,  Petrus; 
Polish,  Piotr;  Port.,  Pedro;  Russ.,  Piotr;  Sp., 
Pedro;  Sw.,  Peter. 

Petersburg  or  St.  Petersburg.  Properly  Peter- 
burg  or  St.  Peterburg,  the  capital  of  Russia,  was 
founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  who,  having  in  1702 
taken  the  Swedish  forts  on  the  Neva,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  laid  the  foundations  of  a  fort  which  he 
called  Peterburg  (Fort  Peter),  on  an  island  in  the 
Neva,  the  nucleus  and  now  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated portion  of  the  city. 

Petersburg,  Va.  Originally  named  Peter's  Point, 
after  the  trader  Peter  Jones,  who  opened  a  depot 
here. 

Pharaoh  (Jd'-ro,  fd'-rd-o).  A  title  given  to  the 
Egyptian  kings.  From  the  Hebrew  Paroh,  which 
has  been  variously  translated  "son  of  the  sun," 
"mouth  of  the  sun,"  "voice  of  God,"  and  "sun" 
only.  The  proper  meaning  of  the  word  is  "the 
king"  or  "great  house." 

Phebe.     See  Phoebe. 

Philadelphia  (JU-d-dW-fl-d),  Pa.  From  two 
Greek  words  meaning  "loved  or  friendly,"  and 
"brother,"  appli6d  as  "brotherly  love."  The 
Indian  name  of  the  locality  was  Coaquannok, 
"grove  of  tall  pine  trees." 

Philemon  ^(fi-le'-mdn).  Means  "saluting."  Fr., 
Phil6mon;  Gr.,  Philemon;  It.,  Filemone;  Lat., 
Philemon. 

Phlletus  {fi4e'-tils).  From  the  Greek,  meaning 
"beloved."  Gr.,  Philetos;  It.,  Fileto;  Lat., 
Philetus. 

Phlllbert  (fU'-e-bert),  or  Phllebert.  From  the 
Teutonic,  signifying  "famously  bright."      Danish, 


MISCELLANY 


835 


Philibert;  Fr.,  Philibcrt;  It.,  Filiberto;  Lat., 
Philebcrtus. 

Philip  (Jll'-ip).  From  the  Greek  name  signi- 
fying, "fond  of  horses."  Dutch,  Philippus;  Fr., 
Phihppe;  GVr.,  Pliilipp;  (Vr.,  Phili])pos;  Hiingnrian, 
Filep;  It.,  Filippo;  Lat.,  Philippus;  Polish,  Filip; 
Port.,  Felippe;  Russ.,  Pliilipp  or  FiUp;  Sp.,  Felipe; 
Sw.,  FiUp. 

Pliilippa  (Jl-ltp'-pd).  A  feminine  name  formed 
from  Philip.  Dutch,  Philippa;  Ger.,  Philippine; 
Gr.,  Philippa;  It.,  FiUppa;  Lat.,  Philippa;  Sp., 
Felipa;  Sw.,  Filippina. 

Phillppi  (fil-ip'-i).  Named  after  Philip  of  Mace- 
don. 

Philippines  (fU'-ip-inz).  Were  discovered  by 
Magellan  on  the  Feast  of  St.  Lazarus,  1521,  and 
hence  called  by  him  Archipelago  de  San  Lazaro, 
a  name  changed  in  1542  to  Islas  Filipinas  in  honor 
of  Philip  II.,  in  whose  reign  the  Spanish  coloniza- 
tion of  the  islands  was  begun. 

Phillis.  Derived  from  the  Greek  Phyllis,  name 
of  a  country  woman  introduced  in  Virgil's  Eclogues, 
and  of  a  nurse  of  Lycurgus,  King  of  Thrace,  and  of 
a  nurse  of  the  Emperor  Domitian.  It  means  "a 
green  branch  covered  with  leaves,  a  leaf,  foliage, 
a  heaf)  of  leaves." 

Phineas  (fin'-e-as).  From  the  Hebrew 
Pixjnhhas,  "mouth  of  brass."  Fr.,  Phineas;  It., 
Fineo;  Lat.,  Phineas;  Sp.,  Phinees. 

Phoebe  (Je'-be).  From  the  Greek  name,  meaning 
"clear,  pure,  bright."  Fr.,  Ph6b^;  Gr.,  Phoibe; 
It.,  Febe;  Lat.,  Phoebe. 

Phyllis*     See  Phillis. 

Piccadilly  {pik' -kd-dll-li) .  The  great  thoroughfare 
in  London  between  Hyde  Park  Corner  and  the 
Haymarket.  The  street  was  named  from  a  house 
of  entertainment  (Piccadilly  House)  which  stood  in 
the  Haymarket  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  The  name 
originally  comes  from  the  picardils  or  small  stiff 
collars  once  worn  by  English  gallants. 

Pierre.     See  Peter. 

Pieter.     See  Peter. 

Pletermaritzburg  (pe-ter-mdr'-lts-bUrg).  Named 
after  two  Boer  leaders. 

Pietro.     See  Peter. 

Pike's  Peak.  One  of  the  highest  summits  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  situated  in  Colorado,  seventy 
miles  south  by  west  of  Denver.  It  was  discovered 
and  ascended  in  1806,  by  Lieutenant  (afterwards 
General)  Zebulon  Montgomery  Pike,  a  surveying 
officer  of  the  United  States,  for  whom  it  was  named. 

Pillars  of  Hercules.  In  ancient  geography,  the 
two  opposite  promontories  Calpe  (Gibraltar)  in 
Europe  and  Abyla  in  Africa,  situated  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  tlie  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  sentinels,  as 
it  were,  at  the  outlet  from  the  Mediterranean  into 
the  unknown  Atlantic. 

Pincian  (pin'-chdn)  Hill.  A  hill  in  the  northern 
part  of  Rome,  extending  in  a  long  ridge  east  from 
the  Tiber.     One  of  the  famous  "Seven  Hills." 

Pin  3Ioney.  Catharine  Howard,  wife  of  Henry 
VIII.,  introduced  pins  into  England  from  France. 
As  they  were  expensive  at  first,  a  separate  sum  for 
this  luxury  was  granted  to  the  ladies  by  their  hus- 
bands.    Hence  the  expression  "pin-money." 

Plscataqua  {pis-k&f -d-kwd)  River,  N.  H.  From 
the  Indian  Piscataquanke,  "a  great  deer  place." 

Pittsburg.  In  Pennsylvania,  was  originally 
called  Fort  Du  Quesne,  after  a  French  Governor  of 
Canada,  and  afterward,  in  1758,  when  the  French 
had  been  driven  out  by  Washington,  it  was  renamed 
Fort  Pitt,  after  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham, 
the  name  Pittsburg  being  adopted  in  1769. 

Pius.  From  the  Latin,  meaning  "pious."  Fr., 
Pie;  Ger.,  Pius;  It.,  Pio;  Lat.,  Pius. 

Plantagenet  (plan-tdf-e-net).  House  of.  A  line 
of  Enghsh  kings  (1154-1399)  founded  by  Henry  II., 
son  of  GeoiTrey,  count  of  Anjou,  and  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  assumed  by  the  first  count  of  that  name 


from  his  having  caused  himself  to  be  scourged  with 
branches  of  broom  (planta  qenesta)  as  penance  for 
some  crime  he  had  committed. 

Plata,  Rio  de  la  (rc'-o  da  Id  pld'-tn).  I.,iterally, 
"river  of  tlic  silver,"  was  named  by  Sebastian  Cabot, 
in  1526,  by  reason  of  a  few  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, the  earnest  of  the  wealth  of  Peru,  which  he 
obtained  by  barter  from  the  natives,  and  which  he 
hoped  were  an  indication  of  an  El  Dorado  in  the 
interior. 

Platte  (pldt).  River  in  Nebraska,  Colorado,  and 
Wyoming.  A  French  word  meaning  "dull,  flat, 
shallow,"  singularly  applicable  to  this  stream. 

Pliny  (plln'-i).  From  the  Roman  naturalist 
Caius  Plinius.  J^r.,  Pline;  Ger.,  Plinius;  /<.,  Plinio; 
Lat.,  Plinius. 

Plymouth  (plim'-uth).  Town  in  Plymouth 
County,  Massachusetts,  the  landing  place  of  the 
Pilgrims,  which  was  named  for  the  town  in  England 
where  they  were  most  hospitably  entertained  before 
sailing  for  America.  The  English  town  was  so 
called  because  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Plym. 

Pocomoke  (po'-ko-mok)  River,  Md.  From  its 
Indian  name  pockhammokik,  "broken  by  knobs, 
small  hill." 

Poets*  Corner.  A  space  in  the  east  side  of  the 
south  transept  of  Westminster  Abbey,  containing 
the  tablets,  statues,  busts,  or  monuments  of 
Shakespere,  Ben  Jonson,  Chaucer,  Milton,  Spenser, 
and  other  British  poets,  actors,  divines,  and  great 
men.  Some  of  them  are  buried. near  or  under  their 
monuments. 

Point  Comfort,  Va.  Given  to  the  locality  in 
1607  by  the  first  colonists  on  their  voyage  of  ex- 
ploration up  the  James  River,  called  "  Poynt  Comfort 
on  accounte  of  the  goode  channel  and  safe  anchorage 
it  offered." 

Point  Judith,  R.  I.  From  Judith  Quincy,  wife 
of  John  Hull,  the  coiner  of  the  rare  old  pine-tree 
shillings  of  1652. 

Point  Plnos  (pe'-nos),  Cal.  Named  Pinta  de 
Pinos  by  Vizcaino,  in  1603,  from  the  prevalence  of 
the  pine-tree. 

Point  Reyes  (point  rd'-es),  Cal.  From  Tres 
Reyes,  name  of  the  vessel  commanded  by  Aguilar 
of  Vizcaino's  Spanish  expedition,  1603. 

Poitiers  or  Poictiers  (poi-terz'.  French,  jiwd-ti-d'). 
Town  in  France,  so  named  from  the  Pictones,  or 
Pictavi,  a  Keltic  people. 

Poland.  An  inversion  of  Land-Pole,  the  Slavonic 
for  "men  of  the  plains,"  who  first  overran  this 
territory.  It  is  called  Polen  or  Pohlen  in  German, 
Pologne  in  French,  and  Polska  in  Polish. 

Pompey  (pdm'-pi).  From  the  Latin  meaning 
"of  Pompeii,"  i.  e.,  the  city  of  Pompeii.  Danish, 
Pompejus;  Dutch,  Pompejus;  Fr.,  Pompee;  It., 
Pompeo;  Lat.,  Pompeius. 

Porapey's  Pillar.  A  Corinthian  column  of  beau- 
tifully polished  red  granite  at  Alexandria,  standing 
on  a  pedestal  or  foundation  of  masonry. 

Pontchartraln  (pdnt-chdr-trdn').  Lake  in  Louisi- 
ana, named  for  a  French  count  who  was  an  early 
explorer  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Ponte  Vecchio  (pon'-te  vek'-ke-o).  A  bridge  in 
Florence,  over  the  Arno;  a  picturesque  structure 
with  three  wide  arches,  rebuilt  in  1345.  The 
roadway  is  bordered  on  both  sides  by  quaint  little 
shops,  except  over  the  middle  arch,  where  there  is 
an  opening.  Over  the  south  row  of  shops  is  carried 
a  gallery,  built  by  Vascari,  connecting  the  Pitti 
Palace  with  the  Uffizi  and  the  Palazzo  Vecchio. 

Popocatepetl  (pd-po-kd-td-pet'l).  The  loftiest 
volcano  in  Mexico,  means  the  "smoking  mountain." 
From  the  Aztec  popoca,  "he  smokes,  and  tepetl, 
a  "mountain." 

Porta  Magglore  (por'-td  mdd-]d'-rS).  The  finest 
and  most  imposing  ancient  gate  in  the  walls  of 
Rome. 

Portland,  Me.     In  1786,  "an  act  for  erecting  that 


836 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


part  of  the  Town  of  Falmouth  in  the  County  of 
Cumberiand  commonly  known  as  the  Neck  into  a 
town  by  the  name  of  Portland."  The  name  was 
recommended  from  its  being  the  oldest  English 
name  in  that  section,  given  to  a  large  island  in  the 
harbor,  the  name  of  tlie  main  channel  (Portland 
Sound)  and  the  mainland  opposite  (Portland  Head). 

Portland,  Oregon.  Named  in  compliment  to 
Portland,  Me.  F.  W.  Pettygrove  and  Gen.  A.  L. 
Lovejoy,  in  1843,  were  the  purchasers  of  what  was 
afterward  Portland,  and  of  which  ground  they  were 
the  first  occupants.  As  a  native  of  Maine,  Petty- 
grove  desired  to  compliment  Maine  in  naming  the 
locality,  and  similar  motives  prompted  his  partner 
to  call  it  Boston  (his  native  place).  The  contro- 
versy settled  by  tossing  an  old  American  red  cent ; 
the  one  who  threw  the  most  heads  in  three  flips 
should  name  the  town.  The  score  is  recorded; 
Lovejoy,  tails,  two,  heads,  one;  Pettygrove,  heads, 
two;  and  so  we  have  Portland  instead  of  Boston, 
Oregon. 

Portland  Vase.  A  famous  urn  of  blue  trans- 
parent cameo-cut  glass,  ten  inches  high.  It  was 
discovered  about  1630  in  a  sarcophagus  in  a  tomb 
in  the  Monte  del  Grano,  near  Rome.  It  is  so  called 
from  its  possessors,  the  Portland  family. 

Porto  Rico  (por'-to  re'-ko).  Spanish  for  "rich 
port." 

Port  Royal,  S.  C.  From  the  bay,  called  Royale 
by  Ribaut,  "because  of  the  fairnesse  and  largnesse 
thereof"  of  its  waters. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.  From  Portsmouth,  England ; 
the  governor  of  which,  Captain  John  Mason,  was 
the  original  proprietor  of  its  namesake. 

Portugal  (por'-tu-gal.  Portuguese,  por-too-gdl'). 
The  Partus  Gallice  of  the  Romans,  literally,  "the 
gates  of  Gaul,"  as  approached  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Atlantic  Seas. 

Potomac  (pd-to'-mak).  River  forming  the  boun- 
dary line  between  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  West 
Virginia.  Indian  Patowmek  or  Potowmak,  "they 
are  coming  by  water  ";  another  translation,  "place 
of  the  burning  pine,"  allusion  to  a  council  fire. 

Potsdam  {pots' -d&m.  German,  pots' -ddm).  Prus- 
sian city  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Nuthe  with 
the  Havel,  sixteen  miles  southwest  of  Berlin.  It  is 
an  imperial  residence,  and  contains  many  palaces. 
The  name  is  a  corruptioii  of  the  Slavonic  Pod- 
dubami,  "under  the  oaks." 

Poughkeepsie  (po-kip'-sl).  City  in  Dutchess 
County,  New  York.  Derived  from  the  Delaware 
Indian  word,  apokeepsingk,  meaning  "safe  and 
pleasant  harbor,  or  "shallow  inlet,  safe  harbor  for 
small  boats." 

Prado  (pra'-do).  The  chief  fashionable  prome- 
nade of  Madrid. 

Prague  (prog).  The  capital  of  Bohemia,  is  the 
English  form  of  the  German  Prag,  or  Praha,  which 
in  Czech  means  the  "threshold,"  referring,  it  is 
supposed,  to  a  reef  bf  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the 
Moldau.  The  suburb  of  Warsaw  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Vistula  similarly  goes  by  the  name  of 
Praga,  the  "threshold." 

Prairie  du  Chien  (prd'-re  du  shen.  French,  prd- 
re'  dil  she-&Tsi'),  la.  French  words,  translated  dog 
prairie";  from  the  local  habitations  of  the  prairie 
dogs. 

Prater  (pra'-th-).     A  noted  public  park  in  Vienna. 

Prescott,  Ariz,  In  compliment  to  the  American 
historian,  William  H.  Prescott. 

Pretoria  (pre-td'-rl-d).  The  capital  of  the 
Transvaal,  was  named  in  honor  of  Andries  Pre- 
torius,  a  Boer  leader,  whose  son  became  the  first 
President  of  the  Repubhc. 

Prince  Edward  Island.  In  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, was  formerly  called  St.  John's  Island.  In 
1798,  the  local  legislature  passed  an  Act,  confirmed 
in  1799  by  the  king  in  council,  changing  the  name 
to  Prince  Edward  Island,  in  compliment  to  Prince 
Edward,  afterward  Duke    of    Kent,  and  father  of 


Queen  Victoria,  who  was  then  commander  of  the 
forces  in  British  North  America. 

Prince  of  Wales  Island.  Named  after  the  Prince 
Regent,  afterwards  George  IV.  of  England. 

Printer's  Devil.  The  youngest  apprentice  in  a 
printing-office,  whose  duty  it  is  to  do  all  the  dirty 
jobs.  The  early  printers  were  by  many  believed 
to  practise  the  black  art;  Aldus  Manutius  had  a 
negro  boy  for  a  body  servant,  and  the  superstitious 
townsfolk  nicknamed  this  boy  "the  devil." 

Prlsciila  (prls-sU'-ld).  A  diminutive  of  the  Latin 
priscus,  "old,  ancient."  Dutch,  Priscilla;  Fr., 
Priscille;  It.,  Priscilla;  Lat.,  Priscilla. 

Protestant.  The  second  Diet  of  Spires,  in  1529, 
decided  that  the  religious  differences  could  only  be 
decided  by  an  ecclesiastical  council,  thus  disallowing 
the  right  of  private  judgment.  A  solemn  jirotest 
was  made  against  this  decision  by  the  Lutheran 
princes  of  Germany,  April  19,  1529,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  members  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
have  since  been  known  as  Protestants.  The  protest 
was  drawn  up  by  Luther  and  Melanchthon. 

Provence  (pro-vciNs').  An  ancient  government 
of  southeastern  France.  The  Provencia  of  Casar, 
a  name  reminding  us  that  it  was  the  first  province 
acquired  by  Rome  beyond  the  Alps. 

Providence,  R.  I.  Given  by  Roger  Williams  in 
recognition  of  "God's  merciful  providence  to  me  in 
rriy  distress."  The  Indian  name  of  the  locality  was 
Moosha7isick. 

Prudence.  A  feminine  name  given  by  Puritans. 
From  the  Latin  prudentia,  "wisdom,  prudence, 
discretion,  knowledge."  •    ' 

Prussia.  Is  the  Latinized  form  of  the  German 
name  Preussen,  itself  a  corrviption  of  an  older  Lithu- 
anian name.  Old  Prussia  was  the  Duchy  formed 
in  the  eastern  corner  of  the  modern  kingdom  out  of 
the  possessions  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  whose 
inhabitants  in  the  Tenth  Century  were  called 
Prutheni  or  Pruzzi,  which,  according  to  Zeuss,  is  a 
Lettish  name  meaning  "neighbors." 

Ptolemy  (tdl'-e-mi).  From  the  Greek,  meaning 
"war-like,"  or  "mighty  in  war."  Dutch,  Ptole- 
meus;  Fr.,  Ptol6mee;  Ger.,  Ptolemaus;  Gr., 
Ptolemaios;   It.,  Tolomeo;   Lat.,  Ptolemaeus. 

Pueblo  (pwSb'-ld).  County  and  important  man- 
ufacturing city,  in  same  county,  in  Colorado.  A 
Spanish  word  meaning  "a  collection  of  people,  a 
town  or  village." 

Punch  and  Judy.  A  contraction  for  Pontius  and 
Judas.  It  is  a  relic  of  an  old  miracle  play  in  which 
the  actors  were  Pontius  Pilate  and  Judas  Iscariot. 

Punjab  or  Punjaub  {pun-jiXh').  This  great  north- 
west Indian  territory  derives  its  name  from  two 
Persian  words,  signifying  "five  rivers."  The  five 
affluents  of  the  Indus  which  give  rise  to  the  name 
are  the  Jhelum,  the  Chenab,  the  Ravi,  the  Beas,  and 
the  Sutlej. 

Pyrenees  (pTr'-e-nez).  The  chain  separating 
France  from  Spain  is  the  Mons  Pyrenceus  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  geographers.  The  name  first 
appears  in  Herodotus,  who  supposed  Pyrene  was 
the  name  of  the  place  where  the  Danube  flowed. 
The  etymology  is  unknown,  being  probably  pre- 
Aryan.  Many  guesses  have  been  made  from 
Basque,  Keltic,  and  Greek  sources,  explaining  tlie 
name  as  the  "high,"  "steep,"  "pine-clad,"  or 
"burnt"  mountains.  The  most  probable  deriva- 
tion is  from  biren  or  pyren,  a  local  word,  doubtless 
ultimately  Basque  or  Iberian,  which  signifies  a 
"summit"  or  "ridge." 

Quakers.  This  name  was  originally  applied  by 
a  Derby,  England,  magistrate  to  the  members  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  because  George  Fox,  the 
founder,  admonished  him  and  those  present  to 
tremble  at  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

Quebec  {kwe-bek').  The  former  capital  of 
Canada,  arose  around  a  blockhouse  built  by  Cham- 
plain  in  1608.  The  name  is  believed  to  refer 
to  the    "narrowing"  of    the    river    at    this    point 


MISCELLANY 


837 


to  which  Champlain  alludes.  Another  account'says 
it  was  named  after  Quebesq  in  Brittany,  "the  vil- 
lage on  the  point";  while  a  third  derives  it  from 
an  Algonquin  term  signifying  "take  care  of  the 
rock." 

Queen  Charlotte  Island.  Named  in  compliment 
to  the  Queen  of  George  III. 

Queensland  and  Queenstown.  Both  named  after 
Queen  Victoria. 

Quehtin.     See  Quintin. 

Quinslgamond  {kwln-sig' -d-mond)  Lake,  Mass. 
Indian  word  meaning  "fishing  place  for  pickerel." 

Quintin,  Qulntyne  {kw\n'-tin).  From  the  Latin 
name  Quintinus,  formed  from  the  name  Quintus. 

Quintus  {kwln' -tus) .  The  Roman  name  signi- 
fying "the  fifth,"  i.  e.,  the  fifth  son  in  order  of 
birth. 

Quirinal  {kwlr' -In-dl  or  kwlr-l'-n&l).  The  farthest 
north  and  the  highest  of  the  seven  hills  of  ancient 
Rome,  lying  northeast  of  the  Capitoline  and  north- 
west of  the  Viminal.  It  has  its  name  from  an  old 
Sabine  sanctuary  of  Quirinus  (Mars).  On  the  hill 
stands  the  palace  of  the  Quirinal,  the  former 
summer  palace  of  the  pope. 

Quiz.  It  is  said  that  Daly,  the  manager  of  a 
Dublin  play-house,  laid  a  wager  that  a  new  word 
of  no  meaning  should  be  the  common  talk  and 
puzzle  of  the  city  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  the  letters  quiz  were  chalked  by 
him  on  all  the  walls  of  Dublin,  with  an  effect  that 
won  the  wager. 

Rachel  (rd'-chel).  From  the  Hebrew  RahheL, 
usually  translated  "a  ewe."  Fuerstius  translates 
the  name  "mutterschaft,"  i.  e.,  motherhood,  ma- 
ternity. Fr.,  Rachel;  Ger.,  Rahel  or  Rachel;  It., 
Rachele;  Lat.,  Rachel;  Sp.,  Raquel;   Sw.,    Rachel. 

Rafael.     See  Raphael. 

Rafacle  or  Raffaelle.     See  Raphael. 

Rahway  {ro'-wa),  N.  J.  From  the  river;  its 
name  traditionally  traced  to  a  Raritan  chief  named 
Rahwack,  who  had  his  habitation  near  the  river's 
mouth. 

Rainier  (ra'-ner).  Town  in  Columbia  County, 
Oregon,  and  mountain  in  Washington,  named  for 
Rear-Admiral  Rainier. 

Raleigh  (rS'-ll),  N.  C.  In  honor  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  located  a  colony  on  Roanoke  Island, 
July  23,  1587. 

Ralph.  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning  "warrior- 
wolf."  Dutch,  Rudolf;  Fr.,  Raoul;  It.,  Raolfo; 
Lat.,  Radulphus;   Sp.,  Rodolfo;   Sw.,  Rudolf. 

Randolph.  Properly  Radolph,  the  same  as  the 
German  names  Radulph,  Radolf,  Rudolph;  from 
Old  German  rad-zdph,  "help  or  counsel." 

Rangeley.  Town  and  plantation  in  Franklin 
County,  Maine,  and  one  of  the  Androscoggin 
lakes  in  the  same  State,  named  for  an  Englishman, 
an  early  settler  and  large  landowner. 

Rangoon  (rdn-goon').  The  chief  town  and  port 
of  Burmah  is  called  in  Burmese  Ran-kun,  the  end 
of  the  war,"  literally,  enmity  exhausted.  A  name 
given  in  1763,  by  Alompra,  the  founder  of  the 
Burmese  dynasty,  who,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
city  of  Pegu,  established  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
near  the  famous  golden  pagoda  called  Shwe  Da- 
gon,  with  which  Ran-kun  may  probably  be  con- 
nected by  assonance. 

Raoul.     See  Ralph. 

Raphael  {raf'-d-el,  rd'-faSl,  ra'-fd-U).  From  the 
Hebrew  R'phael,  "healed  of  God,  or  whom  God 
healed."  Fr.,  Raphael;  Ger.,  Raphael;  It., 
Rafaele  or  Raffaelle;    Lat.,  Raphael;    Sp.,  Rafael. 

Rapidan  {r&p-l-dan')  River,  N.  C.  Corruption  of 
Rapid  Anne.  The  suffix  being  given  in  honor  of 
Queen  Ann  of  England. 

Rappahannock  (rap-pd-h&n'-nuk)  River,  Va.  In- 
dian lappihanne,  "river  of  quick,  rising  water,"  also 
noted  as  toppehannock. 

Raritan  (rar'-i-tan)  River,  N.  J.  From  a  local 
tribe  of  Indians,  the  Raritans. 


Raymond.  A  name  derived  from  the  Teutonic, 
rarn-mund,  "a  strong  man."  Fr.,  Raymond;  It., 
Raimondo;  Lat.,  Raymundus;  Sp.,  Raymundo  or 
Ramon. 

Rebecca,  Rebekah  {re-ti^k' -kd) .  From  the  He- 
brew Ribhkah,  signifying  a  "rope  with  a  noose"; 
from  Arabic  rabkat,  which  Tregelles  says  means 
"one  who  ensnares  men  by  her  beauty."  Fr., 
Rebecca;  It.,  Rebecca;  Lat.,  Rebecca;  Sp.,  Re- 
beca. 

Red-letter  Day.  A  day  that  is  fortunate  or 
auspicious;  so  called  in  allusion  to  the  custom 
of  marking  holy  days,  or  saints'  days,  in  the  old 
calendars  with  red  letters. 

Red  River.  From  the  color  of  its  waters  it  was 
called  by  the  French  Riviere  Rouge,  "Red  River"; 
called  by  the  Spaniards  Rio  Roxo  de  Natchitoches. 

Red  Sea.  Translates  the  unexplained  classical 
names  Erythrasan  Sea  and  Mare  Ruhrum.  To  the 
early  Portuguese  mariners  the  name  Mar  Vermelho 
seemed  to  be  appropriate,  because  of  the  red  streaks 
of  water,  due  probably  to  floating  infusoria. 

Regents  (re'-jents)  Park.  One  of  the  largest 
parks  of  London,  situated  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  city.  It  is  472  acres  in  extent,  and  contains 
the  Zoological  Gardens. 

Regent  Street.  One  of  the  principal  streets  of 
the  West  End  of  London,  extending  from  Portland 
Place  to  Waterloo  Place. 

Regina  (re-jl'-nd).  A  feminine  name,  probably 
signifying  "queen,"  from  the  Latin.  Arthur 
translates  it  "queenlike." 

Reginald  (rej'-1-nald).  From  the  Old  German 
name  reginaZd,  ''noble  hero." 

Reims  or  Rheims  {remz.  French,  r&Ns).  A 
famous  French  city,  was  named  for  the  Remi,  a 
tribe. 

Reinhold.     See  Reynold. 

Rene  {re-nd').  From  the  French.  Like  the 
Italian  name  Renato,  derived  from  the  Latin, 
renatus,  "renewed,  born,  risen  or  begun  again." 
Fr.,  Ren6;  It.,  Renato;  Lat.,  Renatus. 

Renee.  Feminine  of  Rene.  Sometimes  Angli- 
cised in  pronunciation  as  ren'ne.  Fr.,  Ren^e;  It., 
Renata;  Lat.,  Renata. 

Retta.  A  feminine  name  derived  from  Mar- 
garetta. 

Reuben  (ru'-ben).  From  the  Hebrew,  R'ubhen, 
which  St.  Jerome  translates  "son  of  vision"; 
Tregelles,  "see";  i.  e.,  "behold  a  son." 

Reynold  (ren'-dld).  From  the  Teutonic,  meaning 
"power  of  Judgment."  Danish,  Reinhold;  Dutch, 
Reinold;  Fr.,  Renaud;  Ger.,  Reinhold;  Lat., 
Reynaldus  or  Reginaldus;  Sp.,  Reynaldo;  Sw., 
Reinhold. 

Rhine  (rln).  Is  the  English  spelling  of  the  Ger- 
man name  Rhein,  which  was  the  Latin  Rhenus 
and  the  Keltic  Renos.     It  means,  to  "flow." 

Rhoda  (ro'-dd).  A  feminine  name  derived 
from  the  Latin  r/wda,  "a  rose."  Gr.,  Rhode;  Lat., 
Rhoda. 

Rhode  (rod)  Island.  One  of  the  original  Thir- 
teen States,  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  a 
small  island  in  Narragansett  Bay  named  Roode 
Eylandt,  "red  island";  according  to  another 
authority,  named  for  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

Rhodes  (rodz).  Means  an  "island  of  roses,"  in 
conformity  with  the  Greek  rhodon,  a  "rose." 

Richard.  From  the  Teutonic  reich-hart,  "very 
powerful,  strong,  or  rich."  Dutch,  Richard;  Fr., 
Richard;  Ger.,  Richard  or  Reichard;  It.,  Ricardo; 
Lat.,  Richardus;  Port.,  Ricardo;  Sp.,  Ricardo. 

Richmond,  Va.  From  Richmond-on-the-Thames, 
a  suburb  of  London;  the  name  suggested  owing  to 
analogy  in  situation. 

Rio  Grande  (rl'-d-grdnd.  Spanish,  re'-o  gran' ~dd). 
River  rising  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  emptying 
into  the  Gulf  which  gives  n»me  to  a  county  in 
Colorado.  A  Spanish  phrase  meaning  "great 
river." 


838 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Rita  (re'-td).  A  feminine  name  of  Italian  origin; 
abbreviated  from  Margarita. 

Roanoke  (ro-d-nok').  County  and  city  in  same 
county  in  Virginia,  river  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina,  town  in  Huntington  County,  Indiana,  and 
village  in  Woodford  County,  111.  From  the  island 
of  same  name,  Roenoke  or  Rawnoke,  equivalent  to 
peag,  "sea-shell,"  or  "wampum." 

Robert.  Is  red-beard,  from  ru  or  ro,  "red,"  and 
hert  or  bart,  a  "beard."  Dr.  R.  S.  Maitland  gives 
no  fewer  than  two  hundred  different  metliods  of 
spelUng  this  name.  Rupert  and  Robert  are  identi- 
cal, and  were  used  occasionally  for  the  same  person. 
Danish,  Robert;  Dutch,  Robert;  Ger.,  Robert;  It., 
Roberto;  Lat.,  Robertus;  Sp.,  Roberto;  Sw., 
Robert. 

Robertina.  A  feminine  name  derived  from 
Robert.  * 

Robin.  A  diminutive  of  Rob,  the  nickname  of 
Robert. 

Rochester.  A  city  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
derives  its  name  from  Colonel  Nathaniel  Rochester, 
who  projected  the  settlement  in  1818. 

Rockaway,  N.  Y.  Named  from  the  Indian 
ackewek,  "bushy." 

Rocky  Mountains.  Were  first  called  Montagnes 
de  Pierres  BriUiantcs,  "mountains  of  brilliant 
stones,"  from  the  sparkling  of  the  summits  in  the 
sunshine.  Then  came  the  more  prosaic  Montagnes 
Rocheuses,  or  "  Rocky  Mountains  ;  and  our  present 
still  more  prosaic  "The  Rockies." 

Roderick  (rdd'-er-ik).  From  the  Old  German 
nanie  Roderic  or  Roderich,  from  rad-reich,  "rich 
or  powerful  in  counsel."  Fr.,  Rodrigue;  Ger., 
Roclerich;  It.,  Rodrigo;  Lat.,  Rodericus;  Russ., 
Rurik;  Sp.,  Rodrigo,  Roderigo,  or  Ruy. 

Rodrigo.     See  Roderick. 

Rodriguez  (Spanish,  ro-dre' -gUh) .  The  "son  of 
Roderick." 

Roger  (rdj'-er).  Some  translate  this  name 
"spear  of  fame,"  others  "spear-red."  It  comes 
from  rat-gar,  "a  war  councillor,"  or  ratgar,  "prompt 
in  counsel."  Dutch,  Rutger;  Fr.,  Roger;  It., 
Rugiero;  Lat.,  Rogerus;  Sp.,  Rogerio. 

Roland  or  Rowland  (ro'-land.  French,  ro-ZaN'). 
Derived  from  the  old  Frankish  name  signifying 
"illustrious  countrj-man."  Danish,  Roland;  Dutch, 
Roeland;  Fr.,  Roland;  Ger.,  Roland;  It.,  Orlando 
or  Rolando;  Lat.,  Rolandus;  Port.,  Rolando;  Sp., 
Rolando. 

Romanoff  {ro-ma'-ndf)  Cape,  Alaska.  Compli- 
ment to  the  prominent  Russian  statesman  Ro- 
manoff. 

Rome.  The  French  name  of  the  city  called 
Roma  in  Latin  and  Italian.  Among  the  various 
guesses  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  name,  the  most 
probable  refers  it  to  the  word  gruma  or  groma, 
cross  roads,"  spreading  themselves  at  their 
junction  into  a  sort  of  forum. 

Rosa.     See  Rose. 

Rosalia.  A  feminine  name  formed  from  the 
name  Rose. 

Rosalln  (rdz'-d-Un),  Rosalind  {rdz'-d-llnd).  A 
feminine  diminutive  formed  from  the  name 
Rose. 

Rosamond  (r6z'-A-mij,nd).  Probably  from  rosa 
mundi,  "rose  of  the  world,"  corrupted  to  "rose  of 
peace."  Dutch,  Rozamond;  Fr.,  Rosemonde; 
It.,  Rosmonda;  Lat.,  Rosamunda. 

Rose.  A  feminine  name  derived  from  the 
Latin  rosa,  a  "rose."  The  Romans  sometimes 
called  their  sweethearts  "rose  mea."  Danish, 
Rosa;  Dutch,  Rosa;  Fr.,  Rose;  Ger.,  Rose;  It., 
Rosa;  Lat.,  Rosa;  Sp.,  Rosa;  iSw.,  Rosa  or  Rosina. 

Rosemary.  A  feminine  name  formed  from  the 
Latin  rosmarinus,  "dew  of  the  sea." 

Rosetta  (ro-sH'-td).  A  diminutive  derived  from 
the  name  Rose,  or  f^om  the  Italian  form  Rosa. 

Ross.  Either  as  a  name  of  a  place  by  itself,  or 
as  a  portion  of  a  name,  always  means  "a  headland." 


It  is  a  Celtic  word,  and  is  frequent  in  Scotland,  as 
in  Rosslyn,  Culross,  Rossberg,  Ardrossan,  etc. 

Rotten  Row.  The  popular  name  corrupted  from 
Route  en  Roi,  "the  way  of  the  king,"  for  a  famous 
driveway  and  promenade  in  Hyde  Park,  London, 
much  frequented  by  fashionables  during  the  season. 

Roumanla  (rdd-nid'-nl-d).  A  modern  kingdom 
on  the  Lower  Danube,  comprising  the  former 
Turkish  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 
The  kingdom  was  so  named  because  the  people,  who 
speak  a  Neo-Latin  dialect  derived  from  tlie  colonists 
settled  by  Trajan  in  Dacia,  designate  themselves  as 
Rumeni  or  Romani  (Romans). 

Rouse's  Point,  N.  Y.  From  Jacques  Rouse,  a 
Canadian  who  settled  on  this  point  in  1783. 

Rowena  (ro-e'-nd).  A  feminine  name,  which 
some  con.sider  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  Mr.  Arthur 
derives  it  from  D.  rouw,  "peace";  Anglo-Saxon 
rinnan,  "to  acquire";  others  derive  it  from  the 
Welsh  rhonwen,  "white  shirt." 

Ruben.     See  Reuben. 

Rudolph  (rH'-ddlf).  From  root  of  Randolph 
and  Radolph.  Dutch,  Rudolf;  Fr.,  Rodolphe;  Ger., 
Rudolf;  It.,  Rodolfo  or  Ridolfo;  Lat.,  Rudolphus. 

Rufus  (rU'-fus).  From  the  Latin,  meaning 
"reddish,"  "having  red  hair."     Lat.,  Rufus. 

Rupert  (rU'-pSrt).  Etymologically  the  same 
name  as  Robert.     Ger.,  Ruprecht;    Lat.,  Rupertus. 

Rurik.     See  Roderick. 

Russia  (rUsh'-d,  roo'-shd).  Named  from  the 
Roosi,  or  Russ,  a  tribe  of  Norsemen  in  the  Ninth 
Century. 

Ruth.  From  the  Hebrew  Ruth,  from  r'uth, 
"appearance,  vision,  fig,  beauty." 

Sablna  (sd-bl'-nd).  A  feminine  name  derived 
from  Sabina,  wife  of  Adrian,  celebrated  for  her 
private  as  well  as  her  public  virtues;  one  as  chaste 
as  a  Sabine.  Dutch,  Sabine;  Fr.,  Sabine;  It., 
Sabina;  Lat.,  Sabina;  Sp.,  Sabina;  Sw.,  Sabina. 

Sabine  (sd-ben')  River,  La.  Some  allege  that  it 
was  so  named  by  French  voyagers,  who  applied  the 
name  Sabine  because  of  a  lively  skirmi.sh  with  the 
Indians  on  its  banks,  for  wives.  More  likely  it 
means  "cypress,"  from  the  French  word. 

Saco  {so'-ko).  River,  and  city  in  York  County, 
Maine.  Derived  from  an  Indian  word  sohk  or 
sauk,  "pouring  out " ;  hence  the  outlet  or  discharge 
of  a  river  or  lake. 

Sacramento  (s&k-rd-mSn'-to).  River,  city,  and 
county  in  California,  named  by  the  Spaniards,  the 
word  meaning  "the  sacrament." 

Sag  Harbor.  Village  in  Suffolk  County,  New 
York.  Derived  from  the  Indian  word  saggaponack, 
"place  where  the  ground  nuts  grow." 

Saginaw  (sdg'-l-n6).  River,  county,  bay,  and 
city  in  Michigan.  Said  to  derive  its  meaning  from 
an  Indian  word,  sauk-sahcoon,  "pouring  out  at  the 
mouth,"  or  "an  outlet." 

Sahara  (sd-hd'-rd).  Is  simply  an  Arabic  term 
for  "desert." 

St.  Anthony,  Minn.  Named  St.  Anthony  by 
Hennepin  in  July,  1680;  a  reference  to  his  being  a 
RecoUet  of  the  Province  of  St.  Anthony  in  Artois, 
France.     Indian  name,  Owahmenah, ' '  falling  water.' 

St.  Augustine  (^sdnt  6'-gu,s-ten).  A  town  in 
Florida,  is  the  oldest  European  settlement  in  the 
United  States.  Don  Pedro  Menendez  de  Aviles, 
sent  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  1565  to  drive  out  the 
French  Protestant  refugees,  who,  three  years  before, 
had  reached  Albemarle  Sound,  arrived  off  the 
coast  of  Florida  on  St.  Augustine's  Day,  August 
28th,  and  gave  the  name  of  the  Saint  to  the  city 
which  he  founded  shortly  afterwards. 

St.  Bernard  {sdnt  ber-ndrd').  Great.  An  Alpine 
pass  leading  from  Martigny,  Valais,  Switzerland,  to 
Aosta,  Italy,  and  connecting  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Dora  Baltea.  It  was  traversed  by 
armies  in  Roman  and  medieval  times.  The  pas- 
sage by  the  French  army  under  Napoleon  in  May, 
1800,  is  especially  noteworthy. 


MISCELLANY 


839 


St.  Clair  River  (sdnt  klAr'),  3Iich.  Also  the 
lake,  was  named  in  honor  of  the  founder  of  the 
Franciscan  nuns,  from  the  fact  that  La  Salle  reached 
it  on  the  day  consecrated  to  her  (August  12th). 
He,  therefore,  named  it  Sainte  Claire  (St. 
Clara). 

St.  Croix  {sard  kroi')  River,  3Ie.  Means  "Holy 
Cross,"  and  was  named  by  De  Monts,  from  a  cir- 
cumstance in  the  two  rivers  of  its  mouth  forming  a 
cross. 

St.  Croix  River,  Wis.  Le  Seur  says,  it  wasorigi- 
nally  named  Madelaine  after  Madelaine  Radisson; 
then  changed  to  St.  Croix,  after  Monsieur  St.  Croix, 
who  was  drowned  at  its  mouth,  while  exploring, 
about  1700.  Indian  name  hogan-wauke-kim,  "the 
place  where  the  fish  lies." 

Saint  Ellas.  Mountain  in  Alaska,  named  for 
the  saint  upon  whose  day  it  was  discovered. 

St.  George's  Channel.  Named  after  the  patron 
saint  of  England 

St.  Helena  (sdnt  M-le'-nd).  An  island  in  the 
South  Atlantic  belonging  to  Great  Britain.  Napo- 
leon was  exiled  there,  and  resided  at  Longwood  from 
1815  until  his  death  in  1821. 

St.  James's  Palace.  A  palace  in  London,  adapt- 
ed as  a  royal  residence  by  Henry  VIII.,  enlarged  by 
Charles  I.,  damaged  by  fire  in  1809,  and  since  re- 
stored. Though  no  longer  occupied  by  the  sover- 
eign, it  gives  its  name  officially  to  the  British 
court. 

St.  John  River,  Me.  Given  by  Pierre  de  Monts; 
Indian  name  looshtook,  "long  river." 

Saint  Johnsbury.  Town  in  Caledonia  County, 
Vermont,  named  for  St.  John  de  Creve-coeur, 
French  consul  at  New  York,  and  a  benefactor  of 
Vermont. 

St.  John's  River,  Fla.  Indian  name,  Yeacas  or 
Walaka,  "river  of  many  lakes."  French  named 
the  stream  Ruder e  Mai,  Ribaut  having. entered  its 
waters  in  that  month.  The  Spaniard,  Francisco 
Gordillo,  called  it  Rio  San  Juan,  having  reached  it 
on  June  24,  1521,  "the  day  as  set  apart  to  honor 
the  precursor  of  Christ."  The  word  was  afterward 
anglicized  by  the  English  to  St.  John's  River. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  N.  Y.  Named  from  the 
gulf;  which  received  its  name  St.  Lawrervt  or  St. 
Lawrence  from  the  French  navigator  Jacques 
Cartier,  who  entered  its  water  August  10,  1535 
(St.  Lawrence's  Day). 

St.  Louis  (sdnt  loo' -Is  or  loo'-l),  Mo.  In  honor  of 
Louis  XV.  of  France;  the  name  originally  applied 
to  a  depot  established  at  this  point  February  15, 
1764,  by  Pierre  Laclede  Siguest. 

St.  Marie,  Sault  (sod  sdnt  md'-rl.  French,  so 
s&M  ma-re'),  Mich.  The  French  call  a  cascade, 
says  Schoolcraft,  a  leap  or  sault,  but  sault  alone 
would  not  be  distinctive;  therefore,  in  conformity 
with  their  general  usage,  they  added  the  name  of  a 
patron  saint  to  the  term  by  calling  it  Satdt  de 
Sainte  Marie,  that  is,  "Leap  of  St.  Marie,"  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  leaps  or  saidts. 

St.  Paul.  From  the  Chapel  of  St.  Paul,  a  log 
chapel  erected  here  by  Roman  Catholics.  Prior 
to  the  adoption  of  St.  Paul,  it  was  known  as  Pig's 
Eye,  from  the  nickname  applied  to  a  corpulent 
"one-eyed"  Frenchman  who  located  a  "saloon- 
shanty"  at  this  point.  Indian  name,  imnijaska, 
"white  rock,"  a  reference  to  the  sandstone  blufif  on 
which  the  city  stands. 

St.  Petersburg.     See  Petersburg. 

Salem  (sd'-lem).  City  in  Essex  County,  Mas- 
sachusetts, so  named  by  its  early  settlers  because 
they  hoped  to  enjoy  peaceful  security  there.  An 
Indian  word  meaning  "peace." 

Salome  (sd4dm',  sd-l6'-me).  A  feminine  name, 
from  the  Hebrew  Solomon,  "peaceful." 

Salt  Lake.  County  and  city  in  same  county,  in 
Utah,  named  for  the  famous  lake  of  that  State. 

Samson  or  Sampson  (s&m'-sdn  or  sdmp'-sdn). 
From    the    Hebrew    Shimshon,     "illustrious     sun; 


solar,  like  the  sun;  one  who  resembles  the  sun." 
Danish,  Samson;  Dutch,  Samson;  Fr.,  Samson;  Lai., 
Samson;   Port.,  Sansao;  Sp.,  Sanson;  Sw.,  Simson. 

Samuel  (s&tn' -u,-el) .  From  the  Hebrew  sh'mu- 
El,  "heard  of  God."  Danish,  Samuel;  Dutch, 
Samuel;  Fr.,  Samuel;  Hungarian,  Samuel;  It., 
Samuele;  Lat.,  Samuel;  <Sp.,  Samuel. 

San  Antonio  (s&n  an-to'-nl-o).  City  in  Bexar 
County,  Texas,  named  for  the  Roman  Catholic 
mission,  San  Antonio  de  Velero,  otherwise  the 
Alamo. 

San  Diego  (sdn  de-d'-go),  Cal.  From  the  bay, 
which  was  named  by  Sebastian  Vizcaino,  Spanish 
navigator,  who  entered  it  November  12,  1603,  in 
honor  of  the  day  saint,  San  Diego  d'Alcala.  A 
coincidence  being  that  Vizcaino's  vessel  also  was 
named  San  Diego. 

Sandusky  (sdn-dUs'-ki).  Town  in  Illinois,  county, 
river,  and  city  in  Ohio,  whose  name  by  some  au- 
thorities is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian  word 
Outsandouke,  "there  is  pure  water  here";  or  Sa- 
anduste,  "large  bodies  or  pools  of  water."  Another 
authority  states  that  it  was  named  for  Jonathan 
Sandousky,  a  Polish  trader  of  the  vicinity. 

Sandwich  Islands.  Named  by  Captain  Cook  in 
compUment  to  Lord  Sandwich,  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty. 

Sandy.  A  Scottish  name  corrupted  from  Alex- 
ander. 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  T.  Namely,  "sandy  point," 
Hook  being  applied  from  the  Dutch  haak,  "point." 

San  Francisco.  Bay,  county,  and  city  in  same 
county,  in  California,  said  by  some  to  have  been 
named  for  the  old  Spanish  mission  of  San  Francisco 
de  Assisi,  by  others  to  have  been  named  for  the 
founder  of  the  order  to  which  Father  Junipero,  the 
discoverer  of  the  bay,  belonged. 

San  Joaquin  (sdn  ho-d-ken').  County  and  river 
in  California.  A  Spanish  phrase  meaning  "whom 
Jehovah  has  appointed." 

San  Jose  (sdn  ho-sd').  City  in  Santa  Clara 
County,  California,  named  for  the  patron  saint  of 
Mexico,  St.  Joseph. 

San  Salvador  (sdn  sdl-vd-dor') .  Means  "Holy 
Saviour."  This  was  the  first  land  sighted  by 
Columbus  (October  11,  1492);  he,  therefore,  gave  it 
this  name  as  a  token  of  thanksgiving. 

Sanskrit  (s&n'-skrU).  From  the  Sanskrit  sam- 
skrta,  "polished,"  the  learned  language  of  the 
Hindustan  and  of  the  Brahmins,  which  was  current 
at  the  time  of  Solomon.  It  is  the  parent  of  most 
modern  languages.  It  contains  the  roots  of  Greek, 
Latin,  Celtic,  Slavonic,  and  German,  and  as  it 
contains  no  exotic  terms  must  be  one  of  the  primi- 
tive tongues. 

Santa  Barbara.  County  and  city  in  same 
county,  in  California,  named  for  an  old  Spanish 
mission,  which,  in  turn,  probably  received  its  name 
from  the  Santa  Barbara  Channel,  designated  by 
Vizcaino  as  Canal  de  Santa  Barbara,  he  having 
sailed  through  its  water,  December  4,  1603,  the 
day  being  St.  Barbara's. 

Santa  Claus  (sdn'-td  kldz)  or  Santa  Klaus.  A 
modern  adaptation  of  the  Dutch,  Sant  Nikolaas 
(St.  Nicholas).  As  is  now  very  well  known,  St. 
Nicholas  was  the  patron  saint  of  children  and  dis- 
pensed gifts  to  them  on  Christmas  eve. 

Santa  Cruz  (sdn'-td  kroos') .  Counties  in  Arizona 
and  California,  city  and  island  in  the  latter  State. 
A  Spanish  word  meaning  "holy  cross." 

Santa  Fe  (sdn'-td  fd').  County  and  city  in  same 
county,  in  New  Mexico ;  and  city  in  Haskell  County, 
Kansas,  and  town  in  Monroe  County,  Missouri. 
A  Spanish  phrase  meaning  "holy  faith."  The 
name  originally  given  by  Antonio  de  Espejo,  in 
1582,  was  La  Ciudad  de  la  Santa  Fe  de  San  Fran- 
cisco, "the  City  of  the  Holy  Faith  of  St.  Francis." 

Santiago  (sdn-te-d'-go).  The  capital  of  Chile, 
was  founded  in  1541  by  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  and 
placed  under  the  protection  of  the  patron  saint  of 


840 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Spain.  lago  is  a  form  of  Jacobus,  and  Santiago 
of  Spain  was  St.  James  the  Great,  the  elder  brother 
of  St.  John. 

Sara.  A  feminine  name  derived  from  the 
Italian  form  of  Sarah. 

Saracen  (s&r'-d-sen).  Is  a  term  loosely  used  by- 
Medieval  writers  to  denole  the  Moslem  races,  and 
especially  the  foes  of  the  Crusaders.  It  is  a  Greek 
corruption  of  the  Arabic  sharqln,  "eastern"  peo- 
ple, as  opposed  to  the  maghrabl  or  "western" 
people. 

Saragossa  (sa-rd-gds'-sd).  From  Csesarea  Au- 
gusta: its  Basque  name  was  Scduba,  "the  sheeps' 
ford."^ 

Sarah  or  Sara  (sa'^d).  From  the  Hebrew 
Sarah,  variously  rendered  "female  ruler,  governor  " ; 
"princess,  noble  lady";  "leader,  commander." 
Dutch,  Sara;  Fr.,  Sara;  Ger.,  Sara;  It.,  Sara; 
Lot.,  Sara;  Part.,  Sara;  S-p.,  Sara;  Sw.,  Sarah. 

Saranac  (^s&r' -d-n&k)  Lake.  Village  in  Franklin 
County,  New  York.  An  Indian  word  meaning 
"river  that  flows  under  a  rock." 

Saratoga  {s&r-A-to'-gd),  N.  T.  Uncertain.  Ter- 
mination oga  or  aga  said  to  signify  "place,"  the 
first  part  of  the  word  thought  by  some  to  imply 
"hillside";  by  others,  a  reference  to  the  springs, 
soragh  in  some  Indian  dialects  being  the  name  for 
"salt";  seitake  is  given,  meaning  "on  the  heel," 
but  no  reason  further  than  a  probable  corruption  in 
pronunciation  of  the  word.  Assarat,  "sparkling," 
oga,  "place,"  is  mentioned  by  Schoolcraft. 

Sarawak  (sd-rii'-wdk).  Malay  Sarakaw,  "the 
cove,"  or  bay. 

Sardinia  (sar-din'-l-d).  Italian,  Sardegna.  Bears 
the  name  of  the  Sardi,  its  early  inhabitants,  who 
may  possibly  be  identified  with  the  Shardina,  or 
Sharcmna,  one  of  the  northern  races  who  attacked 
Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Meneptah.  Another  view  is 
that  it  expresses  the  "land  of  the  Sardonion,"  a 
Greek  term  for  a  plant  indigenous  to  this  island. 

Saskatchewan  (sds-kdch'-e-wdn).  A  river  in 
British  North  America.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Indian,  meaning  "swift  river." 

Saturday.  The  day  of  Saturn,  one  of  the  planets 
of  the  solar  system. 

Saugatuck  (s6'-gd-tuk).  Conn.  Indian  Sauke- 
tuck,  "at  the  mouth  of  the  stream  with  tides." 

Saul.  From  the  Hebrew  Shaid,  which  Simonis 
translates  "exoratus,"  i.  e.,  obtained  by  entreaty; 
and  others,  "asked  for,  or  desired."  Fr.,  Saul; 
Lot.,  Saulus. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.     See  St.  Marie  Sault. 

Savannah  {sd-v&nf -no.) .  Town  in  Wayne  County, 
New  York,  and  city  and  river  in  Georgia.  The 
name  derived  from  the  Spanish  word  savanne, 
meaning  "grassy  plain." 

Saxon.  Comes  from  the  word  saex  —  a  short 
crooked  sword;  and  so  "the  men  of  the  sword." 
We  can  readily  understand  how,  with  sword  in 
hand,  they  became  invincible  in  arms,  and  how 
they  spread  dread  and  destruction  all  along  the 
shores  which  they  frequented.  By  the  terror  of 
their  name  they  compelled  the  Gauls  to  include 
in  their  litany  a  new  petition,  "Deliver  us,  O  Lord, 
from  the  fury  of  the  Northmen."  How  could  it  be 
otherwise  than  that  the  men  who  affected  such 
grim  appellations  as  "Bloody-ax,"  "Skull-cleaver," 
"Deaths-head," — and  whose  deeds  did  not  belie 
their  names,  should  inspire  a  natural  horror. 

Saxony  (sdks'-an-l).  A  modem  German  kingdom, 
called  Sachsen  in  German,  is  the  country  of  the 
Saxons;  derived  from  the  Seax,  or  short  crooked 
knife  with  which  they  armed  themselves. 

Scandinavia  (skdn-di-nd'-vi-d).  A  convenient 
name  for  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  Peninsula, 
adopted  from  a  passage  in  Pliny  where  the  cor- 
rect reading  is  probably  Scadinavia,  which  Mr. 
Bradley  refers  to  the  Teutonic  shadino,  "dark." 
Scadinavia,  the  "land  of  darkness,"  was  possibly 
at  first  a  mythical  name  for  the  dark  North,  which 


was  afterwards  applied  to  the  Swedish  Penin- 
sula. 

Schenectady  (skSn-ek'-td-dl),  N.  Y.  Originally 
spelled  Schenectada,  from  the  Indian  Schaunaugh- 
tada,  "river  valley  through  or  beyond  the  pine- 
trees,"  there  being  a  portage  across  the  woodland 
neck,  from  the  present  site  of  Albany  to  the 
Mohawk  River  at  this  point. 

Schoharie  (sko-h&r' -i) ,  N.  Y.  Corruption  of  the 
Indian  to-wos-sho' -her ,  "drift-wood,"  from  the 
collecting  at  this  point,  where  the  Line  Kil  and 
Little  Schoharie  flowed  into  the  main  stream. 

Schonbrunn  (shon'-broon).  Near  Vienna,  the 
suburban  residence  of  the  Austrian  Emperors,  so 
called  from  a  "beautiful  spring"  in  the  grounds  of 
the  palace,  was  erected  in  1744  by  Maria  Theresa 
on  the  site  of  a  former  hunting-seat. 

Schroon  (skrddn)  Lake,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  Scharon,  and  to  have  been  applied  in  honor 
of  the  Duchess  of  Scharon,  favorite  of  Louis  XIV. 
Others  advise  from  an  Adirondack  Indian  word 
signifying  "a  child  or  daughter  of  the  mountain." 

Schuylkill  (skool'-kU)  River,  Pa.  From  the 
Dutch  schuylen-kill,  "hidden  creek."  The  Swedes 
called  it  Skierkillen.  Indian  name  was  ganshowe- 
hanne,  "the  roaring  stream." 

Scioto  (slro'-to)  River,  Ohio.  Shawnoese  Indian 
word  meaning  "hairy,"  its  waters  at  flood  in  the 
spring  being  filled  with  hairs,  attributed  to  the 
herds  of  deer  drinking  or  bathing  in  the  water  at 
the  season  of  shedding  their  coats. 

Scotland.  Originally  Caledonia,  meaning,  liter- 
ally, the  hilly  country  of  the  Gaels,  or  Gaels,  signi- 
fying "a  hidden  rover." 

Scotland  Yard.  A  short  street  in  London,  near 
Trafalgar  Square.  Here  formerly  were  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Metropolitan  police,  now  removed  to 
New  Scotland  Yard  on  the  Thames  embankment, 
near  Westminster  Bridge. 

Scutari  (skoo'-td-re).  In  Turkey,  from  Uskudar, 
"a  messenger,"  having  been  in  remote  periods, 
what  it  is  to  this  day,  a  station  for  Asiatic  couriers. 

Seattle  (se-dt'-t'l).  City  in  King  County,  Wash- 
ington, named  for  the  chief  of  the  Duwamish  tribe 
of  Indians,  See-aa-thl. 

Sebago  (se-ba'-go)  Pond,  Me.  From  the  Indian, 
meaning  "great  water,"  or  "place  or  region  of 
river  lake." 

Sebastian  (se-bds'-chan.  Spanish,  sd-bds-te-dn'). 
From  the  Greek  rendering  of  Augustus,  and  signi- 
fying "to  be  venerated  or  reverenced,  venerable." 
Dutch,  Seba.stiaan;  Fr.,  Sebastien;  It.,  Sebastiano; 
Lot.,  Sebastianus;  Port.,  Sebastiao;  Russ.,  Sevas- 
tian;  Sp.,  Sebastian;  Siv.,  Sebastian. 

Sebastopol  (se-bds'-to-pol).  The  "august"  or 
"imperial  city,"  was  founded  and  named  by 
Potemkin  soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  Crimea 
in  1783. 

Selah.  A  masculine  name  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  Shdah,  signifying  a  "weapon,"  "missile." 

Seneca  {sin'-e-kd)  Lake,  N.  Y.  From  a  tribe  of 
Indians,  the  Senecas;  known  as  the  "great  hill  peo- 
ple" from  a  tradition  that  they  broke  out  of  the 
earth  from  a  large  mountain,  on  Canandaigua  Lake, 
known  as  Ge-nun-de-wah  or  "great  hill." 

Senegambla  (sSnS-gdm'-bi-d).  So  named  be- 
cause of  its  situation  between  the  Senegal  and 
Gambia  rivers. 

September.  The  seventh  month  of  the  Old 
Roman  Calendar,  counted  from  March,  which 
commenced  the  year  previous  to  the  addition  of 
January  and  February  by  Numa  in  the  year  713 
B.C. 

Serena.  A  feminine  name  derived  perhaps  from 
Serena,  a  daughter  of  Theodosius;  from  the  Latin 
serenus,  "cheerful,  quiet,  calm." 

Servla  (ser'-vi-d).  Known  by  the  Romans  as 
Suedia,  district  peopled  by  the  Suevi,  who  after- 
wards settled  in  the  territory  now  called  Sweden. 

Seth.     From  the  Hebrew  Sheth,  signifying  "ap- 


MISCELLANY 


841 


pointed."  Fuerstius  writes  the  name  S'et,  and  ren- 
ders it  "war  bustle  or  noise." 

Sevres  {sdvr).  Named  from  the  two  rivers 
which  traverse  it;    anciently  called  Villa  Savara. 

Sheboygan  (she-boi'-gan)  River,  Mich.  From 
the  Indian  showbwawaygum,  "the  stream  that 
comes  from  the  ground." 

Shenandoah  {shen-&n-dd'-d).  County  and  river 
in  Virginia,  city  in  Page  County,  Iowa,  borough  in 
Schuylkill  County,  Pennsylvania,  and  town  in 
Page  County,  Virginia.  An  Indian  word  said  by 
some  to  mean  "the  sprucy  stream";  by  others, 
"a  river  flowing  alongside  of  high  hills  and  moun- 
tains " ;  and  still  another  authority  states  that  it 
means  "daughter  of  the  stars." 

Sherwood  Forest.  A  forest  in  Nottinghamshire, 
England,  fourteen  miles  north  of  Nottingham.  It 
was  formerly  of  large  extent.  It  is  the  principal 
scene  of  the  legendary  exploits  of  Robin  Hood. 

Shetland  Isles.  The  Norse  for  the  "Viking 
Island,"  conformably  with  their  native  prenomen 
Hyalti,    "a   Viking."     The   term   Viking,    meaning 

f)irate,  derived  from  the  Vik,  or  creek,  in  which  he 
ay  concealed. 

Shiraz  {she'-raz),  Persia.  Signifies  "  lion's 
paunch,"  because  at  one  time,  like  the  lion,  it  con- 
sumed much  but  produced  nothing. 

Shlrvan  {shir-van').  River  and  district  of  Persia, 
said  to  have  been  named  after  Nieshirvan,  a  king 
of  Persia. 

Shrewsbury  (shruz'-ber-l)  River,  N.  J.  From  a 
town  of  England.  Anglo-Saxon  scrobbes,  "of  a 
bush,"  buhr,  "a  fortress,"  literally,  "a  fortress  near 
which  were  many  shrubs." 

Slam  {sl-dm',  se-um').  The  European  corruption 
of  the  Malay  Siyam,  which  is  identical  with  the 
name  Shian  or  Shan  given  by  the  Burmese  to  their 
eastern  neighbors. 

Siberia  (sl-be'-rlt-d) .  In  Russian,  Sibir,  is  so 
called  from  Sibir  or  Ssibir,  a  town  on  the  Irtish  near 
Tobolsk,  which  no  longer  exists.  Sibir  was  the 
capital  of  a  Tartar  khanate  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  conquered  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  by  Yer- 
mak,  the  Hetman  of  the  Don  Cossacks. 

Sibyl  (slb'-U).  From  the  Latin,  meaning  "wise 
old  woman."  Dutch,  Sibylla;  Fr.,  Sibylle;  Gr., 
SibuUa;  Lat.,  Sibylla. 

Sicily  (sls'-r-ll).  The  English  form  of  Sicilia, 
so  called  from  the  Siculi,  who  pos.sessed  a  great 
part  of  the  island  when  the  Greek  colonists  arrived. 

Sierra  (se-er'-rd).  This  is  a  Spanish  word  signi- 
fying "a  saw."  Its  application  to  ranges  of  moun- 
tains, whose  peaks  rising  in  succession,  as  do  those 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  resemble  the  teeth  of  a  saw, 
is  peculiarly  picturesque  and  poetical. 

Sierra  Nevada  (se-er'-rd  ne-va'-dd.  Spanish,  se- 
l&r'-rd  na-va'-thd)  Mountains.  Spanish  words  Ser- 
rado,  "serrated  or  saw-toothed,"  Nevada,  "snowy," 
i.  e.,  "snowy  mountains,"  the  application  taken 
from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  of  Grenada. 

Sigismund  {slf -Is-mund) .  A  masculine  name, 
from  sieg-mund,  "man  of  victory,  triumphant  man." 
Dutch,  Sigismundus;  Fr.,  Sigismond;  Ger.,  Sigis- 
mund or  Sigmund;  Lat.,  Sigismundus;  Sp.,  Sigis- 
mundo;  Sw.,  Sigismund. 

Silas  (sl'-las).     A  name  corrupted  from  Silvanus. 

Silesia  {sU-e'-shi-d).  From  Zlezia,  "the  bad 
land." 

Silvanus  (sU-vd' -niis) .  From  the  Roman  name 
Silvanus  or  Sylvanus ;  also  the  appellation  of  a  god 
of  forests  and  fields;  from  sUva,  sylva,  "a  forest, 
wood"  Dutch,  Silvanus;  Fr.,  Sylvain  or  Silvain; 
It.,  Silvano;  Lat.,  Silvanus;  Sp.,  Silvano. 

Silvester,  Sylvester  {sll-vis' -ter) .  A  masculine 
name  derived  from  the  Latin  Silvester,  "wild, 
found  in  a  wood";  from  sUva,  "a  wood." 
Fr.,  Silvestre;  It.,  Silvestro;  Lat.,  Silvester;  Sp., 
Silvestre. 

Silvia.     See  Sylvia. 

Simeon   (slm'-e-dn).     From   the   Hebrew   shama, 


meaning  "obedient,"  or  "hearing  with  acceptance." 
Fr.,  Simeon;  Gcr.,  ^Simeon;  It.,  Simeone;  Lat., 
Simeon;  Port.,  Simeao;  Sp.,  Simeon. 

Simon  (si'-mdn).  Originally  the  same  as  Simeon. 
Dutch,  Simon;  Fr.,  Simon;  Ger.,  Simon;  Hunga- 
rian, Simon;  It.,  Simons;  Lat.,  Simon;  Sp., 
Simon;  Sw.,  Simon. 

Sinai  (si'-nd,  sl'-nd-l,  sl'-ni).  Is  usually  sup- 
posed to  have  been  named  from  the  Hebrew  seneh, 
the  "acacia  tree,"  but  is  more  probably  the  moun- 
tain of  Sin,  the  moon-god  of  the  Babylonians. 

Singapore  {slng-gd-por').  The  name  of  an  island 
and  city  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  means  the 
"lion  city."  The  form  Singapore  was  adopted 
by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  for  the  city  which 
he  founded  in  1819  on  an  island  which  since  the 
Middle  Ages  had  been  called  Sinhapura,  from  a  town 
of  that  name  built  in  the  Fourteenth  Century  by 
Malay  or  Javanese  settlers. 

Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.  Mohegan  Indian  word  Sin-Sing 
or  Sink-Sink,  said  to  signify  "stone  upon  stone." 

Sioux  (sod).  Many  places  in  the  United  States 
bear  the  name  of  this  tribe  of  Indians,  among  them 
the  counties  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  The  word 
means  a  "species  of  snake,"  the  appellation  of  the 
tribe  being  "enemies." 

Sirloin  of  Beef.  There  is  a  laughable  tradition 
current  in  Lancashire,  England,  that  King  James  I., 
in  one  of  his  visits  there,  knighted  at  a  banquet  a 
loin  of  beef,  which  part  ever  since  has  been  called 
the  Sir-loin. 

Slstine  (sls'-tln),  or  Slxtlne  (slks'-tln)  Chapel. 
The  papal  private  chapel  in  the  Vatican  constructed 
by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.     Whence  the  name. 

Sitka,  Alasl^a.  From  a  tribe  of  Indians,  the 
Sitkayans. 

Skager  Rack  (sk&g-er-r&k' ,  skdg'-er-rdk).  The 
channel  between  Norway  and  Jutland,  means  "cape 
strait."  The  word  rack  denotes  a  crooked  channel, 
and  the  Skager  Rack  is  so  called  from  the  town 
of  Skagen,  situated  on  Cape  Skagen  (skagi,  a 
"promontory"),  the  Skaw  of  English  sailors 
which  forms  the  northern  point  of  Jutland. 

Skaneateles  (skdn-e-&t'-lSz).  Lake,  town,  and 
village  in  Onondaga  County,  New  York.  An 
Indian  word  meaning  "long  lake." 

Skowhegan  (skou-he'-gan),  Me.  Indian  word 
meaning  "spearing." 

Snake  River,  Idaho.  Suggested  from  its  wind- 
ings and  given  to  a  tribe  of  Indians  on  its  banks. 

Society  Islands.  Received  their  name  from  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  honor  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Sofia.     See  Sophia. 

Solssons  (swd-so'N') .  Town  in  France,  was  so 
named  from  the  Suessiones,  a  BelgiQ  tribe. 

Solomon  (sdl'-d-mon).  From  the  Hebrew  Sh'lo- 
moh,  signifying  "peaceable."  Arabic,  Soliman  or 
Suleyman;  Dutch,  Salomo;  Fr.,  Salomon;  Ger., 
Salomon;  Gr.,  Solomon;  Hungarian,  Salamon; 
It.,  Salomone;  Lat.,  Salomon;  Polish,  Salomon; 
Port.,  Salomao;  Sp.,  Salomon. 

Sophia  (so-fi'-d).  A  name  derived  from  the 
Greek  sophos,  "knowledge,  wisdom,  prudence." 
Danish,  Sophie;  Dutch,  Sophie;  Fr.,  Sophie;  Ger., 
Sophie;  Gr.,  Sophia;  It.,  Sofia;  Lat.,  Sophia;  Russ., 
Sofia;  Sp.,  Sofia;  Sw.,  Sofia. 

Sophie.     The  French  form  of  Sophia. 

Sophronia  (s5-frd'-ni-d).  A  feminine  of  Sophro- 
nius,  formed  from  Sophron;  means  "sober  modest, 
discreet." 

Sorbonne  (sdr-bdn').  A  famous  Parisian  school, 
named  from  Robert  de  Sorbonne,  almoner  of  St. 
Louis. 

Soudan  (sdo-ddn').  From  the  Arabic  Belad-ez- 
Suden,  the  "district  of  the  blacks." 

South  Carolina.  As  provinces  the  two  divisions 
of  Carolina  were  one  tract  originally. 

South  Sea  Bubble.  A  financial  scheme  which 
originated  in  England  about  1711  and  collapsed 
in  1720. 


842 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Spain.  The  English  of  Hispania,  founded  upon 
the  Punic  span,  "a  rabbit,"  owing  to  the  number  of 
wild  rabbits  found  in  ttiis  country. 

Spanish  3Iain.  Tlie  southern  banks  of  the  West 
India  Islands,  and  the  water  extending  for  some 
distance  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  so  called  from  the 
fact  that  the  Spaniards  confined  their  buccaneering 
enterprises  to  this  locality. 

Spires  (splrz)  or  Speyer  (spir).  An  historic  place 
in  Bavaria,  Germany,  so  named  from  the  River 
Speycrbach. 

Spitzbergen  (splts-berg'-en).  Literal  Dutch  for 
"sharp-pointed  mountains,"  referring  to  the 
granite  peaks  of  the  mountains,  which  are  so 
characteristic  of  this  group  of  islands. 

Spottsylvania.  County  in  Virginia,  named  for 
Alexander  Spotswood,  early  lieutenant-governor. 

Springfield,  Mass.  In  honor  of  the  English 
residence  of  its  founder,  William  Pynchon  (1640). 
Indian  name  Agawam. 

Spuyten  Duyvil  {spl'-t(tn  di'-vU).  Channel  con- 
necting the  Hudson  and  Harlem  rivers.  So  named 
on  account  of  the  oath  sworn  by  a  Dutch  ship- 
master that  he  would  pass  the  mouth  of  the  creek 
"in  spite  of  the  devil." 

Stanislaus  (stdn'-is-lds).  From  the  Slavonic 
slawa,  signifying  "the  place  of  glory  or  fame." 
The  Bohemian  form  of  the  name  is  Stanislaw. 

Staten  (stdt'-n)  Island,  N.  Y.  Named  by  Henry 
Hudson  Stadten  Nylandt,  that  is,  "island  of  the 
State,"  in  compliment  to  the  States-General  under 
whose  flag  he  was  sailing.  The  Indian  name  was 
Monachnong,  "place  of  the  bad  woods." 

State  of  Franlilin.  An  old  name  of  Tennessee, 
under  which  it  was  organized  in  1785. 

States  General.  The  name  given  to  the  legisla- 
tive assemblies  of  France  before  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  to  those  of  the  Netherlands. 

Stella.  A  feminine  name,  from  the  Latin,  signi- 
fying "a  star." 

Stephen  {ste'-v<in).  From  the  Greek  name  signi- 
fying "a  crown  or  garland."  Danish,  Stephan; 
Dutch,  Steven  or  Stephanus;  Fr.,  Etienne;  Ger., 
Stephan;  Gr.,  Stephanos;  Hungarian,  Istvan; 
Lat.,  Stephanus;  Polish,  Sczepan;  Port.,  Estevao; 
Russ.,  Stepan  or  Stefan;  Sp.,  Esteban;  Sw., 
Stefan. 

Stettin  (stit-en').  From  Zytyn,  "the  place  of 
green  com." 

Stirling.  From  Estrevelyn,  "the  town  of  the 
Easterlings,  from  Flanders." 

Stocliholm  {stdk'-hdlm).  The  capital  of  Sweden 
is  often  said  to  have  been  so  called  because  built 
like  Venice  on  stocks  or  piles.  According  to  the 
local  legend,  a  stock  or  log  floating  up  the  Malar 
Lake  from  Sig'tuma  guided  the  first  settlers  to  the 
granite  rocks  on  which  Stockholm  is  built.  The 
older  form  Stakholm  e.xplains  the  name  as  a  holm 
or  "island,"  in  a  stak  or  "sound." 

Stocliton.  Cities  in  California  and  Missouri  and 
town  in  Chautauqua  County,  New  York,  named 
for  Commodore  R.  F.  Stockton,  who  took  part  in 
the  conquest  of  California. 

Stonington,  Conn.  From  an  English  town. 
Ston,  "stone,"  ing,  "field,"  ton,  "town,"  "a  town 
situated  in  a  field  of  stone."  It  was  first  called 
Southerton. 

Strait  of  Gibraltar.     See  Gibraltar. 

Sublime  Porte  {suh-lim'  port).  The  synonym  by 
which  is  designated  the  government  of  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey.  It  is  the  French  equivalent  of  Bab-i- 
Humayoon,  "the  high  gate."  The  term  contains 
an  allusion  to  the  Oriental  custom  of  transacting 
pubHc  business  at  the  principal  gate  of  the  city  or 
palace,  and  from  this  practice  the  Sultan's  govern- 
ment is  popularly  styled  in  Turkey  "the  Sultan's 
gate." 

Suez  (soo'-ez,  sooSz').  Is  a  Portuguese  corrup- 
tion of  Bir  Suweis,  the  Arabic  name  .of  a  fortified 
well   of   brackish   water  about   an  hour's  journey 


from  the  town,  where  the  pilgrims  waited  to  em- 
bark for  Mecca.  From  this  well,  by  a  curious 
accident,  the  Gulf  and  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the 
Suez  Canal  take  their  names. 

Sumatra  (soo-ma'-tra).  A  corruption  of  Trima- 
tara,  which  means  "the  happy  land." 

Sunapee  {siXn' -d-pe) .  Lake  in  New  Hampshire, 
for  which  a  town  in  Sullivan  County  and  mountain 
in  the  same  State  are  named.  From  an  Indian 
word,  shehunknippe,  "wild  goose  pond." 

Sunday.  Signifying  the  day  upon  which  the  sun 
was  worshiped. 

Superior.     See  Lake  Superior. 

Susa  (soo'-sa).  A  city  of  ancient  Persia,  so  called 
from  the  lilies  in  the  neighborhood;  name  derived 
f rom  sMsa,  "a  lily." 

Susan  {sH'-zan),  or  Susanna  (su-z&n'-nd).  The 
Hebrew  word,  derived  from  the  Arabic  sUsan,  "a 
lily."  Danish,  Susanna;  Dutch,  Susanna;  Fr., 
Susanne;  Ger.,  Susanne;  It.,  Susanna;  Lat., 
Susanna;  Sp..  Susana;  Sw.,  Susanna. 

Susannah.     See  Susan. 

Susquehanna.  River,  county,  and  borough  in 
Pennsylvania.  From  an  Indian  word,  suckahanne, 
"water." 

Suwanee  (sH-wd'-ne).  County,  town,  and  river 
in  Florida,  creek  and  town  in  Gwinnett  County, 
Georgia.  Interpretations  of  this  Indian  word  are 
various;  some  stating  that  it  is  from  Shawnee,  the 
tribe,  while  others  give  its  derivation  as  from 
sawani,  meaning  "echo,"  or  "echo  river";  others 
give  it  as  a  corruption  of  the  name  San  Juanita, 
applied  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  stream,  meaning 
"little  St.  John,"  in  contradistinction  to  St.  John 
on  the  eastern  coast. 

Sweden  (swe'-den).  A  modern  term  made  up 
of  the  Latin  Suedia,  signifying  the  land  of  the 
Suevi,  a  warlike  tribe  of  the  Goths,  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  den,  testifying  to  its  occupation  by  the  Danes. 

Switzerland  (swU'-zer-land).  An  anglicized  form 
of  the  native  Schweitz,  the  name  of  the  three  forest 
cantons  whose  people  asserted  their  independence 
of  Austria,  afterwards  applied  to  the  whole  country. 

Sybil  {sUb'-U).  An  old  name  corrupted  from 
Isabella. 

Sydney.  The  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  was 
founded  on  January  26,  1788,  and  so  named  by 
Captain  Phillip  after  Thomas  Townshend,  first 
Lord  Sydney',  who,  as  Home  Secretary,  drew  up,  in 
1786,  a  scheme  for  the  transportation  of  convicts 
to  New  South  Wales. 

Sydney.  A  personal  name  corrupted  from  St. 
Denis,  pronounced  in  French,  St.  Nie. 

Sylvanus.     See  Silvanus. 

Sylvester.     See  Silvester. 

Sylvia  or  Silvia  {sll'-vi-d).  A  Roman  name, 
feminine  of  Sylvius.  Fr.,  Silvie;  It.,  Silvia;  Sp., 
Silvia. 

Sylvius  {sW -vi-us) .  A  Roman  name,  from 
sylva,  "a  wood."  Sylvius  was  the  name  of  the 
brother  of  Ascanius,  so  called  from  being  born  in 
the  woods. 

Syracuse  (.szr'-d-ArMs).  Thegreatest  Greek  colony 
in  Sicily,  is  believed  to  have  replaced  an  older 
Phenician  trading  post  which  obtained  its  name 
from  a  marsh  at  the  mouth  of  the  Anapus  called 
Syraco,  "to  stink." 

Syracuse.  City  in  Onondaga  County,  New 
York,  named  for  the  ancient  city  of  Sicily,  after 
passing  through  the  names  of  Bogardus  Corners, 
Milan,  South  Salina,  Cossitt's  Corners,  and  Corinth. 
In  1820,  its  present  name  was  adopted  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  John  Wilkinson,  its  first  postmaster. 

Syria  (sir'-l-d).  Now  called  Suristan  by  the 
Turks  and  Persians,  is  the  classical  name  which 
replaced  the  older  name  Aram,  "the  highlands." 
The  name  Syria  first  appears  in  Herodotus,  and  is 
doubtless  a  modification  of  the  name  Assyria, 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  at  the  time  when  Aram  was 
included    in    the    Assyrian    Empire.     Assyria    was 


MISCELLANY 


843 


thought  to  be  the  land  of  tlie  deity  Assur  or  Asshur, 
but  it  is  now  believed  to  have  taken  its  name  from 
the  former  capital  Assur,  a  city  on  the  Tigris,  an 
Accadian  name  meaning  "tlie  water  bank." 

Tabitha  (tab'-i-thd).  A  female  name,  from 
Tabitha,  the  Aramaean  name  of  a  Christian  female, 
Hebrew  zebia,  "a  gazelle."  Calmet,  who  translates 
the  name  "wild  goat  or  kid,"  says  the  Syriac  word 
tabitha  signifies  '"clear  sighted."     Lat.,  Tabitha. 

Tabriz  {td-brez').  The  commercial  capital  of 
Persia,  was  the  classical  and  medieval  Tauris,  "the 
mountain  town." 

Tacoma  ('i-A-o'-md).  City  in  Washington.  From 
the  Indian  word  Tahoma,  meaning  "the  highest," 
"near  heaven." 

Tagus  (td'-gus)  or  Tejo  (td'-zhdo).  Name  of  the 
longest  river  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  means  "the 
fish  river." 

Tahlequah  {td-le-kwd').  Former  capital  of  Indian 
Territory,  is  a  Cherokee  Indian  word  and  properly 
spelled  according  to  their  pronunciation  is  Talikwa. 
The  word  as  it  stands  probably  means  "place  of 
two  large  towns." 

Ta]  Mahal  {td]  md-hdl')  or  Taj  Mehal  (tdj  mS- 
hdl').  The  famous  mausoleum  erected  at  Agra, 
India,  by  Shah  Jehan  for  his  favorite  wife.  It 
literally  means  "gem  of  buildings." 

Talladega  {tal-ld-de' -gd) ,  Ala.  A  Creek  Indian 
word,  italua-atigi,  "the  border  town." 

Tallahassee  (tdl-ld-h&s'-se).  City  in  Florida,  so 
named  because  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  site 
of  Indian  cornfields  in  remote  times.  An  Indian 
word  meaning  "old  town." 

Tallahatchie  (t&l-ld-h&ch'-e).  County  in  Missis- 
sippi, named  from  the  principal  branch  of  the 
Yazoo  River  in  the  same  State.  An  Indian  word 
meaning  "river  of  the  rock." 

Tallapoosa  (tdl-ld-pdo'-sd).  River  in  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  giving  name  to  a  county  in  Alabama  and 
a  city  in  Haraldon  County,  Georgia.  An  Indian 
word  meaning  "swift  current,"  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  "stranger,"  "newcomer." 

Tampa  (tdm'-pd).  Bay  and  city  on  the  west 
coast  of  Florida.  From  the  Indian  word  Itimpi, 
"close  to  it,  near  it."  It  was  called  by  De  Soto 
Espiritu  Santo,  "Holy  Ghost." 

Tarragona  {tdr-rd-go'-nd).  Name  of  an  impor- 
tant Spanish  city,  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Tar- 
raco,  "The  citadel  or  palace." 

Tarrytown.  Village  in  Westchester  County, 
New  York.  Modification  of  its  former  name  of 
Terwen,  "wheat  town,"  given  on  account  of  its 
large  crops  of  that  cereal. 

Tartary  (.tar' -td-rl) .  The  old  name,  now  falling 
into  disuse,  for  Turkistan,  the  parts  of  Central 
Asia  which  are  inhabited  by  the  Nomands  of 
Turkic  race  called  Tartars  or  Tatars.  The  name  is 
said  to  have  arisen  out  of  the  designation  Tha-ta, 
"robbers,"  applied  by  the  Chinese  to  the  mongols. 

Tasmania  {tdz-md' -nl-d) .  Named  after  Abel 
Tasman,  who  discovered  it  in  1642.  It  was  called 
Van  Diemen's  Land  in  honor  of  the  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  The 
change  of  title  was  effected  in  1853. 

Tay  {td).  The  largest  river  of  Scotland,  flows 
from  Loch  Tay,  where,  probably,  was  the  Taviia 
or  Ptolemy,  a  name  explained  by  the  Gaelic  tamh, 
"tranquil,"  or  "smooth,"  the  equivalent  of  the 
Pictish  tau  and  the  Cymric  taw,  of  which  an  oblique 
case  may  be  the  source  of  the  name  Tava,  given  by 
Tacitus  to  the  Firth  of  Tay. 

Tenerlffe  (ten-er-if).  One  of  the  Canaries,  is 
a  Portuguese  corruption  of  Chinerfe  or  Tinerfe,  the 
name  of  the  last  Guanche  chief.  From  its  snow- 
clad  peak,  the  Romans  called  it  Nivaria,  the 
"snowy  " 

Tennessee.  Tributary  of  the  Ohio  River,  which 
gives  name  to  a  State  of  the  Union.  Three  dif- 
ferent derivations  are  given  the  name.  From 
Tanase,  the  name  of  the  most  important  village  of 


the  Cherokee  .Indians ;  from  an  Indian  word  mean- 
ing "a  curved  spoon";  or  from  Taensa,  an  Indian 
tribe  of  the  Watchesan  family. 

Tenochtitlan  {ten-och-tet-ldn').  The  chief  city  of 
the  Aztecs,  occupying  the  site  of  the  modern  city 
of  Mexico. 

Terence  {th-'-ens).  From  the  Latin  name  Teren- 
tius.  Macrobius  says  the  name  of  the  Terentia 
Gens  is  derived  by  Varro  from  the  Sabine  word 
terenus,  soft. 

Teresa.     See  Theresa. 

Terre  Haute  {tir'-e  hot.  French,  tdr-hot').  City 
in  Indiana,  built  upon  a  bank  sixty  feet  above  the 
river.     French  words  meaning  "high  land." 

Terry.  A  masculine  name  derived,  like  the 
French  name  Thierry,  from  Theodoric. 

Texas.  From  a  small  tribe  of  Indians  that 
inhabited  avillage  called  Tehas, meaning  "friendly." 
Also,  "the  place  of  protection,"  in  reference  to  the 
fact  that  a  colony  of  French  refugees  were  afforded 
protection  here  by  General  Lallemont  in  1817. 

Thadeus,  Thaddeus  {thdd'-e-us,  thdd-e'-us). 
From  the  Latin  Thaddeus,  in  turn  from  the  Hebrew, 
"one  who  praises  and  confesses."  It.,  Taddeo; 
Lat.,  Thaddeus;  Sp.,  Tadeo. 

Thames.  River  in  England  and  America.  (Amer- 
ican, thdrnz.  English,  temz.)  The  Tamesis  of  Caesar, 
is  a  Celtic  name  meaning  the  "tranquil"  or 
"smooth"  river. 

Thebes  (thebz).  In  Boeotia,  the  Greek  Thebae, 
is  now  Pheba  or  Phiba.  The  site  of  the  acropolis 
was  a  small  hill,  and  we  learn  from  Varro  that  teba 
meant  a  "hill."  In  the  name  of  the  Egyptian 
Thebes  we  have  a  Greek  corruption  of  the  popular 
Egyptian  designation  of  the  city,  which  was  called 
t'ape,  "the  capital." 

Theobald  {the'-o-bdld,  tlb'-ald).  From  the  Old 
German  teut-bald,  "strong  or  bold  leader." 
Danish,  Theobald;  Dutch,  Tiebout;  Fr.,  Thibaut; 
Ger.,  Theobald;  It,  Teobaldo;  Lat.,  Theobaldus; 
Sp.,  Teobaldo;  Sw.,  Theobald. 

Theodora  (the-o-do'-rd).  A  feminine  name  de- 
rived from  Theodore. 

Theodore  {the'-o-dor).  From  the  Greek  name 
Theodorus,  signifying  "the  gift  of  God."  Danish, 
Theodor;  Dutch,  Theodorus;  Fr.,  Theodore;  Gr., 
Theodorus;  It.,  Teodoro;  Lat.,  Theodorus;  Port., 
Theodoro;  Russ.,  Feodor;  Sp.,  Teodorio;  Sw., 
Theodor. 

Theodoric  (J,he-6d'-o-rik)  or  Theoderick.  An  Old 
German  name  from  teut-reich,  "powerful  lord." 
Dutch,  Diederick;  Fr.,  Theodoric;  Ger.,  Theodo- 
rich  or  Dietrich;  It.,  Teodorico;  Lat.,  Theodoricus 
Sp.,  Teodorico. 

Theodosia  {the-o-do'-shl-a).  Feminine  of  Theo- 
dosius.  Gr.,  Theodosie;  It.,  Teodosia;  Lat., 
Theodosia. 

Theodosius  (the-o-do'-shl-us).  From  the  Greek, 
meaning  "given  by  God."  Fr.,  Thdodose;  It., 
Teodosio;  Lot.,  Theodosius;  Sp.,  Teodosio. 

Theophilus  {the-of'-U-us).  From  the  Greek  name 
signifying  "a  friend  of  God."  Danish,  Gottlieb; 
Dutch,  Theophilus;  Fr.,  Th^ophile;  It.,  Teofilo; 
Lai.,  Theophilus;   Port.,  Theopliilo;   Sp.,  Teofilo. 

Theresa  (the-re'-sd).  Probably  from  the  Greek 
Theriso,  "to  reap  or  gather  in  the  crop."  Dutch, 
Theresia;  Fr.,  Th6rese;  Ger.,  Therese;  It., 
Teresa;  Lat.,  Theresa;  Sp.,  Teresa;  Sw.,  The- 
resa. 

Thermopylae  {ther-mdp'-U-e).  It  means  "the 
defile  of  the  warm  springs." 

Thian-shan  {te-dn'-shdn').  Chinese,  meaning 
"the  celestial  mountains." 

Thibet  or  Tibet  {tlb'St,  ti-bet').  Supposed  to  be  a 
corruption  of  Thupo,  "high  country,  the  country 
of  the  Thou,  a  people  who  founded  an  empire  there 
in  the  Sixth  Century. 

Thirty,  Battle  of  the.  A  fight  between  thirty 
Bretons  and  thirty  Englishmen,  pitted  by  Jean  de 
Beaumanoir    and    Bemborough,    an    Englishman, 


844 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


against  each  other,  to  decide  a  contest.  The  fight 
is  said  to  have  taken  place  between  the  castles  of 
Josselin  and  Ploermel  in  France  in  1351.  The 
English  were  beaten. 

Thomas  {tdm'-as).  From  an  Aramaic  word, 
meaning  "a  twin."  Danish,  Thomas;  Dutch, 
Thomas;  Gr.,  Thomas;  Ger.,  Thomas;  Fr.,  Thomas; 
Hungarian,  Tamas;  It.,  Tommaso;  Lat.,  Thomas; 
Polish,  Tomasz;  Port.,  Thomas  or  Thomar; 
Sp.,  Tomas;   Sw.,  Thomas. 

Thrace.  From  the  Greek  trachus,  meaning  "the 
rough  land." 

Thursday.  The  day  of  Thor,  the  son  of  Odin 
(or  Wodin)  and  the  God  of  Thunder. 

Tiber  (tt'-6er.  Italian,  T'erere).  Was  the  Roman 
Tiberis.  From  the  name  of  the  river  was  derived 
the  Roman  name  Tiberius. 

Tiberius  (ti-be'-rl-us).  Means  "of  the  Tiber." 
Fr.,  Tibere;  It.,  Tiberio;  Lat.,  Tiberius. 

Tlconderoga  (tl-kdn-der-o'-gd),  N.  T.  Indian 
Cheonderaga,  signifying  "brawling  water,"  from  the 
noise  of  the  rapids  in  the  outlet  of  Lake  George  as 
it  falls  into  Lake  Champlain. 

Tlerra  del  Fuego  {te-ir'-rd  del  fwa'-go).  Spanish 
for  "land  of  fire." 

Tigris  (fi'-gris).  A  name  rightly  explained  by 
Strabo,  who  says  that  it  was  so  called  from  its 
"swiftness,"  for  among  the  Medes  tigris  means  "an 
arrow." 

Timothy  {tlm'-o-thl).  From  the  Greek  name 
signifying  "honoring  or  worshiping  God."  Danish, 
Timotheus;  Dutch,  Timotheus;  Fr.,  Timoth^e; 
Ger.,  Timotheus;  Gr.,  Timotheos;  It.,  Timoteo; 
Lat.,  Tiniotheus;  Port.,  Timotheo;  Sp.,  Tumoteo; 
Sw.,  Timotheus. 

Tippecanoe  (tlp-pe-kd-noo')  River,  Ind.  From  the 
Indian  name  given  to  a  fish  living  in  this  stream, 
"the  long-lipped  pike,"  or  "buffalo  fish." 

Tltlcaca  (tU-e-ka'-kd).  An  island  and  lake  near 
the  peninsula  of  Copacabana,  South  America.  It 
was  a  sacred  place  of  the  Incas,  and  "the  birth- 
place of  the  Sun,"  according  to  one  of  their  legends. 

Titus  (tl'-t-&s).  From  the  Greek  name  signifying 
"honored."  Fr.,  Tite;  Ger.,  Titus;  It.,  Tito; 
Lat.,  Titus;  Sp.,  Tito. 

Tobago  (td-bd'-go)  Island.  So  called  by  Colum- 
bus from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  the  Tobaco,  or 
inhaling  tube  of  the  aborigines,  whence  the  word 
tobacco  has  been  derived. 

Tobias  (td-bl'-as  or  Toby  (to'-bl).  From  the 
Hebrew  tobh-mah,  which  has  been  variously  ren- 
dered "God's  goodness"  and  "distinguished  of  the 
Lord."  Danish,  Tobias;  Dutch,  Tobias;  Fr., 
Tobie;  Ger.,  Tobias;  It.,  Tobia;  Lot.,  Tobias;  Sp., 
Tobias. 

Toklo  or  Tokyo  {to'-ke-o) .  The  capital  of  Japan, 
is  the  "Eastern  Capital,"  in  contra-distinction  to 
Saikio,  the  "Western  Capital."  Formerly  called 
Yeddo. 

Toledo  (td-le'-do.  Spanish,  to-ld'-tho).  The  capi- 
tal of  Gothic  Spain,  was  the  Roman  Toletum,  a 
name  of  unknown  etymology,  wildly  supposed  to 
be  of  Phenician  origin,  meaning  the  city  of  "gener- 
ations." 

Tomas.     See  Thomas. 

Tomblgbee  River,  Fla.  From  the  Choctaw 
Indian  word  itumbibikpi ;  the  literal  translation 
would  be  "an  undertaker,"  it  being  a  name  given 
to  the  old  men  of  the  tribe  wlio  were  employed  in 
preparing  their  dead  for  the  "bonehouses. 

Tommaso.     See  Thomas. 

Tom,  Mount,  Mass.  In  honor  of  a  neighboring 
resident,  Rowland  Thomas,  -probably  familiarly 
known  as  "Tom." 

Tonquln  (tdn-ken').  Chinese  Tang-king,  the 
eastern  capital. 

Topeka  (to-pe'-kd),  Kansas.  An  Indian  word, 
Topeakae,  "a  good  place  to  dig  potatoes." 

Toronto  (td-rdn'-to).  Many  towns  and  cities  in 
the  United  States  bear  this  Indian  name,  meaning 


"oak  tree  rising  from  the  lake,"  which  has  been 
transferred  to  them  from  the  city  in  Canada,  which 
see. 

Toronto,  Canada.  Now  the  capital  of  the  Cana- 
dian province  of  Ontario.  The  name  at  first  de- 
noted the  country  of  the  Huron  tribe  to  which  the 
Bay  of  Toronto  gives  access.  Here  a  French  trad- 
ing post  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  present  city,  and 
called  Fort  Toronto.  In  1793,  the  name  was 
changed  to  York  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York,  but 
in  1834,  the  old  name  Toronto  was  revived. 

Torres  (tdr'-rSz)  Strait.  Owes  its  designation  to 
its  position  near  the  equator,  the  word  torres,  from 
the  Latin  toridus,  signifying  "parched." 

Tortugas  {t6r-t6o' -gdz)  Islands,  Fla.  Spanish 
word  meaning  "tortoise,"  the  name  given  by_the 
Spaniards  from  the  number  of  tortoise  found  on 
them. 

Toulon  {tab'46n.  French,  <<J5-Z<5n').  French  city, 
is  from  the  ancient  Telonium  or  Telo  Martius, 
named  after  its  founder. 

Toynbee  (toin'-be)  Hall.  An  institution  in 
Whitechapel,  London,  founded  in  1885,  as  the 
outcome  of  plans  set  on  foot  by  the  members  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities  "to  provide 
education  and  the  means  of  recreation  and  enjoy- 
ment for  the  people  of  the  poor  districts  of  London," 
etc. 

Trafalgar  {tr&f-dl' -gar)  Square.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal squares  in  London,  about  one  and  one-half 
miles  west  by  south  of  St.  Paul's.  It  contains  the 
Nelson  monument,  and  the  site  of  Charing  Cross 
and  the  National  Gallery  faces  on  it. 

Transvaal  (trdns-vaU).  That  territory  beyond 
the  River  Vaal. 

Traverse  Bay,  Mich.  Named  by  Marquette 
Petit  Traverse  and  Grand  Traverse,  little,  small, 
and  large  breadth  or  crossings;  applied  to  it  being 
nearer  to  cross  the  bay  than  follow  along  the  shores. 

Treblzond  (trSb-l-zdnd').  From  the  Greek  tra- 
pezus,  "the  table,"  so  called  from  its  form. 

Trenton,  N.  J.  First  called  Trent  Toum,  so  named 
from  Col.  William  Trent  of  Philadelphia,  a  speaker 
of  the  house  of  assembly  in  1720. 

Trianon,  Grand  {gran  tre-d-ndn').  A  small  palace 
at  Versailles  of  only  one  story  but  considerable 
length,  built  by  Louis  XIV.  for  Mme.  de  Maintenon, 
and  since  used  by  successive  French  sovereigns  as 
a  private  residence. 

Trianon,  Petit  (pte  tre-d-no^').  A  graceful, 
neo-classical  villa  in  the  park  at  Versailles,  built  by 
Louis  XV.,  and  closely  associated  with  tlie  memory 
of  Marie  Antoinette,  whose  favorite  abode  it  was. 

Trinidad  (Mn-i-dad'.  Q-p&msh, tre-ne-thath').  So 
named  by  Columbus  from  its  three  peaks,  emble- 
matic of  the  Holy  Trinity. 

Tristram  (tris'-tram).  From  the  Latin,  meaning 
"sorrowful."     Lat.^  Tristramus;   Port.,  Tristao. 

Troy,  N.  T.  Prior  to  present  name  known  as 
Vanderheyden's;  the  name  Troy  adopted  at  a  town 
meeting,  January  5,  1789,  on  the  suggestion  of 
Christopher  Hutton. 

Tsarskoe  Selo  (tsar' -sko-ye  syi-l6').  A  town  in  the 
government  of  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  about  fifteen 
miles  south  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  contains  a  famous 
imperial  palace,  a  favorite  summer  residence  of  the 
court. 

Tucson  (tu-sdn'  or  tuk'-sun),  Arizona.  From  the 
Pima  dialect,  meaning  "black  spring." 

Tuesday.     Devoted  to  Tiw,  the  god  of  war. 

Tulare  {tob-l&r'.  Spanish,  tdb-la'-ra)  Lake,  Cal. 
Called  by  the  Spaniards  Lagana  Grande  de  los 
Tulares,  from  a  dense  growth  of  "tule"  found  in  its 
waters  and  on  the  shores. 

Tunis  {ta'-nis).  Anciently  known  as  Tunentum, 
"the  land  of  the  Tunes." 

Turanian  {tu-rd'-nl-an).  A  legendary  ancestor 
of  the  Turks.  The  word  is  loosely  and  indefinitely 
used  to  designate  a  family  of  languages  and  also 
an  ethnological  group. 


MISCELLANY 


845 


Turin  (tu'-rhi).  It.,  Torino.  Anciently  Augusta- 
Taurinorum,  named  from  the Taurini,  i.  e.,  "dwellers 
among  hills." 

Turkestan  (toor-kSs-tdn') .  The  country  of  the 
Turks.     See  Turkey. 

Turkey.  The  English  name  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  Turcia, 
the  Latinized  form  of  the  Arabic  name  Al-Turkiyah, 
the  "land  of  the  Turks."  Turkestan  in  Central 
Asia  is  a  Persian  form  of  the  same  name,  denoting 
the  land  occupied  by  the  Usbeks,  the  Kirghis,  the 
Turcomans,  and  other  Turkic  races.  The  name 
Turk  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
name  Tu-kiu  of  the  Chinese  historians,  or  from  the 
Arabic  turkur,  "robbers."  It  is  probably  a  Tartar 
word  meaning  "brave." 

Tuscaloosa  {tus-kd-l6b' -so) .  County  and  city  in 
Alabama  named  for  an  Indian  chief,  the  name 
meaning  "black  warrior." 

Tuscany  {tus'-kd-nl.  It.,  Toscana).  Bears  the 
name  of  its  ancient  inhabitants  the  Tusci  or  Etrusci. 
The  Etruscans  were  called  Tyrrheni  by  the  Greeks, 
whence  the  name  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  given  to  that 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  which  lies  between  the 
mainland  and  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
the  Greeks  of  Cumse  and  of  Sicily  encountering 
them  by  sea  and  the  Romans  by  land. 

Tuskegee  {tus-ke'-ge).  Town  in  Macon  County, 
Alabama.  Probably  derived  from  the  Indian  word 
taskicdgi,  "warriors." 

Tuxedo  (tuks-e'-do).  A  few  places  in  the  United 
States  bear  this  Indian  name,  which  undoubtedly 
is  derived  from  P'tauk-seet-tough,  meaning  "the 
place  of  bears." 

Ulysses  {yu-Lis' -ez) .  A  masculine  baptismal 
name,  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek  Odysseus,  "to 
cause  pain."  Fr.,  Ulysse;  Gr.,  Odysseus;  It., 
Ulisse;  La<.,  Ulysses  or -Ulyxes. 

Umatilla  {u-md-tW 4d) .  River  and  county  in 
Oregon,  said  by  some  to  be  named  for  a  tribe  of 
Indians.  Others  state  that  it  is  derived  from 
U-a-tal4a,  meaning  "the  sand  blew  bare  in  heaps," 
this  part  of  the  country  having  ridges  of  sand 
alternating  with  bare  grovind. 

Umbagog  (um-bd' -gog) .  Lake  lying  partly  in 
New  Hampshire  and  partly  in  Maine.  An  Indian 
word,  said  to  mean  "doubled  up."  Other  authori- 
ties favor  "clear  lake,  shallow,"  or  "great  waters 
near  another." 

Una  (u'-nd).  A  Gaelic  feminine  name,  corrupted 
from  Winifred. 

Unter  den  Linden  (oon'-tSr  dSn  lln'-den).  A 
famous  street  in  Berlin  which  extends  from  the 
Brandenburg  Gate  eastward  about  three-fifths  of  a 
mile.  Bordering  it  are  the  imperial  and  princely 
palaces,  the  university,  the  academy,  the  statue  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  etc.  It  literally  means  "under 
the  lindens." 

Ural  (yu'-rdl).  The  chain  dividing  Europe 
from  Asia,  means  the  "girdle"  or  "belt," 
urql-tau,  being  a  Turkic  word  meaning  a  "moun- 
tain chain,"  while  urr  means  a  "chain"  in  Ostiah. 
The  Russians  call  the  Ural  Mountains  by  the 
translated  name  Poyas,  the  "girdle."  The  moun- 
tains have  given  their  name  to  the  River  Ural, 
which  flows  from  them  into  the  Caspian. 

Urban  {ur'-han).  From  the  Latin  urbanus,  signi- 
fying "civil,  courteous,  polite,  refined";  literally, 
of  or  belonging  to  a  city  (urbs).  Danish,  Urban; 
Dutch,  Urbanus  or  Urbaan;  Fr.,  Urbain;  Ger., 
Urban;  It.,  Urbano;  Lat.,  Urbanus;  Sp.,  Urbano; 
Sw.,  Urban. 

Uriah  (u-rl'-d).  From  the  Hebrew,  meaning 
"light  of  Jehovah,"  or  "fire  of  the  Lord."  Fr., 
Urie;  Ger.,  Urias;  It.,  Uria;  Lat.,  Urias. 

Ursula  (ur'-su-ld).  A  feminine  name  derived 
from  the  Latin  Ursula,  "a  young  or  small  she-bear." 
Dutch,  Ursula;  Fr.,  Ursule;  Ger.,  Ursula;  It., 
Ursula;  Lat.,  Ursula;  Sp.,  Ursula;  5w.,_Ursula. 

Uruguay      (yu'-rdo-gwa.     Spanish,      oo-roo-gvA'). 


Name  of  a  river  in  South  America,  meaning  "the 
golden  water." 

Utah  {yu'-ta,  yu'-to).  State  in  the  Union,  county 
and  lake  in  same  State,  named  for  the  Ute  Indians, 
the  word  meaning  "home,  or  location,  on  the 
mountain  top." 

Utica  {u'-tl-kd).  City  in  New  York,  named  for 
the  ancient  city  in  Africa;  towns  In  Livingston 
County,  Missouri,  and  Hinds  County,  Mississippi, 
and  village  in  Macomb  County,  Michigan,  named 
for  the  above. 

Uzziah  {uz-zi'-d).  From  the  Hebrew,  signifying 
the  "strength  of  the  Lord."     Lat.,  Uzzias. 

Valencia  (vd-ien'-shi-d.  Spanish,  vd-ldn' -the-d) . 
City  in  Spain,  was  the  ancient  Valentia,  "the 
powerful." 

Valenciennes  {vd-l^n-si-in/ .  French,  vd4aJfse- 
gn'),  also  Valenza  and  Valence.  Said  to  have 
been  named  after  the  western  Roman  emperor, 
Valentinian. 

Valentlna  (v&l-en-ti'-nd).  Feminine  name  de- 
rived from  Valentine. 

Valentine  (v&l'-en-tln).  A  name  derived  from 
St.  Valentine,  from  the  Latin  Valentinus,  of  or 
belonging  to  Valentia,  one  of  the  ancient  names  of 
Rome;  also  of  towns  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Sardinia, 
and  the  appellation  of  a  goddess  worshiped  at 
Oriculum  in  Italy;  originally  from  valens,  "puissant, 
mighty,  strong."  Danish,  Valentin;  Dutch,  Val- 
entijn;  Fr.,  Valentin;  Ger.,  Valentin;  It.,  Valen- 
tino; Lot.,  Valentinus;  Port.,  Valentim;  Sp., 
Valentin;  Sw.,  Valentin. 

Valeria  {v&-le' -rl-d) .  The, feminine  of  Valerius. 
Fr.,  Val6rie;  It.,  Valeria;  Lat.,  Valeria. 

Valerian  (vd4e'-ri-an).  From  the  Latin  Valere, 
"to  be  strong,  healthy."  Dutch,  Valerianus;  Fr., 
Valerien;  It.,  Valeriano;  Lat.,  Valerianus. 

Valerie.     See  Valeria. 

Valley  Forge.  Village  in  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania,  so  named  because  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  Valley  Creek,  where  a  forge  was  erected 
in  the  days  antedating  the  Revolution,  by  Isaac 
Potts. 

Vancouver  {v&n-kob'-ver).  A  rising  city  which 
forms  the  western  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  bears  the  name  of  Captain  George  Van- 
couver, R.  N.,  who,  as  a  midshipman  in  Cook's 
last  voyage,  visited  the  coast  in  1776,  and  surveyed 
it  in  1792. 

Vancouver  Island.  In  memory  of  Captain  Van- 
couver, a  midshipman  under  Captain  Cook,  who 
discovered  it  in  1792,  while  cruising  about  in  search 
of  a  river  on  the  west  coast  of  North  America. 

Vashti  {v&sh' 41).  Feminine  name,  so  called  from 
Vashti,  wife  of  Ahasuerus,  signifying  "beauty, 
goodness." 

Vasili  or  Vasllii.     See  Basil. 

Vatican  {v&t'-i-kan).  A  hill  of  Rome,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  opposite  the  Pincian.  On 
it  stands  St.  Peter's  and  the  Vatican  Palace. 

Venezuela  (ven-ez-we'4d.  Spanish,  vd-neth-wd'4d). 
Expresses  the  Spanish  for  "Little  Venice,"  which 
designation  was  given  to  this  country  owing  to  the 
discovery  of  some  Indian  villages  built  upon  piles 
after  the  manner  of  the  "Silent  City'  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea. 

Venice  (ven'-ls).  It.,  Venezia,  Ger.,  Venedig. 
Is  the  French  name  for  the  city  founded  by  fugi- 
tives from  the  Roman  province  of  Venetia.  The 
word  means  "blessed." 

Vermont.  When  the  French  were  in  possession 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley  they  called  the  moun- 
tains of  the  southern  section  Vertniont,  vert,  "greeb," 
mont,  "mountain,"  and  the  inhabitants  of  that 
section  in  their  Declaration  of  Independence,  Janu- 
ary 16,  1777,  adopted  the  name  for  the  State. 

Veronica  {y^r-d-nV -kd  or  ver-dn'-ik-d).  From 
the  Greek  word  meaning,  "true  picture."  Fr., 
Veronique;  It.,  Veronica. 

Versailles  {ver-salzf.     French,  v^-sd'-yU),  Palace 


846 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


of.  A  famous  royal  palace  in  the  French  city  of  the 
same  name,  a  great  part  of  which  is  now  occupied 
by  the  Museum  of  French  History,  consisting 
chiefly  of  paintings;  but  some  of  the  apartments 
are  still  preserved  with  the  fittings  of  a  royal  resi- 
dence. 

Vesuvius  (ve-su'-vl-us),  »It.  The  only  active 
volcano  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  the  most 
noted  one  in  the  world,  situated  on  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  Italy.  The  Italian  form  is  Vesuvio,  and 
the  French  form  Vesuve,  the  word  originally  meant 
"emitter  of  smoke." 

Vlcksburg.  City  in  Mississippi,  named  for 
Neivitt  Vick,  its  founder. 

Victoria  (vik-to'-rl-d).  From  the  Latin,  naeaning 
"victory."  Fr.,  Victoire;  It.,  Vittoria;  Lat., 
Victoria;  Sp.,  Vitoria. 

Vienna  (vl-^n'-d).  Ger.,  Wien;  Fr.,  Vienne. 
Capital  of  Austro-Hungary.  Originally,  Vindo- 
bona,  a  name  probably  of  Keltic  origin,  meaning 
either  "white  castle,"  or  "town  of  the  Wends." 

VIncennes  (vin-sSnz'.  French,  vdN-s2n').  City 
in  Indiana,  named  from  the  fort  built  by  Sieur  de 
Vincennes. 

Vincent  (vln'-sSnt).  From  the  Latin  name, 
Vincentius,  from  vincere,  "to  conquer."  Dutch, 
Vincentius;  Fr.,  Vincent;  It.,  Vincente;  Lat.,  Vin- 
centius; Port.,  Vicente;  Sp.,  Vicente  or  Vincente. 

Viola  (vi'-d-ld.  Italian,  ve-o'-La).  A  feminine 
name  derived  from  the  Latin  viola,  "a  violet." 

Vlolante.  A  feminine  name  derived  from  the 
name  Violet. 

Violet.  A  feminine  nan>e  derived  from  French 
violctie,  from  the  Latin,  viola. 

Vloletta.  A  diminutive  of  the  name  Violet,  or 
direct  from  Italian  Violetta. 

Virgil  (ver'-jU).  Derived,  like  the  surname  Ver- 
gil, from  the  bard  of  Mantua.  Angelus  Politianus 
writes  the  poet's  name  Vergilius;  Pierius,  Virgilius. 
The  name  has  been  variously  derived  from  Ver- 
giliiB,  the  stars  called  the  Pleiades,  and  from  virga, 
"a  garland  or  laurel." 

Virginia  (ver-jln'-l-d).  A  Roman  name,  feminine 
of  Virginius,  from  root  of  virgo,  "a  virgin."  Dutch, 
Virginie;  Fr.,  Virginie;  Ger.,  Virginia;  It.,  Vir- 
ginia; Lat.,  Virginia. 

Vittoria  or  Vitoria.     See  Victoria. 

Vivian,  Vyvian  (viv'-l-an).  A  Cornish  name 
derived  from  locality,  from  vy-vian,  "the  small 
water."     Fr.,  Vivien;  Lat.,  Vivianus. 

Volga  (vdl'-gd).  The  greatest  European  river, 
bears  a  name  which  is  from  the  Old  Slavonic  ivolkoi 
or  iDolkoia,  "great." 

Wabash  {tod' -hash).  Counties  in  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  river  flowing  through  both  States,  and  city 
in  Indiana.  From  the  Indian  word  IJuahache, 
"cloud  borne  by  an  equinoctial  wind,"  or,  according 
to  another  authority,  "white  water." 

Wales.  Derived  from  Wealas,  "foreigners,"  or 
"Welsh,"  a  name  given  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  invad- 
ers to  the  natives  of  Britain.  Wales  is  a  plural 
form  denoting  the  people,  which  afterwards  ac- 
quired a  territorial  significance. 

Walla  Walla  (wdl'-ld  w6l' -Id), Washington.  The 
Indian  walawala  means  "waving,  throwing  up 
waves,  ripples." 

Wall  of  Antoninus.  A  rampart  erected  in  the 
southern  part  of  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius,  to  check  the  barbarians  in  the  north  of 
Britain.  It  extended  from  the  Firth  of  Fourth  to 
the  Firth  of  Clyde. 

Walloons  {wdUoonz').  A  people  found  chieflv  in 
southern  and  southeastern  Belgium,  also  in  "the 
neighboring  parts  of  France,  and  in  a  few  places  in 
Rheinish  Prvissia  near  Malmedy.  They  are  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  Belgae,  mixed  with  Ger- 
manic and  Roman  elements. 

Wall  Street.  A  street  in  the  lower  part  of  New 
York  Citv  which  extends  from  Broadway,  opposite 
Trinity  Church,  to  the  East  River,  famous  as  a 


financial    and    speculative    center.     A    figurative 
term  for  the  money  power  of  the  country. 

Walter.  From  the  German,  walt-her,  "powerful 
lord";  literally,  a  "wood-master."  Dutch,  Wou- 
ter;  Fr.,  Gautier;  Ger.,  Walter;  It.,  Gualterio; 
Lai.,  Gualterus;  Port.,  Gualter;  Sp.,  Gualterio; 
-Sw;.,  Walter. 

Warsaw.  Formerly  Varsovia  (Polish,  Wars- 
zawa),  takes  its  Slavonic  name  from  a  "castle,"  or 
"fortified  place,"  built  in  the  Ninth  Century  by 
Conrad,  Duke  of  the  surrounding  palatinate  of 
Mazovia.  Here  originated  the  mazurek,  a  dance 
of  the  Polish  peasantry,  which  we  call  the  mazurka. 

Washington.  The  name  of  two  places  in  Eng- 
land, one  in  Durham  the  other  in  Sussex  (Anglo- 
Saxon  Hwessingatun  and  Wassingatun)  which 
signifies  the  tun,  or  "town,"  of  the  Hwessings  or 
Wassings.  From  the  Durham  village  the  ancestors 
of  George  Washington,  the  first  President  of  the 
United  States  (1789-1797),  are  believed  to  have 
derived  their  territorial  surname.  In  his  honor  the 
city  of  Georgetown,  in  Maryland,  selected  in  1790 
for  the  Federal  capital,  was  renamed  Washington. 

Watervllet  (wd-ter-vlet').  City  on  the  Hudson, 
in  Albany  County,  New  York.  From  the  Dutch, 
meaning  "flowing  stream." 

Wednesday.  Set  apart  for  the  worship  of  Odin, 
or  Wodin,  sometimes  called  the  god  of  magic  and 
the  inventor  of  the  arts. 

Wechawken  {we-ho'-kSn),  N.  J.  From  the  Dela- 
ware Indian  name  weachin,  "maize  lands." 

Weilsburg,  W.  Va.  In  honor  of  Alexander 
Wells,  an  early  settler. 

Western  Reserve,  The.  When,  by  the  treaty  of 
1783,  Great  Britain  relinquished  the  territory  south 
of  the  Great  Lakes  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  disputes  arose  among  the  States  of  Virginia, 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  ■  and  Connecticut  as  to 
the  right  of  occupancy  in  that  locality.  The  dif- 
ficulty was  finally  settled  by  the  cession  of  the 
whole  to  the  Federal  Government,  but  Connecticut 
reserved  a  tract  of  nearly  4,000,000  acres  on  Lake 
Erie.  That  State  finally  disposed  of  this  in  small 
lots  to  colonists,  and  so  accumulated  a  magnificent 
school-fund. 

Westminster  Hall.  A  structure  adjoining  the 
British  Houses  of  Parliament  on  the  west,  forming 
part  of  the  ancient  palace  of  Westminster 

Westminster  Palace,  London.  The  Houses  of 
Parliament.  A  palace  is  supposed  to  have  existed 
at  Westminster  in  the  reign  of  Canute  (1017-35). 
Its  importance,  however,  begins  with  Edward  the 
Confessor  (1042-66),  and  the  name  has  been  con- 
ferred upon  the  great  legislative  edifice  of  the 
British  Empire. 

West  Virginia.  See  "Virginia"  for  the  word 
Virginia;  the  Western  division  of  Virginia  sepa- 
rated from  the  -eastern,  owing  to  civil  war  issues, 
as  provided  in  Amnesty  Proclamation  of  President 
Lincoln,  December  8,  1863,  affecting  section  of 
States  in  rebellion.  Proposed  at  one  time  to  call 
the  State  Kanawha,  from  its  principal  river. 

Wetterhom  (vet'-ter-h&rn).  A  mountain  of  the 
Bernese  Alps,  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  situated 
near  Grindelwald,  fourteen  miles  east-southeast  of 
Interlaken.     Means,  literally,  "  storm  peak." 

Wettin  {vU-ten').  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  Prussia,  situated  on  the  Saale,  thirty-two 
miles  northwest  of  Leipsic.  It  contains  the  ances- 
tral castle  of  the  Saxon  line  of  Wettin  from  which 
King  Edward  VII.  of  England  is  descended. 

Wheeling.  City  in  West  Virginia,  so  named 
because  the  Indians  placed  the  head  of  a  white 
victim  on  a  pole  and  gave  the  place  the  name  of 
weal-ink,  "a  place  of  a  human  head."  The  present 
name  of  the  place  is  a  corruption  of  the  Indian 
name. 

I  Whitechapel.  A  quarter  in  the  eastern  part  of 
i  London,  named  from  a  certain  chapel  from  which 
;  distances  out  of  London  used  to  be  measured. 


MISCELLANY 


847 


Whitehall.  In  modern  London,  the  main 
thoroughfare  between  Trafalgar  Square  and  the 
houses  of  Parliament. 

Whitehall  Palace.  A  palace  in  London,  Eng- 
land, originally  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III. 

White  House,  The.  The  official  residence  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States  in  Washington.  It 
is  a  handsome  mansion  in  the  English  Renaissance. 
Its  classical  details  are  sober  and  well  designed, 
both  outside  and  inside. 

White  3Iountalns,  N.  H.  Named  from  the  color 
of  its  tops;  being  covered  with  snow  (white),  this 
has  always  been  the  groundword  of  various  appella- 
tions. The  first  English  explorers  (1632)  called 
them  The  Crystal  Hills.  The  Indian  name  was 
W  aumhckket. 

White  Sea.  So  called  from  its  proximity  to  the 
sterile  regions  of  snow  and  ice. 

Whitney.  Loftiest  peak  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
named  for  Prof.  J.  D.  Whitney,  State  geologist  of 
California. 

Wilford.     A'  name  corrupted  from  Wilfred. 

Wilfred,  WlUrld.  This  name  has  been  translated 
"much  peace,"  or  "resolute  peace,"  but  the  name 
is  rather  from  vid-frid,  "powerful  protector." 

Wllhelm.     See  William. 

Willielniina  (vU-hel-me'-nd).  A  feminine  name 
derived  from  the  German  name  WUhdmine,  from 
Wilhdm. 

Wilhelmine  {iM' -Ml-men' .  German,  vll-hM-me'- 
ne).  A  feminine  name  derived  from  Wilhelm.  It., 
Guglielma. 

Willfesbarre  {wllks' -h&r-l) .  City  in  Luzerne 
County,  Pennsylvania,  named  for  two  members  of 
the  British  Parliament,  American  sympathizers, 
John  Wilkes  and  Colonel  Barre. 

William.  A  name  corrupted  from  the  Old  Ger- 
man name  Wilhelm,  derived  from  weil-helm,  "pro- 
tector of  rest,  defender  of  tranquility,"  or  vil-helm, 
"strong  protector."  Danish,  Wilhelm;  Dutch, 
Willem;  Fr.,  Guillaume;  Ger.,  Wilhelm;  It., 
Guglielmo;  Lat.,  Gulielmus,  Wilhelmus,  or  Williel- 
mus;  Sp.,  Guillermo;  Sw.,  Wilhelm. 

Williamette  (wll-a'-met).  River  in  Oregon. 
Indian  word  said  to  have  originally  been  Wallaniet, 
derived  from  the  same  root  as  Walla  Walla  and 
Wallula;  when  applied  to  water,  meaning  "run- 
ning." Another  authority  gives  its  definition  as 
"the  long  and  beautiful  river." 

WilUmantic  {wU-li-m&n' -tlk) .  River,  and  a  city 
in  Windham  Covinty,  Connecticut.  Indian  word, 
meaning  a  "good  lookout,"  or,  according  to  another 
authority,  "good  cedar  swamps." 

Wilmington.  City  in  Delaware,  the  present 
name  a  corruption  of  the  name  Willington,  given  it 
in  honor  of  Thomas  Willing. 

Wilmington,  N.  C.  In  honor  ■  of  the  Earl  of 
Wilmington,  England;  originally  called  Newton. 

Windsor  {w%n'-z6r).  A  contraction  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  name  Windlesofra,  Windlesora,  Wen- 
dlesore,  or  Windelesore,  is  usually  explained  as  the 
place  by  the  "winding  shore." 

Windsor  Castle.  A  famous  royal  residence, 
founded  by  William  the  Conqueror,  extended  by 
his  successors,  especially  by  Edward  III.,  and 
recently  restored  by  Queen  Victoria  as  a  memorial 
of  her  husband.  The  interior  is  decorated  in  so 
lavish  a  manner  that  it  forms  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  existing  examples  of  such  work. 

Winifred  (win' -i-fred) .  A  feminine  name,  which 
some  consider  a  Saxon  compound  signifying  "win- 
ning peace" ;  it  comes  rather  from  the  Old  German 
win-frid,  "beloved  protector."  Dutch,  Winfried; 
Fr.,  Winifred;   Lat.,  Winfreda;   Sw.,  Winfrid. 

Winnepesaukee  (win-e-pe-s6'-ke).  Lake  in  New 
Hampshire.  Indian  word  winnepesaukee,  meaning 
"good  water  discharge,"  or  "the  beautiful  lake  of 
the  highland." 

Winnipeg  (wln'-l-peg)  City.     The  capital  of  the 


Canadian  province  of  Manitoba,  is  built  on  a  spit 
at  the  junction  of  the  Red  River  and  the  Assini- 
boine,  whose  united  waters  after  a  course  of  forty- 
five  miles  reach  Lake  Winnipeg,  which  bears  an 
Algonquin  name  meaning  "the  muddy  water," 
the_  water  being  discolored  by  the  Saskatchewan, 
which  brings  down  much  clay  in  solution. 

Winona  (wl-no'-nd),  Minn.  A  Dakota  name 
applied  to  the  first  born,  if  a  daughter,  hence, 
"first  born."     If  a  boy,  he  is  spoken  of  as  Chaske. 

Winooslii  (wi-noos' -ki)  River,  Vt.  Composed  of 
two  Algonquin  words  meaning  "land  of  onions." 
The  stream  is  often  called  the  Onion  River,  also 
French  River,  the  latter  term  from  the  circum- 
stajice  of  this  valley  being  the  line  of  travel  of  the 
French  and  Indians  (1755). 

Winter  Palace.  An  imperial  palace  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, Russia.  The  interior  is  remarkable  for  its 
series  of  Russian  historical  paintings  and  portraits, 
and  for  the  splendid  state  apartments.  The  crown 
jewels  are  kept  in  this  palace. 

Wisby  or  Vlsby  (ves'-bU).  A  famous  old  town 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Island  of  Gotland,  Sweden. 
It  contains  a  cathedral  and  ruined  churches, 
towers,  and  walls. 

Wisconsin  {wls-k6n'-sln).  From  its  principal 
river  named  by  Marquette  as  Masconsin,  "wild 
rushing  channel,"  changed  to  Ouisconsin,  then  to 
Wisconsin.  Present  spelling  from  a  misprint;  all 
the  early  French  documents  have  Ouisconsing  or 
Misconsing. 

Wlssahickon  (tvis-sd-hlk'-on)  Creek,  Pa.  From 
the  Delaware  Indian  word,  misaniekhan,  "catfish 
stream." 

Wltenagemot  (tvW-e-nd-ge-mdt).    In  Anglo-Saxon  ' 
history,  the  great  Saxon  council  or  parliament,  con- 
sisting of  the  king  with  his  dependents  and  friends 
and  sometimes  the  members  of  his  family,  the  earl- 
dormen,  and  the  bishops  and  other  ecclesiastics. 

Worcester  (wdbs'-ter),  England.  From  the 
ancient  Huic-wara-ceaster,  "the  camp  of  the 
Huieci,  or  Hwiccas,"  a  Celtic  tribe. 

Worcester  {woos'-ter,  wobs'-ter),  Mass.  Count}'' 
and  city  in  Massachusetts,  named  for  the  county  in 
England. 

Wouter.     See  Walter. 

Wyoming  (wi-d'-ming).  Name  carried  to  the 
West  by  emigrants  from  the  Wyoming  Valley  of 
Eastern  Pennsylvania  in  its  native  location,  the 
word'  derived  from  the  Delawaxe— expression, 
Maughwauwame,  meaning  "the  la'f^'^taHis." 

Tadkin  (yad'-kln).  County  in  Nofcth  Carolina, 
-said  to  be  named  for  a  tribe  of  Indians,  though 
some  authorities  favor  the  idea  that  it  was,  named 
for  an  early  settler. 

Tang-tse-Kiang  (y&ng-tse-kl-ang')  River.  "The 
son  of  the  great  water." 

Yankee.  This  word  is  believed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  manner  in  which  the  Indians  en- 
deavored to  pronounce  the  word  English,  which 
they  rendered  "Yenghees,"  whence  the  word 
Yankee. 

Yankton  (y&ngk'-tun).  South  Dakota.  From  the 
Dakotah  Indian  word,  eyank-ton-wah,  "people  of 
the  sacred  or  spirit  lake." 

Yazoo  (ydz'-oo).  County  and  river  in  Mississippi, 
named  for  a  tribe  of  Indians,  the  name  said  to  mean 
"to  blow  on  an  instrument";  another  definition  is 
given  as  "the  ruins." 

Yellow  Sea.  From  the  color  of  the  water  caused 
by  the  nature  of  its  muddy  soil. 

Yellowstone.  River  in  Montana  and  Wyoming. 
Name  derived  from  its  original  French  name,  Roche 
jaune,  "yellow  rock  or  stone,"  though  by  some  said 
to  be  from  the  Indian  mi-tsi-a-da-zi,  "rock  yellow 
river." 

Yemassee  (yem-d-se')  River,  Ga.  From  a  tribe 
of  Indians,  Yamassi,  signifying  "peaceable." 

Yenisei  (yen-e-sd'-e).  The  great  river  of  Siberia, 
also  written  Jenissy,  Geniseia,  or  Gelissy,  has  been 


848 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


explained  as  "the  water  which  flows  down,"  or 
the  river  which  "brings  down  ice." 

Tokohatna  (yd-kd-h&'-ma).  Now  the  chief  port 
in  Japan,  was  before  1854  a  small  fishing  village. 
The  name  is  believed  to  mean  the  "cross  shore.' 

Yonkers  {ydngk'-irz).  City  in  New  York,  named 
for  a  manor  house  built  by  the  Dutch,  the  word 
meaning  "young  lord,"  and  first  applied  in  this 
country  to  Adrien  Van  der  Douck,  a  patentee. 

Tork  Blvcr,  Va.  After  the  Duke  of  York ;  prior 
to  this  it  was  noted  on  the  maps  as  Salt  River. 
The  Indian  name  was  Pamawnkee  or  Patnaunk. 

Yosemlte  (yoshn'-U-e).  An  Anglicized  or  cor- 
rupted form  of  the  Indian  A-hom-f-ta,  meaning 
"grizzly  bear";  supposed  to  have  been  the  title  of 
a  chief,  and  generally  applied  to  a  tribe  that  inhab- 
ited the  region. 

Toughiogheny  (yd-hd-ga'-nl)  River,  Penn.  From 
the  Indian  yukwiakhanna,  "a  stream  taking  a 
roundabout  course." 

Youngstown.     City    in 
Young,  an  early  resident. 

Ypsilantr(l^«-4n'-<l) . 
for  a  Greek  prince. 

Yucatan  (ytJU-ka-tdn'). 
word  meaning  "what  do  you  say?"  which  was  the 
only  answer  the  Spaniards  could  obtain  from  the 
natives  to  their  inquiries  concerning  a  description 
of  the  country. 

Yukon  {yd>'-k6n)  Blver,  Alaska.  Named  from 
the  Yakuts,  a  Tartar  tribe. 

Yustc  {y(}5s'-td).  A  convent  in  Spain,  east  of 
Plasencia.  It  is  noted  as  the  place  of  retirement 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  after  his  abdication. 

Zaccheus  (z^k-e'-Hs).  From  the  Hebrew  Zak- 
kay,  "pure,  innocent."  Others  render  it  "pure  of 
the  Lord,"  making  the  last  letter  stand  for  Yah. 
Fr.,  Zacch^e;  It.,  Zacheo:  Lot.,  Zaccheus. 

Zachariah  (zdk-d-rl'-a).  From  the  Hebrew 
Zakhar-Yah,  meaning  "remembering  the  Lord." 
Danish,  Zacharias;  Dutch,  Zacharias;  Fr.,  Zach- 
arie;  Gfr.,  Zacharias;  /<.,  Zaccaria;  La/.,  Zacharias; 
Sp.,  Zacarias;  Sw.,  Zacharias. 

Zachary  (z&k'-d-rl).  Same  derivation  as  Zacha- 
riah. 


Ohio,  named  for  John 
City  in  Michigan,  named 
A     compound     Indian 


Zadok  (za'-ddk).  Means  "righteous."  Fr.,  Zadoc; 
Lat.,  Zadocus. 

Zambezi  {zHtn-ba'-zi,  Pop.,  z&m-hi'-zi).  Is  the 
"great  river"  of  Eastern  Africa,  whose  upper 
waters  and  chief  affluents  are  called  Jambaji  and 
Luambezi,  dialectic  forms  of  the  same  name. 

Zancsvllle  {zam!-vU).  City  in  Ohio,  named  for 
Ebenezcr  Zane,  who,  with  John  Mclntire,  founded 
the  city. 

Zanzibar  (zan-zl-hitr').  The  name  of  an  East 
African  island,  was  used  before  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury in  a  more  general  sense  to  denote  the  East 
African  coast  south  of  the  River  Jubb.  Zanzibar 
is  a  Portuguese  form  of  the  Arabic  Zaniebar,  which 
is  itself  a  corruption  of  the  Persian  Zangihar,  or 
Zcnqticbar,  which  means  the  coast  or  "region  of  the 
blacks,"  the  name  being  formed  like  Hindubar,  the 
land  of  the  Hindus,  or  Malebar,  the  land  of  the 
mountains. 

Zealand  (ze'4and).  In  Netherlands,  "land  sur- 
rounded by  the  sea." 

Zebulon  (zSb'-u4dn).  From  the  Hebrew,  mean- 
ing "dwelling."     Fr.,  Zabulon;   Lot..  Zabulon. 

Zeno  ize'-no).  P>om  the  Greek  Zeus.  Fr., 
Zenon;  Gr.,  Zenon;  It.,  Zenone. 

Zenobia  (zlS-nd'-bi-d).  Feminine  form  from  Zeus. 
Fr.,  Zenobie;  Ger.,  Zenobia;  It.,  Zenobia;  Lot., 
Zenobia. 

Zion  (zi'-dn),  or  Slon  (si'-dn)  Mount.  A  hill  on 
which  was  situated  the  old  city  of  Jerusalem;  the 
"city  of  David."  Now  used  symbolically  of  the 
Christian  church  and  of  heaven. 

Zee  (zo'-e  or  zo).  From  the  Greek  name,  signi- 
fying "life." 

Zululand  {z^'-l6b-ld.nd).     The  countrv  of  Zulus. 

Zurich  (^d^'-rI^•).  From  the  ancient  thiouricum, 
"the  town  of  the  Thuricii,"  who  built  it  after  it 
had  been  destroyed  by  Attila. 

Zuyder  Zee  (zl'-d^r  ze.  Dutch,  zoi'-dh--za).  Ex- 
presses the  Dutch  for  the  "South  Sea,"  in  relation 
to  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean. 

Zwingcr  (tsving'-h-).  A  famous  museum  in  Dres- 
den. Its  picture-gallery  contains  about  2,500 
paintings,  also  collections  of  drawings,  casts,  etc. ' 


NAVIES  OF  THE   WORLD 


Powers 


Great  Britain,  . 
United  States,  . 
Germany,    .    .    . 

France 

Japan 

Russia 

Italy 

Austria-Hungary, 
Sweden,  .... 
Norway,  .... 
Denmark,    .    .    . 
Netherlands,  .    . 

Spain 

Portu]?al,     .    .    . 

Turkey 

Greece 

China, 

Siam 

Argentine,  .    .    . 

Brazil, 

Chile 

Mexico 


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3,440 

3,338 

1.799 

800 

402 

280 

380 

510 

700 

250 

929 

350 


493 
550 
500 
200 


95,000 

38,500 

44,432 

53,000 

32,640 

57,000 

25,000 

11,224 

3,500 

1.000 

4,000 

8,000 

5,000 

3,000 

30.000 

3,700 

6,6oo 

5.507 

8,000 

8.000 

965 


MISCELLANY 


849 


Newspapers.  Newspapers  first  came  into 
existence  when  the  reports  of  the  Roman  im- 
perial army  were  transmitted  to  the  generals  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  but  for  the  actual  news- 
paper we  are  indebted  to  Germany,  where  in 
Augsburg,  Vienna,  Ratisbon,  and  Nuremburg,  it 
was,  early  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  the  practice 
to  issue  news  sheets  in  the  form  of  letters.  Yet 
the  first  newspaper  that  at  all  covered  the  same 
idea  as  those  of  the  present  day,  was  issued  in 
Venice,  by  order  of  the  Venetian  Government  in 
1566,  and  called  the  Notizie  Scritte.  At  first 
they  were  not  printed,  but  written  out,  and 
hung  up  in  various  public  places,  where  the  peo- 
ple could  read  them  on  payment  of  a  small  coin. 
The  first  actual  English  newspaper  was  the 
Weekly  News  of  1622,  edited  and  published  by 
Nathaniel  Butler.  The  London  Weekly  Courant 
came  out  in  the  same  year.  The  first  daily  paper 
was  the  Daily  Courant,  which  appeared  printed 
on  one  side  only,  in  1702.  The  first  newspaper 
published  in  America  was  Publick  Occurrences 
(1690),  followed  in  1704  by  the  Boston  News- 
Letter  and  the  Boston  Gazette. 

Oddfellows.  A  large  and  extensively 
ramified  friendly  society,  having  its  headquarters 
in  Manchester.  It  was  originally  an  association 
of  a  convivial  kind,  modeled  on  freemasonry, 
and  still  retains  watchwords  and  secret  signs. 
It  assumed  its  present  form  at  a  convention  in 
Manchester  (1813),  and  has  spread  widely  in 
Britain  and  elsewhere.  The  unparalleled  pros- 
perity of  the  order  of  Odd  Fellows  in  the  United 
States  has  excited  the  wonder  of  the  leading 
men  in  all  fraternal  organizations.  The  first 
lodge  was  organized  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  April 
26,  1819;  in  1825  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  United 
States  was  formed.  In  1839  there  were  fifteen 
grand  lodges,  135  subordinate  lodges,  11,000 
members;  in  1893  over  800,000  members,  and 
8,000  lodges ;  and  at  present  in  excess  of  1,396,000 
members.     The  American  system  has  become 

{)opular  in  France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Hol- 
and,  Sweden,  Denmark;  also  in  Canada,  Mex- 
ico, West  Indies,  South  America,  Australia,  and 
Japan.  The  total  relief  paid  by  the  Independ- 
ent Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  up  to  the  present, 
is  over  $5,113,000. 

Panic.  Though  the  word  is  now  applied  to 
a  financial  stringency,  it  originated  on  the  battle- 
field of  Marathon.  It  will  be  remembered,  in 
that  renowned  encounter,  that  a  mere  handful 
of  Greeks  put  a  vast  multitude  of  Persians  to 
flight,  and  the  honor  of  the  victory  was  all  given 
to  the  god  Pan,  who  smote  the  Persians  with 
sudden  and  unaccountable  fright.  They  lost  all 
sense  or  reason,  and  this  condition  of  affairs  took 
its  name  from  the  god  who  was  supposed  to 
cause  it.     It  was  a  Pan-ic. 

Pawnbroker's  Sign.  This  sign,  popularly 
known  as  "  three  balls,"  was  taken  from  that  of 
the  Italian  bankers,  generally  called  Lombards, 
who  were  the  first  to  open  pawn-shops  in  England 
for  the  relief  of  temporary  distress.  The  greatest 
of  the  Lombards  were  the  celebrated  and  eventu- 
ally princely  house  of  the  Medici  of  Florence. 
They  bore  pills  on  their  shields  (and  those  pills, 
as  was  usual  then,  were  gilded),  in  allusion  to 
the  professional  origin  from  which  they  had" 
obtained  the  name  of  Medici.     Whence  their 


agents  in  England  and  other  countries  placed 
their  armorial  bearings  over  their  doors,  and 
others  adopted  the  sign. 
Pestilence  and  Plague. 

BEFORE  CHRIST 

In  767  a  great  plague,  mentioned  by  Petavius,  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  world. 

In  534,  at  Carthage,  multitudes  perished  by  an 
infectious  distemper;  children  were  offered  in  sacrifice 
as  an  atonement  with  the  gods. 

In  461,  in  Rome,  100,000  persons  died. 

In  430,  beginning  in  Athens,  a  peculiar  disease,  de- 
scribed by  Thucydides,  extended  over  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  causing  frightful  loss  of  life. 

In  188  a  plague  raged  throughout  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
the  Grecian  colonies;  according  to  Pliny,  2,000  persons 
perished  every  day. 

ANNO   DOMINI 

In  80,  in  and  about  Rome,  by  an  infectious  disease,  for 
a  considerable  time,  10,000  died  daily. 

In  167,  and  again  in  169  and  189,  the  Roman  Empire 
suffered  in  almost  every  part  by  a  contagious  and  fatal 
sickness. 

From  350  to  265  the  Empire  was  again  ravaged; 
many  provincial  towns  were  depopulated;  in  Rome 
itself  for  some  time  5,000  died  every  day. 

In  430  Britain  was  devastated  by  a  strange  disease; 
there  were  not  enough  survivors  to  bury  the  dead. 

In  558,  and  during  many  subsequent  years  almost 
without  intermission,  a  plague  prevailed  through  Europe, 

From  746  to  749,  200,000  Constantinopolitans  died  of 
a  contagious  disease,  which  prevailed  also  in  Greece, 
Sicily,  and  Calabria. 

In  773  an  epidemic  disease  carried  off  34,000  persons 
at  Chichester,  England. 

In  954,  in  Scotland,  40,000  persons  perished. 

In  1094  many  died  in  London  of  an  epidemic;  which 
the  following  year  extended  into  Ireland. 

In  1111  a  distemper  in  London,  causing  great  mor- 
tality among  both  human  beings  and  domestic  animals. 

In  1173  a  plague  in  Ireland,  which  drove  back  the 
English  invaders. 

In  1304,  in  Ireland,  a  similar  disease  again  appeared. 

In  1367  the  plague  prevailed  in  England;  mortality 
great. 

In  1340  the  "  Black  Death "  first  appeared  in  Italy. 
This  plague  spread  throughout  Christendom,  and  raged 
during  many  years,  causing  unprecedented  mortality. 
"  In  London  alone  200  persons  were  buried  daily  in  the 
Charter  House  yard,  1348."  In  Germany,  1340,  thou- 
sands perished. 

In  1363,  1367,  1370,  and  1379,  there  was  frightful 
mortaUty  in  Western  Europe,  especially  near  Paris  and 
London,  and  in  portions  of  Ireland;  57,376  died  in 
England  in  1362. 

In  1383  the  "  fourth  pestilence"  in  Ireland  destroyed 
many  people. 

In  1407,  in  London,  a  dreadful  plague  caused  the 
death  of  30,000  persons.  ,      ,  , 

In  1466,  in  Ireland,  a  famine,  followed  by  a  fearful 
pestilence,  caused  the  death  of  hundreds. 

In  1470  the  mortality  in  Dublin  was  very  great. 

In  1471  and  1478,  at  Oxford  and  throughout  all 
England,  a  plague  so  destructive  to  human  life  that 
more  people  died  than  in  the  constant  wars  of  the  fifteen 
years  previously.  .  ,    ,.  .,  j 

In  1485,  in  London,  an  awful  distemper  prevailed 
called  Sudor  Anglicus,  or  sweating  sickness,  by  which 
very  many  lost  their  lives. 

In  1499  to  1500  plague  in  London;  the  royal  court 
was  in  consequence  removed  to  Calais.  .  ,^ 

In  1506  and  again  in  1517  the  "  sweating  sickness 
revisited  London  and  prevailed   over  all  England;    the 
mortality  was  frightful,  the  disease  proving  fatal  in  three 
hours;    half  the  inhabitants  died  in  most  of  the  large 
towns;  some  towns  being  depopulated. 

In  1533  Limerick  was  devastated  by  a  plague  by 
which  many  thousands  lost  their  lives. 

In  1538,  in  England,  the  "  sweating  sickness  again 
made  its  appearance;  North  Germany  was  also  visited 
by  it  in  1529,  and  England  ravaged  for  the  fifth  time 
in  1548  and  1551.  ,     ^  ,.       .     t^     ,      j  i. 

In  1603  and  1604  dreadful  mortality  in  England  by 
the  plague;  in  London  alone  30,578  persons  perished; 
Ireland  also  suffered  severely  by  it. 

In  1611  a  pestilence  raged  in  Constantinople  by  which 
200,000  of  the  inhabitants  perished. 

In  1635  London  again  visited  by  a  fearful  plague; 
the  mortality  great;  35,417  persons  died. 


850 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


In  1633«  in  France,  large  numbers  perished;  at  Lyons 
alone  60.000  died. 

In  1656«  at  Naples,  the  plague  raged  with  such  violence 
that  it  carried  off  400,000  persons  in  six  months;  it  had 
been  brought  by  a  transport  with  soldiers  on  board  from 
Sardinia. 

In  1664  and  1665  the  great  plague  of  London  is  said 
to  have  swept  away  68,696  persons;  some  say  100,000; 
to  destroy  the  contagion  fires  were  kept  burning  day 
and  night;  but  not  until  the  great  fire  of  London  in  1666 
was  the  city  free  of  infection. 

In  1720,  at  Marseilles  and  vicinity,  60,000  perished  by 
the  plague,  which  was  brought  in  a  ship  from  the  Levant, 

In  1741  and  1743  New  York  City  was  visited  by 
yellow  fever. 

In  1743  Messina  was  ravaged  by  the  plague. 

In  1760  an  awful  plague  prevailed  in  Syria. 

In  1773  infectious  distemper  in  Persia;  80,000  died 
in  Bassora. 

In  1773  Saulica,  in  France,  was  visited  by  a  putrid 
fever,  which  broke  out  at  the  opening  of  a  grave;  out 
of  180  persons  present,  174  were  attacked. 

In  1784,  at  Smyrna,  20,000  people  were  carried  off  by 
the  plague;   it  raged  in  Tunis  the  same  year. 

In  1791  and  1795  yellow  fever  swept  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  North  America. 

In  1798  yellow  fever  in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  York;  in  the  latter  city  one  out  of  every  twenty- 
seven  died;  in  and  about  Philadelphia  several  thousands 
died  —  117  in  one  day,  and  50,000  out  of  70,000  inhabit- 
ants fled  from  the  city. 

In  1799,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  particularly  in  Barbary, 
3,000  died  daily  of  the  plague,  and  at  Fez  247,600  were 
swept  away. 

In  1800,  at  Morocco,  1,800  died  in  one  day,  and  the 
plague  continued  to  rage. 

In  1804  and  1806  pestilence  in  Spain  and  Gibraltar. 

In  1805  yellow  fever  in  North  American  ports ;  37,000  out 
of  a  total  population  of  70,000  fled  from  New  York  City. 

In  1813,  at  Malta,  fearful  ravages  by  plague. 

In  1S14  plague  desolated  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and 
Grecian  Archipelago;  Smyrna  lost  30,000. 

In  1816  plague  raged  at  Naples. 

In  1817  the  spasmodic  or  Asiatic  cholera  appeared  in 
India,  at  Jesson,  a  town  about  a  hundred  miles  north- 
east of  Calcutta. 

In  1817  the  city  of  Calcutta  was  attacked  by  cholera, 
and  its  ravages  soon  extended  to  Behar,  Benary,  Alla- 
habad, Lucknow,  Delhi,  and  many  other  towns;  it 
carried  off  a  large  proportion  of  soldiers,  both  European 
and  natives,  and  ravaged  many  parts  of  India  with  great 
mortality. 

In  1818  cholera  visited  Bombay;  from  thence  spread 
into  Ceylon,  Siam,  Malacca,  China,  and  the  Islands  of 
Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  causing  alarm,  desolation,  and 
death,  carrying  off  vast  numbers;  the  .season  of  the 
year  did  not  modify  its  virulence. 

In  1819  and  1822  great  alarm  in  seaports  of  United 
States  because  of  spread  of  yellow  fever,  but  the  mor- 
tality was  not  so  great  as  on  former  visits  of  that  disease. 

In  1819  Tunis  Tost  half  its  population  by  plague. 

In  1821  Persia  visited  by  Asiatic  cholera. 

In  1823  the  cholera  extended  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Aleppo,  Antioch,  and  other  places  were  visited  by  it. 

In  1828  epidemic  fever  at  Gibraltar  —  great  mortality. 

In  1830  Astrakhan  visited  by  cholera;  it  soon  ad- 
vanced up  the  River  Volga  and  into  the  heart  of  Rus- 
sia in  Europe,  attacking  many  towns,  until  it  reached 
Moscow,  where  it  continued  four  months;  8,576  were 
attacked,  of  whom  4,630  died. 

In  1830,  at  Sunderland,  the  Asiatic  cholera  first  made 
its  appearance  in  England.  Haddington  in  Scotland 
was  visited  the  same  year. 

In  1831  the  Russian  and  Polish  armies  were  attacked 
in  their  encampments  by  cholera;  at  Warsaw  in  seven 
weeks  3,012  were  taken  ill,  of  whom  1,462  died;  its 
ravages  continued  in  Poland;  it  appeared  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  Russia,  same  year;  and  7,567  cases  were 
reported,  of  whom  3.804  died  in  forty-eight  days.  Ham- 
burgh in  Germany  also  suffered  from  this  disease. 

In  1832  cholera  first  appeared  at  Belfast,  Ireland, 
and  at  many  places  in  Great  Britain,  Newcastle,  Edin- 
burgh, Greenock,  London,  Dublin,  etc.,  but  until  Jan- 
uary 1,  1832,  the  mortality  did  not  exceed  6,000  in  both 
islands. 

In  1832  Paris  visited  by  cholera,  mortality  in  sixteen 
days  amounted  to  more  than  8,000;  it  continued  in 
Paris  for  some  weeks,  and  the  total  mortality  in  that 
city  has  been  estimated  at  15,000,  out  of  a  population 
of  750,000. 

In  1832  cholera  crossed  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
appeared  at  Quebec  and  Montreal,  in  Canada;  about 
2,000  in  each  of  these  cities  died.  The  city  of  New 
York  was  visited  by  cholera  the  same  year;   in  less  than 


two  months  6,000  persons  had  been  attacked,  of  whom 
3,000  died,  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  having  left  the 
city.  The  distemper  spread  to  Albany,  Brooklyn, 
Rochester,  Buffalo,  and  other  towns  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  and  afterward  to  Philadelphia,  Newcastle, 
Baltimore,  Norfolk,  Portsmouth,  Petersburgh,  and  Rich- 
mond. 

In  1848  and  1849  England  and  America  visited  by 
cholera. 

In  1865  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  large  numbers 
perished  by  cholera;  it  also  appeared  at  Paris,  Mar- 
seilles, and  Naples,  from  July  to  December. 

In  1878  yellow  fever  raged  in  Southern  towns,  es- 
pecially Memphis. 

In  1884,  1885,  and  1892  cholera  raged  in  various 
parts  of  Europe. 

Poisons.  A  poison  is  commonly  defined 
to  be  a  substance  which,  when  administered  in 
small  quantity,  is  capable  of  acting  deleteriously 
on  the  body.  Poisons  are  divisible  into  three 
classes,  according  to  their  mode  of  action  on  the 
system,  viz:  Irritants,  Narcotics,  and  Narcotico- 
irritants.  The  Irritants,  when  taken  in  ordinary 
doses,  speedily  occasion  intense  vomiting  and 
purging,  and  severe  abdominal  pain.  They  act 
chiefly  on  the  stomach  and  intestines,  which 
they  irritate,  inflame,  and  frequently  corrode, 
and  may  thus  occasion  ulceration,  perforation, 
or  gangrene.  The  Narcotics  act  specially  on  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord.  Among  their  most  com- 
mon symptoms  are  giddiness,  headache,  obscur- 
ity of  sight,  or  double  vision,  stupor,  loss  of 
power  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  convulsions,  and 
finally  complete  coma.  The  Narcotico-irritants 
have,  as  their  name  implies,  a  mixed  action. 
"At  variable  periods,"  says  Dr.  Taylor,  "after 
they  have  been  swallowed,  they  give  rise  to 
vomiting  and  purging,  like  irritants,  and  sooner 
or  later  produce  stupor,  coma,  paralysis,  and 
convulsions,  owing  to  their  effect  on  the  brain 
and  spinal  marrow."  Under  the  head  of  Irritant 
Poisons  may  be  included  (1)  Mineral  Acids,  as 
sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydro-chloric  acids;  vege- 
table acids,  and  other  salts,  as  oxalic  acid, 
binoxalate  of  potash,  and  tartaric  acid;  the 
alkalies,  as  pearl-ash,  soap  lees,  ammonia  and 
its  sesquicarbonate ;  metallic  compounds,  as 
white  arsenic,  yellow  arsenic,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, bicyanide  of  mercury,  pernitrate  and 
other  salts  of  this  metal,  acetate  of  lead  in  doses 
of  an  ounce  and  upward,  carbonate  of  lead,  sul- 
phate of  copper,  subacetate  of  copper,  arsenite 
of  copper,  tartarized  antimony,  chloride  of  anti- 
mony, chloride  of  zinc,  nitrate  of  silver,  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  bichromate  of  potash.  (2)  Vege- 
table substances,  viz:  colocynth  and  gamboge 
in  large  doses,  savin,  croton  oil,  the  leaves  and 
flowers  of  the  common  elder;  and  (3)  animal 
substances,  such  as  cantharides,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  occasional  cases  in  which  sausages, 
and  certain  fish  and  moUusks,  usually  quite  in- 
nocuous, act  as  irritant  poison.  The  Narcotic 
Poisons  include  opium,  hydrocyanic  acid,  oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  cyanide  of  potassium,  henbane, 
especially  the  seeds,  alcohol,  ether,  chloral,  and 
chloroform;  while  N arcotico-irritant  Poisons  are 
nux  vomica,  meadow  saffron,  white  hellebore, 
foxglove,  common  hemlock,  water-hemlock, 
hemlock  water-dropwort,  fool's  parsley,  thorn- 
apple,  monk's-hood,  or  wolf's-bane,  deadly 
nightshade,  tobacco,  Indian  tobacco,  the  bark 
and  seeds  of  the  common  laburnum,  the  berries 
and  leaves  of  the  yew-tree,  and  certain  kinds  of 
fungi. 


MISCELLANY 


851 


Pulse.  The  following  table,  compiled  from 
the  observations  of  Dr.  Guy,  shows  the  differences 
in  the  rapidity  of  the  pulse  at  different  ages. 

Average  Average 

Pulsations  Pulsations 

Ages  Males  Females 

From    2  to    7  years 97  98 

From    8  to  14  years 84  94 

From  14  to  21  years 76  82 

From  21  to  28  years 73  80 

From  28  to  35  years,    : 70  78 

From  35  to  42  years 68  78 

From  42  to  49  years 70  77 

From  49  to  56  years 67  76 

From  56  to  63  years 68  77 

From  63  to  70  years 70  78 

From  70  to  77  years 67  81 

From  77  to  84  years 71  82 

Dr.  Guy  found  the  pulsations  of  the  heart  in 
the  foetus  to  be  pretty  uniformly  140  per  minute. 
At  birth,  the  pulse  is  136.  It  gradually  dimin- 
ishes during  the  first  year  to  about  128.  The 
second  year,  the  diminution  is  quite  rapid,  the 
tables  of  Dr.  Guy  giving  107  as  the  mean  fre- 
quency at  two  years  of  age.  After  the  second 
year,  the  frequency  progressively  diminishes 
until  adult  life,  when  it  is  at  its  minimum,  which 
is  about  70  per  minute.  It  is  a  common  but 
erroneous  impression  that  the  pulse  diminishes, 
in  frequency,  in  old  age.  On  the  contrary, 
numerous  observations  show  that  at  the  later 

Ceriods  of  life  the  movements  of  the  heart 
ecome  sUghtly  accelerated,  ranging  from  70  to 
80,  according  to  sex. 

During  early  life  there  is  no  marked  and  con- 
stant difference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  pulse  in  the 
sexes ;  but,  toward  the  age  of  puberty,  the 
development  of  the  sexual  peculiarities  is  accom- 
panied with  an  acceleration  of  the  heart's  action 
m  the  female,  which  continues  even  into  old  age. 

Railway  Gauge.  The  gauge,  or  distance 
between  the  steel  rails  on  railway  tracks,  varies 
very  much  with  the  gradient  and  with  the  supply 
of  materials  and  other  causes.  Of  course,  there 
can  be  no  through  transport  of  goods  unless  all 
the  lines  in  a  country  or  on  a  continent  are  of 
the  same  gauge;  but  in  some  places  this  is,  or 
might  be,  politically  dangerous,  because  troops 
might  suddenly  be  run  through  from  one  country 
to  another.  This  accounts  for  the  difference  of 
gauge  which  formerly  existed  throughout  Europe, 
and  which  still  exists  on  some  frontiers.  Some- 
times, however,  the  difference  of  gauge  is  due  to 
the  character  of  the  ground,  and  sometimes  to 
motives  of  economy.  Up  very  steep  inclines, 
e.  g.,  in  Switzerland  and  India,  the  line  must  be 
either  on  a  very  narrow  gauge  or  on  a  zigzag,  to 
enable  the  engine  to  climb.  Across  a  desert, 
e.  g.,  from  Karachi  to  Lahore,  there  is  a  great 
scarcity  of  wood.  The  gauge  up  to  Darjiling,  in 
Northern  India,  is  2  feet,  the  Norwegian  lines 
are  3  feet  6  inches,  the  British  is  4  feet  8^^ 
inches,  the  Indian  is  5  feet  6  inches,  and  the  old 
Great  Western  Railway  had  a  7-foot  gauge.  The 
standard  gauge  in  America  is  4  feet  8^  inches. 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.  In 
ancient  times  this  description  was  assigned 
the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  Hanging  Gardens  of 
Semiramis  at  Babylon,  the  Temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus,  the  Statue  of  Jupiter  at  Athens  by 
Phidias,  the  Mausoleum,  the  Colossus  at  Rhodes, 
and  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria.  This  cycle  of 
seven  wonders  originated  among  the  Greeks 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


Signature  of  the  Cross.  The  mark 
which  persons  who  are  unable  to  write  are 
required  to  make,  instead  of  their  signature,  is  in 
the  form  of  a  cross  (X),  and  this  practice 
having  been  followed  formerly  by  kings  and 
nobles,  is  constantly  referred  to  as  an  instance 
of  the  deplorable  ignorance  of  ancient  times. 
Anciently,  the  use  of  this  mark  was  not  confined 
to  illiterate  persons;  for,  amongst  the  Saxons, 
the  mark  of  the  cross,  as  an  attestation  of  good 
faith  of  the  person  signing,  was  required  to  be 
attached  to  the  signature  of  those  who  could 
^yrite,  as  well  as  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the 
signature  of  those  who  could  not  write.  The 
ancient  use  of  the  cross  was,  therefore,  universal 
by  those  who  could  and  those  who  could  not 
write.  It  was,  indeed,  the  symbol  of  an  oath 
from  its  holy  associations. 

Solid  South,  Solid  North.  The  phrase 
"Solid  South"  denotes  a  political  solidarity 
dominated  by  the  Democratic  party  such  as 
obtained  in  ante-bellum  days.  The  expression 
came  into  vogue  about  ten  years  after  the  close 
of  the  war,  and  was  given  a  political  significance 
by  a  portion  of  the  newspaper  press  which 
opposed  it  with  a  "Solid  North"  based  on  a 
survival  of  the  old  war  feeling.  John  Singleton 
Mosby,  American  soldier,  but  who  also  served  in 
the  Confederate  army,  was  the  first  to  use  the 
phrase  "Solid  South,"  in  a  letter  to  the  New 
York  Herald,  in  1876,  supporting  the  candidacy 
of  R.  B.  Hayes  for  the  presidency. 

Standard  Time.  Standard  time  was 
established  by  mutual  agreement,  in  1883.  It 
was  primarily  intended  for  the  convenience  of 
railroads,  by  which  trains  are  run  in  accordance 
with  certain  schedules  and  local  time  regulated. 
According  to  this  system,  the  United  States, 
extending  from  65°  to  125°  west  longitude,  is 
divided  into  four  time  sections,  each  of  15°  of 
longitude,  exactly  equivalent  to  one  hour,  com- 
mencing with  the  75th  meridian.  The  first 
(eastern)  section  includes  all  ter-ritory  between 
the  Atlantic  Coast  and  an  irregular  line  drawn 
from  Detroit  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  the  latter 
being  its  most  southern  point.  The  second 
(central)  section  includes  all  the  territory  be- 
tween the  last-named  line  .and  an  irregular  line 
from  Bismarck,  N.  D.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  third  (mountain)  section  includes 
all  territory  between  the  last-named  line  and 
nearly  the  western  borders  of  Idaho,  Utah,  and 
Arizona.  The  fourth  (Pacific)  section  covers 
the  rest  of  the  country  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Standard  time  is  uniform  inside  each  of  these 
sections,  and  the  time  of  each  section  differs 
from  that  next  to  it  by  exactly  one  hour.  Thus 
at  l2  noon  in  New  York  City  (eastern  time),  the 
time  at  Chicago  (central  time)  is  11  o'clock  A.  M.; 
at  Denver  (mountain  time),  10  o'clock  A.  M., 
and  at  San  Francisco  (Pacific  time),  9  o'clock 
A.  M.  Standard  time  is  16  minutes  slower  at 
Boston  than  true  local  time,  4  minutes  slower  at 
New  York,  8  minutes  faster  at  Washington,  19 
minutes  faster  at  Charleston,  28  minutes  slower 
at  Detroit,  18  minutes  faster  at  Kansas  City, 
10  minutes  slower  at  Chicago,  1  minute 
faster  at  St.  Louis,  28  minutes  faster  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  and  10  minutes  faster  at  San 
Francisco. 


852 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


Places 


IT   IS  AT 

Aden Arabia 

Amsterdam,    ....   Holland 

Athens, Greece 

Berlin, Germany 

Bombay India 

Bremen, Germany 

Central  Time,  United  States 
Constantinople,  .  .  Turkev 
Copenhagen,   .    .    .     Denmark 

Dublin, Ireland 

Eastern  Time,  United  States 
Hamburg,    ....     Germany 

Havre France 

Hong  Kong China 

Honolulu Hawaii 

Liverpool England 

London England 

Madrid Spain 

Manila,  .  .  Philippine  Islands 
Melbourne,  .  .  .  Australia 
Mountain  Time,  United  States 
Pacific  Time,  .     United  States 

Paris France 

Rome Italy 

Stockholm Sweden 

St.  Petersburg,   .    .    .      Russia 

Vienna Austria 

Yokohama Japan 


When  It  Is  12  O'Clock  Noon 
According  To 


Eastern 


Central 


Mountain 


Pacific 


Standard  Time  in  the  United  States 


8.00  P.  M. 
5.20  P.  M. 
6.35  P.  M. 
5.54  P.  M. 
9.51  P.  M. 

5.33  P.  M. 
11.00  A.M. 

6.56  P.  M. 
5.50  P.  M. 

4.34  P.  M. 


5.10 
5.00 

12.37 
6.29 
4.48 
5.00 
4.45 
1.04 
2.40 

10.00 
9.00 
5.09 
5.50 
6.12 
7.01 
6.06 
2.19 


P.  M. 

P.  M. 

A.M.* 

A.M. 

P.  M. 

P.M. 

P.M. 

A.M.* 

A.M.* 

A.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

P.  M. 

P.M. 

P.M. 

P.M. 

A.M.* 


9.00  P.  M. 
6.20  P.  M. 
7.35  P.  M. 
6.54  P.  M. 
10.51  P.  M. 
6.33  P.  M. 


7.56 
6.50 
5.35 
1.00 
6.40 
6.00 
1.37 
7.29 
5.48 
6.00 
5.45 
2.04 
3.40 
11.00 
10.00 
6.09 
6.50 
7.12 
8.01 
7.06 
3.19 


P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
A.M.* 
A.M. 
P.  M. 
P.M. 
P.  M. 
A.M.* 
A.M.* 
A.M. 
A.M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
A.M.* 


10.00  P. 

M. 

7.20  P. 

M. 

8.35  P. 

M. 

7.54  P. 

M. 

11.51  P. 

M. 

7.33  P. 

M. 

1.00  P. 

M. 

8.56  P. 

M. 

7.50  P. 

M. 

6.35  P. 

M. 

2.00  P. 

M. 

7.40  P. 

M. 

7.00  P. 

M. 

2.37  A 

M.* 

8.29  A. 

M. 

6.48  P. 

M. 

7.00  P. 

M. 

6.45  P. 

M. 

3.04  A 

M.* 

4.40  A 

M.* 

ii.boA 

m! 

7.09  P. 

M. 

7.50  P. 

M. 

8.12  P. 

M. 

9.01  P. 

M. 

8.06  P. 

M. 

4.19  A. 

M.* 

11.00 
8.20 
9.35 
8.54 

12.51 
8.33 
2.00 
9.56 
8.50 
7.35 
3.00 
8.40 
8.00 
3.37 
9.29 
7.48 
8.00 
7.45 
4.04 
5.40 
1.00 


P.M. 
P.  M. 
P.M. 
P.  M. 
A.M. 
P.M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
A.M.* 
A.M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
P.  M. 
A.M.* 
A.M.* 
P.  M. 


8.09  P.  M. 
8.50  P.  M. 
9.12  P.  M. 
10.01  P.  M. 
9.06  P.  M. 
5.19  A.  M.* 


At 


London 


3.00  P.  M. 
12.20  P.  M. 

1.35  P.  M. 
12.54  P.  M. 

4.51  P.  M. 
12.33  P.  M. 

6.00  A.  M. 

1.56  P.  M. 
12.50  P.  M. 
11.35  A.M. 

7.00  A.  M. 
12.40  P.  M. 
12        noon 

7.37  P.  M. 

1.29  A.  M. 
11.48  A.M. 

ii.'45  a.m! 
8.04  P.  M. 
9.40  P.  M. 
5.00  A.  M. 

4.00  A.  M. 
12.09  P.  M. 
12.50  P.  M. 

1.12  P.  M. 

2.01  P.  M. 
LOG  P.  M. 
9.19  P.  M. 


Paris 


2.51  P.  M. 
12.10  P.  M. 

1.26  P.  M. 
12.45  P.  M. 

4.42  P.  M. 
12.23  P.  M. 

5.51  A.M. 

1.47  P.  M. 
12.41  P.  M. 
11.26  A.  M. 

6.51  A.M. 
12.31  P.  M. 
11.51  A.M. 

7.27  P.  M. 
1.19  A.M. 

11.39  A.M. 
11.51  A.M. 
11.36  A.M. 

7.54  P.  M. 

9.31  P.  M. 

4.51  A.M. 

3.51  A.  M. 

12.41'  P.  m! 
1.03  P.  M. 

1.52  P.  M. 
12.57  P.  M. 

9.09  P.  M. 


*  The  time  noted  is  in  the  morning  of  the  following  day. 


STATES,  MOTTOES,   AND   POPULAR   NAMES 


State 

Motto 

Translation 

Popular  Name 
of  State 

Popular  Name 
OF  People 

Alabama 

Here  we  rest 

Arkansas 

California.     .    .    . 
Colorado.  .    .    .    •. 

Connecticut.     .    . 
Delaware.      .    .    . 

Mercy,  Justice.     Regnat 
populi 

Eureka 

Nil  sine  numine.      .    .    . 

Qui  transtulit  sustinet.  . 

Liberty    and    Independ- 
ence  

The  people  rule 

I  have  found  it 

Nothing -without  Provi- 
dence  

He     who     transplanted 
still  sustains 

Bear 

Golden 

Centennial.     .    .    . 

Land     of     Steady 
Habits.   Nutmeg. 

Blue    Hen.       Dia- 
mond  

Flower 

Empire     State    of 
the  South.      .    . 

Prairie 

Hoosier 

Hawkeye 

Toothpicks. 
Gold  Hunters. 
Rovers. 

Wooden  Nutmegs. 

Florida 

In  God  is  our  trust.     . 

Blue  Hens.    Chick- 
ens.     Muskrats. 

Fly-up-the-C  reeks. 

Georgia 

Obverse:     Wisdom,   jus- 
tice, moderation. 

Reverse :   Agriculture  and 
commerce.     .    .    . 



Idaho 

Salve 

Hail. 

Buzzards. 

Illinois 

National     Union,     State 
Sovereignty 

Indiana 

None 

Iowa 

Our    liberties    we    priie 
and  our  rights  we  will 
maintain 

Hawkeyes. 
Jayhawkers. 

Kansas 

Ad  astra  per  aspera.    .    . 

United  we  stand,  divided 
we  fall 

To  the  stars  through  all 
difficulties 

Kentucky.     .    .    . 

Blue  Grass.    Dark 
and      Bloody 
Ground.       .    .    . 

Creole,  Pelican. 

Pine  Tree.  Lumber. 

Louisiana.     .    .    . 

Union,  justice,  and  con- 
fidence.       

Corncrackers. 

Maine 

Dirigo 

I  direct 

Foxes. 

MISCELLANY 


853 


STATES,  MOTTOES,   AND  POPULAR    NAMES  — Continued 


State 


Maryland.      .    . 


Massachusetts. 


Michigan. 


Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 
Missouri.    . 


Montana.  .    .    . 
Nebraska. .    .    . 
Nevada.     .    .    . 
New  Hampshire. 
New  Jersey. 

New  York.    .    . 
North  Carolina. 


North  Dakota. 


Ohio.      .    .    . 
Oklahoma. 
Oregon. .    .    . 
Pennsylvania. 


Rhode  Island.  . 
South  Carolina. 


South  Dakota. 


Tennessee. 
Texas.    .    . 


Utah.     . 
Vermont. 


Virginia. 


Washington. 
West  Virginia. 


Wisconsin. 
Wyoming. 


Motto 


Fatti  maschii  parole  fem- 

ine 

[At  one  time  the  seal 
was  mislaid,  and  the  new 
die  carried  the  motto, 
"Crescite  et  Multipli- 
camini."  Grow  or  in- 
crease and  multiply.] 
Coronasti  noa. 
Scuto  bonae  voluntatis 
tuae 


Ense  petit  placidam  sub 
libertate  quietem.    .    . 


Si     quaeris     peninsulam 
amaenam  circumspice. 


L'etoile  du  nord. 


None 

Salus  populi  suprema  lex 

esto 

United  we  stand,  divided 

we  fall 


Oro  y  plata 

Equality  before  the  law. 
All  for  our  country.     .    . 

None 

None 


Excelsior. 
None.     . 


Liberty  and  union,  one 
and  inseparable  now 
and  forever 


None. 


The  Union 

Obverse:  None 

Reverse:  Both  can't  sur- 


Hope 

Animis  opibusque  parati. 


Dum  spiro,  spero.    Spes. 

Under    God    the    people 
rule 


Agriculture,  Commerce. 
None 


None. 

Freedom  and  unity. 


Obverse:    Sic  semper  ty- 

rannis 

Reverse :  Perseverando. 


Al-Ki. 


Obverse:    Montani  sem- 
per liberi 


Reverse :       Libertas      et 
fidelitaa 


Forward 

Cedant  arma  togae.     .    . 


Translation 


Manly    deeds,    womanly 
words 


[Seal  originally  pend- 
ant, for  wax,  when  screw 
introduced  the  reverse 
was  abandoned.] 


You  have  crowned  us 
with  the  shield  of  your 
good  will. 

With  the  sword  she  seeks 
quiet  peace  under  lib- 
erty. . 


If  thou  seekest  a  beauti- 
ful peninsula,  behold  it 
here 

The  Star  of  the  North-  . 


The  welfare  of  the  people 
is  the  supreme  law.     . 

Gold  and  silver 


Higher,  more  elevated. 


[The  State  "Coat  of 
Arms  "  carries  the  mot- 
to, "Virtue,  Liberty, 
and  Independence."]  . 


Prepared  in  mind  and  re- 
sources; ready  to  give 
life  and  property. 

While  I  breathe  I  hope, 
Hope . 


Ever  so  to  tyrants. 
Perseverance.  .    . 


Bye-bye. 


Mountaineers  are  always 
free  men 

Liberty  and  fidelity.  .    . 


Let    arms    yield    to    the 
gown. 


Popular  Name 
OF  State 


Bay. 


Wolverine. . 

North   Star. 

pher.    .    . 

Bayou.    .    . 


Go- 


Mountain. 


Silver. 
Granite. 


Empire 

Old   North.      Tur- 
pentine  


Sioux 

Buckeye.     .    .    . 
Beaver,    Sunset. 


Keystone.  .    . 
Little  Rhody. 


Palmetto. 
Coyote. 


Volunteer.  . 
Lone  Star.. 


Green  Mountain. 


Old  Dominion. 


Panhandle. 
Badger.  .    . 


Popular  Name 
OF  People 


Crawthumpers. 


Beaneaters. 


Wolverines. 


Gophers. 
Tadpoles. 


Pukes. 

Bug-eaters. 

Sage  Hens. 
Granite  Boys. 
Jersey  Blues.  Clam- 
catchers. 
Knickerbockers. 

Tar  heels. 


Tuckoes. 
Buckeyes. 
Webb  feet. 


Pennanites.    Leath- 
er-heads.   - 
Gun-flints. 


Weasels. 


Butternuts.  Whelps 
Beef-heads. 


Green    Mountain 
Boys. 


Beadies. 


Panhandlers. 
Badgers. 


854 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


State  Flowers. 

The  following  are  "State  Flowers,"  adopted  in  most 
instances  by  the  vote  of  the  public  school  scholars  of 
the  respective  States : 

Alabama, Golden  Rod 

Arkansas Apple  Blossom 

California, California  Poppy  (Eschscholtzia) 

Colorado Columbine 

Connecticut Mountain  Laurel 

Delaware Peach  Blossom 

Idaho, Syringa 

Indiana Corn 

Iowa, *  Wild  Rose 

Kansas Sunflower 

Kentucky Golden  Rod 

Louisiana Magnolia 

Maine *  Pine  Cone  and  Tassel 

Maryland, Golden  Rod 

Michigan', Apple  Blossom 

Minnesota, , Moccasin 

Mississippi Magnolia 

Montana Bitter  Root 

Nebraska Golden  Rod 

New  York, Rose 

North  Dakota, Wild  Rose 

Ohio, Scarlet  Carnation 

Oklahoma Mistletoe 

Oregon Oregon  Grape 

Rhode  Island Violet 

South  Dakota,  .    . *  Pasque 

Tennessee, Daisy 

Texas Blue  Bonnet 

Utah, Sego  Lily 

Vermont Red  Clover 

Washington Rhododendron 

West  Virginia, Rhododendron 

In  other  States  the  scholars  or  State  Legislatures  have 
not  yet  taken  action. 

♦  Adopted  by  State  Legislature,  not  by  public  school 
scholars. 

Statistics  of  the  Earth. 


Continental 
Divisions 


Africa,  .  . 
America,  N., 
America,  S., 
Asia,  .  .  . 
Australasia, 
Europe,  .  . 
Polar  Region, 

Total,  .    .    . 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 


11,514,000 
6,446,000 
6,837,000 

14,710,000 
3,288,000 
3,555,000 
4,888,800 


51,238.800 


Inhabitants 


Number 


127,000,000 

115,000,000 

45,000,000 

850,000,000 

5,200,000 

380,200,000 

300,000 


1,522,700,000 


Per  Sq. 
Mile 


11.00 
17.80 

6.50 
57.70 

1.58 
106.90 

0.07 


29.60 


Thanksgiving  Day.  This  holiday,  in 
the  United  States,  is  named  by  the  president, 
and  usually  by  the  governors  of  the  various 
States,  to  be  kept  as  a  thanksgiving  for  the 
mercies  of  the  year,  and  to  be  observed  on  the 
last  Thursday  of  November.  The  festival  is 
essentiallv  a  harvest  thanksgiving,  and  its 
earliest  observance  can  be  traced  to  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers.  The  summer  of  1621,  following  the 
landing  at  Plymouth,  yielded  but  a  scanty  har- 
vest, and  unless  speedy  supplies  came  from 
Europe  the  sturdy  colonists  foresaw  that  they 
would  be  reduced  to  the  point  of  starvation. 
Yet,  amid  such  surroundings  as  these,  we  learn 
from  the  old  chronicles  that  Governor  Bradford, 
"  the  harvest  being  gotten  in,  sent  four  men  out 
on  fowling,  so  that  we  might,  after  a  more 
special  manner,  rejoice  together  after  we  had 
gathered  the  fruit  of  our  labor."  And  thus, 
"  While  sickness  lurked,  and  death  assailed. 
And  foes  beset  on  every  hand," 
the  first  governor  of  New  England  instituted  the 
American  Harvest  Home. 

During  the  Revolution,  Thanksgiving  Day  was 
a  national  institution,  being  annually  recom- 
mended by   Congress;    but    after    the  general 


thanksgiving  for  peace,  in  1784,  there  was  no 
national  appointment  until  1789,  when  Washing- 
ton, by  request  of  Congress,  recommended  a 
day  of  thanksgiving  for  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution.  Washington  issued  a  second  proc- 
lamation of  thanksgiving,  in  1795,  on  account  of 
the  suppression  of  insurrection.  President  Madi- 
son, by  request  of  Congress,  recommended  a 
thanksgiving  for  peace,  in  .1815.  But  the  official 
recommendation  of  a  day  for  the  giving  of 
thanks  was  mainly  confined  to  New  England 
until  the  year  1817.  During  the  Civil  War,  in 
1863  and  1864,  President  Lincoln  issued  procla- 
mations recommending  annual  thanksgivings. 
Since  then  a  proclamation  has  been  issued 
annually,  as  indicated  above. 

Uncle  Sam.  This  term  is  used  in  refer- 
ence to  America  exactly  in  the  same  way  as 
"John  Bull"  is  applied  to  England.  It  arosfe 
at  the  time  of  the  last  war  between  England 
and  America.  At  Troy,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hud- 
son, a  commissariat  contractor  named  Elbert 
Anderson,  of  New  York,  had  a  store  yard. 
A  government  inspector  named  Samuel  Wilson, 
who  was  always  called  "Uncle  Sam,"  super- 
intended the  examination  of  the  provisions, 
and  when  they  were  passed,  each  cask  or 
package  was  marked  "EA-US,"  the  initials 
of  the  contractor  and  of  the  United  States. 
The  man'  whose  duty  it  was  to  mark  the 
casks,  who  was  a  facetious  fellow,  being  asked 
what  the  letters  meant,  replied  that  they  stood 
for  Elbert  Anderson  and  Uncle  Sam.  The 
joke  soon  became  known,  and  was  heartily 
entered  into  by  Uncle  Sam  himself.  It  soon 
got  into  print,  and  long  before  the  war  was 
over  was  known  throughout  the  United  States. 
Mr.  Wilson,  the  original  "Uncle  Sam,"  died 
at  Troy,  in  1854,  aged  eighty-four  years. 

Union  Jack.  The  national  flag  of  Eng- 
land was  originally  the  banner  of  St.  George  — 
white  with  a  red  cross.  It  was  called  simply  the 
"Jack."  When  James  I.  came  to  the  throne  of 
both  kingdoms,  the  banner  of  St.  Andrew,  blue 
with  a  white  diagonal  cross,  was  added.  The 
word  "Jack"  is  supposed  to  be  corrupted  from 
the  French  Jaque,  a  jacket,  and  was  applied  to 
the  early  flags  because  the  cross  of  St.  George  was 
embroidered  on  the  jackets  of  the  English  infantry. 

Valentine  Day,  or,  more  properly,  St. 
'Valentine's  Day,  is  celebrated  on  the  14th  of 
February,  usually  by  the  sending  of  valentines 
or  other  gifts.  The  old  form  of  the  valentine 
was  a  ridiculous,  colored  caricature  of  a  male  or 
female  figure,  with  a  few  burlesque  verses  below. 
More  recently  the  print  is  of  an  artistic  or  senti- 
mental kind,  and  even  extends  to  the  form  of  a 
book.  St.  Valentine  was  a  bishop  of  Rome  during 
the  Third  Century.  He  was  of  a  most  amiable 
nature,  and  possessed  remarkable  gifts  of  elo- 
quence, and  was  so  very  successful  in  converting 
the  pagan  Romans  to  Christianity  that  he  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  the  emperor,  and  was  martyred 
by  his  order,  February  14,  A.  D.  270.  When  the 
saint  came  to  be  placed  in  the  calendar,  his  name 
was  given  to  the  day  of  his  death. 

Weather  Signals.  When  black  triangu- 
lar flag  is  placed  above  white  or  blue  flag  it  indi- 
cates warmer;  when  placed  below,  colder, 
weather;  when  omitted,  stationary  temperature. 


MISCELLANY 


855 


For  example  —  3,  1,  2  indicates  warmer,  fair 
weather,  followed  by  rai-n  or  snow. 

1st.  A  cautionary  signal:  A  yellow  flag  with 
white  center  will  indicate  that  the  winds  ex- 
pected are  not  so  severe  but  well-found  and 
seaworthy  vessels  can  meet  them  without  great 
danger. 

2d.  A  storm  signal:  A  red  flag  with  black 
center  will  indicate  that  the  storm  is  to  be  of 
more' marked  violence. 

3d.  A  red  pennant  will  indicate  that  the 
winds  are  to  be  easterly  —  that  is,  from  north- 
east to  south,  inclusive  —  and  that  the  storm 
center  is  approaching. 

4th.  The  white  pennant  will  indicate  westerly 
winds  —  that  is,  from  north  to  southwest,  in- 
clusive —  and  that  the  storm  center  has  passed. 

5th.  When  red  pennant  is  hoisted  above  cau- 
tionary or  storm  signal,  winds  are  expected  from 
the  northeast  quadrant;  when  below,  from  the 
southeast  quadrant. 

6th.  When  white  pennant  is  hoisted  above 
cautionary  or  storm  signal,  winds  are  expected 
from  the  northwest  quadrant;  when  below, 
from  the  southwest  quadrant. 

7th.  Night  storm  signals :  A  red  light  for 
eastedy  winds,  and  a  red  light  and  white  light 
for  westerly  winds. 

Weights  and  Measures. 

AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHT 

Drachm,.    .    .'.    .    .dr.     =  27J  grains  (27.34375). 

Ounce, oz.     =16  drachms,  437.5  grains. 

Pound lb.      =  16  oz.,  256  dr.,  7,000  grains. 

Legal  Stone,  .    .    .    .  st.      =14  lbs. 
Quarter  (Eng.),     .    .  qr.     =  28  lbs. 
Quarter  (Can.),  .    .    .  qr.     =25  lbs. 
Cental  or  Quintal,     .  cent.  =  100  lbs. 
Hundredwei't  (Eng.),  cwt.  =  4  qrs.,  112  lbs. 
Hundredwei't  (Can.),  cwt.  =  4  qrs.,  100  lbs. 

Ton  (Eng.) T.      =20  cwt.,  2,240  lbs. 

Ton  (Can.) T.      =  20  cwt.,  2,000  lbs. 

TROY     WEIGHT 

Carat =  3.17  grains. 

Pennyweight,     .    .    .  dwt.  =  24  grains. 

Ounce oz.     =20  dwts.,  480  grains. 

Pound lb.      =12  oz.,  240  dwts.,  5,760  grs. 

Hundredweight,    .    .  cwt.  =  100  lbs. 

Troy  is  the  weight  used  by  goldsmiths  and  jewelers. 
The  grains  Troy,  Apothecaries',  and  Avoirdupois  are 
equal,  and  the  same  in  England,  France,  the  United 
States,  Holland,  and  in  most  other  countries. 

The  oz.  Troy  and  Apothecaries'=  1.09714  oz.  avoirdu- 
pois; but  the  lb.  Troy  and  lb.  Apothecaries'=  only 
0.82286  lb.  avoirdupois;  while  175  lb.  Troy  and  Apothe- 
caries'=  144  lb.  avoirdupois. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 

Scruple   T)  =  20  Grains, =       20  grains. 

Drachm  5=3  Scruples, =       60  grains. 

Ounce      5=8  Drachms =     480  grains. 

Pound     lb  =  12  Ounces =  5,760  grains. 

BRITISH   LIQUID   MEASURE 

The  Gill  contains  8.665  cubic  inches. 

The  Pint  contains  4  gills  or  34.660  cubic  inches. 

Quart  =  2  pints  =  8  gills. 

Gallon  =  4  quarts  =  32  gills. 

APOTHECARIES'    FLUID   MEASURE 

MARKED 

60  Minims  TTl  (drops),  =  1  Fluid  Drachm f  5 

8  Drachms =1  Ounce i  3 

16  Ounces =1  Pint ^-    ■    ■„     ^ 

8  Pints =1  Gallon C,  or  Cong. 

1  Drachm   =  1  Teaspoonful. 

2  Drachms  =  1  Dessertspoonful. 
4  Drachms  =  1  Tablespoonful. 

2  Ounces  =  1  Wineglassful. 

3  Ounces  =  1  Teacupful. 


CUBIC   OR   SOLID   MEASURE 
Cubic  Foot  =  1,728  Cubic  Inches. 
Cubic  Yard  =  27  Cubic  Feet,  21,033  bushels. 
Cord  of  Wood  =  128  Cubic  Feet. 
Shipping  Ton  =  40  Cubic  Feet  merchandise.  - 
Shipping  Ton  =  42  Cubic  Feet  of  timber. 
Ton  of  displacement  of  a  Ship  =  35  Cubic  Feet. 

LINEAR   MEASURE 

3  barleycorns,  or, ] 

12  lines,  or, ,  •     u  /•    \ 

72  points,  or M  ''^'^^  (">•)• 

1,000  mils  (mi.) J 

3  inches 1  palm. 

4  inches, 1  hand. 

9  inches, 1  span. 

12  inches 1  foot  (ft.). 

18  inches, 1  cubic. 

3  feet 1  yard  (yd.). 

2i  feet, 1  military  pace. 

5  feet 1  geometrical  pace. 

2  yards, 1  fathom. 

5J  yards, 1  rod,  pole,  or  perch. 

^VrVt""' f  1  Gunter's  chain. 

220  a^^-:  :::::::  fifuriong(fur.). 

8  furlongs,  or 1 

1,760  yards,  or [  1  mile. 

5,280  feet J 

3  miles, 1  league. 

The  hand  is  used  to  measure  horses'  height.  The 
military  pace  is  the  length  of  the  ordinary  step  of  a  man. 
One  thousand  geometrical  paces  were  reckoned  to  a  mile. 

LAND   MEASURE    (LINEAR) 

7.92  inches 1  link. 

100        links,  or ] 

li  yards^'or,:    !    !    !    !    !    !    !    !     U  chain  (ch.). 

4  poles J 

10  chains 1    furlong    (fur.). 

80  chains,  or /  ,  ,^-1 

8  furlongs V  ™''^- 

LAND   MEASURE 

144  sq.  inches 

9  square  feet,     .... 
30i  square  yards,    .    .    . 
16  square  poles,  .... 
40  square  poles,  or, 
1,210  square  yards,  .   . 
4  roods,  or,     .    .    . 
10  square  chains,  or, 
160  square  poles,  or, 
4,840  square  yards,  or, 
43,560  square  feet,     .    . 
640  acres,  or,  .  .    .    . 
3,097,600  square  yards,  .    . 

30  acres, 

100  acres , 

40  hides 


(SQUARE) 
1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.). 
1  square  yard  (sq.  yd.). 
1  sq.  pole,  rod,  or  perch. 
1  square  chain  (sq.  ch.). 

1  square  rood. 


1  acre. 


1  square  mile. 

1  yard  of  land. 
1  hide  of  land. 
1  barony. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND 
6086.44  feet,  or,  ...  . 
1000  fathoms,  or,     .    . 

10  cables,  or,     .    .    . 

1.1528  statute  miles, 


NAUTICAL   MEASURE 


1 

60 

67.168 
360 

1 

1 


nautical  mile  per  hour 
nautical  miles,  or,  .  . 
statute  miles,  .... 
degrees,    . 


=  1    nautical    mile. 

=  1  knot. 
=  1  degree. 

1      circumference 


of  the  earth  at  the  equator. 

league =3  nautical    miles. 

cable's  length =  120  fathoms. 

DRY   MEASURE,    UNITED   STATES 

Cu.  In. 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.)       =      67.20 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.)     =    268.80 

iluarts!'."':  ::::::  h^-^        =  537.60 

4  pecks 1  struck  bushel  =  2150.42 

LIQUID    MEASURE,  UNITED   STATES 

Cu.  In. 

4  gills 1  pint  (O.)  =    28.875 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.)  =    57.75 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.)  =  231. 

63  gallons 1  hogshead  (hhd.). 

2  hogsheads 1  pipe  or  butt. 

2  pipes 1  tun. 


856 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF    FACTS 


1?^ 


t 
==  1" 

=  1    oz 

=    i  oz 

i  oz 


HOUSEHOLD   MEASURES 

120  drops  water,      . =1  teaspoon. 

60  drops  thick  fluid =1  teaspoon. 

2  teaspoons =1  dessertspoon 

3  teaspoons =1  tablespoon. 

16  tablespoons =1  cup. 

1  cup, 

1  cup  water 

4  tablespoons  flour 

2  tablespoons  butter, 

3  teaspoons  soda, 

4  teaspoons  baking  powder 

2  cups  granulated  sugar, 

2J  cups  confectioners'  sugar, 

2i  cups  wheat  flour, 

3i  cups  whole  wheat  flour, 

2l  cups  buckwheat  flour 

5j  cups  coflfee, 

6i  cups  tea 

2  cups  rice 

2  cups  lard, 

2  cups  butter 

2  cups  graham  flour, 

2  cups  rye  flour 

2  cups  corn  meal 

2  cups  rolled  oats, 

2  cups  powdered  sugar 

2  cups  brown  sugar 

2  cups  raisins 

2  cups  currants 

2  cups  bread  crumbs, 


=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 
=  1 


TIME 


The  unit  of  time  measurement  is  the  same  among  all 
nations.  Practically  it  is  bbJob  of  the  mea^  solar  day, 
but  really  it  is  a  perfectly  arbitrary  unit,  as  the  length 
of  the  mean  solar  day  is  not  constant  for  any  two  peri- 
ods of  time.     There  is  no  constant  natural  unit  of  time. 


1  minute 
1  hour 
1  day 

1  sidereal  day 
1  sidereal  month 

1  lunar  month 


Equal  to 
Millimeter, 
Centimeter,   . 
Decimeter, 
Meter,  .    .    . 
Decameter,    . 
Hectometer, 
Kilometer,     . 
Myriameter,  . 


=  60  seconds. 

=  60  minutes,  3,600  seconds. 

=  24  hours,  1,440  minutes,  86,400 
seconds. 

=  86,164.1  seconds. 

=  27.321661  mean  solar  days  (aver- 
age). 

=  29.530589  mean  solar  days  (aver- 
age). 


1  anomalistic  month  =  27.544600  mean  solar  days  (aver- 
age). 

1  tropical  month         =  27.321582  mean  solar  days  (aver- 
age). 

1  nodical  month         =  27.212222  mean  solar  days  (aver- 
age). 

Mean  solar  year  =  365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  46.045  s.  with 

annual  variation  of  0.00539. 
The  change  in  the  length  of  the  mean  sidereal  day, 

i.  e.,  of  the  time  of  the  earth's  rotation  upon  its  axis, 

amounts  to  0.01252  s.  in  2,400  mean  solar  years.    • 

ANGULAR  MEASURE 
There  is  perfect  unanimity  as  to  the  standard  angle 
(i.  e.,  the  right  angle)  and  practical  unanimity  as  to  its 
subdivision,  for  the  subdivision  into  grades,  etc.,  once 
favored  by  the  French,  is  now  abandoned. 
1  minute  of  angle  or  arc  =  60  seconds. 


1  degree 
90  degrees  ' 


Radian 


Length  of  arc  of  1° 

1' 

1" 


=  60  minutes. 
=  1  right  angle  or  J  of  circum- 
ference. 
=  arc  same  length  as  radius. 
=  57.295779513082°. 
=    0.017453292520. 
=    0.015707963268. 
=    0.000290888209. 


METRIC  SYSTEM 
The  French  Metrical  System  is  based  upon 
the  (assumed)  length  of  the  fourth  part  of  a 
terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-millionth  part  of 
this  arc  was  chosen  as  the  unit  of  measures  of 
length,  and  called  a  Metre.  The  cube  of  the 
tenth  part  of  the  metre  was  adopted  as  the 
unit  of  capacity,  and  denominated  a  Litre.  The 
weight  of  a  litre  of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest 
density  was  called  a  Kilogramme,  of  which  the 
thousandth  part,  or  Gramme,  was  adopted  as 
the  unit  of  weight.  The  multiples  of  these, 
proceeding  in  decimal  progression,  are  distin- 
guished by  the  employment  of  the  prefixes 
deca,  hecto,  kilo,  and  myria,  from  the  Greek, 
and  the  subdivisions  by  deci,  centi,  and  milli, 
from  the  Latin: 


Measures 

Inches 

0.03937 

0.39371 

3.93708 

39.37079 

393.70790 

3937.07900 

39370.79000 

393707.90000 


OF  Length  (Unit  Meter) 


Feet 

0.003 

0.032 

0.328 

3.280 

32.808 

328.089 

3280.899 

32808.991 


Cubic,  or  Measures  of  Capacity 


Equal  to  Cu.  In. 

Milliliter,  or  cubic  centimeter,  0.06103 

Centiliter,  10  cubic  centimeter,  0.61027 

DeciHter,  100  cubic  centimeter,  6. 10271 

Liter,  or  cubic  Decimeter,     .  61.02705 

Decaliter,  or  Centistere,      .    .  610.27052 

Hectoliter,  or  Decistere,      .    .  6102.70515 

Kiloliter,  or  Stere, 61027.05152 

Myrialiter,  or  Decastere,     .    .   610270.51519 


Cu.  Ft. 
0.000 
0.000 
0.003 
0.035 
0.353 
3.531 

35.316 
353.165 


Yards 

0.001 

0.010 

0.109 

1.093 

10.936 

109.363 

1093.633 

10936.330 

(Unit  Liter) 

Pints 

0.001    . 

0.017   . 

0.176  . 

1.760  . 

17.607   . 

176.077   . 

1760.773   . 

17607.734   . 


Fathoms 

0.000 

0.005 

0.054 

0.546 

5.468 

54.681 

546.816 

5468.165 

Gallons 

0.000 

0.002 

0.022 

0.220 

2.200 

22.009 

220.096 

2200.966 


Measures  of  Weight  (Unit  Gram) 


Equal  to  Grains 

Milligram, 0.01543  . 

Centigram, 0.15432  . 

Decigram, 1.54323  . 

Gram, 15.43235  . 

Decagram,       154.32349  . 

Hectogram, 15.4323488  . 

Kilogram, 15432.34880  . 

Myriagram,     ......  154323.48800  . 


Troy  oz. 
0.000 
0.000 
0.003 
0.032 
0.321 
3.215 
32.150 

321.507 


Avoir,  lb. 

.  0.000 

.  0.000 

.  0.000 

.  0.002 

.  0.022 

.  0.220 

.  2.204 

.  22.046 


Cwt.=  1121b. 
0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.001 
0.019 
0.196 


Miles 
.0.000 
.0.000 
.0.000 
.0.000 
.0.006 
.0.062 
.0.621 
.6.213 

Bushels 
0.000 
0.000 
0.002 
0.027 
0.275 
2.751 
27.512 
275.120 

Ton  = 
20  cwt. 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.  0.000 
.   0.009 


MISCELLANY 

Square,  or  Measures  of  Surface  (Unit  Are) 


Equal  to  Sq.  Feet 

Centiare,  or  square  meter,      .  10 .  764299 

Are,  or  100  square  meters,    .        1076 .  429934 
Hectare,  or  10,000  sq.  meters,  107642.993419 


857 


Yards 

Perches 

Roods 

Acres 

1.196   . 

0.039   . 

.  0.000  . 

.  0.000 

119.603   . 

3.953   . 

.   0.098   . 

.   0.024 

11960.332   . 

.   395.382   . 

.   9.884   . 

.   2.471 

APPROXIMATE    EQUIVALENTS  OF  THE    FRENCH   (METRIC) 
AND  ENGLISH  MEASURES 

I  yard, tI  meter. 

II  meters, JL2  yards. 

To  convert  meters  into  yards, Add  xVth. 

1  1     J      Q  o  fi.  f  3  ft.  3|  inches  (Trfgth  less). 

1  meter  =1.1  yd.;  3.3  ft., [  40  inches  (1.6  percent,  less). 

1  meter,  by  the  Standards  Commission, =  39.38203  inches. 

1  meter,  by  the  Act  of  1878, ■ .    .  =  39.37079  inches. 

1  foot,      3  decimeters  (more  exactly  3.048). 

1  inch,      25  millimeters  (more  exactly  25.4). 

1  mile, 1.6  or  If  kilometers  (more  exactly  1.60931). 

1  kilometer, f  of  a  mile. 

1  chain  (22  yards), 20  meters  (more  exactly  20.1165). 

5  furlongs  (1,100  yards), 1  kilometer  (more  exactly  1.0058). 

1  square  yard f  square  meter  (more  exactly  .8361). 

(  lOi  square  feet. 

1  square  meter,       -j  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^ 

1  square  inch, 6|  square  centimeters  (more  exactly  6.45). 

1  square  mile  (640  acres), 260  hectares  (0.4  per  cent.  less). 

1  acre  (4840  square  yards),      4,000  square  meters  (1.2  per  cent.  more). 

1  cubic  yard, f  cubic  meter  (2  per  cent.  more). 

1  cubic  meter, IJ  cubic  yards  (Ij  per  cent.  less). 

1  cubic  meter, 35J  cubic  feet  (.05  per  cent.  less). 

1  cubic  meter  of  water, 1  long  ton  nearly. 

1  kilogram,      2.2  pounds  fully. 

1,000  kilograms, }  1  long  ton  nearly. 

1  metnc  ton,       )  ° 

1  long  hundredweight, 51  kilograms  nearly. 

1  United  States  hundredweight, 45^  kilograms  nearly. 


ELECTRICAL   UNITS 


Name 

Symbol 

Unit  of 

How  Obtained 

CGS* 

Equivalent 

Ohm 

R 

Resistance 

The  electrical  resistance  of  a 
column  of  mercury  106  centi- 
meters long  and  of   1   square 
millimeter  section. 

109 

1  true  ohm  =  1.0112 
British  Association  ohms. 

Ampere 

C 

Current 

Is  that  current  of  electricity 
that     decomposes     .00009324 
gram  of  water  per  second. 

10' 

Deposits  1.118  milli- 
grams of  silver  per  sec- 
ond. 

Volt 

E 

Electromo- 

One ampere  of  current  pass- 

w 

.926  of  a  standard  Dan- 

tive force 

ing  through  a  substance  having 
1  ohm  of  resistance  =  1  volt. 

iel  Cell. 

Coulomb 

Q 

Quantity 

A  current  of  1  ampere  during 
1  second  of  time. 

10' 

Deposits  1.118  milli- 
grams of  silver. 

Farad 

K 

Capacity 

The  capacity  that  a  current 
of  1  ampere  for  1  second  (  =  1 
coulomb)  charges  it  to  potential 
of  1  volt. 

10' 

2.5  knots  of  D.  U.  S. 
cable. 

Microfarad 

K 

1  millionth  of  farad. 

10" 

Watt 

Pw. 

Power 

Power  of   1   ampere   current 
passing  through  resistance  of  1 
ohm. 

Is  the  work  done  by  1  watt 

10^ 

.0013405  or  (^i^)  of  a 
horse  power. 

Joule 

W.j. 

Work 

10' 

.238  unit  of  heat 

of  electrical  power  in  1  second. 

(Therm). 

*  C.  G.  S.  =  Electro-magnetic  units.     Consult  technical  works  in  electricity. 


858 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  OF  THE  BIBLE 
WEIGHTS 


Lbs. 

0 

0 

0 

2 

50  manehs  =  1  talent, 102 


A  gerah,  

10  gerahs    =  1  bekah, 

2  bekahs  —  1  shekel, 

60  shekels  =  1  maneh, 


AVOIRDDPOIS. 

Oz. 

0 
0 

0 

0 

13 


Trot. 


Drs. 
0.439 
4.39 
8.78 
14.628 
11.428 


Lbs. 
0 
0 
0 
2 

125 


Dwt. 
0 
5 
10 
0 
0 


Gr. 

12 
0 
0 
0 
0 


MEASURES 
Ix)NO  Measure. 

A  digit,  or  finger  (Jer.  lii.  21), 

4  digits      =  1  palm  (Exod.  xxv,  25),      

3  palms     =  1  span  (Exod.  xxviii,  16), 

2  spans      =  1  cubit  (Gen.  vi,  15), •   .    . 

4  cubits     =  1  fathom  (Acts  xxvii,  28), 

1.5  fathoms  =  1  reed  (Ezek.  xl,  3,  5), 


Ft. 

0 

0 

0 

1 

7 

10 

13.3  reeds       =  1  line  (Ezek.  xl,  3),      145 

Land  Measure.  Eng.  Miles.  Paces. 

A  cubit, 0  0 

400  cubits     — ■  1  furlong  (Luke  xxiv,  13),     . 0  145 

5  furlongs  =  1  sabbath  day's  journey  (John  xi,  18;  Acts  i,  12),    .    .       0  727 

10  furlongs  =  1  mile  (Matt.  V,  41), -.       1  399 

24  miles      =  1  day's  journey,     33  76 

Liquid  Measure.  Gals. 

A  caph,    0 

1 . 3  caphs  =  1  log  (Lev.  xiv,  10), 0 

4  logs      =  1  cab, 0 

3  cabs     =  1  hin  (Exod.  xxx,  24) '.  1 

2  hins     =  1  seah, 2 

3  seahs    =  1  bath,  or  ephah  (1  Kings  vii,  26;  John  ii,  6), 7 

10  ephahs  =  1  kor,  or  homer  (Isa.  v,  10;  Ezek.  xiv,  14), 75 

Dry  Measure.                                     Pecks.  Gals. 

A  gachal, '. 0  0 

20gachals=  1  cab  (2  Kings  vi,  25;  Rev.  vi,  6), 0  0 

1.8  cabs      =  1  omer  (Exod.  xvi,  36), 0  0 

3.3  omers  =  1  seah  (Matt,  xiii,  33),      1  0 

3  seahs    =  1  ephah  (Ezek.  xiv,  11), 3  0 

5  ephahs  =  1  leteeh  (Hosea  iii,  2), 16  0 

2  letechs=  1  kor,  or  homer  (Num.  xi,  32;  Hos.  iii,  2), 32  0 

N.  B. —  The  foregoing  table  will  explain  many  texts  in  the  Bible.  Take,  for  instance,  Isa.  v,  10. 
"Yea,  ten  acres  of  vineyard  shall  yield  one  bath,  and  the  seed  of  an  homer  shall  yield  an  ephah." 
This  curse  upon  the  covetous  man  was,  that  10  acres  of  vines  should  produce  only  7  gallons  of  wine, 
i.  e.,  one  acre  should  yield  less  than  3  quarts;  and  that  32  pecks  of  seed  should  only  oring  a  crop  of 
3  pecks,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  harvest  reaped  should  produce  but  one- tenth  of  the  seed  sown. 


In. 

0.912 

3.648 

10.944 

9.888 

3.552 

11.328 

11.04 

Ft. 

1.824 
4.6 
3.0 
1.0 
4.0 

Pts. 

0.625 

0.833 

3.333 

2 

4 

4.5 

5.25 

Pts. 
0.1416 
2.8333 
5.1 
1 
3 
0 
0 


TIME 

The  Natural  Day  was  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set. 
The  Natural  Night  was  from  sun-set  to  sun-rise. 

The  Civil  Day  was  from  sun-set  one  evening  to  sun-set  the  next;    for,  "the  Evening  and  the 
Morning  were  the  first  day." 


Night  (Ancient). 
First  Watch  (Lam.  ii,  19),  till  midnight. 
Middle  Watch  (Judg.  vii,  19),  till  3  A.  M. 
Morning  Watch  (Exod.  xiv,  24),  till  6  A.  M. 

Night  (New  Testament). 
First  Watch,  evenirig         =    6  to    9  P.  M. 
Second  Watch,  midnight  =    9  to  12  P.  M. 
Third  Watch,  cock-crow    =  12  to    3  A.  M. 
Fourth  Watch,  morning    =    3  to    6  A.  M. 


Day  (Ancient). 

Morning  till  about  10  A.  M. 
Heat  of  day  till  about  2  P.  M. 
Cool  of  day  till  about  6  P.  M. 

Day  (New  Testament). 

Third  hour      =    6  to    9  A.  M. 
Sixth  hour       =    9  to  12  midday. 
Ninth  hour      =  12  to    3  P.  M. 
Twelfth  hour  =    3  to    6  P.  M. 


MISCELLANY 


859 


JEWISH  MONEY 

With  its  value  in  English  and  American  money;  the  American  dollar  being  taken  as  equal  to  4s.  2d. 

Jewish.                                                                                   English.  American. 

£        s.         d.  Dole.       Cents. 

A  gerah  (Exod.  xxx,  13), =          0      0      1.36  =  0       2.73 

10  gerahs    =  1  bekah  (Exod.  xxxviii,  26), =          0       1      1.68  =  0     27.37 

2  bekahs  =  1  shekel  (Exod.  xxx,  13;  Isa.  vii,  23),    .    .    .    =          0       2      3.37=  0      54.74 

50  shekels  =  1  maneh, =-          5     14     0.75  =  27      37.50 

60  manehs  =  1  kikkar  (talent), =      342       3     9       =  1,642     50 

A  gold  shekel, =          1     16      6       =  8     76 

A  kikkar  of  gold, =  5,475       0     0=  26,280       0 

N.  B. —  A  shekel  would  probably  purchase  nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same  nominal  amount 
will  now.     Remember  that  one  Roman  penny  (8^^.)  was  a  good  day's  wages  for  a  laborer. 

The  Hebrew  maneh,  according  to  1  Kings  x,  17,  compared  with  2  Chron.  ix,  16,  contained  100 
shekels;  though  according  to  one  interpretation  of  Ezek.  xiv,  12,  it  contained  60,  but  more  prob- 
ably 50.  The  passage  reads  thus :  "  Twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty  shekels,  fifteen  shekels  shall 
be  your  maneh."  This  is  variously  interpreted :  (1)  20  +  25  -f  15  =  60.  (2)  20,  25,  15  are  different 
coins  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  bearing  the  same  name.  It  is  well  to  remark  the  meaning  of  these 
names :  Shekel  =  simply,  weight:  Bekah  =  s'plit,  i.  e.,  the  shekel  divided  into  two :  Gerah  =  a  grain, 
as  in  our  weights,  a  grain  and  a  barley-corn,  the  original  standard  weight:  Maneh  =  appointed, 
equivalent  to  sierKngr,  a  specific  sum:  Kikkar  ^  a  round  mass  of  metal,  i.  e.,  a  weight  or  coin. 
Hebrew  names  of  weights  and  coins  are  not  found  in  the  New  Testament :  mna  in  Luke  xix,  13,  is 
Greek,  though  possibly  identical  with  the  Hebrew  maneh. 

ROMAN  MONEY 

Roman.                                                                                    English;  American. 

d.  Cents. 

A  "farthing,"  ^itorfrons  (Matt,  v,  26)  =  nearly,  . 0.125         =  0.25 

A  "farthing,"  as  in  4  quadrantes  (Matt,  x,  29)  =  nearly, 0.5             =  1 

A  "penny,"  denarius  =  16  asses  (Matt,  xxii,  19)  =  nearly, 8.50           =  17 

[The  Roman  sestertius  =  2^  asses,  is  not  named  in  the  Bible.] 

N.  B. —  Here  we  learn  that: — 

Naaman's  offering  to  Elisha  of  6,000  pieces  (shekels)  of  gold  amounted  to  more  than  £10,000  = 
48,000  dollars. 

The  Debtor  (Matt,  xviii,  24),  who  had  been  forgiven  10,000  talents,  i.  e.,  £3,000,000  =  14,400,000 
dollars,  refused  to  forgive  his  fellow-servant  100  pence,  i.  e.,  £3  10s.  lOd  =  17  dollars. 

Judas  sold  our  Lord  for  30  pieces  of  silver,  i.  e.,  £3  10s.  8d.  =  16  dollars,  96  cents,  the  legal  value 
of  a  slave,  if  he  were  killed  by  a  beast. 

Joseph  was  sold  by  his  brethren  for  20  pieces,  i.  e.,  £2  7s.  =  11  dollars,  28  cents. 


TEMPERATURES   OF   SOME   CHEMICAL   SUBSTANCES 


Degree  of  Fahr. 

1,750 Brass  (containing  25%  of  zinc)  melts 

(Daniell). 

1,000 Iron,  bright  cherry  red  (Poillet). 

980 Red  heat,  visible  in  daylight  (Daniell) . 

640, Sulphuric  acid  boils  (Magrignac),  620 

(Graham). 

630 Whale  oil  boils  (Graham). 

600 Linseed  oil  boils. 

380, Arsenious  acid  volatilizes. 

356 Metallic  arsenic  sublimes. 

315 Oil  of  turpentine  boils  (Kaure). 

302 Etherification  ends. 

257, Saturated   sol.   of  sal   ammoniac  boils 

(Taylor). 
256,  .....   Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  of  soda  boils. 

238 Saturated  sol.  of  nitre  boils. 

221, Saturated  sol.  of  salt  boils  (Paris  Co- 
dex). 
220 Saturated  sol.  of  alum,  carb.  soda,  and 

sulph.  zinc,  boil. 
218, Saturated   sol.   of  chlorate  and   prus- 

siate  potash,  boil. 
21.6 Saturated   sol.   of   sulph.    iron,   sulph. 

copper,  nitrate  of  lead,  boil. 
214,  .    ,    .    .    .   Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  lead,  sulph. 

and  bitartrate  potash,  boil. 
213  or  (213.5),   Water  begins  to  boil  in  glass. 

212, Water  boils  in  metal,  barometer  at  30°. 

211, Alloy  of  5  bismuth,  3  tin,  2  lead,  melts. 

201, Alloy  of  8  bismuth,  5  lead,  3  tin,  melts 

(Kane). 


Degree  of  Fahr. 

185 

180  (about),    . 

176, 

173 

151 

150 

145 

141.8,   .    .    .    . 


132, 
122, 
116, 
115, 


112, 
95, 
95, 


r7, 


64.4,   .    .    . 

59,  ...    . 

55 

30' (about)  i 

32 

5 


-37.9, 


Nitric  acid  1.52  begins  to  boil. 

Starch  forms  a  gelatinous  compound 
with  water. 

Rectified  spirit  boils,  benzol  distils. 

Alcohol  (sp.  gr.  .796  to  .800)  boils. 

Beeswax  melts  (Kane),  142  (Lepage). 

Pyroxylic  spirit  boils  (Scanlan). 

White  of  egg  begins  to  coagulate. 

Chloroform,  and  ammonia  of  .945, 
boil. 

Acetone  (pyroacetic  spirit)  boils  (Kane) . 

Mutton  suet  and  styracin  melt. 

Bisulphuret  of  carbon  boils  (Graham). 

Pure  tallow  melts  (Lepage),  92  (Thom- 
son). 

Spermaceti  and  stearin  of  lard  melt. 

Ether  (.720)  boils. 

Carbolic  acid  crystals  become  an  oily 
liquid. 

Acetous  fermentation  ceases,  water 
boils  in  vacuo. 

Vinous  fermentation  ends,  acetous  fer- 
mentation begins. 

Oil  of  anise  liquefies. 

Gay  Lussac's  Alcoometre  graduated  at. 

Sirups  to  be  kept  at. 

Olive  oil  becomes  partially  solid. 

Water  freezes. 

Cold  produced  by  snow  2  parts  and 
salt  1  part. 

Mercury  freezes. 


860 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER   BUSHEL 
(From  Bureau  of  Standards,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.) 

LEGAL    WEIGHTS    (iN    POUNDS)     PEE    BUSHEL 


Apples 

Beans 

0 

n 

Corn 

State  ob 

n 

< 

PQ  H 

OS  J 
P  H 

m 

m 

m 

» 
0 

0 

u 

•< 

z 

K 
0 

« 

3 
0 
n 

z 

Territory 

* 

0 

m 

» 

2 

* 

7i 

0 

■k 
0 

a 

U 
> 

J 

H 

z 

M 

z 

0 

z 

z 

4 

h 

a 

^ 

m 

a 

t 

2 

u 

u 

q 

■< 

M 

K 

m 

K 

OS 

5 

p. 

s 

< 

a 

■<  " 

m 

ij 

es 

D 

< 

0 

0 

0 

a 

0 

0 

0  * 

< 

Q 

n 

P9 

0 

m 

n 

n 

m 

n 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

m 

0 

0 

0 

United  States, 

48 

50 

42 

80 

48 

Alabama,    . .    . 

24 

47 

60 

70 

56 

46 

48 

Arizona,   .    .    . 

45 

a55 

54 

Arkansas,     .    . 

650 

24 

48 

a60 

'14 

26 

48 

52 

'60 

'76 

56 

48 

California,    .    . 

50 

40 

52 

Colorado,  .  .    . 

48 

'60 

'14 

52 

'60 

'80 

'76 

56 

56 

Connecticut,    . 

'48 

25 

48 

60 

c66 

26 

48 

50 

60 

80 

56 

Delaware,     .    . 

56 

44 

'48 

Florida,    .    .    . 

648 

24 

48 

deo 

'48 

26 

'76 

56 

48 

Georgia,   .    .    . 

24 

47 

e60 

'i4 

/20 

52 

'60 

'80 

70 

56 

48 

Hawaii,    .    .    . 

48 

56 

Idaho 

645 

28 

48 

42 

'60 

56 

Illinois,  .      .    . 

24 

48 

e66 

'46 

'14 

26 

52 

60 

'80 

■76 

56 

48 

Indiana,  .    .    . 

25 

48 

60 

46 

14 

50 

60 

80 

(/68 

56 

50 

Iowa 

48 

24 

48 

60 

46 

14 

26 

30 

52 

60 

80 

3{ 

i 

70 

56 

Kansas,    .    .    . 

648 

24 

48 

60 

46 

hU 

20 

50 

60 

80 

70 

t56 

56 

Kentucky,   .    . 

24 

47 

e60 

*45 

14 

20 

56 

60 

76 

j70 

56 

50 

Louisiana,    .    . 

48 

56 

Maine,  .... 

■44 

48 

'60 

60 

48 

50 

56 

50 

Massachusetts, 

48 

25 

48 

Jfc60 

26 

48 

50 

'60 

Z06 

50 

Michigan,     .    . 

48 

22 

48 

60 

'46 

'i4 

48 

60 

'80 

'76 

56 

50 

Minnesota,  .    . 

650 

28 

48 

60 

50 

14 

57 

50 

45 

60 

80 

70 

56 

Mississippi,  .    . 

26 

48 

660 

'46 

14 

26 

48 

60 

80 

72 

56 

48 

44 

'48 

Missouri,  .    .    . 

■48 

24 

48 

»n60 

46 

14 

20 

52 

50 

60 

80 

70 

56 

50 

Montana,  .  .    . 

45 

48 

60 

50 

14 

20 

52 

50 

60 

76 

70 

56 

50 

Nebraska,    .    . 

24 

48 

c60 

'46 

14 

20 

52 

60 

80 

70 

56 

50 

N.  Hampshire, 

62 

56 

50 

New  Jersey,     . 

■56 

25 

48 

60 

50 

'64 

56 

New  York,  .    . 

48 

25 

48 

60 

26 

48 

50 

60 

56 

60 

North  Carolina, 

48 

50 

60 

56 

46 

"48 

North  Dakota, 

'56 

48 

'60 

60 

26 

30 

42 

60 

'80 

'76 

56 

Ohio 

50 

24 

48 

60 

56 

50 

50 

60 

n80 

4( 

) 

68 

56 

Oklahoma,  .    . 

48 

60 

60 

26 

30 

42 

60 

80 

70 

56 

Oregon,    .    .    . 

'45 

28 

46 

42 

60 

56 

Pennsylvania, 

47 

48 

60 

o76 

4o 

56 

Rhode  Island, 

'48 

25 

48 

'60 

'46 

50 

26 

48 

50 

60 

80 

40 

'76 

56 

56 

South  Carolina, 

48 

46 

'48 

South  Dakota, 

48 

'60 

60 

26 

30 

42 

'60 

'80 

'70 

56 

Tennessee,   .    . 

650 

24 

48 

p60 

'46 

50 

'14 

20 

42 

50 

60 

96O 

80 

46 

70 

56 

50 

'48 

Texas,  .... 

45 

28 

48 

e60 

20 

42 

60 

80 

70 

56 

Vermont,  .  .    . 

46 

48 

62 

60 

48 

50 

60 

56 

Virginia,  .    .    . 

28 

48 

e60 

14 

52 

60 

'80 

'76 

56 

50 

Washington,    . 

645 

28 

48 

42 

60 

56 

West  Virginia, 

25 

48 

66 

52 

60 

'80 

56 

Wisconsin,   .    . 

SO 

25 

48 

60 

50 

26 

50 

50 

60 

56 

56 

*  Not  defined. 

a  Small  white  beans,  60  pounds. 

6  Green  apples. 

c  Sugar  beets  and  mangel-wurzels. 

d  Shelled  beans,  60  pounds;  velvet  beans,  78  pounds. 

e  White  beans. 

/  Wheat  bran. 

g  Corn  in  ear,  70  pounds  until  December  1st  next  after  growth ;  68  pounds  thereafter. 

h  English  blue-grass  seed,  22  pounds;  native  blue-grass  seed,  14  pounds. 

t  Rice  corn. 

}■  Corn  in  ear  from  November  1st  to  May  1st  following,  70  pounds;   68  pounds  from  May  1st  to  November  Ist 

k  Soy  beans,  58  pounds. 

I  Cracked  corn,  50  pounds. 

m  Green  unshelled  beans,  30  pounds. 

n  Cannel  coal,  70  pounds. 

o  Standard  weight  in  borough  of  Greensburg,  75  pounds. 

p  Dried  beans ;   green  unshelled  beans,  30  pounds. 

q  Red  and  white. 


MISCELLANY 


861 


. 

LEG  AT. 

weights 

(in  pounds)  per 

BUSHEL— Continued 

Cotton 

Seed 

3 

S 

(4 

< 
W 

0 

2 

0 

a 

0 
H 

Z  H 

Onions 

0 
Z 

< 

Peaches 

State  or 

0 

m 

02 

Z 

» 

c 

0 

Territory 

0  H 

n 

(d  \A 
m  z 

03 

m 

;5" 

S 

z 

<% 

©0 

z 

X 

< 

t 

O 

0 

Z  * 

SO 

< 

o 
z 

0 
Z 

«a3 

m 

a 

< 

Hz 

K  ? 

o 

xn 

u 

U< 

o 

Pli 

W 

HI 

B 

S 

o 

o 

o 

o 

O 

Ph 

PLh 

Q 

Q 

United  States,  .   .    . 

56 

32 

Alabama 

32 

32 

38 

33 

Arizona 

32 

Arkansas, 

33^ 

56 

50 

32 

57 

33 

33 

California 

32 

44 

45 

32 
32 

57 
52 

4.5 

.3.3 

* 

Connecticut 

30 

44 

55 

33 

Florida 

32 

46 

50 

32 

56 

a54 

33 

Georgia 

30 

56 

8 

44 

32 

57 

38 

33 

Hawaii 

32 

Idaho, 

56 
56 

■'8 

44 
44 

50 

36 
32 
32 

57 

48 

14 

.3.3 

.5.5 

28 

33 

Indiana 

33 

33 

Iowa, 

56 
56 

46 

'hk 

44 
44 

50 
50 

50 
50 

32 
32 

57 
57 

32 

48 

33 

Kansas 

33 

Kentucky,     .... 

56 

8 

44 

.  - 

50 

50 

32 

57 

c36 

14 

.39 

11 

45 

32 
26 

52 

45 

Maryland 

Massachusetts,  .  .    . 

30 

44 

55 

45 

32 

52 

33 

Michigan 

40 

56 

44 

50 

50 

32 

54 

14 

33 

28 

Minnesota,    .... 

3« 

40 

68 

50 

48 

48 

32 

52 

14 

42 

28 

Mississippi,   .... 

32 

56 

44 

50 

.50 

32 

57 

33 

Missouri, 

33 

56 

44 

48 

50 

32 

57 

d28 

14 

36 

44 

48 

33 

Montana, 

56 
56 

"8 

44 
44 

50 
50 

50 

32 
32 
32 

57 
57 

25 

32 

50 

33 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire,  .    . 

New  Jersey 

55 

30 

57 

33 

New  York 

30 

44 

55 

45 

3? 

57 

33 

North  Carolina,    .    . 

30 

55 

32 

North  Dakota,  .  .    . 

56 

50 

32 

52 

Ohio,  . 

56 
56 

44 

50 

50 

32 
32 

55 
52 

48 

33 

Oklahoma,    .... 

Oregon 

32 

28 

Pennsylvania,  .    .    . 

32 

50 

Rhode  Island  .... 

30 

44 

56 

44 

50 

50 

3^ 

50 

50 

48 

33 

South  Carolina,    .    . 

30 

South  Dakota, .    .    . 

56 

32 

52 

Tennessee,     .... 

28 

56 

48 

8 

44 

48 

50 

32 

56 

e28 

14 

33 

50 

^50 

26 

Texas 

32 

56 

44 

48 

50 

33 

57 

50 

28 

Vermont, 

45 
12 

48 

.50 

32 
"30 

52 

57 

'28 

i4 

34 

40 

Virginia 

32 

56 

8 

44 

32 

Washington,     .    .    . 

56 

32 

28 

56 

32 

33 

Wisconsin 

30 

44 

56 

8 

44 

48 

50 

32 

57 

44 

33 

*  Not  defined. 

a  Green. 

b  Unwashed  plastering  hair,  8  pounds;  washed  plastering  hair,  4  pounds. 

c  Bottom  onion  sets. 

d  Top  onion  sets. 

e  Button  onion  sets,  32  pounds. 

/  Matured. 


P 
z 

■< 
a 

* 

to 
(8 
< 

P4 

Peas 

0 

(1( 

m 

0 

a 

H 

m 
m 

g 
o 

O 

0 
O 

■< 
o 

■< 

D 

•< 

* 

i 
o 

n 

0 
EC 

& 

K 

m 

% 
O 
Eh 

0 
H 

CO 

S 
0 

B. 
Z 
» 
D 

State  or 

Territory 

m  a 
<  m 

a  z 

* 

< 

PL, 

H 

•< 

■    « 

United  States,      ..... 

60 

60 

56 

60 

Alabama, 

60 

60 

55 

56 
56 
56 
54 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

20 

'50 
'56 

60 
45 

55 

57 

50 

54 
55 

55 

60 

60 

Arkansas,      

60 

60 

50 

14 

60 

60 

Colorado,  . 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

54 

60 
55 

50 

45 
43 

60 

50 

60 

Connecticut 

60 

60 

District  of  Columbia,  .... 
Delaware, 

'60 
60 

Georgia 

60 

..     45 

60 

Hawaii, 

22 

60 
a45 

45 

60 

Idaho,    } 

60 

Illinois,      .    . 

60 

862 


THE  STANDARD    DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


LEGAL    WEIGHTS 

IN    POUNDS 

)  PER  BUSHEL — Continued 

p 

Peas 

m 

S 

1 

o 

I 

m 

CO 

o 

a. 

g 

a 
a 
PS 

O 

a 
g 

•< 
o 
< 
n 

■i 
H 
D 

■< 
m 

m 

h 

Pi 

» 

0 

a 
CO 

a 

u 
w 

S 

D 

K 

m 

m 

8 

■< 

'  S 

0 

H 

0 
u 
m 

« 
H 

00 

M 

z 

K 
0 

H 

State  ok 
Territory 

2  0 
^- 

«  z 

« 

■< 
K 

Ph 

•< 
m 

60 
60 
60 
60 

55 
46 
50 
55 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
50 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

20 

20 
20 

20 

630 
56 

■57 
42 
42 

■36 
■56 

60 
45 

56 

56 

56 
55 

45 
45 
45 
45 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 

45 
45 
42 

45 
42 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 
45 

55 

55 
60 

50 

58 

55 
42 
50 
55 

60 
60 
60 

50 
60 
50 
55 
60 
55 

42 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

Maine, 

60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
60 
60 
60 

54 
56 
55 
60 
56 

50 

54 
54 

46 
50 
46 

54 
46 
50 
55 

56 
54 

14 

14 

14 
14 

12 

45 

45 
44 

45 

60 

52 
50 

56 

50 
60 

50 
50 

50 
50 

Massachusetts 

60 
60 
60 
60 
c60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

48 
45 

56 

Montana, 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey,      

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

22 

Ohio 

Oklahoma, 

Oregon 

45 

Pennsylvania, 

Rhode  Island 

c60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 

Tennessee, 

Texas,    .    .- 

23 

d56 

30 

Vermont, 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

22 

a45 

60 
60 

e60 
60 
60 
60 

Wisconsin 

60 

60 

*  Not  defined. 

a  Green. 

b  Sorghum  saccharatum  seed. 


c  Including  split  peas. 
d  Dried  pears,  26  pounds, 
e  India  wheat,  46  pounds. 


COMMODITIES  FOR  WHICH  LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  HAVE  BEEN  FIXED  IN  BUT  ONE  OR 

TWO  STATES 
(From  Bureau  of  Standards,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.) 


Article 


Weight 


States 


Blackberries,  .  .  . 
Blueberries,  .  .  . 
Canary  seed,  .  .  . 
Cantaloupe  melon, 

Cement, 

Cherries 

Chestnuts 

Cotton  seed,  staple. 
Cucumbers,     .    .    . 

Currants 

Grapes, 

Hickory  nuts,  .  . 
Hominy,  .... 
Horse-radish,  .  . 
Kaffir  corn,     .    .    . 

Kale, 

Land  plaster,  .  . 
Mustard, ..... 

Plums, 

Plums,  dried,  .  . 
Pop  corn,  .... 
Prunes,  dried,     .    . 

Quinces, 

Rape  seed,  .  .  . 
Raspberries,  .  .  . 
Rhubarb,    .... 

Salads 

Sand,   ....... 

Spinach,      .... 

Strawberries,      .    . 
Suear-cane  seed,    . 
Velvet-grass  seed, 
Walnuts 


Pounds 
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32 

57 
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Minnesota. 

Tennessee. 

Tennessee. 

Tennessee. 

Iowa.     Tennessee,  with  stems,  56  pounds;      without  stem,  64 

pounds. 
Tennessee.     Virginia,  57  pounds. 
South  Carolina. 

Missouri  and  Tennessee.     Wisconsin,  50  pounds. 
Iowa  and  Minnesota. 
Iowa.     Tennessee,  with  stems,   48  pounds;    without  stems,  60 

pounds. 
Tennessee. 

Ohio.     Tennessee,  62  pounds. 
Tennessee. 
Kansas. 
Tennessee. 
Tennessee. 
Tennessee. 

Florida.     Tennessee,  64  pounds. 
Michigan. 

Indiana  and  Tennessee.     Ohio,  in  the  ear,  42  pounds. 
Idaho;  green,  45  pounds. 
Florida,  Iowa,  and  Tennessee. 
Wisconsin. 

Kansas.     Tennessee,  48  pounds. 
Tennessee. 
Tennessee. 
Iowa. 
Tennessee. 

Iowa.     Tennessee,  48  pounds. 
New  Jersey. 
Tennessee. 
Tennessee. 


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INDEX 


Note. —  In  addition  to  the  general  index  on  the  following  pages  —  which  in  itself  will  usually  be  found 
Buflfieient  —  a  large  number  of  alphabetical  lists  are  to  be  found  in  the  body  of  the  book,  and  they  should  be 
carefully  consulted  in  connection  with  the  general  index,  if  necessary.  For  example,  American  Battles,  page 
11;  Treaties,  Coalitions,  Conventions,  and  Leagues,  page  163;  Right  Use  of  Some  Common  Words,  page  191 ; 
Abbreviations,  Contractions,  and  Degrees,  page  202;  Words  and  Phrases  from  the  Classic  and  Modern  Lang- 
uages, page  255 ;  Modern  Languages,  page  263 ;  Words  Often  Mispronounced,  page  267 ;  Pen  Names  of  Noted 
Writers,  page  321;  Mythology,  page  323;  Names  in  Fiction,  Literary  Plots,  and-  Allusions,  page  343;  Famous 
Poems,  Author  and  First  Line,  page  387;  Biography,  page  393;  Cities,  Population  of,  page  582;  Canals,  page 
653;  College  Fraternities,  page  697 ;  Colleges  and  Universities,  page  698;  Notable  Bridges,  page  779;  Cities, 
Popular  Names  of,  page  782;  Names  and  Name  Origins,  page  797. 


PAGE 

Aaron, 393 

Abbey,  Edwin  A 393 

Abbot,  Ezra 393 

Abbott,  Lyman,    .    .   305, 393 
Abbreviations,  .    188,202-208 

Abdallah 343 

Abdication, 9 

Abdul  Hamid  II 393 

Ab^lard,  Pierre 393 

Abou  Hassan,  ' 343 

Abraham, 393 

Abraxas 343 

Abruzzi,  Duke  of,     ...   393 
Absolute,  Captain,    .    .    .   343 

Sir  Anthony 343 

Abu  Bekr 393 

Abydos 128 

Abyssinia, 9,  585 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Emperor, 605 

Government,      ....   585 

History •.       9 

Abyssinian  War,   ....       9 

Acadia 343 

Accounts,  Open,    ....   667 

Acetic  Acid 683 

Acetylene 683 

Acetylene  Gas 669 

Achaean  League,    ....       9 

War .       9 

Acheron 324 

Achilles 324 

Acid 683 

Acetic,    . 683 

Acids,  Poisonous,      .    .    .   850 
Ackerman,  Amos  T.,     .    .    638 

Acoustics 683 

Acre,  Battle  of 74 

Acres,  Bob, 343 

Acropolis 515 

Acrostic 343 

Actaeon 324 

Actiac  War, 9 

Actium,  Battle  of,    .    .    .     63 

Adams,  Charles  F 393 

Henry 393 

John,  ....    101,  144,393 
J.  Q.,  .    .    .    .    102,  144,393 

Maude, 394 

Oscar  F., 394 

Samuel, 394 

Addams,  Jane, 394 

Addison,  Joseph,  .    .    296,  394 
Address : 

Correct  forms  in  letters, 

216-219 

Of  letters, 214 

Addresses,       200 

Adelphi  College 698 

Adler,  Fehx 394 

Adonis,    ........    324 

Adrastus, 324 

Adrianople: 

Treaty  of,  .    .    .    .    .    .163 

Adulteration, 645 

iEgeus 324 

JEneas 324,  343 

iEneid 343 

.(Eolus, 324 

Aerial  Navigation,    .    .    .   645 

Aerolite, 683 

Aeronautics, 646 

Aeroplane, 646 


PAGE 

.(Eschines 394 

^schvlus 282,394 

^sculapius, 324 

^sop 282,394 

Fables 283 

;iEtolian  Confederacy,  .    .      10 

iEtolian  League 10 

Afghanistan,      ...      10, 585 

Ameer,  the, 585 

Army, 585 

Government,      ....    585 

Provinces, 685 

Afghan  War 10 

Africa: 

Animals 507 

British 508 

Bushmen 507 

Cape  Colony 522 

Civilization  of,  .    .    .    .   508 

Congo, 508 

Countries,  area  of,     .    .    508 
Countries,  population  of, 508 

Description  of 507 

Egypt 508 

French 508 

German 508 

Hottentots 507 

Italian, 508 

Kaffirs 507 

Lake  Nyassa,     ....   550 

Morocco, 546 

Nile,  the, 549 

Political  divisions,     .    .    507 

Population, 507 

Portuguese, 508 

Races, 507 

Spanish, 508 

Turkish 508 

Vegetation, 507 

Victoria  Nyanza,  .    .    .   576 

Zambezi 581 

Africa  and  Europe,  ...     54 

African  War, 10 

Agamemnon 324 

Agassiz,  Alexander,      .    .   394 

Louis  J.  R., 394 

Agate 760 

Agincourt,  Battle  of,    .    .     78 
Agrarian  Agitation,       .    .      11 

Agricola 64,  394 

Agricultural     College     of 

Utah 704 

Agricultural  Colleges,   .    .   683 
First  established,  .    .    .    104 

Landscript 684 

Agricultural  Implements,  647 
Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College,    ....   704 

Agriculture, 646-50 

Colleges  of, 683 

Department  of,      ...    639 

Early, 646 

In  Britain 647 

In  Rome, 646 

In  United  States,      .    .    647 
Minor  products,     .    .    .   650 

Statistics  of 648-50 

Agrigentum, 128 

Aguecheek,  Sir  Andrew,  .   343 
Aguesseau,  Henri,     .    .    .   394 

Aguinaldo 142,394 

Capture  of, 96 

Foments  War,    ....    108 
Ahaz 394 


PAGE 

Ahmed,  Prince,     ....   343 

Ahriman, 324 

Air,  Liquid 715 

Air  brake 671 

Air  pump,       ....     84,  650 

Airship 672 

Airships 645,646 

Aix-La-Chapelle,  Treaties 

of 164 

Ajax, 324 

Akbar,  Emperor  of  India,     83 

Alabama, 11,585 

Agricultural  statistics  of,648 

Area 624 

Capital, 626 

Con.  Female  College,  .  703 
Electoral  vote,  ....  627 
Exemption  Laws,  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  585 
Governor's  salary,  .  .  626 
Interest,  Laws  of,  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-61 
Legislative  statistics,    .   627 

Metropolis 625 

Polytechnic  Institute,  .   704 

Population, 625 

Property  valuation,  .  627 
Statutes  of  limitation,  667 
Suffrage  requirements,  626 
Synodical  College,     .    .   704 

Tax  rate 627 

Voting  population,    .    .   627 

Alabama  Claims 177 

Aladdin, 344 

Alamo 11 

Massacre  at 103 

Alaric 394 

Alaska, 508 

Area 625 

Capital, 624 

Gold  in 508 

Metropolis,     .....    625 

Population, 625 

Purchase  of, 508 

Transferred  to  U.  S.,  .    105 

Yukon  River 581 

Albania, 344 

Albemarle,  Battle  of ,    .    .      11 

Albert  1 605 

Albertus  Magnus, ....    395 

Albion  College 698 

Albright  College 698 

Albumen 684 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso  d',  395 

Alcestis 324 

Alchemy, 684 

Alcibiades, 395 

Alcohol .   650 

Properties, 651 

Alcorn  A.  and  M.  College,    704 
Alcott,  Louisa  M.,     .   305,  395 

Alcuin, 395 

Aldine  Edition 344 

Aldrich,  Nelson  W.,      .    .   395 
Thomas  Bailey, .    .   305,395 

Alecto 324 

Alemanni, 11 

Alembert,  Jean,     ....   395 

Alembic 684 

Alexander : 

-  Conquers  Persia,   .    .    .116 

To  Birth  of  Christ,    .    .     60 

Alexander  I.,     ...     58, 395 


PAGE 

Alexander  II.,   ...     95,  395 

Alexander  III 395 

Death  of 95 

Alexander  VIII 395 

Alexander  Nevski,  St.,     .  395 
Alexander  the  Great,     69,  141 

Alexandria, 128 

Alexandrian  Codex,      .    .  344 
Alexandrian  Library,     63,  684 

Alexandrite,  ......  760 

Alexis,  Mikhailovitch,  .    .  395 

Alfieri,  Vittorio 395 

Alfonso  1 395 

Alfonso  X 395 

Alfonso  XIII 97,395 

Attempted      assassina- 
tion of, 97 

Marriage  of 97 

Alfred  the  Great,  .    .   296,  395 

Born 70 

Defeats  Danes,      ...  70 

Alfred  University,     .    .    .  698 
Alger,  Russell  A.,  .   .   396,  637 

Algerian  War 102 

Algiers,   ........  508 

Alhambra,  The 77 

Alice  Brand 344 

Alimentary  Canal,    .    .    .  684 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  .    .  396 

Alkalies 860 

Alkaloids 686 

Allegheny  College,    ...  698 

Allegories,       199 

Allen,  Ethan 396 

James  Lane, 396 

Viola 396 

Allen  College 698 

Allentown  College,    ...  703 

Alligator 729 

Allison,  William  B.,      .    .  396 

Allusions,  Literary,  .    .    .  343 

Allworthy 344 

Alma  College 698 

Almandine 760 

Almanzor,      .    ...    .    .    .  396 

Alma-Tadema 396 

AlphoKot                ^  ^^  55 

Alpine,  Vegetation,  .    .    .  509 

Alps 508 

Carnic 509 

Cottian 508 

Dinaric 509 

Graian, 608 

Lepontine,      .....  609 

Maritime 608 

Noric 609 

Pennine 608 

Rhaetian, 509 

Scenery 509 

Alsace-Lorraine,    ....  532 

Alstroeiner,  Jonas,    .    .    .  396 
Aluminium,    ....    685,694 

Alva,  Duke  of 396 

Alvarado,  Alonzo,     .    .    .  396 

Pedro  d' 396 

Amadis  de  Gaul 344 

Amaral,  Antopio,  ....  396 

Amasis, 396 

Amaziah 396 

Amazon  River,  .    .    .   509,  564 

Amazons 324 

Amboise,  George  d',     .    .  396 

Ambrose,  St., 396 

Ambrosia, 324 


868 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Ameer  of  Afghanistan,     .   585 
America: 

Discovered  by  Columbus,  81 
Discovery  of,  ....  98 
Historical  Outline  of,  .  98 
Period     of     Authentic 

History 98 

Semi-historical    period,     98 
American : 

Architecture 513 

Authors 304 

Battles 11 

Civil  War 139 

Languages 183 

American  Literature,  .  .  304 
Colonial  period,  .  .  .  306 
Modern  fiction,  .  .  .  308 
New  England  School,    .    307 

Orators,       307 

Period  of  the  Republic,  307 

Periods  of 306 

Poetry 304 

Prose 304 

Representative  works,  304 
Revolutionary  period,  307 
Southern  Writers,  .  .  308 
Western  Writers,  .  .  308 
American   International 

College 698 

American  Revolution,      .    169 

Aid  of  France 87 

American    Revolutionary 

War, 139 

American    University    of 

Harriman, 698 

Amerigo  Vespucci,    .    .    .   396 

Voyage  of, 81 

Ames,  Fisher 396 

James  Barr 396 

Amethyst 760 

Amherst,  Lord 396 

Amherst  College 698 

Amiens 509 

Treaty 164 

Ammon, 325 

Amoret 344 

Ampfere 857 

Ampere,  Andrd  M 397 

Amphibia,      685 

Amphictyon 397 

Amphion, 325 

Amsterdam, 509 

Amur  River 564 

Amyntas 397 

Anacreon 282,397 

Anacreontic  Verse,    .    .    .   344 

Anagram, 344 

Anaxagoras 397 

Anaximander 397 

Anchises, 325 

Ancient : 

Architecture,     .    .    .    .511 

Mariner, 344 

Andersen,     Hans     Chris- 
tian,       288,397 

Anderson,  Mary,   ....   397 

Rasmus  B., 397 

Robert 397 

Anderson's       Crossroads, 

Battle  of 11 

Andes 509 

Minerals  of, 509 

Andr^,  John,      .    .    .    100, 397 

Andrea,  Pisano 397 

Andreani 397 

Andrew,  Saint 397 

Andrew  College,    ....   703 
Andrews,  Elisha  B.,     .    .   397 

Joseph, 344 

Andromache 325 

Andromeda, 325 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  .    .   397 

Angell,  James  B 397 

Angelo,  Michael,    ....   397 

Angelus,  Domini 345 

Anglo-Saxon 185 

Anglo-Saxons,  Advance  of,   68 

Angular  Measure 856 

Anhalt 532 

Aniline  Dyes, 670 

Animals,  Symbolism  of,  .   775 
Anjou.Counts  andDukes  of  ,398 


PAGE 

Anna  Comnena,     ....  398 

Anne  Boleyn 398 

Anne  of  Austria 398 

Anne  of  Beaujeu 398 

Anne  of  Brittany,     .    .    .   398 

Anne  of  Cleves 398 

Anne,  Queen  of  England, .   398 

Annuity, 651 

Annunzio,  Gabriele  d',     .   398 

Anselm,  Saint 398 

Ant 729 

Antaeus 325 

Antarctic  Ocean,  ....   509 

Antelope 729 

Anthony,  St 398 

Susan  B 398 

Anthracite  Coal,  ....  655 
Antietam,  Battle  of , .    .    .      11 

Antigone 325 

Antigonus,  Cyclops,  .   .    .   398 

Antimony, 694 

Antioch 128,510 

Antioch  College 698 

Antiochus, 398 

Antipater 398 

Antipater  of  Idumea,  .  .  398 
Anti-Polygamy  Bill, ...    177 

Antipyrene, 672 

Anti-rent  Problems,  .  .  .  101 
Antoinette,  Marie,  .  .  .  398 
Antommarchi,  Doctor,     .   399 

Antonio, 345 

Antonius  Pius,  Titus,    .    .   399 

Antony  and  Cleopatra,     .    345 

Antony,  Mark,  .    .    .    399, 462 

Second  Triumvirate,     .      63 

War  with  Octavius,  .    .     63 

Antwerp, 510 

Aorta, 685 

Apache  War, 94 

Ape 729 

Barbary 731 

Apelles 399 

Aphrodite 325 

Apocalypse 345 

Apocrypha 345,  685 

Apollo 325 

Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  399 

Apollonius, 399 

ApoUos 399 

Apostle, 685 

Apostrophe 191 

Apothecaries'  Measure,     .   855 

Weight 855 

Appian  Way 800 

Apple 729 

Apples,  Weight,  ....  860 
Appomattox,  Battle  of,  .  12 
April  Fool's  Day, ....    775 

Aquamarine, 760 

Aqueducts 63,  510 

Anio  Novus, 610 

Anio  Vetus, 610 

Aqua  Alsietina, .    .    .    .   510 

Aqua  Appia 510 

Aqua  Claudia,    .    .    .    .510 

Aqua  Julia, 510 

Aqua  Marcia 510 

Aqua  Tepula 510 

Aqua  Virgo 510 

Croton, 511 

Nimes, 510 

Aquinas,  St.  Thomas  d',  .   399 

Arabia 19. 

Literature 277,  281 

Mecca 542 

Medina 542 

Ravaged  by  Turks,  .    .     69 
Under  Haroun  al  Ras- 

chid 69 

Arabian  Nights,  .  .  281,  345 
Arabian  Numerals,    .    .    .    686 

Arachne, 325 

Arago,  Dominique,   .    .    .   399 

Aral  Sea 539 

Ararat 547 

Arbaces 399 

Arbela,  Battle  of,  .    .    .   22,  60 

Arbor  Day 792 

Arc,  Joan  of 399 

Archelaus 399 

Archimedes,  .    .     61,283,399 


PAGE 

Architects,  Greek  Masters,  611 

Architecture, 511 

Academy  of 84 

American,  ......   513 

Ancient 611 

Byzantine, 612 

Commercial 514 

Dwelling  Houses,  .    .    .   614 

Egyptian, 511 

Gothic, 512 

Greek 511 

Greek  Orders 511 

Italian 512 

Moorish 512 

Revival  of 513 

Roman, 512 

Roman  Orders  of, .    .    .   512 

Spanish  Types 614 

Victorian  Gothic,  .    .    .   513 

Archon, 20 

Arcite, 346 

Arc  Light, 670 

Arctic,  Exploration,.    .    .   514 

Explorers, 514 

Ocean, 514 

Arden,  Enoch, 346 

Area,    Countries   of   the 

World 604 

Of  Insular  Possessions,    624 

Of  States 624 

Of  Territories 624 

Arequipa,  Mt 547 

Arethusa 325 

Argand,  Aim^ 399 

Argentine : 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt 605 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stock  of  Money,    ...    604 

Argentine  Republic,  .     20,  615 

Buenos  Ayres,   ....   520 

Constitution 586 

Description  of 616 

Financial  Crisis,     .     20,  107 

Government 685 

Immigration, 20 

Independent, 101 

Inhabitants 516 

Minerals, 516 

Natural  Resources,  .    .   515 

Navy 848 

War  with  Paraguay, .    .   100 

Argon, 694 

Argonauts 325 

Argos 128,326 

Ariadne, .   326 

Arian, 686 

Ariel 345 

Ariosto,  Ludovico,    .    .    .   399 

Aristides 399 

Aristophanes,     .    .       282,399 
Aristotle,    .    .    .     59,283,399 

Arius 399 

Arizona, 585 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 625 

Capital, 624 

Exemption  Laws,  .    .    .   667 

Government, 586 

Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .      860-61 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Statutes  of  Limitation,     667 

Arkansas 20-585 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 624 

Capital 626 

Constitution, 585 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Exemption  Laws,  .   .    .   667 

Government, 586 

Governor's  Salary,  .  .  626 
Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  860-61 
■  Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 
Metropolis 625 


PAGE 

Arkansas — Con.: 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation, .    .  627 

River 664 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,   .    .  627 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,.  399 

Spinning-jenny 86 

Aries, 515 

Armada 21,  22 

Armenia, 515 

Armida 345 

Armies 776 

Of  Asia 776 

Of  Europe 776 

Of  South  America,    .    .  776 

Of  United  States,-.    .    .  776 

Of  the  World 776 

Reserves 776 

Strength  of 776 

Arminius,  Battle  of, .    .    .  22 

Armor 775 

Patterns 775 

Armour,  J.  O., 399 

Arms, 775 

Egyptian 776 

Primitive, 776 

Armstrong,  John 637 

Arnheim,  Baron  von,    .    .  399 
Arnold,  Benedict, .    .    100,399 

Edwin 297,400 

Matthew 297,400 

Thomas 297,400 

Arrest,  for  Debt,    ....  667 

I  Arrow  Rock,  Battle  of, .  12 

Arsenic 694 

Arsinoe 128 

Artemisia, 400 

Arteries, 686 

Artesian  Well 669 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van,  .    .  400 
Arthur,  C.  A.,  .    .    .      144,  400 

Julia 400 

Arthur,  King 345 

Arthurian  Romances,  .    .  346 

Arthur's  Drinking  Horn,  346 

Round  Table,  ....  346 

Sword 346 

Articles  of  Confederation, 

100,  686 

Powers  of  State,      .    .  687 

Signers  of, 588 

States  under,   ....  586 

Text  of 586 

Articles,  Thirty-nine,     .  686 

Artificial  Limbs,  ....  670 

Artificial  Silk 672 

ArtUlery 776 

Art  of  Husbandry,  ...  54 

Arts  of  Civilization,    .    .  54 

Promoted  in  Italy,      .  78 

Arvan  Languages,  .    .    .  184 

Asbury,  Francis 400 

Ashmole,  Elias 400 

Asia, 64 

Himalayas, 636 

Asia  Minor, 552 

Palestine 552 

Asir 325 

Asmodeus, 346 

Aspasia 400 

Asquith,  H.  H 400 

Assembly 21 

Convention,  The,     .    .  21 

Directory 21 

Legislative, 21 

National 21 

Assurance, 664 

Assyria 21 

Literature 277,281 

Astarte 325 

Asteroids, 687 

Astor,  John  J.,    .    .    .    .  400 

William  W 400 

Astrology,  Chaldean,  .    .  281 
Astronomy,     Lick     Tele- 
scope,      94 

As  You  Like  It 346 

Atahualpa 400 

Atalanta, 326 


INDEX 


869 


PAGE 

Athanasian  Creed,  .    .    .  687 

Athanasius,  Saint,  ...  401 

Athelstan 401 

Athenagoras 401 

Athens,  .  .    .   56,116,128,515 
Architectural      Monu- 
ments,    515 

Battle  of 12 

Modern, 516 

Athos,  Mount, 516 

Atlanta,  Battle  of,  .    .    .  12 
Atlanta  Baptist  College,  698 
Atlanta  University,     .    .  698 
Atlantic  Cable,  First  Mes- 
sage,    104 

Ocean 516 

Atlantis 325 

Atlas 325 

Atom, 687 

Atomic  Philosophy,    .    .  687 

Theory 687 

Weight   of    Chemical 

Elments 694 

Atropos, 325 

Attila, 66,119,401 

Attorneys-General,     .    .  638 

Atwood,  George,      .    .    .  401 

Thomas 401 

Auber,  D.  F.,   .    ,    .    .    .  401 

Aubigne,  Jean  H 401 

Audubon,  J.  J.,    .    .      304,401 
Auerbach,  Berthold,     290,  401 

Augean  Stables,  ....  326 

Augsburg,  Confession  of,  688 

League  of, 164 

Augsburg  Seminary,  .    .  698 

Augur 21 

Augurs, 326 

Augustan  Age,     ....  285 

Augustana  College,     .    .  698 

Augustine,  Saint,     .    .    .  401 

Augustulus,  Romulus,    .  401 

Augustus,  Caius, .    .    .    .  401 

Aulic  Council 22 

Aurelian, 65 

Aurelianus,  Claudius, .    .  401 

Aurelius,  Marcus,  65,  146,  401 

Aurora 326 

Borealis 688 

Aurungzebe, 401 

Austen.  Jane,  .    .    .      296,  401 

Austerlitz,  Battle  of,  .    .  88 

Austin,  Alfred,     ....  401 

Austin  College,     ....  698 

Australasia 516 

Australia, 516 

Area    and    Population, 

516,  604 

Capital, 605 

Cities, 516 

Debt 605 

Federation  of,  ...    .  95 

Governor-General,  .    .  605 

Melbourne, 543 

Natural  Resources,     .  516 

Population,       ....  604 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

States  of 516 

Stock  of  Money,  ...  604 

Austria 22,  517,  589 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt 605 

Emperor 605 

Exposition    at    Buda- 
pest,        94 

House  of 81,  149 

Illiteracy 714 

Made  a  Duchy,    ...  81 

New  Constitution,  .    .  92 

Population, 604 

Revolution  in  Hungary,  90 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,  .    .    .  604 

Suffrage  Bill,    ....  96 
Triple  Alliance  Renewed,  94 

Vienna, 577 

War  with  France,    .    .  92 

Austria-Hungary,  22,  517,  589 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Cities 517 


Austria-Hungary — Con. : 

Debt 605 

Description  of,     ...     617 

Emperor,      605 

Government 589 

Inhabitants  of,    .    .    .     517 
Merchant  Marine,    .    .     673 

Navy 848 

Population,  ....  604 
Reigning  Dynasty,  .  589 
Standard  of  Currency,  604 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  .  604 
Austrian    Succession, 

War  of,     .    .     51,86,  139 
Austro-Swiss  War,  ...      138 

Automobile, 651 

Autosse,  Battle  of,  .    .    .        12 

Avalon,     .    .  - 346 

Avatar 326 

Aventurine, 760 

Avernus 326,346 

Averrhoes, 401 

Avery,  Elroy  M.,     .    .    .     401 

Avicenna,  I.  S 402 

Avignon,  Seat  of  Popes, .  78 
Avoirdupois  Weight,  .    .     855 

Azazil, 326,  346 

Aztecs 98,  132 

Baal, 326 

Baalbec 128 

Baba,  Ali,     ....     358, 402 

Babbitt  Metal 669 

Babes  in  the  Wood,   .    .      346 

Baboon 729 

Babylon 57,  128 

Babylonia, 57 

Literature,    .    .    .     277,  281 
Babylonish  Captivity,    .      125 

Bacchus 326 

Bach,  Johann  S 402 

Bacon,  Augustus  O.,  .    .      402 
Francis,    .    .    .295,300,402 

Roger, 295,402 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  ...       99 

Bacteria, 730 

Baden 532 

Baden,  Treaty  of,    .    .    .      164 

Badger 730 

Baiting, 730 

Badger,  George  E.,     .    .     639 

Badgers 853 

Baer,  George  F 402 

Bailey,  Joseph  W 402 

Liberty  H., 402 

Bajazet  I.,    .    .    .    .      166,  402 

Baker  College 698 

Balaklava,  Battle  of,  .   .       93 

Balata 730 

Balboa,  Discoveries  of,    81,  98 

Vasco  de, 402 

Baldwin  1 402 

Henry 640 

James  M., 402 

Baldwin  University,  .    .     698 

Balfe,  Michael  W 402 

Balfour,  A.  J., 402 

Balkan  Independence,   .      167 

Balkan  States 167 

Ballad,  The 201 

Ballinger,  Richard  A.,   .     403 

Balloon 668 

Invented, ....     645,  668 

Balloons 646 

Ballou,  Hosea 403 

Ball's  Bluff,  Battle  of,  .  12 
Balmez,  James  L.,  .  .  .  403 
Balm  of  Gilead,  ....     730 

Balmung 326 

Balsam, 730 

Baltic  Sea 517 

Baltimore 517,582 

Fire  of  1904 517 

Great  Fire 96,  109 

Baltimore,  Lord,  ...  98 
Balzac,  Honore  de,  .  .    .     403 

Bamboo 730 

Banana 731 

Bancroft,  George,  304, 403,  639 

Hubert  H 403 

Baner,  John, 403 

Bangkok 517 

Banking,  National,  ...     652 


PAGE 

Banking — Con.: 

In  United  States,    .    .  652 

U.  S.  Incorporated,    .  88 

Bank  of  Venice,  ....  74 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  .    .  640 

Banks  of  England,  ...  84 

Banquo, 346 

Banshee, 326 

Banyan 730 

Baobab 730 

Baptists 688 

Barbarian  Wars,      .    .    .  138 

Barbarossa,  Horuk,    .    .  403 

Khair-ed-Din,      .    .    .  403 

Barbary  Ape 731 

Barbed-wire  fence, .    .    .  670 

Barberry 731 

Barber's  Pole, 776 

Barbets 731 

Barbicans 731 

Barbour,  James 637 

Philip  P 640 

Barcelona,    ......  518 

Bardell,  Mrs 346 

Bard  of  Avon 346 

Of  Ayrshire 346 

Of  Hope 346 

Of  Memory 346 

Of  Mt.  Rydal 346 

Barham,  Richard  H.,     .  403 

Barium 694 

Bark -  .    .    .    .  731 

Jesuit's, 731 

Peruvian 731 

Barker,  George  F 403 

Barkis, 346 

Barley, 731 

In  United  States,    .    .  649 

Weight 860 

World's  Production,  .  680 

Barley-Corn,  Sir  John,  .  346 

Barnabas,  Saint, ....  403 

Barnaby  Rudge,      .    .    .  346 

Barnacle 732 

Goose 732 

Barnard,  Edward  E.,.    .  403 

Barnard  College,      ...  703 

Barnum,  Phineas  T.,  .    .  403 

Barometer, 668 

Barrel 268 

Barrett,  John 403 

Barrie,  J.  M 403 

Barrow,  Isaac 404 

Barrows,  Samuel  J.,    .    .  404 

Barry,  William  T 638 

Barrvmore,  Ethel,  .    .    .  404 
Bartholdi,  F.  A.,     .      404,539 
Statue  of  Liberty,    107,  539 

Bartholdt,  Richard,    .    .  404 

Bartholomew,  Saint,  .    .  404 

Barton,  Clara, 404 

Basalt 732 

Basel  Treaties 164 

Basil,  Saint 404 

Bass 732 

Bassanio, 346 

Bastille 518 

Bat 732 

Bates,  Edward,    .    .    .637,638 

Bates  College 698 

Baton  Rouge,  Battle  of,  12 

Batrachia 733 

Battering  Ram 59 

Battle-axe 776 

Battle,  Sarah,  .....  347 
Battles : 

Acre 74 

Actium 63 

Agincourt 78 

Albemarle 11 

American, 11 

Anderson's    Cross- 
roads,      11 

Antietam 11 

Appomattox,   ....  12 

Arrow  Rock 12 

Athens 12 

Atlanta 12 

Austerlitz,    .....  88 

Autosse, 12 

Balaklava 93 

Ball's  Bluff 12 


Battles — Con.: 

Baton  Rouge,  .  .  . 
Bennington,  .  .  . 
Bermuda  Hundreds, 

Big  Horn 

Bladensburg,  .    .    . 
Bonhomme     Richard- 
Serapis,     .    .    . 

Boyne, 

Brandywine,    .    . 
Brownstown,    .    . 
Buena  Vista,    .    . 
Bull  Run,  .    .    . 
Bunker  Hill,  .    . 

Camden 

Campbell  Station, 
Cannae,  .  .  . 
Castletown,  .  . 
Cedar  Creek,  . 
Cedar  Mountain, 
Cerro  Gordo,  . 
Chseronea,  .  . 
Champion  Hills, 
Chancellors  ville, 
Chapultepec,  . 
Chattahoochee, 
Chattanooga,  . 
Chesapeake-Shannon, 
Chickamauga,  . 
Chippewa,  .  . 
Churubusco,  . 
Cloyd's  Mountain 
Cold  Harbor,  . 
Contreras,  .  . 
Corinth,  .  .  . 
Cowpens,  .  .  . 
Crampton  Gap, 
Cross  Keys,  .  . 
Dabney's  Mills, 
Drury's  Bluff,  . 
El  Caney,  .  .  . 
Ezra  Chapel,  . 
Fair  Oaks,  .  . 
Flodden,  .  .  . 
Ft.  Donaldson, 
Ft.  Erie,  .  .  . 
Ft.  Fisher,  .  . 
Ft.  Gregg,  .  . 
Ft.  Moultrie,  . 
Ft.  Pillow,  .  . 
Ft.  Schuyler,  . 
Ft.  Stedman,  . 
Ft.  Wagner,  . 
Franklin,  .  .  . 
Fredericksburg, 
Gaines  Mill,  .  . 
Gettysburg,  .  . 
Guilford,  C.  H., 
Hanover,  C.  H., 
Hastings,  .  .  . 
Hatcher's  Run, 
Ipsus,    .... 

luka 

Jackson,    .    .    . 
Jenkins  Ferry, 
Kernstown,  .    . 
Lake  Champlain, 
Lepanto,  .    . 
Lexington,    . 
Long  Island, 
Liitzen,  .  .    . 
Malvern  Hill, 
Manassas, 
Manila, .    .    . 
Marengo,  .    . 
Marsaglia,     . 
Martinsburg, 
Mine  Run,    . 
Monitor-Merrimac, 
Monmouth,  . 
Monocacy,    . 
Montebello,  . 
Monterey,     . 
Murfreesboro, 
Nashville,     . 
Naval,  .    .    . 
New  Berne,  . 
New  Market  Heighti 
New  Orleans, 
Niagara,    .    . 
North  Anna, 
Opequan, .    . 


16, 


12 
12 
12 
12 

12 

12 
84 
12 
12 
12 
12,32 
12,32 
12 
12 
61 
12 
12 
12 
13 
59 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
14 
14 
80 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
15 
15 
22,  72 
15 
60 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
83,  127 
15,  127 
15 
84 
16 
16 
108,  542 
30,87 
84 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
30,92 
16 
16 
16 
11 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 


870 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


Battles — Con.: 

Pea  Ridge 17 

Peach  Tree  Creek,  .    .        17 

Perry  ville, 17 

Petersburg,  .....        17 
Pittsburg  Landing,     .        17 

Poitiers 78 

Port  Hudson,  ....        17 

Princeton 17 

Pultowa, 22,87 

Pyramids, 30 

Quebec 17,99 


Rappahannock, 

Resaca, 

Richmond,  Ky.,  .  . 
Sabine  Cross-Roads, 
Sackett's  Harbor,   . 

Sadowa 

Saguntum 

Sailor's  Creek, .  .  . 
Salamanca,  .... 
San  Juan 


17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
92 
61 
17 
88 
18 
18 

Saratoga 22,  18 

Savannah, 18 

Sedan 96 

Seven  Pines,  ....  18 
Six-Mile  House,  ...        18 

Soissons, 67 

Solferino, 92 

South  Mountain,  .  .  18 
Spottsylvania,  ....  18 
Strawberry  Plains,  .   .        18 

Tippecanoe 18 

Trafalgar 88 

Trenton 18 

Vera  Cruz, 19 

Vicksburg, 19 

Wagram 89 

Wasp-Frolic,  ....  19 
Waterloo,  .  .  22,  88,  179 
Weldon  Railroad,   .    .        19 

Wilderness, 19 

Wilson  Creek,  ....        19 

Winchester, 19 

Yorktown 19 

Zalacca 75 

Zama 61 

Battles,  Chief: 

American  Civil  War,  .  139 
American  Revolutionary 

War 139 

Austro-Swiss  War,  .  .  138 
China-Japanese  War,       139 

Crimean  War 139 

Crusades 138 

Dacian  War 138 

English  Civil  War,  .  139 
Franco-Prussian  War,  139 
French  Civil  War,  .  .  138 
French  Revolution,    .      139 

Gallic  War 138 

Gladitorial  War,  ...  138 
Greco-Persian  War,  .  138 
Greco-Roman  War,  .  1^8 
Hundred  Years'  War,      138 

Hussite  War 138 

Italian  War,  ....  139 
Jewish-Roman  War,  .  138 
Jugurthine  War,  ...  138 
Messenian  War,  .  .  .  138 
Mexican  War,  ...  139 
Mithridatic  War,  .  .  138 
Napoleonic  Wars,  .  .  139 
Peloponnesian  War,  .  138 
Perso-Grecian  War,  .  138 
Punic  Wars,  .  .  :  .  138 
Roman  Civil  War,  .  .  138 
Roman  Social  War,  .  138 
Russo-Japanese  War,  139 
Russo-Turkish  War,  .  139 
Sacred       Wars       of 

Greece 138 

Samnite  War,  .  .  .  138 
Saracen  Conquests,  .  138 
Seven  Weeks'  War,  .  139 
Seven  Years'  War,  139 

Spanish- American  War,  139 
Spanish-Netherlands 

„  War 138 

Swedish-Russian  War,  139 
Thirty  Years'  War,    .     138 


PAGE 

Battles,  Chief — Con.: 

Trojan  War 138 

War    for    Greek    Inde- 
pendence,    ....  139 
War  of  Austrian  Succes- 
sion   139 

War  of  1812 139 

War  of  Spanish  Succes- 
sion   139 

Wars  of  the  Roses, .    .  138 
Battles,  Decisive, 

Arbela,  ......     22,  60 

Arminius, 22 

Blenheim 22 

Chalons 22 

Hastings 22 

Marathon 22,  58 

Metaurus 22 

Orleans 22 

Pultowa 22 

Saratoga, 22 

Syracuse 22 

The  Armada,   .....  22 

Tours 22 

Valmv 22 

Waterloo 22 

Battleships, 848 

Bavaria 532 

House  of 150 

Bayard 347 

Bayard,  Thos.  F 636 

Baylor  College 703 

Baylor  University,  .    .    .  698 

Bazaine,  FranQois  A.,  404 

Bdellium 733 

Bean 733 

Beaneaters, 853 

Beans,  weight 860 

Bear 733 

Beatrice,  of  Dante,  .  .    .  347 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de,  404 

Hortense 404 

Beaumarchais,  P.  A.,  .   .  404 

Beaumont,  Francis,     .   .  295 

Beaumont  College,      .    .  703 

Beauregard,  Pierre  G.,   .  404 

Beauty  and  the  Beast,  .  347 

Beaver 733 

Beaver  College, .    .    .   698,  703 

Beck,  James  M 404 

Becket,  Saint  Thomas  a,  404 

Beckford,  William, ...  405 

Bede,  J.  Adam,    ....  405 

Bee 734 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,   .  405 

Lyman 304 

Beelzebub 326 

Bees,  in  United  States,  .  649 

Beet, 734 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van,  405 

Beetle 735 

Befana, 326 

Beggar  s  Daughter,     .    .  347 

Begonia, 735 

Behring  Sea  Dispute,  .  .  107 

Bekahs 858 

Belasco,  David,   ....  405 

Belfast 518 

Belgium,     ...      22,  518,  589 

Antwerp 510 

Area 604 

Austrian  Succession,  .  23 

Brussels 520 

Canals 653 

Capital, 605 

Cities, 518 

Congo  Free  State,  .    .  23 

Congress  of  Vienna,    .  23 

Constitution,    ....  589 

Debt 605 

Government,    ....  589 

Illiteracy, 714 

King 605 

Leopold  II., 23 

Population 604 

Provinces, 518 

Resources, 518 

Spanish  Netherlands,  23 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,      .    .  604 
Treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  23 

Belhaven  College,   .    .    .  703 


PAGE 

Belisarius, 67, 405 

Defeats  the  Vandals,  67 

Subdues  Sicily,    ...  67 

Takes  Naples,  ....  67 

Takes  Rome 67 

Belknap,  W.  W 637 

Bell,  Alexander  G.,     .    .  405 

John 637,640 

Belladonna,  ....).  735 

Bellerophon 326 

Bellevue  College,     .    .    .  698 

Beilew,  Harold  K 405 

Bellini,  Giovanni,    .    .    .  405 

Vincenzo, 405 

Bellman 287,  405 

Bells,  Weight  of,     ...  777 

Czar  Kolokol,  ....  547 

Bell-the-Cat, 347 

Belmont,  August,    .    .    .  405 

Beloit  College 698 

Bem,  Joseph 405 

Bembo,  Pietro,    ....  405 

Ben  Hur 347 

Ben  Nevis, 547 

Benedick 347 

Benedict,  Saint,  ....  405 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  .    .  405 

Bennett,  James  G 405 

Bennington,  Battle  of,    .  12 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  .    .    .  405 
Benton,  T.  H.,     ...      304,405 

Benvolio 347 

Beowulf 297,347 

Berea  College 698 

Berenice 326 

Bering  Strait 518 

Berkeley,  Bishop,    .    .    .  296 

George 405 

Berlin 518 

Treaty 164 

University, 518 

Berlioz,  Hector 406 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Bat- 
tle of 12 

Bernadotte,  Jean  B.,  .    .  406 

Bernard,  Saint,    ....  406 
Bernardin  de  Saint  Pierre, 

J.  H 406 

Bernhardt,  Rosine  S^rah,  406 

Bernini,  G.L 406 

Bernouilli,  James,   .    .    .  406 

Berosus 406 

Berrien,  John  McP.,   .    .  638 

Berthier,  Louis  A.,      .    .  406 

Beryl 760 

Berzelius.  Johann  J.,  .    .  406 

Besant,  Walter.  ...  297 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  .    .  406 

Bessemer  Process,  .    .    .  673 

Bessey,  Charles  E 406 

Bessie  Tift  College,     .    .  703 

Betel, 735 

Bethany  College : 

Kansas 698 

West  Virginia,     .    .    .  698 
Bethel  College,  .    .    .   698, 703 

Beveridge,  A.  J 406 

Bewick,  Thomas,     .    .    .  406 

Bibb,  Geo.  M 637 

Bible,  Books  of 280 

Communist's 719 

Gothic 65 

Revision,      94 

Bibliomancy 348 

Bibliomania, 348 

Bibliotheque  Nationale, 

714,  803 

Bichat,  Marie  F 406 

Bicycle 668,670 

Biddle,  John 406 

Biddle  University,      .    .  698 

Bierce,  Ambrose,     .    .    .  406 

Bifrost 326 

Big  Horn,  Battle  of,   .    .  12 

Biography 198 

Dictionary  of,      .     393-504 

Biot,  Jean  B 407 

Birch 735 

Bird,  Cardinal 740 

Mocking 753 

Bird-catching  Spider,     .  735 

Bird  of  Paradise,     ...  735 


PAGE 

Birds 735 

Birmingham 618 

Birth  of  Christ  to  Present 

Time, 64 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry,      .    .      407 
Bishops  and  Popes  of  Rome,  23 


African, 
Burgundian,     .    .    . 

Dutch, 

Eighteenth  Century, 
Eighth  Century, 
Eleventh  Century,  . 

English 

Fifteenth  Century, 
Fifth  Century,      .    . 
First  Century,      .    . 
Fourteenth  Century, 
Fourth  Century,,     . 

French 25,26 

Greek, 24 

Italian 26 

Leo  XIII., 27 

Nationality,  .  .  .  23-27 
Nineteenth  Century,  .  27 
Ninth  Century,    ...       26 

PiusX 27 

Pontificate  of,      .    .      23-27 


24 
25 
23 
27 
24 
24 
26 
24 

.  .  26 
25,  26,  21 
.  24, 25 
.    .        25 


Roman, 

Saxon,  ....... 

Second  Century, 

Seventeenth  Century, 

Seventh  Century,    . 

Sicilian 

Sixteenth  Century, . 

Sixth  Century, 

Spanish,    .    .    . 

Surname,  .    .    . 

Syrian,      .    .    . 

Tenth  Century, 

Third  Century, 

Thirteenth  Century,    .        26 

Tuscan, 24 

Twelfth  Century,  .  .  25 
Bismarck-Sch  dnhausen, 

92,  114,  407 

Death  of 94 

Resignation  of,    .    .    .       94 

Bismuth 694 

Bison, 736 

Bispham,  George  T.,  .    .     407 

Bittern, 736 

Bitter-root 736 

Bituminous  Coal,     .    .    .      655 

Bjoernstjerna,  M 407 

Biornson, 289,  407 

Black,  Frank  S 407 

Jeremiahs.     .    .    .   636,638 

William,    ....      297,407 

Blackbird 736 

Blackburn,  Joseph  C,    .     407 
Blackburn  College,      .    .     698 

Black  Death 849 

Black  Friday 777 

Black  Hawk  War,  ...      103 

Black  Hole 621,  777 

Black  Maria 777i 

Blackmore,  R.  D.,  .     297,  407 
Black  Mountain,     .    .    .     647 

Black  Race, 752! 

Blackstone,  Sir  William, 

296,  407i 
Blackwell,  Elizabeth, .  .  407| 
Bladensburg,  Battle  of ,  .  12: 
Blaine,  James  G.,  407,636,6401 
Blair,  John, 640' 

Montgomery,  ....  638 
Blairsville  College,  .  .  703 
Blanc,  Jean  J 407 


408 
777' 
408 
669 
640 
408 
22 


Blanche  of  Castile, 
Blarney  Stone,  .  . 
Blashfield,  Edwin  H., 
Blast  Furnace,  .  . 
Blatchford,  Samuel, 
Blavatsky,  Mme.,  . 
Blenheim,  Battle  of. 

Blind,  Karl 408 

Bliss,  Cornelius  N.,     .    .     OSS- 
Blood 688 

Circulation  of,      .    .   82,696 

Harvey 82,443 

Uloodhound 73^ 

Bloodstone,      76C 


INDEX 


871 


PAGE 

Bloody  Shirt 777 

Bloomfield,  Robert,    .    .  408 

Blucher,  Gebhard,  ...  408 

Blue-bird 737 

Blue-fish,      737 

Blue  Hens 852 

Blue  Laws 27 

Blue  Mountain  College,  703 

Blue  Stocking 777 

Boa, 737 

Constrictor 737 

Bob  Acres 343 

Boccaccio,    .    .     309,  311,408 
Bodleian  Library,  .     -714,803 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  .    .  408 

Body,  in  Letter  Writing,  215 

Boerhaave, 408 

Boer  War 27 

Battles  of,    ....     27-29 

British  Losses,     ...  28 

Capitulation  of  Boers,  29 

Causes, 27 

Declaration 27 

Kitchener's  Proclama- 
tion   29 

Plea  for  Intervention 

in 28 

President  Kruger,   .    .  28 
Surrender     of     Lady- 
smith,    29 

Treaty  of  Peace,      .    .  29 

United  States  and,    .  28 

Bogardus 408 

Bohemia 29,  162 

A  Kingdom 75 

House  of  Luxembourg,  30 

Hussite  War 79 

John  Huss, 30 

Prague, 560 

Under  Austria,     ...  30 

Wenceslas,  King,     .    .  77 

Bohemian, 777 

Boii 30 

Boileau-Despr^aux,    Nic- 
olas,    408 

Bok,  Edward  W 408 

Boker,  George  H 408 

Bolingbroke,  Henry,  .    .  408 

Bolivar 408 

Death  of 102 

Dictator 102 

Bolivia 589 

Area,     . 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution,    ....  589 

Debt, 605 

Government 589 

Population 604 

President, 605 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,      .    .  604 

Bombay, 519 

Bonaparte,  Charles  J., 

408,  638,  639 
Napoleon  I.,     .    .      408, 469 

Napoleon  IIL,     .    .    .  470 
Bonaparte's       Egyptian 

Campaign,    ....  30 
Forty      Days'      Cam- 
paign   30 

Italian  Campaign,  .     30,  86 

Bonapartes,  The,     .    .    .  408 

Boneset, 737 

Bonheur,  Rosa 409 

Bonhomme,    Riehard-Se- 

rapis,  Battle  of,  .    .  12 

Boniface 348 

Saint 409 

Bony  Pike, 737 

Book  of  Mormon,    .    .    .  718 

Of  Rites 279 

Books, 62 

Family  Library,       .    .  318 

Fifth  and  sixth  grades,  320 

For  children 319 

For  children  under  six,  319 

For  older  children,  .    .  320 

List  for  library,   .    319,  320 

Primary  grades,  .    .    .  319 
Seventh      and      eighth 

grades 320 

Third  and  fourth  grades,  320 


PAGE 

Boone,  Daniel 409 

Booth-Tucker,  Frederick,  409 

Bopp,  Franz 409 

Borax, 737 

Boreas 326 

Borghese, 409 

Borgia,  Cesare 409 

Lucrezia, 410 

Borgiano,  Horazio,     .    .     410 

Borglum,  John  G 410 

Borie,  Adolph  E.,    .   .    .     639 

Boron, 694 

Borromeo,  St.  Carlo,  .  .  410 
Boscobel  College,  .  .  .  703 
Bossuet,  Jacques  B.,  .    .     410 

Boston 519 

Description  of,     ...     519 
Educational    institu- 
tions,      519 

Faneuil  Hall 531 

Gas  light  introduced,       102 

Great  fire, 106 

Historic  landmarks,    .     519 

History 519 

Massacre,  100,  132,  169,  519 

Tea  party.  100,  132,  169,519 

Boston  University,     .    .     698 

Boswell,  James,     .    .   296, 410 

Bothwell,  James  H.,  .    .      410 

Botta,  Carlo  G 410 

Botticelli,  Alessandro,  .  410 
Bottom,  Nick,  ....  348 
Boughton,  George  H.,  .  410 
Bouguereau,  AdolpheG.,  410 
Boulanger,  George  E.,    .     410 

Boulder-clay, 655 

Bourbon,  House  of,  .  .  148 
Boutwell,  George  S.,  .  .  637 
Bowdoin  College,  .  .  .  698 
Bowdon  College,      ...     698 

Bower-bird, 737 

Bowie,  James, 11 

Bowles,  Samuel 410 

Bows 776 

Boxer  Rebellion 30 

Capture  of  Pekin,    .    .        31 

Causes 30 

Conflicts  of 31 

Leader 30 

The  Allies,  .....  31 
Treaty  of  Peace, ...  31 
United  States  and, .    .       31 

Boxers 97 

Box-tree 737 

Boycott, 777 

Boyd,  Linn 640 

Brackets 190 

Braddock,  General,      99,    410 

Braddon,  Mary  E 410 

Bradford,  Wm 638 

Bradlaugh,  Charles,  .  .  410 
Bradley,  Joseph  P.,  .  .  640 
Brady,  Cyrus  T.,  ...  410 
Brahe,  Tycho,  .   .    .     288,411 

Brahma 326,689 

Brahmanism,    .....     689 

Brahmans 689 

Brahmaputra  River,  .  .  564 
Brahms,  Johannes, .    .    .     411 

Bramble, 737 

Branch,  John, 639 

Brandenburg,  Potsdam,  560 
Brandywine,  Battle  of ,  12,  100 

Brank, 738 

Brant,  Joseph 411 

Brasenose  College, .    .    .      804 

Brazil 31,520,589 

Abdication     of      Don 

Pedro, 32,  103 

604 
605 
520 
589 
605 
520 
589 


Area, 

Capital,     .... 

Cities, 

Constitution,     .    . 

Debt, 

Description  of,  . 
Government,  .  . 
Honors    American 

Squadron,  .  . 
Independence  of. 
Independent,  .  . 
Inhabitants,  .  . 
Insurrections,  .    . 


32 

32 

89, 102 

520 

107 


PAGE 

Brazil — Con. : 

Merchant  Marine,    .    .  673 

Minerals 520 

Navy 848 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Resources 520 

Revolution  in,  .  .    .    .  103 
Slave  Trade  Suppressed,  104 

Spaniards  expel  Dutch,  98 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 
Steamship    line    to 

Europe, 104 

Stock  of  Money,  .    .    .  604 

The  Empire 589 

The  Republic.    .      .    .  589 
Under  the  Portuguese, 

31,  101 
War  with  Buenos  Ayres,  102 

War  with  Uruguay,    .  105 

Brazil-wood 738 

Bread,  Adulteration  of, .  645 

Fruit 738 

Nuts 738 

Breckenridge,  John  C,  .  411 

Breckinridge,  John,    .    .  638 

Breda,  Treaty 164 

Bremen, 532 

Bremer,  Frederika,  .  .    .  287 

Brenan  College 703 

Brentford,  Kings  of    .    .  348 

Breslau,  Treaty 164 

Bretigny,  Treaty,    .    .    .  164 
Brewer,  David  J.,    .      411,640 

Brewster,  Benjamin  H.,  638 

Sir  David 411 

Brian  Boru, 72,411 

Briareus 326 

Bricks, 54 

Bridge, 778 

Brooklyn  opened,   .    .  107 

Of  Sighs,  ......  576 

Suspension  at  Niagara 

Falls, 104 

Bridges 779 

Albany, 779 

Britannia 779 

Brooklyn 779 

Cincinnati    and    Cov- 
ington,    779 

Development  of, .    .    .  778 

Dubuque 779 

Forth, 779 

Girder, 778 

In  England 778 

Kinzua, 779 

Lachine  Completed,    .  94 

Maintenon, 779 

Niagara 780 

Notable  Examples,  .  .  779 

Over  Danube 65 

Poughkeepsie,  ....  780 

Quincv, 780 

Rialto  Built 82 

Rockville, 780 

Roman, 778 

St.  Charles 780 

St.  Louis 780 

Schuylkill 780 

Structural  Material,    .  778 
Suspension,  .   .    .     779,  780 

Tay, 778 

Tubular 778 

Victoria 780 

Victoria  at  Montreal,.  104 

Washington,         .    .    .  780 

Bridget,  Saint,         ...  411 

Bridgewater  College,  .    .  698 

Briggs,  Charles  A.    .    .    .  411 

Bright,  John 411 

Bristow,  Benj.  H.,  .    .    .  637 
Britain,  Battle  of  Hast- 
ings   72 

Feudal  System  Intro- 
duced   74 

Invades  France,  ...  74 

Invasion  of  Sweyn,     .  72 

Ireland 67 

Massacre  of  Danes, .    .  72 

Name  of, 804 

Struggle    for    French 

Crown 78 


PAGE 

Britain — Con. : 

Thomas  &  Becket,  .  .  74 
William  the  Conqueror,      72 

British,  Africa, 508 

America, 98 

Lion, 780 

Museum, 520 

British  Colonies,  Execu- 
tives of, 534 

How  Governed,     .    .    .   534 
British  Empire, .    .    .   533,  590 

Cabinet 590 

Crown  Colonies,     .    .    .   590 

Division  of, 534 

Established  Church, .  .  590 
Government,  ....  .  590 
Heir  Apparent,  .  .  .  590 
House  of  Commons, .  .  590 
House  of  Lords,     .    .    .   590 

In  Africa, 534 

In  America, 534 

In  Asia 534 

In  Australasia,  ....   534 

In  Europe 534 

Lion, 780 

Parliament, 590 

Possessions  of,   ...    .    533 
Public  Instruction,    .    .   590 
Representative    Colo- 
nies  590 

Responsible  Colonies,    .  590 
British     North     America 

Act 591 

British  Possessions,  Area,    535 

How  Acquired 535 

■     Population 535 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac 411 

Brocken,  Specter  of,     :    .341 

Bromine, 694 

Bronte.  Charlotte,  .  297,411 
Brooke,  Rev.  Stopford,     .   411 

Brook  Farm 348 

Brother,  Jonathan,  .  .  .  780 
Brougham,  Henry,     .    .    .411 

Brown,  Aaron  V 638 

C.  B., 304 

Henry  Billings,      .    .    .411 

John 92,411 

Tom 348 

Browne,  Charles  F.,  .  323,  412 
Sir  Thomas,    ....    .    .412 

Browning,  Elizabeth  B., 

297,412 

OrvilleH 638 

Robert,    .  .    .   297,303,412 

Brown  Race, 752 

Brown-S^quard, Edward,  411 
Brownstown,  Battle  of, .  12 
Brownsville,  Riot  at,  .  96,  161 
Brown  University,    .    .    .    698 

Bruce,  David, 412 

Edward 412 

Robert 481 

Brummel,  Beau,    ....   412 

Brunehild .    .348 

Brunswick, 532 

House  of, 32 

Brussels, 520 

Field  of  Waterloo,  .  .  520 
Noted  Architecture,  .    .   520 

Sprouts, 738 

Brutus,  Decimus  J.,  .    .    .   412 

Lucius  J., 412 

Marcus  J. 412 

Bruyfere,  John, 412 

Bryan,  William  Jennings, .  412 
Bryant,  W.  C,  .  .  304,  412 
Bryce,  .Tames,  .  .  .  297,  412 
Bryn  Mawr  College,  .    .    .   703 

Buccaneers 32 

Buchanan,  James,  104, 144, 412 

Buchtel  College 698 

Buck,  Dudley 412 

Buckeyes, 853 

Buckle,  T.  Henry,  ...  412 
Buckley,  James  M.,  .  .  .  412 
Bucknell  University,    .    .   698 

Buckwheat 738 

In  United  States,  ...   648 

Weight 860 

Buda-Pest 520 

Buddha 57,412,689 


872 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  PACTS 


PAGE 

Buddha  Philosophy.     .    .   279 

Buddhism 689 

Buena  Vista,  Battle  of,  .  12 
Buena  Vista  College,    .    .   698 

Buenos  Ayres 98,620 

Capital  of  Argentina,    .    106 

Taken 91 

Buffalo 521,  582 

Buffon,  Count  de, .    .    .    .   413 

Bulgaria 167,590 

Area, 604 

Capital, 605 

Debt 605 

Founded 68 

Government 590 

Population, 604 

Prince 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stock  of  Money,    ...   604 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann,  .    .   413 

Bull-dog 738 

Bull-frog 738 

Bull-heads 738 

Bull  Run,  Battle  of,     .    12,  32 

Bull-terrier 738 

BuUer,  Sir  Redvers,  .   .    .   413 

Billow,  Friedrich 413 

Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty,  .    104 

Bunker  Hill 32 

Battle  of 12 

Monument 32 

Bunyan.John,    .  296,301,413 
Pilgrim's  Progress,    .   .   301 

Burbank,  Luther 413 

Burdett-Coutts,    Baron- 
ess  413 

Burgess,  John  W 413 

Burgoyne,  Gen.  John,  .    .   413 
Surrender  of,      ....    100 

Burial 780 

Celebrated  Tombs,    .   .   780 

Customs, 780 

In  Churches, 781 

Burke,  Edmund,  .  .  296, 413 
Burleigh,  William  C,    .   .    413 

Burleson  College 698 

Burlingame,  Anson,  .   .    .   413 

Burmah, 32 

KingTheebaw,      ...     32 

Rangoon 562 

Burmese  Empire,  ...  32 
Burne-Jones,  Edward,  .  413 
Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson, 

413 
Burns,  Robert,      .    .   296,  413 

Poems 302 

Burnside,  Ambrose  E.,     .   414 

Burr,  Aaron,      414 

Duel  with  Hamilton,    .    101 
Burroughs,  John,      .   305,  414 

Burrows,  Julius  C 414 

Burton,  Theodore  E.,  .  .  414 
Bushnell,  Horace,     .    .    .   304 

Buskin 349 

Bustard 738 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,    .    .   414 

Benj.  F 637,638 

Samuel 414 

Butler  College 698 

Butter,  Adulteration  of,  .   645 
In  United  States,      .    .   650 

Butterfly 738 

Butternuts, 853 

Button-hole  machine,  .    .671 

Buzzard 739 

Buzzards 852 

Byfield 349 

Byron,  Lord,  .    .    296,  414 

Byzantine  Architecture,  .  512 
Byzantium,    ....     57,  128 

Caaba, 326 

Cabala 349 

Cabalistic  Science,    .    .    .   349 

Cabbage, 739 

Rose, 739 

Cabinet,  United  States,   .   635 
Members  of,  .    .    .     636-40 

Organized 101 

Cable,  George  W.,     .   306,  414 
Pacific  completed,     .    .    109 

Cable  Car 670 

Cables,  Sub-marine,      .    .   679 


PAGE 

Cabot,  John,      414 

Cacao, 739 

Cactus 739 

Cade's  Rebellion,      .    .  33,  48 

Cadmium, 694 

Cadmus 326 

Cffisar, 284 

Assassinated,     ....     63 

Biography, 414 

Birth  of, 63 

Conquest  of  Gaul,     .    .      63 
Defeats  Germans,      .    .     63 
Dictator,     ......     63 

Invades  Britain,  ...  63 
Rebuilds  Carthage,  .  .  63 
War  with  Pompey,  .    .     63 

Csesars,  The 146 

Caesium, 694 

Caine,  Hall 414 

Caird,  Rev.  John,  .  .  .  414 
Cairnes,  John  E.,      .    .    .   414 

Cairo 521 

Caissons,  Pneumatic,    .    .  669 

Calchas 326 

Calcium 694 

Calcium  Carbide 670 

Calculating  machine,    .    .   669 

Calcutta 521 

Black  Hole,    .    .    .521,  777 

Siege  of 521 

Taken 87 

Calderon,    .......   314 

de  la  Barca,  Don  Pedro,  414 

Caldwell  College 703 

Calendar 33 

CiBsar  reforms,  ....      63 

Corrected  by  Augustus,     64 

Introduced  into  Japan,    94 

Calhoun,   John   Caldwell,  414 

Caliban 349 

California,       ....      33,590 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 
Area,  .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .624 

Asiatic  immigration,    .      34 

Capital, 626 

Chinese  in, 33 

Chinese  population,  .    .     33 

Code .591 

College 698 

Constitution,  ....  590 
Discovery  of  gold,      33,  103 

Earthquake, 34 

Electoral  vote 627 

Exemption  laws,  .    .    .   667 

Government 590 

Governor's  salary,  .  .  626 
Interest  T,aws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-61 
Legislative  statistics,  .  627 
Los  Angeles,  ....  540 
Lower  California,    ...      33 

Metropolis 625 

Mexican  Revolution  in,     33 

Population, 625 

Property  valuation,  .  627 
Public  education,      .    .691 

San  Francisco 668 

Statutes  of  limitation,  667 
Suffrage  requirements,    626 

Tax  rate 627 

Voting  population,    .    .   627 
Caligula,     .    .    .     64,146,416 

Caliph 34 

Caliphs, 68 

Callisto 326 

Calmar,  Union  of,     ...    164 

Calverts 131 

Calvin,  John,     .    .    .   294, 415 

Institutes 294 

Calypso 326 

Cambaceres,  Jean  J.,  .  .  415 
Cambray,  Treaties  of,  .  .  164 
Cambridge    University, 

founded 70 

Cambuscan 349 

Cambyses 58,  415 

Camden,  Battle  of,   .    .    .      12 

Camel 739 

Camellia, 739 

Camelopard, 739 

Camelot 349 


PAGE 

Cameo 760 

Cameron,  J.  D 637 

Simon, .   637 

Camille 349 

Camoens,  Luiz  de,    .    .    .   415 

Campanile, 521 

Of  Pisa 521 

Venice 521,576 

Campbell,  Alexander,  .    .416 

Geo.  W 637 

James 638 

John  A 640 

Thomas 415 

Campbell  College 698 

Campbell-Bannerman,  Sir 

Henry 415 

Campbell  Station,  Battle  of,  12 
Campo  Formio,  Treaties,  164 

Campus  Martins 34 

Canace 349 

Canada,  .  .  .  34,521,591 
Alaskan  Boundary,  .  .  36 
Area  and  population, 

521,  604 
Behring  Sea  fisheries,  .  35 
British   North   America 

Act 591 

Cabinet 591 

Canals, 522 

Capital 605 

Ceded  to  English,      .    .     99 

Cities 522 

Confederation,  ....     34 

Courts, 592 

Debt 605 

Discoveries, 34 

Division  of, 101 

Dominion  formed,  .  .  105 
First  Parliament,  .  .  105 
Fisheries  Treaty,  ...     34 

Government 591 

Governor-General,  591,  606 
Governors-General,  .  .  151 
Macdonald,  Premier,    .    104 

Minerals, 522 

Montreal 546 

Ottawa 551 

Parliament, 591 

Physical  features,      .    .   522 

Population, 604 

Progress  of 109 

Provinces  of,  ....  521 
Provincial  Government, 

592 

Quebec 562 

Railroads 522 

Recent  events 107 

Red     River     Insurrec- 
tion  34 

Riel's  Rebellion,  ...  34 
Rocky  Mountains,  .  .  565 
Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  .  604 
Under  the  English,  .  .  34 
Under  the  French,  .  .  34 
Uniform  Currency,  .  .  106 
Vancouver  Riots,  .  .  35 
Welland  Canal,  ...  102 
Canadian  Distance  Table,    866 

Canal 662 

Alimentary, 684 

Manchester  ship,  ...     94 
Suez  opened,      ....     92 
Canals : 

Corinth 654 

Elbe  and  Trave,    .     96,  654 

Erie 630,  653 

In  Belgium, 653 

In  Chma 652 

In  Egypt, 652 

In  France 652 

In  Germany 653 

In  Great  Britain,       .    .   663 

In  Holland 662 

In  Remote  Times,     .    .   652 

In  Russia 653 

In  United  States,  .  .  663 
Kaiser  Wilhelm,    .    .    .   654 

Manchester, 654 

Nicaragua, 107 

Panama, 553 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  .    101,654 


PAGE 

Canals — Con.:    , 

Ship 654 

Suez 573,654 

Welland 654 

Canals  in  United  States, 

Statistics  of,  ...    .   653 

Canary, 740 

Candidates,    Presidential,  618 

Candide 349 

Candlemas 781 

Canisius  College,  ....  698 
Cannae,  Battle  of,      ...     61 

Cannel  Coal, 655 

Canning,  George 415 

Cannon,  Joseph  G.,  .    415,  640 

Canopus 326 

Canossa, 622 

Canova,  Antonio,  .  .  .  416 
Canterbury  Tales,  -  .  298,  360 

Canton, 522 

Canute  the  Dane,  .  .  .  416 
Canvas-back  duck,   .    .    .   740 

Cape  Colony 522 

Caper, 740 

Capet,  Hugh,     .    .    .110,  416 

House  of, 148 

Capillarity 689 

Capital  Letters,     ....    187 

Rules  for 187 

Capital       Removed     to 

Washington 101 

Capitals  of  the  World,  .  606 
Capital  University,  .  .  .  698 
Capitol, 523 

At  Washington,     .    .    .   578 
Capo-D'Istria,  Count  of,      415 

Capri 523 

Captivity 123 

Of  Jews 57 

Capulet 349 

Lady 349 

Caracalla, 66,  415 

Caracas 523 

Caraway, 740 

Carbolic  Acid 669 

Carbon 690,694 

Carborundum, 672  j 

Car  Coupler 671 

Cardinal 690! 

Bird 740  j 

Carey  H.C 304,415 

Caribou 740  j 

Carisbrook, 623 1 

Carleton  College,  .  .  .  .  698 1 
Carlisle,  John  G.,  415,  637,640 
Carlovingian  Dynasty,     .    110 

Extinction  of,    .   .    .    .113 

Carlovingians 147 

Carlowitz,  Treaty,  .  .  .  164 
Carlsbad,    ..."....   523 

Congress  of, 164 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  297.  303,  416 

Carmel,  Mt., 623 

Carnegie,  Andrew,     .    .    .   416 

Institution, 690 

Carnelian, 760 

Carnivora 690 

Carnot,  Leonard  Sadi,  .  416 
Carolina,  North,  Settled,  99 
Carotid  Arteries,  .  .  .  .691 
Carpenter,  Frank  G.,    .    .   416 

William  B., 416! 

Carpet-baggers 781 

Carrfere.  John  M.,  ....   416 

Carroll,  Lewis 416  i 

Carrot 740  : 

Carson,  Christopher,     .    .   416  j 

Carteret,  Philio 416  i 

Carthage 56,  128 

Conquest  of 62 

Destruction  of 35i 

Punic  Wars, 35i 

Carthage  College,  ....  698 
Cartier,  Sir  George  fi.,.    .   416 

Jacques, 416' 

Carton,  Sidney,  ....  349 
Cartwright,  Edmund,  .    .    416 

Caruso,  Signor ^^^'j 

Casablanca,  Louis,  .  .  .  416)1 
Case    School    of   Applied         j; 

Sciences ^^^J: 

Cash  Carrier 671r 


INDEX 


873 


PAQE 

Casimir-Perier,  .....     95 

Caspian  Sea 523,  539 

Cass.  Lewis,    .   .   416,  636,  637 

Cassandra 326,  349 

Cassio, 349 

Cassiopeia, 326 

Castelar,  Emilio 416 

Castile 523 

Castle  Dangerous,     .    .    .   349 

Garden 781 

Of  Indolence,  ....  349 
Castlereagh,  Robert  S.,  .  416 
Castletown,  Battle  of,  .  .  12 
Castor  and  Pollux,    ...   326 

Cat 740 

Angora 740 

Carthusian, 740 

Egyptian, 740 

Catacombs, 781 

Egyptian 781 

Parisian 781 

Roman 781 

Catapults, 59,775 

Cat-bird 740 

Cat-fish 738 

Catching  a  Tartar,  .  .  .  781 
Cathedrals : 

Amiens, 509 

Antwerp, 510 

Cologne, 613,  526 

Duomo,  Florence, .    .    .   531 

Duomo,  Milan 544 

Moscow, 547 

Notre  Dame,  Montreal,  546 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  .    .   555 

Philadelphia 513 

Pisa 558 

Prague 560 

Rheims 563 

Saint  Gudule,  Brussels,  620 
Saint  Isaac's,  ....  672 
Saint  Lorenzo,  Genoa,  .  532 

Saint  Mark's 576 

Saint  Patrick's,  ....  613 
Saint  Paul's,  .  .  640,  671 
Saint  Peter's,  .  .  566,571 
Saint  Sophia, .  65,  626,  670 
.Saint  Stephen's,  Vienna,  677 
Votive  Church,  Vienna,  613 

York  Minster 581 

Catherine  I.,     .    .  87,  152,  417 

II 87,152,417 

Catherine  of  Aragon,     .    .   417 

de'  Medici 417 

Parr 417 

Cathode  Rays 671 

Catholic    Cathedral,     of 

Philadelphia,      .    .    .   613 
Catholic  Church,  Roman,    691 

Statistics  of 692 

Catholic  League,  ....  164 
Catholic     University     of 

America, 698 

Catiline,  Lucius  S.,    .      63,  417 
Conspiracy  of,    ...    .     63 

Cato 284 

Catron,  John 640 

Cat's-eye 760 

Catullus, 284 

Caucasus, 523 

Caudle,  Mrs., 349 

Caustic  Art, 60 

Cavour,  Count,  .    .    .    123,  417 

Cavy 748 

Caxton,  William,  ....   417 

Cecilia,  Saint 350 

Ceerops,      327 

Cedar 741 

Cedar  Creek,  Battle  of,  .  12 
Cedar  Mountain, Battle  of,  12 
Cedarville  College,    .    .    .   698 

Celibacy 692 

Celluloid 654,671 

Cenci,  Beatrice,     .    .    .    .417 

Cenis,  Mt 523 

Centaurs 327 

Centenary  College  of 

Louisiana, 698 

Centennial  Exposition, 

106,  177 
Center  of  Area  and  Popu- 
lation, U.  S 781 


PAQE 

Central  America: 

Plans  for  Federation,    .    109 

Union  of 107 

Central  Baptist  College,.  703 
Central  College,  .  .  698,  703 
Central    High    School    of 

Philadelphia 698 

Central  University  of  Ken- 
tucky  698 

Central  Wesleyan  College,  698 
Cephalus  and  Procris,  .    .   350 

Cerberus 327 

Ceres 327 

Cerium 694 

Cerro  Gordo,  Battle  of,    .      13 
Cervantes,  Miguel,    .   313,  417 
Cervera's  Fleet,  Destruc- 
tion of 108 

Cevennes,  Mt., 524 

Ceylon 524 

Colombo, 526 

Chaeronea,  Battle  of,     .    .     59 

Chaffee,  Adna  R 417 

Chalcedony 760 

Chalmers,  Thomas,   .    .    .   417 
Chalons,  Battle  of,     ...     22 
Chamberlain,  Joseph,   .    .417 
Chambers,  Robert  W.,     .   418 
Chameleon,     ......    741 

Chamisso,  Adalbert  von,  .   418 

Chamois 741 

Champagne, 664 

Champion  Hills,  Battle  of,  13 
Champlain,  Samuel  de,  .  418 
Chancellorsville,  Battle  of,  13 
Chandler,  William  E.,  418,  639 

Zachariah 638 

Channing,  Edward,  .    .    .   418 

W.  E 304,  418 

Chaos 327 

Chappell  HiU-CoUege, .  .  703 
Chapultepec,  Battle  of,     .      13 

Charcoal 654 

Chariot, 55 

Charlemagne, 

69,110,  113.360,418 
Aids  Learning,  ....  290 
Divides  Empire,  ...  69 
Founds     Holy    Roman 

Empire 69 

Reforms  Church,  .    .    .  .  69 

Charles  1 418 

II 418 

Charles  V 418 

Abdication 9 

Charles  X 9 

XII 418 

XIII 137 

Charles  City  College,    .    .   698 

Charles  Martel 419 

Charleston  Convention,    .     90 

Charon 327 

Charter  Oak 36 

Chart  of  History,  ....  54 
Chartreuse,  La  Grande,    .   624 

Charybdis 327 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  419,637,640 

Samuel 640 

Chateaubriand, 295 

Chatham,  Earl  of,  ...  419 
Chattahoochee,  Battle  of,  13 
Chattanooga,  Battle  of,  .  13 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  .  295,  419 
Chaucer's  Poems,  .    .    .   298 

Tales 360 

Cheese,  Adulteration  of,  .   646 

In  United  States,  .    .    .   650 

Chemical,  Affinity,    .    .    .   692 

Attraction 692 

Changes 692 

Compounds, 692 

Elements 692,694 

Equivalents 693 

Precipitation 692 

Chemical  Elements,  Atomic 

Weight 694 

Discoverers  of,  .    .    .    .   694 

Symbols, 694 

Table  of 694 

Temperature,    ....   694 
Chemical    Substances : 

Chemical  Names  of,     .72 


PAGE 

Chemical  Substances — Con.: 
Common  Names  of,  .    .   782 

Chemistry, 692 

Atomic  Weight,     .    .    .   693 

Inorganic 693 

Organic 693 

Thermo 693 

Cheops, 419 

Cherbourg, 624 

Cherubini,  Maria  L.,      .    .   419 
Chesapeake-Shannon,  Bat- 
tle of 13 

Chesterfield,  Earl  of,     .    .   419 

Chevy  Chase 350 

Chicago 524,582 

Columbian  Exhibition,  525 
Commercial  Center,  .    .   624 

Description 524 

Great  Fire 106,524 

Chickamauga,  Battle  of,  .      13 
Chickasaw  College,    .    .    .   703 

Childe  Harold 360 

Children  in  the  Wood,     .   360 

Chile, 35,525,692 

Adopts  Gold  Standard,  108 

Area,       604 

Cabinet, 592 

Capital, 605 

Cities 525 

Civil  War  in 107 

Constitution 592 

Debt 605 

Declares  War  Against 

Spain 105 

Description 525 

Government, 592 

Independent,  ....  101 
Local  Government,  .    .   592 

Minerals, 525 

Navy, 848 

Population, 604 

President 606 

Religious  toleration,  .  105 
Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Chimborazo 547 

Chimpanzee 741 

China,     .    .    .   35,54,525,692 
Antiquity  of,      ....     36 

Area, 525,  604 

Book  of  Rites 279 

Boxer  difficulties,  .  .  36 
Boxer  outbreak,  ...  97 
Buddhism  introduced, .  35 
Burlingame  Treaty,  .    .     92 

Cabinet 592 

Canals 652 

Canton 522 

Capital,  . 605 

China -Japanese   War, 

36,  95,  125,  139 
Christians  expelled,      .     87 

Cities 525 

Confucius,  .  .  35,  278,  422 
Conquered  by  Jenghis- 

Khan 35 

Debt, 605 

Description, 525 

Emperor,    ......   605 

First  knowledge  of,  .  .  36 
General  Gordon,    .     93,  438 

Government 592 

Hong-Kong, 637 

Insurrection  of,  1850,  .  86 
Laws  of  the  Empire,  .  592 
Literature,      .    .    .   277,278 

Manchuria 542 

Mencius, 279 

Ministry, 692 

Modernization  of , .  .  .  36 
Mongol  Dynasty,  ...     36 

Navy, 848 

Open  door  policy,     .    .     96 

Opium  War 90 

Peking 666 

Population, 604 

Present  Dynasty,      .    .   592 

Printing 279 

Provinces, 525 

Reforms,     ....     36,  593 

Resources, 625 

Sacred  books 278 


PAGE 

China — Con.: 

Shanghai, 569 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  .  604 
Tai-ping  Rebellion,  .  .  36 
Tartar  Dynasty,  ...  36 
Tartar  Invasion,  ...  35 
Treaties  with.  .  .  36,  593 
Treaty  with  U.  S.,    .    .     90 

Wall  of 817 

Yang-tse-kiang,  .  665,  680 
Chinese  Exclusion  Bill,    .     94 

Chinese  War 60 

Chippewa,  Battle  of,    .    .      13 

Chiron 327 

Chivalry, 782 

And  The  Crusades,   .    .   782 

In  Germany 291 

Ranks  of 782 

Chloral-hydrate 669 

Chlorine 694 

Chloroform 669 

Discovered, 103 

Choate,  Joseph  H 419 

Rufus, 419 

Chocolate 739 

Choiseul,  Duke  of,    .    .    .   419 

Cholera 850 

Christ,  Disciples  of,  .    .    .   695 

Christ,  Jesus 450 

Christian     Association, 

Young  Men's,    .    .    .   726 
Christian  Brothers  College: 

Memphis,  Tenn 698 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  ....  69,8 
Christian,  Bunyan's,  .  .  350 
Christian  College,  ....  703 
Christian  Endeavor, .  .  .  695 
Christian  Era,  introduced 

by  Dionysius,     ...     67 
To  Fall  of  Rome,      .    .     64 

Christianity 696 

Among  German  nations,    68 

Branches  of, 695 

Carried  to  Scandinavia,  69 
Development  of,   .    .    .     64 

Greek  Church 695 

In  Bohemia 70 

Introduced  into  France, 

67,70 

Picts  adopt 68 

Protestants 695 

Roman  Catholics,      .    .   695 

Statistics  of, 695 

Struggle  with  Moham- 
medanism  74 

Christian  Science,      ...   695 

Doctrines  of 695 

Statistics  of 696 

Christians,  Persecution  of, 

64,  65 
Christian  University,    .    .   698 

Christina 419 

Of  Sweden 9 

Christmas 792 

Tree, 782 

Christopher,  Saint,   .    .    .   350 
Christy,  Howard  Chandler,  419 

Chromium 694 

Chromosphere 725 

Chronicles 281 

Chronology 696 

Chrysalis, 696 

Chrysanthemum 741 

Chrysolite 760 

Chrysoprase,       760 

Chrysostom,  St.  John,      .   419 
Church: 

Controversy  in  France,  97 
Councils  of,    .    .    .     66, 708 

Days 792 

Death  of  Leo  XI 1 1.,    .     97 

Episcopal 712 

Fathers  of 712 

Greek, 713 

Greek  established,     .    .     72 

Lutheran 715 

Mass  introduced.  ...     68 

Methodist 716 

Moravians 717 

Pantheon  of  Rome,  .  .  68 
Pope  Pius  X..      27,  97,  477 


874 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


FAOE 

Church — Con.: 

Popes  and  Bishops, 
Presbyterian,  .  . 
Reformed,  .  .  . 
Roman  Catholic,  . 
Saint  Denis  founded. 
Saint  Germain  de  Pres, 
Saint     Mark's,   Venice, 

built 69 

Saint  Paul's  founded,  .  68 
Saint  Peter's  built,  .  .  80 
Saint  Sophia,  Of,  .  65,  570 
Struggle    with    France,     76 

Unitarian,       726 

United  Brethren,  ...   726 

Universalists 726 

Churches,  Gothic  archi- 
tecture of,  ....  72 
Churubusco,  Battle  of,  .  13 
Chuzzlewit,  Martin,  .  .  350 
'  Cicero,  ....  63,  284,  419 
Cid  Campeador,     .    .   350,  419 

Time  of, 75 

Cigar 782 

Cimabue 76,420 

Cimmerians, 327 

Cincinnati, 525 

Cincinnatus,  ....      58, 420 

Cinderella 350 

Circassia, 525 

Circe 327 

Circular  Saw,     .    .    .    .    .668 

Circulation, 696 

Heart 713 

Of  the  blood 696 

Circumnavigation,  ...  82 
Cisalpine  Republic,  ...  36 
Cispadane  Republic,  .  .  36 
Cities,  Distances  between,  863 

Lost 128,  129 

Popular  names  of,    .    .   782 

Population  of,    ...    .   582 

Ten  Largest,  .....   582 

Citizenship,  Requirements,  626 

City: 

Arch 783 

Bluff, 783 

Crescent 783 

Empire 783 

Faithful,     ......   783 

Falls 783 

Flour 783 

Forest 783 

Garden 783 

Gate, 783 

Granite 783 

Holy 783 

Iron, 783 

Monumental 783 

Mound 783 

Of  Brotherly  Love,  .    .   783 

Of  Churches 783 

Of  Elms 783 

Of  Flowers 783 

Of  Homes, 783 

Of     Magnificent     Dis- 
tances,     783 

Of  Notions 783 

Of  Peace 783 

Of  Rocks,- 783 

Of  Seven  HiUs 783 

Of  Spindles 783 

Of  the  Golden  Gate,  .  783 
Of  the  Golden  Horn,    .   783 

Of  the  Lily, 783 

Of  the  Straits 783 

Of  the  Violet  Crown,    .   782 

Queen, 783 

Queen  of  the  Lakes,     .   783 

Railroad, 783 

St.  Mark 783 

Windy, 783 

Civil  Engineering,     .    .    .   712 

Civil  War 139,  174 

Battles  of,  11,  104,  174.  175 

United  States 92 

Volunteers  called  for,  .    105 
Claflin  University,    .    .    .   698 

Clare,  Ada 351 

Clark,  Champ,  .    .    .  420, 640 

Francis  E 420 

Henry  S., 321 


PAGE 

Clark,  William  A 420 

Clarkson,  M.  S.  of  T.,    .    .   704 

Clark  University 698 

Classic      words    and 

phrases,      .    .    .   255-263 

Clay,  Henry 420 

Clay 655 

Boulder 655 

Fire 655 

Fuller's  earth,    ....   655 

Kaolin 665 

Ochres, 655 

Pipe 655 

Porcelain 655 

Potter's .655 

Tripoli, 655 

Clayton,  John  M 636 

Clearing-house 655 

Clemens,  Samuel  L., .   305,  420 
Clemson  Agricultural  Col- 
lege,      704 

Cleopatra 420 

And  Antony,  .  .  .  63 
Defeat  at  Actium,  .  .  63 
Philosophical   schools 

under, 43 

Poisons  her  brother,   .     63 

Suicide 63 

Clepsydra 62 

Cleveland, 526,582 

Cleveland,Grover,  107, 144, 420 

Clews,  Henry, 420 

Clifford,  Nathan,    .   .   638, 640 

WilUam  K 420 

Clifford  College 703 

Clingman  Dome 547 

Clinker,  Humphrey,      .    .351 

Clinton,  George 420 

Sir  Henry 420 

Clio 327 

Clock,  Magnetic,    ....     90 

Wheels,  . 62 

Clotho 327 

Clouds 696 

Clout,  Colin 351 

Cloves 741 

Clovis  1 67,  421 

Founds   French   Mon- 
archy,       67 

Makes  Paris  his  capital,      67 
Subdues  Thuringia,  .    .   •  67 
Cloyd's  Mountain,   Bat- 
tle of 13 

Clytemnestra 327 

Coal 655 

Anthracite, 655 

Bituminous 655 

Cannel 655 

Lignite 655 

Weight,  .    ^ 860 

Coal,  Anthracite, 

Discovered 101 

Coal,  in  United  States,    .   655 

Areas 655 

Production 655 

Coalitions,     Against 

France, 164 

Coal-tar 656 

Cobalt 694 

Cobb,  Howell,    .    .    .   637, 640 
Cobden,  Richard,      ...   421 

Cocaine 670 

Cockran,  William  Bourke, 

421 
Cockrell,  Francis  M.,    .    .421 

Cocoa 739 

Cocoanut, 741 

Cocytus 327 

Code,  of  Manu 278 

Coe  College 698 

Coffee, 742 

Adulteration  of,    .    .    .   645 

In  Venice 82 

Coffey,  Titian  J 638 

Cohen,  Solomon  S 421 

Coinage 656 

Latin  Union, 127 

Coins,      656 

Ancient, 656 

Bronze, 657 

Denominations,  .  .  .  656 
Foreign 657 


PAGE 

Coins — Con. : 

Gold 656 

Minor  in  United  States,  657 

Nickel 657 

Of  United  States,      .    .  656 

Silver 656 

Values, 656 

Coke,  Sir  Edward,     .    .    .421 

Coke 658 

Weight  of 860 

Colbert,  Jean  B 421 

Colby  College 698 

Colchis, 327 

Cold  Harbor,  Battle  of,   .  13 

Cold  Storage 658 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  .    .     296,  421 

Colfax,  Schuyler 640 

Colgate  University,  .    .    .  698 

Coligny,  Sire  de 421 

CoUamer,  Jacob 638 

College  Fraternities,  .  .    .  697 

College  of  Charleston,  .    .  698 
Colleges  : 

Agricultural 683 

Land-grant, 684 

Statistics  of 698 

Colleges  and  Universities: 

List  of,  in  U.  S 698 

Location, 698 

Number  of  Instructors,  698 

Number  of  Students,    .  698 

Presidents  of,     ....  698 

Value  of  Property,    .   .  698 

Colleges  for  Women,     .    .  703 

List  of 703 

Location 703 

Number  of  Instructors,  703 

Number  of  Students,    .  703 

Presidents  of 703 

Value  of  Property,   .    .  703 

Collins,  Wilkie 297 

Colman,  Norman  J.,  .  .    .  639 

Cologne 526 

Colombia 526 

Area, 604 

Capital 605 

Congress  of 593 

Constitution 593 

Debt 605 

Government, 593 

Ministry 593 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Colon, 190 

Colonial  Congress,     ...  99 

Declaration  of  Rights,  100 

Colonial  Settlements,    98,  168 

Color,      705 

Colorado 36 

Agricultural  College,     .  704 
Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital, 626 

College 698 

Constitution,      ....  593 

Denver 529,582 

Electoral  Vote,      ...  627 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .  667 

Government,      ....  593 

Governor's  Salary,    .   .  626 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,    .    .    860-61 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,     .  627 

River, 564 

School  of  Mines,    .    .    .  704 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,    .  .  627 

Colors 705 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  ...  60 

Colt,  Samuel,     .    .    !    .    .  421 

Columbia 809 

Columbia,  District  of,  .    .  601 

Co^ambia  Female  College,  703 

C>  umbia  River,  .    .   526,  564 


PAQE 

Columbia  University : 

New  York  City,  ...  698 
Portland,  Ore 698 

Columbium 694 

Columbus 80 

Christopher 421 

Discoveries 98 

Discovers  America,  .    .     80 

Columns,     Spires,     and 

Towers 783 

Combustion, 705 

Spontaneous,     ....   706 

Comedy 201 

Of  Errors 351 

Comet, 706 

Most  Remarkable,    .    .   706 

Comma 188 

Commanders : 

American  Civil  War,  .  139 
American  Revolutionary 

War 139 

Austrian     Succession, 

War  of 139 

Austro-Swiss  War,  .  ,  138 
China-Japanese  War,  .  139 
Crusades,    .    .    .'  .    .    .138 

Dacian  War, 138 

English  Civil  War,  .  .  139 
Franco-Prussian  War,  139 
French  Civil  War,  .  .  138 
French  Revolution,  .    .   139 

Gallic  War, 138 

Gladiatorial  War,  .  .  138 
Greco-Persian  War,  .  138 
Greco-Roman  War,  .  138 
Hundred  Years'  War,  .    138 

Hussite  War 138 

Italian  War 139 

Jewish-Roman  War,  .  138 
Jugurthine  War,  .  .  .  138 
Messenian  War,     .    .    .   138 

Mexican  War, 139 

Mithridatic  War,  .  .  .138 
Napoleonic  Wars, .  .  .  139 
Peloponnesian  War,  .  138 
Perso-Grecian  War,  .  .138 
Punic  Wars,  .138 

Roman  Civil  War,  .  .  138 
Roman  Social  War,  .  -138 
Russo-Japanese  War,  .  139 
Russo-Turkish  War,  .  139 
•  Sacred     Wars     of 

Greece 138 

Samnite  War 138 

Saracen  Conquests,  .  .138 
Seven  Weeks'  War,  .  .  139 
Seven  Years'  War,  .  .  139 
Spanish- American  War,  139 
Spanish-Netherlands 

War 138 

Spanish     Succession, 

War  of 139 

Swedish-Russian  War,  139 
Thirty  Years'  War,  .    .    138 

Trojan  War 138 

War  for    Greek     Inde- 
pendence  139 

Wars  of  the  Roses,  .  .  138 
War  of  1812 139 

Commerce 645 

Commerce  and  Labor: 

Department  Created,  .  109 
Department  of,  ...  639 
Secretaries  of,   ...    .   640 

Commercial  Law,  Tabu- 
lated  666,667 

Committee  of  Public  Safe- 
ty,    37 

Commodities,     Legal 

Weight  of 860-2 

Common  Law 70 

Common      Names,      of 

Chemical  Substances,  782 

Compass 56 

Complimentary  Close,  In 

Letter  Writing,    .    .215 

Composition,  Argument,  .  198 

Description 198 

Didactic  Poetry,  ...  198 
Dramatic  Poetry, .    .    .    198 

Epics 198 

Exposition 198 


.{ 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Composition — Con. : 

Forms  of 198 

Lyric  Poetry 198 

Narration 198 

Oratory 198 

!Poetry 198 

Prose 198 

Comstock,  Anthony,     .    .421 

Comus, 351 

Conchology 706 

Concordat, 164 

Concordia, 327 

Concordia  College: 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,     .    .    698 

Milwaukee,  Wis 698 

Cond^,  Prince  of,  .    .    .    .421 
i  Condolence,  Letters  of,    .   219 

Condor, 742 

Condorcet,  Jean  Marie,    .   421 

Conductor 706 

Franklin's 706 

Confederacy,  ^Etolian,  .    .      10 

Of  the  Franks 65 

Confederates,  In  Canada, .  105 
Confederate  States,  .     92,  104 
Jefferson  Davis,  Presi- 
dent  104 

Readmitted 106 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  586 

Confederation,  Germanic,    150 

Of  the  Rhine,  ...   37,  164 

Conference,  Algeciras, .    .     96 

Pan-American,  ....      96 

Confidence  Man 783 

Confucius,  .    .   35,  58,  278,  422 

i»hilosophy  of 279 

Sacred  Books  of,  .    .    .   278 

Congo  River, 564 

Congo  State, ....  508,  564 
Congratulation,  Letters  of,  219 
Congregationalists,  .  .  .  706 
Congressional  Library,.    .   578 

Congress  of  U.  S 634 

First  Meets 101 

Conic  Sections, 59 

Connecticut, 37 

Adoption   of    Constitu- 
tion,     37 

Agricultural  College,  .  704 
Agricultural    Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Capital .    .626 

Colonial  History,  ...      37 

Constitution, 593 

During  the  Civil  War,       37 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Exemption  Laws, .  .  .  667 
First  Constitution,    .    .     98 

Government 593 

Governor's  Salary,  .  .  626 
Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-61 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   627 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation, .  .  627 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Under  Sir  Edmund  An- 

dros, 37 

Voting  Population,   .    .   627 

Connor,  Ralph 321 

Conrad,  Chas.  M 637 

Conrad  III 422 

Consentes  Dii, 327 

Conspiracy,  Catiline's,  .  63 
Constance,  Treaty  of,  .    .    164 

Constantine  I., 422 

Constantinople 526 

Architectural  Features,  526 
Besieged  by  Bulgarians,     70 

Golden  Horn 526 

Inhabitants, 526 

Siege  of 68 

Constellations, 707 

Ptolemaan 707 

Constitution     of     the 

United  States,  .  .  170,  594 
XIV.  Amendment,   .    .    106 


PAGE 

Constitution  of  the  United 
States  —  Con. : 
XV.  Amendment, .    .    .    106 
Amendment  of,.    .    .    .   597 
Amendments  to,   .    .    .    597 
Apportionment,     .    .    .   595 

Convention 594 

Direct  Taxes 596 

Duties  of  President, .  .  596 
Executive  Power, .    .    .   596 

Habeas  Corpus 596 

House    of    Representa- 
tives  594 

How  Bills  Become  Laws,  595 
Impeachments,  ....  595 
Judicial'  Power, ....  597 
Legislative  Power,    .    .   594 

New  States 597 

Organizationof  Congress, 595 
Powers  of  Congress,  .  595 
Powers  of  States,  .  .  596 
President  of  Senate,     .   595 

Public  Debt 598 

Qualifications  of  Presi- 
dent  596 

Ratification,  .    .    .   594,597 
Ratification  of  Amend- 
ments  598 

595 
598 
597 
595 
598 
597 
597 
596 
597 
598 
351 
148 
169 
707 
707 
707 
202-208 
13 
708 
113 
703 
422 
422 
304,  422 
698 
708 
708 
164 
422 


Revenue  Bills,  .  . 
Right  of  Suffrage, 
Rights  of  Citizens, 

Senate, 

Slavery  Prohibited, 
Supreme  Court, 
Treason,      .    . 
Treaties,      .    . 
Trial  by  Jury, 
Vice-President, 

Consuelo 

Consulate,  The  French 

Continental  Congress, 

Continuity,  Law  of. 

Contractile  Force,     . 

Contractility,     .    .    . 

Contractions,      .    .    . 

Contreras,  Battle  of, 

Convection,    .... 

Convention,  Geneva, 

Converse  College, .    . 

Cook,  Frederick  A., . 
Captain  James,  .    . 

Cooper,  James  F., 

Cooper  College,  .    .    . 

Cooper  Institute,  .    . 

Cooper  Union,   .    .    . 

Copenhagen,  Treaty, 

Copernicus,  Nicholas 

Copper 658,  694 

Alloys  of 658 

Countries  producing,  .  658 
Mining  processes,  .  .  658 
Production  of,  ...  .  658 
Reduction  of 658 

Copperfield,  David,  .    .    .   351 

Copperheads, 783 

Corday,  Charlotte,    ...   422 

Corea, 37,599 

Annexed  to  Japan,    97,  599 

Emperor, 599 

Emperor  abdicates,  .  .  97 
Government,  ....  599 
Massacre  of  1866,  .  .  38 
Treaties  with  other  na 

tions 38 

Treaty  with  Japan,  .    .     38 
Under    Japanese    pro- 
tectorate  38 

Corelli,  Marie 422 

Corinth,       .    .    .      55,128,526 
Battle  of 13 

Corliss  Engine 670 

Corn,  World's  production, 

680 
In  United  States,  .  .  648 
Weight 860 

Corncrackers, 852 

Corneille,  Pierre,   ....   422 

Cornelia, 422 

Cornell : 

College 698 

University 698 

Cornell,  Ezra, 422 


PAOE 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  .   139,  422 
Surrender  at  Yorktown, 

86,  170,  180 

Coronis, 327 

Corot,  Jean 422 

Correggio,  Antonio,  .  .  422 
Correlation  of  forces,  .  .  708 
Cortelyou,  George  B., 

422,  637,  640 

Cortez,    ...   83,  98,  132,  423 

Discovers  Mexico,     .    .     98 

Corwin,  Thomas,  .    .   423,  637 

Corybantes, 327 

Cosmogony, 708 

Cossacks 527 

Costa  Rica: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt 605 

Population 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stock  of  Money,    ...    604 

Cotner  University,    .    .    .   698 

Cotopaxi, 527 

Cottey  College 703 

Cotton, 658 

Growing, 659 

Kinds 659 

Mercerized 670 

Production  of 659 

Spinning, 659 

World's  production,      .   680 

Cotton  Gin 668 

Invented 101 

Cotton  Seed,  Weight,  .  .  861 
Cotton-spinning : 

In  Great  Britain,  .  .  .  660 
In  Southern  States,  .  660 
In  United  States,      .    .   660 

Machines, 659 

Processes 659 

Statistics 660 

Cougar 762 

Coulomb 857 

Councils: 

Aulic 22 

At  Chalcedon 66 

Of  the  Church 708 

Constance, 78 

Of  Constantinople,    .   66,  68 

AtEphesus 66 

First  Lateran,  ....  74 
Fourth  Lateran,     ...      76 

.    Nice 65 

Pisa 78 

Second  Lateran,  ...  74 
Third  Lateran,       ...     76 

Tours 81 

Trent 82 

Vatican,      95 

Vienna, 78 

Countries  of  the  world,  604-605 

Area, 604 

Capitals 605 

Debts  of 605 

Population, 604 

Rulers 605 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 
Stock  of  Money,    ...   604 

Court  Fool 789 

Courts,  Federal 635 

Covenanters, 38 

Coventry, 527 

Coverley,  Sir  Roger,  .  .351 
Cowpens,  Battle  of,  .    .    .      13 

Cox,  Jacob  D., 638 

Kenyon, 423 

Palmer, 423 

Cox  College 703 

Crab 742 

Cracow, 527 

Craik,  Dinah  M.,  ....  423 
Crampton  Gap,  Battle  of,     13 

Crane, 743 

Ichabod 351 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  .  .  .  423 
Crassus,  Lucius  L.,  .    .    .   423 

Marcus, 423 

Crawford,  F.  M 306 

Geo.  W 637 

Wm.  H 637 


875 


PAGE 

Crawford,  Thomas,  .  .  .  423 
Crawley,  Rawdon,    .    .    .   351 

Crawthumpers 853 

Crayon,  Geoffrey,  ■.    .    .    .    321 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward,     .    .   423 

Creation  to  Birth  of  Christ,    54 

To  Deluge,     .....     54 

Cr($cy 527 

Credit 660 

Mobilier 106 

Creed 709 

Creeds,  Athanasian, .  .  .  687 
Creighton  University,  .    .   698 

Cressida 327,  351 

Cresswell,  John  A.  J.,   .    .   638 

Creusa 327 

Crimean  War,  38,  92,  139,  167 
Crisp,  Charles  F.,  .    .    .    .640 

Crispi,  Francesco 423 

Criticism 200 

Crittenden,  John  J.,  .  423,  638 

Crockery 55 

Crockett,  David 11 

Crocodile •.    .   743 

Crompton,  Samuel,  .  .  .  423 
Cromwell,  Oliver, 

49,  84,  139,  151,  423 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  .    110 

Cromwell,  William  N.,.    .   423 

Cronstadt 527 

Crbokes,  Sir  William,  .  .  423 
Cross  Keys,  Battle  of,  .  13 
Croton  Aqueduct,     .    .    .511 

Crow 743 

Crowninshield,  B.  W.,  .    .   639 

Jacob 639 

Cruisers 848 

Crusaders 38 

Crusades 138 

Baldwin  of  Flanders,  .  38 
Constantinople  taken, .     76 

First 74 

Frederick  II 38 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,     .     38 

Louis  VII 38 

Louis  IX 38 

Peter  the  Hermit,  .  .  38 
Richard       the       Lion 

Hearted 38 

Saladin 38 

Crusoe,  Robinson,     .    .    .   351 

Crystal  Palace 783 

Ctesiphon,      129 

Cuba,      527 

Acquisition, 178 

Area, 604 

Cabinet 599 

Capital 605 

Climate 627 

Conquered, 81 

Constitution,      ....   599 
Constitutional  Conven- 
tion,     108 

Description, 527 

Destruction  of  Maine,  39,  94 
Early  Settlement  of,  .  38 
Filibuster  invasion,  .  .  104 
Filibusters'  attack,  .  .  106 
Government,  ....  599 
Governor,  General  Wood, 

108 

Havana 536 

Independence  of,  .  .  .  39 
Insurgents  surrender,  .  106 
Insurrection  of,  ...  39 
Insurrections      against 

Spanish  rule,  .  .  .  108 
Intervention  of  U.  S.,  .  599 
Invasion  by  U.  S.,  .  .  108 
Natural  resources,  .  .  527 
Palma,  first  president,  39 
Palma  resigns,  96,  109,  599 
Passes  to  America,  .  .  96 
Piatt  Amendment,    .    .     96 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Productions,       ....   528 
Provisional        Govern- 
ment in 39 

Slave  trade  in,  ....  39 
Spanish-American  War,  39 
Standard  of  Currency, .   604 


876 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Cuba — Con.: 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Tobacco 628 

Under     United     States 

Protectorate,      .    .    .    599 

Utilities,  Public,   ...   528 

Weyler  regime,      .    .    .    108 

Cubic  Measure,      ....   855 

Cubits 858 

Cuneiform  Letters,    .    .    .351 

Cuirasses, 776 

Cujas,  Jacques 424 

Culberson,  Charles  A.,  .  424 
Cumberland  University,  .  698 
Cummins,  Albert  B.,    .    .   424 

Cupid 327 

Currency,  Standards  of,  .  604 
Currents,  of  the  Pacific,    552 

Curtis,  Benj.  R. 640 

G.  W., 305 

William  E., 424 

Curtiss,  Glenn  H 424 

Curzon,  Lord 424 

Cush-ing,  Caleb 638 

William, 640 

Custer's  Massacre,     .    .    .    106 

Cutlery 660 

Cut  Nails,  invented,     .    .  668 

Cuttle,  Captain 351 

Cuvier,  Baron 424 

Cyanide  of  Potassium, .    .   850 

Cybele 327 

Cyclops 327 

Cymbeline, 351 

Cypress 743 

Cyrus 68 

The  Great 424 

The  Younger.    .    .     59, 424 

Czar 39,  605 

Czechs 528 

Dabney's  Mills,  Battle  of.  13 

Dacian  War 138 

Dsedalus 327 

Dagon,     .    . 327 

Daguerre,  Louis 424 

Daguerreotype, 669 

Dahak 327 

Dairying: 

Butter 650 

Cheese 650 

Milk 650 

Dakota    Wesleyan     Uni- 
versity  698 

Dallas,  A.J. 637 

Dallas  College 698 

Dalzell,  John 424 

Damascus  Blades,     .    .    .   660 

Damocles, 351 

Damon  and  Pythias.    .    .   351 

Dana,  R.  H 304 

Danae 327 

Danes,  Invade  England,  .     69 

Masters  of  England, .    .      72 

Dangerous  Trades,    .    .    .   783 

Daniel 281,424 

Daniel,  John  W 424 

Peter  V 640 

Danish  Literature,    .   .    .   288 

Authors 288 

Poetry 288 

Prose, 288 

Dante 310,424 

Danton, 113,424 

Danube  River.  .    .    .   528.  564 

Daphne -^.    .    .    .   327 

Daphnis 327 

Dapsang,  Mt 547 

D'Arblay,  F.  B 425 

Darby  and  Joan 351 

Dardanelles 528 

Darius  1 58,  141.425 

Dark  Horse. 784 

Darrow,  Clarence  S.,  .  .  425 
Dartmouth  College.  .  .  .  699 
Darwin,  Charles,   .    .   297,  425 

Erasmus. 425 

Dash 190 

Date  Line. 528 

Davenport,  Homer  C,     .   425 

David 56,351,425 

Davidson,  Samuel,  .  .  .  425 
Davidson  College 699 


PAGE 

Davis,  David, 640 

Henry  G 425 

Davis,  Jefferson,    .    .   425, 637 

Captured 105 

Davis,  Richard  Harding,  425 
Davis  and  Elkins  College,  699 
Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  .  .  425 
Dawson,  Sir  John,     .    .    .   425 

Day,  Ancient, 858 

Civil, 858 

Natural, 858 

Day,  James  R 426 

William  R 426,  640 

Day's  Journey, 858 

Days  of  Grace,  .  .  .  666,  784 
Dayton,  Jonathan,  .  .  .  640 
Dead  Letter  Office,  ...   784 

Dead  Sea 528,  539 

Deaf  and  Dumb,  Institu- 
tion for 86 

Deaf  Mutes,  Instruction  of,  102 

Deans,  Elfie 352 

Dearborn,  Henry 637 

Death  Rates 796 

By  Occupation,  .  .  .  795 
Comparative,  ....  796 
From  Various  Causes,  .  795 

In  Cities 796 

Death  Warrant  of  Jesus, .   784 

Debt,  Arrest  for 667 

Of    Countries    of     the 

World 605 

Decameron, 362 

Decatur,  Stephen,     .    .    .   426 

Decemviri, 39 

Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence  100,  599 

Signers,  of 600 

Text  of 599 

Decoration  Day,    .    .   784, 791 

Deer 744 

Deerslayer 352 

Defoe.  Daniel,    .    .    .   296, 426 

Degrees 202-208 

In  Free  Masonry,  .    .    .   789 

Deiphobus 327 

De  Kalb,  John 426 

Deland,  Margaret  W.,  .  .  426 
Delano,  Columbus.    .    .    .   638 

Delaware 39.99 

Agricultural    Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Capital. 626 

College 699 

Constitution  of.     ...    601 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Exemption  Laws..    .    .   667 

Government 601 

Governor's  Salary.  .  .  626 
Interest  Laws  in.  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices.  667 
Legislative  Statistics.  .   627 

Metropolis 626 

Population, 626 

Property  Valuation,.  .  627 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,  .    .   627 
Delcass(«,  Theophile,  .    .    .   426 

Delmas,  Dephin  M 426 

Delphi 129,328 

Delphin  Classics 352 

Delphos 328 

Deluge 39 

Of  Deucalion 40 

To  Time  of  Moses,     .    .     64 

Demeter 328 

Demetrius 60,  426 

Demosthenes,     .      60, 283, 426 

Dendrite, 760 

Deneen,  Charles  S.,  .  .  .  426 
Denison  University, .    .    .   699 

Denmark, 528 

Abolition  of  Serfage,     .     40 

Area, 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution 601 

Death  of  Christian,  .    .     97 

Debt 605 

Early  History,  ....     40 


PAGE 

Denmark — Con. : 

Eddas 40 

Gorm  the  Old 40 

Government, 601 

Illiteracy 714 

King 605 

Navy 848 

Population. 604 

Rigsdag 601 

Standard  of  Currency. .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Under  Frederick  VIII.,  41 

Under  Margaret,    ...  40 

Union  with  Norway,    .  83 

Dennison,  William,  .    .    .  638 

Denver, 529, 582 

Department  of  Agricul- 
ture   639 

Of  Commerce  and  La- 
bor   639 

Of  the  Interior 638 

Of  Justice, 637 

Navy 639 

Post-office,.    .....  638 

Of  State 636 

The  Treasury 636 

Of  War, 637 

De  Pauw  University,    .    .  699 

Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  .  .  426 
Deposed  Kings  of  England : 

Before  the  Conquest,    .  41 

Since  the  Conquest, .     .  41 

Deposed  Kin^  of  France,  41 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  .    .  426 

De  Reszke,  Edouard,   .    .  426 

Jean 426 

Deronda,  Daniel,  ....  362 

Descartes,  Ren6.    ....  426 

Description, 199 

Deserted  Village 352 

Des  Moines  College,  .    .    .  699 

De  Soto 427 

In  America 98 

Detroit 529,  582 

Detroit  College 699 

Deuteronomy, 280 

Devens,  Charles 638 

Dew, 709 

Dewar,  Sir  James,  .  .  .  427 
Dewey,  George,.  .  .  131,427 
DeWitt,  John,    .    .    .      85,427 

Dexter,  Samuel,    ....  637 

Dhu,  Roderick 352 

Dials 58 

Diamond 760 

Diamonds: 

Braganza 785 

Cullman 785 

Florentine 785 

Koh-i-noor, 785 

Notable 785 

Orloff, 785 

Rajah  of  Mattan,  .    .    .  785 

Shah 786 

Diana 328 

Diaz,  Porfirio,  .  133,  427,  605 
Dickens,  Charles.  297,  303,  427 

Dickerson,  Mahlon,  .    .    .  639 

Dickinson,  Jacob  M.,   .    .  427 

Dictator 41 

Dictionary, 56 

Abbreviations,  ....  202 
Classic     Words     and 

Phrases 255 

Foreign    Words    and 

Phrases 255 

Of  Biography 393 

Of  Inventions 668 

Of  Mispronounced  Words, 

267-274 

Of  Mythology 323 

Of  Name  Origins, .    .    .  797 
Of  Names  in  Fiction, 
Literary  Plots,  and 

Allusions 343 

Of  Rulers 146 

Of  Synonyms,    .    .    221-255 

Words,  Proper  Use  of,  191 

Didactic  Poetry 202 

Dido 328,352 

Dielman,  Frederick, .    .    .  427 

Diet  of  Worms 82 


PAGE 

Digestion, 709 

Digit 858 

Dike 328 

Dill,  James  B 427 

Dillon,  John 427 

Diogenes 427 

Diomed 328,352 

Diomedes, 328 

Dionysius 328 

Diopside 761 

Directory,  France  under,  41 

The  French 112 

Disciples  of  Christ,   .    .    .  695 

Discordia 328 

Discoveries  in  U.  S..     .    .  168 

Disraeli,  Benjamin,  .    .    .  428 

Dissenter 709 

Distances,  between  Amer- 
ican Cities,.    ....  863 

Canadian 866 

World's 864-65 

Distempers, 849 

Distillation 709 

District  of  Columbia,     41,  601 

City  of  Washington.  41.  578 

Commissioners 601 

Exemption  Laws,.    .    .  667 

Extent 41 

Government, 601 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 

Population 625 

Present  Government,    .  41 

Seat  of  Government,    .  41 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage, 631 

Territorial  Government,  41 

Dives 328 

Divine  Comedy,    .    .   310. 362 

Divine  Right  of  Kings.    .  42 

Dix,  Dorothy 321 

John  A 637 

Dixie. 785 

Dixon,  Thomas,  Jr.,      .    .  428 

Dnieper  River, 564 

Dobbin,  James  C 639 

Doctor  Syntax 352 

Dog 744 

Prairie 760 

Dogberry 353 

DoUar  Mark 785 

Diillinger,  Johan  J.,      .    .  428 

Dolliver,  J.  P 428 

Dolly  Varden 363 

Dombey 353 

Domes,  Great 785 

Domesday  Book,  ....  353 
Domestic      Animals,      in 

United  States,    ...  649 

Dominican  Republic,     42,  601 

Treaty  with  U.  S.,   .    .  601 

Dominicans, 709 

Don  River, 564 

Donatello 353 

Don  Giovanni 353 

Don  Juan 353 

Don  Quixote,     .    .    .   313, 353 

Dore,  Paul  Gustave,     .    .  428 

Dorothea, 353 

Dorrit,  Edward 353 

Dorr  Rebellion,      .    .      42,  146 

Doubting  Castle 354 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,    .    .  428 

William  L 428 

Douglass,  Frederick,     .    .  428 

Doyle,  Sir  A.  Conan,    .    .  428 

Draco 428 

Draconian  Code,    ....  57 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  ...  428 

Drake  University,     .    .    .  699 
Drama : 

English 299 

French 293 

German, 291 

German,  founded,     .    .  80 

Dramatic  Poetry,      ...  201 

Dramatic  Unities,     .    .    .  354 

Draper,  J.  W 428 

Drawing, 710 

Drawings,  Classes  of,    .    .  710 

Dreams,      710 

Dred  Scot  Decision,      .    .  92 


INDEX 


877 


PAQE 

Dresden 529 

Dreyfus,  Captain,      ...     95 

Trial  of 95 

Droma, 328 

Dromio 354 

Druids 42 

Drury  College 699 

Drury's  Bluff,  Battle  of,     13 

Dryads, 328 

Dryden,  John,   .    .    .   296, 428 
Dry  Measure,     ...  855 

Duane,  Wm.  J.,     ...        637 

Dublin 529 

Duck,  Canvas-back,      .    .   740 
Dudevant,  Mme.,  293,  323,  485 

Dudu, 354 

Duel 785 

Dueling,  In  England,  .    .   785 

In  France, 785 

In  the  German  Army,.  786 
In  United  States,  ...  786 
Duelists,  Notable,  ...  786 
Due  West  College,  ...  703 
Duma,  Russian,  .97,  153,621 
Dumas,  Alexandre,  .  .  .  428 
Dumas,     Alexandre     the 

Elder 428 

Du  Maurier,  G.  L 429 

Dun 786 

Duncan, 354 

Dunne,  Finley  P 429 

Duns  Scotus 429 

Dunstan,    .        .....     70 

Durward,  Quentin,   .    .    .   354 

Duse,  Eleonora 429 

Dutch  Language,      .    .    .    184 
Dutch  Settlements,  ...     98 

Duval,  Gabriel, 640 

Dwarf 786 

The  Black 354 

Dwight,  Timothy,     ...   429 

Dwina  River, 564 

Dying  Gaul, 786 

Dynamics,      710 

Dynamite,      ......   671 

Dynamo 671,711 

Eads,  James  B.,    .    .    .   429 

Eagle 744 

Early,  Jubal  A 429 

Earth,  Statistics  of,  .    .    .   854 
Earthquake,  Areas,  .    .    .   786 

.Earthquakes, 786 

Constantinople,     ...     67 
Notable,  .  .    .   786,  787,  788 

Easter, 792 

Eggs 792 

Rabbit 792 

Eastern  Empire,    .    .    .   42, 65 
Capture   of   Constanti- 
nople  80 

Civil  War  in 78 

End  of 80 

Treaty  with  Murad,      .     78 
East  India  Company, 

83,  120,  788 
Eaton,  John  H.,    ....   637 

Ebers,  George 290 

Eblis 328,354 

Ecclesiastes, 281 

Echo, 328 

Eckhardt 354 

Eclipse 57 

Ector,  Sir 354 

Ecuador 42,601 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution 601 

Cotopaxi 527 

Debt 605 

Government 601 

Population, 604 

President, 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .    604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Edda 354 

Eddas 286 

Eddy,  Mary  Baker,  ...   429 

Edict  of  Nantes 42 

Edinburgh 529 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  .  .  429 
Electric  lighting,  ...  106 
Phonograph 106 


PAQE 

Editorial,  The 200 

Education 683 

Chinese 279 

Colleges 698 

Colleges  for  Women,     .   703 
Schools  of  Technology,    704 

Universities 698 

Education,  Cost  of,  .    .    .   788 

In  Australia, 788 

In  Austria, 788 

In  Canada, 788 

In  France 788 

In  Germany 788 

In  Great  Britain,  .    .    .   788 

In  Hungary, 788 

In  Italy 788 

In  Russia 788 

In  Sweden 788 

In  Switzerland, ....   788 
In  United  States, .    .    .   788 

Edward 429 

I. 429 

VII.,  .  .  .  53,96,151,429 
The  Black  Prince,  .  .  78 
The  Confessor,  46,  150,  429 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  304,  430 
Egan,  Maurice  F.,  .  .  .  430 
Eggleston,  Edward,  .  .  .  305 
Eggs,  in  United  States,  .  650 
Eglantine,  Madame,  .  .  355 
Egmont,  Lamoral,  .  .  .  430 
Egypt,    .    .43,54,57,530,604 

A  Greek  State 43 

Anglo-French  Agreement,  44 

Antiquity  of 43 

Area 604 

Bonaparte  in 87 

Cairo,       521 

Cairo  Taken  by  Turks,     81 

Canals 652 

Capital 605 

Chronology  of,  ...    .     43 
Conquered  by  the  French,  44 

Debt, 605 

Dynasties,      43 

Early  Kings,      ....     43 

Hyksos 119 

Khedive 605 

Literature,      .    .    .   277,282 

Mamelukes, 44 

Nile 549 

Obelisks 550 

Population, 604 

Power    of    Mamelukes 

revived 87 

Pyramids 561 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Thebes 161 

Under  Ptolemies,  .  .  43 
Under  the  English,  .  .  44 
Under  the  Saracens,  .  44 
Wars  with  Persia,  .  .  43 
Egyptian,  Architecture,  .   511 

Soudan 508 

Thief 355 

Eiffel,  Gustave,     ....   430 

Eiffel  Tower 530 

Elaine 355 

Elba 813 

Elbe  River, 565 

Elburz,  Mt 547 

El  Caney 44,  157 

Battle  of '.    .      13 

Eldon,  John  S 430 

El  Dorado 355 

Election  Day 791 

Electoral  Commission,      .    106 

Vote  of  States 627 

Electors, 44 

Electra 328,355 

Electric,  Battery 668 

Cautery 670 

Conductors 668 

Insulators, 668 

Lamp 669 

Light 711 

Welding 672 

Electric    Light,     Mercury 

vapor 672 

Nernst 672 

Electric  Locomotive,    .    .  672 


PAGE 

Electric  Plow 672 

Electrical  Discoveries,  .  668 
Electrical  Engineering,  .  712 
Electrical  Units,    ....   857 

Ampfere 857 

Coulomb 857 

Equivalent  of,   ...    .   857 

Farad, 857 

Joule 857 

Microfarad 857 

Ohm 857 

Volt 857 

Watt, 857 

Electricity 710 

Applications  of,     ...   710 

Dynamo 711 

Electric  light 711 

Franklin's  discoveries, .  86 
Gilbert's  discoveries,  .  82 
Measurements  of,  .    .    .     94 

Motor 710 

Trolley, 711 

Electric  Railway,  ....  672 
Electric     Railway,     First 

in  United  States,  .    .   672 

Electrolysis 670 

Electro-Magnetism,  .    .    .   669 

Electrometer 668 

Electro-plating 668 

Electroscope 669 

Elegy 202 

Elephant 744 

Elevator,  Passenger,     .    .   670 

Elf 328 

Elfland, 355 

Elgin  Marbles 554 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,.    .    .    .430 
George,   .    .    .   297,303,430 

Elixir  of  Life 684 

Elizabeth 430 

St.  of  Hungary 430 

Elizabethan  Literature,  .  299 
Elizabeth  College,  ...  703 
Elkins,  Stephen  B.,  .    .    .   637 

Elliott,  Hobbie 355 

Maxine, 431 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,     .   431,  640 

Elsie 355 

Elysium, 328 

Elzevir, 355 

Emancipation, ■  176 

Eiinancipation  Proclama- 
tion,   ...        .     4-i,  .u5 
Number  of  Slaves  not 

Affected, 44 

Slaves  Freed 44 

Text  of  Proclamation,  .     44 
Emanuel,  Filibert,     .    .    .431 

Embassadors, 61 

Ember  Days 792 

Emerald, 761 

Emerson,  R.  W.,   .    .   304,  431 

Emil(§, 355 

Emilia 355 

Emmet,  Robert,  ....  431 
Emory  and  Henry  College,  699 

Emory  College 699 

Emperor : 

Of  Abyssinia 605 

Of  Austria-Hungary,    .   605 

Of  China 605 

Of  Germany, 605 

Of  India 605 

Of  Russia, 605 

Emperor  of  Corea, ...  9,  599 
Emperors  of  France,  .  .  147 
Emperors  of  Germany,  .  149 
Emperors,  Roman,  .  .  .  146 
Emperors,  The  Five  Good,  146 
Empire,  The  French,  .  .  148 
Emporia  College,  ....   699 

Empyrean 328,355 

Endicott,  Wm.  C 637 

Endymion 329,  355 

Energy,  Transmutation  of,  708 

Engineering, 712 

Branches  of 712 

England 45,530 

Abolition  of  Slavery,  .  52 
Accession  of  Victoria, .  52 
Act  of  Uniformity,  .  .  50 
African  Wars 53 


PAGE 

England — Con.: 

After  the  Roman  Con- 
quest,   45 

Alfred  the  Great,  46, 150,395 

America,  In 51 

American  Revolution,  .     51 

Area 530 

As  Angle-land,  ....  45 
Austrian  Succession,The,  51 
Balfour,  Premier,  ...  63 
Barons'  Wars,  The,  ...     47 

Birmingham 518 

Boer  War 53 

Cade's  Rebellion,  .  .  33,  48 
Calendar  Reformed, .  .  51 
Campbell-Bannerman , 

Premier 53,  415 

Charles  Beheaded,  .  .  49 
Charles  II.,  .  .49,151,418 
Christianization  of,    .   .     45 

Cities 530 

Civil  War 49 

Climate, 530 

Commonwealth, The,  49, 151 

Coventry, 527 

Crimean  War,  ....  52 
Danish  Invasions, ...  46 
Death  of  Victoria,  .  .  53 
Declaration  of  Rights, .  50 
Divided  into  Counties,  70 
Dominion  of  Canada,  The,53 
During  the  American 

Civil  War 53 

During  the  Crusades,   .      47 
During  the  French  Rev- 
olution  52 

Edward  1 429 

III. 48,151,429 

VII 53,96,151,429 

Edward,  the  Confessor, 

46,  150,  429 
Embraces  Christianity,  68 
Enormous  National  Debt,  51 
Ethelbert's  Code,  ...  68 
First  Parliament,  ...     47 

George  1 50,151,437 

II 50,151,437 

III 51,151,437 

IV 52,151,437^ 

v..  .  .  •  .  .53,  151,437 
GVcdstone,  ....  53, 438 
Grand  Alliance,  The,    .     50 

Henry  1 46,150,445 

II. 47,150,445 

III 47,151,445 

VI 48,151,445 

VII 48,151,445 

VIII 49,151,445 

Heptarchy,  The,  ...     '45 

Illiteracy 714 

Independence  of  Ameri- 
can Colonies 51 

Independenceof  Scotland, 47 
Indian  Rebellion,  ...     53 

In  India 51 

Invasion  of  Danes,    .    .     69 

Irish  Rebellion 52 

Jack  Cade 80 

James  1 49,151,449 

King  John, 47 

Kings  and  Queens,  .  .  150 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  ...  49 
Law  Courts  Founded,  .      76 

Literature, 295 

Liverpool, 540 

London, 540 

Lord  Beaconsfield,  .  .  53 
Magna  Charta,  ....     47 

Manchester 541 

Marlboroughs,  The,  .  .  50 
Name  First  Used, ...  68 
Napoleonic  Wars,  The,  62 
Natural  Features, .  .  .  530 
Norman  Conquests,  The,  46 
Operations  in  Egypt,    .     52 

Oxford 551 

Parliament  in,  ...  .  78 
Peace  with  Russia,  .    .      53 

Plymouth 558 

Principal  Islands,  .   .    .   530 

Queen  Anne, 50 

Queen  Elizabeth,  ...     49 


878 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


I 


England — Con.: 
Queen  Mary,  .   .    . 
Religious  Struggles, 
Restoration,  The, . 
Salisbury,  Premier, 
Saxon  Octarchy,    . 
Scots  Subdued,  The 
Seven  Years'  War, 

Soil 

Treaty  of  Paris,  1763 
Tudors,  The,  .  .    . 
Under  Cromwell,  . 
Under  Feudalism,. 
Under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  45 

Under  the  Normans,  46 
Under  the  Plantagenets,    46 

Union  with  Scotland,  .  50 

United  with  Wales,  .    .  76 

Victoria's  Jubilee,     .    .  53 
Wars  of  the  Roses,    .  48,  80 

Wars  with  China,  ...  53 

War  with  France, ...  48 

War  with  Scotland,  .   .  76 

War  with  Wales,  ...  76 

Waterloo,  At 52 

Wat  Tyler's  Insurrection,  48 

William  of  Orange,    .    .  50 

William  Pitt 52 

Yarmouth 580 

English,  Authors,  ....  295 

Channel 530 

Civil  War 139 

Of  Letter  Writing,    .   .  214 

Modern  Writers,    .   .    .  303 

Philosophy 303 

English  Equivalents,  Of 

the  Metric  System,    .  857 

English  Language,    .  184,  185 

Composition  of,     ...  186 

English  Literature,  .    .    .  295 

Alfred  the  Great,  ...  298 

Bacon,  Sir  Francis,  .    .  300 

Drama 299 

Elizabethan  Age, .     .    .  299 
Elizabethan  Poets,    .    .301 

English  Revolution,.    .  301 
In    the    Eighteenth 

Century,. 302 

In  J;he    Nineteenth 

Century 302 

Novel,  The S02 

Poetry 29J 

Prose 295 

Prose  Fiction 302 

Representative  Works,  295 

Restoration, 301 

Shakespere, 299 

_Under  the  Normans,    .  298 

'Under  the  Saxons,    .    .  298 

Victorian  Age 303 

Enid 355 

Enigma 355 

Eolian  Harp 356 

Eolus 329 

Eos 329 

Ephesus 129 

Epic  Poetry 201 

Epictetus, 431 

Epicurus 283,431 

Epidemics, 849 

Epidote 761 

Epigram,     . 356 

Epimenides 356 

Episcopal 712 

Epitaphs, 356 

Epithalamium 356 

Epochs, 696 

Of  the  Deluge 39 

Eras 696 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,     .   .  431 

Erbium 694 

Ericsson,  John 431 

Eric  the  Red 431 

Erie,  Lake 530,  539 

Erie  Canal,     .    .    .88,  530,  653 

Erl-king 329,356 

Ermina 356 

Eros 329 

Erskine,  Lord, 431 

Erskine  College,    ....  699 

Esmeralda 356 

Esmond,  Henry 356 


PAGE 

Esperanto 788 

Esquire.      .    ; 782 

Essay,  The 200 

Essonite 761 

Estaing,  Count  d',    .    .    .431 

Esther 58,281 

Ether 670 

Discovered, 102 

Etna,  Mount,     .    .    .   530, 577 

Etrurians, .     58 

Etruscan  War,  .....     60 

Euclid 60 

Of  Alexandria 431 

Eugene,  Francois,     .    .    .431 

Prince 166 

Euler,  Leonhard 432 

Eumenides, 329 

Euphrates  River,  .    .531,  565 

Euphrosyne 329 

Euphues 356 

Eureka  College,     ....   699 

Euripides 283,  432 

Europa 329 

Eurydice 329 

Eurylochus 329 

Eusebius,  Pamphili,  .  .  432 
Eustachio,  Bartolommeo,  432 
Eustis,  Wm.,      .'....   637 

Evangeline, 356 

Evangelist 356 

Evans,  Robley  D 432 

Evarts,  Wm.  M..   .    .    .    .   638 

Events  of  Human  Progress,  54 
Everest,  Mt.,     .....   547 

Everett,  A.  H 432 

Edward 432 

Ewald,  Johannes, ....  288 
Ewing,  Thomas,     .    .    637, 638 

Ewing  College 699 

Excalibur 356 

Exclamation  Point,  .  .  .  190 
Executive    Departments, 

United  States,   .    .    .   635 
Exemption : 

Homestead 667 

Laws,      667 

Of  personal  property,    .   667 
Exile  of  Jews,    .    .    .  " .    .    122 

Exodus 280 

Expectation  of  life,  .  .  .  665 
Exports,      of      Principal 

Countries, 663 

Exports,  ri  U.  S 662 

Articles 662 

By  Countries 663 

Quantities, 662 

Values 662 

Expositions : 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific, 

109,  569 

Buda-Pest 94 

International  Cotton,    .    106 

Jamestown 109 

Lewis  and  Clark,  .    .    .   559 

Pan-American 96 

Paris 92 

Philadelphia  Centennial,    94 

St.  Louis 96 

World's  Columbian,      .     94 
World's  Industrial,   .    .    107 

Eyre,  Jane, 357 

Ezekiel 281,432 

Ezra 281 

Ezra  Chapel,  Battle  of,  .  14 
Fabiust  Maximus,    .    .  432 

Fables 199 

Fabliaux, 357 

Faerie  Queene 357 

Faery 357 

Fagin 357 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  D.,  .  432 
Fairbanks,  Charles  W.,  .  432 
Fairchild,  Chas.  S.,  .  .  .  637 
Fairfax,  Lord  Thomas,  .  432 
Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  .  .  357 
Fairmount  College,  .  .  .  699 
Fair  Oaks,  Battle  of,    .    .      14 

Faithful 357 

Falcon, 745 

Falconio,  Diomede,       .    .   432 

Falkland 357 

Falliferes,  Armand,    ...     97 


PAGE 

FalstafT,  Sir  John,     ...  357 

Family  Library 318 

Famous  Poems 387 

Faneuil  Hall 531 

Farad 857 

Faraday,  Michael,     .    .    .  432 

Farce 201 

Fargo  College, 699 

Farm  products  in  U.  S.,  .  650 

Farragut,  D.  G 432 

Fata  Morgana, 357 

Fates 329 

Fathers  of  the  Church, .    .  712 

Fathoms 855,858 

Fatima 357 

Fauni 329 

Fauns, 329 

Faure,  Felix '.  95 

Faust 357 

Faustus,      .    .   ■ 357 

Fay 329 

F^nelon,  Francois,    .    .    .  432 

Fenian  Raid, 105 

Ferdinand 80,358 

1 432 

V.  of  Castile 432 

Ferns, 745 

Fessenden,  W.  P.,     ...  637 

Feudal  System 110 

.  In  France 67 

In  Italy 67 

In  Japan 124 

Knight  Service,     .    .    .110 

Land  Tenure 110 

Villeins 110 

Fichte,  Johann  G 433 

Fiction 199 

Names  in 343 

Fides 329 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,    .    .    .    .433 

David  D 433 

Eugene 433 

Marshall 433 

Stephen  J 640 

Fielding,  Henry,  .  .  2:6,433 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men,    .    .110 

Figures  of  Arithmetic, .    .  70 

Figures  of  Speech,  .  .  .  208 
Fillmore,  Millard, .  .  144,  433 
Finance: 

Aldrich  Currency   Bill,  109 

Banking 652 

Bank  of  England,     .    .  84 

Bank  of  Venice,    ...  74 

Coins  and  Coinage,   .    .  656 

Of  Nations 604 

Panic  of  1857 92 

Financial  Panic,    .    .  106,  109 

Findlay  College 699 

Fingal, 358 

Fingal's  Cave 732 

Finland: 

Area, .  604 

Capital, 605 

Ceded  to  Sweden,      .    .  83 

Debt 605 

Grand  Duke 605 

Illiteracy 714 

Population, 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Swedes  driven  out,   .    .  87 

Firdausi 433 

Fire  Engine,  First  portable,  669 

Fire  Insurance 664 

Opal 761 

First  Naval  Battle,  ...  57 

Fish,  Hamilton,     ....  636 

Fisher,  Harrison 433 

Fishes, 745 

Star 768 

Fiske,  John 306 

Minnie  Maddern,  .    .    .  433 

Fisk  University 699 

Fitch,  Clyde 433 

Flag,  United  States,     100,  789 

Flamingo 746 

Flat-fishes 746 

Flax 746 

Flaxseed,  Weight,     .    .    .  861 

Flea, 746 

Fleance 358 


PAGE 

Fletcher,  John,      .    .   295,  433 

Flint, 761 

Flint,  Austin 433 

Floating  Batteries,   .    .    .  670 

Flora 329 

Florence 531 

Florida 110 

Agricultural     Statistics 

of 648 

Area, 624 

Capital 626 

Ceded  to  Great  Britain,  99 

College 703 

Constitution 601 

Electoral  vote,  ....  627 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government,      ....  601 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

Huguenots, 110 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .      860-61 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 

Metropolis 625 

Ponce  de  Leon,      ...  110 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation.     .  627 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

University  of 702 

Voting  Population,  .    .  627 

Florizel 358 

Flounder 746 

Flour,  Adulteration  of,    .  645 

Flower 746 

Flowers,  State 854 

Floyd,  John  B 637 

Fluorine 694 

Fluorite 761 

Fluorspar, 761 

Fly 746 

Flying  Dutchman,    .    .    .  358 

Flying-fish, 746 

Flving-squirrel 747 

Folger,  Chas.  J 637 

Folk,  Joseph  W 433 

Folk-Tales 199 

Fontainebleau,    Treaty 

of, 164 

Fool,  Court 789 

Foraker,  Joseph  B.,      .    .  433 

Forces,   Correlation  of,    .  708 

Foreign  Coins 657 

Value  of 657 

Foreign      Commerce      of 

United  States,   .   662,  663 

Forestry 660 

Destruction  by  fire,  .    .  661 

Values 661 

Form,  In  letter  writing,    .  214 

Forrest,  Edwin,     ....  434 

Fort  Donelson,  Battle  of,  14 

Fort  Erie,  Battle  of,     .    .  14 

Fort  Fisher,  Battle  of,      .  14 

Fort  Gregg,  Battle  of,  .    .  14 

Fort  Moultrie,  Battle  of,  .  14 

Fort  Pillow,  Battle  of , .    .  14 

Fort;Schuyler,  Battle  of,  .  14 

Fort  Stedman,  Battle  of,.  14 

Fort  Sumter 158 

Fortuna 329 

Fortunatus 358 

Fortunio's  Horse,      .    .    .  358 

Fort  Wagner,  Battle  of,  .  14 

Fort  Worth  University,  .  699 

Forty  Thieves, 358 

Forum 110 

Forward,  Walter 637 

Foster,  Charles 637 

John  W 434 

Foundation  of  Roman  Law,  39 

Fouqu^,  Karl 290 

Fowls,  in  United  States,  649 

Fox 747 

Fox,  Charles  J., ^ 434 

George 434 

Foxe,  John, 295 

Foxes 852 

France 67,110,531 

Agincourt,  Battle  of,  .  79 

Alliance  with  America,  87 


INDEX 


879 


PAGE 

France — Con.: 

Area ,  •    •   ^21 

Aristocracy,  Rise  of,     .     68 

Bonaparte Ill 

Burgundy,  Annexed,  .  73 
Canada,  Loss  of,    .    .    .     87 

Canals 652 

Capital 605 

Carlovingian  Dynasty,  110 
Castile,  War  with,     .    .     77 

Charlemagne 110 

Charles  VII.,  Crowned,     81 
Church  and  State,  Sep- 
aration of, 97 

Cities 532 

Civil  Wars 71 

Climate, 631 

Constitution,      ....    602 

Crdcy 527 

Crusades,    ....     75,111 

Debt 605 

Description, 531 

Directory 112 

Edict  of  Nantes,    ...     83 
Edict  of   Nantes   Re- 
voked,      85 

Empire,  The,     .    ..    •    .    148 
Exposition  in  Paris,     .     93 
Franco-Prussian  War, 

94,112,115,139 
Franks,    .......    110 

French  Occupy  Mexico,    93 

Fronde,  The Ill 

Henry  II HI 

House  of  Deputies,  .  .  602 
House  of  Valois,  .  .  .  Ill 
Hugh  Capet,  .  .  .  110,415 
Hugh  the  Great,  Duke,      71 

Illiteracy 714 

Invasion  of  Holland,  .  85 
Joan  of  Arc,  .....  81 
Kingdom  Divided,    .    .     68 

Kings  of, 147 

Legislature, 602 

Literature, 292 

Lorraine  Annexed,    .    .     71 

Louis  IX.,      77 

XIV., Ill 

XV. Ill 

XVI. Ill 

Louis  Philippe 112 

Lyons, 640 

Manufactures 632 

Marie  Antoinette,     .    .    Ill 

Marseilles 642 

Maximilian,      Emperor 

of  Mexico, 93 

Merchant  Marine,  .  .  674 
Ministry,  .....  602 
Morocco,  and,    ....     97 

Napoleon  I. 112 

III., 112 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  .  87 
Napoleonic  Wars,  87,  112 
Natural  Features,     .    .   631 

Navy, 848 

Notre  Dame  Rebuilt,  .  73 
Occupies  Morocco,    .    .     97 

Orleans, 651 

Panama  Scandals,     .    .     95 

Paris, 554,582 

Peace  of  Utrecht,  .  .  87 
Poitiers,  Battle  of,     .   .     79 

Population, 604 

President, 605 

President    Loubet    in 

England, 97 

Presidents  of,     ....    147 

Productions, 531 

Protestantism,  .  .  .  .111 
Religious  Wars,  ...  83 
Republics,  The,  ...  148 
Revolt  of  F'lemings,  .  79 
Revolution,  The,  ...    112 

Rheims,      563 

Richelieu, 83 

Rivalry  with  England,       75 
St.  Bartholomew,  Mas- 
sacre of,    .    .   83,  111,  153 

Senate,    . 602 

Separation  Law,  ...  112 
Siege  of  Paris,    ....     85 


France — Con.: 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

States-General,  First,  .  79 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Talleyrand,  Death  of,    .  91 

Teutonic  Language  in,  68 

Tours,  Council  of,     .    .  81 

Under  Napoleon,  ...  89 

Universities, Ill 

War  with  Charles  V.,   .  83 
War  with  England,  ".    75,  79 
William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy,      73 

Wine   Growers'    Agita- 
tion,   . 97 

Wines 631 

Francis,  David  R 638 

Francis  II.  (Joseph  Charles), 

9,434 

Franconia,  House  of,    .   .  149 
Franco-Prussian  War, 

94,112,115,139 

Frankenstein, 358 

Frankfort,  Treaty  of,    .    .  164 

Franklin,  Battle  of,      .    .  14 
Franklin,  Benjamin,    304,  434 

Death  of, 101 

Discovers  Electricity,  .  86 
Franklin     and     Marshall 

College, 699 

Franklin  College: 

Indiana, 699 

Ohio, 699 

Franks 65,  110 

Defeat  of,  by  Constan  tine,  65 

Form  a  Kingdom,     .    .  66 

Master  Batavia,    ...  65 

Fraternities,  Chapters,     .  697 

College, 697 

For  Men, 697 

For  Women, 697 

Foundation  of 697 

Greek  Letter,     ....  697 

Houses, 697 

Membership 697 

Frederick  I., 114 

II 434 

Charles 434 

Fredericksburg,  Battle  of,  14 

Fredericksburg  College,   .  699 

Free  Lovers 719 

Freeman,  E.  A.,     .    .   297,  435 

Freemasonry, 789 

Degrees  in, 789 

Scottish  Rites 789 

York  Rite, 789 

Fremont's  Peak,    ....  547 

Freeport,  Sir  Andrew, .    .  358 

Free  Silver, 108 

Frelinghuysen,  F.  T..    .    .  636 

French,  Daniel  C 435 

French : 

Africa 508 

Authors, 292 

Civil  War 138 

Consulate, 148 

Drama, 293 

Empire,  The,      ....  148 
First     Settlement     in 

America 98 

In  Mississippi  Valley,    .  180 

Languages 184 

Restoration,  The, .    .    .  148 

Troubadours 293 

Words  and  Phrases,  263-267 

Written  Language,    .   .  72 

French-America,    ....  98 

Champlain, 98 

Quebec  Founded,  ...  98 

French  and  Indian  War,  168 

French  Literature,     .    .    .  292 

History 295 

Poetry 292 

Politics 295 

Prose, 292 

Representative  Works,  292 

Romance 294 

Under  Feudalism,     .    .  294 

Under  Louis  XIV.,  .    .  294 

French  Revolution,  .    112,  139 

Danton 113 

First,  The 112 


PA.GB 

French  Revolution  —  Con.: 

Girondists, 113 

Great  Days  of,  .    .    .    .112 

Leaders  of 112 

Robespierre 113 

Frey 330 

Freyja 330 

Friar  Lawrence,    ....  358 

Friar's  Tale 368 

Friar  Tuck 358 

Frick,  Henry  C 435 

Friday, 358 

Friends,  Society  of,  .    .    .  712 

Frigga 330 

Frisians, 113 

Froebel,  F., 435 

Frog 733,  747 

Fronde Ill,  113 

Front  de  Boeuf 358 

Froude,  J.  A.,    .    .    .   297,  435 
Fruits  in  United  States: 

Small 650 

Sub-tropical 650 

Frye,  William  P.,  .    .    .    .  435 

Fudge  Family 368 

Fugitive  Slave  Law, ...  90 
Fuller,  Melville  W.,  .   435,  640 

Fuller's  Earth 656 

Fulton,  Robert,     ....  435 

Clermont 1,01 

Funston,  Fred,  .    .    .    142,  435 

Furman  University, .    .    .  699 

Furies 330 

Gabriel, 359 

Gadolinium, 694 

Gadsden  Purchase,   ...  90 

Gage,  Lyman  J.,    .    .    .    .  637 

Gaines  Mill,  Battle  of,      .  14 

Gainsborough,  Thomas,    .  435 

Galahad 359 

Galatea 359 

Gale  College, 699 

Galen,  Claudius 435 

Galilei,  Galileo 435 

Gallatin,  Albert 637 

Gallaudet,  T.  H.,  .    .    .    .  435 

Gallaudet  College,     ...  699 

Gallic  War 138 

Gallinger,  Jacob  H.,      .    .  435 

Gallium 694 

Galvani,  Luigi 436 

Galvanized  Iron,  ....  669 

Galvanometer, 669 

Galveston,  Great  Flood, .  108 

Gambetta,  Ldon  M.,     .    .  436 

Ganelon,  Sir,      359 

Ganges  River,    .    .    .    532, 565 

Ganymede 330 

Garcia,  Pedro, 359 

Garde  Nationale 113 

Garden : 

Of  Eden, 789 

Of  England 789 

Of  Erin 789 

Of  Europe 789 

Of  France 789 

Of  Gethsemane,     .    .    .  789 

Of  Helvetia 789 

Of  India 790 

Of  Spain, 790 

Of  the  East, 790 

Of  the  West, 790 

Gardens  of  the  World, .    .  789 

Gardiner,  Samuel  R.,   .    .  436 

Gareth,  Sir 359 

Garfield,  James  A.,  .    144,  436 

Shot 106 

Garfield,  James  R 436 

Garfield's  Assassination,  .  177 

Garfish 737 

Gargantua, 359 

Garibaldi,  ...     91,  123,436 

And  the  Papal  States,  93 

Death  of 95 


Garland,  Augustus  H., 

Garnet, 

Garrick,  David,  . 
Garrison,  William  L 
Gas,  Illuminating, 
Gas  Engine,  .  .  . 
Gas  Meter,  .  .  . 
Gaskell,  Elizabeth, 


638 
761 
436 
436 
668 
671 
669 
436 


PAGB 

Gastein,  Convention  of,   .  164 

Gaston  College 703 

Gates,  Horatio 436 

Catling,  R.  J 436 

Gatling  Gun 671 

Gaul,  Conquest  of,    .    .    .  63 

Gauss,  Karl  F 436 

Gautama 330 

Gawain,  Sir, 359 

Gazelle, 747 

Geijer,  Erik, 287 

Gemini 330 

Genesis 280 

Geneva  Award 106 

Geneva  College,     ....  699 
Geneva  Convention,     .    .113 

Genevieve 359 

Genevra 359 

Gengis  Khan 77,  436 

Genii 330,  359 

Genoa, 532 

Genseric 66,  436 

Geographical  Measure,     .  855 

Geography, 507 

George, 437 

George  V., 437 

George,  Henry 437 

Georgetown  University,  .  699 
George  Washington  Uni- 
versity,     699 

Georgia: 

AgriculturalStatisticsof,  648 

Area 624 

Capital, 626 

Constitution 602 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .  667 

Government,      ....  602 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

History,      113 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,      .    .  860-61 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 

Metropolis 625 

Population,    .    .    .    .    .  625 

Property  Valuation,     .  627 

School  of  Technology, .  704 

Statutes  of  Limitation, .  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,  .    .  627 

Georgics, 359 

Gerahs 858 

Geranium 747 

German : 

Africa, 508 

Authors 289 

College 699 

Confederation 92 

Drama, 291 

Poetry 289 

Prose  works 289 

Scientists 292 

Words  and  phrases,  263-267 
German  Empire: 

Area 532 

Bundesrath 602 

Cities 532 

Climate 632 

Constitution 602 

Debt 605 

Diet 602 

Emperor .602 

Government 602 

Heir  Apparent -602 

Ministry, 602 

Physical  features,      .    .  532 

Population, 532 

Productions 532 

Reichstag, 602 

Sea  Ports, 532 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

States  of 532 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Germanic  Confederations,  150 

Germanium, 694 

German  Literature,  .    .    .  289 

Philosophy 291 

Representative  works, .  289 
German   Nations,   Migra- 
tion of 62 


880 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


I 


PAGE 

Germany, 602 

Bavaria  seized,      ...     86 
Beginning  of  Reforma- 
tion  80 

BerUn 518 

Bismarck 114,407 

Bohemia  annexed,    .    .     71 

Canals, 653 

Charlemagne,  .  .  113,418 
Confederation,  The,  .  .  114 
Conrad  II.,  Emperor,  .  73 
Emperors  of,  ....  149 
Emperor  visits  London,  96 
First   coalition   against 

France 86 

Franco-Prussian  War, 

115,  139 

Frederick  1 114 

Germanic  Nations,    .    .    114 

Hamburg, 536 

Henry  III 114 

Henry  V.  and  the  Pope,     75 

History 113 

House  of  Austria  estab- 
lished,      81 

Illiteracy, 714 

Invaded    by    Gustavus 

Adolphus 84 

Invasion  of  Hungarians,    71 
Invasion  of  the  Turks,     80 
Italy  united  to  the  Em- 
pire  73 

Literature, 289 

Louis  I.,  king 71 

Luther's  Bible 291 

Lutzen,  Battle  of,  .  .  84 
Maximilian  I.,  .  .  .  .  80 
Merchant  Marine,  .  .  674 
Modern  Literature,  .  .291 
Morocco,  and,    ....     96 

Munich 548 

Napoleon,  and, .  .  .  .  114 
Napoleon's    Austrian 

Campaign 86 

Navy, 848 

Order  of  Knights,  .  .  291 
Popes  and  the  Empire,  75 
Prince  Eugene,  •  •.  •  84 
Prince      Henry      visits 

United  States,   ...     96 
Protestant  Reformation,  114 

Prussia, 56' 

Resignation  of  Bismarck,  94 

Rhine,  The 563 

Roman  Law  abolished,  96 
Rome  taken,  ....  /7 
Seven  Years'  War,  86,  139 
Social  Democrats,  .  .  115 
Subdued  by  Germanicus,  64 
Swiss  Insurrection,  .  .  79 
Thirty  Years'  War,  114,  138 
Troops  defeated  in  Af- 

96 

Vv  ^  Austrian 

Suci-v  .     .   51,  86,  139 

Geryon 330 

Gesta  Roma   orv  .   359 

Gettysburg,  Batt.t  U,  115 

Soldiers'  Monun'       ,     .   106 

Ghent,  Tr>.  *"  of  .        164 

Ghibellines 115 

Giants 330,  790 

Notable 790 

Giant's  Causeway,  .  533,  732 
Gibbon,  Edward,  .  296,  437 
Gibbons,  Cardinal,    .    .    .   437 

Gibraltar 533 

Taken  by  English,    .    .     84 
Gibson,  Charles  Dana,      .  437 

Gilbert  Peak .647 

Gil  Bias 360 

Gildersleeve,  B.  L.,  .    .    .   437 

Gilead,  Balm  of 730 

Gilman,  Daniel  C 437 

Gilmer,  Thomas  W.,  .  .  639 
Gilpin,  Henry  D.,  .   .    .    .   638 

John, 360 

Giotto,  A.  B 437 

Giraffe 747 

Girard,  Stephen 437 

Girondists 113, 115 

Glaciers, 533 


PAGE 

Gladden,  Washington,      .   437 
Gladiatorial  War,      ...    138 
Gladiators,     .    .    .    .    .    .116 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart, 

53,  438 
Death  of,    .....    .     94 

Glasgow, 633 

Glasgow,  Ellen 438 

Glendale  College 703 

Glenn,  Robert  B 438 

Glucinum 694 

Gnome 330,360 

Gnu,  see  Antelope,    .    .    .   729 

Goat 747 

Gobbo,  Launcelot,    .    .    .   360 

Goblins 360 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,    .    .  438 

Gods 323 

Greek 323 

Roman 323 

Superior 323 

God  Save  the  King,    .    .   360 

God's  Truce 116 

Goethe,  J.  W.,  .    .    .   290,  438 

Goff,  Nathan,  Jr 639 

Gold 694,748 

Coin 61 

Coins, 656 

Discovered  in  California,  90 
Discovery  in  Australia,  91 
Mining  in  Brazil,  ...  99 
Premium,  at  high,    .    .   106 

Gold  Bug 360 

Golden  Apples 330 

Golden  Fleece 330 

Golden  Legend 360 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  .  296,  438 
Gomorrah,  .  .  ,  .  .  130 
Gompers,  Samuel,  .  .  .  438 
Gonzaga  College : 

Spokane,  Was"       .    .    .   699 

Washington,  "     C,   .  19 

Goodwin,  Na"ianiel  C,  58 

William  V. ,8 

Goody  Blake ".0 

Goodyear,  Charles,  .  .  .48 
Goody  Two-Shoes,    ...   360 

Goose 748 

Goose,  Barnacle,  ....   732 

Gophers, 8.33 

Gordian  Knot,  ....  '0 
Gordon,  General,  .    .     93,    6S 

George  A 438 

Gorgons 330 

Gorky,  Maxim 439 

Gothic,  Architecture,    .    .   512 

Bible 289 

Goths 66,116 

Defeat  Romans,    ...     66 

Theodoric 116 

Gould,  George  J 439 

Helen  M 439 

Gounod,  Charles  F.,      .    .   439 

Government 585 

Governor-General,  of 

Canada,      591 

Governor-General,  of 

India 606 

Governors : 

Length  of  Term,   .    .    .   626 

Salaries  of 626 

Governors-General,    of 

Canada, 151 

Graal,  Holy 360 

Gracchus,  Caius  S.,  .  .  .  439 
Graceland  College,    .    .    .   699 

Graces,  The 330 

Gradgrind 360 

Graham,  George,  ....   637 

William  A 639 

Grain  Binder, 671 

Grand  Canyon 533 

Grand  Duke  of  Finland,  .  605 
Grand  Island  College,  .  .  699 
Grandison,  Sir  Charles,  .  360 
Grand  Vizier  of  Turkey,  .  632 
Granger,  Francis,  ....   638 

Gideon, 638 

Grant,  Frederick  D.,     .    .   439 

Ulysses  S 144,439 

Graphophone '.   672 

Grass  Seed,  in  U.  S.,     .    .   650 


PAGE 

Grattan,  Henry 439 

Gray,  Asa 439 

George 439 

Horace 640 

Thomas 296,  439 

Great  Britain 533 

Accession   of   Edward 

VII 96 

Boer  War 27,  96 

Boyne,  Battle  of  the,   .  84 

Canals 653 

Civil  War 84 

Crimean  War,    .    .     92,  139 
Cromwell,  Protector,    .  84 
Death  of  Victoria,     .    .  96 
First    United    Parlia- 
ment   86 

Flodden,  Battle  of.  .  .  80 
Habeas  Corpus  Act, .  .  84 
House  of  York, ....  80 
Independence  of  Amer- 
ican Colonies  Ac- 
knowledged, ....  86 
Invasion  of  France,  .  .  80 
Japanese  Alliance,    .    .  96 

Kafir  War 90 

Lord  Curzon  Resigns,    .  96 

Navy 848 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  88 

Railroads  in, 674 

Rebellion  in  India,    .    .  92 

Repeal  of  Corn-Laws,  .  90 

Surrender  of  Cornwallis,  86 
Union  of  England  and 

Ireland, 86 

Victoria,  Queen,     ...  90 

Wars  of  the  Roses,    80,  138 
War   with    the   Ameri- 
can Colonies, .    .     86,139 

War  of  1812, ...      88,  139 

Great-heart,  Mr 361 

Grecian  Republics,    ...  59 

Greco-Persian  War,  .    .    ,  138 

Greco-Roman  War,  .    .    .  138 
Greece: 

Alexander 116 

Area 604 

Army 603 

Athens 116,515 

Capital 605 

Congress  of  Berlin, .  .    .  117 

Conquered  by  Turks,    .  1 16 
Constitution,.    .    .     91,603 

Debt 605 

Government 603 

Heir  Apparent, ....  603 

Illiteracy 714 

Independence,    ...    .  116 

Insurrection 93 

King 605 

Kingdom  of.  Founded, .  89 

Messenian  Wars,    .  .    .  116 

Ministry 603 

Navy 848 

Olympiad 116 

Olympic  Games,    ...  116 
Persian  Invasion,  .    .    .116 

Philosophy 283 

Population 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 
War  with  Turkey,     .    .117 
Greek : 

Architects 511 

Architecture, 511 

Authors 282 

Church, 713 

Drama 284 

Gods 323 

Historians 284 

Literature 282 

Mourning  Customs,  .    .  796 

Oratory 284 

Orders  of  Architecture,  511 

Science 284 

Words  and  Phrases,  255-263 
Greek  Independence, 

War  of, 167 

Greeley,  Horace,   ....  440 

Green,  J.  R 297,  440 

Greenbacks 105 

Greene,  Nathanael,  .    .    .  440 


PAGE 

Greensboro  College,  .  .  .  703 
Greenville  College,  .  .  .  699 
Gregorian  Calendar, ...     33 

Gregory  I.,  Pope 440 

VII 440 

Gr^vy,  Francois 440 

Jules, .     95 

Grey,  Lady  Jane, ....  440 
Grier,  Robert  C,  .    .    .    .   640 

Griffin, 36) 

Griggs,  James  M.,.    .    .    .   44f 

John  W 6c 

Grimm,  Jacob,  .    .    .   290, 4- 

Wilhelm, 2 

Griswold,  Roger 6. 

Grosbeak 7'. 

Grosvenor,  Charles  H.,    .   44l 

Edwin  A 440 

Grote,  George,  .  .  -.  297,  440 
Grotius,  Hugo,  ....  440 
Grouchy,  Marquis  de,  .  .  440 
Grove  City  College,  ...  699 
Grow,  Galusha  A.,    .    .    .   64C 

Grub  Street 361 

Grundy,  Felix 63^ 

Grundy,  Mrs 36' 

Guatemala: 

Area 6C 

Capital, 6C 

Debt, 6C 

Population 61 

President, 6( 

Standard  of  Currency, .   6( 

Guelphs, 11 

Guericke,  Otto  von,  ...   44 
Guffey,  James  M.,     .    .    .   44t 

Guido  Reni, 441 

Guildhall,  London,  .  .  .  81J 
Guilford  C.  H.,  Battle  of,       15 

Guilford  College 699 

Guinea  Pig 748 

Guiscard,  Robert 441 

Guiteras,  John 441 

Guizwt,  Francois,  .    .     95,  441 

Gulf  Stream 536 

Gulliver,  Lemuel 361 

Gun,  Breech-loading,    .    .   668 

Cotton 670 

Gunpowder  at  Cressy,  .    .     78 

Gunpowder  Plot 117 

Guns 776 

Gustavus, 441 

Adolphus 162 

Gustavus   Adolphus   Col.- 

lege 699 

Gustavus  Vasa,  ....  83 
Gutenberg,  Johann,  .  .  .  441 
Guthrie,  James,  ....  637 
Guy  Mannering,    ....   361 

Guyot,  Arnold 441 

Gypsies,      790 

Habeas  Corpus,  .  .84,596 
Habersham,  Joseph,  .  .  638 
Habsburg : 

Founded 77 

House  of 117,149 

Hades 330 

Hadley,  A.  T 441 

Haeckel,  E.  H 441 

Hafiz 278 

Haggard,  Henry  Rider,    .   441 

Hague,  The 536 

Treaty 164 

Hahnemann,  C.  S 441 

Hale,  E.  E 305,  441 

Eugene, 441 

Sir  Matthew 441 

Halifax 536 

Hall,  Nathan  K 638 

Stanley, 441 

Hall  of  Fame 790 

Hallam,  Henry,     .    .   296,  441 

Raman 442 

Hamburg 532,  536 

Hamburg  League,  .  .  .  164 
Hamilcar  Barca,  ....  442 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  .    .    44r 

Killed  in  Duel 10 

Hamilton,  Paul 63 

Sir  William 44 

Hamilton  College,     ...   69 
Hamlet 36 


INDEX 


881 


PAGE 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,    .   .    .  442 

Hamline    University, 

Minnesota, 699 

Hammond,  James  B.,  .    .  442 

John  H., 442 

Hampden,  John 442 

Hampden-Sidney  College,  699 

Hancock,  John 442 

Winfield  S 442 

;Handel,  George  F.,   ...  442 

f  .Hanly,  J.  Frank 442 

'Hanna,  Marcus  A 442 

'Hannibal 61,442 

"ianover  College 699 

,;  tianover  C.  H.,  Battle  of,  15 

''Hanover,  House  of,  .   .    .  151 

Hanseatic  League,     .     77,  117 

Hanse  Towns 117 

Hans  Sachs 80,  289 

Hapgood,  Norman,  .    .    .  442 

Hardcastle,  Mr.,     ....  361 

,  Hardin  College 703 

'  Hard  Times 361 

,  Hardy,  A.  S..     .....  306 

<      Thomas 297.442 

-Haricot 733 

,  Harlan,  James, 638 

'  •  John  M 442 

:Harlowe,  Clarissa,     .    .    .  361 

Harmon,  Judson,       .    .    .  443 

Harmony,  in  Music, .    .    .  719 

Harney  Peak 547 

'Harold,  Childe 361 

-  Harold  1 443 

';      II., 443 

',  HaToun  Al-Rasehid, 
jJ  282,362,443 

'  Harper,  William  R.,      .    .  443 

Harpies,      .......  331 

Harriman,  E.  H 443 

Harris,  Joel  C, 443 

Harrison,  Benjamin,     144,  443 

Robert  H.,     ....'.  640 
W.  H.,  .    ...    .    .      144, 443 

Hart,  Albert  B. 443 

Harte,  Bret 306,  443 

Hartebeest,  see  Antelope,  729 
Hartford  Convention,  .  .791 
Harvard,  John,      .    .     98,443 

Harv;  rd  University,     .    .  699 

Harvey,  George  B.  M.,     .  443 

Harvey,  William 443 

Discovers    Circulation 

of  the  Blood,      ...  82 
Hastings,  Battle  of,  .    .   22,  72 

Hastings,  Warren,    .    .    .  443 

Hastings  College,  ....  699 

Hatcher's  Run,  Battle  of,  15 

Hatto 362 

Havana 536 

Haverford  College,  ...  699 
Hawaii: 

Annexation 94 

Honolulu 537 

Legal  Weights,     .    .   860-61 
Hawaiian  Islands: 

Area, 625 

Capital 624 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Hawkeyes, 852 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel, 

304,  444 

Hay,  John, 444 

Haydn,  Joseph,     ....  444 

Hayes,  R.  B.,     ...    144,  444 

Hay  in  United  States, .    .  649 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,    .    .    .  444 

Great  Speech  of,    .    .    .  102 
Hay  ti : 

Area 604 

Capital, 605 

Constitution,      ....  603 

Debt .  605 

Dominican  Republic,    .  601 

Government,      ....  603 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Religion  of 603 

Republic  of 603 

'      Revolt  against  French,  101 

'      Soulouque,  President,  .  91 


PAGE 

Hayti — Con. : 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Hazlitt,  William 444 

Hearst,  Phoebe 444 

William  R., 444 

Heart, 713 

Heart  of  Midlothian,    .    .   362 

Hebe 331 

Hebrew,  Language,  .  .  .  184 
Literature,  .  .  .  277,279 
Old  Testament,     .    .    .   280 

Poetry 281 

Hebrews, 54 

Hecate 331 

Hector 331 

Hecuba 331 

Hedin,  Sven  A.,    .    .    .    .   444 

Heep,  Uriah 362 

Hegel,  G.  W 290,  444 

Heidelberg  University,     .   699 

Heimdal 331 

Heine,  Heinrich,    ....   444 

Helena, 362 

Helen  of  Troy,  ...      56,  331 

Helicon 331 

Heliography, 669 

Helios 331 

Heliotrope, 76 1 

Helium, 694 

Hell  Gate, 536 

Helmet  of  Hades,      .    .    .331 

Helmets 776 

Helmholtz,  H.  L 444 

Helvetii 117 

Hemans,  Felicia  D.,      .    .   444 

Hematite, 761 

Henderson,  David  B.,  .  .  640 
Henderson  College,   .    .    .   699 

Hendrix  College 699 

Heney,  F.  J 444 

Hennepin.  Louis 445 

Henry  1 46,  150,  445 

II 47,  150,445 

III 47,151,445 

IV.,      ....      48,151,445 

v., 48,78.151 

VI., 48,78,151 

VII 48,  151,  445 

VIII 49,  151,  445 

Henry  II.  of  France, 

111.  1   3,445 
IV.,      ....    111,148,445 
Henry  IV.  of  Gi«,'many, 

■■'    -75,  14P-  445 

v.,  .    .    .    .<;;         .  ■114-,Q49 

Henry,  Joseph,--        ....   44^ 

Patrick,  .  .f'' 445 

Henry  Kendall  College,  .  69& 
Henshaw,  David,  ....  639 
Hepburn,  William  P.,  .    .   445 

Hera,  .    .    .\ 331' 

Heraclidffv:i.'     '  .    ...    .    .331 

Herbert,  H/  iry  A„  .    .    .   639 

Victor, 445 

Herculaneum,  .  .  .  129, 576 
Herculean  Knot,  .    .    .    .331 

Hercules 331 

Hermann  and   Dorothea,  362 

Hermes 331 

Hermione, 331 

Hernani, 362 

Hero  and  Leander,   .    .    .   362 

Herodotus 282,445 

Herod  the  Great,      .    .    .   445 

Death  of , 64 

Heroes,  Deified 323 

Herschel,   Sir   William,    .   445 

Hesiod 282 

Hesperides 331 

Hesse, 532 

Hessians, 86 

Hezekiah 446 

Hiawatha 362 

Hieroglyphics,  ...  88, 282 
Higginson,  Henry  Lee,     .    446 

Thomas  W 305,446 

Highland  University,  .  .  699 
Hildreth,  Richard,    .    .    .   446 

Hill,  David  J., 446 

James  J 446 

Hillman  College,    .    .    .    •  703 


PAQE 

Hillsdale  College 699 

Himalayas,  The,    ....  536 

Hindu  Philosophy,    .    .    .  278 

Hindustan 537 

Hippolyta 332 

Hippolytus 332 

Hippopotamus 748 

Hiram  College 699 

History 198 

Abyssinia,       9 

Afghanistan,      ....  10 

Agrarian  Agitation,  .    .  11 

Alabama, 11 

Alemanni 11 

Alexander  to  Birth  of 

Christ,  From,     ...  60 

Arabia, 19 

Argentine  Republic,     .  20 

Arkansas 20 

Armada, 21 

Assembly, 21 

Assyria,       21 

Austria-Hungary,      .    .  22 

Babylonia 57 

Belgium 22 

Birth  of  Christ  to  Pres- 
ent Time, 54 

Bishops  and   Popes   of 

Rome 23 

Blue  Laws 27 

Boer  War, 27 

Bohemia 29 

Boii, 30 

Boxer  Rebellion,  ...  30 

Brazil, 31 

Burmah 32 

Cade's  Rebellion,  ...  33 

Calendar 33 

California 33 

Caliph 34 

Canada, 34 

Carthage 35 

Charter  Oak 35 

Chile 35 

China 35 

Christian  Era  to  Fall  of 

Rome, 64 

Cisalpine  Republic,  .    .  36 

Cispadane  Republic,     .  36 

Colorado, 36 

Confederation     of     the 

Rhine 37 

Connecticut 37 

Consul 37 

Consulate 37 

Continental  System,     .  37 

Convention 37 

Corea 37 

Creation    to    Birth    of 

Christ,  From,     ...  54 

Creation  to  Deluge,  .    .  54 

Crimean  War 38 

Crusades, 38 

Cuba 38 

Decemviri 39 

Decisive  Battles  of,  .    .  22 
Defenestration  of  Prague,  39 

Delaware 39 

Deluge, 39 

Deluge  to  Time  of  Moses,  54 
Deposed  Kings  of  Eng- 
land   41 

Deposfed  Kings  of  France,  41 

Dictator, 41 

Directory,  The,      ...  41 

District  of  Columbia,    .  41 

Divine  Right  of  Kings,  42 

Dominican  Republic,    .  42 

Dorr  Rebellion      ...  42 

Druids 42 

Eastern  Empii.,  42.65 

Ecuador,     .    .  '  " 

Edict  o*  Nantc      ....n .  .  42 
Egi'p^  ,        .,.  ■     .    .   43,57 

E'3f .  >,:    I'he,  •■■:    ...  44 
E.nant  iiAtlon     Procra- 

matlor. ,..'...  44 
England,     .         .    .    .    .  45 
Events  of  Human  Prog- 
ress,       54 

France 67 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  67 
•    d 


PAGE 

History — Con.: 

Greece, 68 

Hebrews, 64 

Israel, 66 

Italy  and  the  Church,   .     67 

Judah, 56 

Judea 60 

Moses  to  Cyrus,     ...     55 
Outline  of  New  World,     98 

Parthia 60 

Rome 68 

Syria,      60 

Western  Empire,  ...     65 
Hitchcock,  Ethan  A.,  .    .   638 

Hoang-Ho  River 565 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  R 638 

George  F.,      446 

Hobart  College,  ....  699 
Hobbes,  Thomas,  ...  .  .  446 
Hobson,  Richmond  P.,  .  446 
Hobson's  Choice,  ....  791 
Hodges,  George,    ....   446 

Hoe,  Robert, 446 

Hohenstauffens,  ....  149 
Hohenzollern,  House  of,  .  150 
Holdberg,  Ludwig,  .  .  .  288 
Holidays : 

In  United  States, .    .    .   791 

Old  English 792 

Holland, 117,548 

Beginning  of  Republic,     83 

Canals 652 

Cities 548 

Description 548 

Hague,  The 536 

John  de  Witt 85 

Kingdom  of, 117 

Louis   Napoleon,  King,     89 
Merchant  Marine,      .    .   674 

Navy, 848 

Netherlands 117 

Possessions, 548 

Productions,      ....   548 
Receives  a  Constitution,    91 

Rotterdam, 567 

Van  Tromp,   .....     85 

Wilhelmina,  Queen,.    .     95 

Holland,  J.  G.,      .    .   305,  323 

Hollins  Institute 703 

Holmes,  O.  W.,     .    .   305,  446 

Holofernes 362 

Hoist,  Hermann 446 

Holt,  Joseph 637,  638 

Holy  Alliance,  .  89,117,164 
Holy  Cross  College,  ...  699 
Holy  Ghost  College, ...   699 

HolyGraal 360 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  .    .    118 

Homer 56,282,446 

Iliad, 283,363 

Home  Rule  League,  .  .  118 
Homestead,  Exemption  of, 

667 

Homilies 362 

Honduras : 

Area, 604 

Capital 605 

Debt, 605 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Honeymoon 793 

Hong-Kong, 637 

Honolulu, 637 

Honor,  Legion  of,     ...   793 

Hood,  Thomas 297 

Hoosac,  Mt., 637 

Tunnel 637 

Hoosiers, 852 

Hope  College 699 

Hopeful 362 

Hopkins,  Mark 447 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  .  .  447 
Hop-o'-My-Thumb,  ...  362 
Hops  in  United  States,    .   650 

Horace 284,447 

Horffi 332 

Hornaday,  W.  T 447 

Hornbrook, 362 

Horner,  Jack, 362 

Horoscope 793 


882 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


78, 


PAGE 

748 
820 
713 
447 
856 


81,  140 
.  150 
.  148 
32 
.  148 
.  590 
.  362 
.   149 

114,  149 
.  151 
.   150 

126,  151 
.  690 
.  150 
.  149 
.  149 
.  148 
.  150 
149 
.  149 
149 
.  151 
.  148 
.   151 


633 


Horse 

Horse-Latitudes,  . 
Horse-power,  .  .  . 
Hosmer,  Harriet,  . 
Household  Measure, 
House : 

Of  Austria,  . 
Of  Bavaria, . 
Of  Bourbon, 
Of  Brunswick 
Of  Capet.      . 
Of  Commons, 
Of  Fame,      . 
Of  Franconia, 
Of  Habsburg, 
Of  Hanover, 
Of  HohenzoUern, 
Of  Lancaster 
Of  Lords,      . 
Of  Lorraine, 
Of  Luxemburg 
Of  Nassau,   . 
Of  Orleans,  . 
Of  Palatinate, 
Of  Romanoff, 
Of  Ruric,  .    . 
Of  Saxony,  . 
Of  Stuart,     . 
Of  Valois,     . 
Of  York,  .    . 
House    of     Representa- 
tives, United  States, 

Speakers  of, 640 

Houston,  Sam,     .    .    .  103,  447 

Howard,  John 447 

Howard  College,  .  .  .699 
Howard  Female  College,  703 
Howard  Payne  College: 

Missouri, 703 

Texas,  .    .  • 699 

Howard  University,  .  .  699 
Howe,  Julia  Ward, .     305,  447 

Howell,  Clark, 447 

Howells,  W.  D.,  .  .  305,  447 
Hubbard,  Elbert,  ...  447 
Hubbard,  Samuel  D.,  .  638 
Hubertsburg,  Treaty,     .      164 

Hudibras 363 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  .  179 
Hudson  River,  .  .  537, 565 
Hugh  Capet,  .  .  .  110,415 
Hughes,  Charles  E.,  447,  640 
Thomas,  ....  297,447 
Hugo,  Victor  M.,     .      295,  447 

Huguenots 118 

St.  Bartholomew,     HI,  118 

Hull,  Isaac 448 

Humbert,  King 95,97 

Humboldt,  Alexander  von, 

290, 448 
Hume,  David,  .  .  .  296,  448 
Humpty  Dumpty,  .  .  .  363 
Hunclred  Years'  War,  118,  138 

Hungary 118,537 

Area 604 

Autonomy  for,     ...        92 

Capital, 605 

Charter  of  Liberty,     .       77 

Debt 605 

Founded, 71 

Hussites,  ....      118,  119 

Illiteracy, 714 

King 605 

Kossuth 90,  119 

Magyars,  The 118 

Maria  Theressa,  ...  119 
National  Movement,  .  119 
Population,       ....     604 

Productions 537 

Protestant     Reforma- 
tion       118 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  604 
Union  with  Austria,'.  119 
War  with  Austria,  .    .      119 

Huns 65,  119 

And  China 119 

Attila 119 

Hunt,  Ward 640 

William  H 639 

Hunter,  John 448 

R.  M.  T 640 


PAGE 

Huron 537,  539 

Huron  College 699 

Huss,  Johann, 448 

Hussites 119 

Hussite  War 79,  138 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.,    297,  448 
Huyghens,  Christian,. .    .      448 

Hyacinth 761 

Hyacinthus, 332 

Hyde  Park 821 

Hydra 332 

Hydraulic  Dredge,  .    .    .     672 

Hydrogen, 694 

Hydrophobia : 

Cure  for 94 

Pasteur 94 

Hyena 749 

Hygeia, 332 

Hyksos 119 

Hymen, 332 

Hyndman  Peak 547 

Hypatia 363,448 

Hyperboreans 332 

Hyperion,     ....      332,363 

Hyphen, 190 

Hyrcanus,  John,  .    .    .  ■  .'     62 

lago, 363 

Ibsen,  Henrik,  .   .    .      289,  448 
Icemaking  Machine,    .    .      670 

Ida,  Mt., 332 

Idaho: 

Agricultural  Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Capital 626 

Constitution 603 

Electoral  Vote,  ...  627 
Exemption  Laws,  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  603 
Governor's  Salary,  .    .     626 

History, 119 

Interest  Laws  in,    .    .     666 
Jurisdiction      of      Jus- 
tices,      667 

Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-61 
Legislative  Statistics, .     627 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  627 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population, .    .     627 

Idiocrase 761 

Idomeneus, 332 

Idylls  of  the  King,  ...     363 

Iliad 283,363 

Ilium 130. 165,  821 

Illampu 547 

Illinois: 

Agricultural  Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Black  Hawk  War,  .    .      120 

Capital, 626 

College 699 

Constitution 603 

Electoral  Vote,    ...     627 

Executive 603 

Exemption  Laws,  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  603 
Governor's  Salary,  .   .     626 

History 119 

Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices, 

667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-61 
Legislative  Statistics, .      627 

Legislature 603 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  627 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,    626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,  .  627 
Wesleyan  University, .  699 
Woman's  College,    .    .      703 

Illiteracy 714 

II  Trovatore 385 

Immaculate  "Conception 

College 699 


PAGE 

Immigration: 

Chinese  Prohibited,     .  107 

To  United  States,  .    .  793 

Imogen * .    .  363 

Implements,  Agricultural,  647 
Imports: 

Principal  Countries,    .  663 

Imports  of  U.  S.,    .    .    .  663 

Articles 663 

By  Countries 663 

Quantities, 663 

Values 663 

Inachus 332 

Inauguration  Day, .    .    .  794 

Incandescent  Gaslight,  .  672 

Incas 120 

Pizarro 120 

Independence: 

Day 791 

Declaration  of,     ...  599 
Of  United  States,     169,  599 

Independents 706 

India 120,537 

Akbar, 83 

Area,.    .    .    i    .    .    .    .  604 

Bombay, 519 

Brahmanism,  ....  689 

.    Buddhism 689 

Burmah  Annexed,  .    .  95 

Calcutta 521 

Capital 605 

Cities 537 

Climate 537 

Congresses  in 120 

Debt 605 

Description, 537 

East  India  Company, 

83,  120 

Emperor 605 

English  in 120 

Famine 120 

French  in 120 

Government 606 

Governor-General,  .    .  606 

Insurrection 91 

Invasions  of,    ...    .  120 

Literature 277 

Lord  Clive 120 

Mogul  Power,  ....  85 

Population 604 

Portuguese  in 120 

Productions 537 

Standard  of  Currency,  604' 

Stock  of  Money,      .    .  604 

Taj  Mahal,       ....  574 

Vegetation, 537 

Viceroy 606 

Victoria,  Empress  of, .  120 
Warren  Hastings,  First 

Governor 87 

{ndian: 

Empire 606i 

Ocean 538 

Tongues 183 

Wars 168 

Indiana, 120 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 626 

Constitution,    ....  606 

Electoral  Vote,    ...  627 

Executive 606 

Exemption  Laws,    .    .  667 

Government 606 

Governor's  Salary,  .    .  626 

Indian  War 120 

Interest  Laws  in,     .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,    .    .    860-62 

Legislative  Statistics, .  627 

Legislature 606 

Metropolis, 625 

Population,       ....  625 

Property  Valuation,    .  627 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

University. 699 

Voting  Population,     .  627 
Indianapolis,    .    .    .     538, 582 

Indian  Universit.v,  .     .     .  699 

India  Rubber 664 


PAGE 

India  Rubber,  Vulcanized,  664 


Indicolite, 
Indium,  .  . 
Indra,  .  .  . 
Indus  River, 
Industries,  . 
Industries  of  U.  S  . 

Capital  Invested,     . 

Number  of  Establish 
ments,  .... 

Rank  of,  ...    . 

Value  of  Products 

Wage  Earners,     . 

Wages  Paid,     .    . 

Industry, 

Inferno,  The,  .  .  , 
Ingalls,  Melville  E., 
Ingelow,  Jean,  .  .  .- 
Ingersoll.  Robert  G., 
Innocent  III.,  Pope, 
Innocents  Abroacf,  . 

Insects 

Institute,  Cooper,  . 
Institution:' 

Carnegie,  .... 

Smithsonian,    .    . 
i  Insurance 

Capital  Invested, 

Chief  Companies, 

Development  of, . 

Fire  and  Marine, 

Life 

Mutual,     .    .    . 
Interest 

Contract  Rate, 

Days  of  Grace, 

In  United  States 

Laws 

Legal  Rate,  .   . 

Usury,  .... 
Interest  Laws  of  U 
Interludes,    . 
Interrogation  Pointy 
I  nter-State  Commerce 
Invention.    .... 

Air  Pumps,  .    .    . 

Balloon 

Date  of 

Dictionary  of,  .    . 

Lithography,    .    . 

Magnetic  Clock,  . 

Morse's  Telegraph 

Paper 

Railways,     .    .    . 

Rosse's  Telescope, 

Safety  Lamp,  .    . 

Sewing  Machine, . 

Spinning-jenny,  . 

Steamboat,  .    .    . 

Steam  Engines,   . 

Stenography,  .    . 
-^, Telegraph,    .    .    . 

Telephone,    .    .    r 

Telescope,     .    .    . 

Typesetting  Machines 

Wneatstone's  Tele- 
graph  

White  Paper 

Inventors: 

Nativity  of,      .... 

Table  of 668 

Invocation 363 

lo 332 

Iodine,  ........     694 

lole 332 

lolite, 761 

lonians, 68 

Iowa 121 

Agricultural  Statistics  (if  ,648 

Area, 624 

Capital, 626 

College, 699 

College  of  Agricultural 
and  Mechanic  Arts, 

Constitution,    .    . 

Electoral  Vote,    . 

Executive,    .    .    . 

Exemption  Laws, 

Government,    .    . 

Governor's  Salary, 

InteTest  Laws  in, 


761 
694 
332 
565 
661 
661 
661 

661 
661 
661 
661 
661 
646 
.  363 
448 
297 
448 
448 
363 
749 
708 

690 

724 

664 

665 

665 

665 

664 

664 

665 

665 

666 

666 

«65 

666 

666 

666 

666 

363 

190 

11,177 

645 

84 

668 

668 

668 

88 

90 

90 

62 

88 

90 

88 

90 


86 
86 
84 
94 
82 
94 

90 
84 

668 


704 
606 
627 
606 
667 
606 
626 
666 


Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 


INDEX 


883 


Iowa — Con.: 

Legal  Weights.    .    .    860-62 
Legislative    Statistics,     627 

Legislature 606 

Metropolis,       ....     625 
Population,       ....      625 
Property  Valuation,    .     627 
Statutes     of     Limita- 
tion,   667 

Suffrage  Requirements,   626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population, .    .     627 
Wesleyan  University, .     699 

Iphigenia 3.32,  363 

Ipsus,  Battle  of, 

Irawadi  River, 

Iredell,  James, 

Ireland,     ... 

And  Scandinavians,     . 
And  the  Reformation, 


60 

.      665 

.      640 

121,538 

.     121 

122 

Belfast 518 

Christianized,  ....      121 

Civil  War  in 90 

Description '   538 

DubUn 529 

Early  Tribes  in,   ...      121 
Giant's  Causeway,  .    .     533 

Government 606 

Home  Rule 122 

Illiteracy, 714 

James  II 122 

606 
606 
606 
606 
121 
121 
121 
122 


Local  Government 
Lord  Chancellor  of,   . 
Lord  Justices,       .    .    . 
Lord-Lieutenant,    .    . 
Monasteries,     .•  .    .    . 

St.  Patrick 

Subjection  of 

Under  Cromwell,     .    . 
Union  with  Great  Brit- 
ain   122 

reland,  John,     ....  448 

Iridium, 694 

Iris 332 

Irish  Land  Act,    ....  94 

Iron 672,694 

Amount  Produced,.    .  673 

Bessemer  Process,  .    .  673 

Furnaces 668 

In  United  States,     .    .  673 

Manufacture  of,  .    .    .  673 

Ores 673 

Producing  Countries,  .  673 

Puddling 673 

Ironclad 670 

Ironsides, 122 

Irritants 850 

Irving,  Sir  Henry,   .    .    .  448 
Washington,     .    .      304,448 

Irving  College 703 

Isabella 80 

Of  Castile 448 

Isaiah 281,448 

'?bell  College 703 

isis 332 

Islam 717 

Island  of  Lanterns,      .    .  363 

Island  of  the  Blest,     .  363 

Israelites 55,122 

Abraham, 122 

Captivity,  The,    ...  123 

David 122 

Exile,  The 122 

Kingdom 122 

Moses 122 

Philistines, 122 

Saul 122 

Solomon 122 

Syrian  Invasion,      .    .  123 

Twelve  Tribes,  The,    .  122 

[grafil 333 

Italian: 

Africa 508 

Architecture 512 

Authors 309 

Lynching,     .    .    .    .    .  178 

Words  and  Phrases,  263-67 

Italian  Literature,  .    .    .  309 

Dante 310 

Machiavelli 311 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de',  .  311 

Modern 312 


PAGE 

Italian  Literature — Con.: 

Poetry, 309 

Prose 309 

Tasso 312 

Italians,  Massacre  of,   at 

New  Orleans,   .    .107,178 

Italian  War 139 

Italy 123,538 

And  Sicilv 123 

And  the  Church,      .    .  67 

Area 604 

Battle  of  Marsaglia,    .  84 
Bonaparte's  Italian  Cam- 
paign   86 

Capital, 605 

Cities 538 

Conquered  by  Belisa- 

rius 67 

Conquered     by     Lom- 
bards,      67 

Conquered    by    Theo- 

doric, 67 

Constitution 607 

Count  Cavour,     .    .  123,  417 

Debt 605 

Description,     ....  538 

Florence,  ......  531 

French  Driven  Out,    .  84 

Garibaldi 123 

Garibaldi  in  Sicily, .    .  93 

Genoa 532 

Government 607 

Guelphs    and    Ghibel- 

Unes 123 

Humbert  Assassinated,'  97 

Illiteracy 714 

Independence,     .    .    .  123 

Independent 77 

Invaded  by  the  P'rench,  86 

King 605 

Legislature, 607 

Literature 309 

Mazzini, 91 

Merchant  Marine,    .    .  674 

Milan 543 

Naples 548 

Navy 848 

Overthrow  of  Republic,  91 

Padua 552 

Papal  States 123 

Passes  to  the  Pope,     .  76 

Pisa 558 

Population, 604 

Productions 538 

Ravenna, 563 

Republics  of 123 

Revolt  of  Naples,    .    .  84 

Revolution  in  Cities,  .  91 

Rome 123,565 

Rome  Annexed,  ...  95 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,  ...  604 

Surface 538 

Tiber,  The 574 

Under  Greek  Exarchs,  67 

Under  Odoacer,  ...  66 

Venice 576 

Victor  Emmanuel,  .    .  123 

Victor  Emmanuel  III.,  97 
Victor  Emmanuel,  King,  91 

War  with  Austria,  .    .  93 

Ithaca 333 

Ithuriel, 363 

Ito,  Marquis  Hirobumi,  449 

luka.  Battle  of,    ...    .  15 

Ivanhoe 363 

Ixion 333 

Jacinth, 761 

Jack  and  the  Bean-Stalk,  364 

Jack  Cade, 33,48 

Jackson,  Andrew,    .    .    .  449 

Howell  E., 640 

Thomas  J 449 

Jackson,  Battle  of, .    .    .  15 

Jack  Sprat 364 

Jack  the  Giant  Killer,    .  364 

Jacobins 123 

Jacquard,  Joseph  M.,      .  449 

Jade 761 

Jaguar 749 

James, 449 

II 9 


PAGE 

James,  Edmund  J.,     .    .  449 

Henry, 306,449 

Saint 449 

William 449 

Jamestown : 

Exposition 109 

Settlement  of,      .    .     82, 98 

Janiieson's  Raid,     ...  95 

Janizaries 124 

Janus 333 

Japan 124,  539 

Area,         604 

Buddhism 124 

Capital 605 

China-Japanese  War,  36, 125 

Christianity  in,    .    .    .  124 

Cities 539 

Commercial   Treaty 

with  United  States,  92 

Constitution,    .    .    .'    .  607 

Debt,     .......  605 

Diet 607 

Dynasties 124 

Early  History  of,     .    .  124 

Emperor 607 

Empire  of, 607 

Feudal  System,  ...  124 
First  Parliament,  .  .  95 
Heir  Apparent*  .  .  .  607 
House  of  Peers,  .  .  .  607 
House  of  Representa- 
tives   607 

Islands  of 539 

Literature, 317 

Merchant  Marine,    .    .  674 

Mikado 605 

Minerals, 539 

Ministry 607 

Natural  Resources,     .  539 

New  Constitution,  .    .  95 

Osaka 551 

Perry's  Expedition,     .  90 

Perry's  Treaty,    .    .    .  124 

Population,       ....  604 

Productions,     ....  539 

Shoguns  and  Tycoons,  124 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,  ...  604 

Tokyo 575,582 

Vegetation 539 

War  with  Russia,    .    .  125 

Japanese  Literature,  .    .  317 

Ancient  Poetry,  .    .    ,  317 

Classical  Poetry, ...  31*8 

Histories 317 

Religion  and  Philoso- 
phy,    318 

Romances, 318 

Japonica, 739 

Jargon, 762 

Jarley,  Mrs 364 

Jason, 333 

Jasper,      761 

Jay,  John 449,  640 

Jayhawkers 852 

Jay's  Treaty,    .    .    .      101, 164 
Jeejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamset- 

jee, 449 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  144,304,450 

Minister  to  France,     .  100 

Jefferson  College,    ...  699 

Jehoiachin, 450 

Jehoiakim, 450 

Jehoram, 450 

Jehoshaphat, 450 

Jehu 450 

Jekyll  and  Hyde,     ...  364 

Jelliffe,  Smith  Ely,  ...  450 

Jenkins  Ferry,  Battle  of,  15 

Jenks,  J.  W., 450 

Jenner,  Edward, ....  450 

Jeremiah, 450 

Jeroboam 450 

Jerome,  St 450 

William  T. 450 

Jersey  Blues, 853 

Jerusalem,    ...   57,  129,  539 

Delivered, 364 

Taken  by  Saracens,     .  73 

Jessamine  Institute,    .  .  703 

Jester 789 

Jesuit's  Bark, 731 


PAGE 

Jesuits : 

Founded  by  Loyola,    .  82 

Influence  in  China,  85 

Order  of 82 

Jesus: 

Apostles  Sent  Abroad,  64 

Baptized 64 

Birth  of 64 

Christ 450 

Crucifixion 64 

Death  Warrant  of, .    .  784 

Life  of 450 

Reasons  with  the  Doc- 
tors   64 

Jew,  The  Wandering, .    .  364 

Jewish  Money,     ....  859 

Jewish-Roman  War;  .    .  138 

Jews, 125 

Babylonish  Captivity,  125 

Banished  from  Rome,  64 

In  Africa 125 

In  Asia 125 

In  Australia,    ....  125 

In  Austria-Hungary,  .  125 

In  Belgium,      ....  125 

In  Denmark,    ....  125 

In  France 125 

In  Germany 125 

In  Greece, 125 

In  Holland 125 

In  Italy 125 

In  Palestine,     ....  125 

In  Russia, 125 

In  Sweden  and  Norway,  125 

In  Switzerland,    .    .    .  125 

In  Turkey, 125 

Modern  History, .    .    .  125 

Number  in  the  World,  125 

Temple,  The 125 

Time  of  Christ,  in, .    .  125 

Under  Roman  Empire,  125 

Jinn, 333 

Joan  of  Arc 399 

Burned 81 

Saves  France 81 

Job 281 

John  XXII. 451 

King  of  England,    .    .  76 

Saint 451 

John  B.  Stetson  Univer- 
sity   699 

John  Bull 794  • 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  699 
Johnson,  Andrew,    .    .  144,  451 

Impeached 106 

Johnson,  Cave,     ....  638 

Eastman, 451 

John  A 451 

Reverdy 638 

Samuel,    .    .     296,302,451 

Thomas 640 

Tom  L 451 

William 640 

Johnston,  Albert  S.,    .    .  451 

Joseph  E 451 

Johnstown  Flood,    .    .    .  107 

Jokai,  Maurice 451 

Jonathan 452 

Jones,  John  W.,  ....  640 

Paul 452 

William 639 

Jonson,  Benjamin,  .    .    .  452 

Jordan,  David  Starr,  .    .  452 

Joseph 452 

Joshua 280,452 

Josiah .  452 

Joubert,  Petrus  J.,  .    .    .  452 

Joule 857 

Joule,  James  P 452 

Jourdan,  Jean  Baptiste,  452 

Jove, 333 

Jowett,  Benjamin,  .    .    .  452 

Judah, 56 

Judas  Iscariot,     ....  452 

Judea, 60 

A  Roman  Province,    .  63 

Judges, 281 

Judgments 667 

Judicial  Department, .    .  635 

Judith,      364,452 

Judson,  Harry  P 452 

Juggernaut, 333 


884 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


PAGE 

Jugurtha 452 

3ugurthine  War 138 

Juhan,  Julianus 452 

Julius  II.,  Pope 452 

Juniata  College 699 

Juno, 333 

Jupiter, 333 

Jurisdiction   of   Justices 

of  the  Peace 667 

Justices    of    the    Peace, 

Jurisdiction 667 

Justices    of    the    United 
States  Supreme  Court : 
Baldwin,  Henry,    .    .    .   640 
Barbour,  Philip  P..  .    .   640 

Blair,  John 640 

Blatchford,  Samuel,  .  .  640 
Bradley,  Joseph  P.,  .    .   640 

Brewer,  David  J 640 

Brown,  Henry  B.,  .  .  640 
Campbell,  John  A.,  .  .  640 
Catron,  John,  ....  640 
Chase,  Salmon  P.,     .    .   640 

Chase,  Samuel 640 

Clifford,  Nathan,  ...  640 
Curtis,  Benjamin  R.,  .  640 
Gushing,  William, .    .    .   640 

Daniel,  Peter  V 640 

Davis,  David 640 

Day,  William  R 640 

Duval,  Gabriel 640 

Ellsworth,  Oliver, ...  640 
Field,  Stephen  J.,  .  .  .  640 
Fuller,  Melville  W.,  .  .  640 
Gray,  Horace,    ....   640 

Grier,  Robert  C 640 

Harlan,  John  M 640 

Harrison,  Robert  H.,  .  640 
Holmes,  Oliver  W.,  .  .  640 
Hughes,  Chas.  E.,     .    .   640 

Hunt,  Ward 640 

Iredell,  James,  ....  640 
Jackson,  Howell  E.,  .   .   640 

Jay,  John 640 

Johnson,  Thomas,  .  .  640 
Johnson,  William,  .  .  640 
Lamar,  Lucius  Q.  C,  .  640 
Lamar,  Joseph  R.,  .  .  640 
Livingston,  Brock,  .  .  640 
Lurton,  Horace  H.,  .    .   640 

Marshall,  John 640 

Matthews,  Stanley,  .  .  640 
McKenna,  .Joseph,  .  .  640 
McKinley,  John,    .    .    .  640 

McLean,  John 640 

Miller,  Samuel  F 640 

Moody,  William  H.,  .  .   640 

Moore,  Alfred 640 

Nelson,  Samuel,  .  .  .  640 
Paterson,  William,  .  .  640 
Peckham,  Rufus  W.,  .  640 
Rutledge,  John,  .  .  .  640 
Shiras,  Jr.,  George,   .    .   640 

Story,  Joseph 640 

Strong,  William,  .  .  .  640 
Swayne,  Noah  H.,     .    .   640 

Taney,  Roger  B 640 

Thompson,  Smith,    .    .   640 

Todd,  Thomas 640 

Trimble,  Robert,  ...  640 
Van  Devanter,  Willis  E.,  640 
Waite,  Morrison  R.,  .  .  640 
Washington,  Bushrod, .  640 
Wayne,  James  M.,  .  .  640 
White,  Edward  D.,  .  .  640 
Wilson,  James,  ....  640 
Woodbury,  Levi,  .  .  .  640 
Woods,  William  B.,  .    .   640 

Justinian  1 67,452 

Juvenal 285,  452 

Kaleidoscope 669 

Kama, 333 

Kami 333 

Kanchanjanga 547 

Kangaroo, 750 

Kansas : 

AgriculturalStati8tic8of,648 

Area, 624 

Capital, 626 

Christian  College,  .   .    .  699 

Constitution, 607 

Electoral  Vote 627 


PAGE 

Kansas — Con.: 

Executive 607 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government 607 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

History,  .......  126 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,      .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,    .  627 

Legislature 607 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,    .  627 
State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege   704 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,   .    .  627 

Kansas  City  University, .  699 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  92,  173 
Kant,  Immanuel,  .    .   290,  452 

Kaolin 655 

Kauffmann,  Angelica,  .    .  453 

Kay,  Sir, 364 

Kean,  Charles  J 453 

Kearney  Agitation,  .    .    .  106 

Keata,  John 297,  453 

Kee  Mar  College 703 

Keifer,  Joseph  W.,    .    .    .  453 

Kellar,  Harry 453 

Kelly,  Howard  A 453 

Kembles,  The 453 

Kempis,  Thomas  k, .    .    .  453 

Kendall,  Amos, 638 

Kennedy,  John  P 639 

Kent,  James 453 

Kentucky: 

Agricultural    and    Me- 
chanical College,    .    .  704 
Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,684 

Area 624 

Capital, 626 

Constitution 607 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Executive, 607 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .  667 

Government 607 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

History 126 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .   860-2 

Legislative  Statistics,   .  627 

Legislature 607 

Mammoth  Cave,    .    .    .541 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation, .    .  627 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

University, 699 

Voting  Population,   .    .  627 

Wesleyan  College,     .    .  699 

Kenyon  College 699 

Kepler,  Johann,    .    .      82, 453 

Kernstown,  Battle  of,  .    .  15 

Kerr,  Michael  C 640 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  .   304,  453 

Khedive  of  Egypt,    .    .    .  605 

Khyber  Pass 126 

Massacre 10,  126 

Kiel,  Treaty  of 164 

Kilima-Njaro, 577 

Kilkenny  Cats 364 

Kinematics, 710 

Kinetics 710 

Kifletoscope 672 

King: 

Of  Belgium 605 

Of  Denmark 605 

Of  Greece 605 

Of  Italy 605 

Of  Norway, 605 

Of  Roumania 605 

Of  Servia 605 

Of  Siam 605 

Of  Spain 605 

King  Arthur 345 

Legends, 298 


PAGE 

King,  Henry  C,    .    .    .    .453 

Horatio 638 

King  Carlos 143 

King  Horn 364 

Kinglake,  Alexander  W.,     453 

King  Log 364 

King  Philip's  War,    ...     99 

Kings 281 

Of  England .150 

Kings     and     Queens     of 
England: 

Lineage 150 

Period  of  Reign,    .    .    .    150 

King  Stork 364 

Kingsley,  Charles,  .  297,  453 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  .  .  .  453 
Kirkland,  James  H.,  .  .  454 
I  Kirk  wood,  Samuel  J.,  .    .   638 

I  Kitchen  Cabinet 794 

I  Kl^ber,  Jean  B 454 

j  Knapp,  Martin  A.,    .    .    .   454 

:  Kneisel,  Franz 454 

;  Knickerbockers,    .    .   364,  853 

Knighthood, 782 

Knights : 

Of  Round  Table,    .   299,365 

Of  St.  John 782 

Knight  Service 110 

Knitting  Machine,     .    .    .   668 
Know  -  Nothing    Move- 
ment,   173 

Knox,  Henry 637 

John 454 

Philander  C 454,  638 

Knox  College 700 

Knoxville  College,     .    .    .   700 

Koch,  Robert 454 

Kodaks,      672 

Kohlsaat,  Hermann  H.,   .   454 

Koppelberg 333 

Koran, 282 

Published 68 

Korea 599 

Kosciusko,  T 454 

Kossuth,  Louis,      90,  119,  454 

Kotzebue,  A.  F 454 

Krapotkin,  Prince,  .  .  .  454 
Krauskopf,  Joseph,  .    .    .   454 

Krishna 333 

Kronos 333 

Kruger,  Paul,    ...     97,  454 

Krupp,  Alfred 454 

Krypton, 69<i 

Ku-Klux-Klan 794 

Kutchuk-Kainardj  i, 

Treaty  of 164 

Kyanite 761 

Labor  Day 791 

Labradorite 761 

Ladd,  George  T 454 

Lady  Jane  Grey,  executed,  82 

Lady  of  Lyons, 365 

Lady  of  the  Lake,     .    .    .   365 

Laertes 333,365 

La  Farge,  John,  ....  455 
Lafayette,  Marquis  de,   .   455 

Death  of 89 

Lands  at  Charleston,  .  100 
Visits  America,  .  .  .  102 
Lafayette  College,  .  .  .  700 
La  Fayette  College,  ...  700 
LaFoUette,  Robert  M.,  .  455 
Lagrange,  Count,  .  .  .  455 
La  Grange  College,  .  .  .  700 
La  Grange  Female  College,  703 

Lake,  Baikal 539 

Chapala, 539 

Erie 530,539 

Great  Salt 539 

Huron 537,539 

Ladoga 539 

Maggiore 541 

Michigan 539,  543 

Nicaragua, 539 

Ontario 539,  550 

Superior 539,  573 

Titicaca,      ....   539,844 
Lake  Champlain,  Battle  of,    15 

Lake  DweUings 120 

Lake  Erie  C.  and  S.  Col- 
lege  703 

Lake  Forest  College,     .    .   700 


PAGE 

Lake  Poets, 365 

Lakes,  Area, 539 

Depth 539 

Elevation  of 539 

Largest 639 

Lamar,  Lucius  Q.  C,  638,  640 

Joseph  R.,      ...   455,  640 

Lamartine,  Alphonse,  .    .   455 

Lamb,  Charles,      .    .   296,  455 

Lamian  War, 10 

Lamont,  Daniel  S 637 

Lamp,   Safety,   invented,     88 

Lampoon, 365 

Lancaster,  House  of, 

78,  126,  151 

Lander  College 703 

Landis,  K.  M 455 

Land  Measure: 

Linear,    .......   855 

Square, 855 

Tenure 110 

Landor,  Walter  S 455 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  H.,  455 

Langtry,  Lillie 455 

Language  Composition,  .  198 
Languages : 

American 183 

Aryan 184 

Dutch, 184 

English 184 

French 184 

Hamitic 183 

Hebrew 184 

Latin, 184 

Sanskrit 184,  277 

Semitic 184 

Teutonic 184 

Lanier,  Sidney 306 

Lantern-Land 365 

Lantern  of  Demosthenes, .  365 

Lanthanum 694 

Laocoon 333 

Laomedon 333 

Laotse, 455 

Lapis-lazuli 761 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  .  455 
Lardner,  Dionysius,.    .    .   455 

Nathaniel 455 

Lares 334 

Lark 750 

Larned,  J.  N 455 

La  Salle,  Robert 456 

La  Salle  College 700 

Lasell  Seminary,  ....  703 
Lassalle,  Ferdinand,  .  .  456 
Last  of  the  Mohicans,  .  .  365 
Latin : 

Authors 284 

Language,      .    .    .     68, 184 

Union 127 

Words  and  phrases,  255-263 

Latin  Literature 284 

Augustan  Age 285 

Church  fathers, ....   285 

History 285 

Legal  codes 286 

Philosophy 285 

Poetry 285 

Representative  works,    284 

Latins, 57 

Latinus 334 

Latitude, 539 

Latitudinarians 365 

Latona 334 

Latter-Day  Saints,  .  .  .718 
Laughing   Philosopher,   .   365 

Launfal,  Sir 365 

Laureate,  Poet 365 

Laurier,  Sir  Wilfrid,   .    .   456 
Lavinia,      .......   334 

Lavoisier,  Antoihe  L.,  .  456 
Law,  of  Continuity,     .    .   707 

Courts  of, 76 

Salic 153 

Lawrence  University,  .  .  700 
Lawson,  Thomas  W.,   .    .   456 

Lawton,  General 142 

Lawyer's  Alcove,  ....  366 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel, .   366 

Lazarre 366 

Lea,  Henry  C, 456 

Lead 694  j 


INDEX 


885 


PAOE 

League,  jEtolian,  ....  10 

Hanseatic,      .    .    .    .77,  117 

Leander 366 

Lear, 366 

Leather-Stocking  Tales,   .  366 

Lebanon  Valley  College,.  700 

Lecture,  The 200 

Leda, 334 

Lee,  Charles 638 

Lee,  Robert  E.,    .    .    115,456 

Surrender 175 

Le  Gallienne,  Richard,    .  456 
Legal  Weights,  per  bushel: 

Apples 860 

Barley 860 

Beans 860 

Buckwheat, 860 

Coal 860 

Coke 860 

Corn 860 

Cotton  Seed 861 

Flaxseed 861 

Fluctuating 860 

Millet 861 

Oats 861 

Onions, 861 

Peaches, 861 

Peanuts, 861 

Pears 861 

Peas 861 

Potatoes 861 

Rye 861 

Rye  Meal 861 

Shorts 861 

Timothy  Seed 861 

Tomatoes, 861 

Turnips, 861 

Wheat 861 

Legal  Weights  per  bushel 
of    Commodities    in 

Certain  States,  .    .    .  862 

Legare,  Hugh  S.,  .    .   636,  638 

Legend, 366 

Legends, 199 

Legion  of  Honor,  .    .   366,  793 

Badges 793 

Legislatures : 

Length  of  session,     .    .  627 
Salaries  of  members,    .  627 
Terms  of  members,  .    .  627 
Lehigh  University,    .    .    .700 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Uni- 
versity   700 

Group  of  Buildings,  .    .  682 

Lemon 750 

Lena  River, 565 

Lenoir  College 700 

Lenormant,  Francois,  .    .  456 

Lenox  College 700 

Leo  1 456 

X., 456 

Leo  XIII 456 

Death  of, 97 

Pope 95 

Pope's  Jubilee,  ....  95 

Leonidas, 161,456 

Leonine  Verses,     ....  366 

Leopard, 750 

Leopardi,  Giacomo,  .    .    .  456 

Leopold  1 456 

II 456 

Lepanto, 127 

Battle  of ,    .    .    .    .     83,  166 

LeSage,  A.  R 294,456 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  .    .    .  457 

Lessing,  Gotthold  E.,  .    .  457 

Lethe 334,366 

Letter, 214 

Acceptance, 219 

Application, 217 

Business, 216 

Condolence 219 

Congratulation,     .    .    .219 

Follow-up 217 

Formal, 218 

Introduction 217 

Invitations 218 

Order  for  goods,    .    .'  .  216 

Remittance 216 

Reply  to  complaint,      .  217 

Requesting  payment,  .  216 

Letterpress, 366 


PAGE 

Letter  Writing,      .    .    .    .214 

Address 214 

Body 215 

Complimentary  Close, .  215 

English 215 

Form, 214 

Heading, 214 

Materials 214 

Salutation 214 

Signature 215 

Subscription,     ....  215 

Titles 215 

Leviticus, 280 

Lexicon, 366 

Lexington,  Battle  of,    .  15,  127 

Lexington  College,    .    .    .  703 

Leyden  Jar 668 

Libations 367 

Liber 334 

Liberia 608 

Constitution,      ....  608 

Government,      ....  608 

President 608 

Purchased 102 

Libertas 334 

Liberty,  Statue  of,     .    107,  539 

Liberty  Bell 794 

Liberty  College,         .    .    .  703 

Libissa 334 

Libraries, 714 

Alexandrian 63 

Largest  of  the  world,    .  714 

Library,  Alexandrian,      .  684 

Bodleian,  Oxford,     .    .  714 

Boston  Public 714 

British  Museum,   .    .    .  714 

Children's 319 

Family 318 

Harvard  Universitv,  .  714 

New  York  Public,     .    .  714 

Of  Congress ^  714 

Of  St.  Petersburg,     .    .  714 

Paris  National,      .    .    .  714 

Small  Home 318 

Vatican 714 

Lick  Observatory,     ...  94 

Lieber,  Franz 457 

Liebig,  Baron  von,    .    .    .i  457 
Life:                          __J^ 

Expectation 665 

Insurance 664 

Preserver,  First,     .    .    .  668 

Ligeia, 367 

Light 714 

Light-house,  First,    ...  61 

Lignite  Coal 655 

Liguorians, 367 

Lilac 750 

Lilith,          .......  334 

Liliuokalani,  Lydia, .    .    .  457 

Lilliput, 367 

Lily, 750 

Lima  College 700 

Limbo 367 

Limestone  College,    .    .    .  703 

Limitation,  Statutes  of,    .  667 

Lincoln,  Abraham,    .    144,  457 

And  the  Civil  War,  .    .  104 

Assassinated,     .    .    105,  176 

Lincoln,  Levi 638 

Robert  T 637 

Lincoln  College 700 

Lincoln  University,  .  .  .  700 
Lind,  Jenny,  .  .  .  .  .  457 
Lindenwood  College,  .  .  703 
Linear  Measure,  ....  855 
Linen,  Irish  Manufac- 
tures   86 

Linnaeus,     .    .        ....  457 

Linotype  Machine,    .    .    .  672 

Lion 750 

Lion  of  Lucerne 825 

Lippe, 532 

Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,    .    .    .  457 

Liquid  Air,      715 

Liquid  Measure,    ....  855 

Liquors,  Adulteration  of,  645 

Lisbon, 540 

Market  of  World,  ...  82 

Lisle,  Rougfet  de 295 

Liszt,  Franz 457 

Literary  Allusions,    .    .    .  343 


PAGE 

Literary  Plots 343 

Literati 367 

Literature, 2'77 

American, 304 

Arabian 277,281 

Assyrian 277,  281 

Babylonian,    .  .    .    .    .281 

Chinese 277,  278 

Comparative  View,  .    .   277 

Danish 288 

Egyptian 277  282 

English 295 

French, 292 

German 289 

Greek, 282 

Hebrew 279 

Indian 277 

Italian, 309 

Japanese, 317 

Latin, 284 

Norway,  .....    289 

Oriental, 277 

Persian, 278 

Russian, 314 

Sanskrit 277 

Scandinavian,     ....    286 

Spanish, 312 

Swedish, 287 

Under     Frederick     the 

Great 291 

Lithium 694 

Lithography, 668 

Invented, 88 

Little  Nell 367 

Liverpool 540 

Live  Stock  in  U.  S 649 

Livingston,  Brock,    .    .    .   640 

Edward, 457 

Livingstone,  David, .    .    .   458 
Livingstone  College,      .    .   700 

Livy T  284,^58 

Llama, 751 

Llewpllyn 367 

Lobster^^l-r' 751 

Lochinvar, 367 

Locke,  John 296,  458 

Locksley  Hall 367 

Lockwood,  Belva  Ann,     .   458 
Locomotive : 

Electric 670 

First  Built  in  U.S.,    .    .    103 
First  in  United  States, .    669 

Lodge,  Henry  C 458 

Loeb,  Jacques 458 

Log,  Ship's 794 

Logan  College, 703 

Logarithms, 82 

Logos 367 

Lohengrin, 367 

Loire  River 565 

Loki 334 

Lollards 127 

Lombard  College,  ....    700 

Lombards 66,  127 

London 540 

British  Museum,    .    .    .   520 

Population, 540 

Tower  of 163 

Treaty  of 164 

Westminster  Abbey,     .   579 
Westminster  Hall.    .    .   579 

Long,  John  D., 639 

John  L.,      458 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,    .305,458 
Long  Island,  Battle  of,    .      15 

Longitude, 540 

Longobardi, 127 

Long's  Peak, 547 

Lorelei 334 

Lorimer,  George  H., .    .    .   458 
Lorraine,  House  of,  .    .    .    150 

Los  Angeles 540,  582 

Lost  Cities, 128-29 

Lotis, 334 

Lotos-Eaters, 367 

Lotze,  R.  H.,     ...   290,  458 

Louis  IX Ill,  148,459 

XII 111,148,459 

XIV Ill,  148,459 

XV Ill,  148,459 

XVI Ill,  148,459 

Philippe,     .   9,112,  148,459 


PAGE 

Louisburg,  Captured,  .  .  99 
Louisburg  College,  .  .  .  703 
Louisiana : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Battles  in 130 

Capital 626 

Ceded  to  Spain,     ...     99 

College, 703 

Constitution, 608 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Executive 608 

Exemption  Laws,  .  .  667 
Government,  ..."".  608 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .   626 

History .    130 

Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   627 

Legislature, 608 

Metropolis 625 

New  Orleans,     .    .    548,  582 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation, .    .   627 

Purchase 101,  130 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,    626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,  .  .  627 
Louvre,  The,      .    .       555,826 

Love  Doctor 367 

Lover,  Samuel,      ....   297 

Lover's  Vows, 368 

Love's  Labor's  Lost,     .    .   368 

Loving  Cup 368 

Low,  Seth 459 

Lowell,  Abbott  Lawrence,  459 

James  Russell,  .    .   305,  459 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  ....   459 

Loyola  College, 700 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  .    .    .   459 

Lubeck 532 

Lucan, 285 

Lucifer .334 

Lucretia 826 

Lucretius 284,460 

Lucy  Cobb  Institute,    .    .   703 

Luke,  St., 460 

Lumbering, 660 

Luna 334 

Lundy's  Lane, 130 

Battle  of, 102 

Lun^ville,  Treaty  of,    .    .    164 

Lungs, 715 

Lurton,  H.  H 640 

Lusiad 368 

Lusitania 96,  368 

Luther, 114 

And  the  Reformation, .     80 

German  Bible 291 

Martin 460 

Lutherans, 715 

Augsburg  Confession,  .  688 
During  Reforrhation,    .   715 

In  U.  S 715,721 

Luther's  Postils,    ....   368 

Lutzen, 131,  162 

Luxemburg,  House  of,     .    149 

Luxor 130 

Lycidas 368 

Lycomedes, 334 

Lydia 58.368 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,      ...   460 

Lynx, 751 

Lyons,    • 540 

Lyre 369 

Lyric 369 

Poetry 201 

Lytton,  Lord, 460 

SirE.  B 297 

Mab,  Queen, 369 

Macalester  College,   .    .    .   700 

Macao .826 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,    .   .   297,  460 

Macbeth, 369 

Maccabeus,  Judas,  ...  62 
Macdonald,  George,  .    .    .   297 

Sir  John 460 

Macedon 57 

Roman  Province,  ...  62 
Macedonian  War,  Second,  62 
Machiavelli,  N.,     .    .  311,  460 


886 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


PAGE 

Machiavellianism,     .    .    .  369 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,      .  460 

Mackenzie  River 565 

MacMahon,  Marie,     .    .95,  460 

Macon,  Nathaniel,     .    .    .  640 

Macready,  William  C,  .  460 
MacVeagh,  Wayne,  .    460,  638 

Madison,  James 461 

Madrid 541 

Treaty 164 

Madrigal 369 

Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  .  .461 
Magazine  Rifle,  .  .  .  .671 
Magdalene,  Maryt     .    .    .461 

Magellan 82,461 

Maggiore,  Lake 541 

Magi 369 

Magic  Rings, 369 

Magic  Staff 369 

Magic  Wands,    ....  369 

Magnalia 369 

Magnesium, 694 

Magnetic  Needle 74 

Magnificat 369 

Magnolia, 751 

Magoon,  Charles  E.,      .    .  461 

Magpie, 751 

Mahan,  Alfred  T 461 

Mahogany 751 

Maidens'  Castle 369 

Maid  of  Athens 369 

Marian 369 

Of  Saragossa 369 

.ilaine: 
Agricultural  Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Capital, 626 

Constitution, 608 

Electoral  vote 627 

Executive 608 

Government 608 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

History 131 

Interest  Laws  in,  .    .    .  666 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .  860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 

Legislature 608 

Local  Government,  .    .  608 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,     .  627 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  Population,  .    .  627 

Wesleyan  Seminary,     .  703 

Maine,  Destruction  of,  .    .    94 

Maine,  Sir  Henry,     .    .    .  461 

Malaprop,  Mrs.,     ....  369 

Malays 541 

Malibran,  Maria 461 

Malory,  Sir  Thomas, .    295,  461 

Malpighi,  Marcello,   .    .    .  461 

Malthus,  Thomas  R.,    .    .  461 

Malvern  Hill,  Battle  of,  .  16 

Mambrino 369 

Mamelukes 131 

Mammon, 334 

Mammoth  Cave,    .    .    .    .541 

Man 751 

Manassas,  Battle  of,     .    .  16 

Manatee 753 

Manchester 541 

Ship  Canal,     .    .    .    .94,654 

Manchuria 542 

Russo-Japanese  War,   .  542 

Mandrill 729,753 

Manehs,      859 

Manes, 334 

Manfred 370 

Mangrove 753 

Manhattan  College,  .    .    .  700 

Manila 542 

Battle,    .    .16,108,131,542 

Manitou 334 

Mankind,  Races  of,  .    .    .  752 

Mann,  Horace 461 

Louis, 461 

Manna 753 

Mannering,  Mary,      .    .    .  461 

Manning,  Cardinal,  .    .    .  461 


PAGE 

Manning,  Daniel,  ....  637 
Mansel,  Henry  L.,  ...  462 
Mansfield,  Earl  of,     .    .    .    462 

Richard 462 

Mansfield  College 703 

Mantell,  Robert  B 462 

Manu,  Code  of 278 

Maple, 753 

Sugar  in  United  States,  650 

Marat,  Jean  P 462 

Marathon,  Battle  of,     .    22,  58 

March,  F.  A 462 

Marconi,  G., 462 

Marcus  Aurelius,  .65,  146,  401 
Marcy,  Wm.  L.,    462,  636,  637 

Mardi-Gras 791 

87 

462 

462 

462 

86,  462 

111,398 

.  .  462 

.  .  700 

.  .  712 

.  .  664 

.  .  462 


Marengo,  Battle  of,  . 
Margaret  of  Austria, 
Margaret  of  Denmark, 
Margaret  of  Valois,  . 
Maria  Theresa,       .    . 
Marie  Antoinette, . 
Marie  de'  Medici,  . 
Marietta  College,  . 
Marine  Engineering, 
Marine  Insurance, 
Mario,  Giuseppe,  .    , 
Marion  College: 

Alabama, 703 

Virginia, 703 

Mark,  St 462 

Mark,  Antony, 462 

Marlborough,  John  C.,      .  463 

Marlowe,  Julia, 463 

Marplot 370 

Marquette,  La  Salle,     .    .  99 

Mars, 334 

Marseillaise, 295 

Marseilles 542 

Marshall,  John,      .    .    463,  640 

Marsyas 334 

Martaban  River,    ....  565 
Martha  Washington  Col- 
lege   703 

Martin  College 703 

Martineau,  Harriet,  .    297,  463 

James 463 

Martinsburg,  Battle  of,    .  16 

Marx,  Karl 463 

Mary  1 463 

Of  Guise 463 

Queen  of  Scots,     .     82,  463 

Stuart 463 

Maryland : 

Agricultural  College,     .  704 
Agricultural  Statistics 

of 648 

Area, 624 

Baltimore 517 

Capital 626 

College 704 

Constitution 608 

Government 608 

Governor 609 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  626 

History 131 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  627 

Legislature 608 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation, .    .  627 

Settlement 98 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate,  ......  627 

Voting  Population,    .    .  627 

Maryville  College,  ....  700 

Mask,  The 201 

Mason,  John  Y.,    .    .   638,  639 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  132 

Masques, 370 

Massachusetts : 

Agricultural  College,     .  704 
Agricultural    Statistics 

of 648 

Area, 624 

Boston 519 

Boston  Massacre,  .    100,  132 

Capital 626 


PAGE 

Massachusetts  - —  Con. : 

Charter 132  f 

Colony, 98 

Constitution 609  i 

Electoral  vote 627  j 

Executive 609 

Free  Schools,     ....     99 

General  Court 609 

Government,  ....  609 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .    626 

History 132 

In  Civil  War,  .  .  .  .132 
Institute  of  Technology,  704 
Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   627 

Legislature 609 

Local  Government,  .    .   609 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  627 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Voting  population,    .    .   627 
Massacre,  Boston,     .    100,  132 

Custer's, 106 

Wyoming 99 

Materials : 

Of  Letter  Writing,    .    .   214 
Mather,  Cotton,     .    .   304,  463 

Increase, 463 

Mathers,  Helen,  ."  .  .  .  322 
Matterhorn,    ......   542 

Matthew 463 

Matthews,  Stanley,  .  .  .  640 
Matthias  Corvinus,  .  .  .  463 
Maupassant,  Henri , .  .  .  463 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  .    .    .   464 

Maximilian  I., 464 

II 464 

Maximilian  of  Mexico,  93,  133 
Execution  of,     ....     93 

Max  O'Rell 464 

Maxwell,  James  C 464 

May,  Sir  Thomas  E.,    .    .    464 

Mazarin,  Guilio 464 

Mazeppa, 87,370 

Mazzini 91 


McBurney,  Charles, 
McCall,  Samuel  W..  . 
McCarthy,  Justin, 
McClellan,  George  B., 
McClelland,  Robert,  . 
McCrary,  G.  W.,    .   . 
McCullock,  Hugh,  .  . 
McCutcheon,  G.  B.,  . 
McGrath,  Harold, 
McHenry,  James,  .   . 
McKendree  College,  . 


464 
464 
297 
464 
638 
637 
637 
464 
464 
637 
700 


McKenna,  Joseph,  .  638,  640 
McKernon,  Thomas  M.  T.,  638 

McKim,  Charles  F 464 

McKinley,  John,  ....  640 
McKinley,  William,  .  144,  464 
Shot  at  Buffalo,  .  108,178 
Spanish-American  War,  108 
McLane,  Louis,  .  .  .  636,  637 
McLean,  Emily  Nelson,    .    465 

John 637,638,640 

McMaster,  John  B.,  .  .  .  465 
McMinnville  College,  .  .  700 
Meade,  General,     .    .    115,465 

Measures, 855 

Angular, 856 

Apothecaries',    ....    855 

Of  the  Bible, 858 

Cubic 855 

Dry 855 

Geographical,     ....    855 

Household 856 

Land 855 

Liquid, 855 

Linear, 855 

Time 856 

Weights  and 855 

Mecca 542 

Mechanical  Engineering,  .  712 
Mechanics,      .......      60 

Mecklenburg, 532 

Mecklenburg  Declaration,  132 


PAGE 

Medea 334 

Media 57 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de',.   311,465 

Marie  de', 462 

Medicines,  Adulteration  of,  645 

Medina 542 

Mediterranean  Sea,   .   .    .  543 

Medusa 335 

Megaera, 335 

Megin-giord 335 

Meigs,  Return  J.,  .    .    .    .  638 

Meissonier,  Jean  L 465 

Meister,  Wilhelm,      .    .    .  370 

Meistersingers, 370 

Melanchthon,  Philip,    .    .  465 

Melba,  Madame,    ....  465 

Melbourne, 543 

Centennial  of,    .....  543 

Meleager, 335 

Melissa, 335 

Mellen,  Charles  S. 465 

Melodrama 201 

Melpomene,    ......  335 

Melrose 543 

Abbey 643 

Melusina 335 

Members      of      Congress, 

Salary, 634 

Memnon, 335 

Memoirs 198 

Memphis  Institute,  .    .    .  704 

Mencius, 279 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, 

Felix,  .    .  ■ 465 

Menelaus, 335 

Mentor 336 

Mephistopheles 335 

Mercer  University,  .  .  .  700 
Merchant  Marine: 

Of  Austria-Hungary,    .  673 

Of  Brazil 673 

Of  Chief  Countries,  .    .  673 

Of  France 674 

Of  Germany 674 

Of  Great  Britain,  ...  673 

Of  Holland 674 

Of  Italy 674 

Of  Japan 674 

Of  Norway 674 

Of  Russia 674 

Of  Sweden 674 

Of  United  States,      .    .  673 
Merchant  of  Venice, .    .    .371 

Mercury 335,694 

Meredith,  George,      .    .    .  465 

Owen 297 

W.  M 637 

Mergenthaler,  Ottmar,     .  465 

Merivale,  Charles,      .    .    .  465 

Merlin 371 

Merlin's  Cave 371 

Mermaids 335 

Merovingians,  The,   .    .    .  147 

Merovceus  I., 66 

"Merrimac"  Sunk,  .    .    .  157 

Merritt,  Wesley 465 

Merry  del  Val,  Raphael,  .  466 
Messenian  War,  .  .  57,  138 
Messenian  Wars,    .  .    .    .116 

Messiah,  The 371 

Metals,  Transmutation  of,  96 

Metaurus,  Battle  of,  .  .  22 
Metcalf,  Victor  H.,  .  639,640 
Methodist  Church,    .    .    .716 

Government  of,     ...  716 

In  England 716 

In  United  States,     .    .  716 

Metric  System, 856 

English  Equivalents,    .  857 

Measures  of  Capacity,  .  856 

Measures  of  Length, .    .  856 

Measures  of  Surface,     .  857 

Measures  of  Weight, .    .  856 

Metrical  Romances, .    .    .  201 

Metternich,  Clemens  W., .  466 

Mexican  War,    .    .    .   139,  172 

Mexico, 543 

Area,  . 604 

Aztecs 132 

Capital 605 

Cities 543 

Civil  War  in,      ....  104 


INDEX 


887 


PAGE 

Mexico — Con.: 

Congress 609 

Constitution 609 

Constitution  Adopted, .     93 

Cortez 132 

Council, 609 

Courts 609 

Debt, 605 

Evacuation  by  French,  93 
Federal  Republic,  .  .  102 
French  Occupation,  .    .133 

Government 609 

History 132 

Independent 102 

Insurrection  in 102 

Iturbide,  Emperor,  .  .  89 
Maximilian,    ...     93,  133 

Navy 848 

New  Constitution,     .    .    104 

Population, 604 

President 605,  609 

Productions 543 

Republic    Re-estab- 
lished  105 

Santa  Ana,  President,  89 
Standard  of  Currency, .    604 

State  Religion 609 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .    604 

Toltecs 132 

Vegetation 543 

War  with  France,     .    .    103 

War  with  U.  S 133 

Zones  of, 543 

Meyer,  Adolf 466 

George  von  Lengerke, .  466 
Miami  University,     .    .    .   700 

Michael  VIII 466 

Angelo  Buonarroti,  .    .    397 

Michelet,  Jules 466 

Michigan : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,648 

Area 624 

Capital 626 

Constitution 610 

Detroit,  .......    529 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Executive, 610 

Government 610 

Governor's  Salary,     .    .   626 

History, 133 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,    667 

Lake 539.  543 

Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   627 

Legislature 610 

Local  Government,  .    .   610 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,     .   627 
State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege  704 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   626 

Tax  Rate, 627 

Voting  Population,  .    .   627 

Microbes, 730 

Microfarad, 857 

Microphone 671,672 

Midas 335 

Middlebury  College,  ...    700 
Midsummer    Night's 

Dream 371 

Mikado  of  Japan, ....  605 

Milan 643 

Cathedral, 544 

Expositions  at,      ...    544 

Miles,  Nelson  A 466 

Military  Engineering,    .    .   712 

Milk,  Adulteration  of, ,     .    645 

In  United  States,      .    .   650 

Milky  Way 724 

Mill,  Jantjes 466 

J.  S 297,466 

Miller,  Hugh 297 

Joaquin, 306 

Samuel  F 640 

William  H.  H.,.  .  .  .  638 
Miller  Manual  College,  .  .  '704 
Millersburg  College,  .  .  .  704 
Milligan  College,  ....  700 
Milman,  Henry  H 466 


PAGE 

Milton,  John,     .   296,  300,  466 

Poems 300 

Milton  College 700 

Milwaukee-Downer     Col- 
lege  704 

Mimir, 335 

Miner's  Lamp 669 

Mine  Run,  Battle  of,     .    .      16 

Minerva 335 

Mines,  deepest, 795 

Mining  Engineering,     .    .    712 

Minneapolis 544,  582 

Minnehaha, 371 

Minnesingers 371 

Minnesota: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 624 

Constitution 610 

Electoral  Vote 629 

Executive 610 

Government 610 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .    628 

History,      133 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   629 

Legislature, 610 

Local  Government,  .    .   610 

Metropolis, 625 

Minneapolis, 544 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,.  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  627 
Suffrage  Requirements,    628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 

Minos 335 

Minotaur 336 

Mints,  in  England,    ...     70 

Miracle  Plays 371 

Mirage 544 

Miseno 544 

Miserere 371 

Mispronounced  Words, 

267-274 
Mission  House  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  .  .    .   700 
Mississippi : 

Agricultural     and     Me- 
chanical College,    .    .   704 
Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 628 

College 700 

Constitution 610 

Electoral  Vote 629 

Executive 610 

Government 610 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History 133 

Industrial  Institute  and 

College 704 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .  860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   629 

Legislature, 610 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,     .   629 

River 544,  565 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,    628 

Tax  Rate, 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 
Missouri: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Capital 628 

Compromise,  .    .    .    102,  172 

Constitution 610 

Electoral  Vote 629 

Executive, 611 

Government 610 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History 134 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   629 

Legislature 611 

Metropolis, 625 1 


PAGE 

Missouri  — Con. : 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation, .    .   629 

River, 544,  565 

Statutes  of  Limitation,    667 

St.  Louis 571 

Suffrage  Requirements,   628 

Tax  Rate, 629 

Valley  College,  ....  700 
Voting  Population,  .  .  629 
Wesleyan  College,     .    .   700 

Mistletoe 753 

Mitchell,  D.  G 305 

John 466 

Mithridatic  War 138 

Mitylene, ' .   545 

Mnemosyne, 336 

Mocking  Bird 753 

Modern  Languages: 

French  phrases,  .  .  263-67 
German  phrases,  .  .263-6'/ 
Italian  phrases,  .  .263-6'/ 
Phrases  from,  .  .  .263-67 
Spanish  phrases,  .  .263-6'7 
Words  and  phrases,  .263-67 
Modjeska,  Helena,    .    .    .   466 

Modoc  War 106 

Mohammed, 467 

Religion  of 282 

Mohammedanism,     .    .    .    717 

Struggle  of  Cnristianity,     74 

Mohammedan  Mosque,     .   718 

Molifere,  Jean 467 

Molly  Maguires 106 

Moltke,  Count  von,  .    .    .   467 

Molybdenum, 694 

Mommsen,  Theodor,     .    .   290 

Monaco 545 

Government, 611 

Prince  of 611 

Monetary  Standards,  Var- 
ious Countries,  .    604,  657 
Systems,  Foreign,      .    .   657 

Units 657 

Money, 57 

Coins  and  Coinage,   .    .   656 

Jewish 859 

Origin  of  name,     .    .    .   829 

Roman 859 

World's  stock  of,  .    .    .   604 

Mongols, 545 

Monitor, 671 

Monitor-Merrimac,Battleof,  16 

Monk,  George, 467 

Monkey 753 

Monkey-bread  Tree,  .  .  730 
Monmouth ,  Battle  of,  16,100 
Monmouth  College,  .  .  .  700 
Monocacy,  Battle  of,  .  .  16 
Monroe,  James,  .  .  144,  467 
Monroe  Doctrine,      .    .    .    172 

Mont  Blanc 545,  547 

Montaigne,  Michel,  .  .  .  467 
Montana: 

Agricultural  College,  .  705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 624 

Capital 628 

Constitution 611 

Electoral  Vote,  ....   629 

Executive 611 

Government 611 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History,      134 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   629 

Legislature, 611 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 
Montcalm  de  Saint  Veran, 

L., 467 

Montebello,  Battle  of,  .   30,  92 

Monte  Carlo 545 

Montenegro, 545 

Constitution 611 


PAGE 

Montenegro — Con. : 

Government 611 

King  of 611 

Ministry 611 

National  Assembly,  .  .  611 
Monte  Perdu,     .    .    .    .    .   547 

Monte  Rosa 547 

Monterey,  Battle  of,     .    .      16 

Montesquieu,      .    .    .   294, 467 

Spirit  of  Laws,      .    .    ."  294 

Montezuma,  I.,      ....   467 

II 467 

Montgomery: 

Death  of  General,     .    .    100 

General 100 

Richard 467 

Montreal, 546 

Founded 99 

History  of 546 

Montrose,  James  G.,  .  .  467 
Monuments: 

Bunker  Hill  Dedicated,  103 
Gettysburg's  Soldiers,.    106 

Washington 579 

Moody,  D.  L 467 

William  H.,    .   467,639,640 

Moon 717 

Moonstone, '761 

Moore,  Alfred 640 

John  B., 467 

Sir  John 467 

Thomas, 296 

Moore's  Hill  College,  .  .  700 
Moorish  Architecture,  .  .  512 
Moors: 

Expelled  from  Spain,    .     82 

In  Spain 156 

Morality,  The 371 

Moravians, 717 

Zinzendorf,  Count,  504,717 
Moravian  Seminary,  .  .  704 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  .  295,  468 
Morgan,  John  Pierpont,  .   468 

John  T. 468 

Morley,  John,  .  .  .  297, 468 
Mormon,  Book  of,     .    .    .   718 

Mormons 718 

Brigham  Young,   .    .    .   '718 

Doctrines  of '718 

Founded  Salt  Lake  City,  103 

Sealing 718 

Spiritual  Wives,  .  .  .718 
Morningside  College,     .    .   700 

Morocco, 546 

Algeciras  Conference,   .     96 
Algeciras  Treaty,  .    .    .   612 

Cities 547 

Government,      .    .    .    .611 

Inhabitants 546 

Ministry 611 

Occupied  by  French,    .     97 

Productions, 546 

The  Sultan,    .    .    .   546,611 

Morpheus,       336 

Morrill,  Lot  M 637 

Morris,  Clara, 468 

Gouverneur 468 

Robert 468 

William 297,468 

Morris  Brown  College,  .   .   700 

Morris  Dance, 371 

Morris  Harvey  College,  .  700 
Morrisville  College,  .  .  .  700 
Morse,  Samuel  F.  B., 

90,  468,  675 

Mortality 795 

Death  Rates 795 

Morton,  J.  Sterling,  ...   639 

Levi  P 468 

Moscow, 547 

Capital  of  Russia,     .    .     79 

Founded, 75 

Great  Bell  of,    ....   547 

Invaded, 89 

Kremlin, 547 

Moses 55,468 

To  Cyrus, 55 

Mosque,      718 

Mosses, 754 

Moth 754 

Mother-of-Pearl 754 

Motley,  J.  L 305,  469 


888 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


PAGE 

Motor, 710 

Car, 651 

Cars  in  America,  .  .  .  652 
Cars  in  France,  .  .  .  652 
Cars  in  Germany,  .  .  652 
Cars  in  Great  Britain,  .  652 
Cars  in  the  World,  .  .  652 
In  Various  Countries,  .  652 
Rotary  Electric,  ...  669 
Mottoes  of  States,    .    .852-53 

Moulton,  Louise  C 469 

Richard  G 469 

Moultrie,  William,  .  .  .  469 
Mount,  Blackburn,   .    .    .   547 

Brown '  .    .   547 

Carmel 523 

Cenis 523,547 

Cevennes, 524 

Condor, 547 

Crillon, .547 

Dickerman, 547 

Douglass, 547 

Hermon, 547 

Hogback 547 

Hooker, 547 

Itambe 547 

Katahdin 547 

Kosciusko, 647 

Lebanon, 547 

Logan, 547 

Mansfield, 547 

Marcy 547 

Massive, 547 

McKinley 547 

Mercedario 547 

Miltsin, 547 

Mitchell 547 

Olympus, 547 

Parnassus 547 

Roa 547 

Rogers, 547 

Roraima 547 

Santa  Clara 547 

Vancouver 547 

Ymesfield 547 

Mountains : 

Height  of 547 

Highest 547 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  .  704 
Mount  St.  Joseph's  College,  700 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  700 
Mount  Union  College,  .    .   700 

Mount  Vernon, 830 

Mourning, 796 

Colors  in 796 

In  different  countries, .   796 

Mouse, 754 

Moxom,  Philip  S.,     ...   469 

Mozart,  Johann 469 

Mucklebacket 371 

Muhlenberg,  F.  A 640 

Muhlenberg  College,  .  .    .   700 

Mulberry 754 

Mule 754 

Mailer,  F.  M 297,  469 

Mulock,  D.  M., 297 

Munchausen,  Baron,     .    .   371 

Mungoose, 754 

Munich 547 

Munsey,  Frank  A.,  .  .  .  469 
Miinster,  Treaty  of,  .  .  .  164 
Miinsterberg,  Hugo, .  .  .  469 
Murder  of  Von  Ketteler,     31 

Murfree,  Mary  N 469 

Murfreesboro,  Battle  of,   .      16 

Murillo,  B.  E 469 

Murray,  James  S 469 

Murray  River 565 

Muses 336 

Museum,  British 520 

Music, 55, 718 

Musical  Scale  invented,  .  72 
Music  Composers, .  .  .  .719 
Music  Harmony,    ....   '719 

Musk-deer, 754 

Musk-ox, 755 

Muskingum  College, .    .    .   700 

Mussulman, 717 

Mycenae 129 

Myrmidons, 336 

Mysteries, 371 

Mysterious  Three,  The,    .  336 


PAGE 

Mythology, 323 

Dictionary  of 324 

Myths, 199 

Nacre 754 

Nahant 830 

Naiads 336 

Names  and  Name  Origins,  797 
Names  in  Fiction,     .    .    .   343 

Names  of  States 624 

Nankin,  Treaty  of,    .    .    .    164 

Nansen,  F 469,  514 

Nantes,  Edict  of 164 

Nantucket, 830 

Naples 548 

Napoleon  1 9,  112,469 

At  Waterloo 89 

Austrian  Campaign,      .     86 
Banished  to  St.  Helena,     88 

Death  of 89 

Emperor  of  the  French,      89 
Expedition  to  Egypt,   .     87 

Fall  of 88 

Hundred  Days'  War,   .     89 

King  of  Italy 88 

Russian  Campaign,  .    .     89 

Swiss  Campaign,    ...     87 

Napoleon  III.,  .    .   9,  112,470 

Napoleonic  Wars, .    .    112,139 

Naraka, 336 

Narcissus 336 

Narcotics, 850 

Narragansett, 830 

Narration 198 

Nashville,  Battle  of,     .    .      16 
Nassau,  House  of , .    .    .    .    149 

National  Banks 652 

Natural  History 729 

Museum  of 84 

Natural  Philosophy, .    .    .   723 
Natty  Bumppo,     .    .    .    .371 

Nausicaa 336 

Nautical  Measure,     .    .    .   855 
Naval  Battle,  First,  ...     57 
Naval  Expeditions,   Ar- 
mada  21 

Navies  of  the  World,    .    .   848 
Navigation: 

Aerial, 645 

Inland 88 

Trans-Atlantic,      ...     88 
Navy: 

Department 639 

Of  Argentine 848 

Of  Austria-Hungary,    .   848 

Of  Brazil 848 

Of  Chile, 848 

Of  China 848 

Of  Denmark 848 

Of  France 848 

Of  Germany 848 

Of  Great  Britain,  .    .    .   848 

Of  Greece 848 

Of  Holland 848 

Of  Italy, 848 

Of  Mexico 848 

Of  Netherlands,     ...   848 

Of  Norway, 848 

Of  Portugal 848 

Of  Russia, 848 

Of  Sicm 848 

Of  Spain 848 

Of  Sweden 848 

Of  Turkey 848 

Of  United  States,  ...   848 

Pacific  Fleet, 96 

Neander,  Johann,.    .   290,470 
Nebraska: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 628 

Constitution, 612 

Electoral  Vote,.    .    .    .   629 

Executive, 612 

Government 612 

Governor's  Salary,     .    .    628 

History 134 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  ( 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   629 

Legislature 612 

Metropolis, 626 


PAGE 

Nebraska — Con. : 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation, .  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   628 

Tax  Kate 629 

Voting  Population,   .    .   629 

Wesleyan  College,     .    .   700 

Nebuchadnezzar,  .    .     57,  470 

Necho .   470 

Nectar 336 

Needham,  Charles  W.,  .  470 
Negroes,   Imported  into 

America, 81 

Nehemiah, 281 

Neilson,  Adelaide,  .  .  .  470 
Nelson,  Admiral,  .    .     86,  470 

John .   638 

Samuel 640 

Nelson  River, 565 

Nemean  Lion 336 

Nemesis 336 

Neodymium, 694 

Neon 694 

Neoptolemus 336 

Nepenthe 371 

Nephrite 761 

Nepos 284,470 

Neptune 336 

Nereids 336 

Nernst  Electric  Light, .    .   672 

Nero 470 

Golden  Palace  of,  .  .  64 
Persecutes  Christians,  .  64 
Sets  Fire  to  Rome,    .  .     64 

Nerva,  Marcus 470 

Nestor, 336,372 

Netherlands,  The 548 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution,      .    ...   612 

Debt 605 

Government 612 

Illiteracy, .714 

Navy, 848 

Population, 604 

Queen 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

State  Council 612 

States-General 612 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 
Nevada: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 628 

Constitution,  ....  612 
Electoral  Vote,      ...   629 

Executive '.   613 

Government 612 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History 134 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .   666 

Jurisdiction 667 

Legislative  Statistics,   .   629 

Legislature, 612 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,.  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   628 

Tax  Rate, 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 
Nevskii  Prosnekt,     .    .    .831 

New  Amsterdam 98 

Newark  Technical  School,  705 
New  Atlantis,  The,  ...  372 
New  Berne,  Battle  of,.  .  16 
Newcomb,  Colonel,    .  .    .   372 

Simon 470 

New  England  Primer,  .  .  372 
Newfoundland: 

Constitutional  Govern- 
ment  103 

Purchases  Railways,  .  108 
Refuses  to  joinDominion, 106 

Settled, 100 

New  Hampshire: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area, 624 

Capital, 628 

College  of  Agrisulture 
and  Mechanic  Arts,  .   705 


PAOI 

New  Hampshire — Con.: 

Constitution 613 

Electoral  Vote 62 

E.\ecutive 61j 

Government 61] 

Governor's  Salary,    .   .   62 

History 133 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  , 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  66| 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-63 
Legislative  Statistics,    .   62  _ 

Legislature 613 

Metropolis, 62' 

Population 62 

Property  Valuation,.    .   629' 
Statutes  of  Limitation,.   667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   628 

Tax  Rate " .    .   629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 

New  Haven, 98 

New  Jersey : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of ,  648 

Area 624 

Capital,  . 628 

Constitution,'  ....  613 
Electoral  Vote,      ...   629 

Executive 613 

Government 613 

Governor's  Salary,    .   .   628 

History, 135 

Interest  Laws  of, .  .  •.  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative    Statistics, .   629 

Legislature, 613 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation, .  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,   628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .   629 

New  Jerusalem 372 

Newman,  John  H 470 

New      Market      Heights, 

Battle  of, 16 

New  Mexico: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 625 

Capital 624 

College   of   Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts,  .   705 

Executive, 613 

Exemption  Laws,.    .    .   667 

Government 613 

Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,    667 

Legislature, 613 

Local  Government,  .    .   613 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Statutes  of  Limitation,    667 
New  Orleans,     .    .    .   648,582 

Battle  of 16,  88 

Founded 99 

Italian  Lynching, .    .    .    178 
World's  Industrial  Ex- 
position,   107 

News 199 

Newspapers, 849 

Early  American,   .    .    .   849 

Early  English 849 

Origin  of 849 

New  Testament,  Books  of,  281 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  .  296,  470 
New  Windsor  College,  .  .  700 
New      World,     Historical 

Outline  of 98 

New  York: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 624 

Buffalo 521 

Capital, 628 

City 549,582 

College  of  City  of,  .  .  700 
Constitution,  .  .  .  .613 
Electoral  Vote,      ...   629 

Executive, 614 

Exemption  Laws,  .  .  679 
Financial  Panics, .  106,  109 
Government,  ....  613 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 


INDEX 


889 


PAOE 

New  York — Con.: 

Greater  City  of,     .    108,  582 

History,      135 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .      860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,    .  629 

Legislature, 614 

Metropolis, 625 

Niagara  Falls,    ....  549 

Population, 625 

Post  Office  Building,    .  513 

Property  Valuation,      .  629 

Rochester,      565 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

University 700 

Voting  population,    .    .  629 
New  Zealand: 

Area, 604 

Capital 605 

Colonial  Legislature,     .  614 

Debt, 605 

Government,      ....  614 

Governor, 614 

Legislative  Council,  ..   .  614 

Population, 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Wellington 579 

Ney,  Michel 471 

Niagara,  Battle  of,    .    .    .  16 

Niagara  Falls, 549 

Electric  power,      .    .    .  549 

Niagara  University,  .    .    .  700 

Nibelung,  King 372 

Nibelungen  Lied   ....  372 
Nicaragua: 

Area 604 

Capital, 605 

Debt 605 

Population 604 

President, 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Nice,  Council  of,    ...    .  65 
Nicholas  II., 

95,  149,  152,471,605 

V 471 

Nickel, 694 

Nickel  Steel, 672 

Nickleby,  Nicholas,  ...  372 

Nicknames  by  States,  .    .  372 
Niebuhr,  Barthold,   .   290,471 

Niehaus,  Charles  H.,     .    .  471 

Nielsen,  Alice, 471 

Niger  River, 565 

Nightingale, 755 

Nightingale,  Florence, .    .  471 

Night,  Natural 858 

Watches  of 858 

Nihilism,  Russian,    .    .    .  152 
Nile  River.     ....   549,  565 

Niles,  John  M 638 

Nilsson,  Christine,     .    .    .  471 

Nimrod 471 

Nineveh 129 

Nine  Worthies 372 

Ninus, 337,471 

Niobe 337 

Niord, 337 

Nitrogen 694 

Nitro-glycerine 670 

Nitrous  Oxide  Gas,  .    .    .  670 

Nixon,  Lewis, 471 

Noah 471 

Noble,  John  W 638 

Nokomis, 337 

Nonconformist,      .    .    135,709 

Nordica,  Lillian 471 

Normandy, 136 

Norman-English 186 

Norse  Folk  Tales,      ...  289 
North,  Frederick,      .    .    .471 

S.  N.  D 471 

North  Anna,  Battle  ef,    .  16 
North  Carolina: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 628 

College   of   Agriculture 

and  Mechanic  Arts,  .  705 


PAGE 

North  Carolina — Con.: 

Constitution 614 

Electoral  vote 629 

Executive, 614 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .   667 

Government 614 

Governor's  salary,     .    .   628 

History 136 

Interest  Laws  in,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   629 

Legislature, 614 

Mecklenburg     Declara- 
tion  132 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .  .  629 
North  Dakota: 

Agricultural  College,  .  705 
Agricultural    Statistics 

of 648 

Area, 624 

Capital 628 

Constitution,      ...    614 

Electoral  vote 629 

Executive,  .  .  .  .  .  614 
Exemption  Laws, .  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  614 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History 136 

Interest  Laws 666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   629 

Legislature 614 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  629 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .  .  629 
Northern  Illinois  College,  700 
Northern  Securities  Case,  109 
North  Georgia  A.  and  M. 

A.  College 705 

North  German  Confedera- 
tion,     136 

Northmen 136 

Northwestern  College, .    .   700 
Northwestern  University: 

Evanston,  111 700 

Watertown,  Wis 700 

Northwest  Fur  Company,   179 
Northwest    Missouri   Col- 
lege,      700 

Norton,  Charles  E 472 

Norway 550 

Area 604 

Capita! 605 

Charles  XIII 137 

Christianity  in 137 

Cities 550 

Conquered  by  Canute, .  73 
Council  of  State,   .    .    .   615 

Debt 605 

Description 550 

Eric,  King 71 

Government 615 

History 137 

Illiteracy, 714 

Independence  of,  .    .    .    137 

Independent 97 

King 615 

Merchant  Marine,      .    .   674 

Navy 848 

Population, 604 

Productions, 550 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,    ...   604 

The  Storthing 615 

Union    with    Denmark,     83 
Union  with  Sweden,     .     89 
Union  with  Sweden  dis- 
solved,     615 

Vegetation, 550 

War  with  Wends,      .    .     75 


PAQB 

Norwegian  Literature,      .   289 

Wergeland 289 

Norwegian  Luther  College,  700 
Norwich  University,     .    .    700 

Notable  Wars, 138 

Chief  leaders 138 

Leading  battles,    .    .    .    138 

Notes 667 

Notre  Dame  College,    .        704 

Nourmahal 372 

Nova  Scotia, 534 

Halifax 536 

Novum  Organum,     .    .    .   372 

Nox 337 

Nullification,      .    .    .    103,  172 

Numantia 129 

Numbers, 280 

Numerals,  Arabian,  .    .    .   686 

Nyassa, 550 

Nymphs, 337 

Nystadt,  Treaty  of,  .    .    .    164 

Oakland, 550,  582 

Oats,  in  United  States,    .   648 

Weight 861 

World's  productions,    .   680 

Obelisk,       550 

Luxor 88 

Oberammergau 550 

Passion  Play 550 

Oberlin  College 700 

Oberon, 372 

Obi  River, 565 

Observatories : 

Astronomical,    ....   677 

Lick 94 

Obsidian, 761 

Occidental  College,   .    .    .   700 

Oceanus, 337 

Ochre-clay, 655 

O'Connell,  Daniel,     ...   472 

Odd  Fellows 849 

Ode,  The 201 

Odell,  Benjamin,  Jr.,    .    .   472 

Odin 337 

Odoacer 66,  67,  472 

O'Donnell,  Marshal,      .    .     93 

Odysseus, 337 

Odyssey, 373 

CEdipus,      337 

Oehlenschlager,  A.  G.,.    .   288 

Oersted,  H.  C, 288 

Offertory 373 

Ogden  College 700 

Oglethorpe,  James  E.,      .   472 

Ogontz  School 704 

Ogres 337 

O'Groat 373 

Ohio: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area, 624 

Capital, 628 

Cincinnati, 525 

Cleveland 526 

Constitution,      ....    615 

Electoral  vote 629 

Executive, 615 

Exemption  Laws, .  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  615 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .   628 

History,      140 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .      860-62 

Legislature 615 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property    Valuation,    .   629 

River 550,  565 

State  University,  .  .  .  700 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

University, 700 

Voting  Population,  .  .  629 
Wesleyan  University,  .   700 

Ohm, 857 

Ohm,  George  S.,   .    .    .    .472 

Oklahoma, 615 

Admitted 109 

Agricultural    and     Me- 
chanical College,  ".    .   705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 


PAOE 

Oklahoma — Con. : 

Area, 624 

Capital 628 

Constitution,      ....  615 

Electoral  Vote,  ....  629 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government 615 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  628 

History,      ......  140 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .     860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  629 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,     .  629 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .  629 

Oku,  General  Count,    .    .  472 

Olaf,  Saint 472 

Olcott,  "Chauncey,"    .    .  472 

Oldenburg, 632 

Old  Man  of  the  Sea,     .    .  373 

Old  Red  Sandstone,  ...  373 

Oleomargarine, 671 

Olivet  College, 700 

Olivine 761 

Olney,  Richard,     .    .   472,  638 

Olympiad 116 

Olympic  Games 116 

Olympus 337 

Oman 615 

And  Great  Britain,  .    .  616 

Government,      ....  615 

Sultan 616 

Omar  Khayyam,  .    .   278,  472 

Omer,      858 

Onions,  Weight 861 

Ontario : 

Lake 539,  550 

Toronto 575 

Onyx 761 

Opal 761 

Opequan,  Battle  of,  .    .    .  16 

Opera 201 

Ophthalmoscope,  ....  670 

Oporto 651 

Opossum 755 

Oppenheim,  Nathan,    .    .  472 

Opper,  Frederick  B.,    .    .  472 

Ops 337 

Orange, 755 

Orange,  Princes  of,  .    .    .  472 

Orange  River, 565 

Orang  Outang, 755 

Orations .    .200 

Oregon : 

Agricultural  College,    .  705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of, 648 

Area, 624 

Electoral  Vote 629 

Executive 616 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 
Government,      .    .    .    .616 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  628 

History, 140 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,    .  629 

Legislature 616 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expo- 
sition,     ......  140 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Portland 559,582 

Property  Valuation, .    .  629 

River 526 

Statutes  of  Limitation, .  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .  629 

Orestes, 337 

Organon, 373 

Organ  Pedal  Invented,     .  80 

Oriental  Literature,  .    .    .  277 

Orinoco  River,  .    .    .   551,  565 

Oriole 756 

Orion, 337 

Orlando  Furioso 373 


890 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Orleans, 551 

Battle  of 22 

House  of 148 

Siege  of, 79  i 

Ormuzd 337 

Orpheus, 337 

Orr,  James  L., 640 

Osaka, 551 

Oscar  1 472 

II., 9,97,159,472 

Osgood,  Samuel 638 

O'Shanter,  Tam 373 

Osiris, 338 

Osier,  William 472 

Osman, 166 

Osmium, 694 

Ossian, 473 

Ostend  Manifesto.     ...     92 

Ostrich 756 

Othello 373 

Othman 76 

Ottawa, 551 

Great  Fire,     .    .    .    108, 551 

River 551 

University, 700 

Otterbein  University,  .    .   700 

Otto  1 473 

Ottoman  Empire,      .    .    .166 

Cairo  Taken, 81 

Crimea  Ceded  to  Rus- 
sia,   87 

First  Established, ...  76 
Greece  Subjected, ...     81 

In  Europe, 79 

Janizaries 83 

Turks  Lose  Belgrade,  .  87 
War  with  Hungary,  .  .  81 
War  with  Persia,  ...  81 
War  with  Russia,  First,      85 

Ouachita  College 700 

Outre-Mer 373 

Ovid 285 

Owen,  Robert 473 

Owensboro  College,  .    .    .   704 

Owl 756 

Oxenstierna,  Axel,    .    .    .   473 

Oxford 551 

Parliament  at 76 

University  Founded,  .  70 
University  of,     ....   551 

Oxford  College .704 

Oxygen 694 

Oyama,  Field-Marshal 

Prince, 473 

Oyster, 756 

Ozone 719 

Pacific  College,  ....   700 

Pacific  Ocean, 552 

Depth 552 

Discovery  of,     ....   552 
Pacific  University,    .    .    .    700 
Packer    Collegiate    Insti- 
tute,   .......   704 

Paderewski,  I.J 473 

Padua 552 

University, 552 

University  Founded,    .     76 

Paganism, 719 

Page,  Anne,    ......   373 

Thomas  N 473 

Pagoda 719 

Paine,  John  K 473 

Thomas 473 

Painters : 

Alma-Tadema,Laurence,  396 
Angelo,  Michael,    .    .    .   397 

Apelles 399 

Blashfield,  Edwin  H.,  .    408 

Bonheur,  Rosa 409 

Borglum,  John  G.,    .    .   410 

Botticelli 410 

Boughton,  George  H.,  .  410 
Bouguereau,  A.  G.,  .  .  410 
Burne-Jones,  Edward,     413 

Cirtabue 76,  420 

Correggio 422 

Cox,  Kenyon,     ....    423 

Cox,  Palmer 423 

Dielman,  Frederick,.  .  427 
Dore,  Paul  Gustave, .  .  428 
Gibson,  Charles  Dana, .  437 
Giotto,  A.  B 437 


PAGE 

Painters — Con.: 

Guido  Reni 441 

Johnson,  Eastman.    .    .  451 

KauflFman,  Angelica,.    .  453 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,    .  455 

Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,    .    .  457 

Meissonier,  J.  L.  E.,  .    .  465 

Raphael, 479 

Rembrandt  van  Rijn,  .  480 

Remington,  Frederick,  480 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  .  480 

Romney,  George,  .    ./'.  482 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  .  .  483 

Ruysdaal 484 

Sargent,  John  S 485 

Titian 82,495 

Trumbull,  John,    ...  495 

Turner,  J.  M.  W.,  .   .    .  495 

Van  Dyck,  Anthony,    .  496 

Van  Eyck,  Jan,     ...  78 

Velasquez,  Diego,  .    .    .  496 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,.    .  497 

Watts,  George  F.,     .    .  499 

West,  Benjamin,   .    .    .  500 

Whistler,  J.  A.  McN.,    .  500 

Palamedes 3.38 

Palatinate,  House  of,    .    .  150 

Palermo, 5.52 

Sicilian  Vespers,    .   .    .  552 

Palestine 552 

Cities 553 

Description, 552 

Inhabitants 552 

Jerusalem 552 

Paley,  William 473 

Palimpsest 374 

Palisades,  The 833 

Palissy,  Bernard,  ....  473 

Palladium,  .   .    .    338,  374,  694 

Pallas-Athene 338 

Pall  Mall 833 

Palm 8.58 

Palma,  Tomas  E.,     ...  473 

Resigns 96,109 

Palmer,  George  H 473 

Palms 756 

Palmyra 129 

Pan 338 

Panama : 

City 553 

Description 553 

Government 616 

Independent 96 

Inhabitants,  .....  ,553 

President 616 

President's  Visit,  ...  96 

Productions, 553 

Republic .553,616 

Resources 553 

Treaty  with  U.  S.,     .    .  553 

Panama  Canal, 5.53 

Purchase  of 96,109 

Pan-American  Conference,  96 

Pandora 338 

Panegyric 374 

Panhandlers 8.53 

Panic 849 

Pantagruel 374 

Pantheon, 554 

Paris 554 

Rome 554 

Tombs  within 654 

Panther 756 

Papacy,  Power  of,     ...  72 

Papal  States 93,5.54 

Paper 62 

Paper  Machine, 668 

Paper     Mill,     First     in 

America 668 

Papin,  Denis 473 

Parables 199 

Paradise  Lost, 374 

Paradise  Regained,  .    .    .  374 
Paraguay : 

Area, 604 

Capital 605 

Congress 616 

Constitution 616 

Debt 605 

Government 616 

Independent, 101 

Population 604 


PAGE 

Paraguay — Con . : 

President 605,616 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

State  Religion 616 

Stock  of  Money,    ...  604 

Parana  Hiver 565 

Pare®  (see  Fates).    ...  329 

Parenthesis, 190 

Paris 338,-554 

Arches 554 

Besieged  by  Normans,  71 

Boulevards,  The,  .    .    .  554 

Bridges, 554 

Capitulation, 95 

Carriages  Introduced,  .  82 

Churches 555 

Colleges 76 

Description  of 554 

Eiffel  Tower 530 

Great  Exposition,      .    .  93 

History  of 655 

Louvre 555 

Notre  Dame  Rebui't,   .  73 

Parks  of, 654 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .  665 

Relieved  b,y  Spaniards,  83 

Siege  of, 85 

Treaties  of 164 

Universities 655 

Universitv  of,    ...    .  76 

Park,  Roswell 473 

Park  College 700 

Parker,  A.  B 474 

Theodore, 474 

Parker  College 700 

Parkhurst,  Charles  H.,.    .  474 
Parkman,  Francis,     .  305,  474 

Parley,  Peter 374 

Parliament: 

British 590 

Canadian 691 

Parnassos 338 

Parnell,  Charles  S.,    .    .    .  474 

Parody, 374 

Parrot 756 

Parsees 278,  719 

Parsifal, 374 

Parsons,  Frank 474 

Theophilus 638 

Parsons  College 700 

Parthenon,     ....    515, 555 

Parthia 60 

Partington,  Mrs 374 

Partition  of  Poland,      .    .  164 
Parton,  James,  .    .    .   306, 474 

Partridge, 766 

Partridge,  William  O.,  .    .  474 

Passaii,  Treaty  of,     .    .    .  164 

Passion-flower 757 

Passion  Plav, .550 

Pasteur,      .....     94,474 

Death  of 95 

Pastoral 374 

Patagonia 666 

Divided 106 

Patagonians 665 

Patent  Office,  Washington, .578 

Paterson,  William,    .    .    .  640 

Patient  Griselda,  ....  374 

Patmore,  Coventry,      .    .  474 

Patriarchs, 122 

Patricians .59 

Patriot's  Day, 791 

Pattern  Loom 668 

Patti,  Mme.  Adelina,    .    .  474 

Pattison,  Mark,     ....  474 

Patton,  Francis  L.,  .    .    .  474 

Paul,  .Saint 474 

Appeals  to  Ca-sar,      .    .  64 
At  Athens,      .....  64 
Converted  to  Christian- 
ity   64 

Epistles 281 

Visits  Jerusalem,  ...  64 

Paul  and  Virginia,     .    .    .  376 

Paulding,  James  K.,     .    .  639 

Paupukkeewis, 338 

Pawnbroker's  Sign,  .    .    .  849 

Pax. 338 

Payne,  John  H.,    .    .   304,476 

Sereno  E 475 

Peabody,  Francis  G.,   .    .  475 


PAQ] 

Peabody,  George 47| 

Peabody     School     for 

Teachers, 7C 

Peace  of  Constance,      .    .  71 

Peach 751 

Peaches,  Weight,  ....  861 
Peach  Tree  Creek,  Battle 

of 11 

Peacock 751 

Pear 751 

Pearce,  James  A 63 

Pea  Ridge,  Battle  of,  .    .  11 

Pearl 761 

Peary,  Josephine  D.,    .    .  478 

Robert  E 475,  514 

Peck,  Harrv  T 475 

Peckham,  R.  W.,  .    .   476,  640 

Pedro  II 9,  589 

Peel,  Sir  Robert 475 

Peeping  Tom 376 

Pegasus 339 

Peking 655 

Boxer  Uprising,     .    .    .  556 

The  Forbidden  City,    .  656 

Under  Kublai  Khan,    .  77 

Walls  of 656 

Pel^e,  Mont, 556 

Peleus 339 

Pelican 757 

Peloponnesian  War,      .59,138 

Peloponnes\is 556 

Pelz,  Paul  J 475 

Penates 339 

Penelope 339 

Pen    Names    of    Writers, 

321-23 
Penn,  William.  ...     99,  476 

Pennell,  Joseph 475 

Pennington,  William,   .    .  640 
Pennsylvania: 

Agricultural   Statistics 

of 648 

Area 624 

Capital 628 

College 700 

Constitution 616 

Electoral  Vote 629 

Executive 616 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Farmer 375 

Government 616 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  628 

History 140 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  629 

Legislature 616 

Metropolis 625 

Military  College,    .    .    .  700 

Philadelphia 557 

Pittsburg 558 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .   .  629 

State  College 700 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  628 

Swedes  settle  in,    .   .    .  99 

Tax  Rate 629 

Voting  Population,  .    .  629 

Woman's  College, .    .    .  704 

Pennvpacker,  S.  W.,     .    .  476 

Pentateuch 280,  .375 

Peony, 757 

People's  Part.v,      ....  107 

Pepin  le  Bref, 476 

Pepper 757 

Perfectionists, 719 

Peri 339 

Pericles,      69 

Period 188 

Periods 696 

Perry,  Bliss 476 

Perry,  Commodore,  ...  102 

Expedition  to  Japan,   .  90 

Treatv  with  Japan,  124,  164 

Perryville,  Battle  of,    .    .  17 

Persephone, 339 

Persepolis 129 

Perseus, 339 

Persia 58,  5,56 

Abbas  the  Great,  ...  83 


I 


INDEX 


891 


PAGE 

Persia  —  Con.: 

Alexander  the  Great,   .    141 

Area 604 

Capital, 605 

Commerce 557 

Constitution,      ....    617 

Darius  I., 141 

Debt 605 

Description, 556 

First  Parliament,  .  .  97 
Government,      ....    617 

History 141 

Invades  Greece,  .  .  .116 
Literature,      .    .    .   277,278 

Ministry 617 

Productions 556 

Senate, 617 

Shah 605,  617 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,  ...  604 
War   with    Russia   and 

Turkey 142 

Xer.\es 141 

Persian  War 65 

Perso-Grecian  War,  .    .    .    138 

Persuasion, 200 

Peru 617 

Area 604 

Capital, 605 

Congress, 617 

Constitution 617 

Cuzco 528 

Debt 605 

Government 617 

Incas 120 

Independent,     .    .     89,  102 

Population 604 

President 605,  617 

Rich    gold    mines    dis- 
covered,       108 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Pestalozzi,  Johann  H.,     .   476 

Pestilences 849 

Peter  1 149,  152,  476 

Saint 476 

The  Hermit 74 

Peters,  John  P 476 

Petersburg,  Battle  of,  .    .      17 

Petra 129 

Petrarca,  F 476 

Petrarch 311 

Petroleum 758 

Discovered, 103 

Phirdo 375 

Pha;dra 339 

Phaeton 339 

Phalanx 59 

Phaon 339 

Pharaoh 55 

Pheasant 758 

Phidias 476 

Philadelphia,      .    .    .   556,582 
Centennial  of,     ...    .    556 

City  Hall 557 

EducationalInstitutions,557 
Fairmount  Park,  .    .    .   556 

Girard  College 557 

Incorporated 99 

Independence  Hall,  .    .    557 

Manufactures 557 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .    557 
Philander  Smith  College, .    701 

Philip 476 

II..  of  Macedon,  .  .  59,  476 
II.  of  Spain,  .    .    .    .    .476 

Philippic 375 

Philippines 557 

Acquisition  of 178 

Aguinaldo 394 

Area, 625 

Assembly 96 

Capital 624 

Civil  Government,    .    .     96 

Mestizos,        557 

Metropolis 625 

Native  races 567 

Population, 625 

Productions 557 

Settlement 624 

Philippine  War 142 

Aguinaldo, 142 


PAGE 

Philippine  War — Con.: 

General  Funston,  .    .    .    142 

General  Lawton,   .    .    .    142 

Philistines,      ....      56,375 

Phillips,  Wendell 476 

Philo,       375 

Philomath  College,  ...  701 
Philosopher's  Stone,  .  .  684 
Philosophy : 

Alexandrian  School  of,      65 

In  England 303 

In  Germany, 291 

In  Rome 285 

Of  Greece 283 

Scholastic 74 

Phipps,  Henry,      ....   476 

Phoebus 339 

Phoenicia, 5,57 

Phoenix 339 

Phonograph,' 671 

Invented 106 

Phonography 723 

Phosphorus, 694 

Photographic  portraits,  .  669 
Photography: 

Dry   plate, 670 

First  Experiments,   .    .   668 

Photosphere, 725 

Phyllis 339,375 

Pianoforte, 668 

Player 671 

Piccadilly, 835 

Pickaninny 375 

Pickering,  Edward  C,  .    .    476 
Timothy,    .    .    636,637,638 

Pickwick,  Mr 375 

Pied  Piper 375 

Pierce,  Franklin 144 

Pierrepont,  Edward,  .  .  638 
Piers  Plowman,     ....   375 

Pigeon 758 

Pike  College 701 

Pike's  Peak 547,  657 

Pilate,  Pontius 476 

Pilgrims : 

Mayflower 82,  98 

Pilgrim's  Progress,    .    301,376 

Pinchot,  Gifford 477 

Pindar, 282 

Pine 758 

Pineapple, 759 

Pinero,  Arthur  W 477 

Pink 769 

Pinkney,  William,     .    .    .    638 

Pin-money, 835 

Pipe-clay 655 

Pippa  Passes 376 

Pisa 558 

Cathedral 558 

Leaning  Tower,     .    .    .    558 

Pitt,  William, 477 

Pittsburg 558,582 

Carnegie  Library, .    .    .    558 

History,      558 

Manufactures 558 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .    558 
Pittsburg  Landing, Battle  of ,  1 7 

Pius  V 477 

IX., .477 

X., 97,477 

Pizarro,  Francisco,    .    .    .   477 

Plague 849 

Planetoids 687 

Planing  Machine,  ....    668 

Plantagenets 160 

Plata,  Rio  de  la,    .    .   564,  565 

Plate  Glass .'    .   668 

Platinum 694 

Plato 283,477 

Platonic  Love,  .....    376 

Piatt,  Thomas  C 477 

Piatt  Amendment,    ...      96 

Platypus, 759 

Plautus 284 

Plebians, 59 

Pleiades 339 

Pliny 285 

Plots,  Literary, 343 

Plow 668 

Plum 759 

Plutarch,    .......   477 

Pluto 339 


PAGE 

Plutus 339 

Pluvius 339 

Plymouth: 

Colony 98 

England 558 

Pneumatic  Tire,     ....  670 

Po  River 558 

Pocahontas 477 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan, .    .    305,  477 

Poems,  Famous 387 

Author  and  First  I-ine,  387 

Poet  Laureate, 365 

Poetry 201 

Hebrew, 281 

Poinsett,  J.  R 637 

Poisons 850 

Poitiers,  Battle  of,     ...  78 
Poland: 

Cracow 527 

Dismembered 86 

Independence  of,  .    .    .  81 

Partition  of, 164 

Sobieski,  King 86 

United  to  Russia, ...  89 

War  with  Russia,.    .    .  86 

Warsaw,      677 

Polar  Sea 614 

Pole,  Barber's 776 

Polecat 769 

Political  Parties 101 

Politics 685 

Polk,  James  K.,     144,  477,  640 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,      .  477 

Pollux 339 

Polydorus, 339 

Polygamy 94 

Polyglot 376 

Polyphemus 339 

Polytechnic  College, .    .    .  701 

Institute  of  Brooklyn,  701 

Pomona  College,    ....  701 

Pompeii 129,  568 

Architecture 659 

Description 559 

Destruction  of,  .    .    .64,  568 

Ruins 669 

Ponce  de  Leon,.    .    .    110,477 

Pontiac's  War 99 

Poor  Richard 376 

Pope,  Alexander,  296,  301,  478 

Popes 23 

Popinjay 376 

Poppy, 769 

Popular  Names: 

Of  Cities 782 

Of  People 852 

Of  States 852 

Popular  Vote:   - 

For  President 618 

For  Vice-President,  .    .  618 
Population : 

Colored 625 

Countries  of  the  World,  604 

Foreign 625 

Insular  Possessions,  .    .  626 

Native 626 

Of  States 624 

Of  U.  S.  Territories,  .    .  626 

Voting  of  United  States,  627 

Porcelain-clay, 655 

Porcupine,      ..../.  760 

Porgy,     .    ., 760 

Porpoise,     .' 760 

Port  Arthur 95,  669 

Siege  of 97,  559 

Porter,  Horace 478 

James  M 637 

Jane 296,478 

Noah 478 

Peter  B., 637 

Port  Hudson,  Battle  of,  .  17 

Portland, 559,582 

Portland  Cement, ....  669 

Porto  Rico 659 

Acquisition, 178 

Area, 625 

Capital 624 

Departments  of,  .      .    .  660 
Description,    .    .    .    .    .  559 
During  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War 560 

Inhabitants 559 


PAGE 

Porto  Rico — Con.: 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Productions 559 

Under  the  U.  S 559 

Portsmouth,  Treaty  of,   .    164 

Portugal, 560 

Area, 604 

Becomes  a  Kingdom,  .     75 
Becomes  a  Republic,  97,  617 

Capital 605 

Chamber  of  Deputies,   .   617 
Chamber  of  Peers,     .    .617 

Cities 560 

Constitution 617 

Constitutional    Gov- 
ernment  143 

Cortes 617 

Debt 605 

Government, 617 

History, 142 

Illiteracy 714 

King     Carlos     Assassi- 
nated,  143 

Lisbon 540 

Navy 848 

Oporto 660 

Population, 604 

President 605 

Products 560 

Standard  of  Currency, .    604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Surface  of 660 

Portuguese,  Africa,  .    .    .   608 

Poseidon 340 

Postal  Congress,    Univer- 
sal  94 

Post  Cards,  Penny,  .  .  .106 
Postmasters-General,  .  .  638 
Post-office: 

Department 638 

Established 101 

Post-offices,  in  France  and 

England 80 

Potassium 694 

Potatoes  : 

In  United  States,  .    .    .   649 
World's  Production,     .   680 

Pot-boilers 376 

Potiphar  Papers 376 

Potomac  River,     .    .    660,  565 

Potsdam 560 

Potter,  Cora  Urquhart,    .    478 

Henry  C 478 

Mrs.  James  Brown,  .    .    478 

Potter  College 704 

Potter'.s-clav, 655 

Powell,  Ma,ior  John  W.,  .  478 
Power  Loom,     .    .    .   668, 672 

Powers,  Hiram 478 

Powers  of  the  Presidents,   696 

Prague 560 

Battle  of 560 

Cathedral  of .560 

Thirty  Years'  War,  .    .   560 
Treaty  of,  .    .    .    .    .    .164 

Prairie  Dog 760 

Praseodymium,     ....    694 

Praxiteles 478 

Precious  Stones,    ....    760 

Precipitation 692 

Premiers  of  Canada,     .    .152 

Prentice,  G.  D 304 

Presburg,  Treaty 164 

Presbyterian    College    of 

South  Carolina,     .    .   701 

Presbyterians, 720 

Presbyterians,  Scotch, .  .  720 
Prescott,  W.  H.,  .  .  304,478 
Preserved    Vegetables, 

Adulteration  of,    .    .   645 
President: 

Election  of, 634 

Electoral  vote,  .    .    .    .618 

Eligibility  of 634 

Popular  vote,     ....   618 

Powers  of, 596 

Salary  of 634 

Presidential  Candidates,  .  618 
Presidential  Election: 

Of  1789 618 

Of  1792 618 


892 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAOE 

Presidential  Election — Con.: 

Of  1796, 618 

Of  1800 618 

Of  1804 618 

Of  1808 618 

Of  1812 618 

Of  1816 618 

Of  1820 618 

Of  1824 619 

Of  1828 619 

Of  1832 619 

Of  1836 619 

Of  1840 619 

Of  1S44 619 

Of  1848 619 

Of  1852 619 

Of  1856 619 

Of  1860 619 

Of  1864 619 

Of  1868 619 

Of  1872 619 

Of  1876 619 

Of  1880 619 

Of  1884 619 

Of  1888,      ......   619 

Of  1892 620 

Of  1896 620 

Of  1900 620 

Of  1904 620 

Of  1908, 620 

Presidential  Succession,  .   634 

Presidents      of      Foreign 

Countries,  .    .    .    .    .   605 

Presidents  of  the  United 
States : 
Adams,  John,    101, 171,  393 
Adams.  J.  Q.,    102,172,393 

Ancestry 144 

Arthur,  C.  A..  106,  177,  400 
Buchanan.  Jas.,  104, 173,  412 
Cause  of  Death,  .  .  .  145 
Children,  ....'..  144 
Cleveland,  Grover, 

107.  177,  178,  420 

Education  of 145 

Fillmore,  Millard, 

104,  173,  433 
Garfield,  J.  A.,  106. 177,  436 
Grant,  U.  S.,  106,  177,  439 
Harrison,  Benj.,  107,177,443 
Harrison,  W.  H.,103,172,443 
Haye.^,  R.  B.,  106, 177,  444 
Jackson,  A.,  .  102,172.449 
Jefferson.  Thomas, 

101,  171,  450 
Johnson,  Andrew, 

105,  176,  451 
Lincoln,  A.,  44,  104,  173,  457 
Madison,  James,  101,171,461 
Marriage  Statistics,  .  .  144 
McKinlev.Wm.  108, 178, 464 
Monroe,  James,  102, 172, 467 
Pierce.  Franklin,  .  104.  173 
Place  of  Burial,  .  .  .  145 
Polk,  James  K.,  103, 172,477 
Profession  of,     ....    145 

Religion  of 145 

Residences, 144 

Roosevelt,  T.,  108,  178,  482 
Taft,  Wm.  H.,  109,  178.  492 
Taylor,  Zachary ,  104, 1 73, 493 
Tyler,  John,  103,  172,  496 
Van  Buren,-M.,  103, 172,  496 
Washington,  Geo., 

101,  170,  498 
Preston,  William  B.,  .  .  639 
Pretoria,  Treaty,  ....    164 

Priam 340 

Priestley,  Joseph,  ....   478 

Primrose 762 

Prince  of  Bulgaria,  .  .  .  605 
Princeton,  Battle  of, .  .  17,  100 
Princeton  University,  .    .    701 

Printing 61 

Double  cylinder,    .    .    .    670 

Franklin's, 668 

Hoe's 670 

In  America 84 

In  China 279 

Invention  of 80 

Multi-color 669 

Press  at  Copenhagen,    .     80 


Printing — Con. : 

Revolving  cylinder,  .  .  668 
Rotary  steam  power,  .  668 
Rotary  three-color,  .    .   668 

Screw 668 

Typesetting  machines,       94 

Web-feeding 671 

Priscilla,     .......   376 

Pritchard,  Jeter  C 478 

Pritchett  College,  .   .    .    .701 

Proctor,  Redfield 637 

Projectiles, 776 

Prometheus, 340 

Property,   Exemption  of,  667 

Prophets 281 

Prose, 198 

Proserpine, 340 

Protestantism, Ill  I 

Protestant    Reformation,   114! 

Luther, 114,460 

Prouty,  Charles  A.,  .  .  .  478 
Provence  Rose,      ....   739 

Proverbs 281 

Providence.  R.  I..     .   561.  582 

Prussia 532.  561 

Bismarck,  premier,   .    .     92 

Cities 561 

Cologne 526 

Constitution, 617 

Constitution  for.   ...     90 

Education. 661 

Fief  of  Poland 81 

Franco-Prussian  War.  .  94 
German  Confederation.      92 

Government 617 

Manufactures,  ....  561 
Mineral  Springs.    .    .    .   561 

Products. 561 

Sadowa.  Battle  of.    .    .     92 

Surface 561 

The  Crown 618 

War  with  Austria,     .    .     92 

Prussic  Acid, '.      86 

Psalms 281 

Pseudonyms 321 

Psychef 340 

Ptolemaeus  Claudius.  .  .  478 
Ptolemaeus  Soter, ....  478 
Ptolemies.  Age  of.     ...     60 

Ptolemy  1 60 

Public  Library. .    .    .     58,714 

Puddling 668,673 

Puff-birds 731 

Puffendorff,  Samuel,     .    .   478 

Pukwana 340 

Pulitzer,  Joseph,   ....   478 

Pulse 851 

Pultowa.    .    ...    .    .    .   22, 87 

Puma 762 

Punctuation 188 

Marks 188 

Punic  War 61 

War,  third 62 

Wars 138 

Pupin,  Michael  I.,  ...  478 
Purdue  University.    .    .    .   705 

Purdy,  Milton  D 479 

Pure  Food  Act,     .    .    109,  645 

Puss  in  Boots 376 

Putnam,  Herbert.     .    .    .   479 

Israel 479 

Pygmalion, 340 

Pyle,  Howard,  ..'...   479 

Pyramids, 54,  561 

Building  of, 561 

Dimensions  of,  ...    .    561 

Pyramus 340 

Pyrenees 562 

Minerals 562 

Scenic  features,     .    .    .   562 

Treaty 164 

Pyrope 761 

Pyrrhus 340,479 

Pythagoras,    ....   282,  479 

Pythia 340 

Python 340,762 

Quadrumana,  ....  729 
Quadruple  Alliance,      .    .164 

Quail,      . 762 

Quakers, 712 

In  Boston, 99 

1    -Hicksite, 713 


PAGE 

Quasimodo, 376 

Quebec 562 

Battle  of, 17,  99 

Citadel 562 

Population 562 

Province 562 

Settlement 562 

Surrenders  to  English,  99 
Queen  Elizabeth,  .  .  82,  430 
Queen  of  the  Netherlands,  605 
Queens  of  England,  .  .  .  150 
Quesnay,  Francois,  .  .  .  479 
Quickly,  Mistress,     .    .    .   376 

Quilp 376 

Quincy,  Josiah 479 

Quinine 731 

QuiiTtilian, 285 

Quirinal, 837 

Quotation  Marks 190 

Rabelais,  Francois,  292,  294 

Raccoon 762 

Races : 

Black 752 

Brown, 752 

Red 752 

White 752 

Yellow 752 

Rachel, 479 

Racine,  Jean 479 

Radcliffe  College 704 

Radio-activity,  Science  of,  672 

Radium 674,694 

Ragnarok 340 

Ragozin,  Z.  A.,      ....   479 

Railroad 674 

In  England 674 

In  United  States,  .    .    .   674 

Statistics 675 

Railroads,  Value  of: 

In  Europe 675 

In  Germany 90 

In  United  States,  .    .    .   675 

Railway,  Central  Asian,    .     95 

First  Norwegian,  ...      90 

Inter-Colonial 106 

Saint  Gothard.      ...     95 

Union  Pacific 94 

Railway  Gauge,     .    .    .    .851 

Railways,  Canadian  Pacific,  94 

First  in  Brazil,       ...     92 

First  Canadian,     .    .    .    103 

First  Electric 94 

First  in  United  States,     102 

Grand  Trunk 104 

Great  Strike 106 

India 94 

In  England 88 

In  Germany 90 

Northern  Pacific  begun,  106 
Panama  completed, .  .  92 
Swiss  Nationalization,  of  95 
Union  Pacific  opened,   .    106 

Rain 562 

Rainbow, 562 

Rakshas 340 

Raleigh,  in  Virginia,    .    .     98 
Sir  Walter,     .    .    .   295, 479 

Ramona 377 

Ramsey,  Alexander,  .  .    .   637 
Randall,  Alexander  W.,  .   638 

Samuel  J 640 

Randolph,  Edmund,    636,  638 
Randolph-Macon  College: 

Ashland,  Va 701 

Lynchburg,  Va 704 

Rangoon, 562 

Ranke,  Leopold  von,    .    .   479 

Raphael 479 

Rappahannock,  Battle  of.     17 

Rasselas. 377 

Rastadt 562 

Congresses  at .562 

Treaties. 164 

Ratisbon 164,563 

Ravenna, 563 

Tomb  of  Dante,    ...   563 

Ravens, 340 

Ravenswood, 377 

Rawlins,  John  A.,  ....   637 
Rawlinson,  George,  .    .    .   479 

Rayner,  Isidor, 479 

Read,  T.  B., 306 


PAQB 

Reade,  Charles, .  .  .  297,  479 
Reclus,  Jean  J.,     ....   479 

Reconstruction 176 

Redbird 740 

Redbreast, 762 

Red-Cross  Knight,    ...   377 

Red  Race 752 

Red-Riding-Hood,    ...   377 

Red  River 565 

Red  Sea 563 

Redslate  Peak 547 

Redwood 763 

Reed,  Thomas  B.,  .  .   480,  640 

Reeds, 858 

Reformation,  Beginning  of,  80 

Lollards,     .....    127 

Reformed  Church,    ...   720 

Regensburg,  .    .    .    .  \    .   563 

Rehan,  Ada 480 

Reid,  Wliitelaw 480 

Religion 683 

Buddhism 689 

Christianity 695 

Mohammedanism,     .    .   717 

Paganism, 719 

Parsees 719 

Perfectionists 719 

Popes  and  Bishops.  .    .     23 

Theosophy 726 

World's  Parliament  of.     94 

Religious  Statistics.  .   .    .721 

Catholic  Church.    ...    721 

Denominations,     .    .    .    721 

Of  Europe 721 

Of  United  States,  .  .  .721 
Orthodox  Churches, .    .   721 

Jews 721 

Mohammedans,     .    .    .   721 

Protestant  Churches,    .   721 

Rembrandt  van  Rijn,  .    .   480 

Remington,  Frederic,   .    .   480 

Remsen,  Ira,      480 

Renan,  Joseph  E 480 

Rennie,  John 480 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute  705 

Representative  Men,    .    .   377 

Reptiles, 763 

Republic,  Plato's 377 

Resaca,  Battle  of,     ...      17 

Respiration 722 

Restoration : 

French 148 

Literature  under,  .  .  .301 
Retreat  of  the  10,000,  .  .  59 
Reuter,  Baron  Paul,  .  .    .480 

Revere,  Paul 480 

Reviews 200 

Revolutionary  War,  .  .  .  100 
Reynard  the  Fox,  .  .  .  377 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  .    .   480 

Rhadamanthus 340 

Rhamnus 340 

Rhapsody 377 

Rhees,  Rush 480 

Rheims, 563 

Cathedral  of 563 

Joan  of  Arc 563 

Under  the  Franks,  .  .  563 
Rhine,  Confederation  of,.    164 

Rhine  River 563,565 

Rhinoceros 763 

Rhode  Island : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

College   of   Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts, .   705 

Constitution 620 

Dorr's  Rebellion,  .    .    .    146 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive. 620 

Exemption  Laws,.    .    .   667 

Government 620 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 

History, 146 

Interest,  Laws  of,  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature 620 

Local  Government,  .    .   620 


INDEX 


893 


PAGE 

Rhode  Island — Con.: 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  .   631 

Providence, 561 

Statutes  of  Limitation,    667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,  .    .   631 
Rhodes,  Cecil  J.,    .    .     95,  480 

James  F., 480 

Rhodesia 563 

British    South    African 

Company 563 

Commercial  Importance,  564 

Provinces  of 564 

Rhodium, 694 

Rhodonite 761 

Rhone  River 565 

Ricardo,  David 480 

Rice: 

In  United  States,  .    .    .   648 
World's  Production,     .    680 

Richard 480 

II 9 

Richardson,  William  A.,  .  637 

Richelieu,  Armand,  .    .    .    480 

Richmond,  Va.,     .    .   564,  582 

In  the  Civil  War,  ...   564 

Kentucky,  Battle  of,     .      17 

Public  Buildings,  .    .'  .   564 

State  House, 564 

Richmond  College: 

Ohio, 701 

Virginia, 701 

Richmond,  Ky.,  Battle  of,     17 

Ridley,  Nicholas 480 

Rifle  Barrel, 668 

Riga, 564 

Right  Use  of  Words, .      19 1-98 

Rigolette, 377 

Riis,  J.  A., 481 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,     481 

Ring  and  Book 378 

Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,     .    .    565 
Rio  de  Janeiro,      ....   564 
Captured  by  French,    .     99 
Pan-American    Confer- 
ence,     109 

107 

564,  565 

.   565 

.   701 

.   565 

.   565 

.   701 

.   378 

.   481 

564-65 

.    565 

701 


Revolution  at,   . 
Rio  de  la  Plata,     . 
Rio  Grande,  .    .    . 
Rio  Grande  College, 
Rio  Madeira,  .   .    . 

Rio  Negro 

Ripon  College,  .  . 
Rip  Van  Winkle,  . 
Ristoria,  Adelaide, 
Rivers,  Longest,    . 

Riviera 

Roanoke  College,  . 

Roanoke  Female  College,  704 


Robbia,  Luea  Delia, 
Robert  Bruce,    .    . 
Roberts,  Lord,  .    . 

In  South  Africa, 
Robeson,  George  M. 
Robespierre,  .  .  . 
Robin  Goodfellow, 
Robinson  Crusoe,  . 
Rob  Roy,  .... 
Rochambeau,  Jean, 
Rochester,  .... 

Aqueduct,  .  .  . 
Rock  Crystal,  .  . 
Rockefeller,  John  D 

John  D.,  Jr.,  .    . 

William 

Rockford  College, . 
Rock  Hill  College, 
Rocky  Mountains, 

Chief  Ranges,     . 

Highest  Peaks,  . 

Minerals,     .    .    . 

Passes  of,  .  .  . 
Roderick  Dhu,  .  . 
Rodney,  Caesar  A., 

Roe,  E.  P 

Roebling,  John  A., 

Washington  A., 
Roentgen,  Wilhelm  C 


481 
.  481 
.  481 
.  96 
.  639 
13,481 
.  378 
.  378 
.  378 
.  481 
565,  582 
565 
761 
481 
481 
481 
704 
701 
565 
565 
565 
565 
565 
378 
638 
305 
481 
482 
482 


Rays 94,726] 


PAGE 

Rogation  Days 792 

Roger  II., 482 

Rogers,  Henry  H.,    .    .    .   482 

Henry  Wade 482 

Roland, 378 

Marie  .Jeanne,     ....    482 
Roller  Flour  Mills,    ,    .    .   671 

Rollins  College 701 

Roman : 

Architecture, 512 

Calendar 57 

Catholic  Church,   ...   691 

Census, 58 

Civil  War 138 

Emperors 146 

Empire  (See  Rome),    .     58 

Forum, •    110 

Gods 323 

Money 859 

Mourning  Customs,  .    .   796 
Orders  of  Architecture,    512 

Social  War 138 

Romance  of  the  Rose,  .    .   378 

Romances, 378 

Roman  Emperors,     ...    146 

Lineage  of 146 

Military  Despots,  .    .    .    146 

Of  the  West, 147 

Period  of  Rule 146 

The  Cajsars 146 

The  Five  Good,     ...    146 
Roman  Empire  (See  Rome) : 

Division  of 65 

Holy, 118 

Lombards 127 

Romanes,  George  J.,     .    .   482 

Roman  Law, 70 

In  Germany 96 

Romanzoff,  Peter  A.,    .    .   482 

Rome, 58 

Ancient, 566 

Annexed  to  Italy,     .    .     95 

Art 566 

Athens  Subjected,     .    .      63 
Capital  of  Italy,    ...     95 

Capitol 523 

Churches 566 

Democracy  in 78 

Description 566 

Hills 566 

Historic  Ruins 566 

History, 567 

Italy 565 

Monarchy,  A,     ....     63 

Monuments, 566 

Population  of, 63 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .    566 
St.  Peter's,     .    .    .   566, 571 

Streets  of 566 

Taken  bv  Barbarossa,  .     76 

The  Quirinal 566 

Under  the  Popes,  .    .    .    567 

Vatican, 567,  576 

Wall  of 65 

Walls 566 

Romeo 378 

Romney,  George,  ....    482 

Romulus 56,  378 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,   144,  482 

Policies  of 109 

Reforms, 178 

Visits  Panama,      .    .    .    109 
Root,  Elihu,  .    .   482,  636,  637 

Rose 763 

Cabbage 739 

Provence,   ......   739 

Quartz 761 

Rosebery,  A.  P 483 

Rosecrans,  William  S.,  .  483 
Rose  Polytechnic  Institute,  705 
Rosetta  Stone,  .  .  .  282, 378 
Rossetti,  Gabriele,    .    .    .   483 

Rossini,  G.  A 483 

Rotary  Steam  Turbine,    .    672 

Rothschild,    .  ' 483 

Rotten  Row,      .    .    .    .    .838 

Rotterdam 567 

Rough  Riders, 157 

Roumania, 567 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Commerce, 567 


PAGE 

Roumania — Con. : 

Constitution,      ....   620 

Debt 605 

Description, 567 

Government,      ....   620 

Illiteracy, 714 

Inhabitants, 567 

King, 605 

Ministry, 621 

National  Assembly,  .    .   620 

Population 604 

Productions,       .    .    ....   567 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .    604 

Surface 567 

Round  Table 378 

Round  Top,  N.  Y 547 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,    .    .   294,  483 

Royce,  Josiah 483 

Rubber  Dental  Plate,  .    .671 
Rubber,  vulcanized,     .    .    103 

Rubellite 761 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,     .    .   483 

Rubidium, 694 

Ruby, 761 

Rudge,  Barnaby,  ....   379 

Rudolf  1 114,483 

II 483 

Rulers  of  the  World, .    146,  605 
Bishops  and  Popes  of 

Rome, 23 

Emperors  of  Germany,  149 
Kings   and    Queens   of 

England 150 

Kings,   Emperors,   and 

Presidents  of  France,  147 
Presidents  of  the  United 

States 144 

Roman  Emperors,    .    .    146 

Sovereigns  of  Russia,   .    149 

Rumford,  Benjamin  T.,  .   483 

Runeberg,  J.  L.,    .    .   287,  483 

Runes, 379 

Runic  Inscriptions,  .    .    .   289 

Runnymede 76 

Ruofif,  Henry  W 6 

Rupert,  Prince  Robert,   .  483 

Rush,  Benjamin 484 

Richard 637,638 

Rusk,  Jeremiah  M.,  .    .    .   639 
Ruskin,  John,    .   297,  303,  484 

Russell,  Annie, 484 

John 484 

LiUian 484 

Russia, 567 

Alaska  sold 93 

Alexander  II.,  assassin- 
ated  95 

Alliance  with  Austria,  .     87 

Area 604 

Battle  of  Pultowa,    .    22,  87 

Canals 653 

Capital 605 

Catherine  I.,  .  .87,  152,  417 
Catherine  II.,     .    .     87,  152 

Cities 568 

Civil  Wars 73 

Climate 568 

Constitution,      .    .      97, 621 

Cossack  revolt 87 

Cossacks 527 

Council  of  Empire,  .  .  621 
Crimean  War,    .    .    .93,  139 

Cronstadt,       527 

Crown,  The 622 

Czar's  peace  proposal,  .     97 

Debt 605 

Duma 97,153,621 

Duma  authorized,     .    .     97 
Emperor   (Czar),  .    .  '  .   605 
End  of  serfdom,    ...     93 
Expedition  against  Con- 
stantinople,   ....     70 

Exports 568 

Extent  of  Empire,  .  .  567 
Finland  ceded  to  Sweden,  83 
Geography  of,    ...    .   568 


PAGE 

Russia — Con.: 

Invaded  by  Tamerlane,  79 
Invasion  of  Finland,  .  79 
Invasion  of  Thrace,  .  .  72 
Ivan,  first  Czar,     ...     81 

Literature, 314 

Local  government,    .    .    622 

Manufactures 568 

Mazeppa, 87 

Merchant  Marine,      .    .   674 

Minerals, 568 

Ministry 622 

Mongolian  Invasion,    .     77 

Moscow, 547 

Navy 848 

Nicholas  II.,  95, 149, 152, 471 
Nihilism,  .....  152 
Peter  the  Great,  85,  152,  476 
Population,     .    .    .    568,  604 

Port  Arthur 95,559 

Productions 568 

Riga 564 

Ruric  the  Norman,  .  .  71 
Russo-Japanese  War,  97, 153 
Russo-Turkish  War,  139, 152 


Government. 
Greek  Church, 
History,      .    . 
Illiteracy,   .    . 
Incursion  of  Huns, 


621 
713 
152 
714 

77 


Sebastopol,  Siege  of, 

Siberia  discovered,    . 

Sovereigns  of,    .    .    . 

Standard  of  Currency, 

Stock  of  Currency,    . 

St.  Petersburg,      .    . 

Sweden  invades,    .    . 

Tartar  invasions,  .    . 

Tartar  War 

Territory 

Under  Tartars,  .    .    . 

Ural  Mountains,    .    . 

Vladimir,  first  Christian 
ruler, 

Volga, 

War  against  Turkey, 

War  with  Poland,  . 
Russian  Empire,  .  .  . 
Russian  Literature, 

Church,  .    .    . 

Count  "Tolstoi 

Early  period. 

Historians, 316 

Modern  period,      .    .    .    316 

Turgenieff,      .    .    .    316,  495 

Under  Catherine  II.,    .   316 
Russo-Japanese  War, 

125,  139,  153 
Russo-Turkish  War,     139,  152 

Rustam 379 

701 
701 
281 
694 
761 
640 
484 
484 
484 
484 
287 
648 
680 


93 

83 

149 

604 

604 

572 

87 

81 

79 

152 

77 

576 

73 

577 

91 

85 

621 

314 

315 

316,495 

315 


Rust  University, 
Rutgers  College, 

Ruth 

Ruthenium,  .    . 
Rutile,    .... 
Rutledge,  John, 
Ruysdaal,  Jacob  van, 
Ruyter,  Michael, 
Ryan,  Patrick  J., 

Thomas  F.,  . 
Rydberg,  Viktor, 
Rye,  in  United  States, 

World's  production, 

Ryswrck, 164 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey,  858 
Sabian  Cross-Roads,  Bat- 
tle of 17 

Sabines, 153 

Sable 764 

Sackett's  Harbor,  Battie  of,  17 
Sacred  Heart,  College  of, .   701 

Sacred  War, 59 

Sacred  Wars 116 

Of  Greece 138 

Sadi-Carnot,  M.,  .  95,  112,  148 
Safe,  first  fire-proof,  .  .  668 
Safety  matches,     ....   670 

Sago 764 

~  _  s,  ..."...  286,  379 
Sagasta,  Praxedes  M.,  95,  484 
Sage,  Margaret  O.,    .    .    .   484 

Sage  Hens, 853 

Saguntum 129 

Battle  of, 61 

Sailor's  Creek,  Battle  of,  .  17 
Sainte-Beuve,  C.  A.,  .  .  484 
Saionji,  Marquis 485 


894 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Sakya  Muni, 689 

Saladin 77 

And  the  Crusaders,  .  .  77 
Battle  of  Ascalon,  .  .  77 
Conquers  Syria,     ...     77 

Deatli  of, 77 

Salamanca,  Battle  of,  .  .  88 
Salary : 

Federal  Judges,  .  .  635-36 
Justices  United  States 

Supreme  Court,  .  .  635 
Members  of  Congress,  .  634 
Of     U.     S.     Cabinet 

Officers 635 

President  of  U.  S.,  .  .  634 
Speaker  of  H.  of  K.,     .   634 

Vice-President 634 

Salem  Academy  and  Col- 
lege  704 

Salic  Law 67, 153 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of,  .    .   485 

Sallust 284,485 

Salmagundi, 379 

Salmon, 764 

Salt 764 

Salt  River 379 

Salvation  Army 722 

Statistics  of 722 

Samaria, 129 

Samarium, 694 

Samian  Letter,  The,  .  .  380 
Samnite  War,    .    .    .    .59,  138 

Samson, 56 

Samuel 281,  485 

San  Antonio  College,    .    .   704 

Sancho  Panza 380 

Sand,  George,    .   293,  295,  485 

San  Domingo 601 

San  Francisco,  .    .    .   568,  582 
Earthquake,  ...      96,  569 

Exposition 568 

Golden  Gate  Park,    .    .   568 

Harbor 568 

Sanitary  Engineering,  .  .712 
San  Juan,  Battle  of, .    .    .      18 

San  Juan  Hill, 157 

San  Salvador: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt 605 

Population 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Sanskrit 380 

Language, 184 

Literature 277 

San  Stefano,  Treaty  of,  .  164 
Santa  Ana,  Antonio,  .  .  485 
Santa  Clara  College,      .   .   701 

Santa  Claus, 380 

Sante  F^,  Baldy  Peak,  .  .  547 
Santiago,  Battle  of, 

18,  108,  157 
Santo  Domingo: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt 605 

Population 604 

President 605 

Revolution ■ .   109 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Santos-Dumont,  A.,  .    .    .   485 

Sao  Francisco  River,    .    .   565 

Sapphire 761 

Sappho, 282 

Saracen  Conquests,  .    .    .    13S 

Saracens, 68 

Besiege  Constantinople,  69 
Besiege  Rome,  ....  70 
Capture  Jerusalem,  .  .  73 
Decline  of  Caliphate,  .  70 
Destroy  Venetian  Fleet,  70 
Eastern  Empire  In- 
vaded  69 

Encourage  Learning,    .      69 

War  Against  Italians,.     71 

Saratoga,  Battle  of,  .   .    18,  22 

Sard 761 

Sardis 129 

Sardonyx, 761 

Sardou,  Victorien,     .   295,  485 


PAGE 

Sargent,  John  S 485 

Saskatchewan  River,  .  .  565 

Satan 380 

Saturn 341 

Satyr 341 

Satvrane,  .......  380 

Saul 485 

Savage,  Minot  J 485 

Savannah,  Battle  of,     .    .      18 
"  Savannah,  "  First  Trans- 
Atlantic  Steamship, .    102 
Savonarola,  Fra  Girolamo,  485 

Saxe,  J.  G 305 

Maurice 485 

Saxe-Coburg, 532 

Saxe-Meiningen,  ....  532 
Saxe-Weimar,  .....  532 
Saxons: 

Defeated  by  Arthur,     .     67 
Heptarchy  Begins,    .    .     67 

In  Britain, 66 

Laws  Promulgated,  .    .     67 
United  with  Normans,       74 

Saxony 532 

Dresden 529 

House  of 149 

Say  re  Institute,     ....   704 

Scalds 380 

Scandinavian  Literature,    286 

Eddas 286 

Gustavus  Adolphus,      .   287 

History 287 

Poetry, 287 

Sagas,.    ..    7    ....   286 

Vikings, 286 

Scandium 694 

Scarlet  Letter, 380 

Searritt  Collegiate   Insti- 
tute,     701 

Schaeberle,  John  M.,    .    .   485 

Schiff,  Jacob  H 485 

Schiller,  Johann  F.,  .   290,  486 

Schilliugfurst 96 

Schlemihl,  Peter 380 

Schley,  Winfield  S 486 

Schofield,  John,  .  .  486,637 
Schonbrunn,  Treaty  of,  .  164 
Schools  of  Technology,    .   704 

Instructors, 704 

List  of 704 

Location, 704 

Number  of  Students,    .   704 

President 704 

Value  of  Property,    .    .    704 
Schurman,  Jacob  G.,    .    .    486 

Schurz,  Carl 486,  638 

Schwab,  Charles  M 486 

Science, 683 

Acetylene 683 

Acid 683 

Acoustics 683 

Aerolite 683 

Air-pump 650 

Albumen 684 

Alcohol 650 

Alimentary  Canal,    .    .   684 

Alkaloids 685 

Aluminum 685 

Amphibia 685 

Aorta 685 

Archimedes 61,399 

Arteries 686 

Asteroids, 687 

Atom 687 

Atomic  Theory,     ...    687 
Aurora  Borealis,    .    .    .   688 

Automobile 651 

Blood, 688 

Capillary  Action,  ...   689 

Carbon 690 

Carnegie  Institution,     .    690 

Carnivora, 690 

Carotid  Arteries,   .    .    .691 

Celestial  Globe 59 

Celsus 64 

Chemical  Elements,  .   .   694 
Chemical  Substances,  .   782 

Chemistry, 692 

Christian 695 

Chronology, 696 

Chrysalis 696 

Circulation, 696 


PAGE 

Science — Con.: 

Classified 722 

Clepsydra 62 

Cloud 696 

Color .  705 

Combustion, 705 

Comet 706 

Conchology, 706 

Conductor 706 

Conic  Sections 59 

Constellations 707 

Continuity,  Law  of, .    .  707 

Contractile  Force,     .    .  707 

Convection,    ....  708 

Correlation  of  Forces,  .  708 

Cosmogony ,  70S 

Dew 709 

Digestion, 709 

Distillation 709 

Dreams 710 

Dynamics 710 

Eclipses 69 

Electrical     Measure- 
ments   94 

Electricity, 710 

Engineering, 712 

Euclid 60 

German, 292 

Heart 713 

Horsepower, 713 

Inoculation  for  Small- 
pox,       86 

Inventions  and  Discov- 
eries  608-72 

Kepler's  Laws 82 

Lick  Telescope 94 

Light 714 

Liquid  Air 715 

Lungs,     .        715 

Magnetic  Needle,  ...  74 
Mathematics    at    Alex- 
andria   66 

Mechanics, 60 

Moon 717 

Natural  History,  .    .729-72 

Ozone 719 

Pasteur 94,474 

Poisons 850 

Practical 722 

Prussic  Acid 86 

Radium 674 

Respiration,  .....  722 

Skeleton 724 

Skin 724 

Stars 724 

Stomach 725 

Study  of  Anatomy,  .    .  82 

Sun 725 

Surgery 61 

Telegraph 675 

Telephone 676 

Telescope, 677 

Theology 725 

Theoretical 722 

Theosophy 726 

Weights  and  Measures,  855 

Wireless  Telegraphy,    .  676 

X-Rays 726 

Sciences 722 

Scio  College, 701 

Scipio,  Africanus, .    .    .61,486 

Scorpion 765 

Scotland 568 

Canute 72 

David  1 74 

Description 569 

Edinburgh 529 

Geography  of 569 

Glasgow, 533 

History,  .......  154 

Illiteracy, 714 

Independence  of,  .    .    .  78 

Invades  England, ...  78 

James  I.,  King 78 

Lakes 569 

Local  Government,  .    .  622 

Murder  of  Duncan,  .    .  72 

Relation  to  the  Crown,  622 

Robert  Bruce,  King,     .  78 

Scenery 569 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  296,  303,  486 

Winfield 486 


PAGB 

Scourge  of  God 380 

Scout  Ships, 848 

Scrooge,  Ebenezer,    .    .    .   380 

Sculpture, 57 

And  Painting 54 

Scutum 776,  782 

Scylla 341 

Seal 765 

Seasons 379,  569 

Seattle, 569,582 

Exposition 569 

Seawell,  Molly 486 

Sea-wolf 765 

Secession 173 

In  South  Carolina,    .    .     92 
Of  Southern  States,  .    .     92 
Second  Samnite  War,  .    .     60 
Secretaries : 

Of  Agriculture,     ...   639 
Of  Commerce  and  Labor,  640 

Of  Navy 639 

Of  State 636 

Of  the  Interior,     ...   638 

Of  Treasury 636 

Of  War 637 

Sedan,  Battle  of 95 

Sedgwick,  Theodore,  .  .  640 
Seeley,  John  R.,    .    .   297, 487 

Seine  River 565 

Selenium 694 

Self-binding  reaper,  .  .  .671 
Sembrich,  Marcella,  .    .    .   487 

Semicolon 189 

Seminole  War,  .    102,  103,  172 

Semiramis 54 

Semitic  Languages,  .  .  .  184 
Senate  of  United  States, .  633 
Seneca,  Lucius,  .  .  285,  487 
Sentimental  Journey,  .    .381 

Septuagint 61,723 

Sequoia, 765 

Sermons, 200 

Servetus,  Michel,  ....  487 
Servia: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution,      ....   622 

Debt 605 

Government, 622 

Illiteracy 714 

King, 605 

National  Assembly,  .    .   622 

Population 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 
Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Suffrage 622 

Sesame 381 

Seton  Hall  College,  .  .  .701 
Seven : 

Bibles,  The 381 

Pines,  Battle  of,    .    .    .      18 

Sleepers,  The 381 

Weeks'  War 139 

Wise  Men, 381 

Wonders  of  the  World,    851 

Years'  War,   .    .    .    139,  154 

Seward,  William  H.,    487,  636 

Sewing  Machine,    ....    670 

Howe  Patents 103 

Invented, 90 

Shad 765 

Shafter,  William  R.,     .    .   487 

Shah  Jehan 487,  574 

Shah  of  Persia 605 

Shakespere.  .  .  295,  299,  487 
Shaler,  Nathaniel  S.  .   .    .   487 

Shanghai, 569 

Commerce  of 569 

Shark, 765 

Sharp,  Rebecca,  ....  381 

Shasta 647 

Shaw.  Albert 487 

George  B. 487 

Henry  W 487 

Leslie  M 637 

Shaw  University 701 

Shays,  Daniel 487 

Shays'  Rebellion 154 

Sheep 766 

Shekels, 858-59 

Shelby,  Isaac 637 

Shelley,  P.  B 297,  487 


INDEX 


895 


PAGE 

Shepard,  Edward  M.,   .    .  488 
Shepherd's  Calendar,    .    .381 

Sheridan,  Philip  H.,.    .    .  488 

Sherman,  J.  S 488 

Sherman,  John, 637 

William  T 488,637 

Shetland  Isles,  .....  841 

Shields 776 

Shimonoseki,  Treaty,    .    .  164 

Ship  Canals, 654 

Cost  of 654 

Length  of, 654 

Ship  Screw 669 

Shiras,  Geo.,  Tr.,    ....  640 

Shoe-last  Lathe 672 

Shoguns,  of  Japan,    .    .    .  124 

Shorter  College 704 

Shorthand 723 

Pitman, 723 

Short  Story,  The 199 

Shurtleff  College 701 

Shylock 382 

Siam 604 

Area, 604 

Bangkok 517 

Capital, 605 

King,  .    .  .    .   605,623 

Local  Government,  .    .  623 

Ministry 623 

Navy 848 

Population, 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Siberia, 83 

Sicilian  Vespers 155 

Sicilian  War 59 

Sicilies,  The  Two,  .    .     89,  154 
Sicily : 

Mt.  Etna 530 

Palermo, 552 

Taken  by  Roger,  ...  75 

Siddons,  Sarah 488 

Siegel,  Henry 488 

Siege  of  Sebastopol,  ...  93 

Siegfried 382 

Signature  of  the  Cross,     .  851 

Ancient  Use  of,     ...  851 

Signature  of  Letters,     .    .  215 

Sigsbee,  Charles  D 488 

Sikes,  Bill, 382 

Silenus 341 

Silicon 694 

Silk: 

And  Linen, 63 

Introduced  into  Europe,  67 

Worm, 766 

Silliman,  Benjamin,  .    .    .  488 
Silliman  Collegiate   Insti- 
tute   704 

Silver 694,  766 

Certificates  Authorized,  107 

Coins,      656 

Free  Movement,    .    .    .  108 

Money, 61 

Simmons  College 704 

Simplon, 547 

Simpson,  Sir  James, .    .    .  488 

Simpson  College 701 

Siudbad, 382 

Singapore,  .......  841 

Sioux  War 107 

Sirens 341 

Sismondi,  Jean 488 

Sisters  of  Bethany  College, 

704 

Sitting  Bull 488 

Killed 107 

Sitting  Bull  Mountiin,     .  547 

Six-Mile  House,  Battle  of,  18 

Sixtus  IV 488 

v., 488 

Skeleton, 724 

Skin 724 

Construction  of,     .    .    .  724 

Function  of 724 

Slavery, 155 

Abolished     in     British 

Colonies, 88 

Abolished  in  U.  S.,    .    .  92 

In  Virginia, 82 

Question, 173 

Sleeping  Beauty 382 


PAGE 

Sleeping  Car 670 

Slough  of  Despond,  ...  382 
Smalley,  George  W.,  .  .  488 
Small-pox,  Inoculation  for, 

Introduced 86 

Smith,  Adam 296 

Caleb  B 038 

Goldwin 488 

Herbert  K., 489 

Hoke 638 

John 98,489 

Joseph, 489 

Robert,   .    .    .    636,  638,  639 

Smith  College 704 

Smithson,  James 724 

Smithsonian  Institution, 

579,  724 

Founded, 88 

Smokeless  Gunpowder,  .  671 
Smollett,  Tobias  G.,.   296,489 

Snail 767 

Sneehattan 547 

Snow 569 

Sobieski, 85 

Social  : 

Democrats  in  Germany,   115 

Social  War 61,63 

Socrates, 489 

Sodium 694 

Sodom 130 

Soissons,  Battle  of,   .    .    .      67 

Sol 341 

Solferino,  Battle  of,  .    .    .     92 

Solid  South 851 

Solomon 56,  489 

Solomon's  Temple,    .    .    .    160 

Solon's  Code 57 

Solyman  II 166,  489 

Somnus, 341 

Song  of  Roland 382 

Songs  of  Solomon,     .    .    .    281 

Sonnet 202 

Sophia,  St.,  Church,  ...    570 

Sophocles 283,  489 

Sorata, 547 

Sorghum,  in  U.  S.,  .  .  .  650 
Sothern,  Edward  H.,    .    .    489 

Soule  College, 704 

Sound 683 

Sounds,  Musical 683 

Sousa,  John  Philip,  .  .  .  489 
South  Africa: 

Cecil  Rhodes 95 

Jamieson's  Raid,  ...      95 
South  America: 

Argentine  Republic, .    .    515 

Colombia 526 

Southard,  Samuel  L.,  .  .  639 
South  Carolina: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution, 623 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive 623 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .    667 

Government 623 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 

History, 155 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature, 623 

Metropolis, 625 

Military  Academy,    .    .    701 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  .  631 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate, 631 

University, 702 

Voting  Population,   .    .631 
South  Dakota: 

Agricultural  College,  .  705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital, 630 

Constitution 623 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive 623 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .   667 


18 
701 


PAGE 

South  Dakota — Con.: 

Government 623 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .    630 

History 155 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .  860-62 
Legislative   Statistics,.   631 

Legislature, 623 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  .  631 
School  of  Mines,  .  .  .  705 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,   .    .    631 

Southern  University,    .    .    701 

Southey,  Robert 489 

South    Mountain,    Battle 
of, 

Southwestern      Presbyte- 
rian University,     .    . 

Sovereigns  of  Russia: 

House  of  Romanoff,  .  .  149 
House  of  Ruric, ....    149 

Lineage 149 

Period  of  Rule 149 

Spain 62,570 

Alhambra  Founded,  .   .      77 
Alfonso  XIII.,  King,     .      97 
Arabian    horses    intro- 
duced  69 

Area 604 

Army 623 

Barcelona, 518 

Capital 605 

Charles,    King   of   "The 
Netherlands,  ....      80 

Cid,  The 75 

Civil  War 81 

Columbus, 80 

Conquest  of  Granada,  80 
Conquest  of  Mexico,  .  83 
Constitution,  ....  623 
Cordova  divided,  ...      73 

Cortes 623 

Cortez 83 

Crown 623 

Death  of  Canovas,  .  .  97 
Death  of  O'Donnell,    .      93 

Debt, 605 

Description, 570 

Discovery  of  America,  80 
Dispute  with  Peru.  .  .  93 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,    80 

Government 623 

Heroic  Age, 71 

History 155 

Illiteracy, 714 

King 605 

Kingdom    of    Navarre 

founded, 71 

Literature, 312 

Local  Government,  .    .    623 

Madrid, 541 

Minerals 571 

Moorish  dissensions,  .  79 
Moors  defeated  at  Ta- 

rifa 79 

Navy, 848 

O'Donnell's  Insurrection,  93 
Philip  v..  King,  ...  84 
Physical  features,      .    .    570 

Population 604 

Productions,  ....  571 
Sagasta,  Minister,  .  .  95 
Spanish-American  War, 

95,  156 
Standard    of  Currency,  604 


PAGE 

Spanish  —  Con. : 

America, 98 

Authors 312 

In  South  America,    .    .      99 

Spanish-American  War,   . 

139,  178 

History 156 

Manila  Bay 131 

Principal  events,   .    .    .    156 

Spanish  Armada,  destroyed,  82 

Spanish     Fleet,     destruc- 
tion of, 157 


Spanish  Literature, 
Golden  Age,   .    . 

Poetry 

Prose, 


312 
314 
312 
312 
Spanish-Netherlands  War,  138 


84 
139 


263-67 

858 
489 
489 
767 
767 
158 
489 


B. 


State  Religion,       .    . 

623 

Stock  of  Money,    .    . 

604 

Subdued  by  Agrippa, 

63 

Trial  by  jury,     .    .    . 

95 

Under  Caliphs,       .    . 

69 

Under  the  Moors, 

156 

Vasco  de  Gama,     .    . 

80 

War  with  England,    . 

84 

-^W^ar  with  France, 

84 

War  with  United  State 

s,  570 

Spanish: 

Africa 

608 

Spanish  Succession, 

War  of, 

Spanish     words     and 

phrases,  .  .  . 
Spans,  .... 
Sparks,  Edwin  E 

Jared,  .  .  . 
Sparrow,  .  .  . 
Sparrow-hawk, 

Sparta 

Spartacus,       .    . 
Speakers  of  the  House 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P. 

Barbour,  Philip  P 

Bell,  John,      .    . 

Blaine,  Jas.  G., 

Boyd,  Linn,    .    . 

Cannon,  Joseph  G 

Carlisle,  John  G., 

Cheves,  Langdon, 

Clark,  Champ,    . 

Clay,  Henry, 

Cobb,  Howell,    . 

Colfax,  Schuyler, 

Crisp,  Chas.  F., 

Davis,  John  W., 

Dayton,  Jonathan, 

Grow,  Galusha  A., 

Henderson,    David 

Hunter,  R.  M.  T., 

Jones,  John  W.,    . 

Keifer,  J.  Warren, 

Kerr,  Michael  C, 

Macon,  Nathaniel, 

Muhlenburg,  F.  A., 

Orr,  Jas.  L.,   .    .    . 

Pennington,  Wm., 

Polk,  Jas.  K.,    .    . 

Randall,  Samuel  J., 

Reed,  Thomas  B., 

Sedgwick,  Theo.,  . 

Stevenson,  Andrew, 

Taylor,  John  W., 

Trumbull,  Jonathan, 

Varnum,  Joseph  B., 

White,  John,      .    .    . 

Winthrop,  Robert  C, 

Spears 

Specie  Payment,  .  .  . 
Spectator,  The,  .  .  . 
Speech,  Figures  of,   .    . 

Speeches 

Speed,  James 638 

Spencer,  Herbert,      .   297,  489 

John  C 637 

Spenser,  Edmund,     .    295,  489 

Speyer,  James, 489 

Sphinx 341 

Spider 767 

Bird-catching 735 

Spinel 761 

Spinning-jenny,     .....   668 

Invention  of 86 

Spinning-wheel 82 

Spofford,  A.  R 489 

Sponge 767 

Spontaneous  Combustion,  706 
Spooner,  John  C,  ...  490 
Spottsylvania,  Battle  of,  18 
Spreckels,  Claus,  ....  490 
Spring  Hill  College,  ...   701 

Spruce, 768 

Spruce  Mountain 547 

Spurgeon,  Charles  H.,  .  .  490 
Squirrel, 768 


640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
640 
775 
106 
382 
208 
200 


8d6 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

St.  Anselm's  College,   .    .   701 

St.  Augustine, 838 

St.  Bartholomew,.        .    . 

Massacre  of,  .  83,  111,  153 
St.  Bede's  College,  ...  701 
St.  Benedict's  College: 

Kansas, 701 

New  Jersey, 701 

St.  Bernard 547 

St.  Bernard  College, .    .    .   701 

St.  Bernard  Pass 838 

St.  Bonaventure's  College,  701 
St.  Charles  College,  .  .  .701 
St.  Clair,  Arthur.  ...  484 
St.  Elizabeth  College,  .  .  704 
St.  Francis  Solanus  Col- 
lege  701 

St.  Francis  Xavier  College,  701 
St.  Gaudens,  Augustus,  .  484 
St.  Germain,  Treaty  of,  .  164 
St.  Ignatius  College,  .  .  .  701 
St.  James's  Palace,  .  .  .  839 
St.  John,  N.  B..  great  fire,  106 
St.  John's  College: 

Brooklyn 701 

Maryland, 701 

New  York  City,    ...  701 
Washington,  D.  C,   .    .   701 
St.  John's  Lutheran  Col- 
lege  701 

St.  John's  University,  .  .  701 
St.  Joseph's  College,  .  .  .701 
St.  Lawrence  River,  565,  570 
St.  Lawrence  University,  701 
St.  Leo  College,  .....   701 

St.  Louis 570,  582 

Manufactures,    .    .    .    .571 

Parks 570 

Public  Buildings,      .    .571 
Washington  University,  571 
St.  Louis  University,    .    .701 
St.  Mary's  College: 

Kansas 701 

Kentucky 701 

North  Carolina,  ...  701 
St.  Mary's  School,  ...  704 
St.  Meinrad  College, ...   701 

St.  Nicholas 379 

St.  Olaf  College 701 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  .  513 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,   .    .   571 

Monuments  in 571 

St.  Peter's 536,  571 

Cost 572 

Dedicated 82 

Dimensions, 572 

Rome 80 

St.  Petersburg,      .    .   572, 582 
Admiralty,  The,    .    .    .   572 

Description, 572 

Founded 85 

History 572 

Monuments, 572 

Palaces 572 

Population,    .    .    .   573,582 

Public  Buildings,  ...   572 

St.  Isaac's  Cathedral,  .   572 

Winter  Palace,      ...   572 

St.  Peter's  College,    ...   701 

St.  Sophia,  Church  of,   65,  570 

St.  Stephen's  College,  .    .   701 

St.  Vincent's  College; 

California 701 

Pennsylvania 701 

St.  Xavier  College,    ...   701 

Stadtholder, 158 

Stael,  Madame  de,    .    .    .   295 

Stamp  Act 169 

Stanbery,  Henry 638 

Standard    Oil    GJompany, 

Fined 109 

Standard  Time,     .  .851 

Standish,   Captain   Miles, 

98,  490 

Stanford  Graded  College,    701 

Stanley,  Arthur  P.,  .    .    .490 

Henry  M.,      .....   490 

Stanton,  Edwin  M., 

490,  637,  638 

Stanton  College 704 

Staples  of  the  World,  .  .  680 
Star-Chamber 158 


PAGE 

Star-fishes 768 

Star  Route  Trials,      .    .    .107 

Sters 724 

State  Capitals, 626 

State  Capitol: 

At  Albany 513 

At  Hartford 513 

Of  Alabama 513 

State  College  for  Colored 

Students, 701 

State  Flowers 854 

Staten  Island 842 

States: 

Admission  of 624 

Area 624 

Assessed  Valuation, .    .   627 

Capitals 626 

Electoral  Vote 627 

Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  627 
Meaning  of  name,     .    .   624 

Metropolis, 625 

Mottoes 852 

Nicknames 372 

Original  names,  .  .  .  625 
Origin  of  name,  .  .  .  624 
Popular  names,     .    .    .   852 

Population, 625 

Rank  of, 625 

Salaries   of  Governors,  626 

Settlement  of 624 

Suffrage  Requirements,  626 

Tax  Rate 627 

Territory    from    which 

derived 625 

Voting  Population,  .    .   627 

States  General, 842 

State  Statistics 624 

Geographical 624 

Historical 624 

Industrial 624 

Statics 710 

Statistics : 

Earth's,      854 

Religious 721 

State 624 

Statue,  Marcus  Aurelius,  65 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  .  667 
Steam: 

Coach 668 

Engine 668 

Engines, 86 

Hammer, 670 

Locomotive 668 

Plow 671 

Road  Wagon 668 

Steam,  Use  of 668 

Steamboat: 

First  in  Europe,    ...     88 
First  in  United   States,  668 
Fulton  invents,      ...     88 
Steamships: 

Allan  Line 104 

First    Pacific    Mail    at 

Vancouver 107 

Stedman,  E.  C,  .  .  305,  490 
Steel: 

Bessemer's  process,    92,  673 

Pen 668 

Steerforth 382 

Stenography 723 

Invented 86 

Stephen,  Leslie,  ....  490 
Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  49ff 
Stephenson,  George,     .    .   490 

Robert 490 

Stepniak,  S.  D.,     ....   490 

Stereotyping 668 

Sterne,  Laurence,      .   296,  490 

Stethoscope, 669 

Stevens  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology  705 

Stevenson,  Adlai  E.,     .    .   490 

Andrew, 640 

Robert  Louis,     .    .   297, 490 
Steyn,  Martinus  T.,      .    .   490 

Stillman,  James 491 

Stimson,  F.  J 491 

Stockholm 571 

Diet  of 85 

Founded, 671 

Industries, 671 


PAGE 

Stockholm — Con. 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .571 

Stocking,  Blue 777 

Stockton,  F.  R 305 

Stoddert,  Benjamin,     .    .   639 

Stolypin,  Peter  A 491 

Stomach, 725 

Stones,  Precious,  .  ■:  .  .  760 
Stonewall  Jackson  College,  704 
Storage  Battery,    .    .    668, 670 

Storey,  Moorfield 491 

Stork, 768 

Story,  Emma  Eames,  .    .491 

Joseph, 304,491 

William 491 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher, 

305,  491 
Straight  University,  .  .  .  701 
Strathcona,  Baron,  .  .  .  491 
Straus,  Oscar  S.,   .    .    .    .491 

Strauss,  Richard 491 

Strawberry    Plains,    Bat- 
tle of 18 

Stretton,  Hesba 323 

Strikes: 

Coal  and  Iron 108 

Railroad 108 

Strong,  William 640 

Strontium 694 

Stuart,  Alexander  H.  H.,    638 

Cosmo 323 

Gilbert  C, 491 

James  E.  B 492 

Leslie 323 

Stuart,  House  of,  ...  151 
Stuart  Hall  College,  ...  704 
Stubbs,  William,   ....   492 

Sturgis,  Dinah, 323 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,    ...     99 

Styx 341 

Sublime  Porte 842 

Sub-marine  Cables,  .    .    .   679 

Length  of 679 

Of  the  World,    ....   679 
Owned  by  Governments,  679 

Sub-marines 848 

Subway, New  York, Opened,  96 

Suckers, 852 

Sudermann,  Hermann,     .   492 

Sue,  Eugene 295,  492 

Suetonius,  . 285 

Suez  Canal 573,  654 

Suffrage,      Persons      Ex- 
cluded,     626 

Suffrage  Requirements  in 

the  States 626 

Suffrage,  Woman,  53,  626,  633 
Sugar : 

Adulteration  of,    .    .    .   645 
World's  Production,     .   680 

Sugar-cane, 768 

Sugar  in   United   States, 

Maple 650 

SuUins  College 704 

Sully,  Thomas, 492 

Sulphur 694 

Sultan  of  Turkey 605 

Sumner,  Charles 492 

Sumptuary  Law,  First,    .     63 

Sun 725 

Distance  from  Earth,  .   725 

>Heat  of 725 

/Spots 725 

Stone 761 

Sun-dial 60 

Surgery, 61 

Antiseptic, 671 

Surname 383 

Susa 130 

Susquehanna  University,    701 

Suwanee, 842 

Swallow 768 

Swan 769 

Swan.  Annie  S 323 

Swarthmore  College,     .    .   701 

Swayne,  Noah  H 640 

Sweden 673 

Area 604 

Capital, 605 

Charles  XII 85,  159 

Christina,  Queen,  ...     86 
Climate 673 


PAGE 

Sweden — Con.: 

Constitution 632 

Death  of  Oscar  II.,  .    .     97 

Debt, 605 

Description 573 

Diet 632 

Divisions  of 573 

Dominates  North  Eu- 
rope,     83 

Government 632 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  .  .     83 
Gustavus  111.,  Assassin- 
ated  87 

History 158 

Illiteracy, 714 

Independence  of,  .  .  .  159 
Independent,  .....     97 

Industries, 573 

King 605 

Merchant  Marine, .    .    .   674 

Navy 848 

Oscar  II 159 

Population 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .   604 

Stockholm 571 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .   604 

Union  with  Norway,  89,  159 

War  with  Denmark,  .   .     83 

Swedenborg.Emanuel,  287, 492 

Swedish  Literature,  .   .    .   287 

Authors 287 

Prose 287 

Swedish-Russian  War,  .  .  139 
Swift,  Jonathan,  .  .  296,  492 
Swinburne,  A.  C,      .   297,492 

Switzerland 573 

Alps,  The 574 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Cities 574 

Constitution 632 

Debt 605 

Forests, 574 

Government 632 

History 159 

Illiteracy, 714 

Lake  Dwellings,    .    .    .    126 

Mountains  of 573 

National  Assembly,  .   .   632 

Population, 604 

President, 605 

Productions 674 

Republic  Founded,  .  .  79 
Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  .  604 
Swiss  Revolution,  ...  87 
Treaty  of  Vienna,  .  .  .632 
War  with  Austria,    .    .     79 

Sybaris 130 

Sybel,  Heinrich  von,  .    .   492 

Sydney 842 

Sylvanus 341 

Sylvester,  James  J.,  .  .  .  492 
Symbolism  of  Animals^  .  775 
Synodical  College,     .    .^  .   704 

Synonyms, 221 

Abandon,  to, 221 

Abandon,  give  up,  .  .  243 
Abandoned,  profligate, .   250 

Abase,  to 221 

Aha.temeat,  deduction,  .  235 

Abhor,  to 221 

Abide,  to 221 

Ability 221 

Able 221 

Abolish,  to, 221 

Abominate,  abhor,     .    .   221 

Abridgment, 221 

Abrogate,  abolish,     .    .   221 

Absolute 221 

Absolve,  forgive,    .    .    .   242 

Abstract,  to 221 

Abstract,  abridgment,  .  221 
Absurd,  irrational,    .    .   247 

Abuse,  to 221 

Accede,  agree,  ....  223 
Accelerate,  hasten,    .    .   244 

Acceptable 221 

Access,  approach,  .  .  .  224 
Accident,  event,  .  .  .  239 
Acclamation,  applause,  224 
Accomplice,  cori/ederate,  231 


INDEX 


897 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Accomplish,  to,  .    .    .    .221 
Accomplishment,  quali- 
fication,    250 

Accord,  correspond,  .    .  233 

Accordant,  consonant,  .  232 
Accountable,ansu-era6te,  224 

Accumulate,  heap,     .    .  244 

Accurate,  correct,  .    .    .  233 

Accusation,  compte'n<, .  231 

Accuse,  to, 221 

Achieve,  accomplish,     .  221 

Acquainted,  be;    know,  247 

Acquiesce,  agree,   .    .    .  223 

Act,  to, 221 

Action 222 

Active,     . 222 

Actual 222 

Actuate,  to 222 

Acute 222 

Acute,  sharp 252 

Adage,  axiom,    ....  225 

Address, 222 

Address,  direction,     .    .  236 
Adequate,  proportionate,  250 

Adhere,  to 222 

Adherent,  follower,    .    .241 

Adjacent 222 

Adjective,  epithet,     .    .  239 
Adjoining,  adjacent,  .    .  222 
Administration,  govern- 
ment,     243 

Admission,   admittance,  222 

Admit,  to 222 

Admittance, 222 

Admittance,  approach,  224 

Adoration 222 

Advance,  to 222 

Advantage, 222 

Adventure,  event,  .    .    .  239 
Adventurous,  enterpris- 
ing,    239 

Adventurous, /ooZAard?/,  241 

Adverse,      222 

Advice 222 

Advice,  information,      .  246 

Advocate,  defender,  .    .  235 

Affair 222 

Affect,  to,    .....    .  222 

Affecting,  moving,     .    .  248 

Affectionate, 222 

Affirm,  to 222 

Afflict,  to 222 

Affliction,    ....:.  222 

Affront 222 

Afraid, 222 

Aged,  elderly 238 

Agent,  minister,     .    .    .  248 

Aggravate,  to, 223 

Agony,  distress,      .    .    .  237 

Agree,  to, 223 

Agreeable, 223 

Agreeable,  conformable,  232 

Aid,  help, 244 

Aim, 223 

Aim,  to,  ......    .  223 

Aim,  endeavor,  .    .    .  •.  239 

Air 223 

Alacrity,  alertness,     .    .  223 

Alarm, 223 

Alertness, 223 

Alike,  equal 239 

AU,  . 223 

Allay,  to, 223 

Alleviate,  to, 223 

Alliance 223 

Allot,  to 223 

Allow,  to, 223 

Allow,  admit 222 

Allow,  consent,  ....  232 

Allowance, 223 

Allude,  to, 223 

Allure,  attract 225 

Almanac,  calendar,   .    .  227 

Alone 223 

Altercation,  difference, .  236 

Alternate,  successive,    .  253 

Amass,  heap, 244 

Ambassador, 223 

Ambiguity, 223 

Amenable,  answerable, .  224 

Amend,  to,      224 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Amends,  compensation,  230 


Amicable, 

224 

Ample, 

224 

Amuse,  to 

224 

Ancestors,  forefathers. 

241 

Anger, 

224 

Anger,  displeasure,    . 

237 

Anguish,  distress,  .    . 

237 

Animadversion, .    .    . 

224 

Animate,  to 

224 

Animosity,  enmity,    . 

239 

Announce,  to,     ... 

224 

Annoy,  inconvenience. 
Annul,  abolish,  .    .    . 

246 

221 

Answer, 

224 

Answerable 

224 

Anticipate,  prevent,  . 

250 

Anxiety,  care,    .    .    . 

22S 

Anxifety,  distress,  .    . 

237 

Apartment,  lodging, . 

247 

Aphorism,  axiom. 

22b 

Apologize,  to,      ... 

224 

Apophthegm,  axiom. 

225 

Appall,  dismay,     .    . 

237 

Apparel 

224 

Apparent, 

224 

Appear,  seem,     .    .    . 

252 

Appearance,  iooA, .    . 

248 

Appease,  allay,  .    .    . 

223 

Applause, 

224 

Application,  address. 

222 

Appoint,  to 

224 

Appoint,  allot,    .    .    . 

223 

Appoint,  constitute,   . 

232 

Apprehend,  to,    .    .    . 

224 

Approach 

224 

Approach,  to,.    .    .    . 

224 

Approbation,  assent. 

226 

Approximate,  approach 

,  224 

Apt,  iit, 

241 

Apt,  ready,     .... 

251 

Arbitrary,  absolute,   . 

221 

Ardent,  fervent,     .    . 

241 

Ardent,  hot,    .... 

245 

Argue,  to, 

224 

Argument, 

224 

Arise,  to, 

224 

Arraign,  accuse,     .    . 

221 

Arrange,  class,    ... 

229 

Arrange,  dispose,   .    . 

237 

Array,  apparel,  .    .    . 

224 

Arrive,  come,  .... 

230 

Arrogance, 

224 

Arrogance,  haughtiness 

,  244 

Art 

224 

Art,  business,     .    .    . 

227 

Articulate,  utter,    .    . 

254 

ArtiBcer,  artist,  .    .    . 

224 

Artisan,  artist,   .    .    . 

224 

Artist 

224 

Ascend,  arise,    .    .    . 

224 

Ask,  to,   .....    . 

225 

Aspire,  aim,   .... 

223 

Assail,  attack,     .    .    . 

225 

Assault,  attack,  .    .    . 

225 

Assemble,  to,  ...    . 

225 

Assent, 

225 

Assert,  to, 

225 

Assert,  affirm,    .    .    . 

222 

Assiduous,  active,  .    . 

222 

Assist,  help,    .  ' .    ... 

244 

'  Association 

225 

Assuage,  allay,  '.    .    . 

223 

Assume,  affect,  .    .    . 

222 

Astrologer,  astronomer, 

225 

Astronomer 

225 

Asylum 

225 

Atone  for,  to,  .    .    .    . 

225 

Atrocious,  heinous,    . 

244 

Attach,  adhere,  .    .    . 

222 

Attack,  to 

225 

Attack,  tjnpuffn,    .    . 

245 

Attempt, 

Attend,  to, 

225 

225 

Attention,  heed,     .    . 

244 

Attentive 

225 

Attire,  apparel,  .    .    . 

224 

Attitude,  action,    .    . 

222 

Attract,  to, 

225 

Augur,  to, 

225 

Auspicious 

622 

PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Austere 225 

Author,  writer,  ....  255 

Authorize,  commission,  230 

Avaricious, 225 

Avocation,  fcusiness,.    .  227 

Awaken,  to, 225 

Awe 225 

Awkward, 225 

Axiom 225 

Babble,  to 225 

Badly, 226 

Balance,  poise,  ....  250 

Band,      226 

Banishment, 226 

Bankruptcy,  insolvency,  246 

Barbarous,  cruel,  .    .    .  234 

Bare 226 

Barefaced,  glaring,    .    .  243 

Bargain,  buy 227 

Barter,  change,  ....  229 

Bashfulness,  modesty,   .  248 

^a,sis,  foundation,  .    .    .  242 

Be,  to 226 

Bear,  to,  . 226 

Beat,  to 226 

Beautiful 226 

Become,  be 226 

Becoming,  .......  226 

Beg,  to, 226 

Begin,  to 226 

Belief, 226 

Believe,  think 253 

Bend,  lean, 247 

Bend,  turn, 254 

Benefice,  huinff,     .    .    .  247 

Beneficent, 226 

Benefit,  advantage,     .    .  222 

Benevolence, 226 

Benignity,  benevolence,  226 

Bequeath,  devise,  .    .    .  236 

Bereave,  to, 226 

Beseech,  beg 226 

Besides, 226 

Bestow,  allow 223 

Bestow,  confer,  .    .    .    .231 

Bestow,  give, 242 

Betoken,  augur,     .    .    .  225 

Better,  amend 224 

Bid,  call 228 

Big,  great, 243 

Billow,  wave, 254 

Bishopric 226 

Blame,  to 226 

Blame,  find  fault  with,   .  241 

Blast,  breeze, 227 

Blemish 226 

Blend,  mix, 248 

.    Blot  out,  to 226 

Blunder,  error 239 

Boast,  glory, 243 

Boisterous,  violent,    .    .  254 

Bold 227 

Bold,  daring 234 

Booty 227 

Bound,  to 227 

Boundless, 227 

Bounteous,  beneficent,  .  226 

Bountiful,  beneficent,     .  226 

Brave 227 

Bravery 227 

Breach 227 

Break,  to 227 

Break,  breach,    ....  227 

Breaker,  wave,   ....  254 

Breeding,  education,  .    .  238 

Breeze 227 

Brief,  short, 252 

Brightness, 227 

Briglitness,  clearness,    .  230 

Brilliancy,  brightness,    .  227 

Brilliancy,  radionce,  .    .  251 

Bring,  to, 227 

Brittle, /rafifite 242 

Broad,  large,       ....  247 

Broil,  quarrel 250 

Bruise,  break,     ....  227 
Buffoon, /ooZ,     .    .    .    .241 

Bulky 227 

Burden,  weight, ....  254 

Burial 227 

Burning,  hot, 245 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Burst,  break 227 

Business 227 

Business,  affair,     .    .    .  222 

Bustle 227 

Busy,  active, 222 

Butchery,  carnage,    .    .  228 

Buy,  to, 227 

By-word,  axiom,   .    .    .  225 

Calamity 227 

Calculate,  to 227 

Calendar,    ......  227 

Call,  to 228 

Call,  name 248 

Calm 228 

Calm,  peace, 249 

Can 228 

Cancel,  abolish,      .    .    .  221 

Cancel,  blot  out,      .    .    .  226 

Candid, /ranA; 242 

Candor 228 

Capable,  able 221 

Capacious,  able,      .    .    .  221 

Capacious,  ample,  .    .    .  224 

Capaciousness,  capacity,  228 

Capacity, 228 

Capacity,  ability,  .    .    .  221 

Capricious, /onci/uZ,  .    .  240 

Captious, 228 

Capture 228 

Care, 228 

Care,  heed, 244 

Careful, 228 

Careful,  attentive,  .    .    .  225 

Carnage, 228 

Carp,  censure,    ....  228 

Carriage, 228 

Carry,  bring 227 

Case 228 

Cash,  money 248 

Cast 228 

Casual,  occasional,     .    .  249 

Catch,  lay  hold  of,.    .    .  247 

Cause, 228 

Cause,  to 228 

Cause,  case, 228 

Cautious, 228 

Cautious,  careful,  .    .    .  228 

Cavil,  censure 228 

Cease,  to 228 

Celebrate,  to 228 

Celebrated, /0WOU.S,  .    .  240 

Celestial, 228 

Censure,  to, 228 

Censure,  blame,      .    .    .  226 

Ceremony,  form,    .    .    .  242 

Certain 228 

Cessation, 229 

Chance 229 

Chance,  happen,    .    .    .  244 

Change 229 

Change,  to 229 

Character 229 

Charge,  accuse,  .    .    .    .221 

Charge,  attack,  ....  225 

Charge,  care 228 

Charge,  cost 233 

Charm,  grace,     ....  243 

Chasm,  breach,  ....  227 

Chasten,  to, 229 

Chastise,  chasten,  .    .    .  229 

Chat,  babble 225 

Chatter,  babble 225 

Cheapen,  buy 227 

Cheat,  to 229 

Check,  to 229 

Cheer,  to 229 

Cheer,  animate,  ....  224 

Cherish, /osier 242 

Chide,  check 229 

Chief 229 

Choose,  to, 229 

Circuit, 229 

Circumscribe,  to,    .    .    .  229 

Circumscribe,  bound,     .  227 

Circumspect,  cautious,  .  228 

Circumstance,     ....  229 

Circumstantial,  ....  229 

Cite,  to,   .    : 229 

Civil ,    .  229 

Civilization,  cultivation,  234 

Claim,  right, 251 


y^ 


898 


THE  STANDARD  DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Clandestine, 229 

Clasp,  to 229 

Class,  to 229 

Clean 230 

Cleanly,  clean 230 

Clear,  apparent,     .    .    .    224 

Clear, /air 240 

Clearly 230 

Clearness 230 

Clever 230 

Climb,  arise 224 

Cloister 230 

Close 230 

Close,  to 230 

Close,  end 239 

Close,  sequel 252 

Clumsy,  awkward,     .    .   225 

Coarse 230 

Coarse,  gross,     ....   243 

Cogent 230 

Colleague 230 

Collect,  assemble,  .    .    .   225 

Collect,  gather 242 

Collected,  calm,  .  .  .228 
Colloquy,  conversation,    233 

Colorable, 230 

Column,  pillar 249 

Combat,  to 230 

Combine,  connect,      .    .   232 

Come,  to 230 

Comely,  becoming,     .    .   226 

Comfort 230 

Comfort,  cheer,  ....   229 

Command, 230 

Commemorate,  celebrate,  228 
Commence,  begin,  .    .    .   226 
Commendable,  laudable,  247 
Commensurate,  propor- 
tionate,     250 

Commercial,  mercantile,  248 
Commiseration,  sympa- 
thy  253 

Commission,  to,.  .  .  .  230 
Commit,  perpetrate,  .    .   249 

Commodious 230 

Commonly, 230 

Commonwealth,  state,  .  253 
Communicate,  to,   .    .    .   230 

Communion, 230 

Company,  association,  .  225 
Company,  band,     .    .    .   226 

Comparison, 230 

Compassion,  pity,  .  .  .  249 
Compassion,   sympathy,  253 

Compatible 230 

Compel,  to, 230 

Compendium,    abridg- 
ment,    221 

Compensation,    ....    230 

Competent 231 

Complain,  to, 231 

Complaint 231 

Complaisance,  .  .  .  .231 
Complaisant,  civil,    .    .   229 

Complete 231 

Complete,  to 231 

Complete,  consummate,  232 
Complete,  whole,   .    .    .   254 

Compliant, 231 

Comply,  to, 231 

Comply,  agree,   ....    223 

Compose,  to, 231 

Compose,  compound,     .   231 

Composed, 231 

Composed,  calm,  .  .  .  228 
Compound  to,  ...  .  231 
Comprehend,  comprise,  231 
Comprehend,  conceive,.  231 
Comprehensive,  ....   231 

Comprise,  to, 231 

Compute,  calculate,  .  .  227 
Compute,  estimate,    .    .   239 

Conceal,  to, 231 

Concealment 231 

Conceit 231 

Conceited,  opinionated,  249 

Conceive,  t», 231 

Conceive,  apprehend,     .   224 

Conception, 231 

Concern,  affair,  ....  222 
Concern,  affect,  ....   222 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Concern,  interest,   .    .    .   246 

Concert,  to, 231 

Conciliate,  to 231 

Concise,  short,  ....  252 
Conclude,  close, ....    230 

Conclusion, 231 

Conclusive, 231 

Conclusive,  final,  .    .    .241 

Concord 231 

Concurrence,  assent,      .   225 
Condemn,  blame,   .    .    .   226 
Condescension,  complais- 
ance,     231 

Condition 231 

Condolence,  sympathy, .    253 

Conduce,  to, 231 

Conduct,  to, 231 

Conduct,  lead,  ....  247 
Confederacy,  alliance,  .   223 

Confederate, 231 

Confer,  to, .231 

Conference,  conversation, 233 

Confidence, 231 

Confident, 231 

Confine,  bound,  ....  227 
Confined,  contracted, .    .   233 

Confirm,  to, 231 

Confirm,  to 232 

Conform,  comply,  .    .    .    231 

Conformable, 232 

Confound,  to 232 

Confound,  mix,      .    .    .   248 

Confront,  to 232 

Confuse,  confound,    .    .   232 

Confusion 232 

Confute,  to 232 

Congratulate,  felicitate,  241 
Conjecture,  guess, .    .    .   243 

Connect,  to 232 

Connection, 232 

Conqueror,       232 

Conscious, /ee/ 241 

Consecrate,  dedicate,      .   234 
Consent,  to,     ......    232 

Consent,  agree,  ....   223 

Consent,  assent,     .    .    .   225 

Consequence 232 

Consider,  to 232 

Consideration,  ....  232 
Consistent,  compatible, .  230 
Consistent,  consonant,  .   232 

Consonant 232 

Conspicuous,     distin- 
guished,   237 

Conspicuous,  prominent,  250 

Constancy, 232 

Constant,  continual, .  ..  232 
Constant,  durable,  .  .  238, 
Consternation,  alarm,  .    223 

Constitute,  to, 232 

Consult,  to 232 

Consume,  destroy,  .  .  .  236 
Consummate,  to,  ...  232 
Consumption,  decay,     .   234 

Contagion 232 

Contagious 232 

Contain,  comprise,  .  .  231 
Contaminate,  to,     ...    232 

Contemn,  to, 232 

Contemplate,  to 232 

Contemptible 232 

Contemptuous,  contempt- 
ible  232 

Contend,  to, 232 

Contention,  ai.s.scnsion,  237 
Contention,  strife, .    .    .   253 

Contentment, 232 

Contest,  contend,  .  .  .  232 
Contiguous,  adjacent,    .    222 

Continual 232 

Continuance, 232 

Continuation,    continu- 
ance.   ...  .    .    232 

Continue,  to 232 

Continue,  to 233 

Continued,  continual,    .    232 

Contracted 233 

Contradict,  to,  ....  233 
Contrary,  adverse, .  .  .  222 
Contrast,  comparison,  .   230 

I     Contribute,  conduce, .    .   231 


PAGE 
Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Contrive,  concert,  .    .    .231 

Controvert,  to,     ....  233 

Contumacious 233 

Contumely,  reproach,    .  251 

Convenient 233 

Convenient,  commodious, 230 

Convent,  cloister,   .    .    .  230 

Conversable,  facetious, .  240 

Conversant, 233 

Conversation,      ....  233 

Converse,  communion,  .  230 

Convert 233 

Convict,  to, 233 

Convict,  criminal, .    .    .  233 

Convince,  conwct,  .    .    .  233 

Convincing,    conclusive,  231 

Convivial 233 

Cool,  dispassionate,    .    .  237 

Copy •  .  233 

Copy,  to,     : 233 

Coquette, 233 

Cordial,  hearty,  ....  244 

Correct 233 

Correct,  amend,     .    .    .  224 

Correction 233 

Correctness,  justness,    .  247 

Correspond,  to,    .    .    .    .  233 

Corroborate,  confirm,    .  231 

Corrupt,  contaminate,    .  232 

Cofruption,  depravity,  .  235 

Cost, 233 

Counsel,  advice 222 

Count,  calculate,     .    .    .  227 

Countenance,  to,.    .    .    .  233 

Country,  land 247 

Courage 233 

Courage,  bravery,  .    .    .  227 

Cover,      233 

Cover,  to 233 

Covet,  desire, 235 

Crack,  break, 227 

Crave,  beg 226 

Create,  cau.se 228 

Create,  make,     ....  248 

Credit 233 

Credit,  belief, 226 

Creed,  faith 240 

Crew,  band, 226 

Crime, 233 

Criminal,    ..'....  233 

Criterion 234 

Criticism,  animadversion, 224 

Crooked,  aukvard,    .    .  225 

Cross,  awkward,     .    .    .  225 

Cross,  captious,  ....  228 

Cruel 234 

Crush,  break, 227 

Cry.  call 228 

Crving 234 

Culprit,  criminal,  .    .    .  233 

Cultivation, 234 

Culture,  cultivation,  .    .  234 

Cunning,  art,      ....  224 

Cure, 234 

Cure,  to, 234 

Curious, 234 

Current,  stream,     .    .    .  253 

Cursory,      234 

Custody,  keeping,  .    .    .  247 

Custom, 234 

Custom,  usage,  ....  254 

Daily, 234 

Dampness,' mot.s7u  re,     .  248 

Danger, 234 

Daring 234 

Dark 234 

Daunt,  dismay,      .    .    .  237 

Deadly 234 

Debase,  aba.se,    .    .    .    .221 

De6a/e,  to, 234 

Debility 234 

Debt .234 

Decay, 234 

Deceit 234 

Deceit,  art 224 

Deceitful,  fallacious,      .  240 

Deceiver, 234 

Decency, 234 

Deception,  deceit,  .    .    .  234 

Decided, 234 

Decision 234 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 
Decisive,  conclusive, 
Decisive,  decided,  . 
Declaim,  to,  .  .  . 
Declare,  to,.  .  .  . 
Declare,  discover,  . 
Decline,  decay,  .  . 
Decline,  refuse,  .  . 
Decorum,  decency. 

Decree, 

Dedicate,  to,  .  .  . 
Deduce,  derive,  .  . 
Deduction,  .... 
Deduction,  conclusion. 
Deem,  think,  .  .  . 
Deface,  to,  ...  . 
Defeat,  beat,  .  .  . 
Defect,  blemish. 
Defective,  .... 
Defend,  to,  .  .  .  . 
Defend,  apologize, . 
Defend,  guard,  .  . 
Defendant,  .... 
Defender,  .... 
Defender,  defendant. 


Deference,  complaisance ,23\ 


Deficient,  defective, 
Defile,  contaminate, 

Definite, 

Deform,  deface. 
Defraud,  cheat,  .    . 
Degrade,  abase, .    . 

Deity 

Dejection 

Delegate,  to,  .  .  . 
Delegate,  to  delegate 
Deliberate,  consult. 
Deliberate,  debate. 
Delicate,  fine,  .  . 
Delinquent,  offender 
Deliver,  to,  ... 
Demand,  to,    .    .    . 

Demur, 

Demur,  to 

Denote,  to,  .... 
Dense,  thick,  .  .  . 
Deny,  to,  .... 
Deny,  contradict,  . 
Depict,  paint,  .  . 
Deplore,  to,  ... 
Deponent,    .... 

Deposit, 

Depravation,  depravity 
Depravity, 
Depression,  dejection 
Deprive,  bereave,   . 

Depth 

Depute,  constitute. 
Depute,  delegate,  . 
Deputy,  ambassador, 
Deputy,  to  delegate. 
Derive,  to,  ...  . 
Description,  cast,  . 

Desert, 

Desert,  abandon,  . 
Desert,  solitary. 

Design,  to 

Desire,  to,  ...  . 
Desire,  beg,  .  .  . 
Desist,  to,  .  .  .  . 
Desolate,  solitary,  . 

Despair, 

Despise,  contemn,  . 
Despondency,  despair. 
Despotic,  absolute. 
Destination,  destiny. 
Destine,  allot,     .    . 

Destiny, 

Destitute,  bare,  .  . 
Destitute,  forsaken. 
Destroy,  to,  ... 
Destruction,  .  .  . 
Desultory,  cursory, 
Detain,  hold,  .    .    . 

Detect,  to 

Detect,  convict,  .    . 
Determine,  to,     .    . 
Determined,  decided. 
Detest,  abhor,-    . 
Detest,  hate,  .    . 
Deviate,  to,.    .    . 
Deviate,  digress, 


231 
234 
234 
234 
237 
234 
251 
234 
234 
234 
235 
235 
231 
253 
235 
226 
226 
235 
235 
224 
243 
235 
235 
235 


235 
232 
236 
235 
229 
221 
235 
235 
235 
235 
232 
234 
241 
249 
235 
235 
235 
235 
235 
253 
235 
233 
249 
235 
235 
235 
235 
235 
235 
226 
235 
232 
235 
223 
235 
235 
228 
235 
221 
252 
235 
235 
226 
235 
252 
235 
232 
235 
221 
236 
223 
236 
226 
242- 
236 
236 
234 
244 
236 
233 
236 
234 
221 
244 
236 
236 


INDEX 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Devise,  to 

236 

Devote,  dedicate,    .    . 

234 

Dexterous,  clever,  .    . 

230 

Dialogue,  conversation. 

233 

Dictate 

236 

Dictate,  to, 

236 

Dictionary,      .... 

236 

Die,  to 

236 

Difference 

236 

Different, 

236 

Difficulties, 

236 

Difficulty 

Dimdenee,  distrust,   . 

236 

238 

Diffitlence,  modesty,  . 

248 

Diffuse 

Diffuse,  spread,  .    .    . 

236 

252 

Digest,  abridgment,    . 

221 

Digest,  dispose,      .    . 

23/ 

Digress,  to, 

236 

Dilate,  to, 

236 

236 

Diligent,  active,  .    .    . 

222 

Dim,  dark,      .... 

234 

Diminutive,  little,  .    . 

247 

Diocese,  bishopric,     . 

226 

Direct,  conduct, .    .    . 

231 

236 

Disability,  inability, . 

245 

Disaffection,   .... 

236 

Disappear,  to,     .    .    . 

23V 

Disapprobation,    dis- 

pleasure,   

237 

Disapprove,  to,  .    .    . 

237 

Disaster,  calamity,     . 

227 

Disbelief, 

237 

Discipline,  correction. 

233 

Disclaim,  to,  ...    . 

237 

Disclose,  publish,  .    . 

250 

Discontinue,  cease,    . 

228 

Discord 

237 

Discord,  dissension,  . 

237 

Discover,  to, 

237 

Discover,  detect,     .    . 

236 

Discover,  find,   .    .    . 

241 

Discredit 

237 

Discretion,  judgment, 

247 

Diacriminate, distinguis 

/i,237 

Discuss,  to,     .... 

237 

Disdain,  contemn,  .    . 

232 

Disdain,  haughtiness. 

244 

Disease,  disorder,  .    . 

237 

Diseased,  sick,    .    .    . 

252 

Disfigure,  deface,    .    . 

235 

Disgrace,  abase,     .    . 

221 

Disgrace,  discredit,    . 

237 

Disgrace,  dishonor,    . 

237 

Disguise,  conceal,  .    . 

231 

Disgust, 

237 

Dishonest, 

237 

Dishonor 

237 

Disinclination,  dislike, 

237 

Disjoint,  to,    ...    . 

237 

Dislike 

237 

Dislike,  disapprove,  . 

237 

Disloyalty,  disaffection 

,  236 

Dismal,  dull 

238 

Dismay,  to,     .... 

237 

Dismember,  disjoint, 

237 

Disorder, 

237 

Disorder,  confusion,  . 

232 

Disown,  disclaim,  .    . 

237 

Disparity, 

237 

Dispassionate,    .    .    . 

23V 

Dispatch,  hasten,  .    . 

244 

Dispel,  to, 

237 

Dispense,  to 

23V 

Disperse,  dispel,     .    . 

237 

Displeasure 

23V 

Disposal 

237 

•   Dispose,  to,     .... 

23V 

Disposition,    .    . 

237 

Disposition,  disposal, 

23V 

Disprove,  confute,  .    . 

232 

Dispute,  contend,  .    . 

232 

Dispute,  controvert,    . 

233 

Dispute,  difference,    . 

236 

Disregard,  to,.    .    .    . 

23V 

Dissemble,  conceal,    . 

231 

Dissension,     .... 

237 

Dissimulation,    simula- 
tion  


252 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Distant,  .......  237 

Distemper,  disorder, .    .  237 

Distinct,  different, .    .    .  236 

Distinction,  rft^erence, .  236 

Distinctly,  clearly,     .    .  230 

Distinguish,  to 237 

Distinguish,   abstract,    .  221 

Distinguished,    ....  237 

Distort,  turn 254 

Distress, 237 

Distress,  to 238 

Distress,  afflict 222 

Distribute,  dispense, .    .  237 

Distribute,  divide, .    .    .  238 

Distrust, 238 

Disturb,  to 238 

Disturb,  trouble,     .    .    .  253 

Diurnal,  daily,   ....  234 

Diversity,  difference,     .  236 

Divert,  amuse,   ....  224 

Divide,  to, 238 

Divine,  Godlike,     .    .    .  243 

Divine,  guess,     ....  243 

Divine,  holy, 245 

Divinity,  deity 235 

Divulge,  publish,   .    .    .  250 

Do,  act 221 

Doctrine, 238 

Dogma,  doctrine,   .    .    .  238 

Dogmatical,  confident,  .  231 

Doleful,  piteous,     .    .    .  249 

Domestic,  servant,      .    .  252 
Domineering,  imperious,  245 

Dominion,  empire,     .    .  238 

Donation,  gift,  ....  242 

Doom,  destiny,  ....  236 

Doubt .238 

Doubt,  to '.    .  238 

Doubt,  demur,   ....  235 

Downfall, /aH 240 

Drag,  draw, 238 

Draw,  to 238 

Dread,  awe 225 

Dreadful, /iear/«/,  .    .    .  241 

Dreadful,  formidable,    .  242 

Dream 238 

Drench,  soak,     ....  252 

Drudge,  servant,    .    .    .  252 

Drudgery,  work,    .    .    .  255 

Due,  debt 234 

Dull 238 

Durable 238 

Duration,  continuance, .  232 

Duty 238 

Dwell,  abide 221 

Each,  all 223 

Ease 238 

Easy 238 

Eclipse,  to 238 

Economical,  penurious,  249 

Edict,  decree, 234 

Education 238 

Efface,  blot  out 226 

Effect,  to 2.38 

Effect,  accomplish,     .    .221 

Effect,  consequence,  .    .  232 

Effeminate, /emate,    .    .  241 

Effort,  attempt 225 

Effort,  endeavor,    .    .    .  239 

Effusion 238 

Egotistical,  opimonatoZ,  249 

Ejaculation,  effusion,    .  238 

Elderly, 238 

Eligible 238 

Elucidate,  explain,    .    .  240 
Embarrassments,    .    .    .  238 
Embarrassments,    diffi- 
culties,       236 

Embolden,  encourage,   .  239 

Embrace,  clasp,     .    .    .  229 
Embrace,  comprise,  .    .231 

Emend,  amend, ....  224 

Emergency,  exigency,    .  240 

Eminent,  distinguished,  237 

Emissary, 238 

Empire 238 

Employ,  to 238 

Employment,   business,  227 

Empower,   commission,  230 

Empty,  hollow,  ....  245 

Encircle,  surround,    .    .  253 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Encomium, 239 

Encompass,  surround,  .  253 
Encounter,  attack,  .  .  225 
Encourage,  to,  .  .  .  .  239 
Encourage,  cheer,  .  .  .  229 
Encyclopaedia,  diction- 
ary   236 

End,  to, 239 

End,  aim 223 

Endeavor 239 

Endeavor,  to, 239 

Endeavor,  attempt,    .    .  225 

Endless,  eternal,     .    .    .  239 

Endow,  invest 246 

Endue,  invest,    ....  246 

Energy 239 

Engage,  attract, .'    .    .    .  225 

Engagement,  business, .  227 

Engagement,  promise,  .  250 

Enlarge,  to 239 

Enlighten,  illuminate,  .  245 

i      Enliven,  animate,  .    .    .  224 

1      Enmity 239 

1      Enormous, 239 

j      Enough 239 

Ensample,  example,  .    .  239 
Entanglements,  embar- 
rassments,    238 

Enterprising, 239 

Entertain,  amuse, .    .    .  224 

Enter  upon,  begin,    .    .  226 

Entreat,  beg 226 

Environ,  surround,    .    .  253 

Envoy,  ambassador,  .    .  223 

!      Envy,  jealousy,  ....  247 

Ephemeris,  calendar,    .  227 

Epicure,  sensualist,    .    .  252 

Epidemical,  contagious,  232 

Epistle,  letter 247 

Epithet, 239 

Epitome,  abridgment,    .  221 

Equable,  equal,  ....  239 

Equal, 239 

Equivocate,  evade,     .    .  239 
Equivocation,ani6i3Mi<j/,  223 

Erase,  blot  out 226 

Error 239 

Erudition,  knowledge,    .  247 

Eruption .239 

Essay,  attempt 225 

Establish,  confirm,     .    .  232 

Esteem,  value,   ....  254 

Estimate,  to, 239 

Eternal 239 

Eulogy,  encomium,    .    .  239 

Evade,  to, 239 

Even,  equal, 239 

Event 239 

Event,  consequence,  ,    .  232 

Everlasting,  eternal,  .    .  239 

Every,  all 223 

Evidence,  deponent,  .    .  235 

Evident,  apparent,     .    .  224 

Evince,  argue,    ....  224 

Exact 239 

Exact,  to, 239 

Examine,  discuss, .    .    .  237 

Example, 239 

Exasperate,  aggravate, .  223 

Except,  Itesides,     .    .    .  226 

Except,  unless,      .    .    .  254 

Exchange,  change,     .    .  229 

Excite,  to 239 

Excite,  awaken,     .    .    .  22.5 

Exclaim,  call,     ....  228 

Exculpate,  apologize,    .  224 

Exculpate,  exonerate,    .  240 

Excursion 239 

Excuse,  to 239 

Excuse,  apologize, .    .    .  224 

Execute,  to 240 

Execute,  accomplish,     .  221 

Exempt, /ree 242 

Exercise,  to 240 

Exertion,  endeavor,   .    .  239 

Exhibit,  give 243 

Exhibition,  show,  .    .    .  252 

Exhilarate,  animate, .    .  224 

Exigency, 240 

Exile,  banishment,     .    .  226 

Exist,  be 226 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 
Exonerate,  to. 
Expand,  dilate,  . 
Expand,  spread. 
Expediency,    .    . 
Expedient,  .    .    . 
Expedite,  hasten, 
Expeditious,  diligent 
Expense,  cost,    .    . 
Expert,  clever,    .    . 
Expiate,  atone  for. 
Expire,  die,    -.    .    . 
Explain,  to,    .    .    . 
Explosion,  eruption 
Expostulate,  to,  .    . 
Expound,  explain. 
Expulsion,  banishment 
Expunge,  blot  out. 
Extend,  enlarge. 
Extensive,     comprehen- 
sive,      

Exterior,  outuard. 
External,  outward. 
Extort,  exact. 
Extraneous,     . 
Extraordinary, 
Extravagant,  . 
Extrinsic,  extraneous 
Exuberant,  .    . 
Face,  confront. 
Facetious,   .    . 
Fact,  circumstance 
Factious,     .    .    . 
Faculty,  ability. 
Failure,  insolvency 

Fair 

Faith 

Faith,  belief,  . 
Faithful,     .    . 
Faithless,    .    . 
Fall,    .... 
Fallacious, .    . 
Falter,  hesitate. 
Fame,      .    .    . 
Familiar,  conversant, 
Familiar,  free. 
Famous,      .    . 
Fanciful,     .    . 
Fancy,     .    .    . 
Fancy,  conceit. 
Fantastical,  fanciful 
Far,  distant,   .    . 
Fashion,  custom. 
Fashion,  form,   . 
Fatal,  deadly,     . 
Fate,  chance. 
Fate,  destiny, 
Fatigue,  .... 
Fault,  blemish,  . 
Fault,  error,   .    . 
Favor,  credit. 

Fearful 

Fearful,  afraid,  . 
Fearless,  bold,    . 
Feasible,  colorable. 
Feeble,  weak. 

Feel,  to 

Feign,  to,  .  .  . 
Felicitate,  to,  .  . 
Felon,  criminal. 

Female 

Feminine,  female. 
Ferocious,  .  .  . 
Fervent,  .... 
Fetch,  bring,  .  . 
Feud,  quarrel,  . 
Fidelity,  faith,  . 
Fierce,  ferocious. 
Fiery,  hot,  .    .    . 

Final, 

Find,  to,.  .  .  . 
Find  fault  with,  to 

Fine, 

Fine,  beautiful,  . 
Finish,  close,  .    . 
Finished,  complete 
Finite,     .... 

Firm, 

Firm,  hard,  .  . 
Firmness,  constancy, 

Fit . 

Fitness,  expediency, 


900 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF  FACTS 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Fitted,  competent,  .    .    .  231 

Fixed,  firm, 241 

Flagitious,  heinous,  .    .  244 

Flagrant,  heinous,     .    .  244 

Flatterer 241 

Flaw,  blemish 226 

Flexible 241 

Fluctuate,  to, 241 

Follow,  to 241 

Follower 241 

Folly 241 

Fond,  affectionate,     .    .  222 

Fond,  indulgent,    .    .    .  246 

Fool 241 

Foolery, /oZZj/,    .  \    .    .  241 

Foolhardy, 241 

Foolish,  irrational,    .    .  247 

Footstep,  mark,     .    .    .  248 

Force 241 

Force,  compel,    ....  230 

.  Force,  energy,    ....  239 

Forcible,  coge.U,     .    .    .  230 

Forebode,  augur,  .    .    .  225 

Forefathers 241 

Forego,  give  up,     .    .    .  243 

Foreign,  extraneous,  .    .  240 

Foretell,  to 241 

Forgetfulness 242 

Forgive,  to, 242 

Forlorn,  forsaken,  .    .    .  242 

Form 242 

Form,  to 242 

Form,  make, 248 

Formidable,  > 242 

Forsake,  abandon,     .    .221 

Forsaken, 242 

Forswear,  to 242 

Fortify,  strengthen,    .    .  253 

Fortitude,  courage,    .    .  233 

Fortunate,  happy,     .    .  244 

Fortune,  chance,    .    .    .  229 

Foster,  to 242 

Foundation, 242 

Fragile 242 

FraU,/rafft7e 242 

Frank, 242 

Fraud,  deceit 234 

Fraudulent,  fallacious, .  240 

Free, 242 

Free,  frank 242 

Freedom, 242 

Frenzy,  madness,  .    .    .  248 

Frequent,  to, 242 

Frequently,  commonly, .  230 

Fresh,  new, 248 

Fretful,  captious,  .    .    .  228 

Friendly,  amicable,    .    .  224 

Fright,  alarm 223 

Frighten,  to 242 

Frightful,  fearful,  ...  241 

Fulfill,  execute 240 

Funeral, 242 

Furious,  violent,     .    .    .  254 

Furnish,  provide,  .    .    .  250 

Fury,  anger, 224 

Fury,  madness,  ....  248 

Gait,  carriage 228 

Gale,  breeze 227 

Gallant,  brave,   .    .    .    .  227 

Gamesome,  playful,  .    .  249 

Gang,  band,    .....  226 

Gap,  breach 227 

Gape,  to 242 

Gather,  to 242 

Gaze,  gape, 242 

General, 242 

Generally,  commonly,    .  230 

Generous,  beneficent,      .  226 

Genius,  intellect,     .    .    .  246 

Genius,  taste,      ....  253 

Genteel, 242 

Gentle, 242 

Gesticulation,  action,   .  222 

Gesture,  action, ....  222 

Gift 242 

Give,  to, 242 

Give,  to, 243 

Give  up,  to, 243 

Gladness,  joy,    ....  247 

Glance,  glimpse,    .    .    .  243 

Glance,  look, 248 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Glaring 243 

Glide,  slip 252 

Glimpse, 243 

Gloomy,  dull 238 

Glory 243 

Glory,  to 243 

Glossary,  dictionary, .    .   236 

Godlike,  . 243 

Good-humor,    good-na- 
ture  243 

Good-nature, 243 

Govern,  to, 243 

Government 243 

Grace 243 

Graceful,  becoming,   .    .   226 

Grand,  great 243 

Grant,  allow 223 

Grant,  give, 242 

Grateful,  acceptable,  .    .   221 

Gratify,  to 243 

Gratify,  satisfy,  .  .  .251 
Gratitude,  thankfulness,  253 

Gratuitous, 243 

Grave, 243 

Great 243 

Greeting,  salute,    .    .    .251 

Grief,  affliction 222 

Gripe,  press 250 

Groan 243 

Gross 243 

Ground,  foundation,  .    .   242 

Grow,  be 226 

Grow,  increase 246 

Guard 243 

Guard,  to, 243 

Guardian,  guard,  .    .    .   243 

Guess,  to, 243 

Guest, 243 

Guide,  lead 247 

Guile,  deceit 234 

Guise, 243 

Gust,  breeze,   .    ...    .    .227 

Habit,  custom,   ....   234 

Habit,  guise 243 

Habitation, 243 

Hale,  draw 238 

Hallow,  dedicate,  .  .  .  234 
Handsome,  beautiful,  .  226 
Hanker  after,  desire,    .   235 

Happen,  to, 244 

Happy, 244 

Harass,  distress,     .    .    .   238 

Harbor 244 

Harbor, /os<er 242 

Hard 244 

Hardly 244 

Harmony,  concord,  .  .231 
Haste,  rashness,     .    .    .   251 

Hasten,  to 244 

Hasty,  cursory,  ....   234 

Hate,  to 244 

Hateful 244 

Haughtiness 244 

Haul,  draw, 238 

Haunt,  frequent,    .    .    .   242 

Have,  to, 244 

Haven,  harbor,  ....   244 

Hazard,  to 244 

Hazard,  chance,  .  .  .  229 
Hazard,  danger,  -  .    .    .   234 

Head,  chief 229 

Heal,  cure 234 

Healthful 244 

Healthy,  sound,     ...   252 

Heap,  to, 244 

Hearken,  attend,  .  .  .  225 
Hearsay,  fame,  ....   240 

Hearty, 244 

Heave,  lift 247 

Heavenly,  celestial,  .  .  228 
Heavenly,  Godlike,    .    .   243 

Heed 244 

Heinous 244 

Help,  to 244 

Heresy,  heterodoxy,   .    .   244 

Hesitate,  to 244 

Hesitate,  demur,  .  .  .  235 
Hesitation,  demur,    .    .   235 

Heterodoxy, 244 

Hidden,  secret,  ....  251 
Hide,  conceal 231 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Hide,  cover 233 

High 244 

Hinder,  to 244 

Hinder,  retard,  .    .    .    .251 

Hint,  allude 223 

Hire,  allowance,     .    .    .   223 

Hoist,  lift 247 

Hold,  to 244 

Hold,  to 245 

Holiness, 245 

Hollow 245 

Holy 245 

Home,  habitation,  .    .    .   243 

Honor,  to, 245 

Honor,  glory, 243 

Horrible,  fearful,  .  .  .  241 
Horrid, /ear/uZ,  .  .  .  241 
Hostile,  adverse,  .  .  .  222 
Hostility,  enmity,  .    .    .   239 

Hot 245 

House,  habitation, .    .    .   243 

Hug,  clasp, 229 

Human 245 

Humane,  human,  .  .  .  245 
Humanity,  benevolence,  226 

Humble,      245 

Humble,  abase,  .  .  .  .221 
Humidity,  moisture, .    .   248 

Humor, 245 

Humor,  gratify,  .  .  .  243 
Hurricane,  breeze, .  .  .  227 
Hurry,  hasten,   ....   244 

Hurtful 245 

Idea 245 

Ideal 245 

Idiot, /ooi 241 

Idle 245 

111,  badly 226 

Illuminate,  to 245 

Illumine,  illuminate,  .  245 
Illustrate,  explain,  .  .  240 
Illustrious,  distinguished, 237 
Illustrious,  famous,  .  .  240 
Imaginary,  ideal,  .  .  .  245 
Imagination, /anci/,  .  .  240 
Imagination,  idea,  .  .  245 
Imagine,  apprehend,  .  224 
Imagine,  think,  .  .  .  253 
Imbecility,  debility,  .    .   234 

Imminent, 245 

Impair,  to 245 

Impart,  communicate,  .  230 
Impeach,  accuse,  .  .  .221 
Impediment,  difficulty,  236 
Impel,  actuate,  ....  222 
Impending,  imminent,  .   245 

Imperious, 245 

Impetuous,  violent,  .  .  254 
Impious,  irrehf/ioMS, .    .   247 

Implicate,  to, 245 

Implore,  beg 226 

Importunity,    solicita- 
tion,      252 

Impostor,  deceiver,  .  .  234 
Improve,  amend,  .    .    .   224 

Impugn,  to, 245 

Inability 245 

Inadvertency, 245 

Inattention,    inadvert- 
ency,     245 

Incident,  circumstance,  229 
Incident,  event,  ....   239 

Incite,  excite 239 

Inclination 245 

Inclination,  disposition,  237 

Incline,  lean 247 

Inclose,  to, 246 

Inclose,  circumscribe,    .   229 
Include,  comprise,     .    .231 
Include,  inclose,     .    .    .    246 
Incontrovertible,  indubi- 
table,     246 

Inconvenience,  to,  .    .    .   246 

Increase,  to, 246 

Increase,  enlarge,  .  .  .  239 
Incredulity,  unbelief,   .   254 

Indebted,  to  be 246 

Indifferent, .......    246 

Indignation,  anger,   .    .   224 
Indisputable,      indubi- 
table  246 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Individual,  parhcwiar,  .  249 
Indolent,  idle,    ....   245 

Indubitable 246 

Induce,  actuate,     .    .    .   222 

Indulge,  foster 242 

Indulge,  gratify,    .    .    .   243 

Indulgent, 246 

Industrious,  active,    .    .   222 
Ineflfable,  unspeakable, .   254 
Inequality,  disparity,    .   237 
Inexpressible,  unspeak- 
able  254 

Infamous, 246 

Infection,  contagion, .  .  232 
Inference,  conclusion,  .  231 
Infidelity,  unbelief,  .  .  254 
Infinite,  boundless,    .    .   227 

Infirm,  weak 254 

Infirmity,  debility,  .  .  234 
Influence,  credit,    .    .    .   233 

Inform,  to 246 

Information 246 

Ingenious,  ingenuous,    .   246 

Ingenuity, 246 

Ingenuous,      246 

Ingenuous, /ranfc,  .  .  .  242 
Ingratiate,  insinuate,  .  246 
Inhabit,  abide,  ....  221 
Inhuman,  cruel,  .  .  .  234 
Inimical,  adverse,  .  .  .  222 
Iniquitous,  wicked,  .  .  255 
Injunction,  command,  .  230 
Injure,  impair,  ....  245 
Injury,  injustice,   .    .    .   246 

Injustice 246 

Inquire,  ask 225 

Inquisitive,  curious,  .    .   234 

Inside, 246 

Insinuate,  to, 246 

Insinuation 246 

Insist,  to 246 

Insolvency, 246 

Inspire,  animate,  .  .  .  224 
Instance,  example,    .    .   239 

Instant, 246 

Instruct,  inform,  .  .  .  246 
Instruction,  advice,  .  .  222 
Instruction,  education, .   238 

Insult,  affront 222 

Insurrection, 246 

Intellect, 246 

Intellect,  understanding,  254 
Intelligence,in/orma<ion,  246 
Intelligence,  understand- 
ing  254 

Intend,  design,-  ....   235 

Interchange 246 

Interest, 246 

Interior,  inside,     .    .    .   246 
Interment,  burial,     .    .    227 
Intermission,  cessation,  229 
Interposition,  interven- 
tion,      246 

Interpret,  explain,  .  .  240 
Interrogate,  ask,  .  .  .  225 
Interrupt,  disturb,     .    .   238 

Interval 246 

Intervention, 246 

Interview,  meeting,  .  .  248 
Intimidate,  frighten, .  .  242 
Intrepid,  bold,  ....  227 
Introductory,  previous,  250 

Intrude,  to, 246 

Invalid,  .......   246 

Inveigh,  declaim,  .    .    .   234 

Invent,  find, 241 

Invest,  to 246 

Invigorate,  strengthen,  .  253 
Invite,  attract,    ....   225 

Invite,  call, 228 

Involve,  implicate,    .    .   245 

Ire,  anger, 224 

Irrational 247 

Irrefragable,  indubitable, 246 

Irreligious, 247 

Irritate,  aggravate,  .  .  223 
Issue,  consequence,  .  .  232 
Issue,  offspring,  .  .  .  249 
Jaunt,  excursion,  .        .   239 

Jealousy 247 

Jilt,  coquette,  .....   233 


INDEX 


901 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 
Jocose,  facetious,   . 
Jocular,  facetious, 

Journey 

Joy 

Judgment,  .... 
Judgment,  decision, 
.Justify,  apologize. 
Justness,     .... 
Juvenile,  youthful. 
Keen,  acute,   .    . 
Keen,  sharp,  .    . 
Keep,  to,      ... 
Keep,  hold,     .    . 
Keeping,      .    .    . 
Kind,  affectionate 
Kindness,  benevolence. 
Kingly,  royal,    .    . 
Knavish,  dishonest. 
Know,  to,    .    .    . 
Knowledge,      .    . 
Labor,  work,  .    . 
Laborious,  active. 
Lack,  want,    .    . 
Lag,  linger,     .    . 
Lament,  complain 
Lament,  deplore. 

Land 

Large,      .... 
Large,  great,  .    . 
Lassitude,  fatigue. 
Lasting,  durable. 
Latent,  secret,    . 
Laudable,    .    .    . 
Lavish,  extravagant. 
Lay,  lie,      .    .    . 
Lay,  put,    .    .    . 
Lay  hold  of,  to,  . 
Lazy,  idle,  .    .    . 
Lead,  to,      ... 
Leader,  chief. 
League,  alliance. 
Lean,  to, .    .    .    . 
Learning,  knowledge. 
Leave,  to,    .    .    . 
Leave  off,  cease. 
Leave  off,  desist. 
Leavings,    .    .    . 
Letter,      .... 
Letter,  character. 
Level,  aim,     .    . 
Lexicon,  dictionary. 
Liberal,  beneficent. 
Liberal,  free,  .    . 
Liberty,  freedom. 
Lie,  to,    ...    . 
Lift,  to,    ...    . 
Like,  equal,     .    . 
Likeness,     .    .    . 
Limit,  bound. 
Limited,  fi.nite,  . 
Linger,  to,  .    .    . 
Listen,  attend,    . 

Little, 

Live,  abide,  .  . 
Living,  .... 
Load,  weight, .  . 
Loathe,  abhor,  . 
Loathing,  disgust. 
Lodging, .... 
Lofty,  high,  .  . 
Loiter,  linger,  . 
Lonely,  alone,  . 
Long  for,  desire. 

Look, 

Look,  air,  .  .  . 
Loose,  slack,  .  . 
Lordly,  imperious, 
Lose,  to,  .  .  . 
Lot,  destiny,  . 
Lucidity,  clearness. 
Luster,  brightness. 
Luxuriant,  exuberant 
Madness,  .  .  . 
Magnificence, 
Main,  chief,  .  . 
Maintain,  assert. 
Make,  to,  .  .  . 
Make,  act,  .  .  . 
Malady,  disorder. 
Malefactor,  criminal. 
Malevolence,  .... 


PAGE 

240 
240 
247 
247 
247 
234 
224 
247 
255 
222 
252 
247 
244 
247 
222 
226 
251 
237 
247 
247 
255 
222 
254 
247 
231 
235 
247 
247 
243 
240 
238 
251 
247 
240 
247 
250 
247 
245 
247 
229 
223 
247 
247 
247 
228 
235 
247 
247 
229 
223 
236 
226 
242 
242 
247 
247 
239 
247 
227 
241 
247 
225 
247 
221 
247 
254 
221 
237 
247 
244 
247 
223 
235 
248 
223 
252 
245 
248 
236 
230 
227 
240 
248 
248 
229 
225 
248 
221 
237 
233 
248 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Maliciousness,    malevo- 
lence   248 

Malignity,  wafevofence, .  248 

Manage,  concert,    .    .    .  231 
Manage,  conduct,   .    .    .231 

Management,  care,    .    .  228 

Manful,  manly 248 

Manifest,  apparent,  .    .  224 

Manifest,  discover,     .    .  237 

Manly 248 

Manner,  air 223 

Manner,  custom,    .    .    .  234 

Manners, 248 

Mariner,  seaman,  .    .    .  251 

Mark, 248 

Martial 248 

Marvel,  wonder,     .    .    .  255 

Massacre,  carnage,     .    .  228 

Massive,  bulky,  ....  227 

Maxim,  axiom,  ....  225 

May,  can 228 

Mean,  design,     ....  235 

Mechanic,  artist,    .    .    .  224 

Meditate,  contemplate,  .  232 

Medley,  difference,     .    .  236 

Meet,  fit, 241 

Meeting, 248 

Melancholy,  dejection,  .  235 

Memory, 248 

Menace,  threat 253 

Mend,  amend 224 

Menial,  seryaji/ 252 

Mercantile, 248 

Merit,  desert, 235 

Metamorphose,  transfig- 
ure,        253 

Mighty,  powerful,  .    .    .  250 

Military,  martial,  .    .    .  248 

Mingle,  mix, 248 

Minister, 248 

Minute,   circumstantial,  229 

Miracle,  wonder,    .    .    .  255 

Mirth,  joy,  .>....  247 

Mischance,  calamity,     .  227 

Miserly,  avaricious,  .    .  225 

Misfortune,  calamity,    .  227 

Mishap,  calamity,  .    .    .  227 

Miss,  lose 248 

Mistake,  error 239 

Misuse,  abuse,    ....  221 

Mitigate,  allay 223 

Mix,  to, 248 

Moan,  groan 243 

Model,  copy 233 

Modern,  new 248 

Modest,  humble,     .    .    .  245 

Modesty 248 

Moisture, 248 

Mold, /orm 242 

Molest,  inconvenience,  .  246 

Molest,  trouble,  ....  253 

Moment,  instant,  .    .    .  246 

Monastery,  cloister,   .    .  230 

Money 248 

Monster,  wonder,   .    .    .  255 

Monstrous,  enormous,   .  239 

Mood,  humor,     ....  245 

Morals,  manners,  .    .    .  248 

Morbid,  sick,      ....  252 

Mortal,  deadly 234 

Motion, 248 

Motive,  cause,    ....  228 

Motive,  principle,  .    .    .  250 

Mount,  arise, 224 

Move,  stir 253 

Movement,  motion,   .    .  248 

Moving, 248 

Munificent,  beneficent,  .  226 

Muse,  contemplate,     .    .  232 

Muster,  assemble,  .    .    .  225 

Mutual, 248 

Mysterious,  dark,  .    .    .  234 

Mysterious,  secret,     .    .  251 

Nams,  to, 248 

Name,  nominate,   .    .    .  249 

Narrow,  contracted,   .    .  233 

Native,     . 248 

Natural,  native,     .    .    .  248 

Nausea,  disgust,     .    .    .  237 

Near,  close, 230 

Necessary,  necessity,     .  248 


PAGE 

Synonyms  • —  Con. : 

Necessitate,  compel,  .    .   230 

Necessity 248 

Need,  want,  .  .  .  .  .  254 
Nefarious,  wicked,     .    .   255 

Neglect,  to,      248 

Neglect,  disregard,  .  .  237 
Neighborhood,     ....   248 

New 248 

News 249 

Nice,  exact 239 

Nice,  fine, 241 

Niggardly,  avaricious,  .  225 
Niggardly,  penurious,  .   249 

Nigh,  close, 230 

Noisome,  hurtful,  .    .    .   245 
Nomenclature,    diction- 
ary  236 

Nominate,  to, 249 

Noted,  distinguished,    .   237 

Notice,  to 249 

Notice,  information,  .  246 
Notion,  conception,    .    .    231 

Novel,  new, 248 

Noxious,  hurtful,   .    .    .   245 

Numeral, 249 

Numerical,  numeral,     .   249 

Obedient, 249 

Object,  to 249 

Object,  aim, 223 

Object  to,  find  fault  with,  241 
Objection,  demur, .  .  .  235 
Obligation,  duty,   ...    238 

Oblige,  compel 230 

Obliged,  indebted,  .    .    .   246 

Obliging,  civil 229 

Obliterate,  blot  out,  .  .  226 
Oblivion,  forget  fulness, .  242 
Obloquy,  reproach,    .    .251 

Obnoxious 249 

Obscure,  dark 234 

Obscure,  eclipse,  .  .  .  238 
Obsequies,  funeral,  .  .  242 
Obsequious,  obedient,  .  249 
Observance,  form,     .    .   242 

Observe,  to, 249 

Observe,  notice,     .    .    .   249 

Observe,  sec, 252 

Obstacle,  difficulty,  .  .  236 
Obtrude,  intrude,  .  .  .  246 
Obvious,  apparent,    .    .    224 

Occasion, 249 

Occasion,  cause,     .    .    .   228 

Occasional, 249 

Occult,  secret,  ....  251 
Occupation,  business,  .  227 
Occupy,  hold,  ....  245 
Occurrence,  event,  .  .  239 
Odious,  hateful, .    .    .    .244 

Offender, 249 

Offensive,  obnoxious,    .   249 

Offer,  give, 243 

Officious,  active,     .    .    .   222 

Offspring, 249 

Old,  elderly 238 

Omen 249 

Omit,  neglect 248 

Onset,  attack 225 

Open,  frank 242 

Openness,  candor,      .    .   228 

Operate,  act, 221 

Opinionated -.    249 

Opportunity,  occasion, .  249 
Oppose,  combat,  .  .  .  230 
Oppose,  object,  ....  249 
Opposite,  arfj'er.se,.  .  .  222 
Oppugn,  confute,   .    .    .   232 

Option, 249 

Ordain,  appoint,  .  .  .  224 
Order,  appoint,  .  .  .  224 
Order,  command,  .  .  .  230 
Order,  direction,    .    .    .   236 

Orifice, 249 

Ostensible,  colorable,  .  230 
Outrage,  affront,    .    .    .   222 

Outward 249 

Overbearing,  imperious,  245 
Overpower,  beat,  .  .  .  226 
Oversight,  inadvertency,  245 
Overthrow,  beat,    .    .    .   226 

Paint,  to 249 

Panegyric,  encomium,  .   239 


PAQE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Parasite,  flatterer,  .  .  ,  241 
Pardon,  excuse,  .  .  .  239 
Pardon,  forgive,  .  .  .  242 
Pardonable,  venial,  .  .  254 
Parsimonious,  avari- 
cious   225 

Part, 249 

Part,  divide 238 

Particular,      249 

Particular,   circumstan- 
tial   229 

Particular,  exact,  .    .    .  239 

Partisan,  follower,     .    .  24 1 

Partner,  colleague,     .    .  230 
Partnership,  association,  225 

Patch,  part, 249 

Pathetic,  moving,  .    .    .  248 

Patient,  invalid,    .    .    .  246 

Pattern,  copy,    ....  233 

Pattern,  example,  .    .    .  239 

Pause,  demur 235 

Pay,  allowance,  ....  223 

Peace, 249 

Peevish,  captious,  .    .    .  228 

Pellucid, 249 

Penurious 249 

Perceive,  see, 262 

Perfect,  complete,  .    .    .  231 

Perfidious,  faithless,  .    .  240 

Perforation,  orifice,  .    .  249 

Perform,  effect,  ....  238 

Perform,  execute,   ...  240 
Performance,  production,  250 

Peril,  danger, 234 

Perjure,  forswear,  .    .    .  242 

Permanent,  durable, .    .  238 

Permit,  admit 222 

Permit,  consent,     .    .    .  232 

Pernicious,  hurtful,   .    .  245 

Perpetrate,  to 249 

Perplex,  distress,   .    .    .  238 
Perplexities,  embarrass- 
ments   238 

Persevere,  continue,  .    .  233 

Persist,  continue,  .    .    .  233 

Persist,  insist,    ....  246" 

Perspicuity,  clearness,  .  230 

Persuade,  convict,  .    .    .  233 

Pertinacious,  tenacious,  253 

Perverted,  awkward,     .  225 

Pestilential,  contagious,  232 

Petulant,  captious,    .    .  228 

Pick,  choose 229 

Piece,  part 249 

•   Pile,  heap 244 

Pillar, 249 

Pinch,  press, 250 

Piteous 249 

Pity, 249 

Place,  put 250 

Placid,  calm 228 

Plain,  apparent,     .    .    .  224 

Plain, /ronfc 242 

Plausible,  colorable,  .    .  230 

Playful, 249 

Plead,  apologize,  .  .  .  224 
Pleader,  defender,  .  .  .  235 
Pleasant,  agreeable,  .  .  223 
Pleasant,  facetious,  .  .  240 
Please,  satisfy,  .  .  .  .251 
Pleasing,  agreeable,  .  .  223 
Pleasure,  comfort,  .  .  .  230 
Pledge,  deposit,  .  .  .  235 
Plenipotentiary,  ambas- 
sador,    223 

Pliable,  flexible,     ...  241 
Pliant,  flexible,  .    .    .    .241 

Pluck,  draw 238 

Point,  aim, 223 

Poise,  to,     ......  250 

Poison 250 

Polish,  politeness,  .    .    .  250 

Polite,  civil, 229 

Polite,  genteel 242 

Politeness, 250 

Pollute,  contaminate,    .  232 

Pomp,  magnificence,  .    .  248 

Port,  harbor, 244 

Portend,  augur,     .    .    .  225 

Position 250 

Position,  tenef,  ....  253 


902 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Positive,  actual,     .    .    .  222 
Positive,  confident,     .    .231 

Positive,  definite,  .    .    .  235 

Possess,  have,     ....  244 

Possess,  hold,      ....  245 

Posture,  ortton 222 

Posture,  position,  .    .    .  250 

Potent,  powerful,  .    .    .  250 

Pound,  break 227 

Pour,  to 250 

Powerful 250 

Practice,  custom,   .    .    .  234 

Practice,  exercise,  .    .    .  240 

Praiseworthy,  laudable,  247 

Prate,  babble 225 

Prattle,  babble 225 

Precept,  command,    .    .  230 

Precept,  doctrine,  .    .    .  238 

Precipitancy,    rashness,  251 

Predict, /ore<eZi,     ...  241 

Prefer,  choose,    ....  229 

Preferable,  eligible,    .    .  238 

Preliminary,  previous,  .  250 

Preparatory,  previous,  .  250 

Preposterous,  irrational,  247 

Presage,  augur,  ....  225 

Presage,  omen 249 

Prescribe,  appoint,    .    .  224 

Prescribe,  dictate,  .    .    .  236 

Prescription,  usage,  .    .  254 

Present,  gift 242 

Present,  give, 243 

Preserve,  keep 247 

Press,  to, 250 

Presuming,  presumptive,  250 
Presumption,  arrogance,  224 
Presumptuous,  presump- 
tive   250 

Presumptive, 250 

Pretend,  affect 222 

Pretend, /eiffre 241 

Pretty,  beautiful,  ...  226 

Prevaricate,  evade,    .    .  239 

Prevent,  to 250 

Previous 250 

'    Prey,  booty 227 

Price,  cost 233 

Principal,  chief,      ...  229 

Principle 250 

Principle,  doctrine,    .    .  238 

Privacy 250 

Privilege,  right 251 

Prize,  capture 228 

Prize,  value, 254 

Proceed,  advance,  .    .    .  222 

Proceeding 250 

Proclaim,  announce, .    .  224 

Proclaim,  declare,  .    .    .  234 

Proclamation,  decree,    .  234 

Procure,  provide,  .    .    .  250 

Prodigal,  extravagant,    .  240 

Prodigious,  enormous,  .  239 

Prodigy,  wonder,   .    .    .  255 

Produce,  effect,  ....  238 

Produce,  make,  ....  248 

Production, 250 

Profane,  irreligious,  .    .  247 
Profession,  business,      .  -227 

Profligate 250 

Profundity,  depth,     .    .  235 

Profuse,  extravagant,     .  240 

Progenitors, /ore/a/Aers,  241 

Progeny,  offspring,    .    .  249 

Prognostic,  omen,      .    .  249 

Prognosticate, /ore<eW,  .  241 

Prolix,  diffuse 236 

Prominent 250 

Promise 250 

Prompt,  diligent,  .    .    .  236 

Prompt,  ready,  ....  251 

Promulgate,  publish,    .  250 

Proneness,  I'ncZtnah'on,.  245 

Pronounce,  utter,  .    .    .  254 

Proof,  argument,    .    .    .  224 

Prop,  staff,  , 252 

Propensity,  inclination,  245 
Prophesy, /oreteH, .    .    .241 

Propitious,  auspicious, .  225 

Proportionate 250 

Proselyte,  convert,     .    .  233 

Prospect,  view 254 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Protect,  defend,      .    .    .  235 

Prove,  argue 224 

Proverb,  axiom,     .    .    .  225 

Provide,  to 250 

Provident,  careful,    .    .  228 

Provoke,  aggravate,  .    .  223 

Provoke,  awaken,  .    .    .  225 

Provoke,  excite,      .    .    .  239 

Prudence,  judgment, .    .  247 

Prudence,  wisdom,    .    .  255 

Prying,  curious,     .    .    .  234 

Publish,  to 250 

Publish,  announce,    .    .  224 

Publish,  declare,     .    .    .  234 

Puerile,  youthful,  .    .    .  255 

Pull,  draw, 238 

Punctual,  exact,     ...  239 

Punishment,  correction,  233 

Purchase,  buy,   ....  227 

Pure,  clean, 230 

Purpo.se,  design,     .    .    .  235 

Pursue,  follow 24 1 

Put,  to 250 

Qualification 250 

Qualified,  competent,     .  231 

Quarrel, 250 

Quarrel,  difference,    .    .  236 
Query,  question,     .    .    .251 

Question, 251 

Question,  ask,    ....  225 

Question,  doubt,     ...  238 

Quiet,  ea.se, 238 

Quiet,  peace, 249 

Quit,  leave 247 

Quote,  cite 229 

Radiance, 251 

Rage,  anger, 224 

Rage,  madness,  ....  248 

Ramble,  excursion,    .    .  239 

Range,  class, 229 

Rapacious, 251 

Rase,  blot  out 226 

Rash,  foolhardy,     .    .    .  241 

Rashness, 251 

Rate,  estimate 239 

Ravenous,  rapacious,    .  251 

Ready 251 

Ready,  easy 238 

Real,  actual 222 

Realm,  stale, 253 

Reason,  argument,     .    .  224 

Reason,  cause 228 

Reason,  consideration,  .  232 

Rebellion,  insurrection,  246 
Rebellious,con<uma<;ioMs,233 

Rebuff,  refuse 251 

Rebuke,  check 229 

Recapitulate,  repeal,     .  251 

■Recent,  new 248 

Receive,  admit 222 

Reciprocity,  interchange, 246 
Recite,  repeal,    .    .    .    .251 

Reckon,  calculate^.    .    .  227 

Reclaim,  to, 251 

Recline,  to, 251 

Recollection,  memory,  .  248 
Recompense,  compensa- 
tion,       230 

Reconcile,  conciliate,     .  231 

Recover,  to, 251 

Recovery, 251 

Recruit,  recover,     .    .    .  251 

Refer,  allude 223 

Refinement,  cultivation,  234 

Refinement,  politeness,  250 

Reflect,  consider,  .    .    .  232 

Reflection,  insinuation,  246 

Reform, 251 

Reform,  reclaim,    .    .    .  2.51 

Reformation,  reform,    .  251 

Refuge,  asylum,     .    .    .  225 

Refuse,  to,  .....    .  251 

Refuse,  deny,     ....  235 

Refute,  confute,     .    .    .  232 

Regal,  royal 251 

Regard,  consider,  .    .    .  232 

Regardless,    indifferent,  246 
Regret,  complain,  .    .    .231 

Regulate,  govern,  .    .    .  243 

Rehearse,  repeat,  .    .    .  251 

Reign,  empire 238 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Reject,  refuse 251 

Rejoinder,  answer,    .    .  224 

Relation,  connection,     .  232 

Relax 251 

Relieve,  alleviate,  .    .    .  223 

Relieve,  help 244 

Relinquish,  abandon,  .  221 
Relinquish,  leave,  .  .  .  247 
Remain,  continue,  .  .  232 
Remains,  leavings,  .  .  247 
Remark,  notice,  .  .  .  249 
Remarkable,  extraordi- 
nary;      240 

Remedy,  cure,    ....  234 

Remedy,  to  cure,    .    .    .  234 

Remembrance,  memory,  248 

Reminiscence,  memory,  248 

Remit,  forgive 242 

Remit,  relax 251 

Remonstrate,    expostu- 
late,   240 

Remote,  distant,    .    .    .  237 
Remuneration,  compen- 
sation   230 

Renown,  fame,  ....  240 

Renowned,  famous,  .    .  240 

Repair,  recover 251 

Repay,  restore,  ....  251 
Repeal,  abolish,     .    .    .221 

Repeat,  to 251 

Repel,  refuse 251 

Reply,  answer,  ....  224 

Report,  fame,     ....  240 

Repose,  ease 238 

Repose,  rec/ine,.    .    .    .  251 

Representation,  show,  .  252 

Repress,  to, 251 

Reprimand,  check,     .    .  229 

Reproach, 251 

Reproach,  blame,  .    .    .  226 

Reproach,  discredit,  ,    .  237 

Reprobate,  profligate,    .  250 

Reprove,  blame,     .    .    .  226 

Reprove,  check, ....  229 

Repugnant,  adverse, .    .  222 

Reputation,  character,  .  229 

Reputation,  fame,      .    .  240 

Require,  demand,  .    .    .  235 

Requital,  compensation,  230 

Rescue,  deliver,      .    .    .  235 

Resemblance,  likeness, .  247 

Resentment,  anger,  .  .  224 
Reside,  abide,     ,         .    .221 

Residence,  habitation,  .  243 

Resign,  give  up,     .    .    .  243 

Resolute,  decided,  .    .    .  234 

Resolution,  courage,  .    .  233 

Resolve,  determine,   .    .  236 

Resort  to,  frequent,  .    .  242 

Resource,  expedient, .    .  240 

Respect,  honor,      .    .    .  245 

Respite,  interval,  .    .    .  246 

Response,  answer,  .  .  324 
Responsible,  answerable,  224 

Rest,  cessation,  ....  229 

Rest,  ease 238 

Restoration,  recovery,    .  251 

Restore,  to,      251 

Restrain,  repress,  .    .    .  251 

Restrict,  bound,     .    .    .  227 

Result,  consequence,  .    .  232 

Retain,  hold 244 

Retard,  to 251 

Retirement,  privacy,     .  250 

Retreat,  asylum,  .  .  .  225 
Retrieve,  recover,  .  .  .251 
Return,  restore,      .    .    .251 

Reveal,  publi.sh,     .    .    .  250 

Reverence,  adoration,  .  222 

Reverence,  awe,     .    .    .  225 

Reverence,  honor, .    .    .  245 

Reverie,  dream,     .    .    .  238 

Revoke,  abolish,    .    .    .  221 

Revolt,  insurrection,    .  246 

Reward,   compensation,  230 

Right 251 

Rigid,  austere 225 

Rigorous,  austere,  .    .    .  225 

Rise,  arise, 224 

Risk,  hazard, 244 

Rite,  form 242 


Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Rough,  coarse,   . 

Round,  circuit,  . 

Rouse,  awaken, 

Rout,  beat, .    .    . 

Royal 

Rude,  coarse, .    . 

Rueful,  piteous. 

Ruin,  destruction. 

Ruin,  fall,  .    .    . 

Rule,  govern,  .    . 

Rumor,  fame,     . 

Rural 

Rustic,  rural, 

Sacred,  holy,  .    . 

Sad,  dull,    .    .    . 

Nafe , 

Sailor,  seaman,  .    .   '. 

Salary,  allowance. 

Salubrious,  healthful 

Salutary,  healthful. 

Salutation,  sahde. 

Salute,  .    .    . 

Sanction,  countenance 

Sanctity,  holiness. 

Sane,  sound,  .    . 

Satisfaction,  compensa- 
tion,    .... 

Satisfaction,  content- 
ment,    

Satisfy,  to 

Saunter,  linger, 

Savage,  cruel,     .    . 

Savage,  ferocious, 

Save,  deliver,      .    . 

Save,  keep,     .    .    . 

Saving,  penurious. 

Saw,  axiom,    .    .    . 

Say,  speak,     .    .    . 

Saying,  axiom,  .    . 

Scale,  arise,    .    .    . 

Scandal,  discredit. 

Scandalous,  infamous. 

Scanty,  bare,  .    .    . 

Scarcely,  hardly,    . 

Science,  knowledge. 

Scorn,  contemn, .    . 

Screen,  cover,     .    . 

Seaman,      .... 

Sea.sonable,  timely. 

Seclusion,  privacy. 

Secrecy,  concealment 

Secret, 

Secret,  clandestine. 

Secrete,  conceal,     . 

Secure,  certain,  .    . 

Secure,  safe,   .    .    . 

Security,  deposit,  . 

Sedate,  composed,  . 

Sedition,  insurrection, 

Seditious,  factious. 

See,  to, 

Seem.,  to,     .... 

Seize,  lay  hold  of,  . 

Seizure,  capture,    . 

Select,  choose.     .    . 

Sensible  be,  feel,    . 

Sensualist,       .    .    . 

Sentence,  decision. 

Separate,  abstract. 

Separate,  different. 

Separate,  divide,    . 

Sepulture,  burial,  . 

Sequel 

Serene,  calm,  .    .    . 

Serious,  grave,    .    . 

Servant, 

Set,  put 

Settle,  compose, 

Severe,  austere,  .    . 

Severe,  strict,     .    . 

Shade 

Shadow,  shade,  .    . 

Shame,  dishonor,  . 

Shape,  form,  .    .    . 

Share,  divide,     .    . 

Sharp 

Shed,  pour,     .    .    . 

.Shelter,  asylum,     . 

Shelter,  cover,     .    . 

Shocking,  formidable. 

Short 


230 
229 
225 
226 
251 
230 
249 
236 
240 
243 
240 
251 
251 
245 
238 
251 
251 
223 
244 
244 
251 
251 
233 
245 
252 

230 

232 
251 
247 
234 
241 
235 
247 
249 
225 
252 
225 
224 
237 
246 
226 
244 
247 
232 
233 
251 
253 
250 
231 
251 
229 
231 
228 
251 
235 
231 
246 
240 
252 
252 
247 
228 
229 
241 
252 
234 
221 
236 
238 
227 
252 
228 
243 
252 
250 
231 
225 
253 
252 
252 
237 
242 
238 
252 
250 
225 
233 
242 
252 


INDEX 


903 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Show 252 

Shrewd,  acute 222 

Sick, 252 

Siclcly,  sick 252 

Sight,  show 252 

Sign 252 

Signal,  sign 252 


Signify,  denote. 
Similarity,  likene.'is. 
Similitude,  likeness, 
Simple,    . 
Simulation,     . 
Sin,  crime,  .    .    . 
Sincere,  heart;/. 
Sincerity,  candor. 
Single,  simple. 
Singular,  simple 


Situation,  circumstance,  229 

Skillful,  clever,        ...  230 

Slack 252 

Slant,  to, 252 

Slaughter,  carnage,    .    .  228 

Slide,  slip 252 

Slight,  cursory,  .        .    .  234 

Slight,  disregard,   .    .    .  237 

Slip,  to 252 

Slope,  slant, 252 

Small,  little, 247 

Snatch,  lay  hold  of,  .    .  247 

Soak,  to,      252 

Sociable,  social,     .    .    .  252 

Social, 252 

Social,  convivial,    .    .    .  233 

Society,  association,  .    .  225 

Soil,  stain 253 

Sojourn,  abide 221 

Soldier-like,  martial,     .  248 

Solemn,  grave,    ....  243 

Solicit,  beg,         ....  226 
Solicitation,         .    .    .    .252 

Solicitude,  care,     .    .    .  228 

Solid,  firm, 241 

Solid,  hard 244 

Solitary,  ...         .252 

Solitary,  alone 223 

Soothe,  allay.         ...  223 

Sorrow,  affliction,  .    .    .  222 

Sound, 252 

Spacious,  ample,    .    .    .  224 

Sparing,  penurious,  .    .  249 

Speak,  to 252 

Speak,  utter 254 

Specimen,  copy,     .    .    .  233 

Specious,  colorable,    .    .  230 

Speck,  blemish,       ...  226 

Spectacle,  show,     .    .    .  252 

Speed,  hasten 244 

Spill,  pour 250 

Splendor,  brightness,     .  227 

Splendor,   magnificence,  248 

Split,  break 227 

Spoil,  booty, 227 

Sportive,  playful,  .    .    .  249 

Spot,  blemish,     ....  226 

Spread,  to 252 

Spy,  emissary,    ....  238 

Squeeze,  break 227 

Squeeze,  press,  ....  250 

Stability,  constancy,      .  232 

Stable,  fi.rm 241 

Staff, 252 

Stain,  to 253 

Stain,  blemish,   ....  226 

Stammer,  hesitate,     .    .  244 

Standard,  criterion,  .    .  234 

Stare,  gape, 242 

State 253 

Station,  condition,     .    .  231 

Stay,  continue 232 

Stay,  staff,      252 

Steadiness,  constancy,  .  232 

Steep,  soak, 252 

Stern,  austere 225 

Stipend,  allowance,    .    .  223 

Stir,  to, 253 

Stir  up,  awaken,    .    .    .  225 

Stop,  cessation,  ....  229 

Stop,  check 229 

Stop,  hinder 244 

Storm,  breeze,     ....  227 

Story, 253 


235 
247 
247 
252 
252 
233 
244 
228 
252 
252 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

Stray,  deviate 236 

Stream, 253 

Strengthen,  to,     ...    .   253 

Strict 253 

Stricture,  antmarf version, 224 

Strife 253 

Strife,  discord,    ....    237 

Strip,  bereave 226 

Strive,  endeavor,    .    .    .   239 

Strong,  cogent 230 

Struggle,  endeavor,  .  .  239 
Stutter,  hesitate,    .    .    .   244 

Sublime,  great 243 

Submissive,  compliant, .  231 
Submissive,  humble,  .  245 
Submissive,  obedient,  .  249 
Submit,  comply,  .  .  .  231 
Suborn,  forswear,  .    .    .   242 

Subsist,  be 226 

Substitute,  change,    .    .   229 

Successive, 253 

Succinct,  short 252 

Succor,  help, 244 

Suffer,  admit,  ....  222 
Sufficient,  enough,     .    .   239 

Suggest,  allude 223 

Suggestion,  dictate,  .  236 
Suitable,  conformable,  .  232 
Suitable,  convenient,      .    233 

Sully,  stain 253 

Summary,  abridgment,.  221 
Summary,  short,    .    .    .    252 

Summon,  call 228 

Superscription,  direction,236 

Supple,  flexible 241 

Supplicate,  beg 226 

Supply,  provide,  .  .  .  250 
Support,  countenance,  .    233 

Support,  staff 252 

Suppose,  apprehend,      .   224 

Suppose,  think 253 

Suppress,  repress,  .    .    .251 

Sure,  certain, 228 

Surge,  wave 254 

Surround,  to 253 

Survey,  view 254 

Suspense,  doubt,  .  .  .  238 
Suspicion,  distrust,  .  .  238 
Suspicion,  jealousy,  .  .  247 
Swerve,  deviate,  .  .  .  236 
Sycophant,  ^a«erer,  .    .    241 

Sympathy, 253 

Taint,  contaminate,  .  .  232 
Take  hold  of,  lay  hold  of,  247 

Tale,  story 253 

Talent,  ability 221 

Talent,  intellect,     .    .    .   246 

Tall,  high, 244 

Tame,  gentle, 242 

Tantalize,  aggravate,  .  223 
Tantalize,  tea-<e,  .  .  .  253 
Tarnish,  stain,  ....  253 
Tarry,  linger,      ....   247 

Task,  work, 255 

Taste 253 

Taunt,  tease, 253 

Teach,  inform,   ....    246 

Tease,  to, 253 

Tell,  speak, 252 

Temerity,  rashness,  .  .  251 
Temper,  disposition,  .  237 
Temper,  humor,  .  .  .  245 
Tempest,  breeze,     .    .    .   227 

Tenacious, 253 

Tendency,  inclination, .  245 
Tenderness,  benevolence,  226 

Tenet, 253 

Tenet,  doctrine 238 

Terminate,  complete,  .  231 
Terminate,  end,  .  .  .  239 
Terrible, /ear/wi,  ...  241 
Terrible,  formidable, .  .  242 
Terrific, /ear/wZ,     .    .    .   241 

Terror,  alarm 223 

Thankfulness,     ....   253 

Thick, 253 

Think,  to, 253 

Thought,  idea,  ....    245 

Threat, 253 

Threatening,  imminent,  245 
Thrifty,  penurious,    .    .   249 


Synonyms  —  Con . : 
Tide,  stream. 
Tidings,  news,    . 
Timely,   .... 
Timid,  afraid,     . 
Timorous,  afraid 
Toil,  work,      .    . 
Tolerate,  admit. 
Torment,     .    .    . 
Torment,  tease,  . 
Torture,  torment. 
Tour,  circuit. 
Tour,  excursion. 
Trace,  derive. 
Trace,  mark,  .    . 
Track,  mark,  .    . 
Trade,  business. 
Tranquillity,  peace. 


253 
249 
253 
222 
222 
255 
222 
253 
253 
253 
229 
239 
235 
248 
248 
227 
249 


Transaction,  proceeding,  250 

Transcribe,  copy,  .    .    .  233 

Transfigure,  to,  .    .    .    .  253 

Transform,    transfigure,  253 

Transparent,  pellucid,  .  249 

Travel,  journey,     .    .    .  247 

Treacherous, /otYWess,  .  240 

Trembling 253 

Tremendous,  fearful,     .  241 

Tremor,  trembling,     .    .  253 

Trepidation,    trembling,  253 

Trial,  attempt,    ....  225 

Trick,  cheat 229 

Trip,  excursion,.    .    .    .  239 

Trouble,  to 253 

Trouble,  afflict 222 

Troubles,  difficulties,    .  236 

Trust,  belief, 226 

Trust,  confidence,  .    .    .231 

Trusty, /atW«^     ...  240 

Truth, 254 

Tug,  draw, 238 

Tumult,  bustle 227 

Turn,  to 254 

Turn,  cast 228 

Twirl,  turn 254 

Twist,  turn, 254 

Tyrannical,  absolute,     .  221 

Unbelief, 254 

Unbelief,  disbelief,     .    .  237 

Unbounded,    boundless,  227 
Unconcerned, indi^erent,  246 

Undaunted,  bold,  .    .    .  227 

Undeniable, indubitable,  246 

Understand,  conceive,    .  231 

Understanding 254 

Uniform,  equal, ....  239 

Unite,  connect,   ....  232 

Universal,  general,     .    .  242 

Unless, 254 

Unlike,  different,    .    .    .  236 
Unlimited,  boundless,    .  227 
Unquestionable,  indubi- 
table,      246 

Unspeakable 254 

Untoward,  awkward,     .  225 
Unutterable,    unspeak- 
able   254 

Unworthy, 254 

Upbraid,  blame,     .    .    .  226 

Uproar,  bustle 227 

Usage, 254 

Use,  employ, 238 

Usually,  commonly,  .    .  230 

Utility,  advantage,     .    .  222 

Utter,  to 254 

Valor,  bravery 227 

Value,  to 254 

Vanish,  disappear,     .    .  237 

Variation,  change,      .    .  229 

Variety,  difference,    .    .  236 

Vaunt,  glory 243 

Vehement,  violent,     .    .  254 

Veneration,  adoration, .  222 

Venial 254 

Venom,  poison,      .    .    .  250 

Venture,  hazard,    .    .    .  244 

Veracity,  truth 254 

Vex,  tease 253 

Vice,  crime, 233 

Vicinity,  neighborhood, .  248 

Vicissitude,  change,  .    .  229 

Victor,  conqueror,      .    .  232 

View,  ........  254 


PAGE 

Synonyms  —  Con. : 

View,  aim 223 

Vigilance,    wakefulness,  254 

Vigor,  energy 239 

Vindicate,  assert,  .  .  .  225 
Vindicate,  defend, .    .    .   235 

Violence,  force 241 

Violent 254 

Visible,  apparent,  .  .  224 
Visitant,  guest,  ....  243 
Visitor,  guest,  ....  243 
Vividness,  clearness,  .  230 
Vocabulary,  dictionary,  236 
Vocation,  business,  .  .  227 
Voluntary,  gratuitous,  .  243 
Voluptuary,  sensualist,  252 
Voracious,  rapacious,  .  251 
Voyage,  journey,  .  .  .  247 
Wages,  allowance,      .    .   223 

Wakefulness, 254 

Walk,  carriage 228 

Wander,  deviate,    .    .    .   236 

Want,  to 254 

Warlike,  martial,  .  .  .  248 
Wary,  cautious,  .  .  .  228 
Waste,  destroy,  ....  236 
Watch,  guard,  ....  243 
Watch,  observe,  .  .  .  249 
Watchfulness,  wakeful- 
ness,     254 

Waterman,  seaman,  .    .251 

Wave 254 

Waver,  fluctuate,   .    .    .   241 

Weak 254 

Weariness,  fatigue,  .  .  240 
Weeping,  crying,   .    .    .   234 

Weight 254 

Welcome,  acceptable,  ,.  221 
Whimsical,  fanciful, .    .   240 

Whirl,  turn 254 

Whole,  all 223 

Wholesome,  healthful,  .   244 

Wicked, 255 

Wide,  large 247 

Will,  to 255 

Wind,  turn 254 

Wisdom, 255 

Wish,  desire 235 

Wish,  will 255 

Wit,  ingenuity 246 

Witness,  deponent,  .  .  235 
Woeful,  piteous,     .    .    .   249 

Wonder, 255 

Word,  promise,  ....    250 

Work,      255 

Work,  production,  .  .  250 
Worship,  adoration,  .    .   222 

Worth,  desert 235 

Worthless,  unworthy,    .   254 

Wrath,  anger 224 

Wrench,  turn 254 

Wrest,  turn, 254 

Wring,  turn, 254 

Writer 255 

Wrfthe,  turn 254 

Wrong,  injustice,  .    .    .   246 

Yield,  bear 226 

Yield,  comply,  .  .  .  .231 
Yielding,  compliant,  .    .   231 

Youthful,    .  • 255 

Syracuse: 

Battle  of 22 

University 701 

Syria, 60,  74,  123 

System,  Metric,     ....   856 

Tabard 383 

Tables : 

Abdications, 9 

Agriculture  in  U.S.,  648-49 
American  Battles,  .  11-19 
American  Canals,  .  .  653 
American  History,  98-109 
American  Literature,  304-6 
Armies  of  the  World,    .   776 


Attorneys-General, 
Books  of  the  Bible, 
British  Colonies,  . 
Chemical  Elements, 
Churcli  Councils,  . 
Cities,  pop.  of,  .  . 
Cities,  ten  largest. 
Coal  Areas  in  U.  S., 


638 

280-81 

534-35 

.   694 

.   708 

.   582 

.   582 

665-56 


904 


THE   STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF   FACTS 


PAGE 

Tables — Con.: 

College  Fraternities,  .  697 
CoIlegesandUniversities 

of  United  States,  698-705 
Commercial  Law,  .  .  666-67 
Cost  of  Education,  .  .  788 
Danish  Literature,  .  .  288 
Degrees  in  Free  Masonry, 

789 
Distances  Between  Cities, 

863-66 
Elarthquake  Areas,    .    .   786 
Earthquakes    of     His- 
tory  786-88 

Emperors  of  Germany, 

149-50 
English  Literature,  .  295-97 
Epochs  and  Eras,     .    .   696 
Events  of  Human  Prog- 
ress,      54-109 

Expectation  of  Life,     .   665 
Facts  Concerning  Coun- 
tries of  the  World, .    604-5 

Foreign  Coins 657 

French  Literature,  .  292-93 
German  Literature,  .  289-90 
Governors-General      of 

Canada, 151 

Greatest  Volcanoes,  .  577 
Greek  Literature,  .  .  282-83 
Highest  Mountains,  .    .   547 

Holidays 791-93 

Immigration  t«  U.  S.,.  793 
Imports  and  Exports  of 

principal  Countries, .  663 
Imports  and  Exports  of 

United  States,  .  .  662-64 
Industries  of  U.  S.,    .  661-62 

Inventions 668-72 

Italian  Literature,  .  .  309 
Justices   of   the    U.    S. 

Supreme  Court,  .  .  640 
Kings    and    Queens   of 

England,  .  .  .  150-51 
Languages,  ....  183-84 
Largest  Lakes,  ....  539 
Latin  Literature,  .  .  .  284 
Libraries  of  the  World,  714 
Longest  Rivers,  .  .  564-65 
Lost  Cities,  ....  128-30 
Minor  Farm  Products,  650 
Navies  of  the  World,  .  848 
Notable  Bridges,  .  .  779-80 
Notable  Diamonds,  .  .  785 
Notable  Wars,  ...  138-39 
Observatories,  .  .  .  677-78 
Pestilence  and  Plague, 849-50 
Popular  Vote  for  Presi- 
dent,     618-20 

Postmasters-General,  638-39 
Presidents  of  the  U.  S., 

144-45 
Races  of  Mankind,  .  .  752 
Railroad  Statistics,  .  .  675 
Religious  Statistics,  ■  7^1, 
Roman  Emperors,  .  146^47 
Rulers  of  France,  .  .  147-48 
Rulers  of  the  World,  146-52 
Secretaries  of  Agricul- 
ture,  639 

Secretaries  of  Commerce 

and  Labor,     ....   640 
Secretaries  of  State, .    .   636 
Secretaries  of  the  Inte- 
rior  638 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy,  639 
Secretaries  of  the  Treas- 
ury  636-37 

Secretaries  of  War,    .    .   637 

Ship  Canals 654 

Sovereigns  of  Russia,   .    149 
Spanish  Literature,  .  312-13 
Speakers  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  .   640 

State  Flowers 854 

State  Mottoes  and  Popu- 
lar Names 852-53 

Statesof  German  Empire,532 
State  Statistics,  .  .  624-25 
Swedish  Literature,  .  .  287 
Temperatures,  chemical,  859 
Treaties 163-65 


PAGE 

Tables — Con.: 

United  States  Coins, .  656-57 
Universal  History,  .  54-97 
Value    of    Agricultural 

Implements,  ....   647 
Vital  Statistics,     .    .    .   795 
Voting       Require- 
ments,      626-31 

Weights  and  Measures, 

855-58 
World's  Merchant  Ma- 
rine  673-74 

World's  Staples,    ...   680 
World's  Sub-marine  Ca- 
bles  679 

Tabor  College 701 

Tabulated    Commercial 

Law 666-67 

Tacitus 285,  492 

Taft,  Alphonso,  .  .    .   637,  638 

Lorado 492 

WiUiam  H.,    .    .    .   492, 637 

Taine,  H.  A; 492 

Tait,  Peter  G 492 

Tai  Mahal 574 

Takahira,  Kogoro,    .    .    .   492 

Tale,  The 201 

Talent 858 

Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon, 49 2 

Tallevrand 91 

Talma,  F.  J 492 

Talmud 65,  383 

Tamerlane 492 

Tam  O'Shanter,    ...        383 

Tampa 843 

Taney,  Roger  B.,  637,  638,  640 

Tannhauser 383 

Tantalum 694 

Tantalus, 341 

Tarentine  War 61 

Tar  Heels 853 

Tariff: 

Dingley  Bill 108 

First  Bill 101 

McKinley 107 

Payne-Aldrich 109 

Protective,  enacted,.    .     88 

Wilson  Bill, 108 

Tarkio  College 701 

Tarpeian  Rock 11,159 

Tarquinius,  Lucius,  .  .  .  493 
Tarquins  Expelled,  ...     58 

Tartarus 341 

Tartary 160 

Tasso 309,312,493 

Taussig,  Frank  W.,  .  .  .  493 
Tax  Rate,  of  States,  .  .  627 
Taylor,  Bayard,     .    .   305.  493 

Hannis 493 

Jeremy 493 

John  W 640 

Robert  L 493 

Zachary,     ....    144,493 
Taylor  University,   .    .    .   701 

Tea 769 

Adulteration  of,    .    .    .   645 

Teazle,  Lady, 383 

Technical  Schools,    .    .    .   704 

Tecumseh 493 

Te  Deum 383 

Teener,  Esaias 287 

Telamon, 341 

Telegraph 675 

Across  English  Channel,    90 
Atlantic,  laid,    ....      92 
Between  India  and  Eng- 
land  92 

Between     Russia     and 

Japan 95 

Duplex 670 

Electro-Magnetic,.    .    .   675 

Fire  Alarm 670 

French  Atlantic,    ...      94 

In  England 675 

In  United  States,  .  .  675 
Invented,  .....  90 
Marconi  Wireless. ...      96 

Pacific  Cable 96 

Professor  Morse,    .   468,  675 

Quadruplex, 671 

Sir  W.  Thomson,  ...  676 
Sub-marine 92 


PAGE 

Wheatstone's,    .    .      90, 675 
Telegraphy: 

Morse  System  invented,  103 

Wireless 676 

Wireless  Conference,     .  96 

Telemachus 341 

Telephone, 676 

Invention  of 94 

Telescope 677 

Invention  of,      .    .     82, 677 

Largest, 677 

Lord  Rosse's,     ....  90 

Refracting 677 

Telescopes,  Largest, .    .    .  677 

Teller,  Henry  M 638 

Tellarium 694 

Temperature,  Table  of,    .  859 

Tempest,  Marie  S 493 

The 383 

Temple 56,57 

Of  Minerva 58 

Solomon's 160 

Temple  University,  .    .    .  701 

Tennessee 160 

Agricultural  Statisticsof,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

College 704 

Constitution 632 

Electoral  vote 631 

Executive 632 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .  667 

Government, 632 

Govfrnor's  Salary,    .    .  630 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .    .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  631 

Legislature 632 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,     .  631 
Rivers     and     Harbors 

■  Convention,    ....  160 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,  .    .  631 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  297, 303, 493 

Terbium 694 

Terence 284 

Territories,  Area,       .    .    .  625 

Capital, 624 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Settlement 624 

Terry,  Ellen 493 

Tesla,  Nikola 493 

Teutones 160 

Teutonia, 63 

Teutonic  Knights,     ...  160 

Teutonic  Languages,    .    .  184 

Texan  War 161 

'Texas : 

Agricultural    and    Me- 
chanical College,    .    .  705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of,648 

Annexation 161 

Area 624 

Capital, 630 

Constitution 632 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive, 632 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government 632 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  630 

History 160 

Independence  of,  .    .    .  90 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights.  .    .    .860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  631 

Legislature, 632 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,     .  631 

Question 172 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,   .    .  631 

Thackeray, William M..297,  494 


PAGE 

Thales^ 282,  494 

Thallium,   .......   694 

Thames  River,  .  .  .  565, 574 
Thanksgiving  Day,  .    792,  854 

Theban  War, 56 

Thebes,  .    .    .54,116,  130,  161 

Thekla 383 

Theocritus, 283 

Theodoric  the  Great,    .    .   494 

Theodorus 383 

Theology 725 

Branches  of 725 

Theosophists, 726 

Theosophy 726 

Thermometer, 668 

Thermometers 82 

ThermopyliT,      ...      68,  161 

Theseus, .   342 

Thetis 342 

Thibet,  Language,    .    .    .   279 

Thiel  College 701 

Thierry,  J.  N., 494 

Thiers,  Louis  A 494 

Thirty,  Battle  of 843 

Thirty-nine  Articles,     .    .    686 

Thirty  Tyrants 161 

Thirty  Years'  War,   .    138,  161 

Begins 82 

Thomas,  M.  Carey,   .    .    .   494 

Thomas,  Philip  F 637 

Thompson,  Jacob,     .    .    .   638 

Richard  W 639 

Smith 639,640 

William  O., 494 

Thomson.  Elihu 494 

James 298 

Sir  William 494 

Thor 342 

Thoreau,  H.  D.,    .    .   305,  494 

Thorium,    . 694 

Thorn  Treaty 164 

Thoroughwort, 737 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  B.,     494 
Threshing  Machine,  .    .    .   668 
Throop    Polytechnic    In- 
stitute  705 

Thrush,  ........   769 

Thucydides 283,494 

Thulium,    .......   694 

Thunder, 574 

Thunderer,  The 384 

Thwing,  Charles  F.,  .  .  494 
Tiber  River,  ....   665,  674 

Tibet  Entered 96 

Ticknor,  George,   .    .   304,  494 

Ticonderoga 162 

Tides 574 

High 575 

Influence  of  Moon,    .    .   675 
Sun's  Influence,     .    .    .   676 

Theory  of 675 

Tientsin,  Treaty  of , .    .    .    164 

Tier's  Etat 162 

Tiger 769 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  .  .  .  494 
Tillman,  Benjamin  R.,  .  494 
Tilly,  Johann  T.,  .    .    162,495 

Tilsit 162 

Tilsit  Treaty,  ...  89,  164 
Time,  Measure  of,     ...   856 

Standard, 851 

Time  Lock 670 

Tin, 694 

Tippecanoe 384 

Battle  of,    .  .      18,  101 

Titanium 694 

Titans 342 

Titian 82,495 

Titicaca ,539,844 

Toad 769 

Toads 733 

Tobacco 770 

Adulteration  of,    .    .    .   645 

Cuba 628 

Introduced  into  Europe,    82 
In  United  SUtes,      .    .   649 

Todd,  Thomas 640 

Togo,  Count  Heihachiro,  495 

Tokyo, 575 

Description, 675 

Imperial  University,    .   575 
Tolentino  Treaty,      ...    164 


INDEX 


905 


PAGE 

Toleration .  162 

Tolstoi,  Count,  .     97,  316,  495 

Toltecs 98,  132,  162 

Tomato 770 

Tombs 781 

Tommy  Atkins 384 

Tom  Sawyer,     .....  384 

Tom  Thumb 384 

Toothpicks 852 

Topaz 761 

Topsy 384 

Toronto 575 

Commerce 575 

Founded 101,575 

Great  Fire 109 

Industries, 575 

Torpedo 671 

Boat  Destroyers,  .    .    .  848 

Boats 848 

Torricelli,  Evangelista,     .  495 

Tory, 163 

Toucey,  Isaac,   .    .    .   638, 639 

Touchstone 384 

Tourg^e,  A.  W.,    ....  305 

Tourmaline 762 

Tournament, 163 

Tours,  Battle  of,   ...    .  22 
Toussaintl'Ouverture,  101,495 

Tower  of  London,     .    .    .  163 

Tracy,  Benjamin  F.,     .    .  639 

Trades,  Dangerous,  .    .    .  783 

Trades  Unions 678 

In  Europe, 88 

In  Great  Britain,  .    .    .  678 

In  United  States,  .    .    .  678 

Trafalgar,  Battle  of,     .    .  88 

Tragedy, 201 

And  Comedy 384 

Transmutation  of  Energy,  708 

Travel 507 

Treasury  Building,  Wash- 
ington,      578 

Treasury  Department,     .  636 

Treaties, 163 

Adrianople, 163 

Aix-La-Chapelle,   ...  164 

Amiens 164 

Augsburg, 164 

Baden, 164 

Basel 164 

Berlin, 164 

Breda 164 

Breslau 164 

Bretigny, 164 

Burlingame, 92 

Cambray 164 

Campo  Formic,  ....  164 

Carlowitz, 164 

Carlsbad, 164 

Catholic  League,   .    .    .  164 
Coalitions    Against 

France, 164 

Concordat  of  1801,    .    .  164 

Constance, 164 

Copenhagen, 164 

Fontainebleau,  ....  164 

Frankfort 164 

Gastein, 164 

Ghent, 164 

Hamburg 164 

Holy  Alliance 164 

•     Hubertsburg 164 

Jay's, 164 

Kiel, 164 

Kutchuk-Kainardji, .    .  164 

London 164 

Lundville 164 

.     Madrid, 164 

'■     Miinster, 164 

Nankin 164 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  .    .    .  164 

Nystadt 164 

Paris, 164 

Partition  of  Poland,  .  .  164 

Passau 164 

Perry's, 164 

Portsmouth, 164 

Prague 164 

Presburg, 164 

Pretoria, 164 

Pyrenees 164 

Quadruple  Alliance,  .    .  164 


PAGE 

Treaties — Con.: 

Rastadt 164 

Ratisbon 164 

Rhine,  Confederation  of 

the 164 

Ryswick, 164 

St.  Clair-Sur-Epte,    .    .    164 

St.  Germain 164 

San  Stefano 164 

Schonbrunn, 164 

Shimonoseki 164 

The  Hague 164 

Thorn 164 

Tientsin 164 

Tilsit 164 

Tolentmo 164 

Triple  Alliance 164 

Troyes 164 

Ulm, 164 

Utrecht 164 

Valencay, 164 

Verdun 164 

Verona, 164 

Versailles, 164 

Vienna, 164 

Warsaw 165 

Washington, 165 

Westphalia,    .    .    .    .    .165 

Worms 165 

Zurich 165 

Treaty, 163 

Tree,  Herbert  B.,  .    .    .    .495 

Tree-frogs 733 

Trenton,  Battle  of,   .    .    .      18 

Triads 384 

Trial  by  jury,    ...     70,  597 

Tribune 165 

Trimble,  Robert 640 

Trinity  Church: 

Of  Boston 513 

Of  New  York 513 

Trinity  College: 

Connecticut, 701 

North  Carolina,     ...   701 
Trinity  University,  .    .    .   702 

Triple  Alliance 164 

Triplet,  Charles  E 495 

Tripoli,  War  with  U.  S.,    .    101 
Tripoli-clay,  .    .'  .    .    .    .655 

Tripolitan  War 171 

Tristram,  Sir 385 

Triton 342 

Triumvirate,  .   .    .  •.    .    .   165 

First 63 

Trojan  War,    56,  138,  165,  283 

Trolley,  The 672,711 

Trollope,  Anthony,    .  297,  495 

Trolls 342 

Troubadour, 74 

Troubadours 385 

French, 293 

Troubetzkoy,  Am^lie,  .    .   495 

Troy 55,  130,  165,342 

Weight 855 

Troyes,  Treaty, 164 

Truchas  Peak, 547 

Trumbull,  John 495 

Jonathan 640 

Trusts 678 

Tuckoes 853 

Tudor,     . 165 

House  of,    .....    .    151 

Tufts  College, 702 

Tuileries 165 

Tulane  University,    .    .    .   702 

Tungsten 694 

Tunnels : 

Blackwell 94 

Hoosac 537 

Mt.  Cenis 94 

Simplon 96 

Tupper,  Sir  Charles, .    .    .   495 

Turbine, 678 

Turenne,  Vicomte  de,  .    .   495 

Turgenieff, 316,  495 

Turgot,  Anne  Robert,  .    .   495 

Turkey 575 

Area, 604 

Asia  Minor,     .....   576 

Cabinet 632 

Capital 605 

Captures  Bagdad,     .    .     73 


PAGE 

Turkey — Con.: 

Conquers  Greece,  .    .    .116 

Constantinople 526 

Debt 605 

Exports 576 

Forms  an  Alliance  with 

Justin  II 67 

Government, 632 

Grand  Vizier,     ....  632 

In  Asia, 576 

In  Europe, 575 

Inhabitants,  .    .    .    .    .  576 

Invades  Hungary,     .    .  83 
Monarchy   Founded  in 

Asia, 67 

Navy, 848 

Population, 604 

Production, 576 

Solyman  I.,  Sultan,  .    .  78 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Sultan 605,632 

War  with  Russia,  .   .    .  167 

Turkish  Africa 508 

Turkish  Empire 166 

Turko-Grecian  War,     .    .  95 

Turks, 166 

Defeat  of  Romanus,     .  72 

Turner,  Joseph  M.,    .    .    .  496 

Turquoise, 762 

Turtle 770 

Tuscaloosa  College,  .    .    .  704 

Tuscany, 167 

Tuskegee  Institute,  .    .    .  705 

Tweed  Ring 106 

Twelfth  Night 385 

Twelve: 

Tables 39 

Tribes 122 

Twice-Told  Tales 385 

Tycoons  of  Japan,     .    .    .  124 

Tyler,  John 144,  496 

M.  C. 305 

Tyndale,  William,     ...  295 
Tyndall,  John,  .    .    .   297,496 

Type 678 

Sizes  of 679 

Typesetting  Machines,  .   .  94 

Typewriter 679 

Typewriting  Machine,  .    .  670 

Tyr 342 

Tyre 130 

Ulin, 385 

Ulm,  Treaty  of 164 

Ultima  Thule 385 

Ultra-violet  Rays,     .    .    .  672 

Ulysses 342 

Una, 385 

Uncle  Sam, 854 

Underground  Railroad,    .  385 

Undine 385 

Union  Christian  College,  702 
Union  CpUege: 

Kentucky 702 

Nebraska, 702 

Union  Jack 854 

Unions,  Trades 678 

Union  University,     .    .    .  702 

Unitarian  Church,     .    .    .  726 

United  Brethren 726 

United  Kingdom: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Debt, 605 

King 605 

Population 604 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 

Stock  of  Money,    ...  604 
United  States: 

Acquisition  of  the  Phil- 
ippines and  Cuba, .    .  178 
Agricultural  Products, 

648-50 

Alabama  Claims,  .    .    .  177 

Amnesty  Proclamation,  92 

Anti-Polygamy  Bill,     .  177 

Area 604 

Army 776 

Articles   of   Confedera- 
tion,      586 

Bank 172 

Banking 652 


PAGE 

United  States — Con.: 

Boston  Massacre,  .  .  .  169 
Burlingame  Treaty,  .  .  92 
Burning  of  Washington,  171 

Canals, 653 

Capital, 605 

Centennial  Exposition,    177 

Cities,  pop.  of 582 

Civil  War,  .    .     92,  104,  174 

Coal  Fields 655 

Coal  Production,  .  .  .  656 
Colonial  Settlements,  .  168 
Constitution,  .  170,  594,  632 
Continental  Congress,  .    169 

Cotton 658 

Debt 605 

Declaration     of     Inde- 
pendence, .     100,  169,  632 
Discoveries  in,   .    .     98,  168 
Distances      Between 

Cities 863 

Emancipation,  ....    176 
Emancipation     Procla- 
mation,   105 

Exports 662 

Foreign  Commerce,  662-63 
Forest  Areas,     ....   660 

Forestry, 660 

French  and  Indian  War,  168 
Garfield's  Assassination,  177 
Geographical  Statistics,  625 

Government 632 

Great  Industries,  .  .  .  661 
Greenbacks  First  Issued,  105 
Historical  Statistics,  .  .   624 

History 168 

Illiteracy 714 

Imports 663 

Independence,   ....    169 

Indian  Wars 168 

Industrial  Statistics,  .  625 
Inter-State    Commerce 

Bill 177 

Italian  Lynching,  .    .    .    178 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill, .    173 
Know-Nothing     Move- 
ment,   173 

Lee's  Surrender,  .  .  .  175 
Lincoln's  Assassination,  176 

Lumbering 660 

McKinley's    Assassina- 
tion  178 

Merchant  Marine, .  .  .  673 
Military  Academy,  .  .  705 
Mint  Established  at  San 

Francisco, 104 

Missouri  Compromise,      172 
Monroe  Doctrine,  .    .    .    172 
Naval  Academy,   .    .    .   705 
Naval  Academy  Estab- 
lished  103 

Navy 848 

Newspapers 849 

Nullification 172 

Perryville,  Battle  of,    .      17 

Population, 604 

President,  ....    144,  605 

Presidents  of 144 

Protests  French  Occu- 
pation of  Mexico,  .    .    105 
Purchase  of  Alaska,  .    .     93 

Railroads 674 

Railroad  Statistics,   .    .   675 
Reconstruction,     .    .    .    176 
Religious    Denomina- 
tions,   721 

Revolution,  The  .  100,  169 
Rocky  Mountains,  .  .  565 
Roosevelt  Reforms,  .    .    178 

Secession, 173 

Seminole  War 172 

Slavery  Question, .  .  .  173 
Spanisn- American  War,  178 
Specie  Payment,   .    .    .    177 

Stamp  Act 169 

Standard  of  Currency, .  604 
State  Statistics,  .  .  .  624 
Stock  of  Money,  .  .  .  604 
Suffrage  Requirements,  626 
Territorial  Statistics,  .  624 
Texas  Question,  .  .  .  172 
United  States  Bank, .    .    172 


906 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY  OF   FACTS 


PAGE 

United  States — Con.: 

War  of  1812 171 

War  with  Great  Britain,  88 
War  with  Mexico,  .  .  172 
War  with  Tripoli,.  .  .  171 
Washington,  George, 169, 498 
Whisky  Insurrection,    .    170 

Wilmot  Proviso 173 

United  States  Government: 

Branches 633 

Congress .   634 

Department  of  Agricul- 
ture  639 

Department  of  Commerce 

and  Labor 639 

Department  of  Justice,  637 
Department  of  State,  .   636 
Department  of  the  In- 
terior,   638 

Election  of  President,  .  634 
Executive  Branch,  .  .  633 
Executive  Department,  634 
Federal  Courts, ....  635 
HouseofRepresentatives,633 
Judicial  Branch,  .  .  .  633 
Judicial  Department,  .  635 
Legislative  Branch,  .  .  633 
Navy  Departmetit,  .  .  639 
Post-office  Department,  638 
Presidential  Succession,  634 
President's  Salary,  .  .  634 
Supreme  Court,     .    .    .   635 

The  Cabinet 635 

The  President 634 

The  Senate, 633 

Treasury  Department, .  636 
War  Department,     .    .   637 
U.  S.  Navy,  founded,   .    .    101 
United    States    Supreme 

Court,  Justices  of,   .   640 

Units,  Electrical 857 

Universalists 726 

Universe,  Theory  of  origin,  708 
Universities  : 

Imperial,  Tokyo,  .  .  .  575 
List  of  in  United  States,  698 
McGill,  Montreal,  ...    103 

Of  Alabama 702 

Of  Arizona 702 

Of  Arkansas 702 

Of  Buffalo 702 

Of  California 702 

Of  Chicago, 702 

Of  Cincinnati 702 

Of  Colorado 702 

Of  Denver 702 

Of  Florida 702 

Of  Georgia 702 

Of  Idaho 702 

Of  IlUnois 702 

Of  Iowa,     ......  ,702 

Of  Kansas,     .    .   *.    .    .'702 

Of  Louisville 702 

Of  Maine 702 

Of  Michigan 702 

Of  Minnesota,    ....   702 

8f  Mississippi 702 
f  Missouri 702 

Of  Montana 702 

Of  Nebraska 702 

Of  Nevada 702 

Of  New  Mexico,  .  .  .  702 
Of  North  Carolina,  .  .  702 
Of  North  Dakota,  .  .  702 
Of  Notre  Dame,    ...   702 

Of  Oklahoma 702 

Of  Pennsylvania,  .    .    .    702 

Of  Rochester 702 

Of  South  Dakota,  .  .    .   702 

Of  St.  Mary, 702 

Of  Tennessee 702 

Of  Texas, 702 

Of  the  Pacific 702 

Of  the  South 702 

Of  Utah 702 

Of  Vermont 702 

Of  Virginia 702 

Of  Washington,     .    .    .    702 

Of  Wooster 702 

Of  Wyoming,     ....    702 

Ottawa 109 

Oxford, 551 


PAGE 

Universities — Con.: 

Padua 552 

SUtistics  of, 698 

University,  Avignon,    .    .  78 

Bologna, 76 

Coimbra, 78 

Leipsic '.    .    .  78 

Orleans 78 

Padua 76 

Paris 76 

Perugia, 78 

Untermyer,  Samuel,     .    .  496 

Upper  Iowa  University,.  702 
Upshur,  Abel  P.,   .    .    636,  639 

Ural  Mountains 576 

Minerals  of, 576 

Ural  River 565 

Uranium, 694 

Urban  II 496 

Urbana  University,  .    .    .  702 

Ursinus  College 702 

Uruguay: 

Area 604 

Capital 605 

Constitution,      ....  640 

Debt 605 

Executive 641 

Government 640 

Independent,      ....  102 

Parliament 640 

Population 604 

President 605 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Usher,  John  P 638 

Ussher,  James 496 

Usury 666 

Utah: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution 641 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive 641 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government 641 

Governor's  ■Salary,    .    .  630 

Interest  Laws  of,       .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667  j 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  631 

Legislature 641 

Metropolis 625 

Polygamy 94 

Population, 625  { 

Property  Valuation,     .  631 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,   .    .631 

Utopia, 385 

Utrecht,  Treaties  of,     .    .  164  : 

Valencay,  Treaty  of,    .  164 

Valentine 385! 

Valentine  Day, 854  [ 

Valhalla 342 

Valkyrs 342 

Valmy,  Battle  of,      ...  22 
Valois,  House  of,  .    .    111,148 

Vanadium, 694 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  . 

144,  496,  636 

Vandals 66 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius,      .  496 

William  K 496 

Vanderbilt  University,     .  702 

Van  Devanter,  Willis,  .    .  640 

Van  Dyck,  Sir  Anthony,  .  496 

Van  Dyke,  Henry  J.,    .    .  496 

John  C, .496 

Vanity  Fair 385 

Van  Tromp,  Admiral,       .  85 

Varnum,  Joseph  B.,  .    .    .  640 

Vatican,  The,     .....  576 

Library  founded,  ...  80 

Library  restored,  ...  82 

Veda 277,385 

Veii 130 

Veiled  Prophet 386 

Velasquez,  Diego  R.,    .    .  496 
Venezuela: 

Area 604 

Boundary  tribunal,  .    .  108 


PAGE 

Venezuela — Con.: 

Cabinet 641 

Capital 605 

Caracas 523 

Congress 641 

Constitution, 641 

Debt .  605 

Government, 641 

Independent 101 

Population, 604 

President 605,641 

Standard  of  Currency,  604 

Stock  of  Money,    .    .    .  604 

Venice 72,  576 

Bridge  of  Sighs,     ...  576 

Campanile, 576 

Founded, 66 

Maritime  power  of,  .    .  75 

Oligarchy  established, .  79 

St.  Mark's  Cathedral,   .  576 

Venus 342 

Vera  Cruz,  Battle  of,    .    .  19 

Verd  Antique, 762 

Verdun,  Treaty  of,    .    .    .  164 

Vermiform  Appendix,  .    .  685 
Vermont: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of, 648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution 641 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive 641 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .  667 

Government 641 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  630 

History 178 

Interest  Laws  of,  .    .    .  666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .         860-62 

Legislative  Statistics,  .  631 

Legislature, 641 

Metropolis, 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .    .  631 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 

Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate, 631 

Voting  Population,   .    .  631 

Verona,  Congress  of,     .    .  164 

Versailles,  Treaty  of,    .    .  164 

Version  of  the  Scriptures,  386 

Vesalius,  Andreas,     .    .    .  496 

Vespasian,  Titus.       .    .    .  497 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  .    .    .  396 

Vesta 342 

Vesuvius,  Mt 576,  577 

Eruptions 576 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  ...  386 

Vice-Admiral, 105 

Vice-President  of  U.  S. : 

Electoral  Vote 618 

Popular  Vote 618 

Salary 634 

Viceroy,  Of  India,     .    .    .  606 

Vicksburg,  Battle  of,    .    .  19 
Victor  Emmanuel, 

91,  95,  123,  497 

Victoria  Alexandrina,  151,  497 

Death  of 96 

Jubilee 94 

Life  attempted,     ...  94 

Victoria  Falls, 581 

Victoria  Nyanza 576 

Vienna 577,582 

Boulevards 577 

Commerce, 577 

Description 577 

Public  Buildings,  .    .    .  577 

Treaty 164 

Vikings,       286 

Vilas,  Wm.  F 638 

Villanova  College,     ...  702 

Villeins 110 

Vincent,  John  Heyl,     .    .  497 

Vincent  de  Paul,  St.,    .    .  497 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  .    .    .  497 

Vinland 178,386 

Viola 386 

Virchow,  Rudolf 497 

Virgil 284,497 

iEneid 343 

Death  of 63 


Virginia: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution 641 

Electoral  Vote,  .    .    .    .631 

Executive 641 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .   667 

Government 641 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .  630 

History 178 

Institute, 704 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature, 641 

Metropolis,     625 

Military  Institute,  .  .  702 
Polytechnic  College,  .  .   705 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .    .   631 

Richmond 564 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,   .    .   631 

Vishnu 342 

Visigoths 66 

Vistula  River, 565 

Vittoria  Colonna 497 

Volapuk, 386 

Volcanoes : 

Aconcagua 577 

Altar,      577 

Antisana, 577 

Ararat 577 

Cayambi 577 

Chimborazo 577 

Cotopaxi 527,  577 

Demavend 577 

Etna 530,577 

Fujiyama 577 

Greatest 577 

Hecla, 577 

Height, 677 

Hood 577 

Ixtaccihuati,      ....   577 

Kilauea, 677 

Llullaillac 677 

Mauna  Kea, 577 

Mauna  Loa, 677 

Misti 577 

Orizaba 677 

Pel^e 577 

Pico 677 

Popocatepetl 677 

Rainier 677 

Sahama 677 

St.  Elias 677 

St.  Helen's, 577 

Sangai 577 

San  Jos6 677 

Shasta, 577 

Stromboli, 577 

Tahiti 677 

Teneriffe 577 

Tolima 577 

Toluca 577 

Vesuvius,    ....   576, 577 

Wrangell 577 

Volga  River 565,  577 

Volt 857 

Volta,  Alessandro,     .    .    .   497 

Voltaic  Arc, 668 

Voltaire 497 

Volterra,  Daniele  de,  .  .  497 
Voting  Requirements,  .    .   626 

Vulcan 342 

Vulgate 386 

Wabash  College,  ...  702 
Wagner,  Richard.  .  .  .  49( 
Wagram,  Battle  of,  .  .  .  89 
Waite,  Morrison  R.,  .  .  .  640 
Wake  Forest  College,   .    .   702 

Waldeck 532 

Walden 386 

Waldenses ^74 

Walden  University,  .   .    .   702 

Wales, 577 

Coal  Trade 577 

Description, 577 


INDEX 


907 


PAGE 

Wales — Con.: 

Industries 577 

Inhabitants, 577 

United  with  England,  .  76 
War  with  England,  .    .      76 

Walker,  Robert  J 637 

Wall  of  Antoninus,  .    .    .   846 

Wallace,  Alfred  R 497 

Lew 305,497 

Sir  William 497 

Wallenstein,  Albrecht,  162,  497 

Walloons, 846 

Walrus 770 

Walter,  Thomas  U 498 

Walton,  Isaak 296 

War: 

Abyssinian, 

Acha'an, 9 

Aetiac 

Afghan 10 

African, 10 

Crimea,   ....    38,  53,  139 

Department, 637 

First  African,  ....  10 
Fourth  African,  ...  11 
Greek    Independence, 

for 116,139 

Hussite 79,138 

Lamian, 10 

Of  1812,  .  .  .  101,  139,  171 
Second  African,     ...      10 

Third  African 11 

Ward,  Elizabeth 498 

Ward  Seminary 704 

Warren,  Samuel,   ....   498 
Wars: 

American  Civil, 104,  139, 174 
American  Revolution, 

100,  139,  169 

Apache 94 

Austria  and  France,  .  .  84 
Austrian  Succession, 

51,86,139 
Austro-Swiss,     ....    138 

Barbarian, 138 

China-Japanese,  95,  125,  139 
Crimean,     .    .38,53,92,139 

Crusades 74,138 

Dacian, 138 

English  Civil,     .    .    .49,  139 

Etruscan, 60 

Franco-Prussian, 

112,  115,139 

French  Civil 138 

French  Revolution,  111,  139 
For  Greek  Independ- 
ence  116,  139 

Gallic 63,  138 

Gladitorial 138 

Greco-Persian,  .  .  .60,  138 
Greco-Roman,  .  .  .62,  138 
Hundred  Years,  48,  118,  138 

Hussite 138 

Italian 139 

Jewish-Roman,  .   .    .64,  138 

Jugurthine, 138 

Kafir 90 

Macedonian,  .....     59 

Messenian, 57,  138 

Mexican 139,  172 

Mithridatic,  .  .  .  .63,  138 
Napoleonic,    .    .    .112,  139 

Notable 138 

Of  Spanish  Succession, .  139 
Of  the  Roses,  .  .  .48,  138 
Peloponnesian,  .    .    .59,  138 

Persian, 65 

Perso-Grecian,  .    .    .58,  138 

Punic 61,  138 

Roman  Civil 63,  138 

Roman  Social,  ....  138 
Russo-Japanese,  125,139,153 
Russo-Turkish,  .    .    139,  167 

Sacred 59,  138 

Samnite 59,  138 

Saracen, 138 

Second  Macedonian,  .  62 
Seven  Weeks',  .  .  115,  139 
Seven  Years',     .86,114,139 

Sicilian, 59 

Social, 61 

Social  in  Italy,  ....     63 


PAGE 

Wars — Con.: 

Spanish-American,  139,  156 
Spanish-Netherlands,  .  138 
Swedish-Russian,  .   .    .    139 

Tarentine 61 

Third  Punic 62 

Thirty  Years',        .    114,138 

Trojan, 56,138 

Turko-Grecian,  .   .    .95,117 

Warsaw 577 

Manufactures,    ....   577 

Treaty, 165 

University, 577 

Wartburg  College.     ...   702 
Warwick,  Richard  N.,  .    .   498 

Washaku  Needle 547 

Washburn,  E.  B 636 

Washburn  College,    .    .    .   702 
Washington : 

Agricultural  College,  .  705 
Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution, 641 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive 642 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .   667 

Government 641 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 

History 179 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative    Statistics, .   631 

Legislature 641 

Metropolis 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,     .   631 

Seattle 569,  582 

Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements, 

627,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

University 702 

Voting  Population,  .    .631 
Washington,  D.  C,  .    578,582 
Architectural  Features, 

513,  578 

Burning  of 171 

Capitol 513,578 

Colleges 579 

Library  of  Congress,  .   .   578 

Monument, 579 

Pan-American  Congress,  107 
Patent  Office,  ....  578 
Post-office  Building,  .  579 
Public  Buildings,  ...  579 
Smithsonian  Institution,  579 
State,  War,  and*  Navy 

Departments,     .    .    .   578 
Treasury  Building,    .    .   578 

Treaties 165 

White  House 578 

Washington  Booker  T.,    .   498 

Bushrod 640 

Washington,  George,    144,  498 
Commander-i  n-ch  ief , 

100,  169 

Death  of 101 

Farewell  Address,     .    .    101 
Washington  and  Jefferson 

College 702 

Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity,    702 

Washington   Monument, .    579 
Corner  Stone  Laid,    .    .    103 

Wasp 770 

Wasp-Frolic,  Battle  of,  .      19 

Watches 80 

Water  Gas 669 

Water-lily 771 

Waterloo : 

Battle 22,  88,  179 

Commanders  at,    .    .    .    179 

Field  of 520 

Watson,  John 498 

Thomas  E 498 

Watt 857 

Watt,  James 499 

Improves    Steam    En- 
gines  86 

WattersoD,  Henry,    .    .    .  499 


PAGE 

Watts,  George  F 499 

Isaac 499 

Waverley, 386 

Wayne,  Anthony 499 

James  M 640 

Weasels 853 

Weather  Signals 854 

Weaving  Shuttle 668 

Webb  Feet 853 

Webster,  Daniel,   .    .   304,  499 

Great  Speech  of,    .    .    .    102 

Webster,  Noah,     .    .   304,  499 

Weights 855 

Apothecaries',   ....   855 

Avoirdupois, 855 

Of  Commodities,    .    .    .   860 

Per  Bushel 860 

Troy 855 

Weights    and    Measures, 

855-63 

Of  the  Bible 858 

Welch,  William  H.,  .    .    .   499 
Weldon  Railroad,  Battle  of,   19 

Weller,  Samuel 386 

Welles,  Gideon 639 

Wellesley  College 704 

Wellington: 

At  Waterloo, 88 

Duke  of 499 

Ministry  of 88 

Wellington,  New  Zealand,  579 

Wells  College 704 

Wenceslas, 499 

Wesley,  John 500 

Wesleyan  College,     .    .    .   704 
Wesleyan  University,  .    .    702 

West,  Benjamin 500 

Westbrook  Seminary  and 

College 704 

Westcott,  B.  F 500 

Western  College 704 

Western  Empire,  ....     65 
Western  Maryland   Col- 
lege  702 

Western  Reserve  Univer- 
sity,      702 

Westfield  College 702 

West  Indies,  Great  Hur- 
ricane  109 

Westinghouse,  George,     .   500 
Westminster  Abbey,     .    .    579 

Monuments  in 579 

Poets'  Corner,    ....   579 
Westminster  College: 

Missouri, 702 

Pennsylvania 702 

Westminster  Hall,    .    .    .   579 
Westminster  Palace,     .    .    846 
Westover  Manuscripts,    .   386 
Westphalia,    ......   580 

Treaty  of,  ......    .    165 

West  Virginia : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area, 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution, 642 

Electoral  Vote 631 

Executive, 642 

Exemption  Laws, .    .    .   667 

Government 642 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 

History 179 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature, 642 

Metropolis 625 

Population 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  631 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

University, 702 

Voting  Population,  .  .  631 
Wesleyan  College,     .    .   702 

Whale 771 

Whately,  Richard.    .    .    .   500 

Wheat,  in  United  States,  648 

World's  production,      .    680 

Wheaton  College 703 

Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  500 


.  PAGE 

Wheatstone's  Telegraph,  90 
Wheeler,  Joseph,  ....   500 

Wheeler  Peak 547 

Whewell,  William,    .    .    .   500 

Whig  Party 103 

Whigs ;    .    .    163 

Whipple,  E.  P.,  .  .  305,  500 
Whip-poor-will,  ....  771 
Whisky  Insurrection, 

101,  170,  179 
Whistler,  James  A.  McN.,  500 
White,  Andrew  D.,  .    .    .   501 

Edward  D 501,  640 

Horace 501 

James  W., 501 

John 640 

R.  G., 305 

William  A., 501 

Whitehall 847 

White  Race 752 

Whitman,  Walt 305 

Whitman  College 703 

Whitney,  Mt. 547 

Whitney,  Eli 501 

William  C 639 

William  D., 501 

Whittier,  J.  G.,  .  .  305,  501 
Whittington,  Dick,  ...  386 
Whitworth  College,  .  .  .  704 
Wickliffe,  Charles  A.,  .  .  638 
Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas,  .  501 
Wilberforce,  Samuel,    .    .   501 

William, 501 

Wilberforce  University,  .  703 
Wilcox,  Ella  Wheeler.  .  .  501 
Wilderness,  Battle  of.  .    .      19 

Wiley,  Harvey  W 501 

Wiley  University,  ....   703 

Wilfer 386 

Wilhelmina,  Helene,     .    .501 

Queen 95 

Wilkes,  Charles,    ....   502 

Wilkins,  Wm 637 

Willamette  University,  .  703 
Willard,  Frances  E,,     .    .   502 

William  1 502 

II 502 

III 502 

William  and  Mary  College,  703 
William  Jewell  College,  .  703 
Williams,  George  F.,     .    .    502 

Geo.  H 638 

John  S., 502 

Roger 98,306,502 

Williams  College,  ....  703 
William  Smith  College,    .    704 

Willow 771 

Wilmington  College,  .  .  703 
Wilmot  Proviso,    .    .    103,  173 

Wilson,  Francis 502 

Henry 502 

James,  of  Iowa.    .   502,  639 

James,  of  Pa. 640 

Woodrow 502 

Wilson  College 704 

Wilson  Creek,  Battle  of,  .  19 
Winchester,  Battle  of,      .      19 

Wind 580 

Air  Currents 580 

Storms 580 

Windom,  Wm.,      ....    637 

Windsor  Castle 847 

Wine  Growers'  Agitation,  97 
Wines.  Adulteration  of,  .  645 
Winslow,  Brving, ....    503 

Winter's  Tale, 386 

Winthrop,  John 503 

Robert  C. 640 

Wireless  Telegraphy,    .96,676 

De  Forest  System,    .    .   676 

Marconi  System,  .    .    .   676 

Wirt,  William,  .    .    .   503,  638 

Wisconsin : 

Agricultural  Statistics  of  ,648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution 642 

Electoral  vote 631 

Executive, 642 

Exemption  Laws,  .  .  667 
Government,  ....  642 
Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 


908 


THE  STANDARD   DICTIONARY   OF  FACTS 


PAQE 

Wisconsin — Con. : 

History, 180 

Interest  Laws  of,  .  .  666 
Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667 
Legal  Weights,  .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature 642 

Metropolis, 62.5 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  631 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,  .    .   631 
Wiseman,  Cardinal, .    .    .   503 

Wistaria 772 

Wister,  Owen 503 

Witte,  Count  Sergiej,   .    .   503 

Wittenagemot, 67 

Wittenberg  College,  ...   703 

Woden 342 

Wofford  College,   .    .    .    .   703 

Wolcott,  Oliver 636 

Wolf 772 

Wolfe,  James, 503 

Wolseley,  Garnet  J.,     .    .503 
Wolsey,  Chancellor,  .     80,  503 

Wolverines 853 

Woman's  College: 

Baltimore,  Md.,     ...   704 

Frederick,  Md 704 

Wood,  Leonard 503 

Woodbury,  Levi 637 

Woodcock 772 

Wood  Engraving,      ...     80 

Woodpecker 772 

Wood  pulp 670 

Woods,  William  B 640 

Wool,  in  United  States,    .   650 

World's  production,      .   680 

Woolsey,  'Theodore  S.,     .   503 

Worcester,  Joseph  E.,      .   503 


PAGE 

Worcester  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute,     705 

Words : 

Mispronounced,     .     267-74 
Right  Use  of,     .    .      191-98 

Study  of 221-55 

Words  and  Phrases,  .     255-67 

Classic 255-63 

Greek 255-63 

Latin 255-63 

Modern  Languages,  263-67 
Wordswortb,  William,  296,503 
World,  Countries  of,  604,  605 
World's  Distances,  .  .  .  864 
World's  Population,     .    .   854 

World's  Staples 680 

Barley 680 

Corn 680 

Cotton 680 

Oats 680 

Potatoes 680 

Rice 680 

Rye 680 

Sugar 680 

Wheat 680 

Wool 680 

World's  Statistics,  .  .  .  854 
World's  Submarine  Cables,679 
Worms,  Concordat  of,      .    165 

Wren 772 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,     .   503 

Wright,  Carroll  D 503 

Orville .504 

Wilbur 504 

Writers,  Pen  Names  of,    .   321 

Wiirttemberg 532 

Wycliffe,  John,  ...  295,  504 
Wyoming: 

Agricultural  Statistics  of,  648 

Area 624 

Capital 630 

Constitution,      ....   642 


PAGE 

Wyoming — Con. : 

Electoral  vote,  .    .    .    .631 

Executive 642 

Exemption  Laws,      .    .   667 

Government 642 

Governor's  Salary,    .    .   630 

History 180 

Interest  Laws 666 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices,  667- 
Legal  jWeights, .  .  .860-62 
Legislative  Statistics,  .   631 

Legislature 642 

Metropolis, 625 

Population, 625 

Property  Valuation,  .  .  631 
Statutes  of  Limitation,  667 
Suffrage  Requirements,  630 

Tax  Rate 631 

Voting  Population,  .    .  -631 
Xavler,  St.  Francis,  82,  504 

Xenon 694 

Xenophon 283,504 

Xerxes 58,  141,  504 

X-Rays,' 94,726 

Yahoo, 387 

Yale  University 703 

Yang-tse-kiang  River,  _   .   580 
Grand  Canal,     ....   580 

Yankton  College 703 

Yarmouth .   580 

Yeast '.  ■  387 

Yeddo, 575 

Yellow  Fever 850 

Yellow  Race 752 

Yellow  Sea 582 

Yellowstone  Park,    ...   580 

Yenesei  River, 565 

Yokohama, 581 

Commerce 581 

Yonge,  Charlotte  M.,    .    .   504 

Yorick 387 

York 581 


PAGE 

York,  House  of,    .    .     80,151- 

York  College 703 

York  Minster, 581 

Yorktown,      ....    100,  180 

Battle  of 19 

Yosemite  Valley,  .  .  .  .581 
Young,  Brigham,504,  698,  718 
Young    Men's    Christian 

Association,   ....   726 

Young's  College 704 

Ytterbium 694 

Yttrium 694 

Yukon,  Gold  Fields,  ...   108 

River 565,581 

Yule  Clog 387 

Zalacca,  Battle  of,   .    .     75 

Zama,  Battle  of 61 

Zambezi  River, .    .    .   565,  581 

Victoria  Falls,  ....  581 
Zangwill,  Israel,  ....  504 
Zanzibar: 

British  Protectorate,    .   642 

Government 642 

Sultan 642 

Zebra, 772 

Zeller,  Eduard 504 

Zem, 342 

Zend-Avesta 278 

Zeno, 504 

r  Eastern  Empire,    ...     66 

Zenobia 387,504 

Zeus 342 

Zinc 694 

Zinzendorf,  N 504 

Zircon 762 

Zirconium 694 

Zola,  fimile, 504 

ZoUverein 88 

Zoroaster, 504 

Religion  of 278 

Zurich,  Treaty  of,  ...  165 
Zwingle,  Ulrich 604 


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